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Abstract
Background
Methods
Competing interests
Authors’ contributions
Acknowledgements
References

R E V I E W Open Access

Traditional use of medicinal plants in south-central

Zimbabwe: review and perspectives

Alfred Maroyi

Abstract

Background: Traditional medicine has remained as the most affordable and easily accessible source of treatment in

the primary healthcare system of resource poor communities in Zimbabwe. The local people have a long history of

traditional plant usage for medicinal purposes. Despite the increasing acceptance of traditional medicine in

Zimbabwe, this rich indigenous knowledge is not adequately documented. Documentation of plants used as

traditional medicines is needed so that the knowledge can be preserved and the utilized plants conserved and

used sustainably. The primary objective of this paper is to summarize information on traditional uses of medicinal

plants in south-central Zimbabwe, identifying research gaps and suggesting perspectives for future research.

Methods: This study is based on a review of the literature published in scientific journals, books, reports from

national, regional and international organizations, theses, conference papers and other grey materials.

Results: A total of 93 medicinal plant species representing 41 families and 77 genera are used in south-central

Zimbabwe. These plant species are used to treat 18 diseases and disorder categories, with the highest number of

species used for gastro-intestinal disorders, followed by sexually transmitted infections, cold, cough and sore throat

and gynaecological problems. Shrubs and trees (38% each) were the primary sources of medicinal plants, followed

by herbs (21%) and climbers (3%). The therapeutic claims made on medicinal plants documented in south-central

Zimbabwe are well supported by literature, with 82.8% of the plant species having similar applications in other

regions of Zimbabwe as well as other parts of the world and 89.2% having documented biological and

pharmacological properties.

Conclusion: This study illustrates the importance of traditional medicines in the treatment and management of

human diseases and ailments in south-central Zimbabwe. Traditional medicines still play an important role in

meeting basic health care of local communities in Zimbabwe.

Keywords: Conservation, Medicinal plants, South-central Zimbabwe, Traditional knowledge

Background

Out of more than 5000 plant species growing in

Zimbabwe, about 10 percent of these have medicinal

properties and are used as traditional medicines [1].

Traditional medicine has remained as the most afford-

able and easily accessible source of treatment in the pri-

mary healthcare system of resource poor communities

in Zimbabwe. About 80% of the population in develop-

ing countries use traditional medicines because they

cannot afford the high cost of western pharmaceuticals

and health care, and because traditional medicines are

more acceptable from a cultural and spiritual perspective

[2]. Research by Hostettmann et al. [3] showed that the

knowledge on the use of medicinal plants is enormous

but if this traditional knowledge is not rapidly re-

searched and recorded, indications are that it will be lost

with succeeding generations. Despite the increasing ac-

ceptance of traditional medicine in Zimbabwe [1,4,5],

this rich indigenous knowledge on traditional remedies

is not adequately documented. Documentation of plants

used as traditional medicines in Zimbabwe is urgent so

that the knowledge can be preserved, the utilized plants

are conserved and used sustainably. The current investiga-

tion therefore, attempts to fill some of the gaps in indigen-

ous knowledge related to the use of herbal medicines in

Correspondence: alfred.maroyi@gmail.com

Department of Biodiversity, School of Molecular and Life Sciences, University

of Limpopo, Mankweng, South Africa

JOURNAL OF ETHNOBIOLOGY

AND ETHNOMEDICINE

Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and

reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Maroyi Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013, 9:31

http://www.ethnobiomed.com/content/9/1/31

south-central Zimbabwe (Figure 1) emphasizing their role

in basic human health care. The majority of the people in

south-central Zimbabwe belong to the Karanga dialectical

group. Most of the Karanga people live in Mberengwa,

Shurugwi and Zvishavane districts in the Midlands prov-

ince; and Chivi and Zaka districts in the Masvingo prov-

ince [7], which are the study sites of the current study.

The Karanga people possess their own traditional know-

ledge on medicinal plants that contributes to a broader

understanding of medicinal plants in Zimbabwe. This in-

vestigation is part of a larger study [8] aimed at docu-

menting the ethnobotanical knowledge held by the

Karanga people in south-central Zimbabwe. Therefore,

this review was done to document traditional uses of me-

dicinal plants in south-central Zimbabwe in order to pro-

vide comprehensive documentation, identify research

gaps, and suggest perspectives for future research.

Methods

The traditional uses of medicinal plants in south-central

Zimbabwe were collated. Available references or reports

on the plant species were consulted from published sci-

entific journals, books, reports from national, regional

and international organizations, theses, conference pa-

pers and other grey materials. Literature was searched

on international online databases such as ISI Web of

Science, MEDLINE, Science Direct, Scopus and Google

Scholar using specific search terms such as “medicinal

plants”,“traditional medicines”,“Chivi or Mberengwa or

Shurugwi or Zaka or Zvishavane districts”,“Masvingo or

Midlands provinces”and “Zimbabwe”. References were

also identified by searching the library collections of the

National Herbarium and Botanic Gardens, Harare,

Zimbabwe and University of Limpopo, South Africa.

Data collected from the literature included: use(s), mode

of preparation and administration of the species. Litera-

ture search was also done to document the biological

and pharmacological activities of the documented plant

species.

Medicinal plant diversity

This study recorded ninety three plant species as useful

in traditionally managing various human diseases in

south-central Zimbabwe (Table 1). Of these, 79 species

are indigenous to Zimbabwe (84.9%), while 14 species are

exotic (15.1%), either naturalized as weeds or cultivated in

home gardens as ornamentals or food plants. Dicotyledons

were dominant with 87 plant species (93.5%), 5 monocoty-

ledons (5.4%) and 1 fern (1.1%). These medicinal plants

were distributed among 41 families and 77 genera. The

majority of medicinal plants (71, 76.3%) used in south-

central Zimbabwe are from 19 families (Table 2). Plant

families with the highest number of medicinal plants in

south-central Zimbabwe were: Fabaceae sensu lato (11

species), followed by Anacardiaceae (9 species), Euphorbi-

aceae (7 species), Asteraceae, Ebenaceae and Tiliaceae

Figure 1 Geographical location of the study area, map modified from [6].

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Table 1 Medicinal plants used in south-central Zimbabwe

Scientific name,

family

Growth

habit

Vernacular

name

Part(s) used and use(s) Similar uses in Zimbabwe

(other countries

)

reported from literature

Reported biological/pharmacological activities

Anacardiaceae

Lannea discolor

(Sond.) Engl.

Tree Mugan’acha Fibre: extract drunk to reduce the duration

of menstrual flow [9]. Roots: root extract

used as eye drops for sore eyes [8]

Menorrhagia [1] and

infertility

[1,10]

None found

Lannea edulis

(Sond.) Engl.

Shrub Mutsambatsi Roots: extract drunk as bilharzia

(schistomiasis) and diarrhoea [9]and

gonorrhoea medicine [8]

Gonorrhoea [1] and bilharzias

diarrhoea

[11]

Antimicrobial activity; flavonoids and tannins [12]

*Mangifera indica L. Tree Mumango Bark: extract drunk as diarrhoea medicine [8] Diarrhoea and dysentery [13] Antibacterial [13,14]; anti-inflammatory,

antifungal, antidiabetic, antioxidant, antiviral

and antiparasitic [14] properties

Ozoroa insignis Del. Shrub Mubhedha Roots: extract drunk as diarrhoea and STIs

medicine [8]

Diarrhoea and venereal

diseases [1]

Antibacterial, anthelmintic [15,16], antimicrobial

[16] and cytotoxic [17] activities

Rhus longipes Engl. Tree Mufokosiana Roots: extract drunk as remedy for infertility

in women and to dilate birth canal [8]

Infertility in women and

to dilate birth canal [1]

None found

Sclerocarya birrea

(A. Rich.) Hochst.

Tree Mupfura Roots: steam directed into sore eyes [8] Sore eyes [1] Flavonoids, tannins and triterpenoids;

antidiarrhoeal, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory,

antimicrobial and antioxidant [18] properties

Searsia dentata

(Thunb.) F.A. Barkley

Shrub Mubikasadza Leaves: leaf sap taken as remedy for ulcers,

diarrhoea and stomach problems [9]

None found Biflavonoids [19]

Searsia pyroides

(Burch.) Moffett

Shrub Mufokosiana Roots: extract drunk as cough medicine [8] None found Biflavonoids [20]

Searsia tenuinervis

(Engl.) Moffet

Shrub Mufokosiana Leaves: extract drunk as menorrhagia

medicine [8]

Menorrhagia [1] Antibacterial activity [21]

Annonaceae

Annona stenophylla

Engl. & Diels

Shrub Muroro Roots: paste applied on the boils; extract

drunk as chest pains and STI remedy; mixed

with roots of Securidaca longipedunculata

Fresen. and sprinkled around homestead

as snake repellent [8]

Gonorrhoea, syphilis and

snake repellent [1]

Antioxidant activity [22]

Apocynaceae

Carissa bispinosa

(L.) Desf. ex Brenan

Shrub Muruguru Roots: extract drunk as cough and

diarrhoea medicine [8]

None found Analgesic, antiviral and diuretic activities; lignans

and sesquiterpenes [23]

Carisa edulis

(Forssk.) Vahl

Shrub Muruguru Roots: extract drunk as diarrhoea and

cough medicine [6]

Cough [1,24], chest pains

and pneumonia [1]; and

tuberculosis

[10]

Analgesic, antiviral and diuretic activities; lignans

and sesquiterpenes [23]

*Catharanthus roseus

(L.) G. Don

Herb Chirindamatongo Roots: extract drunk as remedy for

stomach problems [9,25]

Diarrhoea

, dysentery

and indigestion

[26]

Alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins, tannins and

triterpenes; antidiarrheal [27] and antidiabetic

[28] activities

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Table 1 Medicinal plants used in south-central Zimbabwe (Continued)

Asparagaceae

Asparagus africanus

Lam.

Climber Rukato Roots: extract drunk as diarrhoea and

pneumonia medicine and to dilate

birth canal [8]

Aid in child birth

[29] Analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities [30]

Sansevieria aethiopica

Thunb.

Herb Zvikonje Leaves: leaf sap squeezed into the

painful ear [31]

Earache

[32] Antibacterial activity [33]

Sansevieria hyacinthoides

(L.) Druce

Herb Masavamhanda Leaves or rhizomes: leaf or rhizome sap

given to child suffering from dehydration

[31]. Leaves: Leaf macerate given to colicky

infant; leaves used as dressing on sprained

ankle [31]. Rhizome: rhizome added to

non-alcoholic beverage taken by pregnant

women to prepare the birth canal and

prevent delivery complications; warm

rhizome extract given to a person with

aching tooth to keep in mouth for up to two

minutes before spitting out the mixture [31].

Roots: extract drunk to dilate birth canal [9]

Root used as baby

food

[10]

Antibacterial, antioxidant [34] and

anti-inflammatory [12] properties.

Asphodelaceae

Aloe greatheadii

Schönland

Herb Gavakava Leaves: extract drunk as constipation and

gonorrhoea medicine [8]

Constipation and

gonorrhoea [1]

Alkaloids, phenolic compounds and

antioxidant capacity [35]

Asteraceae

Brachylaena discolor DC. Herb Mupasa Leaves: leaves chewed and juice swallowed

as remedy for ulcers [9]

Enema to stop bleeding

of the stomach

[36]

Antidiabetic activity [28]

Dicoma anomala Sond. Herb Chifumuro Bulb: extract drunk as remedy for

stomach upset [9]

Remedy for all disease

(panacea) [1]

Sesquiterpene [37]

*Schkuhria pinnata

(Lam.) Kuntze ex Thell.

Herb Ruhwahwa Whole plant: extract drunk as remedy for

stomach pains [9]

Stomach problems

[11] Antibacterial [38] and anti-diarrhoeal activity [11]

*Sonchus oleraceus L.; Herb Rurimirwemombe Leaves: extract drunk as remedy for

stomach problems [9]

Anti-diarrhoeal

and

digestive purgative

[39]

Alkaloids, flavonoids, phenols and saponins;

antioxidant and antibacterial [39] properties

Burseraceae

Commiphora marlothii

Engl.

Tree Mupepe Roots: extract drunk as STI medicine [9] None found Antibacterial activity [40]

Celastraceae

Gymnosporia buxifolia

(L.) Szyszyl.

Shrub Chizhuzhu Leaves: leaves chewed and sap swallowed

as remedy for abdominal pains [9]

Painful menstruation

[41] Antiplasmodial and anti-inflammatory activities [42]

Chrysobalanaceae

Parinari curatellifolia

Planch. ex Benth.

Tree Muchakata Roots: extract drunk as constipation

medicine and teeth washed with root

decoction as remedy for toothache [8]

Constipation [1] and

toothache

[1,10]

Antibacterial [13,43] and antimicrobial [43]

activities; alkaloids, flavonoids, phenol, saponins,

steroids, tannins and terpenes [43]

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Table 1 Medicinal plants used in south-central Zimbabwe (Continued)

Clusiaceae

Garcinia buchananii

Baker

Tree Mutunduru Bark: extract drunk to reduce birth canal [9].

Fruits: ripe fruits are eaten as aphrodisiac [9]

Aphrodisiac and to

reduce birth canal [1]

Anthraquinones and cytotoxicity activity [44,45],

phenolics, steroids and tannins [46]

Cucurbitaceae

Cucumis anguria L. Herb Muchacha Fruits: pieces of fruit left around

homestead as snake repellent [8]

Antifeedant [47] Larvicidal activity and triterpenoids [47]

Cyperaceae

Coleochloa setifera

(Ridl.) Gilly

Herb Rufuri Roots: root powder taken as a remedy

for pneumonia [12]

None found None found

Ebenaceae

Diospyros lycioides Desf. Shrub Musumadombo Roots: extract drunk as remedy for

infertility in women [8]

Infertility in women

[1,10] Antibacterial activity [48]; lupeol and ursolic acid

[49]

Diospyros mespiliformis

Hochst. ex A.DC.

Tree Musuma Roots: extract drunk as abdominal pains

medicine [8]

Body and heart pains [1] Antimicrobial activity; saponins, steroids,

tannins and triterpene [50]

Euclea crispa (Thunb.)

Sond. ex Gürke

Shrub Muvhinji Roots: extract drunk as cough medicine [8] Cough [1] Antibacterial activity [51]

Euclea divinorum Hiern Shrub Mushangura Roots: extract drunk as diarrhoea

medicine [8]

Diarrhoea [1]; and troubled

and noisy stamach

[10]

Antimicrobial activity [44]

Euphorbiaceae

Androstachys johnsonii

Prain

Tree Musimbiti Roots: extract drunk as aphrodisiac [9] None found Antibacterial [52], antimicrobial and

antifungal [53] activities

Bridelia cathartica

G. Bertol.

Shrub Mutsvoritsvoto Roots: extract drunk as remedy for infertility

in men [8]

Infertility in men [1] Anthocyanins, flavonoids and tannins [54];

antibacterial [54] and antimalarial [55] activities

Bridelia mollis Hutch. Shrub Mutuzvidzembwa Roots: extract drunk as cough medicine [8] None found None found

Flueggea virosa

(Roxb. ex Willd.) Voigt

Shrub Mushagahuwe Roots: extract drunk as pneumonia

medicine and drunk before sexual

intercourse as a contraceptive; dried root

powder applied to bitten part as snake

antidote and root powder applied on

wounds [8]

Contraceptive, pneumonia

and snake antidote [1]

Alkaloids, securinine and triterpenes; antifungal,

antimalarial, antimicrobial and antioxidant

activities [56-59]

Macaranga capensis

(Baill.) Benth. ex Sim

Tree Musvosve Roots: extract drunk as aphrodisiac[9] Male impotence

[60] Antibacterial activity [60]

*Ricinus communis L. Herb Mupfuta Roots: teeth washed with root decoction

as remedy for toothache [8]. Seed: oil

applied on sore eyes [8]

Sore eyes [1] and

toothache

[1,10]

Anti-inflammatory, antiarthritic [61,62],

anti-oxidant, antiulcer, antidiabetic,

antifertility and antimicrobial [63] properties

Spirostachys africana

Sond.

Tree Munhiti Roots: root powder mixed with porridge

as remedy for venereal infections [9]

None found Flavonoids and gallotannins [64], phenolic

and antioxidant activity [65]

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Table 1 Medicinal plants used in south-central Zimbabwe (Continued)

Fabaceae sensu lato

Acacia karroo Hayne Tree Muvunga Root: extract drunk as convulsions

remedy [8]; aphrodisiac, gonorrhoea

and syphilis [9]

Aphrodisiac, convulsions,

gonorrhoea and syphilis [1]

Anti-inflammatory, analgesic [66], antibacterial

[67] and antimicrobial [66] activities

Albizia antunesiana

Harms

Tree Muriranyenze Bark: extract drunk as constipation

remedy [8]. Leaves: extract drunk as

purgative remedy [8]. Roots: extract

drunk as aphrodisiac, diarrhoea,

gonorrhoea and remedy for infertility

in women [8]

Aphrodisiac [1,24],

gonorrhoea,

infertility in women and

as purgative [1]

Anthelmintic activity [15]

Brachystegia boehmii

Taub.

Tree Mupfuti Bark: extract drunk as STI medicine [8] None found Antibacterial activity [13]

Cassia abbreviata Oliv. Shrub Muremberembe Roots: extract drunk as abortion,

aphrodisiac, constipation, diarrhoea

and gonorrhoea medicine [8]

Abortion, aphrodisiac

constipation diarrhoea

and gonorrhoea [1]

Anthraquinones, triterpenoids [68], antibacterial

[55], antimalarial [69] and antiviral [70] activities

Dalbergia melanoxylon

Guill. & Perr.

Shrub Mugwiti Leaves: dried leaves smoked as cigarette

to treat asthma [9]

Bronchitis

and inflammation

in throat

[71]

Antimicrobial activity [72]

Elephantorrhiza goetzei

(Harms) Harms

Shrub Ntorani Roots: extract drunk as abdominal pains,

diarrhoea and gonorrhoea medicine; and

mixed with roots of Piliostigma thonningii

(Schumach.) Milne-Redh. as bilharzia

(schistosomiasis) medicine [8]

Abdominal pains [1,24],

bilharzias, diarrhoea

and gonorrhoea [1]

Anthelmintic activity [15] and stilbenes [73]

Erythrina abyssinica

Lam. ex DC.

Tree Mutiti Bark: extract drunk as backache medicine [8].

Roots: wounds washed with root extract [8]

Backache and wounds in

mouth [1]

Antibacterial [74,75], antifungal [74]and

cytotoxic activities [76]

Indigofera setiflora Baker Herb Ruvavashuro Roots: extract drunk as diarrhoea medicine [9] None found None found

Peltophorum africanum

Sond.

Shrub Muzeze Bark, leaves or root: extract drunk as

syphilis medicine [8]. Roots: extract drunk as

diarrhoea and STI medicine, root extract used

as eye drops for sore eyes and teeth washed

with root decoction as remedy for

toothache [8]

Diarrhoea and toothache

[1], panacea [24] and

venereal diseases

[1,10]

Antibacterial activity [52,77]

Piliostigma thonningii

(Schumach.)

Milne-Redh.

Tree Musekesa Bark, leaves or root: extract drunk as cough

medicine [8]. Leaves:extract drunk as

menorrhagia medicine [8]. Roots: mixed with

roots of Elephantorrhiza goetzei as bilharzia

(schistosomiasis) medicine [8]

Cough and menorrhagia [1] Alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins and tannins;

antibacterial [16], antimicrobial and

antioxidant [78] activities

Pterocarpus

angolensis DC.

Tree Mubvamaropa Bark: extract dropped into ear as earache

medicine, extract drunk as remedy for

menorrhagia [8]. Roots: extract drunk as

remedy for infertility in women [8].

Sap: dropped into sore eyes [8]

Infertility in women and

sore eyes [1]; and

menorrhagia

[1,10]

Antibacterial and cytotoxicity activities [79]

Flacourtiaceae

Flacourtia indica

(Burm. f.) Merr.

Shrub Munhunguru Leaves: leaves browsed by mouth as

diarrhoea medicine [8]

Diarrhoea [1] Antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial,

antioxidant and antimalarial activities [80]

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Table 1 Medicinal plants used in south-central Zimbabwe (Continued)

Hypoxidaceae

Hypoxis obtusa

Ker Gawl.

Herb Nhindiri Bulb: bulb chewed and sap swallowed

as remedy for abdominal pains [9]

Abdominal pains [1] Hypoxoside [81] and obtusaside [82]

Kirkiaceae

Kirkia acuminata Oliv. Tree Mubvumira Bark: extract drunk as diarrhoea, cholera,

dysentery and constipation medicine [9].

Fruits: fruit juice applied to bitten part as

snake antidote and fruit juice applied

on wounds [8]

Diarrhoea and wounds [1] Antibacterial activity [61]

Lamiaceae

Hoslundia

opposita Vahl

Herb Hwahwa hwe shiri Leaves: extract dropped into eyes as

cataract medicine [8]

Cataract [1] Alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins, tannins and

triterpenes [83,84] and antimicrobial activity [85]

Leonotis leonurus

(L.) R.Br.

Herb Mutodzvo Leaves: leaves chewed and sap swallowed

as remedy for ulcers [9]

Sores

and haemorrhoids

[84] Anti-inflammatory, cytotoxic and

hepatoprotective activities [86]

Vitex payos

(Lour.) Merr.

Tree Mutsvubvu Leaves: leaves burnt and smoke inhaled

as cough medicine [8,9]

None found Larvicidal activity [87]

Loganiaceae

Strychnos

cocculoides Bak.

Tree Muzumwi Roots: extract drunk as abdominal pains,

aphrodisiac, gonorrhoea, infertility in men

and sore throat remedy [8]

Abdominal pains and

infertility [1]

Antimalarial activity [88]

Strychnos

madagascariensis

Poir.

Tree Mukwakwa Roots: extract used as eye drops for

sore eyes [8]

None found None found

Strychnos spinosa Lam. Tree Mutamba Roots: extract drunk as remedy for

abdominal pains and gonorrhoea [8].

Fruits: extract drunk as remedy for

gonorrhoea and genital warts [9]

Abdominal pains [1] Sterols and triterpenoids [89]

Malvaceae

Azanza garckeana

(F. Hoffm.) Exell & Hillc.

Tree Mutohwe Roots: extract dropped into the ear as

medicine for earache [8]

Earache

[90] Antimalarial activity [69]

Meliaceae

Ekebergia benguelensis

Welw. ex C.DC.

Tree Mudyavarungu Bark: extract drunk as remedy for infertility

in men [8].

Roots: extract drunk as dysmenorrhea

medicine [8]

Dysmenorrhea and

infertility in men [1]

Stilbenes [91] and triperpenes [92]

Entandrophragma

caudatum (Sprague)

Sprague

Tree Mubanana Fruits: burnt fruit peels mixed with

vaseline and applied

to area affected with genital warts [9]

None found Limonoids [93]

Moraceae

Ficus ingens

(Miq.) Miq.

Tree Mushavhi Roots: extract drunk as cough medicine [8] Fever

[94] Anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties [95]

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Table 1 Medicinal plants used in south-central Zimbabwe (Continued)

Ficus sur Forssk. Tree Muonde Roots: extract drunk as diarrhoea and

syphilis medicine [8]

Diarrhoea in infants [1] Antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, antimalarial

and anti-ulcer activities [96,97]

Ficus sycomorus L. Tree Muonde Roots: extract drunk as cough medicine [8] Tuberculosis

, cold

and

other chest problems

[10]

Antibacterial activity [98], alkaloids, saponins

and tannins [99]

Moringaceae

*Moringa oleifera Lour Shrub Moringa Leaves: extract drunk as diarrhoea

medicine [8]. Roots: teeth washed with root

decoction as remedy for toothache [8]

Digestive disorders [100] Alkaloids and flavonoids, anti-inflammatory,

antioxidant, antimicrobial, antifertility and

anticancer [101] activities

Myrothamnaceae

Myrothamnus

flabellifolius

Welw.

Shrub Rufandichimuka Leaves and twigs: leaves and twigs boiled

and drunk as remedy for cold [9]

Cold

and other chest

complaints

[1,10]

Alkaloids, flavanoids, phenolics, saponins,

steroids and tannins [102], antidiabetic

[103] and antimicrobial [104] activities

Myrtaceae

*Eucalyptus

camaldulensis

Dehnh

Tree Mugamutiri Leaves: extract drunk with Citrus limon fruits

and Psidium guajava L. leaves as cough, flu

and fever medicine [8]

Sore throat

[105] Antiproliferative [106] and antimicrobial [107] activities

*Psidium guajava L. Shrub Mugwavha Leaves: extract drunk with Citrus limon fruits

and Eucalyptus camaldulensis leaves as cough,

flu and fever medicine [8]; infusion of drunk

or taken as an enema for diarrhoea [9]

Fever [1]; cough

[1,11,85]

and diarrhoea

[11,85]

Anti-diarrhoeal [108,109], antibacterial [110,111],

narcotic [109] and antioxidant [112] properties

Syzygium cordatum

Hochst. ex C. Krauss

Tree Mukute Bark: extract drunk as tuberculosis

medicine [9]

Cold

and fever

[10] Antibacterial [52] and antifungal [64] activities

Ochnaceae

Ochna pulchra Hook.f. Shrub Munimu Leaves: leaf sap taken as remedy for

stomach problems [9]

Diarrhoea [1] Antibacterial activity [113]

Olacaceae

Ximenia americana L. Shrub Mutengeni Leaves: extract drunk as backache

medicine [8]

Abdominal pains

[114] Antibacterial [64] and antioxidant [114] activities

Ximenia caffra Sond. Shrub Munhengeni Leaves: extract drunk as backache

medicine [8]. Roots: extract drunk as

aphrodisiac, diarrhoea, venereal diseases; root

powder applied on wounds [8]

Diarrhoea and infertility [1];

and venereal diseases

[1,10]

Flavonoids, phenolic and tannins;

and antimicrobial activity [115]

Pedaliaceae

Dicerocaryum

zanguebarium

(Klotzsch) Abels

Herb Ruredzo Whole plant: plant foam inserted into

vagina to dilate birth canal [9]

To dilate birth canal [1] and

expulsion of placenta

[10]

Cytotoxic activity [116]

Polygalaceae

Securidaca

longepedunculata

Fresen.

Shrub Mufufu Roots: extract drunk as epilepsy medicine

and mixed with roots of Annona stenophylla

and sprinkled around homestead as

snake repellent [8]

Epilepsy [1] and snake

repellent [24]

Analgesic, anti-inflammatory, hypoglycaemic

[117] and antimalarial [88] activities

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Table 1 Medicinal plants used in south-central Zimbabwe (Continued)

Pteridaceae

Pellaea sp. Fern Mudziwebwe Leaves and roots: leaves and roots burnt

and smoke inhaled as remedy for chest

pains [9]

None found None found

Rhamnaceae

Berchemia discolor

(Klotzsch) Hemsl.

Tree Nyii Roots: extract drunk as abdominal

pains medicine [8]

General body pains [1] Antimicrobial activity [118] and flavonoids [119]

Ziziphus mucronata

Willd.

Tree Muchecheni Fruits and leaves: powder applied on

boils [8]. Roots: extract drunk as abdominal

pains, infertility in women medicine and

root

powder applied on wounds [8]

Skin infections and wounds

[1]; body pains

and infertility

in women

[10]; boils

, sores

and swellings

[11]

Anthelmintic [15] and antimicrobial [120] activities

Rosaceae

*Prunus persica L. Tree Mupichisi Leaves: extract drunk as diarrhoea

medicine [22]

None found Antimicrobial, antioxidant [121]; anti-tumour promoter

and anti-Oketsu syndrome [122] effects

Rubiaceae

Crossopteryx febrifuga

(Afzel. ex G. Don)

Benth.

Shrub Mukomberwa Bark: added to porridge as remedy for

diarrhoea and dysentery [9]

Diarrhoea

and

dysentery

[123]

Alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins, steroids, tannins

and terpenoids [124], anti-inflammatory and

antimicrobial activities [125]

Vangueria infausta

Burch.

Tree Mudzvirungombe Roots: extract drunk as diarrhoea

medicine [8]

Diarrhoea [1] Flavonoids, antibacterial [126,127],

antimalarial [88] and antifungal [126] activities

Rutaceae

*Citrus limon

(L.) Burm. f.

Tree Mulemoni Fruit: extract of fruit, Eucalyptus

camaldulensis and Psidium guajava leaves

drunk as cough, flu and fever medicine [8]

Throat infections

and tonsil

[128]

Analgesic, intestinal mucosa protector

and antiseptic [128]

Solanaceae

*Nicotiana tobacum L. Herb Fodya Leaves: snuff applied on wounds [8] Wounds [1] Cytotoxic activity [129] and steroidal glycosides

[130]

*Solanum incanum L. Shrub Nhundurwa Fruits: child bathed with fruit macerate

as remedy for scabies [9]

Rash

, ringworm

skin infections

and warts

[131]

Saponins; antibacterial, cytotoxicity [16],

antioxidant and cytoprotective [132] activities

Tiliaceae

Corchorus tridens L. Herb Derere Roots: extract drunk as backache

medicine [8]

None found Flavonoids and microbial activity [133]

Grewia bicolor Juss. Shrub Mutewa Roots: extract drunk as diarrhoea and

gonorrhoea medicine [8]

Diarrhoea

[10] Alkaloids, triterpenoids and antibacterial activity [134]

Grewia flavescens Juss. Shrub Mubhubhunu Roots: extract drunk as menorrhagia

medicine [8]

Inducing labour

infertility

and

impotence

[10]

Triterpenoids [101]

Grewia monticola Sond. Shrub Mutewa Diarrhoea [1] None found

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Table 1 Medicinal plants used in south-central Zimbabwe (Continued)

Roots: extract drunk as diarrhoea

medicine [8]

Urticaceae

Pouzolzia mixta Solms Shrub Munanzwa Roots: extract instilled into the vagina to

dilate birth canal; extract drunk as STI

medicine and root powder applied

on wounds [8]

To dilate birth canal

[1,24] and venereal

diseases [1]

Antibacterial activity [52]

Verbenaceae

*Lantana camara L. Shrub Mbarambati Leaves: leaf sap applied on body parts

infected with ring worm [9]

Eye injuries

[10] Antibacterial [13] and antimalarial [88]

activities; flavonoids and triterpenes [135]

Lippia javanica

(Burm.f.) Spreng.

Shrub Zimbani Leaves and twigs: boiled leaves and twigs

drunk as remedy for cough and cold [9]

Cold and cough [1,10,24] Antimicrobial activity [136]

Vitaceae

Ampelocissus africanus

(Lour.) Merr.

Climber Muzambiringa Roots: extract drunk as diarrhoea

medicine [8]

Stomach troubles

[137] Antibacterial activity [138]

Ampelocissus obtusata

(Welw. ex Baker) Planch.

Climber Muzambiringa Roots: extract drunk as diarrhoea

medicine [8]

Gastro-intestinal

complaints

[137]

Antibacterial activity [138]

Zingiberaceae

*Zingiber officinale

Roscoe

Herb Tsangamidzi Roots: roots chewed and swallowed as

remedy for stomach pains [9]

Digestive disorders

[139] Antimicrobial [16], anti-inflammatory,

immuno-modulatory and anti-emetic

[140] activities

An asterisk (*) indicates that the taxon is known or believed to be exotic to Zimbabwe and hatch (#) indicates similar use(s) in other countries reported from literature.

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(4 species each). Fabaceae, Anacardiaceae and Euphorbi-

aceae families have the highest number of species used as

herbal medicines probably because these are large families

characterized by several species. The rest of the families

were represented by one species each (Table 1). The gen-

era with highest number of species were Ficus, Grewia,

Searsia and Strychnos with 3 species each.

Growth habit and parts used

Trees and shrubs (38% each) are the primary sources of

the medicinal plant species in south-central Zimbabwe,

followed by herbs (21%) and climbers (3%) (Figure 2A).

Extensive use of trees and shrubs in south-central

Zimbabwe in preparation of herbal medicines might be

linked to their availability throughout the year as they

are relatively drought resistant and are not affected by

seasonal variations [8]. The plant parts used for making

herbal preparations were the bark, bulbs, fibre, fruits,

leaves, rhizomes, roots, sap, seeds, twigs and whole

plant. The roots were the most frequently used (61.3%),

followed by leaves (32.3%), bark (12.9%), fruits (9.7%),

sap (5.4%), bulbs, twigs and whole plant (2.2% each),

fibre, seeds and rhizomes (1.1% each) (Figure 2B). The

use of whole plant as remedy was administered for herb-

aceous plant species (Table 1). However, harvesting of

roots of herbaceous plants for medicinal purposes is not

sustainable as it threatens the survival of the same plants

used to treat human ailments in south-central Zimbabwe.

It is well recognized by conservationists that medicinal

plants primarily valued for their root parts and those

which are intensively harvested for their bark often tend

to be the most threatened by over-exploitation [141].

Ailments and diseases treated and herbal preparation

The majority of the plant species used (61.3%) had a single

therapeutic use, with 19 species (20.4%) used in the treat-

ment of two ailments, 6 species (6.5%) treating three ail-

ments, 5 species (5.4%) treating four ailments, 3 species

(3.2%) treating five ailments and Albizia antunesiana used

to treat six ailments (Table 1). A total of 18 medical condi-

tions were treated using remedies made from medicinal

plants (Figure 3). Gastro-intestinal disorders, sexually

transmitted infections, cold, cough and sore throat and gy-

naecological problems were treated with the highest num-

ber of medicinal plant species (Figure 3). Gastro-intestinal

disorders, particularly cholera, diarrhoea and dysentery

are a major concern not only in south-central Zimbabwe

but the whole country and; in Mozambique as well, where

dysentery and cholera usually result in high mortality rate

if not treated promptly [142]. Sexually transmitted infec-

tions are a major public health concern in developing

countries with their transmission rate regarded as one of

the highest in the world [143]. Sexually transmitted infec-

tions are one of the most common reasons for people to

use herbal medicines and visit traditional healers in

Zimbabwe [1,4,8].

Plant remedies were often utilized in the form of ex-

tracts (76.3%), sap (11.8%) and powder (6.5%) (Table 1).

Other preparation methods included paste, chewing the

raw plant and inhaling smoke or vapour generated by

burning some of the medicinal plant species. Most of

the preparations (69.9%) were prescribed orally in warm

water or soft porridge (Table 1). Herbal preparation

methods and dosage depend on the type of disease. Some

plants were boiled while others were applied directly in

fresh form. Some herbal medicines were applied topically,

either as bath, massage or lotion. For example, the use of

burnt fruit peels of Entandrophragma caudatum which

were mixed with vaseline and applied on genital areas af-

fected with genital warts [9]. The herbal prescriptions

were usually given to patients until patients reported posi-

tive results.

Monotherapy preparations made from a single plant

species were the most dominant (92.5%); 4.3% and 3.2%

of the herbal concoctions were prepared from a combin-

ation of two and three species respectively. Those that

involved the use of two species included mixing roots of

Annona stenophylla and Securidaca longipedunculata as

snake repellent [8]. Roots of Elephantorrhiza goetzei and

Piliostigma thonningii were used as remedy for bilharzia

(schistosomiasis) [8]. Water extract of Eucalyptus

Table 2 Families with the largest number of medicinal

plants (more than 2 species) in south-central Zimbabwe

Family Number of medicinal plants %

Fabaceae sensu lato 11 11.8

Anacardiaceae 9 9.7

Euphorbiaceae 7 9.5

Asteraceae 4 4.3

Ebenaceae 4 4.3

Tiliaceae 4 4.3

Apocynaceae 3 3.2

Asparagaceae 3 3.2

Lamiaceae 3 3.2

Loganiaceae 3 3.2

Moraceae 3 3.2

Myrtaceae 3 3.2

Meliaceae 2 2.2

Olacaceae 2 2.2

Rhamnaceae 2 2.2

Rubiaceae 2 2.2

Solanaceae 2 2.2

Verbenaceae 2 2.2

Vitaceae 2 2.2

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camaldulensis leaves, Citrus limon fruits and Psidium

guajava leaves was taken as a cure for cough, flu and

fever [8]. The use of multiple therapies in traditional

medicine based on combining plants has recently been

shown to increase the efficacy of the herbal medicine

[144]. According to Bussmann and Sharon [145], the use

of more than one plant species to prepare a remedy for

ailments is attributed to the additive or synergistic ef-

fects that they could have during ailment treatment.

Literature based proof of biological and pharmacological

activities

Out of 93 medicinal plants used in south-central

Zimbabwe, 83 species (89.2%) have proven biological

and pharmacological activities (Table 1). The presence of

these active ingredients in herbal medicines is directly

linked to their ability to prevent or treat ailments. Ana-

lysis of the biological and pharmacological activity data

(Table 1) shows the wide variety of biological activity of

plants used as herbal medicines in south-central

Zimbabwe; and the presence of these active ingredients

in utilized plants as herbal medicines corroborates the

popular traditional knowledge and medicinal uses of the

documented plants. The identification of biologically ac-

tive compounds in herbal medicines needs to be

interpreted in the light of the traditional uses of the

plants as well as herbal medicine preparation and dosage

[146]. It is worth mentioning that most of these activ-

ities, mainly the antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, anti-

parasitic and analgesic properties; and the presence of

Figure 2 Characteristics of the plants used as herbal medicines in south-central Zimbabwe. (A) Growth form habit represented in pie

diagram and (B) plant parts used represented in bar chart.

Figure 3 Major ailments and disease categories and plant species reported. Most species were reported in more than one ailment category.

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alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins and tannins confirm the

different popular applications of extracts obtained from

traditional medicines.

The majority (82.8%) of the 93 plant species used as

traditional medicines in south-central Zimbabwe have

similar applications in other regions of Zimbabwe as

well as other parts of the world (Table 1). The medicinal

uses of 49 species (52.7%) are supported by reports of

similar uses elsewhere in Zimbabwe and 40 species (43%)

have similar uses in the other parts of the world (Table 1).

Such similarities in the cross-cultural usage of the trad-

itional plant remedies are a strong indication of the bio-

activity potential of the documented plant species. The

following 16 medicinal species (17.2%) appear not to be

popular for the ethno medicinal uses documented in

Zimbabwe: Androstachys johnsonii (aphrodisiac), Brachy-

stegia boehmii (sexually transmitted infections), Bridelia

mollis (cough), Carissa bispinosa (cough and diarrhoea),

Coleochloa setifera (pneumonia), Commiphora marlothii

(sexually transmitted infections), Corchorus tridens (back-

ache), Entandrophragma caudatum (genital warts),

Indigofera setiflora (diarrhoea), Pellaea sp. (chest pains),

Prunus persica (diarrhoea), Searsia dentata (ulcers, diar-

rhoea and stomach problems), Searsia pyroides (cough),

Spirostachys africana (venereal infections), Strychnos

madagascariensis (sore eyes) and Vitex payos (cough)

(Table 1). These findings of new ethno medicinal plant

uses in south-central Zimbabwe shows the importance

of the documentation of such traditional indigenous

knowledge. Some of these species can therefore be

targeted for phytochemical and pharmacological studies

with the aim of identifying active ingredients contained

by such plants resulting in them having unique thera-

peutic uses.

This review showed substantial commonality in the

general use of medicinal plants in south-central

Zimbabwe, the other regions of Zimbabwe and the rest

of the world. For example, ten plant species used to treat

at least four ailments in south-central Zimbabwe include

Albizia antunesiana (six ailments), Annona stenophylla

(four ailments), Cassia abbreviata (five ailments),

Elephantorrhiza goetzei (four ailments), Flueggea virosa

(four ailments), Kirkia acuminata (five ailments),

Peltophorum africanum (four ailments), Pterocarpus

angolensis (four ailments), Sansevieria hyacinthoides

(five ailments), Strychnos cocculoides (five ailments) and

Ziziphus mucronata (four ailments) (Table 1). With the

exception of Sansevieria hyacinthoides, the other nine

species have been documented by Gelfand et al. [1] as

valuable medicinal plants in most regions of Zimbabwe

with at least six medicinal applications each. Literature

search showed that the roots of Albizia antunesiana are

widely used in tropical Africa to treat abdominal pains,

cuts, depressed fontanelle in infants, gonorrhoea and

other sexually transmitted diseases, infertility in women,

painful and swollen legs, pneumonia, prevent abortion,

sore eyes, sore throat, tonsillitis, tuberculosis and ulcers

[147]. A bark infusion of Albizia antunesiana is taken to

treat constipation and applied externally to cuts; whereas

crushed leaves are used as an enema for their purgative

action and as a dressing to treat oedema of the legs

[147]. Previous research by Gelfand et al. [1] showed

wide use of Annona stenophylla in traditional medicine

in Zimbabwe. Infusion of Annona stenophylla root or

bark is used to treat abdominal pains, boils, chest pains,

constipation, diarrhoea, dysmenorrhea, hiccoughs, oedema,

sexually transmitted diseases and sprains [1]. All plant

parts of Cassia abbreviata are used in tropical Africa to

treat gastro-intestinal disorders, bilharzia, diarrhoea, dys-

menorrhea, eye problems, haematuria, headache, malaria,

pneumonia, snakebites, toothache and venereal diseases

[68]. Decoction of all plant parts of Cassia abbreviata are

used as aphrodisiac, abortifacient, purgative, tonic and

vermifuge [68]. Root infusion of Elephantorrhiza goetzei is

widely used in Zimbabwe as remedy for abdominal pains,

backache, bilharzia, constipation, depressed fontenelle,

diarrhoea and gonorrhea [1]. Flueggea virosa is an im-

portant medicinal plant in tropical Africa, used for the

treatment of a wide variety of ailments, alone or in com-

bination with other plants. All plant parts of Flueggea

virosa are used to treat frigidity, liver, bile, kidney, tes-

ticular inflammation, sterility, urinary and venereal dis-

eases [56]. All plant parts of Kirkia acuminata are used

in traditional medicine in Zimbabwe as herbal medicine

for abdominal pains, antidote, cough, emetic and

wounds [1]. The bark and root extracts of Peltophorum

africanum are traditionally used in southern Africa to

treat acute and chronic pains, boosting resistance to

diseases, depression, diarrhoea, dysentery, infertility,

intestinal parasites and wounds [84]. The bark of

Pterocarpus angolensis is widely used in tropical Africa

as an astringent to treat diarrhoea, heavy menstruation,

nose bleeding, headache, stomachache, schistosomiasis,

sores and skin problems [148]. Leaves, rhizomes and

roots of Sansevieria hyacinthoides are widely used in

tropical Africa to treat ear infections, haemorrhoids, in-

testinal worms, measles, prevention of miscarriage,

sexually transmitted infections, stomach disorders,

toothache and ulcers [31]. All plant parts of Strychnos

cocculoides are widely used in Zimbabwe to treat ab-

dominalpains,amenorrhoea,cough,diarrhoea,gonor-

rhea, hydrocele, infertility, sore eyes and sore throat [1].

Medicines obtained from infusion of the roots, bark,

leaves and/or fruits of Ziziphus mucronata are used to

treat bilharzia, boils, chronic cough, depressed fonta-

nelle, diarrhoea, dysmenorrhoea, infertility in women,

menorrhagia, oedema, pneumonia, snake bite, tooth-

ache, venereal diseases and wounds [1].

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Future research and perspectives

This review showed that local people in south-central

Zimbabwe rely on traditional medicines to treat a wide

spectrum of human ailments and are knowledgeable

about the identities and applications of medicinal plants.

Many people in south-central Zimbabwe are still

dependent on medicinal plants, at least for the treatment

of basic human ailments like cold, cough, diarrhoea,

fever, skin infections, sexually transmitted infections,

sore eyes and tooth infections. Data collected in the

present review illustrates that gastro-intestinal disorders

and sexually transmitted infections are treated with the

highest number of medicinal plant species. These

findings correlate strongly with observations made by

Ribeiro et al. [142] that cholera, diarrhoea and dysentery

are a major concern in Mozambique and southern

Africa as well as findings made by Van Vuuren and

Naidoo [143] that sexually transmitted infections are a

major public health concern in developing countries.

Reports of similar medicinal applications of the docu-

mented plants in south-central Zimbabwe, other regions

of Zimbabwe and the rest of the world indicate that

these species are valuable sources of ethnomedicines.

This comparative analysis strengthens the firm belief

that traditional indigenous knowledge represent not

only an important heritage, developed over the centur-

ies, but also considerable mass of data that should be

exploited in order to provide new and useful knowledge

on plant resources. It is therefore, necessary to preserve

this indigenous knowledge on traditional medicines by

proper documentation, identification of plant species

used, herbal preparation and dosage. This inventory will

assist future workers on the selection of herbal plants to

evaluate for phytochemical safety and pharmaceutical

efficacy. There is also need for more research on the ac-

tive compounds of these herbal medicines, some of

which have already shown interesting biological and

pharmacological activities as shown in Table 1. There is

need to establish the link between the biological activity

and particular compounds responsible for the wide use

of these medicinal plants. The documented indigenous

knowledge in south-central Zimbabwe and available sci-

entific literature strongly suggests that at least some of

the plants used as herbal medicines can be potential

sources of newer drugs.

At the present moment, phytochemistry and pharma-

cological analysis of traditional medicines occupy a key

position in medicinal plant research and indigenous know-

ledge systems. Sharing of such knowledge is crucial for

maintaining options for the use of traditional medicines,

particularly as use of alternative medicine is growing be-

cause of its moderate costs and increasing faith in herbal

medicines. Significant levels of global knowledge on con-

ventional pharmaceuticals originated from indigenous

traditional knowledge. For example, many of the con-

ventional drugs available on the market today have a

long history of use as traditional medicines, among them

are aspirin, opium and quinine. While south-central

Zimbabwe is endowed with a strong culture of herbal

medicine usage for primary health care, there is need to

standardize the drug preparation, dosage and route of

administration. Validating the correlations of the ethno

medicinal uses, bioactive substances, biological and

pharmacological effects is of special importance and is

still the primary task for future research. Efforts are also

needed to investigate the physiological and biochemical

functions demonstrated by these species, identifying the

individual bioactive natural products and illustrate their

mechanisms of action.

Like most African countries, Zimbabwe is an import-

ant repository of medicinal plants usage in primary

healthcare. This is reflected in the great diversity of

plants used for medicinal purposes in south-central

Zimbabwe as well as in the wide range of their applica-

tions and associated traditional medicine procedures.

There is a growing upsurge in demand for traditional

medicines in Zimbabwe for various human ailments. As

demand for medicinal plants continue to accelerate,

awareness creation should be made among local com-

munities to ensure sustainable use and conservation of

the medicinal plants. A collaborative approach for sus-

tainable use, conservation and management of medicinal

plants should be put into place and involve all stake-

holders. Communities in south-central Zimbabwe

should be actively involved in plant resource manage-

ment as they depend on these natural resources for their

primary healthcare needs. It is hoped that this will strike

a balance between meeting their health needs and wise

use of plant resources to ensure sustainable develop-

ment. The most serious threats to medicinal plants, like

any other forms of biodiversity are habitat loss and frag-

mentation, climate change and invasive species. It is not

known whether over-exploitation of medicinal plants is

an issue in south-central Zimbabwe. However, future

studies in south-central Zimbabwe should focus on how

local communities use and manage medicinal plants.

Such studies will help in understanding how local com-

munities relate to the plant resources that they use as

medicines.

Competing interests

The author declares that he has no competing interests.

Authors’contributions

AM conceptualized the study and wrote the manuscript. The author read

and approved the final manuscript.

Acknowledgements

The author would like to thank four anonymous reviewers for their

constructive comments.

Maroyi Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013, 9:31 Page 14 of 18

http://www.ethnobiomed.com/content/9/1/31

Received: 12 February 2013 Accepted: 6 April 2013

Published: 4 May 2013

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doi:10.1186/1746-4269-9-31

Cite this article as: Maroyi: Traditional use of medicinal plants in

south-central Zimbabwe: review and perspectives. Journal of

Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 9:31.

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