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196505 196505

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Guiding "Early Bird" at Com sat's Control Center

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May, 1965

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AlIFO ~

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Navajo Freight Lines takes the shortest route to faster billing

Navajo Freight Lines, Inc., uses Bell System
Data-Phone* service to speed some 4000 bills a day.
At originating terminals, freight bills are cut on
35 ASR teletypewriter machines. Copies of the bills and an
8-channel by-product tape are produced simultaneously.
The tape is then transmitted over telephone lines
at 1050 words per minute (or a bill every 3 seconds)
to destination terminals and to Navajo headquarters in Denver.
At the destination terminals, tapes are inserted
in 35 ASR teletypewriters which produce delivery copies
of the freight bills.
At the same time in Denver, tapes are processed through
a magnetic tape converter direct to computers which
check for accuracy and produce copies of bills for preaudit.
Circle No. 1 on Readers Service Card

This operation has made substantial savings for
Navajo Freight. Billing steps have been reduced
from 10 to 4. Accounting now takes just 2 days
instead of 8. Current revenue figures are
always available to Navajo management within 24 hours.
Find out how Data-Phone service can work
for your data systems by talking with one of our
Communications Consultants. Just call your
Bell Telephone Business Office and ask for his services.
*Service mark of the Bell System

~.'~ Bell

System

American Telephone and Telegraph Co. and Associated Companies

Circle No. 5 on Readers Service Card----t

Activities at S's anned
Space enter in ouston, Texas,
represent both achallen eand
apro ise. Project polio ill
. be atched by responsible
persons every here. Wolf
Research and Development Corp.
is playin a.key role in this
assive undertakin . Would
,.-------,~ you like to join us?
SCIENTIFIC PROGRAMMERS Our
biggest need right now is for Senior,
Junior and Support Programmers for
compilation, analysis and evaluation of
information vital to NASA in Houston.
A minimum of two years' programming
experience with large-scale computers
and a BS or SA in Math, Physics or
Engineering are required. Write.

'61111'

,.tlJ!:"

~,...""

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WOLF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT CORPORATION
Yc=J

BOX 36 K

•

BAKER AVENUE •

WEST CONCORD •

MASS. 01781

an equa/·opportunity employer

Circle No. 20 on Readers Service Card

COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for May, 1965

3

AN OFF-BIT HISTORY OF MAGNETIC TAPE.

Pompey the Great, who considered himself a great innovator in the art of warfare, often boasted that he had
introduced the use of pigeons as airborne messengers.
(Actually, he had borrowed the idea from a cashiered
Chinese general named Ho Ming - which explains why
they are known by that name and notas Pompey Pigeons.)
"You can have your new-fangled computers," he
would scoff at Caesar. "Pigeons are the last word in
modern communications!"
"Want to bet?" Caesar asked him one day.
"Name the stakes I" said Pompey.
Answered Caesar: "How about the Roman Empire?"
"You're on!" Pompey shouted.
And so the great struggle between the two took place,
with Rome itself as the prize.
If you remember your Gibbon, you know what hap"Reg. T.M. Computron Inc

0

•

#6 of a series by Computape

o

pened. Caesar's legions and his data processing equipment triumphed, and Pompey's boast came home to
roost. After the crushing victory of the pro-processing
forces over the pro-pigeon wing, Caesar dramatically
celebrated his triumph by installing his computers
directly at the base of Pompey's statue - as if to demonstrate to all the world which of the two had been right,
and which had been for the birds.
This fascinating bit of tape history, incidentally, is
presented for your edification by Computape, and the
moral of the whole bit is crystal clear:
Computape is heavy-duty tape so carefully made that it
delivers 556, or 800, or (if you want) 1,000 bits per inch with no dropout.
Now - if Computape can write that kind of computer
tape history - shouldn't you be using it?

(+J

CDMPUTRDN INC.
MEMBER OF THE

lID£~W GROUP

122 CALVARY STREET, WALTHAM, MASSACHUSETTS

COMPUTAPE -

4

product of the first company to manufacture magnetic tape tor computers and instrumentation, exclusively.
Circle No. 2 on Readers Service Card

COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for May, 1965

As the Early Bird satellite goes up,
the control staff of Commercial Satellite Corporation
analyzes calculations produced by computer
describing the satellite's precise position in space.
See more information on page 49.

©(Q)um~~~~[FJ§

cSHill@ CEJ (!J]~(Q) UlFLl ..·ng the g'ap between the

4, ....

:• w's Model 780 by adding or
are Models 760 and
and the ultimate.

':::::p,~l.;ween

~~~i~1~~~ Design"

of the 700 Sysleills:/na
conlputing systems, including '.
are cOlnpatible with the current

r.ftf"~kl!I~[lJur
"~hiD7i'·:rl.'c>n

areupgrading
upgraded of
to data
Ilwet proce~s~sl~';n~g~~s~r~Y~S~'tm~t~~~~~l~~~;
cha
~~i~~~::delns
can be converted
sinlultalleousLY~

Tl1te>,(':m~t

of upgrading one model to another am()lJnts

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~'~!'I~Jlist
price. plus the cost of. a service~an. ~~ri~~f~~~ij;~1~~'~1
,~
lished in the field by Calcomp seh.rice representa
W

PLOTTING SYSTEMS ·.ARE

C'Qtl¢J'Jm:p plotting systems are ltsedt() pre~¢ntcligital cOlnPlfter

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'\annoulred charts, g r a o r draW'rzgs. The,)systems
.
.
...
to Calcomp plotters.
vides display aij(J search

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rovides display and search,
S COlllputer time required
700 series plotters and introduces
and/or .01 inches) and ZIP MODE® caparill it finer plotting resolution at advanced speeds.
Model
provides all of the features of the 770 plus the ability
to read higher density tape, and increases conlputer efficiency by
packing more data per inch of tape.
For additional features of the "700 Systenls," their advantages over
other digital systems,. and their capabilities - one compared with
another - write "Marketing."
BOOTH 24
IFIPS • May 24-28
New York HILTON

STANDARD

OF

CALIFORNIA COMPUTER PRODUCTS, INC.

THE

PLOTTING

INDUSTRY

305 Muller Avenue, Anaheim, California (714) 774·9141

Circle No, 6 on Readers Service Card

10

COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for May, 1965

c&a
READERS' & EDITOR'S FORUM

REGARDING A NATIONAL
COMPUTER FACILITY
I.

From E. L. Harder, Chairman

Board of Covernors
American Federation of Information Processing Societies
New York, N. Y. 10017

In regard to your suggestion in the January, 1965 Computers and Automation editorial, that AFIPS initiate the
planning studies for a national computer facility, I have
discussed this with the heads of the AFIPS societies, and
offer the following commen t:
A national computer facility certainly appears desirable
and necessary. However, the dimensions of this project are
such that actual "planning" for such a facility would require
the active participation and support of the Federal Government. I believe the proper role of the professional societies
at the moment is to attempt to define the nature of the
problem and to serve as a catalyst to encourage the Government to take the necessary starting steps for establishment
of this facility.

II.

From the Editor

We are delighted that the "professional societies" may
"serve as a catalyst to encourage the government to take the
necessary starting steps for establishment of this facility."
If we at Computers and Automation can help, please
ask us.

COMMENTS ON "DECOMPOSITION7 LEAGUE BOOTS FOR LINEAR
PROGRAM M I NG"
John S. Bonner
Bonner and Moore Associates, Inc.
Houston 2, Texas

This letter is in reply to some points raised by Dr. Jack
Moshman in his article "Decomposition-7 League Boots
for Linear Programming" appearing in the February, 1965
issue of Computers and Automation.
D.r. Moshman implies that, until the rec~nt availability
of the CEIR Decomposition program, the problem-solving
capabilities of the Decomposition principle could not be
used. The Bonner & Moore Decomposition LP system for
the IBM 7094 (incidentally, the first such system to apply
the acronym DECOMP) was released in the first quarter
of 1962, more than three years ago.
Dr. Moshman repeatedly implies that the principal value
COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for May, 1965

COMPUTER ART CONTEST
In our August issue, we shall publish the results
of a competition which we run each year in art produced
by a computer.
We invite entries
from anyone interested.
A letter should accompany the art, explain
what problem led to it,
and in a few sentences
how the computer produced the result. There
are no other formalities.
The closing date for receipt of entries in our
office is Monday, July
5, 1965.

The art winning the contest
will become the front cover for
our August issue.
Next to these words appear
the winners of the computer art
contests in our last two August
issues.

of Decomposition is in 'permitting the solution of bigger
and better LP problems. This attitude completely overlooks what may well be a far more valuable ability, that of
permitting the application of different computational techniques to different segments of the problem. The Bonner &
Moore system, for example, permits both linear programming and distribution subproblems. This latter type permits individual subproblems with as many as five thousand
equivalent equations,. and over a half million variables
within a single subproblem, provided that certain stylized
requirements of subproblem structure are met. These requirements are characteristic of a large and important group
of industrial problems, those involving supply and distribution networks. The important characteristic of the Decomposition principle which Dr. Moshman appears to overlook
is that it is possible to include these specialized structures
in the same problem with conventional LP structures (and
possibly other specialized techniques) and utilize for each
a spccializcd calculation procedure.

11

Finally, there appears to be something of a contradiction
between the first two paragraphs of the article. In the first
paragraph, Dr. Moshman implies that the application of
linear programming has been restricted in the past to large
companies involved in complex industrial processes, with
the further implication that a large, untapped source of
application among smaller, less sophisticated users exist.
The balance of the article is devoted to a description of a
method of permitting the solution of still larger and more
complex problems.

MORE COMMENTS ON "COMPUTERS AND
THE PUBLIC SECTOR OF THE ECONOMY"
I.

From Elton Ray
Los Angeles, Calif.

Your excellent February editorial "Computers and the
Public Sector of the Economy" called much needed attention to the vivid contrast between the public and private
sectors of the economy.
Yugoslavia, which has found ways to effectively "privatize"
-introduce competition and profit motivation into previously public industries-with substantial increases in
efficiency and quality, may point the way to an easy, simple,
and permanent solution to the deplorable state of the
public sector of America: "Transfer" as many fields of endeavor as possible from the public to the private sector.
Subways and roads inherently pose a difficult "problem"
of management, no matter who owns and operates them,
because they are "natural monopolies" for reasons of topology. But there is no intrinsic reason why schools, libraries,
and many other presently public services cannot be largely
if not entirely, transferred to the private sector. Indications
are that education, for example, would vastly benefit-witness the fact that a very large percentage of innovations in
education have come from the small fraction of schools that
operate in the private sector. The Liberal Innovator (Box
34718, Los Angeles) has published some rather interesting
and novel ideas along these lines.
To privatize previously public sectors will, in many cases,
require imaginative new approaches in organization. And
data processing and automatic control will certainly find
many new applications.

II.

From Morris C. Matson
Fort Worth, Texas

For the past several years your magazine has provided
me with what I considered to be good, factual, up-to-date
information about the computer field. Having some awareness of your professional stature in the computer industry
I always felt safe in accepting information presented in
your publication.
Several times I have had reservations about your editorial
page. My associates have suggested on occasion that your
thinking was not too good in some non-computer areas and
that we should cancel our subscription. I have always maintained that they misunderstood your position. Today, however, I find myself in complete agreement with them.
What a tragedy it is for a professional man in a technical
field to consider himself qualified to speak in the areas of
physiology, politics, sociology, economics, the construction of
subways, and national defense. For example, I don't think
I have ever read a more ridiculous statement than "Certainly
there is nothing magical or supernatural about the brain of
a man; and certainly once the process of chemically growing brains is understood, much better materials than protoplasm can be found for making them." If there is nothing
supern~tural about the brain then there is nothing super-

12

NOTICE RE
THE COMPUTER DIRECTORY AND BUYERS' GUIDE,
THE REGULAR JUNE ISSUE OF
COMPUTERS AND AUTOMATION

The next issue of "Computers and Automation",
the regular June issue, is our "1965 Annual Computer
Directory and Buyers' Guide".
We have two kinds of subscribers: directory subscribers, and non-directory subscribers. Non-directory
subscribers do not receive the June issue as part of their
subscription. To find out which you are, look at the address label on the cover: if it has *D, you receive the
directory; if it has *N, you do not receive the directory.
For information about receiving the directory or
changing from a non-directory to a directory subscription, please see the information on page 2B.

natural about the human being so why not grow a better
man rather than limit yourself to the brain alone.
The significance of your statement that "Many persons
would eagerly engage in part-time work if they could do
so conveniently," escapes me. What relationship does this
have to the fact that the 5% unemployment rate is fiction?
Do you mean that because I am willing to accept consulting work on a "moonlight" basis that I really ought to be
counted among the unemployed?
Your statement that society must make sure that every
human being has a decent job and/or a decent income is
meaningless. May I ask you what is a decent job or a decent
income or for that matter, what or who is society? Who can
make those decisions for another person? You can't determine what is decent for me and I can't determine what is
decent for you. Please don't try.
As one of your many loyal readers may I respectfully request that in your editorials you stick to a field in which
you are proficient. If you want to preach, then use some
other medium for your platform. Your magazine'S status
as a professional journal will be destroyed by a few more
editorials about New York subways and the fiction in unemploymen t figures.

III.

From the Editor

Thank you for your letter of March 30 in which in a
courteous and friendly way you express strong disagreement with some of the views recently expressed in my editorials.
I am enclosing, from the April issue which you may not
yet have received, some comments and some rebuttal which
deal with the discussion. Also, when you next come to the
Boston area, please consider yourself invited to have lunch
with me; for, to respond to all the points in your letter
would take pages and pages. However I want particularly
to reply now to one of the remarks in your letter: "what a
tragedy it is for a professional man in a technical field to
consider himself qualified to speak in the areas of physiology, politics, sociology, economics, the construction of subways, and national defense."
There are important answers to this remark of yours.
First, it seems to me that the basic purpose of editorials
in any magazine is to help the readers of a magazine get out
of ruts, old ways of thinking and behaving. The world
around us nowadays is full of change and demands fresh
COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for May, 1965

thinking. The more stimulation, the more discussion, the
more argument, the more thought, we who edit Computers
and Automation can stir up with the editorials I write and
check with the other editors-the more ferment there will
be in the field of computers and automation, and the more
good is likely to be produced from that ferment. I believe
the editorials you take issue with stir up ferment.
Second, this particular professional man (myself) has had
a very broad education lasting many years, which has included: (1) an A.B. degree from Harvard College in 1930,
summa cum laude, after a four-year liberal arts course that
included economics, history, and many other subjects; (2)
another degree (F.S.A.) from the Society of Actuaries, representing the passing of 12 professional actuarial examinations (1931-41) including such subjects as investments,
economics, etc.; (3) much travel outside of the United States,
including visiting over 20 countries of this small planet including the Soviet Union, India, Australia, etc.; (4) the
rough and tumble of owning, operating, and managing a
small business from 1948 on, which has stayed solvent and
met every payroll for more than 16 years, which is far beyond the average lifetime for small businesses in the United
States (about 5 years); etc. Therefore, I believe I am to a
small degree qualified to speak up to some extent in many
more fields than just one, computers.
Third, even if a person is not at all professionally trained
in a Subject X, it may well be that Subject X has impinged
on his own personal experiences, and therefore he has firsthand, important information. A mother who has taken
thalidomide on the advice of her doctor and found her
baby born deformed, has had important experience about
the worth of the advice from her doctor and the effectiveness of thalidomide; she can make a proper judgment about
it from her own experience, and has a qualification for
speaking up. A person who has traveled in the subways of
New York, Chicago, Philadelphia, London, Paris, Moscow,
and Sydney, and has looked around him and observed with
his own eyes can make certain judgments about subways
from his own experience, and has a qualification for speaking up.
Of course, there is always a tendency for professionals to
try to be too authoritative; ordinary people must speak up
to counteract this. If the streets of Boston are less well
paved than the streets of London, it is proper for me as an
ordinary person to speak up.
It simply is not true that a man who is a professional in
one field is thereby to be barred from speaking up in another field-to a sensible extent and based on evidence that
he can cite. In this connection, I would like to recommend
highly to you the book "A Nation of Sheep" by former
Navy Captain William J. Lederer, published 1961 by W. W.
Norton & Co., in which he talks about how far Americans
have become sheep in their tendency to shut out their own
assessments and judgments when they should be assessing
and judging for themselves.
Finally, the computer field is really a very strange and
unusual field, if one compares it with many other fields of
science and engineering. The computer field is strange and
unusual because it penetrates into all other fields, like applied mathematics. In fact, computer methods are like
mathematical methods, able to apply in countless places
and with extraordinary advantage all over the spectrum of
human affairs.
Consequently, the computer field requires that persons
who desire to be real experts in computers should have
broad knowledge, cultivated minds, hungry, avid intellects,
and a tendency to speak up, so that they can see better into
all kinds of problems and see ways in which computer techniques can benefit their solution. Computer people are
basically information engineers, persons who are seeking to
engineer information in our world so as to solve problems.
COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for May, 1965

bqu
q[)
BRANDON
APPLIED SYSTEMS, INC.
and

cornl?n!rla~!!J:~
are pleased to offer the third series (Spring,
1965) of

TECHNICAL SEMINARS
IN DATA PROCESSING
- conducted by Brandon Applied Systems, Inc.
sponsored by Computers and Automation
The remaining Seminars are:
"Management Standards for Data Processing"
a 2-day course for managers and senior personnel on management control and standards. This
course is based in part on the book of the same
name, by Dick H. Brandon. (D. Van Nostrand
Company, Inc., Princeton, N.J. 1963.)
New York, N.Y. - May 19, 20
"Computer Selection and Characteristics Analysisll
a 2-day course on techniques used in equipment
selection and the various characteristics of hardware, software and the manufacturers of current
equipment. The course is designed for management personnel with responsibility for equipment
selection.
New York, N.Y. - June 9, 10

"Computer Systems Analysis Techniques"
a new 2-day technical course on the techniques
of systems analysis and computer feasibility
study. This course is designed for .experienced
analysts and supervisory personnel. One seminar:
New York, N.Y. - June 16, 17
These courses are also given in London, Stockholm, and Tel Aviv.
For the Spring 1965 course catalog write or
phone or mail coupon:

BRANDON APPLIED SYSTEMS, INC.
30 East 42nd Street, New York, N.Y. 10017
212·YUkon 6·l518

TO:

Brandon Applied Systems
30 East 42 St.,
New York, N.Y. 10017
Please send me the Spring 1965 course catalog.
My name and address are attached.
Circle No. 9 on Readers Service Card

13

Anyone of these outstanding works (VALUE TO $25.00)
to mark your membership in
THE LIBRARY OF COMPUTER AND INFORMATION SCIENCES

lUlofunc DAU-PlOC£SSltlG SlSUflS \
\WI..
\WI"- ~rt\Oll •

lit".., ... ,.

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you accept-as a gift-a
copy of anyone of the superb reference works described above? We are
making this offer to demonstrate the
advantages of membership in THE
LIBRARY OF COMPUTER AND INFORMA TION SCIENCES, the unique program designed to serve the leaders in
this rapidly expanding, vitally important field.
Real-time responses, market simulation, stochastic systems control, programming languages-these are only
a few of the exciting new developments in the computer sciences that
have brought about a vast amount of
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cut through this maze of materials to
pinpbint the approaches that will be
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Here is where THE LIBRARY OF COMPUTER AND INFORMATION SCIENCES
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Advisory Board (below), the LIBRARY
carefully screens the large number of
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after every fourth Selection.
Selections of THE LIBRARY OF COMPUTER AND INFORMATION SCIENCES
range widely over the field, covering
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• Information Retrieval • Simulation
• Management Information Systems
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By participating in this program, you
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To join, all you need to do is fill in
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Begin membership
with one of these fine
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member's prices
Programming and Coding
Digital Computers
By Philip M. Sherman
A systematic introduction to the most important aspect of computer operation.
Covers the development of the program
and the entire cycle of practical tasksfrom problem analysis to program debugging - which are involved in planning
for and implementing computer application. Many worked examples, practice
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List Price $11.00 Member's Price $7.95
An Introduction to Automatic Computers
By Ned Chapin
A detailed study of what computers can
do, how they operate, what their demands
are, and how results can be achieved. Of-

The Library of Computer and Information Sciences
Editorial Advisory Board
Chairman
ISAAC L. AUERBACH
President and
Technical Director,
Auerbach Corporation
Editorial Director
EDMUND C. BERKELEY
Secretary, Association
for Computing
Machinery (1947-53)

14

Members
JACK BELZER
Professor and Director of
the Knowledge Availability
Systems Center,
University of Pittsburgh
JOHN W. CARR, III
Professor, Moore School
of Electrical Engineering,

ALSTON S_
HOUSEHOLDER
Director, Mathematics
Division, Oak Ridge
National Laboratory
ANDREW D. BOOTH
Dean of Engineering,
University of
Saskatchewan

NED CHAPIN
Data Processing ConSUltant

COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for May, 1965

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Edited by Charles Susskind. The most authoritative survey of
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fers illtiminating.discussion of systems analysis and design, the operational aspects
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Information Storage and Retrieval
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Well-documented and amply illustrated
overview of the entire field of the information sciences. Analyzes the overall
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of quantifying material from diverse
sources.
List Price $11.95 Member's Price $8.75
The Language of Computers
By Bernard A. Galler
A cogent and thoughtful overview of t4e
basic character, design, and operation of a
computer language, emphasizing its problem-solving utility and function. Discusses
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List Price $8.95 Member's Price $6.50
Recent Developments In Information
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Edited by Robert Machol & Paul Gray
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Edited by AnthollY Ralston &
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An illuminating exposition of the most
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COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for May, 1965

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15

'"

Up to 156 billion characters,
or the equivalent of 15,000
reels of tape . . . with four
megacycle readout rate . . .

Available as an auxiliary memory or free-standing with the
MCP-l Memory Centered
Processor . . .
Photostore Disc

People with tapes only get in the way of Itek's new data processing system - the Memory Centered Processor. It offers 100
times more mass random storage capacity than ordinary memory
systems. Unique photo-discs store so much data that your entire
storehouse of magnetic tapes can be placed ON-LINE in one MCP
Digital Library Unit. Each disc holds information equivalent to
two reels of tape (25 mi Ilion characters), and once in reading
position offers 15 millisecond average random access. The serial
readout rate is four million bits .per second. The MCP System

Itek Corp.,

delivers any record in a trillion-bit file in 2.5 seconds maximum,
and any queued ("look-ahead") record in 250 milliseconds.
You will soon be able to see units of the MCP System store,
search, compare, translate, extract, and
edit information at Itek's New York Infor- ~
mation Processing Center. To visit the
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Digital Data Systems Division, 10 Maguire Road, Lexington, Massachusetts 02173, Tel. 617-862-6200
Circle No. 7 on Readers Service Card

16

COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for May, 1965

THE INTERNATIONAL -IMPACT
OF COMPUTERS AND AUTOMATION

Edmund C. Berkeley
Editor~ Computers and Automation

As the Third Congress of the International Federation
for Information Processing opens in May 1965 in New York,
it may be worthwhile to reflect on the force and direction
of computers and automation all over the world, both now
and in the probable future.

Magnitude of the Force
In the twenty years since 1945, the total number of largescale sequence-controlled calculators (1944 language) or
automatic computers (1965 language) installed and operating has gone from two or three to more than 25,000. The
computers made to date represent probably an investment
on the order of fifty billion dollars. The number of computers will soon be more than 50,000, and is likely to rise
continually for many years.
In fact it is not unreasonable to draw an analogy with the
rise and development of the automobile, which amplifies the
traveling power of man's body, and contrast that with the
computer which amplifies the thinking power of man's
mind. In an advanced industrial country the number of
cars is probably between 10 and 30 per hundred persons.
It is reasonable to expect that eventually the number of
computers will be in about the same range, between 10 and
30 per. 100 persons.

Directions of the Force
When we look at the directions of the force of the computer revolution, they seem to be in almost all directions at
once, like an explosion. For the computer is a universal instrument, like language, writing, or books.
An inventory of applications of computers is published in
the Computer Directory issue of Computers and Automation in June of each year. The 1964 list enumerated more
than 700 applications, and in 1965, the list will enumerate
more than 800 applications of computers. But in years to
come it may appear foolish to publish such a list, since it
COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for May, 1965

will go without saying that computers like books will apply
anywhere!

Why?
Thirty years ago who would have forecast that such a
revolutionary development as the automatic computer (and
its application to guide automatic machines, which may be
called automation) would have taken place?
Why has this happened, and why has it happened in this
century?
Looking backward, it seems clear that all the necessary
ingredients were present: punch card calculating machines;
electronics for radio and radar; the analytical engine concepts of Charles Babbage and others; the early calculating
machines like the planimeter and differential analyzer; and
the pressing need for large quantities of calculation. The
electronic computer EN~AC built at Moore School of Electrical Engineering in Philadelphia grew out of these ingredients.
The revolution was enabled to take off and rocket upwards because of the level of engineering in this century.
This achieved great reliability, great speed, and great capacity.
And so most of the time now, people do not need to put
up with arm-chair solutions to difficult problems: instead
the answers can be calculated. We are traveling swiftly
towards the point where most of the language of thought
will be calculable like mathematics.

A Million Times Faster than Previously
It may be argued that computers "can do nothing that
we cannot do ourselves." This argument has been well
answered in an article "Impact of Computers" in the American Mathematical Monthly for February 1965. In it, Richard W. Hamming of Bell Telephone Laboratories, a former
president of the Association for Computing Machinery, says:

17

"Another argument . . . that (computing) machines can do
nothing that we cannot do ourselves ... is true, but also
false. It is like the statement that, regarded solely as a form
of transportation, modern automobiles and aeroplanes are
no different from walking.... The reason the statement is
false is that it ignores the order of magnitude change between'the three modes of transportation: we can walk at
speeds of around 4 miles per hour, automobiles travel typically around 40 miles per hour, while modern jet planes
travel at around 400 miles per hour. Thus a jet plane is
around two orders of magnitude faster than unaided human
transportation, while modern computers are around six
orders of magnitude faster than hand computation. It is
common knowledge that a change by a single order of magnitude may produce fundamentally new effects in most
fields of technology; thus the change by six orders of magnitude in computing has produced many fundamentally
new effects . . . that are being simply ignored when the
statement is made that computers can only do what we
could do for ourselves if we wished to take the time."

Future Trends
The changes that have already happened because of the
computer revolution are relatively few as compared with the
changes that almost certainly will take place in the future.
These changes will result from present visible and conspicuous trends in the field of computers and automation. Among
these trends (besides those mentioned already) are:
1. The cost of computers will decrease greatly, yet their
power will increase.
2. Direct communication among computers will increase
greatly.
3. The difficulty of programming computers will decrease
greatly.
4. Automatic machines equipped with guiding computers (automation) will increase very greatly.
5. The input/output channels of computers will become
much more varied and flexible than they are today.
These trends can be relied upon to keep operating because of big advantages to be gained and the intense forces
of competition in the computer field. Eventually, limitations from natural laws will operate for some of these trends.
For example, the speed of transmission of information inside a computer is limited by the speed of light. But we are
still a long way from being stopped by these limitations.

The Application of Computers to Projects
Crossing National Boundaries
An obvious world-wide area in which computers can be
expected to make great contributions is in the solving of
engineering and environmental problems which affect two
or more nations.
For example, at the present time, a joint development
program involving the Mekong Delta in South East Asia is
being pushed. Four countries are affected, Cambodia, Laos,
Viet N am, and Thailand. Since this is an engineering problem, and there is basic scientific agreement on what needs
to be done, here is an application for computer calculations.
Another world-wide area in which automatic computers
will make a contribution is the control of the weather. Of
course, control of the weather has happened so far in only
a limited way, for example, with silver iodide smoke generators. But as scientific understanding of the weather and computing capacity increase, this achievement ought to become
possible; and the advantages of permanently curing droughts
and floods, providing the right amount of rain at the right
times, are so vast that it is likely that nations will agree to
delegate part of their sovereignty in order to produce these
good results.

18

Many more problems involving two or more nations and
the allocation of resources in equitable ways will be resolved by solutions produced by computers. The application
of comp!icated formulas with great quantities of data is one
of the particular types of problems made to order for a
computer.

The International Flow of Skills
Already technical treatises written in one country enable
persons in other countries to learn and profit from the technical information contained. Similarly, but with an important added gain, computer programs written in one
country and incorporating novel skills can spread to other
countries, enabling the same new skills to be used there also
without human learning. We can predict amazingly quick
progress in the use of new skills, as the magnetic tapes expressing them pass from one country to another.

Libraries and Information
We can expect a great development of communicating
facilities between persons who want certain information and
resources which contain the information. Libraries everywhere will become electrically accessible via computer and
communication links. Such transfer of information will be
both national and international. The international pooling
of information and literature can eventually become very
large and very useful.

International Economic Planning
Computers can also apply usefully in economic planning
between nations, for example, in a trading group such as
the Common Market or the European Free Trading Association. Through computer calculations using techniques"
such as input/output analysis, the countries can decide
which resources and goods they should import and export
and which they should strive to produce or manufacture for
themselves as efficiently as possible.
When this kind of economic planning later becomes extended on a world-wide basis, one can envision a world-wide
trade association helping to guide and increase world-wide
trade with the aid of computers. This would lead towards
a degree of economic planning and allocation of resources
and manufacturing power among national and private interests, so that economic prosperity would be increased for
all, and presently less developed nations would much more
rapidly achieve higher standards of living for their people.

The Reconciling of Conflicts
It seems to me, however, that one of the largest contributions that can occur from the use of computers in the international field is in the reconciling of conflicts. Conflicts
mean waste, destruction, and often death. They have two
basic sources: reason and emotion. Emotion stars in the old
prove~b: "there are none so blind as those that will not
see"; and reason stars in the old proverb: "where there is
a will, there is a way." There comes a time in many conflicts when emotion like a, flame dies down and starts to go
out; a desire to settle the conflict and get on with other
business develops; and the stage is then set for reason. Each
contender then often finds that the information that he has
been using is woefully different from the information that
the other contender has been using; they should be able to
call on computers to put together an acceptable joint basis
of factual information, and a variety of proposals for settlement of the conflict. It would be highly desirable that the
negotiations and treaties that end conflicts should be as good
as possible, so that they do not, if possible, lead to more
conflicts in the future. Such a requirement means a thorough

(Please turn to page 21)
COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for May, 1965

SMALL COMPUTERS:
A BILLION DOLLAR MARKET BY 1970?

Rudy C. Stiefel
President
lnfotmn~ Inc.
New York~ N. Y. 10021

During the last two decades, computers have become
larger and faster. Some of the top manufacturers fight for
the honor of having the "fastest" or the "largest" computer
in the world.
The trend is now reversing quietly. More and more, customers ask, "How small a computer can do my job?" This
partly reflects the much-heralded miniaturization of electronic components but also, and more fundamentally, the
transition of the computer industry from a pioneering status
to one with a sound economic basis where profitability and
low cost are paramount. It also represents the transition
from "centralized," high-priced units to "decentralized"
computers and systems-thus opening a potential mass market.
What accounts for the advance in small computers? Primarily it is the trend toward automated circuitry lowering
production costs of logical components and their connections, and the resulting ability to mass-produce entire arithmetic functions and units.
While previously an arithmetic- unit was a major investment and everything had to be designed around it-due
to its complexity and expense-it is now usually overshadowed in business applications by the input and output
considerations. Now it is possible to economically produce
multiple arithmetic units allowing individual computations
to be done in parallel and in different locations.

How Small Will Computers Become?
There is no definite limit in sight at this moment to how
COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for May, 1965

small computers will become. In computer technology,
small currents are usually sufficient to produce correct and
useful information; and smallness often implies economy.
Computers are already small enough to become a part of
such mundane devices as cash registers, time clocks, typewriters, and other mass-produced machines.
Computer circuitry will eventually be a part of so many
devices that people will often be unaware of its presence.
However, the dimensions of computer circuits will not
diminish continuously. While there are good reasons to
decrease the dimensions between components or their "deposited" equivalents as computing speeds increase, optimum
dimensions will eventually evolve which will allow reasonable speeds while still providing efficiency in production,
checking and maintenance. Also, for thermal reasons, a decrease in ·dimensions is usually accompanied with a decrease
in computing power, thus decreasing signal-to-noise ratios.
While some of the "noise" is "home-made" within the computer, a limit eventually will be reached below which it is
not economical any more to shield the minute signals from
outside interference.
Considering all the pros and cons regarding miniaturization, the circuitry will probably settle on flat configurations
of sufficient size to be easily handled with simple, common
tools and to be readily recognizable by the unaided eye. The
fiat, "two-dimensional" shape maintains minimum volume,
yet allows ample and efknive space for wnnections.

19

How Slow Will Computers Become?

How Much Programming?

Until recently most manufacturers of computers were
concerned with how fast a computer could work. The bulk
of future users, however, could hardly care less about the
internal computing speed. All they are concerned with is
the question: Can the device or the system do my job more
efficiently and economically than it is being done now? The
answer must naturally include the consideration whether
the data processor can keep up with the problem or not.
I:I0~ever, most systems are expected to be input/output
lImIted, and the presently current computing speeds appear
more than ample to cover future mass-use requirements.
The computer industry will probably gravitate toward a
most economical speed range somewhere around 10 megacycles. This avoids most of the problems created by the
"finite" speed of transmission (speed of light) and the fact
that at higher frequencies, the signal energy radiates increasingly from the prescribed path, rather than traveling
along it. While the former may be good for broadcast com~unication purposes, it is diametrically opposed to the very
Idea of a "logic machine." High computing speeds will also
be achieved increasingly by paralleling "slow" units as the
cost of mass-produced hardware decreases.

Some experts believe that within ten years the sales volume of special-purpose small computers will exceed that of
the large general-purpose machines, since the market for
the small data processing devices is much larger than for
the multi-million dollar machines. The key to the mass
market includes the ability of the computer to be operated
directly by personnel with not more than a few hours' instructions and, by implication: A great reduction in programming effort.
Not all manufacturers agree with this expectation. Some
feel that the versatility achieved by the stored programs of
the larger machines will lead to systems so capable and so
fast that they can handle all requirements, particularly with
the aid of "super-programming" and data communications.
But the cost of programming is likely to remain high and
data communications will always remain a high-priced
item in data processing.
Another vital ingredient of the small computer for the
"small business" must be the ability to "see what you are
doing" while it is being done-not only after it has been
done. Increased visibility of the results immediately after,
and perhaps during, each operation, with the opportunity
to introduce choices and changes, will be vital to the important non-professional future user of these computers. The
trend will therefore be toward easier programming-not
requiring a professional or highly-trained person. Such
computers will therefore be more specialized, and will have
fewer programming (software) choices. However, manufacturers may continue to avail themselves of many of the
hardware and software means of furnishing differen t computers based on the same production lines.

The Automobile and the Computer
It may be interesting to draw an analogy between the development of the automobile at the beginning of this century and the computer industry today. Early in the century,
it was still thought that the faster a car could go, the better
it was. The later years showed however that high speed
capability, while desirable, was neither significant nor did
it determine who was to survive in the automobile industry
and whose name would be only of antique value. But, more
importantly, while top speed became relatively unimportant
in the subsequent development of the auto industry, the
introduction of a mass-produced car that everyone could
own and operate signaled the start of one of the biggest industries to date.

The Role of Data Communications
"What good is a wealth of information if you don't tell
it to someone who can use it?"
This well-known rule taught in many human relations
classes also '.lpplies to computers. It is a rare case that the
information which a computer provides is useful right at
the computer. Maybe it has to go only to another room or
department but, increasingly, computer output is used in
several places, some of them at a great distance.
The same is true for the input information on which the
computer bases its operation. It, too, is likely to come from
many and distant sources. Therefore data communications
and data processing will have to develop closely together.
For small computers, the increasing availability of data
communications will be a vital lifeline that will make decentralized computing possible and advantageous.
In connection with this, it may be useful to point out the
significance that satellite communications will have for data
processing and computers. In the past, the limited frequency spectrum available for long-range communication
was always a spectre hanging heavily over the prospects of
future expansion of data communication. With satellite
communication almost a certainty in the next few years, this
basic limitation has been all but removed. With its narrow
heams and very high carrier frequency and straight-line
transmission not being a disadvantage anymore but an advantage, there seems to be no limitation in sight to the
amount and speed with which computers, small and large,
may be able to talk to each other in the future.

20

Expansion in Both Directions
While the efforts towards making computers more capable, faster, and often larger, will continue, the trend in the
opposite direction, namely, to make computers smaller, will
become of increasing importance.
Many manufacturers are working on small computers to
be ready for the mass market. IBM, for example, is attacking the problem from both ends by making larger computers smaller and-by making their electric typewriters more
intelligent, such as in the IBM 632. The IBM 6400 for
small business use and the IBM 1130 for engineering and
scientific applications represent efforts in the direction of
smaller computers penetrating a new market. Also, Friden,
a maker of desk calculators of long standing, has announced
all-electronic desk mod~l computers.
Litton's i\fonroe Division, strengthened by the newlymerged Royal ;\fcBee Company, is also making desk-size
computer systems. Smith Corona offers a low-priced, versatile data processor. Digital Equipment Corporation, as
well as several smaller companies-including some foreign
ones-offer computers in the "below S5000" range or have
designs for such computers in the making.

"Common Carrier Computers,"
or "Local" Computers?
Much attention is being given now to the possibilities of
using powerful, central computers in "utility type" arrangements, similar to the organization of electric power and communications companies, or common transportation systems.
The well-known advantages of common carriers in these
fields are: Improved usage and availability of equipment
based on statistical considerations and higher-grade service
which specialized companies can give over that of the occasional user. While the widespread "Service Bureaus" make
use of these advantages, it is not likely that "electronic
access" to these central facilities will prove equally economicalor practical.
COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for May, 1965

,

,

There are basic differences between "computer utilities"
and "power utilities" providing communications, transportation, etc. The latter are based on much larger investments
in equipment and real estate than even a large computer
represents. Computer hardware rarely requires more than
a few million dollars in purchase cost, can usually be conveniently rented, and is relatively easy to move and to
establish at any location. Furthermore, the price of the
actual computer hardware is going down and will decline
much further as automated circuitry will be used more
extensively. In addition, the present power utilities do not
simply sell the use of their equipment, but furnish the
necessary "transportation" of a commodity-be it power,
people, materials, or information. Computation, as such is
not necessarily connected with long-distance transportation, though when it is, it usually uses a common communications carrier for this purpose.
Since the price of communications will remain relatively
high, the mere saving of the computer purchase price and
the training of the operators can generally not make up for
the difference. In addition, the facilities for time sharing,
multiplexing and switching which are required to give multiple access to a computer, are additional costs not necessary
in "local" computers. Furthermore, local computers often
allow "on line" operation, thus reducing intermediate
storage and generally simplifying the planning and logistics of computer usage.
As a result, it can be expected that local computers will
prevail when no communication problem is connected with
a computer. An exception will be the occasional user of
technical or business computation, who cannot justify acquiring his own facilities. For him the new IBM 1130 with
the "quick exchange" disc cartridge file is a distinct advance.
Other applications for central facilities are: automated
libraries; credit and financial data centers; and other "pools"
of information-which, due to the nature of the stored
information, will work better in centralized fashion with
public or semi-public access.

What Will the Future Look Like?
The main growth in the computer field to date has been
in general purpose computers, which allowed manufacturers
to concentrate on a few types of computers. Also, traditionally, the first computers were used for scientific purposes,
with the emphasis on complex and lengthy mathematical
operations, which were difficult to solve "by hand."
However, the greatest future potential market for computer-type machines, it seems, will be in special. purpose
"information devices." In these machines the ability to calculate is secondary and is overshadowed by the ability of
information machines to memorize, read, write and transfer
data from one position to another. Such systems as production and inventory control, hospital supervision, library
systems, census taking, national voting systems, and executive control systems, still await effective instrumentation.
These computer systems frequently obtain their inputs or
furnish their outputs through data communication channels. General purpose computers are often poorly equipped
for this, sometimes requiring an extra "computer" as a
buffer and "switchboard."
In the past, it was not generally economical or practical
to build such specialized devices because components were
not perfected and packaged to be readily usable for this
purpose. This situation is gradually changing; in the near
future, highly adaptable and self-contained solid-state units
will become readily and economically available, opening up
a new market for automated information devices. These
machines will exhibit less customer-programmed "softwar.e"
in contrast to factory-built "wares" which can be massproduced.
COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for May, 1965

New Applications
Among challenging computer applications that we can
look forward to in the near future are:
• Tie-ins between computerized time clocks and payroll
machines that enable automatic calculation and recording
of hours worked, and the preparation of payroll 'checks or
credit vouchers. The cost of these machines should compare favorably with a bookkeeper's annual salary.
• Cash registers used in conjunction with computers tbat
maintain a perpetual inventory and prepare requisitions
for replacing merchandise. Such units will be economical
enough even for small business~s.
• Computer devices for "home" use. These may be somewhat further away, but are, nevertheless, as sure to come as
did the dial telephone. As a matter of fact, most computing
devices at home will start as clusters around the telephone
and other communications systems, such as radio, TV, teletype and Facsimile. Some of these devices require wide
transmission spectra; their use will be facilitated by the
increased communication capabilities that will become available through satellite communication. "Subscription TV" is
only one of the more sophisticated services of the future,
such as electronically-transmitted newspapers, automatic billing and crediting, banking and buying with instant, written
confirma tion.
Voting and poIling will be done conveniently, frequently
and yet securely from the home, thus allowing a citizen to
exercise his right and duty to make his opinions knownand be counted. This should take the guesswork out of the
present "fan mail" counting and put polling on a more
reliable and useful basis.
In the area of communications, computerized teleprinters
can store messages until the lines are clear ana therefore
expedite as well as reduce the cost of current methods. Telephone companies now use computer devices of all "sizes" to
make their switchboards more "inteIligent." Small computers will find increasing use in brokerage houses, as well
as in such advanced areas as Communication Satellite
Systems.
The era is therefore ne.ar when computing devices will be
as common as electric motors, thus making the pioneer
scientist's Norbert Wiener's prediction come true: What the
motor is to the human muscle, the computer will be to the
human brain.

THE INTERNATIONAL IMPACT
OF COMPUTERS AND AUTOMATION
(Cominued from page 18)
survey of a great number of alternatives, and displaying
before the negotiators a variety of impartial and equitable
compromises, with their evaluation.
When the heat has died down, this situation is something
like the presentation and evaluation of plans before a
board of directors. In this area it seems to me that computers
can make a steadily more useful contribution in world
affairs.
Secretary General U Thant of the United Nations said
not long ago "It is no longer resources that limit decisions
-it is decisions that limit resources." The computer is becoming our preeminent tool for considering, evaluating,
and choosing between decisions.
It would be highly. desirable that a committee of distinguished representatives of the computer profession, perhaps selected by IFIP, and a committee of the United Nations should meet together and set up channels by means
of which the computer revolution can be made particularly
help~ul to the countries of the world and the functioning of
the United Nations.

21

THE FUTURE OF COMPUTERS
IN THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT

lames P. Titus
Washington, D. C.

In less than a dozen years, the computer population in
the Federal Government has jumped from 10 systems to
5,4,00. Directly, or through its contractors, the Government
now finances 30 per cent of all computers in this country at
an annual cost of $3 billion, and this figure does not include military and classified systems.
Such an increase has brought about many problems in the
management of computers. Some have been resolved, others
are being looked at in Congress and the Executive branch,
and still others are yet to be taken up.
Hearings held in the House of Representatives in 1963
and again this year focused attention on the problems of
acquisition and use of computers. They precipitated an
extensive study by the Bureau of the Budget of the computer structure in Government. This study will have a lasting effect.
In addition to pinpointing problems, the study revealed
that there has been considerable improvement in Government computer matters during the last few years. Agencies
are choosing computers better; policies have been established for equal and fair consideration of all manufacturers;
standards are being developed; sharing of government computers has begun in many cities; and more consideration is
given to the relative merits of purchasing and renting computers.

How is a Computer to be Defined?
But much is still to be done, according to the Bureau of
the Budget. One problem is how to define computers. The
dearth of new equipment in hundreds of configurations, the
disappearing line between "scientific" and "business" computers, increased applications-these have all ruled out
computer classification by type or cost. Instead, the Bureau
of the Budget (BOB) will now use a system that looks at
the environment in which the computer operates and the
response in time it is required to make (the figure shows
these classifications by environment and response with

22

specific computers shown in the matrix). These classifications will be used for developing policy, guidelines, and
criteria.

How Should Computers be Used?
Unused machine capacity is a wide-open invitation to
find additional uses for a computer. This happens in the
Government. and it has brought about an excess of marginal applications. which arc uneconomical, difficult to eliminate, and sometimes the cause of procurement of additional
equipment.
The Budget Bureau believes that the decision on uses to
be made of computers should be made by agency management-those responsible for mission accomplishmentrather than by equipment or systems specialists. It recommends that management review computer uses to determine
if the benefits anticipated in the cost/benefit analysis made
before acquisition are being realized and to determine the
priority of each application so that marginal applications,
if present, are removed.

Meeting Requii'ements for Computer Capacity
Some of the computer capacity that is excess could be
used for sharing purposes. According to BOB, there were
170,000 hours of machine time in 1964 that could have been
considered for sharing, although it admitted that not all of
it could have been used practically. Despite this excess,
agencies spent $18.3 million in 1964 on machine time and
related services from outside contractors.
Organizations that provide these services include nonprofit firms, research institutions, educational institutions,
consulting firms, firms specializing in equipment operation
or systems design and programming, and equipment manufacturers themselves. These firms are usually called on
when peak workloads arise and it is to the agencies' advantage to secure outside help instead of enlarging its own
work force for a short time; or when the needed talents are
COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for May, 1965

. Environment category:
III

II

Professional
Support

Central
Computing
Services

Integrated
Operations

IV

Real-Time
Operations

V

Research and
Development

VI

Special
Operations

Response
~
A - Priority:

Remote -console
time -shared
systems

B -Time
Critical:

C-

Scheduled:

oHigh-Response
Inventory
Control
oHigh-Response
Information
Retrieval

o Command and
Control
Communications
o Network
Control
-Airline
Reservations

oOff-line
Inventory
Control and
Information
Retrieval
oWeather
Predictions

o Dynamic
Simulation
oMissile
Checkout

- Experimental
and
Development
Projects

oEngineering and
Scientific Data
Processing
-Digital
Simulation

o Engineering
and
Design
Computations

oData
oManagement
Reduction
oScientific
and
Computations
Business
oBusiness and
Systems
Management
Data Processing

oRange
Safety
Process
Control

• Time -Shar ing
Computations
o Engineering
Design
Modification
and Interfacing
for:
• Communications
• Display
Control
o Data
ReductIOn
• Increased
processing
capacity and
capability

• Military
Systems
involving:
• Guidance
computers
• Range
Finding
Computations
- Other
"Single Purpose"
Uses, with
equipment
designed and
built to
meet
special
conditions

COMPUTER CLASSIFICA TION CHART

not available in the Government. The latter case usually
arises in systems development and programming.
Several problems are presen t in the use of con tractor organizations, the Budget Bureau said. The services .and products produced by a contractor for one agency might often
meet the needs of another agency that is contracting for the
same thing; some effective means for exchange of information is needed. Potential conflicts are present when manufacturers of equipment develop systems under contract and
then bid on another contract to furnish the equipment;
some means for objectivity is needed here.
Three recommendations are made to solve these problems:
1. Establishment of an interagency group to study and
develop cost principles to be applied by agencies in establishing prices for shared computer time and services.
2. Evaluation of the service center concept by the Bureau
of the Budget to determine a proper course of action to be
taken.
3. A study of the problems associated with use of contractor organizations with the aim of developing guidelines.

Selecting Proper Equipment
The study on which BOB's report is based included discussions with both manufacturers and agencies about the
complex task of selecting computers. There are two methods
used in the Government: in-house evaluations based on
examination of EDP literature; and submission of proposals
by manufacturers in response to systems specifications laid
down by agencies. The latter method is more widely used.
The report lists several disadvantages to manufacturers in
the proposal method. Preparing detailed proposals is costly.
Agencies allow too little time for response to proposals.
Selection is often made without telling the "losing" manufacturers why their equipment was not selected. However,
selections on the basis of manufacturers' responses is called
sound. Here are the reasons:
It provides the best means for each manufacturer to
COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for May, 1965

present his case on an equal basis with all other manufacturers; the inclusion of system specifications in the
request for proposal properly places the emphasis upon
the system, rather than upon a simple comparison of
hardware; and it helps to prevent biased selections that
may be unfair to the manufacturers. While the practice
may cause some delay in improving operations, any
costs that might be incurred on this account are considered to be outweighed by the checks and balances
that this practice provides against what otherwise might
be hasty, ill-conceived actions ....
Nevertheless, the need to simplify the proposals required of manufacturers is recognized. The preparation of systems specifications on a more unif.orm basis
by Government agencies, and the more eflective use of
bench-mark problems that arc representative of the
data processing requirements would benefit the supplier in preparing a proposal, as well as the Government in evaluating the proposals.
Further, the development and eventual use of standard; machine-independent, program languages will
greatly facilitate the comparative evaluation of proposals from the standpoint of the manufacturer's total
product, including both equipment performance and
related programming support. This emphasizes the
importance of adequate Federal support of the program
of the American Standards .-\ssociation.
To improve the selection of computers, the report lists
three recommendations:
1. The Budget Bureau will publish regulations covering
five phases of EDP equipment selection: preparation of
system specifications-including bench-mark problems-to
be furnished to equipment suppliers in requests for proposals; evaluation of suppliers' proposals; compatibility considerations; consideration of excess and surplus equipment;
distinctions between additions, replacements, and modifications whell selection policies arc applied, and interagency

sharing of experiences in the selection and performance of
equipment.
2. The General Services Administration (GSA) should
maintain current data on the characteristics and performance capabilities of all items of commercially available,
general-purpose equipment that is in place in the Government, available from suppliers, or scheduled to become
available. Based on this data, GSA would provide comparative information to agencies.
3. GSA should make available to agencies information
on the performance of firms that supply EDP equipment
and programming aids-that is: Do they deliver what they
are supposed to? Is it delivered on time?

Purchase or Rental of Computers
It has been recommended repeatedly by the General Accounting Office that the Government purchase more computers than it presently does. According to this report, the
soundness of this recommendation depends on the ability
of the Government to find second and third uses for purchased computers.
The Budget Bureau, as well as other agencies, have two
objections. First, it said that there is little chance that equipment could be used "as is" at a second or third installation,
because a computer varies substantially within a given model
through use of optional features and modifications. Second,
it said that most of the computers· that could be used again
could probably not be released by the current user at the
time they are needed by the second user. In fact, it said,
most of the computers that the Government has already purchased (an estimated 46 per cent of the total at June 1965)
will not be usable again and will have to be junked. Consequently, it recommends against purchasing others solely
in anticipation of eventual re-use.
The Budget Bureau is not against computer purchasing,
but it said that costs associated with purchase must be proven
less than rental costs before a computer should be purchased.
It believes that present policy on purchase and lease
should continue, except that interest on loans should be
included as a factor in cost comparisons. Provision should
also be made for a general suspension of purchase activity
on certain computer models when it becomes evident that
superior equipment is about to become available, or when
potential excesses of Government-owned equipment warrant
only temporary rental of equipment, pending the availability of such excesses.
To avoid use of equipment beyond the point of economic
advantage, the report said that GSA should develop guidelines on the replacement of equipment. It also said that
GSA should study the problem of excess equipment and
the problem of maintenance-should the Government maintain its purchased computers or have someone else do it?

Contracting for Procurement of Equipment
General Services Administration annually negotiates with
manufacturers for purchase, rental, and maintenance of
computing equipment. The Budget Bureau said that this
system is not satisfactory to either party. Sometimes the
computer manufacturer must "finance" the Government's
continued use of rented equipment because the agency is
waiting for the manufacturer to submit his offer on the next
fiscal year's contract, or GSA is bogged down with EDP
contract work. The Government gets no advantages as a
volume purchaser even though multiple procurements are
made under one contract. Extra use charges for computer
rentals cause many contract delays. Both sides become involved in "tactics" over contract negotiations, which causes
further delays.
The entire contract system needs tightening, and the
Budget Bureau recommends these specific steps:

24

• All contracts for the fiscal year should be executed and
in effect by the beginning of the fiscal year-July 1.
• The time between July 1 and Sept. 15 should serve as
a period in which agencies develop and submit to GSA
recommendations on changes in the existing contract.
• By Oct. 15, GSA should make available to the manufacturers the proposed changes for the following fiscal year.
• Manufacturers should be required to submit their offers
for the coming fiscal year on or before Dec. 15.
• Negotiation of contracts with all manufacturers should
be completed by April 30, at which time authorization
would be given to all manufacturers for printing and distributing copies of their contracts. Between April 30 and
May 31, GSA should develop and distribute to all agencies
formulas to be used ... in computing rental or maintenance
payments.
• If a manufacturer fails to submit a contract offer by
Dec. 15, agencies would not solicit proposals from him for
any equipment to be procured after the following July 1.
This would become effective on July 1 and remain so for 60
days plus the number of days after April 30 until a contract
is executed (some persons in Washington feel this would
have little effect on manufacturers).
• GSA should convene an advisory committee of the
major users of EDP equipment in the Government to review any conflicts existing between the negotiators.
• GSA should continue to seek contract improvements,
especially with regard to discounts on quantity procurements and optional use periods, including unlimited use.

Standardization of Equipment and Techniques
Differences in computer designs and programming techniques cause numerous problems in the Government. To
name but a few: difficulty in making sharing arrangements;
restricted placement of excess equipment; limited sharing of
computer programs among Government installations.
A related problem, although existing much longer than
computers, is the lack of standardization of data elements
in common use and the codes used to represent them. Data
elements are such things as an item of supply or a person's
birth date; codes are alphabetical or numerical representations. If they were standard throughout the Governmen.t,
the high cost of data conversion would be greatly reduced.
In Government, an immediate goal will be compatibility
among computer systems by concentrating first on programming languages and other utilization techniques. Government support of the American Standards Assn. will be increased and the National Bureau of Standards will get more
people to test proposed standards and provide guidance in
standards development.
The closest Bureau of Budget comes to recommending
equipment standards is that it would like to see magnetic
tapes standardized with respect to width, speed, recording
density, number of channels, and size of the reel.

Research and Development in Computer Sciences
Further research and development efforts are needed
from the National Bureau of Standards in computer systems,
programs, and computation, the report said. The Budget
Bureau would like to see computer-evaluation programs
developed and criteria established for evaluation of programming languages.
It said there is about $135 million spent annually on computer R&D, but the program needs to be coordinated by the
Office of Science and Technology.

Covernment-Contractor Relationships
Contractors, in this sense, are those who usc computers in
cost-reimbursement contracts, mostly with the Department
COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for May, 1965

of Defense, National Aeronaptics & Space Administration,
and Atomic Energy Commission. The report said they use
as many computers as the Government does and the Government pays for them either directly or indirectly. There
has been little attempt to develop policies for equipment
used by these contractors, except by individual agencies.
One of the latter is the Department of Defense, which
recently proposed an amendment to the Armed Services
Procurement Regulations to limit the amount of rental costs
chargeable to a con tract. Under this proposal, the con tractor
would be free to either purchase or rent, but if the purchase
method were shown to be to the Government's economic
advant~ge, EDP charges would be limited to the amount
that the contractor would receive if the equipment was
purchased. The report recommends that both DOD and
NASA adopt this proposed regulation and that agencies
should include equipment operated by contractors in intraagency sharing plans.

EDP Management I nformation System
One of the Government's largest problems in managing
computers is that it has not had enough information to
know exactly what it is dealing with. There is currently a
Government-wide reporting system that requires agencies
to submit annual reports on their use of EDP equipment,
but this is basically an annual "status report."
The Budget Bureau said that the information system is
a matter of high priority and should contain the following
information:
• Manufacturers' performance with respect to equipment
engineering, maintenance, and program support.
• Productive and unproductive equipment time.
• Operating costs for common Government applications.
• Use of EDP personnel.
• Extent to which the Government uses commercial
sources for ADP.
• Contract negotiation and administration.
• EDP equipment used by cost-reimbursement contractors.
• Benefits derived from use of computers.

••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
•• •• •
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Real Time Systems
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Operations Research

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with a desire to accomplish,
through design automation, important
technical and business objectives.
Significant new positions are being created at Texas
Instruments for those with Ph.D. level skills in elec·
trical engineering, mathematics, communication
science, etc. and with three or more years' experience accumulating the required skills. Successful
candidates for these positions must be able to
direct efforts of highly competent groups with similar skills. Specific duties include:

Organization and Legislation
When something grows as fast in the Government as
computers have, it is bound to shake the organization; the
Budget Bureau believes that legislation should be drafted
that will remove doubts about who is authorized to do what.
Specifically, it has asked for the following:
1. Legislation for joint use of EDP equipment. This
would set up a revolving fund for service centers, equipmen t pools and ti~e-sharing.
2. Legislation to improve compatibility in EDP by implementing Federal standards for equipment and techniques and Federal standard data elements and codes.
3. Legislation to establish a research center on computer
sciences in the National Bureau of Standards and to provide advisory and consulting services to agencies on computer systems development and related problems.
This legislation is either in Congress in one form or
another, or it is shortly coming. Congress is increasingly
interested in what the Government is doing with its computers and it is investigating more facets in each session.
This investigation is expected to continue as long as the
computer industry displays its remarkable growth and new
computing equipment keeps overshadowing the old. Eventually, the Government will learn how to effectively manage
its computers, no matter what their make-up or application
to the Federal environment. Until then, change will be a
way of life for those responsible for computers in the Government. They won't be required to run to keep in place;
they'll have to sprint to stay ahead.

System & Compiler

1. Definition of areas for exploiting the information
sciences in process control, process and product
optimization, real time process scheduling in
the semiconductor manufacturing area.
2. Definition of design problems in the broad area
extending from components to systems which
can be economically performed on remote-station time-shared computing facilities.
3. Operations research methods in real time for
the semiconductor and equipment manufacturing areas.
Please send confidential resume to R. W. Olson,
vice president, Special Projects office, dept. C-148

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COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for May, 1965

25

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Circle No. lOon Readers Service Card

COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for May, 1965

•..

REAL TIME SYSTEMS:
A COMPLEXITY CHECK LIST

Robert V. Head
V ice President
Security First National Bank
Los Angeles, Calif.

Early Real-Time Data Processing Systems
Most of the early real-time data processing systems, which
appeared in the mid 1950's, were developed to satisfy military needs and as a dass were much larger than the off-line
or batch processing systems in operation at the time. One
can at present find numerous examples of these large-scale
systems applied to military and paramilitary applications.
One of the best known is SAGE with its specially engineered
equipment devoted to air defense. The BMEWS system for
ballistic missile early warning and the Project Mercury
/ system to monitQr the astronaut's flights, both of these employing duplexed IBM 7090 computers, provide other ex~mples. These data processing systems had equipment costs
In the tens of millions and required program steps in the
hundreds of thousands.
Beca~se of the advanced nature of these military systems
and theIr tremendous capacity for generating data immediately useful to the system operators, great interest was
a!oused within the commercial data processing field in realt~me systems. Among '~he pioneer businesses to adapt realtIme technology to theIr data processing needs were the airlin.es. There are today several airline reservation systems in
beIng. Altho~!?h these are not as large as their predecessors
devoted to mIlItary work, they are generally larger in terms
of hard~a~e co~t ~han an~ data processing systems previously eXIstmg withIn the aIr transportation industry.

Commercial Real-Time Systems
With the successful adaptation of real-time capability to
commercial data processing, it appears that the era of realCOMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for May, 1965

time systems has truly arrived. Encouraged by announcements of new equipment well-suited to real-time needs, such
as the IBM 7740 and the GE Datanet 30 communications
multiplexors, many companies are now taking a serious
~ook a~ the possible role to be played by a real-time system
In theIr organizations. Savings institutions, insurance companies, ~ailroads, and brokerage houses are representative
of the kmds of companies now either installing or seriously
contemplating real-time systems.
Many of the systems being developed today are much
smaller than either the military or the airline reservation
systems which led the way. For example, the very smallest
~tored ..pro~ram processor in IBM's product line, the 1440,
~s, alo?g with 1060 teller terminals and 1311 disk packs, be~ng WIdely prop~sed to handle on-line savings accounting
In banks and savmgs and loan associations. It would seem
that t~e field of ~eal-time system development is rapidly
maturmg to the POInt where the applications can utilize the
gamut of the manufacturers' product lines-all the way
from an ~B~ 1440 for.a savings bank to an IBM 7090 system for aIrlIne reservations for a major carrier.

System Size and System Complexity
In light of this expansion, can we say that there is a direct relationship between system size and system complexity,
such that the smaller real-time systems will be less difficult
to design and install than the larger systems which preceded
them?
Unfortunately this is not the case. For there are many
factors other than size, whether measured by capacity of the

27

central processing unit or number of instructions required,
which must be considered in determining the complexity
of a real-time system. It is important that these factors be
fully understood by the prospective user of such a system.
Only then can he predict with some confidence the amount
of developmental time and effort required to convert his
application to a real-time data processing environment.
To illustrate, anyone conversant with programming for
real-time systems would agree that a multiprogrammed
medium-size system is likely to be more costly to program
and take longer to install than a large-scale system that
processes its transactions one-by-one. Even though the equipment cost and the total number of instructions required
may be greater in the large-scale system, the more complex
nature of multiprogramming the medium-size system requires significantly more programming effort over a longer
period. A greater investment in programming may be demanded because each individual programmer produces
fewer instructions when working in the multiprogrammed
milieu. And more time may be needed to develop the system because of the greater complexity of testing in a multiprogrammed environment in which there may be several
transactions in varying stages of completion within the central computer, rather than queued up outside the computer
as in the case of the sequential processing system.

The Spectrum of System Complexity

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It is evident that system complexity, and consequently system development cost, cannot be determined by size alone,
regardless of whether measured by hardware size, program
length, transaction volume or similar criteria. A number
of specific questions must be answered before a particular
system may be placed in its proper position on any spectrum of system complexity .
Following is a set of questions about real-time systems,
presented in checklist form. The more "yes" answers which
the prospective user of such system can supply, the more
complex his system is going to turn out to be, and the more
demanding of time and manpower to make it a reality.

1. System Availability
This set of complexity questions has to do with the extent
to which the system must make itself available to its users.
Questions about system availability relate to reliability of
the equipment, its error-checking ability, and its over-all
capacity for performing the application processing in a
prompt and satisfactory way throughout the period in which
processing is required.
• Is a lengthy period of sustained operation required,
such as 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, 52 weeks a year?
• Must elaborate error detection and correction features
be engineered or programmed in to the system?
• Must a method of protecting vital file records be developed so that such records will continue to be available in the event of system malfunction?
• Can a degraded level of service be tolerated in case of
partial system unavailability?
• What are the consequences of the system going down:
1. Is it easy to revert to a manual or semi-automatic
system?
2. Can operations be resumed immediately when the
system becomes available, or must there be a special
recovery mode to update records, reactivate files,
etc.?

2. System Variability
Under this heading are questions about the nature of the
application being placed on the real-time data processing

Circle No. 14 on Readers service Card

28

COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for May, 1965

t.

system. Some systems will exhibit little volatility once they
are converted; but most will require modification and expansion that should, insofar as possible, be anticipated when
the system is first designed.
• Is the application unique; i.e., is this the first system
of its kind or the first one utilizing new equipment or
programming solutions?
• Can the application be expected to grow significantly
in volume over the projected life of the system?
• Is the application highly susceptible to changes in government regulations, industry standards, company policy, or competitive practices?
• Are there other applications that management may
wish to add to the system?
• Can additional equipment, programs, or capacity be
added to the system in a non-disruptive fashion?

3. Input/Output Characteristics
There is great variety in the kinds of input/output* devices available today. General-purpose terminals with numeric and alphanumeric ability, special-purpose terminals,
punched-card and paper and magnetic tape transmitters,
and devices for transmitting analog signals are some general
types of real-time input/output equipment. And there is
even greater variety in the way in which this equipment
can be employed in various systems. There are, for example,
"conversational" modes, in which an operator makes an
entry from a terminal, then awaits the computer response
before taking further action. At the opposite extreme is the
closed-loop approach in which data is obtained and processed automatically by the system, largely bypassing the
operator in the decision-making process. Many questions
need to be answered in determining system complexity in
terms of its input/output.
• Are the messages or signals variable in length?
• Are the incoming messages or signals generated asynchronously rather than upon some dependable cycle
or schedule; i.e., based upon the arrival of customers at
a counter or some similarly uncontrollable terminal
en vironmen t?
• Must the system accept all input as it is generated or
can the receipt of input be controlled by such means
as polling?
• If human operators are the source of the input, does
the system permit great latitude in the format and
syntax of the input submitted? .
• Must the input be thoroughly edited and validated by
the computer prior to processing?
• Are there stringent response-time requirements, if this
is the kind of system where each input elicits a response?
• Does the system generate unsolicited output to the
terminals; i.e., does it produce messages that are not
responses to inquiries and that may be of a priority
which necessitates interruption of work in progress at
a particular terminal?

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4. Communication Characteristics
This group of complexity questions is closely related to
the preceding one of input/output, but focuses more upon
the difficulties of delivering the data from source to processor and back to source again if need be.
• Is the system geographically dispersed with remote ter• Most real-time systems people refer, as a matter of convention, to
"input" as data generated at a terminal and "output" as data generated by the computer.

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Circlo No. 18 on Roadors Sorvico Card

COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for May, 1965

29

•

•
•
•

minals or possibly even interconnected processors remote from each other?
Are there peaks and cycles in the communication volume that must be smoothed out by queueing data at
the central processor or multiplexor?
Are there differing transmission speeds for various parts
of the system?
Does the system include a large number of terminals?
Are there several different kinds of terminals in the
system?

5. Processing Equipment Features
In this category are collected questions pertaining to the
complexity of the equipment in the system, and more especially the equipment at the central processing site. The
fact that multiplexors are employed in a system or that a
duplex or other interconnected configuration is proposed
certainly should not be felt to constitute an indictment of
the system as a poorly designed one. It is necessary, however, to recognize that such a proliferation of equipment is
contributing to system complexity.
• Is much of the equipment newly designed for this application?
• Are there extensive modifications required in existing
equipment?
• Are there interconnected computers?
• Is there a stored program communication multiplexor?
• Is this a duplex system; i.e., one possessing both an online and a standby computer?
• Are there random access storage devices attached to the
system?
• Is there more than one type of storage device?
• Is a large volume of storage needed by the system?
• Is this a system in which two computers share a single
file?

6. Programming Features
The real-time programs must actually be weighed for
complexity of two kinds: (I) developmental -complexity and
(2) operational complexity. Developmental complexity is
the result of performance requirements and equipment features which add to the difficulty of planning, writing, and
testing the programs. Operational complexity describes
those programming features of a system that, once operational status has been achieved, contribute to the cost and
difficulty of running the system. However, since most programming features must be classified in both of these categories, the questions below do not make a distinction.
• Is the system multiprogrammed; i.e., will there be several transactions in varying stages of processing inside
the system at anyone time?
• Can all programs be kept in the computer memory or
must some be called in from file storage upon demand?
• Are there processing priorities to be controlled by the
programs?
• Is fallback to a degraded level of service programmed
in whole or in part?
• Is recovery from fallback programmed in whole or in
part?
• Must a special programming language be developed for
the system or an existing one modified?
• Must the programming staff learn how to program more
than one computer?
• Are there many restrictions on program preparation,
such as length of program, efficiency of program, etc.?

An Example of Comparison
of Two Real-Time Systems
Keeping these complexity questions in mind, it may
prove instructive to contrast two types of real-time systems

30

currently receiving considerable attention. We shall see how
the answers to certain key questions serve to differentiate
these systems in terms of their complexity. Let us consider
a typical airline reservation system and a typical savings
bank system:
1. The airline system must operate 24 hours a day or on
some schedule almost this demanding. The savings bank
system need operate only one shift five days a week.
2. I t is more difficult to revert to manual opera tion in the
reservation system when the central computer is down. In
the savings bank system the teller terminals can be used as
off-line window machines and operations can continue-at
least for a while-without great disruption while the computer is unavailable.
3. Input is less controllable in the airline "reservation
system, which typically possesses typewriter input/output
capability as part of each terminal device. This gives the
reservation agent the opportunity to send alphanumeric
messages to the computer which must then be assembled
and edited. In contrast, the entry format on messages from
a teller terminal is more restricted and controlled because
the data is numeric only.
4. The airline reservation system is widely dispersed, with
terminals in some systems distributed on a nation-wide or
even a world-wide basis. The typical savings bank system
may not even require a communications network, with all
its equipment (both terminals and central computer) housed
under one roof and cable-connected.
5. The airline reservation system usually has to communicate with and control hundreds of terminals-one for each
agent position in each city served. The savings bank system
normally has to poll and otherwise control only two or three
dozen teller terminals.
6. Because the airline reservation system must achieve a
sustained level of performance, a duplex equipment configuration is often provided (two of everything at the processing center, with one set of equipment standing by in the
event of malfunction of the on-line equipment). The savings bank system, which does not have to be available for as
long and which can more easily revert to manual procedures
when the computer is down, does not require duplex equipment, and consequently avoids the complexities of planning
and programming for switchover as well as the substantial
equipment costs.
7. The throughput level (number of entries within a
given period of time) in an airline reservation system is
such that multiprogramming must be undertaken to permit
the processing of one entry while another is waiting for a
record to be accessed from file storage. The savings bank
system, serving fewer terminals, can permit one entry to be
processed through to completion, even though this may
mean that the computer sits idle while a needed record is
being brought in from file to complete processing of the
curren t en try.
There are, of course, exceptions to the points of comparison just cited. Several savings bank systems, for example,
possess a duplex equipment configuration and at least one
airline reservation system is not multi programmed. But in
the main these differences are valid. They are presen ted
here, along with the complexity factors upon which they
are based, to suggest the importance of making distinctions
among real-time applications, instead of assuming that all
such installations must be highly complex or that there is a
necessary conjunction between size and complexity.

Reference
"Real-Time Business Systems" by Robert V. Head, published by Holt Reinhart and Winston, New York, N. Y.,
1965, 384 pp.
COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for May, 1965

and this is too big for the job

When the job is too big for this ...

The WYLE Scientific
More than a calculator - Almost a computer
... with unlimited, externally-stored
automatic input,
$4350

WORLD'S MOST ADVANCED DESK-TOP COMPUTATIONAL CENTER, the WYLE Scientific offers almost unlimited
application in the solution of complex scientific, engineering, and statistical problems. Yet it is easier to operate
than a calculator; takes up about the same desk space as an electric typewriter; solves problems with speed
approaching that of a computer; operates with the quiet, and reliability of all-solid-state electronics. And its cost
amortizes over a three-year period at less than $1 per working hour.
THE ONLY DESK-TOP MACHINE WITH UNLIMITED STORED-PROGRAM AUTOMATIC INPUT, it eliminates all
the wasted time of multi-step repetitive problem solving. It can be programmed with a ballpoint pen to perform
all your recurrent computations automatically, regardless of length, through its card reader. Typical calculations
you can program include the development of any trigonometric functions; any exponential functions; statistical
analysis; logex and logIQx; antilog x; radix conversion; cube root; polynomial evaluation. For any program, you
simply punch in your instructions by hand on a Wyle stored program card, which has the Scientific keyboard
reproduced on it, and enter the variables through the manual keyboard. No computer training, "language," or
special equipment is needed to develop a complete library covering your repetitive formulas. Any number of
cards can be taped together to feed continuously into the reader the lengthiest computations. And preprogrammed
Wyle cards are available covering a wide area of problem solutions.
The Scientific can be very effectively used for computer program formulation and checkout. It is particularly
valuable when determining the requirement for double precision programming.
NEVER BEFORE CAPABILITIES LIKE
THESE
The contents of all registers are displayed,
on an eight-inch cathode ray tube, as indicated in the following diagram.

~~::~~:~'i~~e~tient

Register

Accumulator Register
Storage Register 1
Storage Register 2
Storage Register 3

All parts of a problem are visible. The
contents not only of the three active arith-

metic registers, but also of the three storage registers are displayed at all times.
Numbers entered from the keyboard are
seen as they are entered and can be verified before use.
Transcription errors are eliminated
through complete versatility of transfer
from any register to any other without loss
of desired data.
All registers handle 24-digit numbers to
provide extreme numerical precision.
Decimal points are entered as they
occur in the numbers, using an eleventh
key, and all input and answers are correctly aligned with decimal point on the output
display.
Automatic square root is provided, as is
single entry squaring.

These capabilities, combined with
stored program automatic entry, for the
first time fill the technical and economic
gap between calculators and computers.
$4350 complete with automatic
input (PAC)
$3950 for basic calculator
(You can add automatic input later)
For further information, write Dept. T,
Wyle Scientific Sales, 339 So. Isis Ave.,
Inglewood, Calif. Or phone OR 8-5671.

THE WYLE Scientific
.J

product of

WYLE LABORATORIES

Circle No. 16 on Readers Service Card

COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for May, 1965

31

OBJECT

PICTURE
PLANE

STEREOGRAPHIC
PROJECTIONS
STATION
POINT

Fig. 1. Perspective projection of an object.

BY

y

DIGITAL
o

COMPUTER

z

------ -----

A. Michael Noll
Bell Telephone Laboratories
Murray Hill, N. J.

Fig. 2. Pictorial representation of stereographic projection including
rotation and inclination of the station points.

The human eye is the receptory organ of an extremely
complex vision system. This system has the ability to perceive a brightness range from 10,000 millilamberts to
0.00001 millilambert-a ratio of one billion to one.! The
images focused upon the retina of each eye are each slightly
different, and the brain, by some presently unknown
method, translates these differences into an effect which we
call depth.
Our depth-perceptive abilities yield much information
about our three-dimensional environment. When added
to photographs, the illusion of depth becomes a source of
considerable realism and excitement; so exciting are these
prospects that LOOK magazine sponsored 13 years of research to produce one such picture in mass quantities. 2
However, the illusion of depth also has important applications in the visualization of scientific data. A physics textbook, for example, has used two perspective drawings
side-by-side so that a three-dimensional effect is obtained
when viewed properly, and anaglyphs have been used in a
Hungarian descriptive-geometry text. B • 4
A few years ago, psychological research into depth perception was initiated using random patterns that depicted
surfaces when viewed stereoptically.5. 6 These patterns were
produced by a digital computer programmed to calculate
and automatically plot the stereoscopic projections. The
technique depicted only surfaces however, and so was not
applicable to the presentation of scientific curves and figures.
The obvious next step was to use the digital computer
to calculate and plot stereographic projections of generalpurpose scientific data. A computer has been so programmed, and the results are reported in this article. The

32

aVIatIon industry has also been interested in computer
stereographic techniques, and the results of its efforts have
been described. 7 • 8

Stereographic Projection
The basic technique for producing a three-dimensional
drawing is the technique of stereographic projection. This
technique consists of producing two perspective drawings
corresponding to the images seen by the left and right eyes.
Usually the drawing of such perspectives is quite tedious,
and in practice various approximations such as isometric,
one vanishing point, and two vanishing point projectionsare used. 9 However, the digital computer is so adept at
performing "tedious/' calculations that straight-forward
methods for producing a perspective can be utilized.
To produce a perspective drawing of an object, it is first
necessary to choose some point (representing the eye) from
which the object is viewed (see Fig. 1). In descriptivegeometry terminology, this point is called a station point. l l
A plane, more specifically called a picture plane, is inserted
between the object and the station point. Projection lines
(actually visual rays) are then drawn from the ooject to the
station point, and their points of intersection with the
picture plane are connected to complete the perspective
drawing.
Since two perspectives are required to produce a stereographic drawing, two station points (one for each eye) and
two picture planes must be chosen. The object can be
viewed from any angle if an angle of inclination and an
angle of rotation of the station points are introduced.
Assuming that the object is specified in a rectangular coCOMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for May, 1965'

.

or~inat.e

system, the stereographic scheme can be depicted
m FIg.. 2. Th~ left and right picture planes, the left and
fIght station pomts, and the angles of inclination and rotation. are sh~wn. If an object were to be projected stereographIcally, hnes would be drawn from it to the station
pdints. The intersections of these lines with the picture
planes. produce two slightly different. perspectives, correspondmg to the left and right-eye images. When viewed
stereoscopically, these two perspectives create the illusion
of dept~. Of course, t.he computer does not have the ability
to physIcally draw hnes from the object to the station
points, and so an analytic treatment of stereographic techniques is required.
The derivation of the projection formulas is straightforward, and the formulas will be supplied upon request to
the author.
a~

Stereographic Projection by Computer
If the rectangular coordinates of some point are known,
the~ the corresponding left and right perspectives can be
easIly computed. The introduction of angles of inclination
and ro~ation of the viewing point makes the computatIons
only slIghtly more complex. The projection technique is
t~u~ reduced to eq~ations that can be evaluated by a
dIgItal computer. It IS only necessary to represent the object
to .be projec~ed by straight lines connecting points. These
pomts are gIven to the computer, along with parameters,
and. the computer. the.n computes the corresponding coordmates of the pomts m the left and right picture planes.
The remaining problem is to plot the projected points
and to then c?nnect lines between them thereby producing
the left and fIght perspectives. This is a job far too tedious
to do by hand; fortunately, an elaborate device manufac~urc:d by ~he Stromberg Carlson division of General DynamICS IS avaIlable for plotting digital data.
The Stromberg-Carlson SC-4020 microfilm plotter consists primarily of a cathode ray tube and a 35-mm camera
for taking pictures of the information displayed on the
face of the tube. Instructions for the SC-4020 are written on
magnetic tape; the tape is then decoded by the SC-4020 and
used to generate commands for opening and closing the
shutter of the camera, for advancing the film and for
deflecting the beam of the cathode ray tube. De~elopment
of t~e film J?roduces a 35-mm microfilm transparency which
consIsts of lmes connecting points, drawn, in effect, directly
under the control of a digital computer. In this manner,
the perspective points computed by an IBM 7094 digital
computer are used as the input to an off-line SC-4020 microfilm plotter through an intermediate magnetic-tape storage.
After photographic development, the microfilm can then be
~iew.ed directly in a stereoscope, and the final result is an
IllusI~n of depth created by a completely computerized
techmque as diagrammed in Fig. 3.

Stereographic Projection Program
The preceding paragraphs have indicated that the com~uter requires only the coordinates of the end points of
~mes to c?mpute the stereographic projections. The proJected pomts are then used as the input to an off-line
microfilm plotter which actually draws lines between them.
Th~ command structure of the microfilm plotter has been
deSIgned to draw either a single line between two points or
a sequence of connected line segments between a set of
points. Thus, if all the points are stored in one master
array for programming convenience, when they are to be
plotted, the proper sets must be unpacked from the proJected·maste.r array. This can be done conveniently with
two subroutmes, one to store and pack the coordinates of
the points of each set, and a second to actually compute
the stereographic projections, unpack them, and instruct
the plotter to draw on microfilm the left and right images.
Thus, the first subroutine is called repeatedly until all the
sets of points to be projected have been packed together.
The functions of the stereographic computing subroutines
are indicated in Fig. 4. ARRAY is called to store the
coordinates of the points of each set. After all the sets of
points have been called, a call to PLOT computes the stereographic projections, using the previously-derived equations.
The .argument of PLOT specifies the distance to the origin,
the mterfocus distance, and the angles of inclination and
rotation.
Since the size of the microfilm frame is restricted it is
important that the perspectives be centered and scaied in
size to adequately fill each frame. Accordingly, PLOT
sear~hes for the ~a:,imum and minimum of the arrays. The
maxI~um and mmlmum are used to determine the shifting
reqUlrc:d to center each perspective in its frame. A scaling
f~ctor IS also computed and used to scale the perspectives in
SIze to assure that they are neither too big nor too little.
PLOT then instructs the microfilm plotter to draw lines
between the points specified in the shifted and scaled
arrays.

+

REPEA UNTIL
ALL LINES
HAVE BEEN
STOtED

COMPUTE
STEREOGRAPHIC
PROJECTIONS
OF ALL
PREVIOUSLYSTORED POINTS

I
I

T

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I
I

I

I

PLOT
~
LEFT AND RIGHT
PROJECTIONS

I

I
I

I
I
I

I

I GENERAL

PLOT

~

I'

I

I

SPECIFY
I. DISTANCE TO
ORIGIN
2. INTER FOCUS
DISTANCE
3. ANGLE OF
INCLINATION
4. ANGLE OF
ROTATION

COMPUTE
SCALING AND
SHIFTING OF
POINTS FOR
OPTIMUM
UTILIZATION OF
MICROFILM
FRAME

1--------------,
I

•

STORE
COORDINATES
OF POINTS
DETERMINING
LINE

I
I

DYNAMICS SC- 4020 I

I MICROFILM PLOTTER I
L - -___________ J
Fig. 3. Block diagram of computer technique for producing
stereographic projections.

COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for May, 1965

o

0

0

0

0 0

~~~

000 0

000 000 0

:~~

000 000 0

000

000 0

0 0

Fig. 4. Basic flow chart of stereographic-projection subroutines.

33

Four Examples
Several examples of stereoscopic drawings produced by
the computer are here given. In order to see them, as
printed here, it is necessary to decouple one's eyes sufficiently to produce double images. The left and right
perspectives are presented next to each other. The trick in
looking at them is to decouple the eyes sufficiently to produce a third image centered between the left and right

presentations using depth made possible by the computer
technique described in this article. The most obvious use
is in the presentation of curves and functions of three
variables. When visualized in true depth, many important
trends in data become quite evident, as, for example, the
formant structure of the speech spectra shown previously.
Here is a method for presenting stress diagrams, the construction of beams and bridges, the structure of molecules,

Fig. 5. Random pattern of straight lines.

Fig. 6. Three-dimensional speech spectrogram.

Fig. 7. Block diagram.

Fig. 8. Contour plot of electrical transfer function.

perspective. This task is made easier by first gazing beyond
the page and then dropping the eyes to the page without
refocusing; a piece of paper placed between and perpendicular to the two perspectives may also held to produce
the third image. The third image, when and if obtained,
is in depth but is at first blurred. If one continues to look
at it for a while, it will become clear, and look remarkably
solid.
One of the major disadvantages of stereographic projection of scientific data is that a stereoscope is usually
necessary for viewing them. This reason plus the tedious
drafting work required to prepare the projections are two
reasons why stereo graphic presentations have not been used
more frequently. However, considerable research is being
devoted to solving the first problem; and the computer
techniques described in this article almost eliminate the
second.
Figure 5 shows a three-dimensional bundle of lines whose
end points have been determined at random. This type of
pattern is excellent for demonstrating depth, since each
perspective by itself contains no monocular perspective
clues. Speech spectrograms have been plotted in Figure 6.
The frequency in cycles per second is plotted to the right;
the vertical distance measures the log amplitude of each
spectral component, and each spectral slice is separated in
time by 15 milliseconds. The educational possibilities of
stereographic projections by computer are exemplified by
the flow diagram shown in Fig. 7. An electrical engineering
application is given by the transfer function plotted in
Fig. 8..

Discussion
The examples given in the preceding paragraphs are
representative only of a few of the many provocative visual

34

functions of a complex variable, and much more-all
viewed from any angle and any distance. It is apparent that
further applications are limited by only the imagination of
the prospective user.
The three-dimensional examples were contributed by
R. M. Golden, H. M. Kalish, and J. C. Noll, and are gratefully acknowledged.

References
1. Lawrence J. Fogel, Biotechnology: Concepts and Applications} Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, 1963, p. 93.
2. LOOK} February 25, 1964, pp. 102-105.
3. Philip M. Morse and Herman Feshbach, Methods of
Theoretical Physics} McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.,
New York, 1953.
4. Imre Pal, Descriptive Geometry With Three-Dimensional Figures} Hungarian Technical Publishers, Budapest, 1962.
5. Bela Julesz, "Binocular Depth Perception of ComputerGenerated Patterns," Bell System Technical Journal}
Vol. 39, September, 1960, pp. 1125-1162.
6. Bela Julesz and Joan E. Miller, "Automatic Stereoscopic
Presentation of Functions of Two Variables," Bell System Technical Journal} Vol. 41, March 1962, pp. 663-676.
7. Gary A. McCue, "Visualization of Functions by Stereographic Techniques," North American Aviation, Inc.,
SID63-170, January 20, 1963.
8. H. R. Puckett, "Computer Method for Perspective Drawing," Journal of Spacecraft and Rock~ts} Vol. 1, No.1,
January, 1964, pp. 44-48.
9. E. G. Pare, R. O. Loving and 1. L. Hill, Descriptive
Geometry. The MacMillan Company, New York, 1959.
COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for May, 1965

CAREERS WITH
CONTROL DATA

HOnlyan individual person . .. not manpower in the
mass sense of the word . . . makes a discovery,
conceives a product or inspires other individuals.' I

.'::::

~,:,1It" ,',',~,:"
~

This philosophy has taken Control Data Corporation a long way
since its formation in July of 1957. The combination of perceptive management and extraordinary technical skills has molded
one of the most successful enterprises in modern electronics.

Today CONTROL DATA develops, manufactures and markets
a complete line of advanced, high-speed computing systems for
application in science, manufacturing, business and research.
As a world-wide organization, CONTROL DATA ranks third in
revenue from data processing equipment and has become the
leader in the production of computer systems for scientific use_
If you believe in the development of the individual as a basis
for corporate progress, CONTROL DATA invites you to investigate these positions. Nationwide assignments are available.

Programmer Analysts • Systems Applications Analysts • Systems Installation • Systems and Procedures Analysts •
Site Planning and Installation Engineers • Software Documentation • Systems Evaluation • Data Center Salesmen.
TECHNICAL APPLICATIONS: Positions exist in research and
development at the Ph.D. level. Requires a minimum of three
years' linear programming or numerical analysis experience,
including matrix algebra and theory of approximation. Minimum
education requirement: MS degree. MI NNEAPOLIS location.
ENGINEERING SOFTWARE: Diagnostic and Acceptance Test
Progra'mming-Develop software capable of detecting logic
faults and marginal operation in equipment. Mechanized or
Automated Design-Develop software to aid the design
process and to produce the necessary manufacturing documentation. Hardware/Software Analysis-Develop software to
evaluate systems performance. Familiarity with benchmark
problems, instruction mixes, compilers and monitors. MINNEAPOLIS location.
ADVANCED DESIGN: BSEE required with a minimum of 5 year's

related experience. These assignments are on state-of-the
art development projects within the Advanced Design Department in: (1) High Speed Digital Circuits; (2) Extremely High
Performance Core Memories. These projects will determine
the operating characteristics of FUTU RE Control Data general
purpose computers. Successful performance of assignment
manage complex technical activities. MINNEAPOUS locations.

PROGRAMMING ANALYSTS/PROMOTIONAL: Opportunity in
the Software Promotion Group for a digital computer specialist
with these qualifications: programming background, imagination, demonstrable writing ability, marketing orientation, effective coordinator and ambition. An individual with the proper
combination of the above qualities will shape the position for
himself. A knowledge of publications/procedures would be
helpful. PALO ALTO location.

Employment Centers in New York.Washington, D.C .• Minneapolis.Palo Alto
• Los Angeles will promptly review your qualifications and interests.

Send resume indicating positions of interest to: William D. Rowe
IFIP Conference: If you will be in New York during the IFIP
Conference, plan to discuss these and other career opportunities with Control Data employment representative.

For other opportunities at CONTROL DATA, write R. O.
Brostrom, 8100 34th Ave_ So., Minneapolis, Minnesota.

Employment Dept. 1L,
4201 Lexington Ave. No.
St. Paul, Minnesota

CONTROL DATA
CORPORATION

An Equal Opportunity Employer
Circle No. 17 on Readers Service Card

COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for May, 1965

35

SEL

MAKES

SEL 600 SERIES DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEMS

.........
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••
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•

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"

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c.

...•

:±::

Zl:

tiJ:t
a:::

:":i

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SEL 600 BASIC SYSTEM SPECIFICATIONS
NUMBER OF CHANNELS .........................1 to thousands
INPUT VOLTAGES FULL SCALE ...............± 4 MV to ± 100 volts
ACCURACY ..............................................to ± 0.05% ± 1f2 bit
RESOLUTION ...........................................to 14 bits binary or 17 bits BCD
SYSTEM SAMPLING RATES .....................to 220,000 samples per second

SEL 600 OPTIONS
On-line reduction with SEL 800 computers
Computer programmable channel sampling
Computer addressable gain and offset
Quick-look displays
Auto self-test features

NOW YOU CAN PURCHASE TOTAL SYSTEM CAPABILITY FROM ONE
SOURCE - COMPATIBLE ACQUISITION AND COMPUTER
SYSTEMS REPRESENT THE ULTIMATE IN AN ENGINEERED
APPROACH TO YOUR REQUIREMENTS FOR ••••••••••••••••••••

FOR MORE INFORMATION WRITE FOR THESE BULLETINS
9032 9042 9056 -

36

SEL 810 General Purpose Digital Computer
SEL 600 Data Acquisition Systems
SEL 840 Scientific Digital Computer

IMMEDIATE OPENINGS FOR LOGIC DESIGN ENGINEERS
SEL is an equal opportunity employer

COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for May, 1965

BOTH

•••••••••••••••

SEL 800 SERIES GENERAL PURPOSE DIGITAL COMPUTERS

BASIC CHARACTERISTICS
SEL 810 COMPUTER
SEL 840 COMPUTER
WORD SIZE ............. 16 bits
STORAGE ..................4096 words
Hardware multiply Included

WORD SIZE .............. 24 bits
STORAGE ................. .4096 words
Hardware multiply and divide included

Two Independent I/O channels
Typewriter, tape reader and punch
Hardware index register and program counter
Complete software package for real-time applications
FORTRAN package for off-line scientific computation

•
•
•
• • • • • • • • ••

810 AND 840 OPTIONS
To 32,768 word core in main frame-all
directly addressable
External drum or disc storage
Up to 8 I/O channels
Up to 6' direct memory access channels
Any standard peripherals

REAL TIME DATA READOUT IN ENGINEERING UNITS
CLOSED LOOP DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL
INDUSTRIAL PROCESS PRESET CONTROL
OFF-LINE GENERAL PURPOSE COMPUTATION

SYSTEMS ENGINEERING LABORATORIES. INCORPORATED

P. O. BOX 914B / FORT LAUoERo.,l.LE. FLA. 33310 / AREA CODE 305 /

5B7-2900

Circle No. 12 on Roadors Sorvice Card

COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for May, 1965

37

CALENDAR
OF
COMING
EVENTS
A comprehensive survey of the European computer market is available now. Prepared by Computer Consultants Limited of Great Britain,
EUROPEAN COMPUTER SURVEY, 1965 has comprehensive information for each of the following
countries:
Austria
Belgium
Denmark
Finland
France

Germany
Great Britain
Greece
Holland
Irish Republic
Italy

Norway
Portugal
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland

Listed individually for each country is:
1. Economic information.
2. List of computer installations by name of user
up to December 1964.
3. Table of installations up to December 1964 by
user categories and price group.
4. Table of estimate of new installations for 1965
by user categories and price group.
5. Estimate of new installations for 1966 by user
categories and price group.
6. Estimate of future installations by user categories and price group from 1967 to 1970
inclusive.
Also included are:
• Grand summary of installations, showing number. installed, home built and import value;
number on order, home built and import value;
total population, working population and number of people capable of being helped by a
computer.
• Tables of value of computers installed and on
order showing home built and import value.
• Table of individual countries export of computers.
• Notes on the computers currently installed in
European countries.
• Names and addresses of the manufacturers of
the computers installed in Europe.
• European manufacturing locations, if any, of the
computers installed in Europe.
Is this the data you need to understand and
benefit from the rapidly expanding European Computer Market?
To order your copy of the European Computer
Survey, 1965 send your check or purchase order
to the International Data Corporation, P.O. Box 1,
Newtonville, Mass. 02160. Price is $285. Additional
copies for the same organization may be ordered
for $95 each.
The International Data Corporation is the exclusive North American distributor for the European
Computer Survey, 1965.

May 18-21, 1965: GUIDE International User Organization
Meeting (Users of Large Scale IBM EDP Machines,)
Statler-Hilton Hotel, Detroit, Mich.; contact Lois E.
Mecham, Secretary, GUIDE International, c/o United
Services Automobile Association, 4119 Broadway, San
Antonio, Tex., 78215
May 18, 1965: SWAP Conference, Marriott Motor Hotel,
Twin Bridges, Washington, D. C.; contact Gordon V.
Wise, Control Data Corp., 8100 34th Ave. So., Minneapolis, Minn. 55420.
May 19-21, 1965: 15th CO-OP Conference, Marriott Motor Hotel, Twin Bridges, Washington, D. C.; contact
Gordon V. Wise, Control Data Corp., 8100 34th Ave.
So., Minneapolis, Minn. 55420.
May 19-21, 1965: Power Industry Computer App. Conterence (PICA), Jack Tar Hotel, Clearwater, Fla.; contact
G. W. Stagg, American Elec. Power Servo Corp., 2 Broadway, New York, N. Y. 10008.
May 20-21, 1965: Spring Technical Meeting of the Digital
Equipment Computer Users Society' (DECUS), William
James Hall, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.; contact DECUS, Maynard, Mass. 01754
May 21, 1965: Computing Conference on Advances in
Computing, State University of N. Y., Stony Brook, L. I.,
N. Y.. ; contact John Moran, State University of N. Y.,
Stony Brook, L. I., N. Y.
May 21-22, 1965: Meeting of the Interim Users Committee
of 6600 Users, N. Y. University's Courant Institute of
Mathematical Sciences, 251 Mercer St., New York, N. Y.;
contact Gordon V. Wise, Control Data Corp., 8100 34th
Ave. So., Minneapolis, Minn. 55420
May 24-29, 1965: IFIP Congress '65, New York Hilton Hotel, New York, N. Y.; contact Evan Herbert, Conover
M'ast Pub!., 205 E. 4,2 St., New York 17, N. Y.
May 28-29, 1965: SDS Users Group, Americana Hotel, New
York, N. Y.; contact Ed Wattenbarger, Ext. 230, Scientific
Data Systems, 1649 Seventeenth St., Santa Monica, Calif.
June, 1965: Automatic Control in the Peaceful Uses of
Space, Oslo, Norway; contact Dr. John A. Aseltine, Aerospace Corp., P. O. Box 95085, Los Angeles 45, Calif.
June 1, 1965: 1965 Annual Meeting and Seminar of the
Computing & Data Processing Society of Canada, Walper
Hotel, Kitchener, Canada; contact Computing and Data
Processing Society of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
June 1..3, 1965: ACM Reprogramming Conference, Nassau
Inn, Princeton, N. J.; Mrs. L. R. Becker, ACM Reprogramming Conference, c/o Applied Data Research, Inc.,
Route 206 Center, Princeton, N. J. 08540
June 8-16, 1965: International Seminar on ADP for Top
Management in Public Administration, Amsterdam, Holland; contact The Netherlands Automatic Information
Processing Research Centre, 6 Stadhouderskade, Amsterdam, The Netherlands

Circle No. 11 on Readers Service Card

38

COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for May, 1965

June 10-12, 1965: Annual Southeastern Regional Conference of Association of Computing Machinery, Palm Beach
Towers, Palm Beach, Fla.; contact Donald J. Beuttenmuller, Gen. Chairman, 243 Russlyn Dr., W. Palm
Beach, Fla.
June 17-18, 1965: 3rd Annual Conference of The Computer Personnel Research Group, Washington University,
St. Louis, Mo.; contact Prof. Malcolm H. Gptterer, Program Chairman, 120 Boucke Bldg., Pennsylvania State
University, University Park, Pa. 16802

opinionated
c;-;

Two months before Spectra 70 announcement!
September 28, 1964
RCA SETS TO
ANNOUNCE NEW
COMPUTER SERIES
DESIGNED TO BE
PROGRAM COMPATIBLE
WITH SYSTEM!360

June 21-25, 1965: Information Sciences Institute, Seminar
I: Image Processing, Univ; of Maryland, Computer
Science Center and University College, College Park,
Md.; contact Div. of Institutes, Center of Adult Education, Univ. of Md., College Park, Md. 20742

EIDIP
INDUSTRY AND
MARKO REPORT
A 101'" _

.... , Hlwl.unn '0' . .1(UTlYU

.. TOOl IUCUOHIC D... , ...

'1IOC1~lfoI(I

INDUS!.'

June 21-25, 1965: San Diego Symp. for Biomedical Engineering, San Diego, Calif.; contact Dean L. Franklin,
Scripps Clinic & Res Found., La Jolla, Calif.
June 22-25, 1965: 2nd Annual SHARE Design Automation
Committee Workshop, Chal£onte Haddon Hall, Atlantic
City, N. J.; contact J. Behar, IBM Corp., Mathematics
and Applications Dept., 590 :l\Jadison Ave., New York,
N. Y. 10022
June 22-25, 1965: 1965 Joint Automatic Control Conference, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, N. Y.;
contact Prof. C. N. Shen, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute,
Troy, N. Y.
June 28-July 1, 1965: Information Sciences Institute,
Seminar II: Pattern Recognition, Univ. of Maryland,
Computer Science Center and University College, College
Park, Md.; contact Div. of Institutes, Center of Adult
Education, Univ. of Md., College Park, Md. 20742
June 29-July 2, 1965: Data Processing Management Association 1965 In ternational Data Processing Conference
and Business Exposition, Benjamin Franklin Hotel and
Convention Hall, Philadelphia, Pa.; contact Data Processing Management Association, 524 Busse Highway, Park
Ridge, Ill.
Aug. 14-Sept. 6, 1965: National Science Foundation Conference on Digital Computers for College Teachers of
Science, Mathematics and Engineering, Univ. of South·
western Louisiana, Lafayette, La.; contact Dr. James R.
Oliver, Director, USL Computing Center, Box 133, USL
Station, Lafayette, La. 70506
Aug. 23-27, 1965: 6th International Conference on Medical
Elec. & Biological Engineering, Tokyo, Japan; contact
Dr. L. E. Flory, RCA Labs., Princeton, N. J.
I

t

Aug. 24-26, 1965: Association for Computing Machinery,
20th National Meeting, Sheraton~Cleveland Hotel, Cleveland, Ohio; contact Lewis Winner, 152 W. 42 St., New
York, N. Y. 10036
Aug. 24-27, 1965: WESCON, Cow Palace, San Francisco,
Calif.; contact IEEE L. A. Office, 3600 Wilshire Blvd.,
Los Angeles, Calif.
Sept. 8~1O, 1965: Industrial Electronics & Control Instrumentation Conference, Sheraton Hotel, Philadelphia,
Pa.; contact Lewis Winner, 152 W. 42 St., New York,
N. Y. 10036
Sept. 20-23, 1965: Second Systems Engineering Conference
& Exposition, McCormick Place, Chicago, Ill.; contact
Clapp & Poliak, Inc., 341 Madison Ave., New York,
N. Y. 10017.

~ First report on this important large-scale computer order!

July 15, 1964
GENERAL ELECTRIC
OBTAINS ADVANCED
POSITION IN
COMPUTER TIMESHARING FIELD
BY WINNING MIT
PROJECT MAC AWARD

c:;--:

EIDIP
INDUSTRY AND
MARKO REPORT
'" UMI._T.... '

... IW~It'1i fo. UKUTlYU

"'lOInfCl~I(IIA""'lOCnSIfolO'_SIl'.
.....I;I'...

"HA""" ..l~o_n'

Over six months betore Model 20 announcement!
April 30, 1964
IBM PONDERS
INTRODUCTION OF
MODEL 20
PROCESSOR; 7000
SERIES PROGRAM
CONVERSION

EIDIP
INDUSTRY AND
MARKO REPORT

EDP INDUSTRY AND MARKET REPORT is a semi-monthly
newsletter that gives an unclouded view of the developments
in the fast-moving computer industry. Unbiased reporting.
Timely analysis. Straight-from-the-shoulder opinion. The
REPORT is managem~nt information for the EDP industry
executive and the advanced computer user.

EDP INDUSTRY AND MARKET REPORT is industrial intelligence at its best. Well-researched. To the point. How is the
EDP market changing? What new equipment will be significant? From which companies are these products coming? Who
is merging with whom? And what do the answers to these
questions mean for EDP companies and for the industry?

The EDP INDUSTRY AND MARKET REPORT is edited by a
staff of computer industry experts who bring more than a
dozen years of computer industry editorial experience to the
job. Editorial contributions are gathered from the top indus.t~y
authorities. The REPORT is backed by the full research facilities of the International Data Corporation whose research
studies include an installation by installation analysis of over
80% of all computers installed and on order in the U.S.

EDP INDUSTRY AND MARKET REPORT subscriptions are $49.
per year; $29. for six months. To enter a subscription or
request a sample copy write to International Data Corporation,
P.O. Box 1, Newtonville, Mass. 02160.

Oct., 1965: International Symposium on Economics of
Automatic Data Processing, Rome, Italy; contact Symposium on Economics of ADP, International Computation Centre, Casella Postale No. 10053, Rome, Italy
Circle No. 21 on Readers Service Card

COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for May, 1965

39

Two entirely new, long-wear, heavy-duty Ampex computer tapes are now available. The two (Ampex
838 for 800 bpi applications and 832 for 556 bpi applications) are the result of an intensive 2 year development program. Using an advanced oxide formulation, these new tapes feature a mirror-smooth
surface that consistently gives the cleanest, most reliable performance ever possible. The proof of
the new formulation is in the using: no other tape on the market does as much to reduce 'temporary
errors' and static bUild-up. Even the reel is new: IBM compatible configurations are available on solid

tiO

COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for May, 1965

Announcing:
the most important advance
in computer tape in four years.
flanged plastic reels with new aluminum hubs. Who benefits from this remarkable new tape? Anyone
who uses IBM (including full width tested), IBM compatible, RCA 301, and most Univac computer
systems. Try it. Test it. Use it. We think that you'll agree that the time spent in developing this remarkable new tape was time well spent. For a demonstration, call your Ampex representative, or write the
only company providing recorders, tape and core memory devices for
AMPEX
every application: Ampex Corp., 401 Broadway, Redwood City, California.
COt\lPUTERS and AUTOMATION for May, 1965

41

c&a
WASHINGTON
REPORT
I"

.~

of·

$250 MILLION ANNUAL SAVINCS IN THE
FEDERAL COVERN M ENT'S
USE OF COMPUTERS
Covernment Activities Subcommittee
Committee on Covernment Operations
House of Representatives
Congress of the United States
Washington, D. C.

A quarter of a billion dollars a year in savings to the government can be realized under a proposal by Southeast
Texas Congressman Jack Brooks (D-Texas) to coordinate
government acquisition and use of automatic data processing (AD.P) equipment, a House efficiency subcommittee has
been informed.
The bill, H. R. 4845, was endorsed by a number of witnesses who appeared before the House Government Activities Subcommittee.
Joseph Campbell, the Comptroller General of the United
States, told the subcommittee, " . . . the Government will
continue to incur substantial amounts of unnecessary cost~
until more effective centralized managament and control"
of computers, a "high cost area of government operations,"
are achieved.
The General Accounting Office, which Campbell heads,
has conducted studies of automatic data processing equipment used by the federal government and the estimated
savings are based on these studies.
Lawson B. Knott, Jr., Acting Administrator of General
Services, told the subcommittee, ". . . there is a clear need
for the enactment of legislation which would assist in im·
proving the acquisition and utilization of ADP equipment
in the Government."
Knott continued:
" . . . The use of automatic data processing equipment
in government has grown phenomenally during the past 13
years. In 1954, there were only 10 computers in use by the
federal government. By the end of 1964, the usage had increased to 1,767. The current estimate is that there will be
2,150 computers in federal use by the end of fiscal year
1966. In 1964, federal agencies spen t $1.1 billion for the
purchase, rental and operation of data processing equipment for all types of use by 2,068 organizational units
within 44 federal agencies. Current estimates indicate that
on a nationwide basis by 1970, the number of computer systems and annual costs in connection therewith will triple."
In outlining the bill's provisions, Brooks, who is chairman of the subcommittee, said that at present "each agency

42

operates independently in the acquisition and utilization of
ADP equipment with only Bureau of the Budget guidelines
to follow."
But, he said, furnishing the agencies with guidelines "has
not, in turn, provided the Bureau of the Budget with the
data necessary ,to determine agency compliance with existing policies." He added, "Nor does the bureau have information sufficient to recognize new problems as they arise
or to establish new policies as they are needed."
The bill would set up a revolving fund for use in acquisition of ADP equipment as needed and in setting up equipment sharing pools and computer service centers. Each
agency would determine its own ADP needs and the use
made of the equipment. The Administrator of General
Services would act as coordinator for government acquisition and use of ADP equipment. Along with the revolving
fund, the General Services Administration would maintain
a continuous inventory of ADP equipment in use by the
government and government contractors.
Equipment used only part of the time by one agency or
contractor might well be operated the rest of the time by
another user. And when an agency or contractor is finished with a computer, a check would be made to see if any
other government function could use the equipment rather
than purchasing a new computer.
"With a minimum of $12 million wasted for each month
that implementation of this legislation is delayed-and I
believe this to be an extremely conservative figure-prompt
action must be taken on H. R. 4845," Congressman Brooks
said.
The Congressman introduced similar legislation two
years ago which was approved by the House of Representatives but the Senate did not act before the Congress ended.
Others scheduled to appear at the hearings were Elmer B.
Staats, Deputy Director of the Bureau of the Budget; Edmond C. Buckley, Director, Office of Tracking and Data
Acquisition, National Aeronautics and Space Administration; John P. Abadessa, Controller, Atomic Energy Commission; and Dr. William Eaton, Deputy Assistant Secretary
for Science and Technology, Department of Commerce.
The members of the Subcommittee are Congressman 'Villiam S. Moorhead (D-Pa.), David S. King (D-Utah), Dante It
Fascell (D-Fla.), Ogden R.Reid (R-N. Y.), and Edward J.
Gurney (R-Fla.).
The Subcommittee is part of the House Government Operations Committee, which is headed by Congressman William L. D.awson (D-Ill.).
COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for May, 19(i5

•,.

The Adley Express Company of New Haven, Conn. has three ironbound rules of operation; service, efficiency and speed-a philosophy which dictated FORMSCARDS as the continuous tabulating
cards for Adley's accounts payable and payroll.
FORMSCARDS are unique; they don't have medial waste strips
between the cards. So you don't waste money shipping useless
medial strips around. You don't waste space storing medial strips.
You don't waste time running them across your processing equipment. You don't waste time bursting them. And finally, you
don't wind up with a truck-load of medial strips to throw out.

(See why those little strips between cards are called "waste strips?")
Isn't it time you followed the route Adley took to faster, waste-free
tabulating card operations? There's a FORMSCARD system to fit your
every need. let us tell you all about the time, trouble and money you
could be savingwith FORMSCARDS; dropus a line andwe'll send
you our brochure telling the whole amazing !4' ' """,',' " ",. ,••
FORMSCARD story. Or, inhere's a rush, :
give us a call. Phone: Oldfield 9-4000·
,.
Area code 215.
WILLOW GROVE, PENNA.

lorms,,'inc :

Adley Express saves
a truckload of· time
with Formscards

~,

Circle No. 19 on Readers Service Card

COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for May, 1965

43

IS YOUR TAPE CONVERSION STILL WORKING AT HORSE AND BUGGY SPEEDS?
THINK AHEAD ...THE NEW KLEINSCHMIDT 321 ADS CONVERTS TAPE TO HARD
COpy AT 400 WORDS PER MINUTE! ... TODAY
Think of tape conversion four times faster
than you may be getting now. Think of less
tape backup. Think of the KleinschmidpM
32r M ADS. Whether it's used lion line" or
"off line," the 321 ADS gives you complete and reliable facilities for tape preparation, tape duplication and hard-copy
print-out. For further information on the

efficiency of the 321 ADS and other
Kleinschmidt Electronic Data Communica·
tions equipment, write: KLEINSCHMrDT,
Division of SCM Corporation, Lake Cook
Road, Deerfield, "linois.
THINK AHEAD

... THINK

SCM

If~.

lflj;lJII® ~~!!~!~l!/!!..~!'!

Circle No. 22 on Readers Service Card

44

COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for May, 1965

••

4

c&a
THROUGHPUT

.

Computers and Automation In Israel

••

When examining the use of computers in various parts of
the world, one finds some notable gaps-South America,
Asia, the "Middle East, Africa. The extended use of computers in the United States, Europe, Russia, and Australia
represents a strong contrast.
One surprising exception is Israel, a nation only 17 years
old. Surrounded by hostile Arab countries with limited
technical competence, Israel has developed, partly in defence, a strong capability in computers. At a recent meeting
of th~ Israel Data Processing Association (an IFIPS member), over 400 technical people attended a two-day symposium with extensive technical sessions titled comparably to
our own activities. The entire symposium was in Hebrew,
conducted by Israeli experts, with only two exceptions: a
session on computer languages by the noted Dutch Professor
Van Wyngaarden, and a session by myself on real-time systems. Interestingly enough, there is no substantial language
problem: Israeli data processing technicians are almost completely bilingual and are often fluent in French or German
as well.
The country has developed rapidly, and is beginning to
realize the tremendous potential of data processing in this
expansion. With a population of less than three million, it
is smaller than the Republic of Ireland, but its computer
population is already large, by comparison. The total of
computers installed today is 26 and an additional 30 are on
order from various manufacturers.
Vendor representation is handicapped to a limited extent
by the Arab boycott. Univac, for example, has no representation. Principal vendors today are IBl\1 and NCR, each of
whom ha~ a staff of over 200 in sales and service. 'The installation lineup is approximately as follows:
IBM
-14 computers-principally 1401 and 1460, including three service centers.
NCR - four 315 computers, including one service
center
Philco - 5 computers (two 212's and three 1000's) in one
military installation, without sales or service
representation.
CQntrol- 2 computers (a 1604 and a 160A), both at the
Data
Weizmann Institute. (A service center is
planned during the second quarter of 1965
with a CDC 3100.)
Elliott - 1 computer at Technion
In addition, the country has two native computers, the
GOLEM (robot) at the Weizmann Institute and the
SABRAC (sabra is a native cactus) at the Scientific Departmen t of the Ministry of nefense.
The data processing problems of Israel are not very
different from those in the United States. The personnel
problems are comparable, heightened by the fact that all
workers belong to the union. Thus, programmer selection
OHvtPUTERS and AUTOMATION for May, 1965

is sometimes complicated. Scheduling problems are the
same, and documentation is equally well ignored in Hebrew.
There is a bit of a language problem in data presentation;
Hebrew is required on many documents so that interchangeable-type printers are needed. In addition, the Hebrew alphabet is not the same as ours, causing punching
problems; and serial printers, typewriters, and bookkeeping
machines have to travel from right to left as well as from
left to right.
Israel also has its supply of consultants, most of whom
are Israeli-born, although many are trained in the United
States. Not many American firms can afford to compete
in Israel; the salary structures are the same as ours, but the
currency value is one-third. In addition, the air fare of $800
prevents most United States firms from establishing Israeli
facilities. Local service bureaus appear and disappear like
mushrooms, as in the United States, with similar problems
of quality and performance. However, since the country is
small and isolated, the data processing community is aware
of the problems and recognizes possible solutions.
Data transmission is still in its infancy in Israel. The
military system provides reasonable transmission, but the
public telephone system is of insufficient quality to permit
extensive and reliable transmission. "Making a phone call in
Israel can be risky and time-consuming; even getting a
phone installed requires three to four years. (I t is rumored
that the local CDC representative, in setting up the new
facility, stopped looking for an office; he said he would find
a phone around which he could then build an office.) Anyway, data communication networks will have to wait for
improved telephone service.
The data processing community in Israel has a tremendous respect for United States technology. American magazines, books and other literature are virtually the only
training materials. As a result, experienced Americans are
welcomed and placed in high regard. American technical
support in any form is put to good use. It is hoped that we
will live up to these expectations of Israel, so that we can
continue to contribute to the growth and development of
that country.

c::

Dieh H. Brandon
Cnntributing Editor

45

now available

TELETYPEWRITER
FUNDAMENTALS
HANDBOOK By Wm. D. Rexroad
... IN HANDY POCKET·SIZE BOOKLET FORM PUBLISHED
BY COMPUTER DESIGN PUBLISHING CORPORATION

The Handbook is based on an article that appeared in the
November issue of COMPUTER DESIGN. The demand for reprints of the article was so overwhelming that it has now
been expanded, giving more details on some of the topics
previously-covered, and adding up-to-date information on
8-level codes, the standard code adopted by the ASCII,
frequency shift keying systems, radio teletypewriter techniques, and descriptions of the latest in teletypewriter
machinery.
IDEAL FOR:
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BASIC PRINCIPLES OF TELETYPEWRITERS
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Signal Generation & Reception

Code & Eight Level Codes •
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LIBRARIES

CUSTOMER INDOCTRINATION

HOW THEY OPERATE
HOW

•

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•

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Neutral & Polar Circuits •

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Baudot

Teletypewriter Distortion
Half-Duplex,

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DESCRIPTIONS &

PHOTOS OF TELETYPEWRITER

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Quantity prices available on request
To order your copy, simply fill out coupon below, enclose
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46

COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for May, 1965

at
Honeywell,
programmers
are

•• •

promoted, paid, perfected, pushed, puzzled,
pooled, paired, pampered, propelled, pacified,
persuaded, publicized, perplexed, proved,
patronized, pleased, progressed .... even pitied,

.. .but never ignored
The industry-wide impact of LI BERATOR and numerous
other software products developed by Honeywell has
created a wide range of opportunities at our Programming Systems Division in suburban Boston.
Positions exist for programmers and analysts who have
experience in software development, with emphasis on

Operating Systems
Conversion Techniques
COBOL Compilers
FORTRAN Compilers
Software Support
Sort Generators
Peripheral Systems
LIBERATOR Translators
Random Access
Math Routines
Technical Writing

Qualified candidates should
forward their resumes to
Mr. Frederick S. Bartlett
/'ersonnel Manager
Technical Divisions

Honey",ell
ELECTRONIC DATA PROCESSING
151 NEEDHAM ST., DEPT. la,

NEWTON, MASS.

.-in Equal Opportunitll ElI/plo]Jer

COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for May, 1965

47

SOME THINGS ARE ,BETTER DONE OFF LlNEPaper Tape to
Magnetic Tape
Conversion

for example;
MODEL 1720

~

Virtually any paper tape reader will limit the
speed of your computer, but now your computer can run at full speed.

• The Model 1720 uses center tape unwind for
simplest possible tape loading and handling.
• Performs error and validity checks.

• Broad programming capability handles virtually all code conversion or format conversion requirements.
• Minimal space required; any table or desk
will serve the purpose.

• Low cost.

• Easy on tape-mangled tapes are unheard of.

• Minimizes computer scheduling problems.

• Nationwide service.

- Low-cost Data Transmission;

In addition to our line of converters, Digi-Data Corporation manufactures card and paper tape
Data-Phone® transmission units such as the Model 2120 Magnetic Tape Receiver and the 2020 Card
Transmitter shown here.

DIG 1- D-ATA

.

•
CORPORATION ....................
•

DIGITAL STEPPING RECORDERS •

•

DIGITAL DATA HANDLING EQUIPMENT

4315 Baltimore Avenue • Bladensburg, Maryland 20710 • Telephone (301) 277-9378

WESTERN REGIONAL OFFICE:
4341 West Commonwealth Avenue
Fullerton, Cal ifornia 92633
Telephone (213) 941·3182

Circle No. 23 on Readers Service Card

48

COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for May, 19()')

"ACROSS THE EDITOR'S DESK"
Computing and Data Processing NewsleHer

.~.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Applications
New Contracts
New Installations
Computing Centers
New Products

.49
· 52
· 53
· 55
· 56

New Literature
Jobs and Opportunities
Meeting News ..
Business News
Computer Census

.63
. 63
.64
.64
. 68

APPLICATIONS

COMSAT'S CONTROL CENTER
GUIDES EARLY BIRD INTO
SYNCHRONOUS ORBIT

Early Bird, the world's first
commercial communications satellite,
was launched on April 6 from launch
pad 17A at Cape Kennedy by the
National Aeronautics and Space
Adminstration (NASA) for the Communications Satellite Corporation
(Comsat). On April 9, it was
parked in a "near letter perfect"
orbit over the Equator.

1
in your experience and background will thcn be
arranged in an area convenient 10 your city.

PHONE TODAY PLAZA 9-1085 / OR WRITE CAREER CENTER, 770 LEXINGTON AVE., NEW YORK, N. Y. 10021
Circle No. 37 on Readers Service Card



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