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Preface
Contents

Assistive Technology for

Visually Impaired and Blind People

Related titles

Assistive Technology for the Hearing-impaired, Deaf and Deafblind

Marion A. Hersh and Michael A. Johnson (Eds.)

with David Keating, Stuart Parks, Gunnar Jansson, Brian S. Hoyle,

Dean A. Waters, Nicholas A. Bradley, Mark D. Dunlop, Michael May,

Charles LaPierre, Elizabeth M. Ball, Tai Fook Lim Jerry, Han Leong Goh,

Kok Kiong Tan, Gareth Evans, Paul Blenkhorn, Rüdiger Hoffmann,

JamesR.Fruchterman,DavidCrombieandRogerLenoir

Assistive Technology for

Visually Impaired and

Blind People

123

Marion A. Hersh, MSc, PhD

Department of Electronics

and Electrical Engineering

University of Glasgow

Glasgow

G12 8LT

MichaelA.Johnson,MSc,PhD

Industrial Control Centre

University of Strathclyde

Graham Hills Building

50 George Street

Glasgow

G1 1QE

ISBN 978-1-84628-866-1 e-ISBN 978-1-84628-867-8

DOI 10.1007/978-1-84628-867-8

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Assistive technology for vision-impaired and blind people

1. People with visual disabilities – Orientation and mobility – Technological innovations 2. People with visual disabilities

– Means of communication – Technological innovations 3. Blind, Apparatus for the – Technological innovations

4. Communication devices for people with disabilities – Technological innovations

I. Hersh, Marion A., 1956– II. Johnson, Michael A., 1948– III. Keating, David

362.4’183

ISBN-13: 9781846288661

Library of Congress Control Number: 2007931821

Braille Lite, JAWS®,PACMate™,SARA™,StreetTalk™aretrademarksandregisteredtrademarks owned by FreedomScientiﬁc,

11800 31st Court North, St. Petersburg, FL 33716-1805, USA

Windows®is a registered trademark of the Microsoft Corporation, One Microsoft Way, Redmond, WA 98052-6399 USA

SONUS-1XT ,XT-1,iVOX,PURE,PUREDigitalaretrademarksownedby Imagination Technologies, Home Park Estate, Kings

Langley, Herts. WD4 8DH, UK

Ultracane™is a trademark owned by Sound Foresight Ltd., Douris House, Roecliffe Business Centre, Roecliffe, YO51 9NE, UK

Colbolt Speechmaster™is a trademark owned by Cobolt Systems Ltd, The Old Mill House, Mill Road, Reedham, Norwich,

Norfolk, NR13 3TL, UK. The trade mark is applied to a range of products including DialTalk, Sensa Cup Level Indicator, Talking

Ear Thermometer

Tal k ing Signs®is a registered trademark owned by Talking Signs Inc., 812 North Boulevard – Baton Rouge, LA 70802, USA

Tal k ing Li g hts®is a registered trademark owned by Talking Lights LLC, 28 Constitution Road, Boston, MA 02129, USA

Tel e Ta l k™,DigiCite™,Responder™,Vindicator™,WorkCam™,orSpeakFAST™are trademarks owned by Compusult Ltd.,

40 Bannister Street, Mount Pearl, Newfoundland, Canada, A1N 1W1

LaserCane™is a trademark owned by Nurion-Raycal Industries Inc., Station Square, Bldg ##2, Suite B, Paoli, Pennsylvania

19301, United States

LeoBraille™Display, C2 Talking Compass™, Colombus Talking Compass™are trademarks owned by Robotron Group,

15 Stamford Road, Oakleigh, Victoria 3166, Australia

EZ®and EZ Access®are registered trademarks of the University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA

BRAILLEX®is a registered trademark of F.H. Papenheimer GmbH and Co., KG, POBox 1620, 58211 Schwerte, Germany

LabVIEW™is a trademark of National Instruments Corporation, 11500 N. Mopac Expressway, Austin, Texas 78759-3504, USA,

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Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the

Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by

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The use of registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a speciﬁc statement,

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Preface

Until quite recently, the medical model of disability was dominant and assistive

technology was viewed as an extension of rehabilitation engineering. But times

and viewpoints change so that now social inclusiveness is the pervading ethos

of disability legislation, regulations and guidelines. While the existence of new

legislative frameworks does not always mean that effective implementation has

occurred in the community, it is a beginning. Thus, it is the widespread acceptance

of the social model of disability that is driving these changes and it is the tools of

assistive technology that are the physical enablers of social inclusiveness.

While we have previously published on Assistive Technology for Hearing Im-

paired, Deaf and Deafblind People (Springer-Verlag London 2003, ISBN 978-1-

85233-382-9), this companion volume strikes out in a new direction by using the

socialmodelofdisabilityasaframework.InChapter1,wepresentacomprehensive

assistive technology (CAT) model that is designed to provide a generic and holistic

description of all aspects of assistive technology whether social, human perfor-

mance, or the engineering technology used. The idea is that the model can be used

to provide the systematic vocabulary and interpretation needed to describe any

branch of assistive technology applications. The book itself is structured around

the activities module of the CAT model and there are several overview or survey

chapters that make recourse to various aspects of the CAT model. Of course the

volume concentrates on assistive technology for visually impaired and blind peo-

ple and the various contributing authors have written about their speciﬁc assistive

technological contributions to this ﬁeld.

The objective of systematically reporting on assistive technology for visiually

impaired people and also trying to imbue the survey chapters with a descriptive

paradigm based on the social model of disability was an ambitious one. We could

not have accomplished such a task without the cooperation, enthusiasm and,

above all, the patience of our collaborating authors. We should like to thank

them all for their help in seeing this publishing project come to fruition. We have

been very fortunate to meet some of our collaborators at the Workshops and

Conferences on Assistive Technologies for Vision and Hearing Impairment that we

organise with invaluable European Union support. In many cases this has given

us the opportunity to discuss and debate the engineering issues described in this

book.

vi Preface

Patience, too, is a virtue our Springer Engineering editorial staff: Oliver Jack-

son and Anthony Doyle have in abundance. We should like to acknowledge their

enthusiasm and support through the long gestation of this publishing project. Our

copy editor, John Kirby, is also to be thanked for producing an elegantly presented

volume. Thanks are also due for administrative and graphical support given by

Vi Romanes and Peter McKenna of the Department of Electronics and Electrical

Engineering at the University of Glasgow during the years of preparation for this

volume.

We hope this book with its new modelling perspectives and its systematic cov-

erage of assistive technology will inspire many new projects, new courses, and new

ways to secure social inclusiveness for the visually impaired and blind community.

Marion A. Hersh and Michael A. Johnson

Glasgow, Scotland, U.K.

Who should read this book?

This book is designed to inform a wide range of current and future professionals

abouttheassistivetechnologyusedbyvisuallyimpairedandblindpeopletoachieve

independence and social inclusiveness in the home and the wider community.

Basic engineering principles are explained and the ways these are used to develop

and drive assistive technology applications for visually impaired and blind people

described. The volume has some chapters that refer to a generic comprehensive

assistive technology model to capture the essentials of the applied system and this

model should ﬁnd applications in other assistive technology areas.

The book is suitable for electrical engineering, mechanical engineering and

scientiﬁc professionals. It is also considered highly appropriate for undergraduate

courses in the discipline of assistive technology. Thus, we hope this book will be

well placed to meet this need as a course textbook or to supplement existing

course material. The authors have been encouraged to see many engineering

undergraduates enjoy this type of material and it is hoped that this enjoyment

will ﬁre the ingenuity of new generations of engineering students to ﬁnd new and

innovative ways to develop assistive technology for visually impaired and blind

people.

An Overview of the Book

The book has a map, for the ﬁrst four chapters are devoted to fundamentals:

disability and assistive technology models, eye physiology and sight, sight meas-

urement principles and technology and ﬁnally, haptics. Subsequently groups of

chapters explore the topics of mobility, communications and access to information,

daily living, education and employment, and recreational activities. These chapter

groupings follow the structure of the Activities module of the comprehensive

assistive technology model as presented in Chapter 1 of the book.

Preface vii

The book is designed so that each chapter is self-contained and can be read on its

own, although the overview chapters (Chapters 5, 10, 12, 17 and 18) assume some

familiarity with the CAT model material in Chapter 1. Each chapter is motivated by

speciﬁc learning objectives and contains introductory material or descriptions of

the basic principles underlying the technology or applications area. The chapters

close with a chapter summary, questions and suggestions for more investigative

projects. Full citation details for references to journals, books, and conference

papers are given along with information about useful related websites.

A brief description of the contents of each chapter along with full details of the

chapter authors can be found next. For the interested reader, biographical sketches

ofallthecontributingauthorscanbefoundattheendofthebook.Thesearegiven

in alphabetical order of the author family names. The concept of the book and

the overall editorial direction was solely the responsibility of Marion Hersh and

Michael Johnson. However, as is usual for a contributed book, the chapter authors

are responsible for the opinions and factual accuracy expressed in their particular

contributions.

Chapters on Fundamentals

1 Disability and Assistive Technology Systems

Marion Hersh1and Michael Johnson2

1University of Glasgow, 2University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, U.K.

The social model of disability is discussed highlighting the recent pre-eminence

achieved over the medical model of disability. The concept of “quality of life”

indices is explored and its relevance to assessing assistive technology applications

is described. A survey of the main assistive technology quality of life procedures

is presented and the value of the individual procedures considered.

The later sections of the chapter investigate whether assistive technology can be

described in a single holistic and generic model, the idea being that the model will

provide a uniform and consistent framework for analysing existing applications

and for creating or synthesizing new assistive technology systems. The new com-

prehensive assistive technology (CAT) model is presented and its use demonstrated

in these sections.

2 Perception, the Eye and Assistive Technology Issues

Marion Hersh

University of Glasgow, Glasgow, U.K.

Many assistive technology systems for the visually impaired are supported by

contributions from the senses of touch, hearing and smell. This chapter opens with

a description of the nature of multisensory perception as this forms an important

context for the design and use of assistive technology systems.

viii Preface

The chapter then concentrates on the sense of vision. Basic eye physiology is

presented along with descriptions of some of the capabilities of the human eye for

binocular vision, colour vision and motion tracking.

A brief review of the demographics of vision impairment is given and this is

followed by descriptions of the effects of typical vision impairments. A set of

photographic images illustrates the conditions described. The basics of simple

spectacle provision close the chapter.

3 Sight Measurement

David Keating and Stuart Parks

Gartnavel Hospital, Glasgow, U.K.

Measurement science for the sense of sight has exploited advanced computer tech-

nology to emerge as an exciting technical and medical discipline. The chapter

presents a full survey of sight measurement methods describing procedures, en-

gineering principles, technological construction and diagnostic motivation. The

chapter opens with the classical measurement tests for visual acuity, ﬁeld of vision,

and intraocular pressure, followed by the techniques used in biometry and ocular

examinations.

The more advanced technological ﬁelds of optical coherence tomography and

ocular electrophysiology are described in the last two sections of the chapter.

These techniques have developed in sophistication over the last twenty years or

so. Advances in computer visualisation software, laser technology, data collection,

signal processing algorithms and human-sensor interface systems have all been

used to provide complex and accurate measurements and visualisations of the eye

physiology and functions for clinical diagnosis. The chapter presents a state-of-

the-art review of these sight measurement advances.

4 Haptics as a Substitute for Vision

Gunnar Jansson

Department of Psychology, Uppsala University, Sweden

Historically the sense of touch has been used extensively to generate information

for the visually impaired person. This chapter surveys the underlying principles

of haptics and the perceptual capabilities of touch achievable with the human

hand. After a presentation of these haptic fundamentals, the chapter proceeds

to investigate how haptics can be used and enhanced through training or with

the aid of specialist tools. A central section of the chapter concentrates on low-

tech haptic applications; some, like the long cane and the guide dog, are for

mobility whilst others, like Braille and embossed pictures, are for information from

text, as well as embossed graphics. Subsequent sections in the chapter examine

the more technologically advanced applications of haptic science. Of particular

importance are the technologies for haptic computer interfaces and for haptic

Preface ix

displays. A project to provide haptic access to museum pieces for visually impaired

people is one outcome of this advanced work.

Chapters on Mobility and Navigation

5 Mobility: An Overview

Marion Hersh1and Michael Johnson2

1University of Glasgow, 2University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, U.K.

Visually impaired people usually require assistive technology to aid mobility and

retain independent travel within the community environment. This overview chap-

ter opens with a discussion of the travel activity and investigates how people nego-

tiate a desired route or journey. Assistive technology for visually impaired person’s

travel has had a long history and this is brieﬂy reviewed. One ﬁnding is that there

have been quite a few attempts to harness the available contemporary technological

advances in mobility assistive devices. The subsequent development of the chapter

pursues three main topics: obstacle avoidance, navigation and orientation and the

design of accessible environments. The presentation reveals that most effort has

been devoted to obstacle avoidance assistive technology and that more recently

global positioning system and mobile telephone technology has begun to impact

the development of viable navigation and orientation assistive technology. The

ﬁnal section of the chapter reviews progress towards the accessible environment

that is just beginning to appear in many cityscapes.

6 Mobility AT: The Batcane (UltraCane)

Brian Hoyle and Dean Waters

University of Leeds, Leeds, U.K.

Theuseofthelongcanebyvisuallyimpairedpeopleasanobstacledetectoris

long standing. More recently the basic cane design has been equipped with laser

or ultrasound transmitters and sensors and an interpretive human interface to im-

prove its effectiveness, the objective being to allow safe travel by a visually impaired

person.Thischapterreportsanimportantcasestudyofthestepsinvolvedindevel-

oping an advanced technology obstacle avoidance cane that used bat echolocation

signal processing techniques and ultrasonic technology. The ﬁnal cane design is

now marketed worldwide as the UltraCane™.

The chapter reviews the basic technological principles for ultrasonic waves and

the advanced signal processing methods used. There is an extended discussion

of all the design and construction issues followed by a description of the ﬁnal

engineering and prototype test phase. The chapter closes with an examination of

the issues involved in bringing the prototype to eventual commercialisation.

xPreface

7 Navigation AT: Context-aware Computing

Nicholas Bradley and Mark Dunlop

University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, U.K.

Achieving independence whilst attempting a journey involving long distance navi-

gation still remains a signiﬁcant challenge for the visually impaired community.

In this chapter the contribution that might be made by context-aware computing

is explored. The ﬁrst half of the chapter investigates different aspects of the long

distance navigation problem and presents a survey of existing assistive technology,

along with an introduction to cognitive maps and navigation learning strategies.

It is in the second half of the chapter that the principles and potential application

areas for context-aware computing are introduced. The topics examined include

howcontextual information, for example, about location and personal preferences,

can be embedded into user-computer interactions and how these facilities and

capabilities could be used to assist the visually impaired traveller on a long distance

journey. The chapter closes with sections on speciﬁc prototype applications and

some results from the authors’ own research tests.

8 Accessible Global Positioning System (GPS)

and Related Orientation Technologies

Michael May and Charles LaPierre

Sendero Group, United States of America

One of the better-developed technologies for pinpointing a person’s location is

the global positioning system (GPS). This US positioning technology has been

widely exploited in many consumer applications and over future years alternative

systems will become available for use (notably the European Galileo system). The

success of a system for use by the visually impaired will depend on the accessibility

of the interface design and the value of the information imparted to the user.

This case study chapter looks at all the issues from the simple principles of GPS

technology through to interface design, development and testing and ﬁnally the

commercialisation aspects of marketing the end product accessible GPS device

and system. The chapter is based on the authors’ joint and direct experience of

developing and then marketing an accessible GPS product for visually impaired

people.

9 Electronic Travel Aids: An Assessment

Elizabeth M. Ball

Ergonomics and Safety Research Institute, Loughborough University, Loughborough, U.K.

Many assistive technology mobility products are expensive and visually impaired

people are a community group with considerable variability in their range of sight

Preface xi

abilities. Thus, it is very useful to learn about the relative successes and limitations

of many of the currently available mobility products; this chapter provides such

an assessment.

The chapter opens with an analysis of the various types of methods that can be

usedtoset-upan end-user assessment exercise.Part ofthis concernstheframework

of user requirements of the products to be assessed and another part is concerned

with selecting the way of collecting the raw data of end-users responses and

experiences.

The second part of the chapter presents the author’s ﬁndings for an end-user

assessment of six obstacle avoidance mobility aids and two accessible navigation

aids. The chapter closes with a discussion on the importance of training to achieve

the best return from the use of advanced technology to assist in mobility and

navigation.

10 Accessible Environments

Marion Hersh1and Michael Johnson2

1University of Glasgow, 2University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, U.K.

One consequence of the social model of disability is the need for the community

environmenttobephysicallyaccessibletoallmembersofsociety.Thisaccessibility

applies to both the outside environment of, for example, parks, shopping malls

and bus stations and to the interior environments of, for example, schools, hos-

pitals, health centres, sports centres, shops, banks, town halls and entertainment

complexes. This chapter provides an overview of the types of features that make

the community environments accessible for visually impaired people.

The opening section of the chapter looks at the legislative and regulatory

frameworks and the general design principles for accessible environments. This

is followed by two sections covering the streetscape and buildings respectively.

More challenging applications involve embedding detailed information technol-

ogy modules into the environment and these are covered in the last two sections

of the chapter. This is where exemplary applications of accessible public transport

and way-ﬁnding systems are described.

11 Accessible Bus System: A Bluetooth Application

TaiFookLimJerry,HanLeongGohandKokKiongTan

National University of Singapore, Republic of Singapore

The ﬂexibility and freedom offered by new wireless technologies are often dis-

cussed in the media and on the Internet. But having this potential translated into

working assistive technology systems is not so common. In this chapter, an appli-

cation of Bluetooth technology for a bus alerting and information system suitable

for use by visually impaired people is described. The chapter reports case study

material across all the activities found in a typical prototype development project.

xii Preface

The chapter opens with a detailed consideration of the elements of Bluetooth

technology and has a short comparison section with other competing wireless

technologies. Having selected Bluetooth as the enabling technology, the chapter

then reports on the design requirements for the bus alerting system. The system

development is presented in detail along with careful consideration of the user

interface needed for visually impaired people using mobile telephone technology.

A discussion of future plans and commercialisation issues closes the chapter.

12 Accessible Information: An Overview

Marion Hersh1and Michael Johnson2

1University of Glasgow, 2University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, U.K.

In our modern society, increasingly complex media and technology are being

used to transmit information. However, to participate and enjoy the beneﬁts of

the information revolution requires a continual familiarity with the new develop-

ments, so it is important that this area remains accessible to the visually impaired

community.

This chapter opens with a review of the principles and technologies of low vision

aids that are used to access print. Sections on audio transcription and Braille

as access routes to print information then follow. It is the recent developments

in speech processing and speech synthesis technology that are drivers in the

wider use of audio as an information interface for the visually impaired. Major

sectionsofthechapterdescribe theaccessible computerand the accessible Internet.

Both are extremely important in the processing and provision of information and

there are many interface options to make these systems accessible to the visually

impaired. Finally, since mobile telephony is increasingly accruing computer and

Internet capabilities, the chapter closes by reviewing accessible communications

technology.

13 Screen Readers and Screen Magnifiers

Gareth Evans and Paul Blenkhorn

University of Manchester, Manchester, U.K.

Two extremely important assistive technologies for the accessible computer are

screen magniﬁers and screen readers. Together these two tools create the accessi-

bility for computer output needed by a wide range of visually impaired computer

users.

The chapter has two major sections, one for screen magniﬁers and one for screen

readers. Within these extended sections are topics like historical perspectives

on the technology developments, the architectures and implementation of the

technologies and other sections on particular or special features of these two

assistive technology systems.

The chapter is completed by sections on hybrid screen reader-magniﬁers, self-

magnifying applications and self-voicing applications.

Preface xiii

14 Speech, Text and Braille Conversion Technology

Rüdiger Hoffmann

Dresden University of Technology, Dresden, Germany

This chapter is devoted to the fascinating triangle of conversion technologies that

arise between text, speech and Braille. These are enabling technologies that allow

speech to be converted into text as might happen in the creation of a letter, that

allows text to be converted into speech as might happen in the reading of a book

for enjoyment and then, the additional steps taking text into Braille for the Braille

user. The everyday application of these technologies in making information and

computers accessible to the visually impaired is an important assistive technology

area.

The chapter opens with a presentation on the fundamentals of speech and

text conversion technologies. The spectral analysis of speech is an important

theoretical and practical component of this introductory material. Then, this is

followed by sections that examine the three technologies; speech-to-text, text-to-

speech and Braille conversion in detail. These sections describe the technological

principles used and the equipment and applications that follow. The section on

Braille conversion has additional material on more specialised Braille applications

likeBraillerefreshabledisplays,readingmachinesandaccesstotelecommunication

devices.

15 Accessing Books and Documents

James Fruchterman

Benetech, Palo Alto, California, USA

Reading is an essential daily living task, and is crucial for school and work. Whether

it is sorting the bills, reading a textbook or the daily newspaper, access to reading

is critically important to people with disabilities that prevent easy reading of the

printed page. Assistive technology has been created to address these needs and

bridge the accessibility challengetoprint.One of the ﬁrstchallengesis acquiring the

text from the printed page. This need is met through optical character recognition

that turns an image of the printed page into an accessible digital text ﬁle. In this

chapter, the fundamentals of OCR technology and reading machines are described.

The new international standard for digital talking books, the DAISY standard, is

explored. The critically important move to direct digital access to textbooks and

newspapers is projected and a discussion of future technological development

closes the chapter.

xiv Preface

16 Designing Accessible Music Software for Print Impaired People

David Crombie and Roger Lenoir

DEDICON (formerly FNB Nederland), Amsterdam, The Netherlands

Making music is a pastime enjoyed by many and making printed music accessible

to the visually impaired community is a particularly challenging and technically

interesting problem. Music notation is a form of symbolic information with its

own systematic rules; since it is essentially a visual medium the challenge is to

make this system accessible to the visually impaired and blind music player. There

are three basic formats: Braille music, talking music (that might use the DAISY

standard) and large print music, and the chapter covers all three formats.

The chapter opens with a brief introduction to music notation that deﬁnes

many key terms and structures for later use. This is followed by a survey of the

three music formats designed to support accessibility. Some international project

activities are described along with attempts to prescribe an international standard

for the ﬁeld. A key section in the chapter carefully details the steps in the production

of Braille music and also gives further information about Talking Music. Since these

accessibility topics are still developing, closing sections of the chapter review the

likely future developments for the ﬁeld.

17 Assistive Technology for Daily Living

Marion Hersh1and Michael Johnson2

1University of Glasgow, 2University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, U.K.

The ﬁrst of the contextual activity areas in the comprehensive assistive technology

model is that of Daily Living, and this is the subject of this chapter. Thus, the

chapter describes assistive technology solutions designed to remove barriers to

enable visually impaired and blind people enjoy independent living in their own

home. These assistive technology solutions range from some very simple low

technology devices to very sophisticated and specialised high technology solutions

giving the chapter a large number of subsections and coverage of a wide variety of

engineering methods.

Within this diversity of assistive technology applications, there are some tech-

niques that span several of the activities found in the daily living category. Labelling

is one generic assistive technology described in the chapter and this has a range

of applications in personal care, food preparation and using appliances. Similar

generic technologies are those for light and colour detection and identiﬁcation

and these too are described in this chapter. Along with these general solution

technologies, the chapter presents groups of devices for the areas of personal care,

time-keeping, alarms and alerting, food preparation, using appliances and money

amongst others.

Summary conclusions, projects to pursue and reference citations close the chap-

ter.

Preface xv

18 Assistive Technology for Education, Employment and Recreation

Marion Hersh1and Michael Johnson2

1University of Glasgow, 2University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, U.K.

Education and employment, and recreational activities complete the trio of con-

textual activities of the comprehensive assistive technology model, and this ﬁnal

chapter of the book reports on the assistive technology available in these two areas.

Education and employment is divided into six subsections covering learning and

teaching, and then ﬁve employment activity areas. The generic assistive technology

to support mobility, access to information and communication that are essential

to access education and employment have been described earlier in the book and

in this chapter access to the higher level activities are discussed. For example,

this part of the chapter covers access to mathematics in education, and the use of

specialised tools in the skilled and non-skilled trades. There is also a discussion

of the general levels of access attained by visually impaired and blind people to

education and employment in the introductory section of the chapter.

Recreational activities are essential to personal wellbeing and this is the third

contextual activities category in the CAT model. This category also divides into

six sub-activity areas, and a wide variety of assistive technology solutions is de-

scribed. These range from an infrared cinema audio description system, through

to accessible football and tactile tape measures to facilitate craft activities.

Summary conclusions, projects for further investigation and reference and re-

source citations close the chapter.

Contents

1 Disability and Assistive Technology Systems ........................ 1

1.1 TheSocialContextofDisability ............................... 2

1.2 Assistive Technology Outcomes: Quality of Life . . ............... 4

1.2.1 SomeGeneralIssues .................................. 5

1.2.2 DeﬁnitionandMeasurementofQualityofLife............ 6

1.2.3 HealthRelatedQualityofLifeMeasurement.............. 7

1.2.4 AssistiveTechnologyQualityofLifeProcedures .......... 9

1.2.5 Summary and Conclusions . . ........................... 13

1.3 Modelling Assistive Technology Systems . . ..................... 14

1.3.1 Modelling Approaches: A Review . . ..................... 15

1.3.2 Modelling Human Activities ........................... 18

1.4 TheComprehensiveAssistiveTechnology(CAT)Model .......... 20

1.4.1 JustiﬁcationoftheChoiceofModel ..................... 20

1.4.2 TheStructureoftheCATModel ........................ 21

1.5 UsingtheComprehensiveAssistiveTechnologyModel ........... 36

1.5.1 Using the Activity Attribute of the CAT Model

to Determine Gaps in Assistive Technology Provision . . . . . 37

1.5.2 Conceptual Structure of Assistive Technology Systems . . . . . 38

1.5.3 InvestigatingAssistiveTechnologySystems .............. 38

1.5.4 AnalysisofAssistiveTechnologySystems ................ 40

1.5.5 SynthesisofAssistiveTechnologySystems ............... 41

1.6 Chapter Summary ........................................... 45

References ...................................................... 48

2 Perception, the Eye and Assistive Technology Issues .................. 51

2.1 Perception.................................................. 52

2.1.1 Introduction ......................................... 52

2.1.2 Common Laws and Properties of the Different Senses . . . . . 53

2.1.3 MultisensoryPerception............................... 54

2.1.4 MultisensoryPerceptionintheSuperiorColliculus........ 57

2.1.5 StudiesofMultisensoryPerception...................... 58

2.2 TheVisualSystem........................................... 58

2.2.1 Introduction ......................................... 58

2.2.2 TheLens............................................. 60

xviii Contents

2.2.3 TheIrisandPupil..................................... 61

2.2.4 IntraocularPressure .................................. 62

2.2.5 ExtraocularMuscles .................................. 63

2.2.6 EyelidsandTears ..................................... 65

2.3 Visual Processing in the Retina, Laternal Geniculate Nucleus

andtheBrain ............................................... 65

2.3.1 NerveCells .......................................... 65

2.3.2 TheRetina........................................... 67

2.3.3 TheOpticNerve,OpticTractandOpticRadiation ........ 69

2.3.4 TheLateralGeniculateBodyorNucleus ................. 71

2.3.5 ThePrimaryVisualorStriateCortex.................... 71

2.3.6 The Extrastriate Visual Cortex and the Superior Colliculus . 72

2.3.7 VisualPathways ...................................... 73

2.4 VisioninAction............................................. 74

2.4.1 ImageFormation ..................................... 74

2.4.2 Accommodation...................................... 76

2.4.3 ResponsetoLight..................................... 76

2.4.4 ColourVision ........................................ 77

2.4.5 BinocularVisionandStereopsis ........................ 82

2.5 VisualImpairmentandAssistiveTechnology ................... 82

2.5.1 DemographicsofVisualImpairment.................... 83

2.5.2 IllustrationsofSomeTypesofVisualImpairment......... 84

2.5.3 FurtherTypesofVisualImpairment .................... 91

2.5.4 Colour Blindness ..................................... 93

2.5.5 CorrectiveLenses..................................... 94

2.6 Chapter Summary ........................................... 98

References ...................................................... 99

3 Sight Measurement ............................................... 103

3.1 Introduction................................................ 103

3.2 VisualAcuity ............................................... 104

3.2.1 UsingtheChart ...................................... 105

3.2.2 VariationsinMeasuringVisualAcuity................... 105

3.3 FieldofVisionTests ......................................... 107

3.3.1 TheNormalVisualField............................... 107

3.3.2 TheTangentScreen ................................... 108

3.3.3 KineticPerimetry..................................... 108

3.3.4 StaticPerimetry ...................................... 110

3.4 PressureMeasurement....................................... 111

3.5 Biometry................................................... 112

3.6 Ocular Examination . . ....................................... 113

3.7 OpticalCoherenceTomography............................... 114

3.7.1 EchoDelay........................................... 116

3.7.2 LowCoherenceInterferometry ......................... 116

3.7.3 AnOCTScanner...................................... 117

3.8 OcularElectrophysiology..................................... 118

Contents xix

3.8.1 TheElectrooculogram(EOG) .......................... 120

3.8.2 TheElectroretinogram(ERG).......................... 123

3.8.3 ThePatternElectroretinogram ......................... 126

3.8.4 TheVisualEvokedCorticalPotential.................... 127

3.8.5 MultifocalElectrophysiology........................... 127

3.9 Chapter Summary ........................................... 132

ReferenceSources(notcitedinchapter)............................. 133

4 Haptics as a Substitute for Vision .................................. 135

4.1 Introduction................................................ 135

4.1.1 PhysiologicalBasis.................................... 136

4.1.2 PassiveTouch,ActiveTouchandHaptics ................ 137

4.1.3 ExploratoryProcedures ............................... 137

4.2 VisionandHapticsCompared ................................ 138

4.3 TheCapacityofBareFingersinRealEnvironments.............. 139

4.3.1 Visually Impaired People’s Use of Haptics

WithoutanyTechnicalAid............................. 140

4.3.2 Speech Perceived by Hard-of-hearing People

UsingBareHands..................................... 140

4.3.3 Natural Capacity of Touch and Evaluation of Technical Aids 141

4.4 HapticLow-techAids........................................ 141

4.4.1 TheLongCane ....................................... 141

4.4.2 TheGuideDog ....................................... 142

4.4.3 Braille............................................... 143

4.4.4 EmbossedPictures.................................... 144

4.4.5 TheMainLessonfromLow-techAids ................... 145

4.5 MatricesofPointStimuli ..................................... 145

4.5.1 AidsforOrientationandMobility....................... 145

4.5.2 Aids for Reading Text ................................. 148

4.5.3 Aids for Reading Pictures . . . ........................... 149

4.6 Computer-basedAidsforGraphicalInformation ................ 149

4.6.1 AidsforGraphicalUserInterfaces ...................... 150

4.6.2 TactileComputerMouse............................... 150

4.7 HapticDisplays ............................................. 151

4.7.1 Information Available via aHapticDisplay............... 152

4.7.2 What Information Can Be Obtained

withtheReducedInformation?......................... 153

4.7.3 HapticDisplaysasAidsfortheVisuallyImpaired......... 156

4.8 Chapter Summary ........................................... 158

4.9 Concluding Remarks . ....................................... 159

References ...................................................... 160

xx Contents

5Mobility:AnOverview............................................ 167

5.1 Introduction................................................ 168

5.2 TheTravelActivity .......................................... 169

5.2.1 Understanding Mobility ............................... 169

5.2.2 AssistiveTechnologySystemsfortheTravelProcess....... 173

5.3 The Historical Development of Travel Aids

for Visually Impaired and Blind People ......................... 177

5.4 Obstacle Avoidance AT: Guide Dogs and Robotic Guide Walkers . . . 180

5.4.1 GuideDogs .......................................... 180

5.4.2 RoboticGuidesandWalkers ........................... 181

5.5 ObstacleAvoidanceAT:Canes ................................ 185

5.5.1 LongCanes .......................................... 186

5.5.2 TechnologyCanes .................................... 187

5.6 OtherMobilityAssistiveTechnologyApproaches................ 191

5.6.1 Clear-path Indicators .................................. 192

5.6.2 ObstacleandObjectLocationDetectors ................. 194

5.6.3 ThevOICeSystem .................................... 197

5.7 OrientationAssistiveTechnologySystems ...................... 198

5.7.1 Global Positioning System Orientation Technology ........ 200

5.7.2 OtherTechnologyOptionsforOrientationSystems ....... 200

5.8 AccessibleEnvironments..................................... 201

5.9 Chapter Summary ........................................... 205

References ...................................................... 207

6 Mobility AT: The Batcane (UltraCane) .............................. 209

6.1 MobilityBackgroundandIntroduction ........................ 209

6.2 PrinciplesofUltrasonics ..................................... 210

6.2.1 UltrasonicWaves ..................................... 210

6.2.2 AttenuationandReﬂectionInteractions ................. 211

6.2.3 TransducerGeometry ................................. 212

6.3 BatsandSignalProcessing ................................... 213

6.3.1 PrinciplesofBatSonar ................................ 213

6.3.2 EcholocationCallStructures ........................... 215

6.3.3 SignalProcessingCapabilities.......................... 216

6.3.4 Applicability of Bat Echolocation to Sonar System Design . . 217

6.4 DesignandConstructionIssues............................... 218

6.4.1 Outline Requirement Speciﬁcation . . .................... 218

6.4.2 UltrasonicSpatialSensorSubsystem .................... 219

6.4.3 TrialPrototypeSpatialSensorArrangement.............. 219

6.4.4 TactileUserInterfaceSubsystem........................ 221

6.4.5 CognitiveMapping ................................... 222

6.4.6 EmbeddedProcessingControlRequirements............. 223

6.5 ConceptPhaseandEngineeringPrototypePhaseTrials .......... 223

6.6 CaseStudyinCommercialisation.............................. 225

6.7 Chapter Summary ........................................... 226

References ...................................................... 229

Contents xxi

7 Navigation AT: Context-aware Computing........................... 231

7.1 Deﬁning the Orientation/Navigation Problem . . . . ............... 231

7.1.1 Orientation,MobilityandNavigation ................... 232

7.1.2 TraditionalMobilityAids.............................. 233

7.1.3 LimitationsofTraditionalAids ......................... 233

7.2 CognitiveMaps ............................................. 234

7.2.1 Learning and Acquiring Spatial Information ............. 235

7.2.2 FactorsthatInﬂuenceHowKnowledgeIsAcquired........ 236

7.2.3 TheStructureandFormofCognitiveMaps .............. 237

7.3 OverviewofExistingTechnologies ............................ 238

7.3.1 TechnologiesforDistantNavigation..................... 238

7.3.2 UserInterfaceOutputTechnologies ..................... 239

7.4 PrinciplesofMobileContext-awareComputing ................. 240

7.4.1 Adding Context to User-computer Interaction ............ 241

7.4.2 AcquiringUsefulContextualInformation................ 242

7.4.3 CapabilitiesofContext-awareness ...................... 244

7.4.4 ApplicationofContext-awarePrinciples ................. 245

7.4.5 Technological Challenges and Unresolved Usability Issues . 248

7.5 TestProcedures ............................................. 249

7.5.1 HumanComputerInteraction(HCI) .................... 249

7.5.2 CognitiveMapping ................................... 252

7.5.3 OverallApproach..................................... 253

7.6 Future Positioning Technologies . . . ........................... 253

7.7 Chapter Summary ........................................... 255

7.7.1 Conclusions.......................................... 256

References ...................................................... 258

8 Accessible Global Positioning System (GPS)

and Related Orientation Technologies .............................. 261

8.1 Deﬁning the Navigation Problem . . . ........................... 261

8.1.1 WhatistheImportanceofLocationInformation?......... 262

8.1.2 What Mobility Tools and Traditional Maps are Available

for the Blind? . . ....................................... 263

8.2 Principles of Global Positioning Systems . . ..................... 263

8.2.1 What is the Global Positioning System? . . . ............... 263

8.2.2 AccuracyofGPS:SomeGeneralIssues................... 265

8.2.3 AccuracyofGPS:SomeTechnicalIssues ................. 267

8.2.4 FrequencySpectrumofGPS,PresentandFuture.......... 269

8.2.5 OtherGPSSystems.................................... 270

8.3 ApplicationofGPSPrinciples................................. 272

8.4 DesignIssues ............................................... 273

8.5 DevelopmentIssues ......................................... 278

8.5.1 ChoosinganAppropriatePlatform...................... 278

8.5.2 ChoosingtheGPSReceiver ............................ 279

8.5.3 CreatingaPackagedSystem............................ 279

8.5.4 Integration vs Stand-alone . . ........................... 280

xxii Contents

8.6 UserInterfaceDesignIssues .................................. 281

8.6.1 HowtoPresenttheInformation ........................ 281

8.6.2 WhentoPresenttheInformation ....................... 282

8.6.3 WhatInformationtoPresent........................... 282

8.7 TestProceduresandResults .................................. 283

8.8 CaseStudyinCommercialisation.............................. 283

8.8.1 Understanding the Value of the Technology .............. 283

8.8.2 LimitationsoftheTechnology.......................... 284

8.8.3 OngoingDevelopment................................. 285

8.9 Chapter Summary ........................................... 286

References ...................................................... 287

9 Electronic Travel Aids: An Assessment .............................. 289

9.1 Introduction................................................ 290

9.2 WhyDoanAssessment?...................................... 291

9.3 MethodologiesforAssessmentsofElectronicTravelAids......... 292

9.3.1 ElicitingUserRequirements............................ 292

9.3.2 Developing a User Requirements Speciﬁcation

andHeuristicEvaluation .............................. 294

9.3.3 Hands-onAssessments................................ 295

9.3.4 MethodologyUsedforAssessmentsinthisChapter ....... 295

9.4 Modern-day Electronic Travel Aids . ........................... 299

9.4.1 The Distinction Between Mobility and Navigation Aids . . . . 300

9.4.2 The Distinction Between Primary and Secondary Aids . . . . 300

9.4.3 UserRequirements:MobilityandNavigationAids ........ 300

9.4.4 MobilityAids ........................................ 304

9.4.5 Mobility Aids: Have They Solved the Mobility Challenge? . . 311

9.4.6 NavigationAids ...................................... 312

9.4.7 Navigation Aids: Have They Solved

theNavigationChallenge? ............................. 314

9.5 Training . ................................................... 315

9.6 Chapter Summary and Conclusions. ........................... 317

References ...................................................... 320

10 Accessible Environments.......................................... 323

10.1 Introduction................................................ 323

10.1.1 LegislativeandRegulatoryFramework .................. 323

10.1.2 AccessibleEnvironments:AnOverview.................. 325

10.1.3 Principles for the Design of Accessible Environments . . . . . . 326

10.1.4 Relationship Between Environmental Information and

Navigation Systems and Global Positioning Systems (GPS)

OrientationSystems................................... 327

10.2 PhysicalEnvironments:TheStreetscape........................ 328

10.2.1 PavementsandPathways .............................. 328

10.2.2 RoadCrossings....................................... 330

10.2.3 BollardsandStreetFurniture........................... 331

Contents xxiii

10.3 Physical Environments: Buildings . . ........................... 333

10.3.1 GeneralExteriorIssues................................ 334

10.3.2 GeneralInteriorIssues ................................ 335

10.3.3 Lighting and D´

ecor ................................... 338

10.3.4 SignsandNotices..................................... 343

10.3.5 Interior Building Services . . . ........................... 345

10.4 EnvironmentalInformationandNavigationTechnologies ........ 348

10.4.1 AudioInformationSystem:GeneralIssues ............... 348

10.4.2 Some Technologies for Environmental Information Systems 350

10.5 AccessiblePublicTransport................................... 354

10.5.1 AccessiblePublicTransportation:DesignIssues .......... 355

10.5.2 Accessible Public Transportation:

Technological Information and Way-ﬁnding Systems . . . . . . 356

10.6 Chapter Summary ........................................... 358

References ...................................................... 360

11 Accessible Bus System: A Bluetooth Application ..................... 363

11.1 Introduction................................................ 363

11.2 BluetoothFundamentals ..................................... 364

11.2.1 BriefHistoryofBluetooth.............................. 364

11.2.2 BluetoothPowerClass................................. 364

11.2.3 ProtocolStack........................................ 365

11.2.4 BluetoothProﬁle...................................... 365

11.2.5 Piconet.............................................. 366

11.2.6 BluetoothandCompetingWirelessTechnologies ......... 366

11.3 DesignIssues ............................................... 367

11.3.1 SystemArchitecture................................... 368

11.3.2 HardwareRequirements............................... 369

11.3.3 SoftwareRequirements................................ 369

11.4 DevelopmentalIssues........................................ 372

11.4.1 BluetoothServer...................................... 373

11.4.2 BluetoothClient(MobileDevice) ....................... 377

11.4.3 UserInterface ........................................ 379

11.5 CommercialisationIssues .................................... 381

11.6 Chapter Summary ........................................... 382

References ...................................................... 384

12 Accessible Information: An Overview ............................... 385

12.1 Introduction................................................ 386

12.2 LowVisionAids............................................. 387

12.2.1 BasicPrinciples ...................................... 387

12.3 LowVisionAssistiveTechnologySystems....................... 391

12.3.1 LargePrint........................................... 392

12.3.2 ClosedCircuitTelevisionSystems....................... 393

12.3.3 VideoMagniﬁers ..................................... 395

12.3.4 TelescopicAssistiveSystems............................ 396

xxiv Contents

12.4 Audio-transcriptionofPrintedInformation .................... 401

12.4.1 Stand-alone Reading Systems .......................... 401

12.4.2 ReadITProject....................................... 403

12.5 TactileAccesstoInformation ................................. 407

12.5.1 Braille............................................... 407

12.5.2 Moon ............................................... 408

12.5.3 BrailleDevices ....................................... 408

12.6 AccessibleComputerSystems................................. 410

12.6.1 InputDevices ........................................ 414

12.6.2 OutputDevices....................................... 417

12.6.3 Computer-based Reading Systems . . .................... 421

12.6.4 AccessiblePortableComputers ......................... 422

12.7 AccessibleInternet .......................................... 423

12.7.1 World Wide Web Guidelines ........................... 424

12.7.2 Guidelines for Web Authoring Tools . .................... 430

12.7.3 Accessible Adobe Portable Document Format (PDF)

Documents .......................................... 434

12.7.4 BobbyApproval ...................................... 437

12.8 Telecommunications......................................... 438

12.8.1 Voice Dialling General Principles . . . .................... 438

12.8.2 TalkingCallerID ..................................... 441

12.8.3 MobileTelephones.................................... 442

12.9 Chapter Summary ........................................... 444

References ...................................................... 447

13 Screen Readers and Screen Magniﬁers .............................. 449

13.1 Introduction................................................ 449

13.2 OverviewofChapter......................................... 450

13.3 InteractingwithaGraphicalUserInterface ..................... 451

13.4 ScreenMagniﬁers ........................................... 453

13.4.1 Overview............................................ 453

13.4.2 MagniﬁcationModes.................................. 454

13.4.3 OtherInterfaceConsiderations......................... 462

13.4.4 The Architecture and Implementation of Screen Magniﬁers 466

13.5 ScreenReaders.............................................. 478

13.5.1 Overview............................................ 478

13.5.2 The Architecture and Implementation of a Screen Reader . . 480

13.5.3 UsingaBrailleDisplay ................................ 485

13.5.4 UserInterfaceIssues .................................. 486

13.6 HybridScreenReaderMagniﬁers.............................. 489

13.7 Self-magnifyingApplications ................................. 489

13.8 Self-voicingApplications..................................... 489

13.9 ApplicationAdaptors ........................................ 491

13.10Chapter Summary ........................................... 491

References ...................................................... 495

Contents xxv

14 Speech, Text and Braille Conversion Technology ..................... 497

14.1 Introduction................................................ 497

14.1.1 IntroducingModeConversion.......................... 497

14.1.2 Outline of the Chapter . ................................ 499

14.2 PrerequisitesforSpeechandTextConversionTechnology ........ 500

14.2.1 TheSpectralStructureofSpeech ....................... 500

14.2.2 TheHierarchicalStructureofSpokenLanguage .......... 505

14.2.3 Prosody ............................................. 508

14.3 Speech-to-textConversion.................................... 509

14.3.1 PrinciplesofPatternRecognition....................... 509

14.3.2 PrinciplesofSpeechRecognition ....................... 515

14.3.3 EquipmentandApplications ........................... 517

14.4 Text-to-speechConversion ................................... 521

14.4.1 PrinciplesofSpeechProduction ........................ 521

14.4.2 PrinciplesofAcousticalSynthesis....................... 522

14.4.3 EquipmentandApplications ........................... 525

14.5 BrailleConversion........................................... 528

14.5.1 Introduction ......................................... 528

14.5.2 Text-to-BrailleConversion ............................. 531

14.5.3 Braille-to-textConversion ............................. 535

14.6 CommercialEquipmentandApplications ...................... 537

14.6.1 Speech vs Braille...................................... 537

14.6.2 SpeechOutputinDevicesforDailyLife.................. 538

14.6.3 PortableText-basedDevices............................ 540

14.6.4 AccesstoComputers .................................. 540

14.6.5 Reading Machines . . . ................................. 542

14.6.6 AccesstoTelecommunicationDevices................... 543

14.7 DiscussionandtheFutureOutlook ............................ 543

14.7.1 End-user Studies ..................................... 543

14.7.2 DiscussionandIssuesArising.......................... 545

14.7.3 FutureDevelopments ................................. 546

References ...................................................... 551

15 Accessing Books and Documents .................................. 555

15.1 Introduction:TheChallengeofAccessingthePrintedPage ....... 555

15.2 BasicsofOpticalCharacterRecognitionTechnology............. 557

15.2.1 DetailsofOpticalCharacterRecognitionTechnology...... 558

15.2.2 Practical Issues with Optical Character

RecognitionTechnology............................... 561

15.3 Reading Systems ............................................ 562

15.4 DAISYTechnology .......................................... 565

15.4.1 DAISYFullAudioBooks............................... 567

15.4.2 DAISYFullTextBooks ................................ 568

15.4.3 DAISYandOtherFormats ............................. 569

15.5 Players..................................................... 571

15.6 AccessingTextbooks......................................... 574

xxvi Contents

15.7 AccessingNewspapers ....................................... 575

15.8 FutureTechnologyDevelopments ............................. 576

15.9 Chapter Summary and Conclusion . ........................... 577

15.9.1 Chapter Summary . . . ................................. 577

15.9.2 Conclusion .......................................... 578

References ...................................................... 579

16 Designing Accessible Music Software for Print Impaired People ....... 581

16.1 Introduction................................................ 582

16.1.1 PrintImpairments.................................... 582

16.1.2 MusicNotation....................................... 583

16.2 OverviewofAccessibleMusic................................. 584

16.2.1 Formats ............................................. 584

16.2.2 TechnicalAspects..................................... 593

16.3 SomeRecentInitiativesandProjects........................... 594

16.3.1 InteractiveMusicNetwork............................. 594

16.3.2 Play2 ............................................... 595

16.3.3 DancingDots ........................................ 596

16.3.4 Toccata.............................................. 597

16.4 ProblemstoBeOvercome .................................... 597

16.4.1 AContentProcessingLayer............................ 598

16.4.2 Standardization of Accessible Music Technology . . ........ 599

16.5 Unifying Accessible Design, Technology and Musical Content . . . . . 600

16.5.1 BrailleMusic......................................... 600

16.5.2 TalkingMusic ........................................ 607

16.6 Conclusions ................................................ 609

16.6.1 DesignforAllorAccessibilityfromScratch .............. 610

16.6.2 ApplyingDesignforAllinEmergingStandards........... 610

16.6.3 AccessibilityinEmergingTechnology ................... 611

References ...................................................... 612

17 Assistive Technology for Daily Living ............................... 615

17.1 Introduction................................................ 616

17.2 PersonalCare............................................... 617

17.2.1 Labelling Systems . . . . ................................. 617

17.2.2 HealthcareMonitoring ................................ 625

17.3 Time-keeping,AlarmsandAlerting ........................... 628

17.3.1 Time-keeping ........................................ 628

17.3.2 AlarmsandAlerting .................................. 630

17.4 FoodPreparationandConsumption........................... 633

17.4.1 TalkingKitchenScales................................. 633

17.4.2 TalkingMeasuringJug................................. 634

17.4.3 Liquid Level Indicator ................................. 635

17.4.4 TalkingMicrowaveOven............................... 635

17.4.5 TalkingKitchenandRemoteThermometers ............. 635

17.4.6 BrailleSaltandPepperSet ............................. 636

Contents xxvii

17.5 EnvironmentalControlandUseofAppliances .................. 636

17.5.1 LightProbes ......................................... 637

17.5.2 ColourProbes........................................ 639

17.5.3 TalkingandTactileThermometersandBarometers ....... 641

17.5.4 UsingAppliances ..................................... 642

17.6 Money,FinanceandShopping ................................ 643

17.6.1 Mechanical Money Indicators .......................... 644

17.6.2 ElectronicMoneyIdentiﬁers ........................... 645

17.6.3 ElectronicPurse...................................... 645

17.6.4 AutomaticTellerMachines(ATMs) ..................... 647

17.7 Communications and Access to Information: Other Technologies . . 648

17.7.1 Information Kiosks and Other Self-service Systems ....... 648

17.7.2 UsingSmartCards.................................... 650

17.7.3 EZAccess®........................................... 652

17.8 Chapter Summary ........................................... 653

References ...................................................... 656

18 Assistive Technology for Education, Employment and Recreation ...... 659

18.1 Introduction................................................ 659

18.2 Education: Learning and Teaching . . ........................... 661

18.2.1 AccessingEducationalProcessesandApproaches......... 662

18.2.2 EducationalTechnologies,DevicesandTools............. 667

18.3 Employment................................................ 670

18.3.1 ProfessionalandPerson-centred........................ 671

18.3.2 ScientiﬁcandTechnical................................ 673

18.3.3 AdministrativeandSecretarial ......................... 674

18.3.4 SkilledandNon-skilled(Manual)Trades ................ 676

18.3.5 WorkingOutside ..................................... 680

18.4 RecreationalActivities ....................................... 680

18.4.1 AccessingtheVisual,AudioandPerformingArts ......... 681

18.4.2 Games, Puzzles, Toys and Collecting .................... 686

18.4.3 Holidays and Visits: Museums, Galleries

andHeritageSites .................................... 687

18.4.4 SportsandOutdoorActivities.......................... 688

18.4.5 DIY,ArtandCraftActivities ........................... 696

18.5 Chapter Summary ........................................... 700

References ...................................................... 703

Biographical Sketches of the Contributors .............................. 709

Index .............................................................. 717

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