196802

196802 196802

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F~bruary,

co
Software, Programming, and Future Developments

rPERIODICALS SEC 1263 56856
SAN JOSE PUBl LIBRARY
0104
MARKET ~ SAN F~R ANOO *N1268
SA J OSE CA
95113

.«

1968

Perry Publications
is making headlines with this system
The system was designed so Perry's 26 daily
Florida newpapers could use one computer cen. ter in West Palm Beach.
Every day the Perry papers send their display
advertising and editorial matter to the center to
be prepared for typesetting machines.
Since speed is essentia I, Perry set up 14 trans*
mitting-receiving centers where newspaper
copy is put on paper tape. The tapes are sent via
Type 2 Dataspeed*Service (at 1050 words per
minute) to West Palm Beach.
At the center, tapes are read into the computers at 1000 characters per second, using pho-

toelectric readers. The computers have a 50,000 m Dataspeed
word dictionary programmed into them, so that E3 Service
copy can be prepared in newspaper column r7"IIIIf Bell System
widths and words hyphenated, where necessary. LJ.-.I Central Office
Computer
The output of the computer isa new tape
which is returned by Dataspeed service and fed
directly into typesetting machines.
If moving information in a hurry will help you
make more efficient use of your computer installation ,talk with Our Communications Consultant. He'll help you plan a

I1ii\

~ At'?!! ::'~~::a:~o~t~~~~/~:t~:adline.

Anyone can promise you time-sharing software.
We can demonstrate it.
Nearly every computer manufacturer has some sort of
time-sharing hardware ready to deliver.
Including us.
But when you ask a computer salesman about
software, he's likely to start talking about the
future. Because what most computer manufacturers have to offer is an operating system, a primitive FORTRAN, and a
tape full of promises.
Not us.
When we sell you a 940 timesharing system it comes complete with an operating system,
plus BASIC (a programming
tool for beginners) plus a conversational
algebraic language, plus a conversational
FORTRAN IV, plus a FORTRAN II, plus

a powerful text editor, plus a two pass assembler, plus a machine language debugging package, plus a whole library of
programs and subroutines. All operating and ready to work.
Now.
The reason we have more is that we've been at it longer. We
started working on time-sharing in prehistoric times, almost
two years ago. Since then we've sold our 940's to companies,
to research institutes, and to time-sharing utility service centers. And they have used them for everything from character
recognition to locating a 4-door sedan with red upholstery in
a car dealer's inventory.
So when you ask an SDS salesman
about time-sharing software he won't
start talking about the future. He'll
plug in his teletype unit and put you in
direct contact with our 940 computer. Scientific Data Systems,
It can speak for itself.
Santa Monica, California

Designate No. 16 on Reader Service Card

5 C5

FEBRUARY, 1968, Vol. 17, No.2

SPecial Feature:
Software, Programming, and Future Developments
14

THE PROGRAMMING PROFESSION, PROGRAMMING THEORY, AND PROGRAMMING EDUCATION
by larry L. Constantine
A candid look at the complex of attitudes, formal practice, ethics, and social structure relevant to the lfuestion: Is programming a profession?

MULTIPROGRAMMING: WHAT IT IS . . . WHEN TO USE IT . . . WHAT TO
LOOK FOR
by Michael Mensh
Some guidelines to help computer users determine whether a multiprogramming system
offers a reasonable solution to their programming problems.

Computing and Data Processing
Newsletter
(For detailed contents,
see page 5)
58

Advertising Index

Books and Other Publications

Calendar of Coming Events

C&A Problem Corner

A prototype of a graphic programming system that is economical, simple to use and understand, and requires almost no notational change in the way problems are conceived and
expressed.
32

PROPRIETARY PROTECTION OF COMPUTER PROGRAMS
by Sheldon J. Dansiger
An examination of four different methods for marketing software .•. with an evaluation
of each method.

AN INTERACTIVE PROGRAMMING SYSTEM FOR THE CASUAL USER
by Morton I. Bernstein and Thomas G. Williams

Across the Editor's Desk -

Editorial,

by Edmund C. Berkeley

The Problem of Keeping Up With One's Reading
20

Market Report
Control Data Corporation Plays Increasingly Important Role in World Computer Market, by
Ted Schoeters

Letters to the Editor
36

Monthly Computer Census

New Contracts

New Installations

New Patents

World Report -

Great Britain,

by Ted Schoeters

Implications of the possible merger between International Computers and Tabulator Co. and
English Electric.
37

World Report -

Australia,

by W. R. Cooper

How the first recession to hit the computer industry in Australia has affected the major industry suppliers; first Australian-designed computer is announced.
35

Jobs and Careers in Data Processing
Computers Open New Path to Rapid Promotions in Business, by Greg Zenner

by Raymond R. Skolnick
29

Ideas: Spotlight
Mind Stretching

Multi-Access Forum

1968 Prediction for the Computer Industry, by Isaac l. Auerbach

The General Services Administration V/.!:lnts More for the United States' Computer Dollars

Utah Computer Researchers Create "Idea Photographs"

Automation and the Proposed Minimum Annual Income: Subject for Debate

Contributions Welcome to "Who's Who in the Computer Field"

ACM Professional Development Seminars

Award to be Given for Outstanding Contribution in the Field of Automatic Control

Authors' Addresses Including Mail Codes

COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1968

The Iront cover shows illustrations 01 a graphic programming system
being developed at System Development Corp., Santa Monica, Calil. The "spokes"
01 the wheel show "Some examples 0/ interactive character recognition and computational
ability provided by the system,. the picture at the center shows a user seated at a graphic
display console. For more in/ormation, see "An Interactive Programming
System lor the Casual User," beginning on page 26.

ACROSS THE EDITOR'S DESK
Computing and Data Processing Newsletter
APPLICATIONS
41

Navajo Tribe Using Computer to Perform More than 125 Dis·
tinct Projects
Essex Wire Corp. Computer Tests Thermostats Automatically
Documentary Evidence for Court Case Organized by Computer
at Information Engineering
Texas Instruments Uses Computer-Centered Circuit Calibrator
National Bureau of Standards Institute for Materials Research
Applies Automation at the Crystal Data Center
Computer is Operating Drilling Rig for Humble Oil
IBM Computer Helps Century-Old Machine Turn Out Heat
Shields for Astronauts
Two Mile long Electron Beam Probes Atom with Aid of Computer

41
42
42
42
43
43
43

47
47

Software
47
48
48
48
48
48
48
48

ORGANIZATION NEWS
44

Four Top Computer Management Officials Form Computer learning Corp.
GE and Systems Capital Corp. Agreement Makes Some GE
Computers Available for long-Term leasing
Paragon Systems Enters Digital Peripheral Field
NCR, Sanders Associates Announce Multi-Million-Dollar Agreement
Computer Applications Inc. Purchases Home Testing Institute/
TvQ, Inc.
Cook Electric Company and laboratory for Electronics Agree to
Merge

44
44
44
44
45

EDUCATION NEWS
45

COMPUTER RELATED SERVICES
45

49
49
50
50
50
50

Memories
Direct Access Storage System for Univac 9000 Series
Memorex 630 Series Disc Drive

Motorola Reader Enters Data from Punched or Mark-Sensed
Cards and Documents
Remote Recording for IBM's Magnetic Tape Selectric Typewriter
Analog-to-Digital Converter, DATRAC IV, from EPSCO, Inc.
Grafacon 205-1 Magnetic Tape Digitizing System
Digitronlcs Model 2540, Perforated Tape Reader
TEC Data-Screen Display Terminal Combines Fixed and Variable Message Display
Interface System for Use with IBM 1130 Computer from Time
Sharing Associates

Data Processing Accessories
51
51

Audio Devices New Audev K-68 Magnetic Tape
"Minireels" of Magnetic Computer Tape Available from Audio
Devices

BUSINESS NEWS
51

IBM Adds Model 25 to System/360

46
46

Data Collection System from Electron Ohio Inc. for Industrial
Plants

Peripheral Equipment
49

Computer Campaign Services, a New Counseling Service

NEW PRODUCTS
Digital

Audiodiagrammer - Software Resources Corp.
Automated Circuit Card Etching layout (ACCEl), MOD 1 Sandia Corp.
COBOL-AID - Computer Results Corp.
GENCO - Software Resources Corp.
MIS/leasing - The Service Bureau Corp.
Model 101 - Computer Corp. of America
Payroll Accounting System - Software Resources Corp.
Teller-Register Unit Monitoring Program (TRUMP) - Honeywell
Electronic Data Processing

DatC!l Collection
49

Ohio State to Grant Degrees in Computer and Information
Science
Arkay International Announces Desktop Teaching Machine

Indiana General Introduces New Molded Memory Plane
Electronic M·emories Adds 900 Nanosecond System to Nanomemory line

51
51
51

Computer Sciences Corp. Applies· for Withdrawal of Proposed
Shares Offering
leasco Reports Income Rise for Fiscal 1967
Compudyne Reports Profit for Fiscal 1967
ADAPSO Suit to Bar Banks from Selling EDP Service is Rejected

Editor and Publisher: Edmund C. Berkeley
Assistant Editors: Moses M. Berlin, Charlene J. Hofer, linda ladd lovett, Neil D. MacDonald
Contributing Editors: John Bennett, Andrew D. Booth, Dick H. Brandon, John W. Carr, III, Ned Chapin, Alston S. Householder, Peter Kugel,
leslie Mezei, Rod E. Packer
Advisory Committee: T. E. Cheatham, Jr., James J. Cryan, Richard W. Hamming, Alston S. Householder, Victor Paschkis
Art Director: Ray W. Hass
Fulfillment Manager: William J. McMillan, 815 Washington St., Newtonville, Mass. 02160
617-332-5453
Advertising Representatives: NEW YORK 10018, Bernard lane, 3Z West 39 St.,
212-279-7281
CHICAGO 60611, Cole Mason Deming, 737 N. Michigan Ave.,
312-787-6558
lOS ANGELES 90005, Wentworth F. Green, 300 S. Kenmore Ave.,
213-387-8135
415-897-1620
SAN FRANCISCO 94123, Richard C. Alcorn, 2152 Union St.,
ElSEWHERE, The Publisher, 815 Washington St., Newtonville, Mass. 02160,
617 -332-5453
:lrnr\A'B'~\

COMPUTERS AND AUTOMATION IS PUBLISHED MONTHLY AT 815 WASHINGTON ST., NEWTONVILLE, MASS. 02160, BY BERKELEY ENTERPRISES, INC. PRINTED IN U.S.A. SUBSCRIPTION RATES: UNITED
STATES, $15.00 FOR 1 YEAR, $29.00 FOR 2 YEARS, INCLUDING THE JUNE DIRECTORY ISSUE; CANADA, ADD SOc A YEAR FOR POSTAGE; FOREIGN, ADD $3.50 A YEAR FOR POSTAGE. ADDRESS ALL
•••• ".,. EDITORIAL AND SUBSCRIPTION MAIL TO BERKELEY ENTERPRISES, INC., 815 WASHINGTON ST., NEWTONVILLE, MASS., 02160. SECOND CLASS POSTAGE PAID AT BOSTON, MASS.

. '~~!il'

POSTMASTER: PLEASE SEND ALL FORMS 3579 TO BERKELEY ENTERPRISES, INC., 815 WASHINGTON ST., NEWTONVILLE, MASS. 02160. © COPYRIGHT, 1968, BY BERKELEY ENTERPRISES, INC. CHANGE
OF ADDRESS: IF YOUR ADDRESS CHANGES, PLEASE SEND US BOTH YOUR NEW ADDRESS AND YOUR OLD ADDRESS (AS IT APPEARS ON THE MAGAZINE ADDRESS IMPRINT), AND ALLOW THREE WEEKS
FOR THE CHANGE TO BE MADE.

COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1968

ELlS ......
.. 1:11:1
FOR PEOPLE WHO THOUGHT THEY
COULDN'T AFFORD A DIGITAL COMPUTER

A $ 4900
DIGITAL

LETTERS

T 0

THE

COMPUTER
2 MICROSECOND CORE STORE.
'400 NANOSECOND READ ONLY STORE.

6 J.L SEC FULL WORD ADD TIME.
MICROPROGRAM MABLE.
UP TO 256 I/O. DEVICES.
ALL DTL INTEGRATED CIRCUIT CONSTRUCTION.

Programmer/Correspondent Sought

Study in the U.S.

I am a trainee programmer at a computer installation in Bulawayo, Rhodesia,
and I feel that it would be helpful for
me to correspond with a young programmer in America. I am 22 years of
age.
I would be extremely grateful if I
could get in touch with anyone willing
to correspond with me either by pen or
by tape recordings. Can you help me?

My company has awarded me an industrial scholarship which I intend to
use visiting the United States to study
aspects of computer project management, planning and control.
From the events calendar published
in your magazine, it is apparent that you
are closely in touch with the data processing training scene. Do you have a
comprehensive list of EDP courses and
seminars to be held in the spring of
1968?
I am particularly interested in any
courses organized by the Departments
of Continuing Education in American
universities or colleges.

M. J. FROST
5, Rosal House
12th Ave./Rhodes St.
Bulawayo, Rhodesia
(Ed. Note - This seems like a good opportunity for some desirable exchange.
If someone is interested, please write direct to Mr. Frost.)

FCC Inquiry and
Applications of Computers

~ELBIT

COMPUTERS LTD.
88, HAG I B 0 RIM S T R E E T
•

P.O.B. 5390. HAIFA .ISRAEL.

The Univac Division of the Sperry
Rand Corp. would like, in its response
to the Notice of Inquiry of the Federal
Communications Commission, 9 November 1966, to reproduce the list of "Over
1200 Applications of Computers" from
The Computer Directory and Buyers'
Guide, 1967 (the June, 1967 issue of
Computers and Automation). Full credit will, of course, be accorded.
The Inquiry, as you probably know,
is a far-reaching one consisting of ten
major questions bearing upon data
processing and communications, addressed to participants in the data processing industry. Our purpose in quoting your list of applications is to show
in item-by-item form, as you have done,
how extensive these applications are.
H.Y.GREENBERG
Director of Data Communications
Univac Div. of Sperry Rand
Philadelphia, Pa. 19101
(Ed. Note -

Permission granted.)

D. L. BOWLAND
Company Systems Officer
Thomas Bolton & Sons, Ltd.
Froghall, Stoke-on-Trent
Staffordshire, England
(Ed. Note - We have no listing other
than our HCalendar of Coming Events,"
but we suggest you contact the persons
listed there. By now the courses organized in A merican universities probably number 50 to 100, and specific information could be obtained by writing
to various universities in the area which
you plan to visit.)

Training Programmers
I read with extreme interest John
J. Mason's article, "Business Systems
Analysis - An Orderly Approach," in
your August, 1967 issue.
I am an Assistant Methods Analyst
with The Prudential Insurance Company
of America and would like to use this
article when training our young programmers in systems development work.
It would be appreciated if you could
send me a copy of this article or your
permission to reprint it for my own use.

L. F. HUBER
Jacksonville, Florida 32211
(Ed. Note -

Permission granted.)

Designate No. 21 on Reader Service Card

COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1968

NUMBER1

-9
The world's most versatile

IN NUMBERS

PERSONAL CALCULATING
SYSTEM

EDITOR

Battles By Computer -

Final Results

May I call your attention to an
editorial slip? Your article (Battles By
Computer, November, '67, p. 12) stated
that "Jack Dempsey became the champion (boxer) when he knocked out Gentleman Jim Corbett in the seventh
round." That fight was only a preliminary bout in the 13 week world's
championship elimination tournament.
The
final
round
was
broadcast
here in Washington, D.C., by WTOP on
December 18, 1967. Rocky Marciano
became the greatest boxer that ever
lived, according to the computer, by
knocking out Jack Dempsey in the
13th round of an otherwise even match
(4 rounds each and 4 draws). Incidentally, he wins $10,000 and a golden
belt for this.
WENDELL WEATHERFORD
Silver Springs~ Md. 20901

Praise for Pictorial

Mr. Pierre F. Simon, head of our
company, was very much impressed
with your issue of December, 1967 (Annual Pictorial Report on the Computer Field) . Please send six additional
copies to him and bill us accordingly.
MRS. SHIRLEY COHEN
Machine & Products Co.
New York, N.Y. 10005

thinks in logarithms ...
answers in decimals
THE MODEL 370 GIVES YOU
MOST OF THE ADVANTAGES
OF ABIG COMPUTER ........... WITH NONE OF THE
DISADVANTAGES
• Expandable, random-access core
memory
• Looping, branching, subroutines
• Extraordinary power and versatility
- handles statistical computations,
simultaneous equations, problems
with logs and exponentials, etc.
• Time-sharing - fully compatible
with standard 320 series for "infield" expandability
• Extensive software library
• Modular design - buy only the
functions you ne.ed; add more capabilities at any time.

• No major investment required price in upper "calculator" range
• No waiting - always available at
your fingertips
• No special language needed programs in minutes in simple keyboard format
• No space problems - compact
keyboard! control console takes little
more room than a phone on your
desk; small electronics unit takes no
more room than a desk drawer and
may be located up to .50' away.

We are interested in the Fifth Edition
of Who's Who in the Computer Field.
When will it be available for sale, and
what will be its price?
LOUISE LA LONDE, Librarian
Control Data Corp.
Minneapolis, Minn. 55440
(Ed. Note See announcement in
"Multi-Access Forum" in this issue.)
DEPARTMENT 0000, 836 NORTH STREET, TEWKSBURY, MASSACHUSETTS 01876

COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1968

Designate No. 22 on Reader Service Card

•

TEL. (617) 851-7311

EDITORIAL
The Problem of Keeping Up With One's Reading
Item: Recently a renewal notice from a subscriber came
into our office marked: "Can't renew - management thinks
too much time is spent in reading - I don't agree, but .... "
Item: The pile of material most of us have to read accumulates like snow in the ice age - it never melts, we never
finish reading the pile. (I look forward to traveling on a
plane or riding on the New York subway because I will
have a chance to catch up on some reading.)
Item: The magazine Business Week helps the reader because it has a page close to the beginning of the issue
where everything in the issue is listed and briefly described
so anybody can decide quickly what he wants to read and
what he doesn't. Computers and Automation has adopted this
system, going to a two-page table of contents.

How are we in the computer field to keep up with the
reading we want to do and need to do? Is this possible?
For anybody who is ambitious and who is doing a lot of
work, it probably is not possible. The quantity of ambition
increases the amount to be read. The quantity of work to
be done subtracts time away from reading.
If success is impossible, what solution should be adopted?
Scheme 1. Separate between what will bite you if you
don't read it, and what will not bite you if you don't
read it - and read only what will bite you if you
don't read it.
Take for example a notice of a parking violation. Most
people will read it - the penalty for not reading it is drastic.
Furthermore, the notice of the parking violation notice is
definitely short, to the point, and often very clear: "If no
response in 21 days, fine of $5."
Unfortunately, this scheme is far from adequate. Much
more reading can be done, and the scheme provides an
insufficient guide for selection.
Scheme 2. Separate between what you can understand,
and what you can't understand - and don't read what
you can't understand.
Unfortunately, this scheme is also far from adequate. Most
of us can understand a good deal of what we have no time
or desire to read, including billboards and signs on buses; and
this scheme also provides an insufficient guide for selection.
Once in a while, also, curiosity gets the better of me, and
I read what I can't understand. Across the editor's desk the
other day came a notice of a meeting on LSI. What was
that? I read through the entire notice, and I could not find
out anywhere what LSI was. Finally, I wrote a letter to
discover - and found out that LSI stood for Large Scale
Integration (of circuits). But I should have saved myself the
trouble; I paid a penalty for my curiosity.
Scheme 3. Get someone else to read for you and report
to you.
This is the principle regularly used in producing book
reviews. And a lot of people come to feel they have read a
book because they have read a review of the book.
Unfortunately, I have almost never found a summary,
digest, or review to be at all equivalent to the impression
that I myself receive from reading something for myself. So
this scheme is not really adequate, though perhaps in special
circumstances, with careful training of your assistant, it may

work. (As a computer person, I confess I keep hoping to
program a computer to read for me - but I don't think it
will happen for some years to com~~)
In ComjJUters and Automation,?
we try to publish for
"book reviews" short reports saying what is in a book, and
what its le~el is, so that a reader can decide for himself
whether a book is likely to be worth examining.
Scheme 4. Separate between what you won't remember
if you read it and what you will remember if you read
it - and try not to read what you won't remember.
For example, the daily newspaper is full of reports about
events that will make almost no difference and will be forgotten two months from now. Therefore, try to read the
daily paper using the principle of not reading anything
that won't make any difference two months from now.
This scheme really saves a lot of time. In fact, this
principle, suitably applied, leads to almost never reading
more than a small fragment of the Sunday newspaper!
Scheme 5. Make a treaty with the author, the publisher,
or the reporter to save your time reading.
For example,. the treaty should provide: (1) The most
important part of the story should be put down first. (2)
Headings should be used so the reader can find his way
about. Etc., etc., etc.
This is rather a good scheme. Not all ideas are equally important.- An author and an editor can make an article
inviting and helpful by putting important ideas in prominent
positions, and wording them carefully.
Over and over again in putting together the issues of Computers and Automation we try to save our readers' time in
reading. We try to use helpful devices for this purpose. All
suggestions from our readers. will be welcome. Suppose
only one-tenth of an issue of Computers and Automation or
less is read by a reader - yet if he finds half a dozen ideas
that make a real difference to him, then the bargain is
reasonable.
To conclude, let me quote Samuel T. Coleridge (17721834), poet, philosopher, author of "Kubla Khan" and "The
Ancient Mariner":
There are only four kinds of readers:
The first is like the hour-glass; their reading being as
the sand, it runs in and runs out, and leaves no
vestige behind.
The second is like the sponge, which imbibes everything
and returns it in nearly the same state, only a little
dirtier.
A third is like a jelly-bag, allowing all that is pure to
pass away, retaining only the refuse and dregs.
And the fourth is like the slaves in the diamond mines,
who, casting aside all that is worthless, -retain only
pure gems.

EDITOR

COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1968

The UNIVAC@ 9400. High performance
complement to the family of successful
UNIVAC 9200 and 9300 computer systems.
A powerful medium-sized real-time system
with capabilities previously found only in
larger, more expensive systems.
Newest addition to the UNIVAC 9000
Series, the UNIVAC 9400 offers a wide
choice of applications whether they be
direct access, sequential batch processing,
or communications-oriented processing.
Communications configurations
provide for up to 64 duplex line terminals,
with the number of possible remote devices
almost unlimited. Utilizing an intermix
of codes and speeds, the UNIVAC 9400
can communicate with a full range of
peripheral terminals, the UNISCOPE@ 300
visual display unit and the DCT-2000
as well as many other processors such as

the UNIVAC 1108 and 494 Systems.
Designed with a supervisor control
program for multiprogramming, the
UNIVAC 9400 will run up to five main-chain
programs at the same time. For example:
1) responding to inquiries from remote
terminals, 2) updating accounts
receivables,3) updating "in process"
inventory,4) sorting disc or tape files,
5) solving complex mathematical equations
-all can be processed concurrently.
Peripherals include industry
standard discs and tapes. Tape systems
can be expanded from 4 to 16 drives,
from 34 to 192 KB. Disc configurations
provide from 2 to 8 UNIVAC 8411 Disc
Drives. Each has a 7,250,000 byte capacity
and 75 millisecond average access time.
The complement of software includes
full COBOL and FORTRAN, RPG and BAL,

among others, in tape and disc-oriented
systems plus other proven programming
and testing packages.
.
A basic UNIVAC 9400 tape or disc
system is available at monthly costs
beginning at about $6,000. Extend it,
expand it, make it grow with you. Yet-no
matter how big you make it-it can still
be part of one large computer familythe UNIVAC 9000 Series.
If you're ready to move up, please
call UNIVAC.
The voice that answers will he human.

UNIVAC
Univac is saving a lot of people a lot of time.
~>-- 5PE~Y RAI\D
Designate No. 23 on Reader Service Card

The voice at the other end
of this telephone isrit human.
If you've never talked to a computer before, we'd like to introduce you.
"'~'i"~,'.!"i'~::".~"'C'"""",,,,,,,,,,,

MULTI-ACCESS FORUM

1968 PREDICTION FOR THE COMPUTER INDUSTRY
Isaac L. Auerbach, President
Auerbach Corp.
121 N. Broad St.
Philadelphia, Pa. 19107
It is my belief that the computer industry will grow between 12 and 15 percent during 1968. The main area of
growth will be an increase in the economic yield, over-all
efficiency, and productivity of present in-place computer installations.
During 1968, informed business leaders will pay much
greater attention to the computer as a device which affords
the potential of significant profit - in production scheduling,
man-loading, economic forecasting, marketing, and corporate
planning. It is important to have the computer work where
the action is, and this is on the operational side of business.
In spite of this growth, however, the year 1968 may be
characterized by some measure of relative economic confusion and hesitation, resulting from a possible tightening of
Federal expenditure due to concern over dollar devaluation.

It is conceivable that a resultant profit squeeze could curtail
business expenditure for new plant construction and capital
equipment. And this would affect the computer industry now clearly a major capital equipment supplier.
Although some new technological developments in the field
will be introduced in 1968, nothing revolutionary is expected
to disrupt the operation of current in-place equipment. One
area of major need is peripheral equipment (input and output
equipment), where greater reliability is becoming more important. The economic impact of laser and photo-optic technological advances will probably be negligible. Developments
in computer-assisted education and instruction should continue at a brisk pace, with emphasis on new techniques to
improve basic teaching programs, as well as the use of improved consoles in the student-machine relationship.

THE GENERAL SERVICES ADMINISTRATION WANTS MORE FOR
THE UNITED STATES' COMPUTER DOLLARS
Based on a report by Richard Wightman, Electronic News, December 18, 1967
The General Services Administration intends to take a
more active part in the purchase of data processing equipment by the various agencies in the Federal government.
GSA was given the "sole responsibility" for buying such
equipment for Federal use through legislation which was
passed two years ago; but government departments have
continued to be supplied indiyidually, meeting their own
needs as required. Because of concern that it may, in fact,
be illegal for individual departments to make such purchases, GSA recently sought the opinion of the Comptroller
General of the United States, and was advised that the twoyear-old law does provide "exclusive authority to GSA to

procure all general-purpose ADP and related supplies and
equipment for use by other Federal agencies."
The purpose of the new GSA procurement policy will be
to cut costs and to promote competition among computer
manufacturers. Because of lack of money and staff, GSA
officials predict that it might be a few years before the policy
becomes fully effective. But as one official put it, "The situation now is as ·if IBM had been selling to a series of independent department stores - rather than to the department store chain. If IBM has to sell to the chain, we should
do much better in the way of volume bulk and group discounts."

COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1968

UTAH COMPUTER RESEARCHERS CREATE "IDEA PHOTOGRAPHS"
Dr. David C. Evans, Director
Computer Service Department
University of Utah
Salt Lake City, Utah 84112
Researchers at the University of Utah are using a computer to create three-dimensional, halftone "photographs" of
a man's ideas. The research opens the door to a large area
of creative visual electronics, with remarkable possibilities in
nearly every field from entertainment and education to architecture and medicine.
The group of scientists working on the project has made
"photographs" of objects that exist only in the minds of
those at the computer controls. The photograph-like reproductions were "materialized" by the computer, which had
been previously programmed in the mathematics appropriate
to light and shape.
This development opens up many future possibilities such
as:
1. Motion pictures in three dimensions which give the
illusion of live action;
2. Computerized architecture, which would allow the
designer to spend ninety percent of his time on creative work; this would include three-dimensional
building design, eliminating the need for blueprints in
the design process, and allowing the designer to show
viewers (through a special set of "goggles") how the
structure will look on the site; and
3. Realistic visual aids which will modify teaching methods in education.

The scientists are working under a four-year, $5 million
contract with the Advanced Research Prqjects Agency, Department of Defense, Washington, D.C., to increase communications and graphic techniques between man and computers.
In the halftone research, which is part of the project, the
group is working initially with geometric shapes, like cubes,
pyramids, and spheres. These building blocks, once they are
programmed into the computer, are "stretchable" and can be
manipulated into many different combinations of design
forms and shapes.
One of the practical applications of halftone research may
come in the field of architecture. The new computer graphics
should allow an architect to design a building on :t large
cathode-ray tube instead of a drawing board. He will need to
do so only once, and he will be able to do so in perspective,
right down to the last detail. In the process, the computer can rotate the design for a view from any angle. The
architect can magnify any section for close-up examination,
and can remove walls to look inside any part of the structure.
The University of Utah group is working closely with Dr.
Ivan Sutherland of the Aiken Computation Laboratory, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. Dr. Sutherland is experimenting with a set of "goggles" which makes the computer
graphics appear three dimensional; he has made a "helmet" fitted with a pair of cathode-ray tube "lenses" that
show computer images in a stereoscopic pair.

AUTOMATION AND THE PROPOSED MINIMUM ANNUAL INCOME:
SUBJECT FOR DEBATE
I. From Martin Haufmann
217 West 15th St.
Hays, Kansas 67601
lama debator at Ft. Hays State College, Hays, Kansas.
This year's resolution is:
Be it resolved that the Federal Government guarantee
a minimum annual cash income to all citizens.
We are developing an argument relating automation to the
above resolution.' Our argument is based on the premise
that a fear of automation exists among the general public,
and that this fear is blocking or hindering the development

II.

of automation. Because automation offers a great many advantages, we would advocate the annual income to remove
this fear.
We need information on public fear of automation: that it
exists, that it is widespread, that it is a major block to
automation. We also need information supporting automation.
We need to have quotable material, such as statements
by authoritative persons. Any help you can give us will be
appreciated.

From the Editor

One of' the best references we know is the report of the
National Commission on Technology, Automation, and Economic Progress, Technology and the American Economy, Vol.
1, 115 pp., published by the Superintendent of Documents,
Washington, D.C., February, 1966. It is available for 75
COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1968

cents. We suggest that you order a copy.
Also, we publish an annual index in each January issue of
Computers and Automation indexing all the material published in the previous twelve months. The index should also
be helpful to you.

CONTRIBUTIONS WELCOME TO IIWHO /S WHO IN THE COMPUTER FIELDII
I. From J. G. Schofer
Program Administrator
Chrysler Corp.
1100 South Tibbs Ave.
Indianapolis, Ind. 46241
In regard to your "Who's Who in the Computer Field,
Fifth Edition, 1968, we are enclosing six entries for your
consideration.
Chrysler Corporation, Indianapolis Foundry, is the site of
the first computer process control of cupola melting. We
have used data processing in this plant for a number of
years for payroll, accounts payable, quality analysis, down.
time reporting, preventive maintenance program, inventory
control, linear programming and the other normal D.P. applications. In 1965 we contracted with Control Data Corporation for a Model 63.6 computer for process control.
Enclosed are four articles written about our process control computer installation. Our Plant Manager, Mr. P. F.
Moore, was formerly a manager in the Corporate Systems
Department. Mr. Moore addressed the National Convention
of American Society for Quality Control in Chicago, June
2, 1967. The speech was about. our process control computer.
Since J une,Mr. Moore and our Plant Comptroller, Mr. C. S.
Orban, have talked to three regional groups of American So·ciety for Quality Control in Indianapolis, Detroit and New
Brunswick, New Jersey.
We are very prqud of our installation and we would appreciate your consideration of the six people described on
the attached sheets for inclusion in "Who's Who In The
Computer Field" - Fifth Edition, 1968.

II.

From the Who's Who Editor:

We thank you for your entries, and we are sure they will
be worthwhile additions to the Who's Who. Thank you for
your friendly cooperation in our assembling of information for
it.

The Fifth Edition of Who's Who in the Computer Field
will be published by Computers and Automation during 1968.
The Fourth Edition, 253 pages, with about 5000 capsule
biographies, was published in 1963. The Third Edition, 199
pages, was published in 1957.
In this edition, we hope to include upwards of .10,000;
capsule biographies, including as many persons as possible
who have distinguished themselves in the field of computers

and data processing. If you know of people who should be
included, please tell us their names and addresses.
If you wish to be considered for inclusion in this "Who's
Who", pleasecbmplete the ·following form (which may be
copied on any piece of paper) or' provide us with the
equivalent information:
1. Name? (Please print) _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
2. Home Address? _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
3: Organization?
4. Its Address?
5. Your Title? _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
6. Your Main Interests?
Applications
()
Mathematics
( )
( )
Business
( )
Programming
Construction
( )
Sales
( )
Design
( )
Systems
( )
Logic
Other
( )
( )
Management
( )
(Please specify)

7. Year of Birth? _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
8. Education and degrees? _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
9. Year Entered Computer Field? _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
10. Occupation __________________
11. Publications,
Honors, Memberships,
and Other
Information? - - - - - - -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

(attach paper if needed)
12. Associates or friends who should be sent "Who's
Who" entry fOMlls?
Name and Address

When completed, please send to:
Who's Who Editor, Computers and Automation,
815 Washington St., Newtonville. Mass. 02160

ACM PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT SEMINARS
Association for Computing Machinery (ACM)
National Headquarters
211 East 43rd St.
New York, N.Y. 10017
~

A number of ACM Professional Development Seminars
have been organized and scheduled. The titles of seminars
include: "File Structures for On-Line Systems;" "Time Sharing Systems;" "The Selection and Evaluation of Computet
Personnel;" "Decision Tables for Computer Systems Design
and Programming;" "Information: Its Storage, Retrieval.
and Management;" and "Computer Graphics."

Eight different seminars have been scheduled in 26 cities
during January, February, and March.
Prices range from $15 to about $95, depending mainly on
the length of the seminar.
A catalog of the seminars is available on request to the
ACM.

COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1968

resume and letter of recommendation by at least one
responsible supervisor.
• All supporting documents shall be in the English language.

AWARD TO BE GIVEN FOR
OUTSTANDING CONTRIBUTION IN
THE FIELD OF AUTOMATIC CONTROL
Donald P. Eckman Award Committee of the American
Automatic Control Council
c/o Systems Research Center
Case Western Reserve University
University Circle
Cleveland, Ohio 44106
A certificate and cash award of $300 will be granted for
an outstanding contribution in the field of automatic control at the 1968 Joint Automatic Control Conference.
Nominations are invited in support of outstanding individual young contributors subject to the following qualifications:
• Contributions may take the form of technical or scientific publications, theses, patents, inventions, or combinations of the above in the field of automatic control.
• Applications will be accepted in support of candidates who are less than thirty years of age .
• The contribution for which the Award is sought must
represent work performed prior to the age of 27 while a
resident in the U.S.A.
• Supporting evidence must include a full professional

1·::::~~~·r···E""l""E"··P"·A··"·T····~

Nominations for the award should be submitted to the
above address prior to April 15, 1968.

AUTHORS' ADDRESSES INCLUDING
MAIL CODES
I. From the Institute for Scientific Information
325 Chestnut Street
Philadelphia, Pa. 19106
Since many journals are read widely both inside and outside
of the United States, international scientific communication
will be greatly aided if addresses of authors including zip
codes are given. Many foreign countries also have recently instituted new mail coding systems; therefore, we hope you can
also include mail codes for foreign authors.

II. From the Editor
Commencing at once, Computers and Automation will seek
to publish complete addresses for all authors.

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COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1968

THE PROGRAMMING PROFESSION, PROGRAMMING
THEORY, AND PROGRAMMING EDUCATION

Larry L. Constantine
Information & Systems Institute, Inc.
14 Concord Lane
Cambridge, Mass. 02138

"The classic challenge has been that programming lacks: (1) an ordered
body of knowledge, (2) active interaction between the field's practitioners and that body of knowledge, and (3) a systematic educational process for imparting the knowledge to new entrants to the field. H ow are
we meeting this challenge?"

The question whether or not programming is a profession
today remains unresolved. Perhaps ultimately, the issue will
be settled not by definitions and debate, nor by social decisions, but by the conduct of the would-be professionals in
the field. Much of what constitutes a profession is a matter of
professionalism - a complex of attitudes, formal practice,
ethics, and social structure.
Beyond this, however, are matters which are certainly
important to the emergence of a programming profession,
but also may be critical to the viability of programming as
a legitimate, unique field of endeavor.
The classic challenge has been that programming lacks
(1) an ordered body of knowledge, (2) active interaction
between the field's practitioners and that body of knowledge,
and (3) a systematic educational process for imparting the
knowledge to new entrants to the field. [1] This challenge is
nearly as valid today as when stated four years ago. It is incumbent on us in the field to examine the origins of the difficulty and the potential solutions to the dilemma. It is the

purpose of this article to consider one aspect of the problem:
the relationship between current education in the programming
field and that portion of an ordered body of knowledge about
programming which does exist.
The relation between education and programming theory
is very relevant not only to the professional future of programming but to the cost and quality of its practice, both today and tomorrow.
Programming Theory
Programming theory needs to be divided into two parts:
the theory of programs and the theory of programming.
Clearly, though the scope and treatment of the two theory
bodies are distinct, they are interrelated, just as the theory
of X's is interrelated with the theory of making X's,
whatever X may be.
What is a theory?

COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1968

In practice, a theory (or theory body) is a model, a model
representing supposed underlying principles of operation or
behavior. A theory explains, or accounts for, phenomena and
observations; and it also enables t.he making of true predictions about the phenomena covered, including predicting the
results of departing from norms of operation or behavior.
To have an acceptable theory, we require in addition to
the model, a usable definition of the scope of phenomena
covered by the model as a theory. That is, we must be
able to say, independent of the application of the theory
itself, for any given phenomenon whether or not it is an
instance of those things included in the theory.
Finally, we judge a theory on its validity (correctness),
relevance (appropriateness) and applicability (practical
value), though only the first factor (validity) is a requirement
of all theories.
It is crucial to note that the theories of programs and
programming are distinct from either the theory of computers or the theory of computation.
The theory of computers is basically a theory that states
what a computer is, its principles of operation, its behavior
under prescribed conditions, and fundamentals of its construction. This theory is extensively covered, perhaps even
well developed, but certainly not well integrated. Indeed,
mo,;t of what would be a part of a theory of computers
would probably not be considered as such by its authors.
The theory of computation deals with computing, independent of computers. The theory includes what a computation
is, what can be computed and what cannot, and specific
questions such as the equivalence of computations and their
transformation. This theory is both well developed and well
integrated, but it is usually not alluded to by this name;
usually it is called recursive function theory.
Neither programs nor programming are covered by the
theories of computers or computing (or, for that matter, by
any number of computer-related theory bodies such as the
theory of algorithms,- numerical analysis, or computational
linguistics). The available university-recognized theory bodies are generally irrelevant, because they exclude or minimize
the phenomena of most importance to the practicing professional programmer, namely, programs and programming.
To be specific, a theory of programs must say what a
program is (not what it should be or could' be or is similar
to); what are its constituents and their interrelationships;
what its characteristic modes of behavior are; and what
happens when you do certain things to it. Moreover, we
would want such a theory to have clear implications for
the construction of programs with certain characteristic behavior (such as reliable behavior).
Similarly, a theory of programming would identify
just what that phenomena is, what it means to program or
create a program, what the characteristic behavior of the
programmer is, what influence programming practice has on
the cost and quality of the product (programs), and what
can be done to change (ideally, improve) the practice and
the product.
As practitioners, we do not require that either theory be
mathematical, only useful. This may well be a factor separafng academicians from practitioners, the former placing a
premium on mathematical formulation.
Existence of Programming Theory
Significant portions of both the theory of programs and
the theory of programming do exist today.
The existence of programming theory is proved by the
simple exhibition of at least one model constituting a theory
of programs and one for a theory of programming. To do
so in any depth is however outside the scope of this article;

COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1968

nevertheless, to fail to outline examples would be to risk
losing credibility. In each case premises are stated and then
the basic model is presented. References to some of the background and further explication are found in the references
at the end of this article.
The presentation of a portion of each of these two theories
is important to the central thesis of this article: that much
more is known about programs and programming than is
being recognized and taught. Even more important is the
fact that both theoretical views are representative of what is
going on in industry but not in the universities.
A Structural Theory of Programs
We call the theory of programs set forth here "a structural theory of programs." This is deliberately chosen to
contrast with the algorithmic theory of programs, which
treats programs merely as algorithms, that is, orderly procedures for the computation of results.
The algorithmic theory of programs revolves around
problems of order, sequence, and efficiency. By definition in
this theory, a program is merely a sequence of instructions
constituting an algorithm for the computation of some
value (s) . This characterization is correct; the algorithmic
theory or view of programs is unquestionably valid. However,
the algorithmic view is insufficient to account for the most
important aspects of programs as they exist today.
The basic assumption of the structural theory of programs
is that a program is a system, that is, a finite, structured
collection of components which performs some task. Among
the components may be other systems. Thus a program is
composed of both statements (instructions, commands, etc.)
and collections of statements. In fact, from the standpoint
of significance to programming, the latter is enormously
more important. Thus:
A program is an ordered set of statements and aggregates of statements defining, describing, or directing the
performance of some task. A program is a system and
is thus defined by its inputs, outputs, transformation
function, its boundary, components, and their interrelationships. The aggregates of statements are called modules, and a module is a program.
This definition leads to a model of a program based on
constituents which are larger than the basic statements and
to a concentration on the interrelationships among these
components. To illustrate the nature of the theory and some
of its conclusions, consider the crucial question of program
cost, which must be strongly related to ultimate program
complexity.
Structural Representation of A Program
A structural representation of a program on a statement
by statement basis is illustrated in Figure 1. Each of the
arrows represents a direct reference within one stqtement to
another statement, or to some part of another statement, or
to something also referred to by another statement, or an
arrow represents an implicit connection, such as related processing effects or sequential execution. The intent of Figure
1 is to represent the sum total of all interrelationships
among elements of the program, that is, the complete structure. Any real program is a very complex structure when
modeled in this manner.
Now in practice, no real program above a certain critical
size is ever actually implemented as such a monolithic
structure - as a single, linear, unbroken sequence of code.
In the sense of containing phases, segments, procedures,
blocks, subroutines, macros, or other externally defined aggregations, all programs are modular. [5, 8]

Numerous factors are influenced by the aggregation (or in
practice, segmentation) scheme. The separability of the programming task and the success of such separation will depend on the number and kind of intermodular interconnections. Ease of maintenance is largely a function of limiting
the scope of changes. Structures with minimal intermodular
connections and maximum functional cohesiveness of module
content will tend to minimize the cost of correction and
changes. In fact, a mathematical cost .model, based on the
structural theory of programs and an understanding of human information processing even indicates a strategy for
minimum debugging costs. Both the components and interconnections in programs a're heterogeneous sets. Modules can
be classified by physical characteristics (subroutine, macro,
etc.) and by constructive basis (coincidence, similarity of function, etc.) connections may be differentiated on a functional
bas:s (input-output coupling, common environment connec-.
tions, etc.). On these bases, one can make successful predictions about implementation diffi(:ulties, maintainability, and
generality of the components.
The structural theory of programs is most significant because of its implications and impact on actual program
development. This is intimately tied up with the theory of
programming to be discussed below.

I ,

I
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Figure 1 -

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Program as a system of statements.

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a) Scheme 1 Aggregation

Figure 2 -

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b) Scheme 1 System Structure

Program .asa system of modules.

The physical structure defined by such aggregates can be
considered to be superimposed on the inherent structure of
the statements. Externally, then, a program is really mor~
like Figure 2, that is, a number of "large" components, with
(sometimes) fewer, more explicit interconnections. In a
sense, one cannot eliminate the inherent structure. Figure 3a
represents one aggregation superimposed on the program of
Figure 1, resulting in the system structure of Figure 3b.
Another aggregation scheme for the same program is
shown in Figure 3c giving the structure of 3d. In a very
definite sense, the latter structure is simpler. The components of the modules of Figure 3c and 3d are more cohesive, more related, while the modules themselves are more
independent, less related.

c) Scheme 2 Aggregation

Figure 3 -

d) SC:leme 2 System Structure

Influence of aggregation
system complexity.

(segmentation)

COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1968

Recognition of
computer-oriented
problem

Specify solution

ANALYSIS

DESIGN

'Define
problem

IMPLEMENTATION

Integrate solution
wJth environment

MAINTENANCE

Build Solution

INST ALL ATI ON

Keep solution
going

Figure 4 -

Phases of programming.

A Process Theory of Programming

Almost directly from the structural theory of programs,
follows a theory of programming [3]:
Programming is a systems problem-solving process directed toward the cre~tion of a program whose function
is the solution of some portion of a given problem.
Programming is performed by people. It is an engiIJeering function which seeks optimality.
From this definition it is clear that:
-

programming is not an instantaneous event;
it is an error-prone pro~ess;
it does not begin with writing the first line of code;
it does not end with writing the last line of code;
it is a subset of problem solving in general.

As a process, programming is divisible into phases on the
basis of distinct characteristic actions and orientations. These
phases are part of virtually all "inventive" problem solving,
that is, human creation of a system. By definition, the operations represented by the phases in Figure 4 are a part of all
programming. In practice, some phases are accomplished by
non-programmers, and the division of labor varies from organization to organization. Often, explicit performance of
certain functions is bypassed, resulting in the implicit (and
poorer) realization of these functions in later phases, or worse,

Problem
recognition

ANALYSIS

•

Resolve
Define

Obsolescence
of system

expensive and repetitive return to the functions of earlier
phases.
Figure 5 simply represents the programming process as a
system. The pivotal role of the design function is most important. By the definition of a program, design must specify
not just the realization of the function (the algorithm or
procedure) but the input-output morphology, the system
boundary, the components, a)ld their interrelationships. Particularly the last two system aspects are usually "designed"
by the incidental side effects of the implementation process.
Since design must specify (describe, represent) 'the unimplemented program, by definition, it employs models. Potentially, any system model or documentation technique
is a design tool. Because system design involves very rapid
eyolution, some tools may be less usable than others. Note
also that tools for specifying the design of all system characteristics are needed. By definition, the flowchart and the
decision ta.ble are not panaceas for program design. If we
carry our analysis of the design function to its logical conclusion, it follows readily that morphological (external form)
and structural (internal form) characteristics have more profound and direct impact on major design objectives than
algorithmic considerations do. System generality, durability,
and utility are all largely determined by form rather than
method.
If programming is a human problem-solving process, then
clearly, psychology and particularly the psychology of problem solving applies. Indeed, a large body of literature is

DESIGN
DefinitiQn of
problem and
Specify
aross desiqn ,.
Describe

IMPLEMENTATION
Complete
's'peel:l'i cat ions
of system .,.,
Translate
.,
Construct

Working
system
MAINTENANCE

.,...

Obsolete
system

Correct
Modify

INSTALLATION

Useable
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Integrate
Adjust

name
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input ..
transform

COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1968

relevant and provides additional refinements to the theory.
The problems of stimulus binding and functional fixity, the
effects of considering alternative approaches, and the influence of problem complexity, have all been studied in engineering and the results apply to programming as well.
The marriage of the structural theory of programs and the
process theory of programming is a formal procedure for
the design of modular systems. It can be demonstrated that
a systematic design approach which segments a system on
strictly functional lines, proceeding downward through a
hierarchical structure, tends to produce "near optimal," highly
decoupled systems.
Theory and Practice
Both of the theories discussed are largely ex post facto,
representing attempts to integrate a considerable body of everyday experience about what makes programs cost so much.
It is not surprising then to find in industry hoth the explicit
application of these two theories and the more widespread
implicit use.
The advantage of a formal understanding of theory is
twofold. First, by integrating diverse specialized experience,
theory converts intuition and isolated instances into a systematic approach. Thus we find companies using a formal,
systems problem-solving approach to programming which
begins very early in the life history of programs. More and
more, programmers attack the problem of generating viable,
understandable programs, rather than merely efficient code.
Powerful design tools which also aid in debugging and maintenance are being developed. The formalized hierarchy chart
is the best example.
Experience has shown that much of this is part of the hardwon understanding of senior professionals, irrespective of
their exposure to theoretical foundations. But, and this brings
us to the second reason for a theory, the understanding based
only on experience is not easily passed on to new programmers. It is quite safe to say that virtually all new programmers are more concerned with details, tricky coding, and the
rapid generation of instructions than with the enormously
more important considerations of logical transparency of the
code to others, integral and extensive commenting, generality
of control interfaces, and ease of modification. The programmer whose experience is not just right may never
learn these things.
Programmer Education
It is probably true that a majority of programmers get
their first exposure to programming through the university.
The nature of this education is a function of two major,
largely detrimental factors.
First is a general lack of communication between industry
and the university relative to what is required of the computer professional. This results in little appreciation for
what programming really is today or what industry needs
are in the area. Second is the widespread university attitude
toward programming. On the simple question of what
programmers do, little agreement emerges between the university and the more advanced segments of industry. The
university position appears to be that:
Programmers perform a detailed, complex, but routine clerical task involving the translation of algorithms
into language forms acceptable to computers.
This is a task performed mostly by undergraduates and research assistants. Training for its performance consists of
exposure to the basic concepts of algorithms, coding details,
and language problems. Advanced education consists of
treatment of specific techniques or technical fields, such as
listing processing, or assembler operation.

In contrast, the programmer's function in industry is emerging as being analogous to that of the hardware engineer
with a heavy emphasis on human factors. [9] Perhaps the
occasionally seen title of software engineer is the best label.
The software engineer performs those functions implied by
the structural theory of programs and the process theory of
programming. He designs (engineers) systems whose components are program modules. He is concerned with the
same objectives as the hardware engineer, endeavoring to
develop inexpensive, reliable, and maintainable systems. For
the company whose programmers still write efficient code instead of designing good systems, programming costs continue
to rise, not just relative to hardware, but absolutely. And
such programmers still complain about the non-usability of
others' programs or marvel at the number of correction sessions late at night required by system blow-ups.
Attitudes Toward Programming
In few fields is there such disparity between outside needs
and the role being played by university education. The
disparity. would be easily attacked if it were only a problem
of communication; but the difference in attitudes toward
programming creates a stronger barrier. If programming is
merely a clerical task, then it does not warrant a theory. If it
is routine and founded on elementary operations, then one
or a very few courses on programming per sc are all that can
be expected of the university.
But universities do programming too. It would seem that
they have as much at stake in an emerging theory of programming as does industry. An example might illuminate
this point.
The head of a major university information project recently remarked that one of the most important results of
his three years of "research" in information retrieval problems
was the idea of having a flexible, generalized user control
interface with extensive parameterization. His programmer
has been known to pride himself in writing code so good
that no one else can understand it. The modifications to the
system to parameterize it were expensive.
Now, I contend that this can hardly qualify as a research
result. If this researcher had had any of many thousands of
good programmers from industry, armed with programming
theory and an understanding of human factors, he would
have had his program right the first time, by design, not
research.
Just how deep the attitude toward programming and toward industry's attitude toward programming runs at the
university may be appreciated through a second example. A
discussion between an "outsider" and a key figure in one of
the most prestigious time-sharing projects quickly centered
on implementation problems of large systems. At several
points in the account of the post hoc "modularization" of one
system and the enormous communications problems of a later
system the outsider was able to anticipate portions of the
discussion on the basis of programming theory. Oddly
enough, the university man summed up the discussion by remarking that all the problems proved that programming
was still in the artisan stage and that, alas, no theory existed.
This collective blind spot on the part of the university
orthodox is, of course, not universal, but neither is it uncommon. The attitude which underlies it is however almost
certainly more common than the actual bias against considering alternative characterizations of programming.
Prospect
It is important to industry and the university that the discrepancy between needs, practice, and education be resolved.
Should the university fail to keep pace, it may find itself in
the same position relative to programming which it not too

COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1968

long ago found itself in .regard to monolithic circuit technology, with all the real expertise in industry. Moreover, a
growing percentage of university graduates are going into
programming as a primary career field regardless of their official majors. It is therefore a part cif the university's responsibility to provide the relevant background.
Just what is this background? Much of the curricula
now availahle is perfectly suitable. Most universities include
courses in basic programming, systems programming, programming linguistics, automata theory, and the like. What
we could add to these is som~ exposure to systems approaches to programming or programming theory or both.
Without this exposure it takes too long on the job to overcome the biases of the purely "algorithmic view." Full semester courses are critically needed in systems analysis, program design, and software design. Synopses of proposed
contents for these courses are given in Table 1.

"Z can debug in binary from the cO{lsole lights. He
keeps his programs in his head, the patches get so
sophisticated that they can't be assembled and I've never
seen anyone who could write tighter code than Z."

It takes several years of intensive professional experience to
substitute a better set of values. The new programmer is
doubly handicapped when he has neither the proper technical background nor the proper orientation.
Finally, it seems critically important to bring the university
into the mainstream of programming practice for still another reason. The theory emerging from industry is tentative, incomplete, and perhaps too compromised by its pragmatism. We vitally need the theoretical contributions which
the university can make, not just in mathematical optimization but in the structure of programs, not only in compiler
design but in the psychology of programming. Without this
contribution, formal university theory and practice will continue to be two unrelated worlds.

TABLE I - PROPOSED PROGRAMMING COURSES
References

1. Program Systems Analysis (3 sem. hours) -

The systems approach, problem identification
and definition in information processing, systems studies and surveys, the feasibility study.
Data collection and evaluation. Process identification and design, random sequential processing. Data base organization and design.
Input-output specification. Communication with
system designers and implementers. Simulation
techniques for systems analysis. Documentation.
2. Program Design (3 sem. hours plus computer lab) The programming process. Programs as system,
systems characteristics. Structure of programs,
physical aggregates, basis for aggregation.
Modularity-determinants, measures, costs. Hie~
archical program structures, recursive hierarchies, operational recursion. Non-hierarchical structures, program strings, data controlled
structures. Design objectives and realization
of each: generality, utility, durability, efficiency.
3. Software Design (3 sem. hours plus computer lab)Design of languages, system and support software. Problems of ut}lity programs and large
systems. Maj or so!·tw,re systems; the as sembler,
compiler, supervisor, "applications packages, et~
Language forms, constituents, design of language
features. User aspects of data and control interfaces. Language processor design. Load-time
assemblages, imbedding, and other special approaches to software design.

The implementation of this program would be relatively
straightforward. The content of the systems analysis course
is widely known and there is no dearth of qualified instructors. This is somewhat less true of the proposed courses in
program design and software design, though there is evidence of substantial willingness by those in industry to cooperate in setting up such courses.
In some respects, a shift in orientation is more important
than a shift in content, although new content is one way of
achieving the change in orientation. Far too many of the
typical university graduates emerge with entirely the wrong
attitude toward programming. This attitude is typified by
their descriptions of good programmers. [7]
" . . . and X is great. He sat down and in two days at
the console wrote the entire game-playing program. It
was great. I t took the rest of us weeks to even figure
out what the program was about."

"1 think Y is the best programmer 1 know. He doesn't
even need to flowchart."

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Carr, J. W., III. The future of programming and programmers. In
Constantine, L. L. (ed.), Concepts in Program Design. Information
& Systems Press, Cambridge, 1967.
Constantine, L. L. Toward a theory of program design. Ibid.
Constantine, L. L. The design of programs. Ibid.
Constantine, L. L. Design and the reduction of bugs. Ibid.
Constantine, L. L. Modularity. Information & Systems Institute, Inc.
Technical Memo 7-09,
Constantine, L. L. Hierarchy. Information & Systems Institute, Inc.
Memo 7-10.
Quotations from an informal survey conducted at M.I.T. by the author.
Emery, J. E. Modular data processing systems written in COBOL.
Constantine, L. L. (ed.), Concepts in Program Design, Information
and Systems Press, Cambridge, 1967.
Editorial (The Forum), "What a Programmer Does", Datamation,
April 1967.

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COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1968

MARKET REPORT
Control Data Corporation Plays Increasingly Important Role in World Computer Market
Ted Schoeters
Stanmore, Middlesex
England

When Control Data Corporation three years ago wrecked
the chances of IBM's top machines with the sales success of
its super-scale 6600, and almost succeeded in wrecking its
own company structure at the same time, it began on a
course which in the next two years will bring it into full
confrontation with the giant of the world computer market
and not just in the market now ripening for explosive
expansion - Europe.
All the signs and portents are there to read. With every
move CDC makes to broaden its product range, improve its
software arsenal, and acquire other important groups, so does
its strategic position improve.
Any company which can come through the hardware
troubles CDC faced and overcame with the first several 6600
machines should never run into this form of loss again.
"N ever" is a long, long time, but stockholders will not forget
the $1.68 m deficit for 1966, even though it was in part due
to fast expansion and demand for rental on a lot of expensive hardware. They will make sure, as far as they possibly
can, that CDC management treads warily with the next
challenge to IBM, its extremely powerful and versatile 3500.
But it is just to say that this management team succeeded
with a big hardware problem where others threw in the
sponge.

CDC Leads in Super-Giant Market
And how does CDC look on the doorstep of 1968? Good;
some would say very good. It is indisputably the leader at
the moment in the super-giant market, a factor which will
assume growing importance as time-sharing spreads. It has
an immense range of excellent peripherals, so good that there
can be few big EDP manufacturers who are not using one or
another of them. In this area, CDC is second only to IBM.
Perhaps more important still is that stockholders are in
good heart after the spectacular income rebound for 1967
to close on $250m - a figure described by IBM as the
annual turnover "threshold" below which a
mere
computer operation is not viable.
Only a favourable assessment of market sentiment could
have brought CDC to float its latest public offering of $100m
worth of debentures and common stock to oil credit arrangements and help in the many acquisitions and agreements
the company has on hand.

Effect of the CDC/CEIR Merger
One of the factors in market attitudes is undoubtedly the
very great success the super-scales are enjoying in Europe.
Another must be the successful consummation in the company's protracted negotiations with CEIR, achieved by a
share exchange in a ratio of 1 CDC common stock to 6.35

shares of CEIR, of which nearly 1.7m were outstanding at the
beginning of October.
Though the effects of the acquisition of this major software,
applications and management advice house - which has a
first-class international standing - will not be felt for probably a year or more, the move will be of immense importance
as time sharing systems grow in complexity and numbers.
If the time-sharing enthusiasts are proved right, systems
designed on a general-purpose, time-shared basis installed
and operating all over the world should reach the 1,000
mark by 1971. As the world's total computer population by
then should have reached the 60,000 mark, the ratio would
seem to make the contribution from time-sharing somewhat
paltry. But it must also be remembered that these 1,000
systems could have as many as 50,000 terminals which, in the
absence of the time-sharing concept, would have been larger
or smaller computers in their own right. This puts an
entirely different complexion on the prospect and underlines
just how important this market may be, particularly as the
terminals would range from a simple teleprinter keyboard to
a full-blown satellite computer.
There are some 50 time-sharing operations in the U.S. at
present with a further 200 or so on order. Every manufacturer is working hard at perfecting time-sharing capabilities with one or several machines in its range. Some claim
to have licked all the problems involved, but not CDC.

Extensive Use of Time Sharing May Be Delayed
The company's attitude to what has been described as
"the new revolution in computing" by Professor Stan Gill at
Imperial College, London, is that large-scale general purpose
time sharing is not just around the corner. The reduction of
theory to technology involves complex problems, solvable
only by protracted, painstaking study and a large amount
of experimental running.
This view was expressed publicly at a recent CDC symposium in London held to present the company to the data
processing fraternity, now that Britain is to have two or
maybe three 6600 giants in 1968.
The company's intentions were defined as embodying a
two-fold approach - experimentation and evolutionary product development on a modular basis.
There is no doubt that CDC will find software teams
within CEIR that are capable of handling major time sharing installations - the CEIR offshoot in Britain, now a fullyowned subsidiary of British Petroleum, is tackling a 400terminal concept for major comm~rcial users in and around
London. This is no "piece of cake" and it has to be completed to schedule, since the operation must run as a normal
profit-making activity, ergo delay would be doubly serious.

COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1968

Concentration of Expertise
Added to CDC's own efforts in time-sharing, CEIR's skills
will present a formidable concentration of expertise in a
totally new dimension of computing.
At this moment in time, the company has already taken
three important steps into this dimension. It has completed
development of operating systems for all machines giving
background batch processing, with utility routines for handling associated data flow in the foreground and an interface permitting the preparation of more foreground programs and their addition as modules.
The second step has been to provide the hardware allowing multi-access submission of batch jobs - terminals, printers, small computing devices and the like. With them goes
the software which the company logically calls Export /Import.
The third stage, now under experimental operation, is a
software suite for remote multi-access file manipulation in
a hierarchy of capabilities. It has been called Respond.
Both the foregoing interface with the basic operating system.
There are many more moves ahead, particularly in conversational mode programs, and the company is particularly
enthusiastic about the new freedoms conferred on time-shared
systems by an extended core storage, with capacity up to 5m
characters having rather low cycle time, but with an unprecedented data transfer rate of 60 m characters/second.
The company's top machine, the 6600, counted 26 installed and working and a further 17 on order at mid-year,
by which date IBM had not yet installed any system of
equivalent size. Taking one step down the scale to the
compatible 6400 and 6500 (first installation as recent as
mid-1966) 16 were in and 22 on the books. There is no di:
rect equivalent for IBM but the somewhat larger 360/75
counted 24 in and 39 to go.

The 3500
CDC has said specifically that with the 3500 for delivery
by mid-1968, it is gunning for the 360/65-67 market. This
represented at mid year respectively 100 and 10 machines
installed and 300 and 50 on order.
The 3500, CDC says, out-performs the 65, costs 18 per
cent less for outright purchase of equivalent configurations
and leases at 20 per cent less than the quoted average of
$50,000 per month for a 65. It has been running a 3500 for
eight months and is proving the "Intebrid" circuit concept
which links monolithics and hybrids with the former predominating.
With this machine goes an operating system called Master
1, which has been working on a number of the earlier 3300
machines since March to provide memory-paging and program-relqcation. Master 2 gives the ability to handle multiaccess and comprises the Respond and Import /Export suites
referred to earlier.
.
Master 3 is intended to provide conversational mode operation and Master 4 ability to hook in extra processors.

Peripherals
While the main equipment side of CDC's activities is
forging ahead, the company has not forgotten its other major ~ctivity, peripherals and the two most recent additions
to its repertoire are of more than pasing interest.
One is a tape transport capable of operating data transfer up to 15 times faster than the equipment with which
we are familiar. It has a 36-track head, works at 150 inches
per second and will put 4 billion bits of data on a 3,600 foot
reel.
Recording is either in continuous mode of variable length
records with no inter-record gaps, or in variable length
records with one-inch inter-records.
COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1968

The other item is a user terminal, the "200", with CRT
and keyboard line printer and card reader of which up to
200 can be linked to a single 6600 for remote batch and
real time applications.

The European Market
All the foregoing applies with special emphasis to the first
line of operations, the American market. But the company
has been making a particularly vigorous effort in Europe
where the EDP market is set for expansion at an annual
rate far higher than that of the U.S.
In four years of campaigning for a worthwhile foothold
in France, despite IBM's domination of that market, three
6600 computers are now installed there at Sud Aviation
(which is building the Concorde), at Electricite de France,
and - importantly - at the big Metra operational research
bureau.
Metra International is one of the two backers of a London
data centre keyed to a 6600 to be fully operational by July
1968. Metra's Societe d'Informatique Appliquee, which installed and operated a 6600 in Paris in the latter half of
1967, will give London a flying start with massive software
support.
Paris is already handling work for the U.K. users and these
jobs will be transferred with hO interruption.
Freeman, Fox Wilbur Smith, the London consulting engineers, form the other backing for this project which will
put the first 6600 into Britain. This means that there will
be the same number of data centres using the 6600 in Europe
as in the U.S.
A second system of this size will follow shortly after at
the politically highly charged site of London University. It
will have the Metra Machine for back-up and will be critically
observed from all over the United Kingdom, where academics have been engaged in bitter strife' over shortages
of computing power for the best part of five years.
Seven colleges will have terminals linked to the machine
and there seems to be no doubt at all that once it is in and
working, the British manufacturers, who have bitterly
opposed the introduction and want it to be declared a
purely temporary measure, will not prevent the system from
expanding considerably to take in computer-assisted design
and many other activities.
Other important academia centres in Britian now starved
of computing power will clamour for similar facilities provided the system works well and, although money is tight,
the convincing argument that without the proper tools no
research worker will stay in Britain will be used on the
Government.
The CERN European nuclear research centre in Switzerland to which Britain contributes one-fifth of annual
spending money, has five CDC machines including two of
the larger ones.
That CDC considers Britain an area of major importance
for its future is shown by the fact that the company proposes
to set up one of its well-known Computer Institutes in
the U.K. There are four in the United States and one in
Germany. These give training on the company's machines
and software to staff, customers and - most important to outside students.
The next move in Europe if the company is to make rapid
inroads on the established position of IBM is a sharp expansion of its manufacturing base in Holland and an alliance,
if not a merger, with an independent European EDP company. There are not many of these left and in the past
12 months there have been rumours involving CDC with
UT and Philips of Eindhoven, among others.

MULTlPROGRAMMING:
WHAT IT IS

...

WHEN TO USE IT

•••

WHAT TO LOOK FOR ...

Michael M ensh
Honeywell, Inc.
Computer Control Diu.
Old Connecticut Path
Framingham, Mass. 01701

((If there are several jobs to perform within a computer system, and if
these jobs need not be performed sequentially, then it is feasible to use
multiprogramming - which is a compromise between sequential (single) programming and multi-computer operation."

When several programs are present in a computer system
with a single central processor, and each program is executed
during the unused central processor time of the others, the
system is a multiprogramming system.
The following discussion may help you determine whether
such a system offers a reasonable solution to your programming problems.

Why the Need for Multiprogramming?
Multiprogramming is used in an attempt to maximize the
efficiency of the central processing unit.
In most conventional scientific and data processing systems, programs are executed in sequence. The operator places
a deck of cards in the card reader and presses the "read" or

Michael Mensh is Product Manager, Software, at
Honeywell's Computer Control Division. Previously, he
was a regional programming manager with G.E.'s process computer activity, and a development engineer
with the Atlantic Refining Company. Mr. Mensh received his bachelor's degree in chrmical engineering
from Cornell University in 1955.

"execute" button. The cards are read into memory, then
control is transferred to the beginning of the program. It is
executed from beginning to end, performing its computation
and inp'ut-output operations; then the next program is read
in and operations are repeated.
In many systems, the input/output operations, such as reading cards or magnetic tape or printing on a line printer, are
performed in sequence with the computations. When an input or output is required, computation is halted, then resumed when I/0 is completed. This wastes central process.:
or time.

How Is Computing Efficiency Increased?
There is an intermixed method - employing an automatic
interruption feature - for sharing the time requirements of
computation and I/0 to increase computing efficiency of the
system. After I/0 has been initiated, computation continues;
when the operation is complete (e.g., a card is read or
punched, or a line is printed), a signal causes computation
to be interrupted automatically. Control is transferred to a
program which initiates the next I/0 operation, then returned
to the computation.
This intermixed operation continues throughout the execution of the program. Computations are not held up waiting for
input or output, nor are peripheral devices slowed down
COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1968

waItmg fbr computations. This i~ a first step toward multiprogramming.
In the above example, consider what happens if the computation should require data contained on a card in the
reader. Computation must be halted until the card has been
read; then it can continue. At this time, the computational
portion of the programming system is at an impasse and
central processor time is again being wasted. If there were
another program in memory to be executed, then the time
could be utilized. This is the second step toward multiprogramming.

How Does Multiprogramming Work?
In multiprogramming systems, the automatic interrupts
control the sequence of input and output operations and the
execution of the programs which contain the computations
and I/0 requests (but not I/0 execution). These interrupts
may occur as a result of ~m operator's request (e.g., pushing
an "execute" or "start" button), an environmental condition affecting the computer system (e.g., an off-normal control condition in an industrial plant), or the passage of
time. This last criterion allots "time-slices" to each program which are shared equally on a rotational basis between programs - a technique often used in time-shared
computer systems.
In a multiprogramming system, the programs are executed in an interleaved fashion. A portion of one program
is executed, then a portion of another, and so forth. Externally, all of the programs appear to be executed in parallel.

Where Would Multiprogramming Be Used?

If there are several jobs to perform within a computer
system, and if these. jobs need not be performed sequentially,
then it is feasible to use multiprogramming, which is an
economical compromise between sequential (single) programming and multicomputer operation. Ideally, each job
should be performed on separate computers, all executing at
the same time, or on parallel processors of one of the large
scale computers. Systems of this sort are likely to be too
expensive for any but large scale users; so performance must
be sacrificed to some extent in order to meet financial requirements.
Some examples of situations where multiprogramming
would be used are:
1. Process control
2. Scientific open-shop operation
3. Time-sharing systems
In a process control environment, the interrupts which
cause control to be switched from one program to another
are the result of changes in plant conditions. Such
changes might be the result of a process unit in the plant
varying from the control setting, the shutdown of a pump
motor, or the failure of the plant electrical system. Any of
these conditions would cause control to be transferred from
the program being executed to the program required for
proper response to the emergency condition. When the abnormal situation has been corrected, control would return to
the interrupted program.
Switching from program to program is accomplished in a
more orderly manner in open-shop scientific and time-sharing
systems. In both cases, requests are initiated by an operator and control is passed between programs on the basis of:
1. Operator requests
2. Time allocated to each program
3. I/0 and mass storage requirements

The major differences between the open-shop scientific
and time-sharing systems lie in the methods of operator
communication. In one case, it is primarily from the com-puter site; in the other, it is accomplished over long distances to and from the computer by time-sharing terminals.
Thus, the time-sharing system must have a considerable
proportion of its time allotted to the job of communications.

What Does Multiprogramming Cost?
As you may have guessed by now, a multiprogramming
system is not simple nor inexpensive. Something must keep
track of such facts as: which programs have been interrupted, which I/0 devices are in use and by whom, and what
is next in line for execution. The program that performs this
function is as much a part of the computer system as is the
central processor or the line printer. It is called the "monitor" or "executive" program and may occupy from 500 to
32,000 locations of computer memory - depending on its
functions and the sophistication of the system. This program is ;usually complex, with extensive table or list manipulation and memory allocation capabilities. The monitor,
typically, will occupy 30 to 60 percent of the working memory of the multiprogrammed computer.
Multiprogramming is also costly in time. Central processor
time is used for saving machine conditions each time an
interrupt occurs. More time is used to restore machine conditions as they were prior to interruption, before re-entering
the interrupted program. This is required so that individual
job-oriented programs in the system can ignore the fact that
they are periodically interrupted. (If each program had to
recognize the possibility of interruption and prepare for it,
the job of programming would be nearly insurmountable.)
The scheduler's jobs of allocating resources such as memory
and peripheral devices and deciding which program should
be executed next also take central processor time. From 5 to
30 percent of. the available time of the central processor can
be used up in the scheduler's overhead.
Because of the difficult job the executive programs have to
do and because of the pressures to conserve memory, these
executive programs are among the most sophisticated in the
computer industry. Many man-years are spent by the computer manufacturers and software system designers to obtain
the ultimate in elegance. These programs are extremely difficult to understand and nearly impossible to change - even
when a change is desirable for some specific purpose.
Characteristics of the executive software for a multiprogramming system are:
1. The existence of all programs other than those with
which he is concerned must be invisible to the programmer.
2. The executive software must be extremely general in
order to provide appropriate response for situations
unforeseen by the individual programmer.

Is Multiprogramming Worth the Price?
Considering the sacrifices in time and memory overhead
and the high degree of sophistication required, are the benefits of a multiprogramming system worth the price? If the
assignment requires parallel processing of a number of jobs
and financial limitations dictate only one central processor,
then, of course, it's worth it.
Usually the decision is not so clearly defined. The potential user must determine the degree of parallelism of the jobs.
Could many of them really be done sequentially? Could the
jobs be redefined and re-organized so that a simple, specific
scheduling method could be used? Could a user put up with
the extra response time? Considering the memory and other
COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1968

auxiliary features often required for multiprogramming
(memory protection, bulk memory, etc.), would two computers do a better job at nearly the same cost?
These are questions that must be asked - and answer:ed
- before the manager can make a wise decision. Many
times, a careful investigation of the system requirements will
uncover timing factors and storage needs that rule out multiprogramming executive software. The alternative is to design and manufacture special purpose software to handle the
requirements of the system. This software will take some
time and money to produce, but it will be simpler, faster,
and occupy less memory than the general multiprogramming executive. In some cases, a subset of the general software can be used, as is, Qr slightly modified to handle a
specific job. This, too, should be investigated. After
examining the advantages and drawbacks of general and
special-purpose software, the user can make an intelligent
decision.

What Should You Look for in a Multiprogramming
Software System?
You should look for one that just meets your needs. You
should not select software that forces you to accept many
features not required by your system. If the system software
is to be loaded, initiated, and allowed to run for long periods
of time with no change, then such things as on-line compilation and debugging are not required.
On the other hand, many software systems are evolutionary. Programs are constantly being revised, old ones being
removed and new ones being added. For these systems, online assembling or compilation and extensive debugging feahIres with good meIllDry and system protection are requirements. The executive software should be modular enough
to allow a choice of only those features necessary for the

The imaginative computer.

computer system while allowing later additions of more
modules for increased capability. Additions to the system
should be performed with little or no modification to the
existing software.
A good executive software package will also have the following features:
1. It will be coded efficiently for low storage requirements.
2. Response time to interrupts will be rapid - less than
500 microseconds from receipt of interrupt to response program.
3. Overhead time will be low - less than 10 percent
of total central processor time.
4. Programmer communication will be straightforward
both at the assembly language and compiler levels of
coding.
5. It will have the ability to handle many different
I/O devices - interchangeably and simultaneously.
Other important features of this software are good, clear
documentation and an easy-to-use operator interface. Documentation is often overlooked when evaluating these systems, but there is no substitute for good manuals at the user
level. Above all, the software chosen should be available at
delivery time. Many users have had systems installed only to
find that there was "one more little bug" in the executive
software. Often, this prevented the entire installation from
going on line. To insure that the software is, in fact, working, it should be field tested and demonstrable in the factory.
A careful user will establish benchmarks for operating
characteristics, features and documentations, before the demonstration, in order to insure the correct choice for his system and satisfactory performance in his installation.

There's no such animal ... vet. There are,
however, imaginative computer programmers.
And if vou are one of these people, Lockheed
Missiles & Space Companv is looking for vou.
Lockheed promises not to cage vou in one
specific area of programming. You mav choose
to specialize in one area, or move from one
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range of computer assignments in the countrv
todav so vou'll alwavs find a field to stimulate
vour imagination.
As an added incentive, Lockheed's 25-milliondollar computation center includes the
most up-to-date digital computers and two of the
most sophisticated
hVbrid computer svstems
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So if vou are a computer
programmer whose
imagination is trapped bV the same programs
dav after dav after dav ... FREE IT! Send vour
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COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1968

AN INTERACTIVE PROGRAMMING SYSTEM

"If we examine the current levels of attainment in both hardware and
software, we find we have 'turned the corner' in enough areas to permit
specification of an interactive programming system for the casual user."

Figure 1. User seated at Graphic Table Display Console.

COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for. February, 1968

FOR THE CASUAL USER
Morton I. Bernstein and Thomas C. Williams
System Development Corp.
2500 Colorado Ave.
Santa Monica~ Calif. 90406

One of the fondest dreams of the programming world is
to provide the casual computer user - particularly the scientist or the engineer ----:- with a system that is economical,
simple to use and understand, and requires no notational
change in the way problems are conceived and stated.
If we examine the current levels of attainment in both
hardware and software, we find we have "turned the corner" in enough areas to permit specification of this ideal
system. In fact, many of the required components either
exist or are in development. The only element in doubt is
the economic one, but the trend in this area is' encouraging.

Hardware Capabilities
Considering the design of such a system, we find the following hardware capabilities are required:

Morton I. Bernstein is a senior computer systems
specialist at SDC in the Research and Technology Division. He is a graduate of the University of Pittsburgh, B.S. mathematics, 1952. Mr. Bernstein came to
SDC in April of 1965. Prior to that time, he was an
advisory programmer with IBM and a programmer for
The RAND Corporation.
Thomas G. Williams was born in Bellefonte, Pa. He
received his professional training at the Carnegie Institute of Technology, where he received three degrees
in electrical engineering: B.S., 1962; M.S., 1963; Ph.D.,
1966. At present he is a senior operations research
analyst with SDC in the Research and Technology
Division.

1. A user terminal that allows the user to express his
problem in a natural way. Such a terminal should be
as easy to use as a pencil and paper. The terminal
must provide graphic output and freehand graphic input. It must have local computing power to provide
the rapid feedback needed by a user in an interactive
graphic environment.
2. A central computer system that is capable of handling
the load imposed by a iarge number of users at remote,
interactive consoles.

Software Capabilities
On the software 'side, we require a bit more:
1. A time-sharing system that can accommodate a variety
of users, numbering between 50 and 100 per timeshared central processor, and that will give rapid interactive response to all, not just a select few.
2. For the user to input his problem statement and proposed solution by hand, we must have software able to
perform the real-time recognition of his inputs.
3. For the user to provide his input in the canonical notation of his discipline, the recognized input must be
parsable into computer-usable form. In particular, software to edit and parse two-dimensional notations in
their proper context must be available.
COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1968

~R/\FACON

I010A ." .......

The major software component of the system is the Q-32
Time-Sharing System (TSS). 2 TSS currently serves in excess of 30 users at one time with a limitation of 47K words
as the maximum program size. To support the terminal, we
have prototype versions of a handprinted-character recognizer, an editor, and an expression analyzer, all of which operate under TSS.
The character recognizer is in the final stages of development.* It uses a character dictionary built for each individual user, and can recognize alphabets in excess of 80
characters. The editor permits characters to be erased or
written over; entire expressions may also ,be deleted. The
analyzer is a part of the PLANIT3 course-writing and
computer-assisted instruction system. It will compute the
value of an expression written in ordinary mathematical notation. Figures 3 and 4 show some of the input forms and
resultant displayed output. The parsing algorithm and allowable notation are still quite limited, but we are working
on more sophisticated parsing and editing facilities that will
*Portions of this work were supported by the Advanced Research Projects
Agency and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.

Figure 2. User's view of the displayed image as he
writes at the GTD Console.
4. Since present recognizers and parsers are not infallible,
the software must continuously provide the user with
the current interpretation of his input.
5. Given the above, the parsed statements must be translated into statements acceptable to current problemor procedure-oriented languages. Another alternative is
to generate specific languages peculiar to each situation on the assumption that such languages would be
preferable to more generalized or "universal" languages.
With the advent of time-sharing and on-line interactive
graphics, a great deal of development has taken place in
many of the above areas, though not necessarily with the idea
of creating an ideal system. Time-sharing systems are no
longer a fad; they are a reality. Both hardware and software advances have been sufficient to prove the concept desirable to a great many installations. On-line real-time interactive graphic systems - though in their infancy - are no
longer confined to the laboratory as research curiosities. They
are paying their way in many places. Improved, innovative
hardware has helped materially in achieving a measure of
acceptability for graphics.

A Prototype System
The question then is, how close to realization is such a
system? Most of the required components already exist and
have been put together at System Development Corporation,
as a prototype system. For the hardware, the user terminal
is a RAND Tablet (Grafacon 10 lOA), for input to the computer, and a CRT display for output. The CRT image is
rear-projected onto the Grafacon, so that input and output
images are coincident. Figures 1 and 2 show the terminal
and the projected image. The terminal is connected through
a peripheral processor (a PDP-1 computer) to the ANjFSQ32 computer, which is the central processor for the system.
Details of the terminal and computer interface were described by Gallenson at the 1967 Fall Joint Computer Conference. 1

Figure 3. An example of interactive character recognition and computational ability provided by the system.
COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1968

b. Recognized output

allow the user the same freedom of expression he has using a
blackboard or a pencil and paper.
Areas to be explored in the immediate future include the
problem of creating special languages that can take advantage of the character set extensions which the character recognizer provides, plus the parsimony of two-dimensional notation.
The major deterrents to making this system generally
available are economic. The interactive console is expensive.
Time-shared computers have yet to reach the desired number of 100 simultaneous users in a general-purpose system.
The communications costs of using remote consoles over
long distances are still prohibitive. In time, these problems
will yield to solution. Part of the impetus for their solution
will come from potential users who know that such systems
are at least technically· feasible.

Acknowledgement
The continuing progress made on this project owes a great
deal to many individuals for support, constructive criticism and direction. In particular, Heriry Howell, for his
work on the character recognition program, and Charles
Frye, for his efforts in integrating the character recognition
program into the PLANIT system, deserve special mention.

References
1.

Gallenson, L., "A Graphic Tablet Display Console for Use Under
Time-Sharing," AFIPS Conference Proceedings, Vol. 31, 1967 FJCC,
pp. 689-695.
2. Schwartz, J. I., and Weissman, C., "The SDC Time-Sharing System
Revisited," Proceedings of 22nd National ACM Conference, 1967, pp.
263-271.
3. Feingold, S. L., "PLANIT-A Flexible Language Designed for Computer-Human Interaction," AFIPS Conference Proceedings, Vol. 31,
1967, FJCC, pp. 545-552.

C- a
IDEAS: SPOTLIGHT
MIND STRETCHING
(Based on a book advertisement by Edward Bates,
McGraw Hill Book Co., New York, N.Y., and modified
by the Editor)

Figure 4. Another example of interactive character
recognition and computational ability.
COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1968

Have you s-t-r-e-t-c-h-e-d your mind at least once today?
There are lots of ways to give your mind the daily exer~ cise it needs. If you're engaged in certain professions such as computer programming - , you can make your
living wrestling with abstruse or intricate concepts all day
long. If not, you can keep your mind keen by spending
some of your leisure time from day to day. playing three
dimensional chess. Or balancing your bank statement. Or
working the problem in C&A's Problem Corner. Or tackling
a problem from "Mathematical Quickies" by Charles W.
Trigg - easily solved if your insight or an astute guess tells
you which road to follow, devilishly difficult if it doesn't.
And here is a mind exercise for your next trip away from
home (though it is not a "quickie") :
Given:
3 2 + 42 =
52
20 2 + 212 = 29 2
119 9 + 120 2 = 169 2 , • • • •
So what is the instance next following:
927538920 2 + 927538921 2 = 1311738121 2
in the series of whole number right triangles approximating
the isosceles one?

At last!
The computer tape
that's not

~~too good to be true':
Some tapes are. That is, certain of
their properties are made "too
good." Often at the expense of other,
equally important characteristics.
Outstanding tape durability can
be gained at the expense of
increased head wear; remarkable
coating adhesion could mask
inherent internal weakness (and
result in premature breakdown);
"high-powered" magnetic properties
may cause the tape to be electrically
incompatible with your computer
system.
Because magnetic tape properties
are frequently interdependent, often
conflicting, we make no boasts of
specific superiorities for our new
Audev K-68 computer tape.
Instead, we deliver a premium
tape in which all the critical
characteristics have been balanced
to provide a high initial quality that
wi II not deteriorate with storage or
hard use.
What do we mean by balance?
Read on.

One of those key properties is
friction, both static and dynamic.
And one way to reduce friction is by
lubricating the surface of the tape.
But this "trick" solution is
short-lived and tends to distort
start/ stop performance.
In Audev K-68, we attacked the
problem differently. Carefully
combining binder ingredients,
processing and surface treatment
for proper static and dynamic
frictional balance, we've produced a
wear-resistant surface that will
not break down on high-speed
transports.
But, you might ask, COUldn't a
really hard binder accomplish
pretty much the same result?
Wesay ...

We do our bit for
tOOay's high densities.

The higher bit densities oftoday's
computer systems make demands
that previously acceptable tapes can
no longer meet. Use of a marginal
tape in such circumstances often
results in a gradual deterioration of
quality. Dropouts increase; costly
computer time is lost.
tape"
Audev K-68 takes these new,
Take one of those tough tapes and stringent conditions into
torture it. No amount of pulling,
consideration. Its magnetic
properties, coating thickness and
scratch i ng or stri ppi ng off with
pressure-sensitive tape will cause
surface smoothness are balanced
the surface to flake or shed oxide.
for total compatibi lity with all
computer systems and for equal
But this, too, may be an
performance at densities from 556
imbalance. What you may not see is
bpi to 3200 fci and beyond.
a stiffness and brittleness which
How? A balanced interplay
could make the edges particularly
between low loss magnetics, precise
vulnerable to damage.

Don't get stuck by
It's a dirty shame
the "sticky
test.
what some "clean" tapes
do to your heads.
To begin with, we know what
happens when balance is lacking.
There is, for example, one computer
tape on the market that is excellent
in its freedom from dropouts. It
makes a remarkable "first-pass"
impression. Yet, an imbalance in key
properties makes this tape more

Audev K-68's balanced "" ....,r.,...",'"
properties prevent coating failure.
The binder is hard enough to prevent
self-generated dirt caused by
abrasion, yet tough enough to keep
the edges from deteriorati ng.
At the same time, K-68's smooth,
non-sticky coating provides few
anchoring possibilities for ambient
dirt or oxide redeposit. And its low
resistivity virtually eliminates
electrostatic pull on floating dust.
Balance also affects a tape's
electrical characteristics.

E
lJ

thjq~tlessa.. . . . . ce
smoothness reduces pulse
crowding, peak shift and dropout
sensitivity without changing output
orwrite current requirements.
K-68's balance also contributes
to its environmental stability.

Keep cool.

K-68 can take the heat.
Some tapes are as perishable as
ri pe tomatoes. They react poorly to
temperature extremes in storage or
transit; they "bruise" easily when
moved from transport to transport.
Not Audev K-68. Base and
coati ng properties have been
balanced to provide uniform
dimensional behavior. Cupping,
curling and edge ripples caused by
differential expansion or contraction
of coating and base have been
virtually eliminated.
Nor is Audev K-68 prone to
skew-produced, time-displacement
errors. Precision slitting, together
with the scientifically designed
Audev reel-and the low moment-ofinertia of the tape/ reel combination
-provide smooth tape motion on
any transport.
Test a sample reel on your
transport. For a change, try a
balance, not a compromise.
Designate No. 25 on Reader Service Card

PROPRIETARY PROTECTION OF COMPUTER PROGRAMS

Sheldon ]. Dansiger, President
EDP Associates Inc.
:527 Lexington Ave.
New York, N.Y. 10017

C(A proprietor of software can greatly increase the protection of his program, but only at the cost of greater cash outlay or slower turnaround
time."
A few years ago a movie came out of Hollywood called
"Picnic." It was a financial success. The movie had a theme
song which enjoyed as much success in record stores as the
picture had in movie theatres. The theme was an original
one, but it was played in conjunction with an old melody
called "Moonglow." As might have been expected, the author
of "Moonglow," instituted a lawsuit, and claimed that his
melody was the dominant theme and that he was entitled to
the great bulk of the royalties.
The case was finally settled in court; a judge gave a
necessarily subjective opinion as to how important eaGh of
the two melodies was and, in effect, answered the question
whether the song was basically a copy of "Moonglow" or a
great deal of it original.
The music business has suffered for many· years from this
problem. No objective method has ever developed for
settling these disputes. In the last few years, the EDP field
has suffered from the same problems of authorship and
ownership in the area of proprietary protection of computer
programs.
Many claims have been made that one program is merely
a slight reworking of another program previously in existence. It therefore behooves a man who wants to market
his program to inspect all methods of marketing. He should
consider protection along with his other factors of cost,
speed, and price.,

Four Ways to Market Software
Basically four ways exist to market a program that you
have developed:
1. Selling the program;
2. Leasing the program;
3. Offering the program through real-time access;
4. Offering the program through a service bureau.

Leasing
The leasing of a program has the advantage of a greater
total profit over a longer period of time.
The disadvantages include the same danger of unauthorized people obtaining possession of the program, the added
problem of continued maintenance of the program, and the
problem of billing for its use and collecting.

Real-Time Access
The real-time method consists of the program being set in
your own central computer, and customers who wish to
utilize the program are equipped with terminals. A program
used in such a manner can only be misappropriated by
highly sophisticated means. But this method requires a large
capital outlay, and a large monthly expenditure to maintain
it. This in turn requires a higher price to be charged for the
product, and makes it harder to sell the program. In fact,
the cost of the protection might cause the financial death of
the product.

Service Bureau Access
With the service bureau method, the customer sends his
information to you; you process it, and return it to him.
This provides the highest possible level of protection of the
program and a reasonably low running and maintenance cost.
But the method is effective only for those customers who can
accept the comparatively slow turnaround time.
To sum up, a proprietor of software can greatly increase
the protection of his program, but only at the cost of greater
cash outlay or slower turnaround time. In other words, it
comes back to the old slogan, "you pays your money, and
you takes your choice."

It is up to you to decide which method best fits your needs.

Sale
In an outright sale, the program, all running instructions,
listings, flowcharts, and formats are sold to a client, and the
client promises to keep the information confidential.
However, since the reproduction Of source and object decks
is very simple, it is really only a matter of time until copies
of the program have begun to circulate unrestrictedly in unauthorized areas. This method of sale is the simplest, but
the most dangerous.

Sheldon Dansiger, President of EDP Associates, Inc.,
formed his company with three associates in June 1967.
I t now has over forty employees. He has been involved with computer software services for nine years.
He has a B.A. in Accounting, and is the author of
several other articles which nave appeared in Computers and Automation, including "Embezzling Primer"
in the November, 1967 issue.

COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1968

reducing plan for a busy computer
Which are you getting from your computer?
Massive mountains of mathematical minutiae?
Or slim, trim graphics?
With the CalComp Plotting System, any computer can translate stacks of faceless figures
into meaningful graphs, charts, pictures,
plans, maps_ Automatically.
So if your computer is still handing you
the same old stack of alpha/numeric

mumble jumble, get the facts on modern plotting. Talk to CalComp. And get the picture.
Telephone (714) 774-9141, or write Dept. A-2,
California Computer Products, Inc.,
305 Muller, Anaheim, California 92803.

Designate No. 7 on Reader Service Card

Programmers ISystems Analysts IEngineers:
Help IBM program the future at Endicott, N.Y.
We have immediate openings for experienced programmers, systems analysts, or engineers who
want to grow with IBM. This is a professional opportunity that you should investigate.
If you're in the scientific area you could be developing new systems and techniques in experiment design, process control, statistical analysis, instrument monitoring, simulation, graphic
systems, numerical control data or product testing.
If you're in the business area you could determine what information and controls are
needed in management information systems, manufacturing control systems and financial
control systems.
And if you're in the systems area you could be working in quality assurance, cost
engineering, industrial engineering or production control.
Here at IBM we offer excellent salaries, company-paid benefits and many educational opportunities.
Endicott is a medium-sized community that's almost a metropolitan area,
but not quite. It still offers many cultural activities such as opera, theater and
the symphony, but you also get a chance to enjoy life in a comfortable
rural setting. You can hunt, fish, ski, boat and golf at places nearby.
Write IBM now. If you have a college degree and some experience in these areas, why not contact us now? Simply send us
your resume or a brief letter outlining your background
and experience to Mr. J. D. Hinkley, Personnel Department, IBM Corp., Dept.
UC6- 0, 1701 North St.,
Endicott, N.Y.
An Equal
13760. Opportunity Employer

IBM

JOBS AND CAREERS IN DATA PROCESSING
Computers Open New Path to Rapid Promotions in Business
Greg Zenner) Director
The Institute of Computer Management
c/o Litton Industries Inc.
8000 Woodley Ave.
Van Nuys) Calif. 91406

"In 1965 there were probably no more than ten men in
top management who could write a computer program; today there are at least 1,000 companies where the presidents
can write programs faster than trainees," writes Robert
N. Farr in "EDP Education and the Objectives of Management."
Is computer education then the new passport to top jobs?
Not in itself. But it is becoming one of the basic "languages" which executives today require in order to work
effectively in finance, marketing, distribution, production, research and development, and engineering.
"A business education without knowledge of computers
is not complete," comments Professor Alan Row of the
University of Southern California in Los Angeles. There
the Graduate School of Business Administration teaches computer usage in over 20 business courses.
Industry's investment in computers is vast. Obtaining executives who speak computer language therefore has become a main factor in the search for management talent.
Booz, Allen & Hamilton, Inc., in a study of computer
usage of 33 successful manufacturing firms in the U. S., reports that companies "with the most successful computer operations are those in which top management is vitally interested and participates actively in the [computer] operation."
The concern about computer education and the inadequate
supply of top management familiar with the computer dramatizes an even more urgent problem: the uncertain trickle
of young people into computer training and positions at the
implementallevel.
Employment in offices is changing drastically. Clerical
workers are being displaced by a new technological "office
elite," who have special training, higher pay, and upward
mobility. EDP managers constitute an unprecedented management group. They frequently occupy critical positions as
"interpreters" between top executives and technology on the
one hand, and between raw data and department heads
on the other.
This shift in skill requirements is also noted in a recently
published report, "Technological Change: Its Impact on Industry in Metropolitan Chicago." There it is stated that
"an estimated 30 to 40 percent of administrative and
clerical workers will find their jobs eliminated or greatly
changed as a result of technological development over the
next 20 years."
Thus a big task ahead for government, industry, and education will be explaining to young people the new "career
topography," so they can see where advancement opportunities lie.
Talk of automation is frequently played down because of
the supposed fear it creates in those oriented towards traditional skills. "But the facts have to be faced. Some jobs

COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1968

are on their way out and others are on their way in. A more
concerted and well-planned effort needs to be made to bring
high school and college graduates into contact with the new
opportunities. Business is searching desperately for new talent; but a majority of the applicants just don't speak the
new "language" of business.
What are the options open to business?
One route taken by a number of firms is "in-house"
training. Although this approach is expensive, it has the big
advantage of keeping experienced employees in touch with
both the problems and the new technology for solving them.
This route is favored by banks for employees who are already
trained in bank systems and who are being transferred
into cClmputer areas. But not all good employees can make
this shift. Age is a factor, and so is compatibility with computer operations. When the program can be implemented,
however, it pays well. Long-time employees have a clearer
picture of the job that must be done; the task of the bank is
to educate them to instruct the computers to do it.
Second, computer manufacturers are dQing good training,
but they are also handicapped by a manpower shortage. The
overall problem of drawing young talent into the field is reflected again here.
The third way in is offered by computer training schools,
such as our Institute of Computer Management. Reputable ones are well-equipped (ICM, for example, has an IBM
360 System Model 20 in each of its schools); they provide
"hands-on" training, and invite inspection and investigation.
The schools are seeking to attract high school graduates.
ICM executives, for example, meet with guidance counselors, business education teachers, and school department
heads, and provide information on career opportunities in
computer-oriented fields. They also speak before school assemblies and explain the aptitudes and training needed to
qualify. Student leaders and editors of school papers are invited to visit the schools and are encouraged to write
papers and essays on computer subjects.
The objective is to interest high school students in computers as a very real factor in their own futures. Computers
are glamorous but forbidding to the average student. We try
to present the computer as a tool in every-day existence and a tool which a student can fairly easily learn to operate.
Developing attitudes, building confidence, persuading
young people to change to newer occupations, pointing out
differences betweeen dead-end situations and opportunity situations - these appear to be the big jobs ahead if computer capacity is to be adequately implemented. The penalty
for not doing this is a technological slowdown in the middle
of the nation's biggest capital investment in information
handling equipment.

WORLD REPORT - GREAT BRITAIN
1

ICT and English Electric May Merge
The year ended with a double bang in Britain's EDP community. The first rocket to go off was lit by Chairman A. T.
Maxwell of the International Computers and Tabulator Company who admitted, for the very first time, that t~lks had
been held with English Electric towards the formatIOn ~f a
single British mainframe company. .The second was a. prIces
rocket with IBM's charges for outrIght purchase soarmg by
as much as 10 percent and Burroughs by up to 15 percent
with an average of 7Y2 - both companies being victims of
devaluation.
The merger mood has been inten.sified in Britain si?ce the
bitter battle by our General ElectrIC Company to gam control of Associated Electrical Industries, a cliffhanger that
went on for several weeks. But merger talk about leading
U.K. computer concerns has been heard off and on for two
years.
Now that one party to the talks has admitted their existence
- English Electric has of course stayed mum - nothing .but
damage can be done to both companies by further procrastmation.
Briefly, the place wopld be to draw together the computer
activities of ICT now running at $160m a year and over 5
percent up on 1965/66, with those .of English Elect~ic which,
of course, englobes Elliott AutomatIOn com~uters, smc~ these
were taken over at the merger between Enghsh and EllIott two companies which have many other interests besides EDP.
To this big nucleus with its estimated annual turnover ?f,
say, $240m, would be added sections of other compames
germane to its activities such as the me.mory sub-group of ~he
big Plessey organization and/or the thm film store operatIOn
.
.
.
by E.M.I.
But other British concerns whIch have lIcenses to make
U.S.-designed computers in Britain would be "encouraged"
to desist and instead work with the new "British Computer
Corporation," as the computer fraternity has christened the
..
new hybrid.
.
All this would take place under the wmg of the MInIstry
of Technology, but the Industrial Reconstruction Corporation
would play no part in the merger, although it was set up for
this kind of operation. Instead, the Government would take
a holding in the company, put unofficially at 25 percent,
which would presumably represent an outright purchase on
behalf of the keystone company of the manufacturing plants
bui! t by other partners - willing and unwilling - to this
complex deal.

For and Against the Merger
The snags are many and obvious. The advantages are also
clear. There is truly no room in Britain for two domestic

companies at each other's throats while IBM, Burroughs,
Honeywell, and Univac walk off quietly with key contracts,
which is what has been happening over the past five years.
ICT "has made a great sales success in Britain with its
1900 series computers, which are exceptional in not being
IBM-oriented. In fact, with close on 1000 machines sold,
including 300 overseas, ICT has done better in three years
than RCA with Spectra 70 plus English Electric with its
version of these computers (System-4) and Siemens with its
RCA based range.
But ICT still is not big enough to make a lasting success
of its operation. It has had a Government Cash injection of
$12m and is undoubtedly favored in Gertain contract awards
coming directly under the aegis of the Government. However,
its turnover is probably only half what is required to make an
internationally viable computer operation. Its sales in Europe
and Commonwealth countries have been encouraging but
patchy, particularly in Europe where France and Sweden
have been good clients but where Germany has virtually limited purchases to university machines.
The volume of production must go up if the company's
cash flow is to improve enough to make its stock an attractive
proposition. Hence the merger talks.
But the three moves sketched out above indicate only what
the Government would like to see happen. The intended victims, that is the companies which would be asked to give
up various computer-oriented activities, have other views.

Plessey and Ferranti May Be Included
Plessey is a company of international stature supplying
components to the whole of the European electronics industry,
includino- memories to all the computer makers bar one. If
it has n~t yet bought ICT, this is only due to frowns from
the Ministry of Technology. But neither the Ministry nor the
Government could legally prevent Plessey from buying ICT
as a major captive market taking at a guess some $60m
worth of microcircuits and memories a year, once it has
moved into the microversion of the 1900.
Ferranti, which sold its digital computer department to
ICT five years ago along with the knowhow behind Atlas,
might also come in, for the same reasons as Plessey and with
the added inducement that Ferranti process control computers
are compatible with the 1900. But all this is spec~lation. It
remains to be seen how much money the government will
have to put down to create a meaningful national operation.
Some industry sources think that $100m would be a good
round figure and it would enable the new group to go quickly
into the super-scale market.
(Please turn to page 38 )
COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1968

WORLD REPORT - AUSTRALIA

The first recession to hit the computer industry in Australia
is taking a heavy toll of the returns of the suppliers. Profits
have nose-dived and in some cases have turned into losses.

Profits Go Down

IBM Australia Ltd. reported a net profit of $A326,206 for
the first six months of 1967, compared with $Al,414,191
for the full 12 months of 1966. The company made its
first interim report following its $A2.7 million public debenture issue earlier this year. With an estimated 40 per cent
of the local market in terms of value of computers installed
and on order, IBM remains the leading supplier in Australia.
Among other major American suppliers to the Australian
market, Control Data suffered a loss of $A167,016 for the
year ended May 31, compared with a profit of $A222,112
in the previous year.
The leading British supplier, International Computers
and Tabulators, incurred a loss of $A96,619 for the year
ended September 27, as against a profit of $A183,389 in the
previous 12 months.
Honeywell has yet to r.eport for the year just ended, but is
expected to show a better performance than some of its
competitors. In the year to December 31, 1966, the company, which also markets building, air conditioning and industrial automation systems in Australia, more than doubled profit to $A919,326.
According to one analysis of the recession, the rate of computer ordering has fallen by between 30 and 35 per cent
over the past 12 months. Previously it was running at an
exceptionally high rate following the introduction of the
"third generation" ranges of equipment which attracted a
large number of replacement orders.
The replacement demand now appears to have run its
course and, in the absence of any important new product
announcements recently, the current level of orders appears
likely to continue for some time.

Computer Census Shows Increase in Spite of Slump
The slump was not reflected in the latest computer census
by the Commonwealth Department of Labour and National
Service which showed that the number of digital computers
in use in Australia increased by 30 per cent from 410 to
533 in the 12 months to June this year. According to the
department, 176 machines were oil order on June 30, 1967.
In value terms, however, the increase was much less than
30 per cent. The highest rate of growth was among small
computers costing less than $A100,000, which rose from
115 to 166, with another 54 on order.
Easily the leading company in this category was Digital
Equiplllent which has so far delivered more than 40 of its
low-priced PDP-8 and PDP-8S computers. Digital recently

COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1968

placed on the local market its PDP-8I machine which is offered for as low as $All ,500.

Where the Computers Are
The survey by the Department of Labour and National
Service also showed that, at the other end of the scale (the
$A1 million and over class), there were 15 digital computers in operation on June 30 compared with 13 the previous year. Four more were on order.
The government sector had nine out of the 15 machines
in use in the highest cost category. The remaining six were
distributed among the manufacturing and commercial, education, and data processing bureau sectors ..
The education sector, comprising mainly the universities,
had six large machines costing $A500,000 or more and 26
small machines in the under $A100,000 cost bracket.
In the geographical distribution, the survey revealed, threequarters of the digital machines and two-thirds of the analogue machines were installed in New South Wales and Victoria.

Competition Becomes More Intense
Looking to the future, it seems certain that the eXlstmg
competition among the suppliers in this relatively small but
potentially lucrative market will become even more intense.
Univac re-established itself in the market early in 1967
with a major twin-computer order for the Overseas Telecommunications Commission, and is concentrating on seeking a share of the large-scale sector. Its operational installations in Australia include 10 medium and large-scale computers at N.A.S.A. establishm'Cnts in Canberra and Western
Australia.
Later last year, Fujitsu Limited became the first Japanese
computer manufacturer to enter the market, beginning initially with an advertising campaign and with operations
through a Japanese trading company.
As in the United States and Canada, General Electric,
through its Australian subsidiary, is pushing ahead with the
phased introduction of time-sharing. Early this year it will
offer Australia's first bureau time-sharing service - a GE235 installed in Sydney - to commercial customers, and
plans are in hand to open a second service in Melbourne.
The computer business here also is bound to feel the impact of any revitalisation of the British manufacturing industry into a government-backed giant computer corporation. The main companies involved in the discussions now
goiqg on in London with the support of the Ministry of
Technology are I.C.T. and English Electric both of which
are strongly represented in Australia - I.C.T. through a
wholly-owned subsidiary and English Electric through a 60
per cent interest in Australian Computers Pty. Ltd.

First Australian-Designed Computer Announced
The first computer to be designed and built in Australia
for the commercial market was announced by E.A.I.Electronic Associated Pty. Ltd., a subsidiary of the Massachusetts analogue manufacturer, in December.
The computer is a real baby machine. The size of a cash
register, it is priced at $A1200 and is intended mainly as a
trainer for students in universities, colleges and schools.
Named the EAI-180, it is smaller and less expensive than
any machine produced by the parent company, and has a 76
per cent Australian-made content. This is expected to rise to
more than 85 per cent when the local subsidiary of the
Fairchild organization begins manufacture of integrated circuits at a South Australian plant this year.
EAI-Electronic Associates expects to obtain more than
40 orders within the first 12 months and believes there is a
potential market in this country of 200 units. Potential export
markets are also believed to exist in New Zealand and
some south-east Asian countries, where the need for inexpensive training computers parallels the situation in Australia.
The venture has stimulated interest in local computer circles in the possibility of establishing manufacturing operations to meet other needs of the local market.

WORLD REPORT -

GREAT BRITAIN

(Continued from page 36 )
Effect of IBM Price Increase
Will the IBM price rise of 10 percent, effective for all
equipment on order at January 1, affect the merger issue? It
cannot fail to, since the company has 40 percent of the U.K.
market. But it may affect it in an unexpected way. Although
observers might say that the moment is ripe to strike a decisive blow for the U.K. Corporation, it must be remembered
that the English Electric equipment is compatible with IBM
and not that of ICT. Any cancellations of IBM will thus
benefit English Electric and, provided the latter pulls quickly
out of production troubles, this could strengthen its resolve
not to comply with Government ideas.
But apart from this consideration, there is the fact that
ICT prices should not go up by more than four percent overall, improving its competitive edge vis a vis IBM. The year
could end with a serious slippage in IBM's share' of Britain's
market and the emergence of Honeywell as a serious contender for the position of alternative maker, with the added
attraction that all products are built in Scotland rather than
France, Germany,ltaly, or the U.S.

({~
4"

W. R. Cooper

Ted Schoeters
Stanmore
Middlesex
England

Wahroonga, N,.S.W.
Australia

Help stamp out
dropouts
Clean
tape heads
with

MS-200*
Oxide dust on tape heads is a frequent
source of dropouts. Some computer
operators still clean heads with swabs, but
many have found a better way: MS-200
Magnetic Tape Head Cleaner. MS-200
sprays-away dust and dirt in seconds. You
can save even more time by applying
it while tape is running. Finally, computer
users report more than twice as many
passes of tape between cleanings with
MS-200 as with swabs. Recommended by
leading computer and tape manufacturers.
Write on letterhead for literature '
and prices.

miller-stephenson
chemical co., inc.
ROUTE 7. DANBURY. CONNECTICUT
·U.S. and foreign patents pending

Designate No. 13 on Reader Service Card

COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1968

CALENDAR OF COMING EVENTS

Feb. 22-23, 1968: Management Conference, the Association of
Data Processing Service Organizations (ADAPSO), Jung
Hotel, New Orleans, La.; contact W. H. Evans, 947 Old
York Rd., Abington, Pa. 19001
March 11-13, 1968: Life Office Management Assoc. (LOMA)
Automation Forum, Chase Park Plaza Hotel, St. Louis,
Mo.; contact Warren Kayes, Life Office Management
Assoc., 757 Third Ave., Ne~ York, N.Y. 10017
March 14-16, 1968: Sixth Annual Symposium on Biomathematics and Computer Science in the Life Sciences, Shamrock
Hilton Hotel, Houston, Texas; contact Office of the Dean,
The University of Texas Graduate School of Biomedical
Sciences at Houston, Div. of Continuing Education, P. O.
Box 20367, Houston, Texas 77025
March 18-21, 1968: IEEE International Convention & Exhibition, Coliseum & New York Hilton Hotel, New York,
N.Y.; contact]. M. Kinn, IEEE, 345 E. 47th St., New
York, N.Y. 10017
Apr. 3-5, 1968: The Numerical Control Society Annual Meeting and Technical Conference, Marriott Motor Hotel, Philadelphia, Pa.; contact Mary Ann Devries, Numerical Control
Society, 44 Nassau St., Princeton, N.]. 08540
Apr. 23-26, 1968: Cybernetics Conference, Munich, F .R.,
Germany; contact H. H. Burghoff, 6 Frankfurt/Main 70,
F.R. Germany, Stresemann Allee 2, VDE-Haus
Apr. 30-May 2, 1968: Spring Joint Computer Conference,
Atlantic City Convention Hall, Atlantic City, N.].; contact
American Federation for Information Processing, 345 East
47th St., New York, N.Y. 10017
Apr. 30-May 3, 1968: The Association for Educational Data
Systems Convention, Hotel Texas, Fort Worth, Tex.; contact
Convention Coordinator, Assoc. for Educational Data Systems, 1201 16th St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20036
May 1-3, 1968: Sixth National Workshop Conference of the
Interagency Data Exchange Program (IDEP), Ambassador
Hotel, Los Angeles, Calif.; contact Peter Amedeo, Grumman
Aircraft Engineering Corp., Bethpage, Long Island, N.Y.
11714
May 1-3, 1968 : Joint National ORSA / American TIMS Meeting, St. Francis Hotel, San Francisco, Calif.; contact Miss
Joan T. Sullivan, Computer Usage Co., Inc., 3181 Porter
Drive, Palo Alto, Calif.
May 3-4, 1968: Fifth Annual National Colloquium on Information Retrieval, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia,
Pa.; contact Dr. David Lefkowitz, Moore School of Electrical Engineering, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia,
Pa. 19104
May 8-10, 1968: Electronic Components Technical Conference, Marriott Twin Britlges Motor Hotel, Washington,
D.C.; contact F. M. Collins, Speer Res. Lab., Packard Rd. &
47th St., Niagara Falls, N.Y. 14302
June, 1968: Sixth Annual Conference of The Special Interest
Group on Computer Personnel Research of the Association
for Computing Machinery; contact A. J. Biamonte, Progralll Chairman, West Virginia Pulp and Paper Company,
299 Park Ave., New York, N.Y. 10017
June 12-14, 1968: Annual Meeting, The Association of Data
Processing Service Organizations (ADAPSO), Waldorf-Astoria, New York, N.Y.; contact W. H. Evans, 947 Old York
Rd., Abington, Pa. 19001
June 25-28, 1968: DPMA International Data Processing Conference and Business Exposition, Statler Hilton Hotel, Washington, D.C.; contact Mrs. Margaret Rafferty, DPMA, 505
Busse Hgwy., Park Ridge, Ill. 60068
COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1968

June 25-27, 1968: Second Annual IEEE Computer Conference,
International Hotel, Los Angeles, Calif.; contact John L.
Kirkley, 9660 Casaba Ave., Chatsworth, Calif. 91311
July 8-11, 1968: SHARE-ACM-IEEE Fifth Annual Design
Automation Workshop; Washington, D.C.; contact H. Freitag, Program Chairman, IBM Thomas]' Watson Research
Center, P.O. Box 218, Yorktown Heights, New York, 10598
July 15-18, 1968: Fifth Annual Design Automation Workshop,
sponsored by SHARE-ACM-IEEE Computer Group, Washington, D.C.; contact Dr. H. Freitag, IBM Watson Research
Ctre., P.O. Box 218, Yorktown Heights, N.Y. 10598
July 29-31, 1968: Conference on Pattern Recognition (lEE
Control and Automation Div.), National Physical Laboratory, Teddington, Middlesex, England; contact Conference
Dept., Institute of Electrical Engineers, Savoy Place, London,
W.C.2, England
Aug. 5-10, 1968: IFIP (International Federation for Information Processing) Congress 68, Edinburgh, Scotland; contact
John Fowlers & Partners, Ltd., Grand Buildings, Trafalgar
Square, London, W.C.2, England
Aug. 27-29, 1968: Association for Computing Machinery National Conference and Exposition, Las Vegas, Nev.; contact
Marvin W. Ehlers, Program Committee Chairman, Ehlers,
Maremont & Co., Inc., 57 West Grand Ave, Chicago, Ill.
60610
Oct. 14-15, 1968: System Science & Cybernetics Conference,
Towne House, San Francisco, Calif.; contact not available
Oct. 20-23, 1968: International Systems Meeting, Systems and
Procedures Assoc., Chase-Park Plaza Hotel, St. Louis, Mo.;
contact Richard L. Irwin, Systems and Procedures Assoc.,
24587 Bagley Rd., Cleveland, O. 44138
Oct. 28-Nov. 1, 1968: Business Equipment Manufacturers
Assoc. (BEMA) Annual Business Equipment Exposition and
Management Conference, International Amphitheater, Chicago, Ill.; contact Laurance C. Messick, Business Equipment Manufacturers Assoc., 235 East 42nd St., New York,
N.Y. 10017
Oct. 29-31, 1968: Fall Joint Computer Conference, San Francisco, Calif.; contact AFIPS Headquarters, 345 E. 47th St.,
New York, N.Y. 10017
Nov. 17-21, 1968: Engineering in Medicine & Biology Conference, Shamrock Hilton Hotel, Houston, Texas; contact
not yet available
Dec. 9-11, 1968: Fall Joint Computer Conference, San Francisco Hilton Hotel, San Francisco, Calif.; contact American
Federation for Information Processing (AFIPS) 345 E.
47th St., New York, N.Y. 10017
May 13-15, 1969: Spring Joint Computer Conference, War
Memorial Auditorium, Boston, Mass.; contact American
Federation for Information Processing (AFIPS), 345 E.
47th St., New York, N.Y. 10017
Oct. 27-31, 1969: Business Equipment Manufacturers Assoc.
(BEMA) Annual Business Equipment Exposition and Management Conference, New York Coliseum, Columbus Circle,
New York, N.Y. 10023; contact Laurance C. Messick, Business Equipment Manufacturers Assoc., 235 East 42nd St.,.
New York, N.Y. 10017
Nov. 18-20, 1969: Fall Joint Computer Conference, Conven-·
tion Hall, Las Vegas, Nev.; contact American Federation for
Information Processing (AFIPS), 345 E. 47th St., New
York, N.Y. 10017

MARCH

We'll deliver
a PDP-9 computer
in 90 days.
Seriously.
Ninety day delivery for a computer with the power of the
PDP-9 may be another industry first. Ninety days for hardware and software. Complete. Ready to use.
And not just any computer. PDP-9 is the hottest on-line computer in its class, by far. Since its introduction a year ago. it
has outsold and outperformed all other computers in its
price range, all others with similar word lengths, all others
with comparable memory. Backlog is higher than ever, but
now, so are the production schedules.
8K core memory, 1 usec, expandable to 32K. 18 bit word. 200
nanosec adder. High speed control memory. Real time clock.
Optional parity bit and power failure protection. Its standard

configuration offers 3 types of 1-0 facilities, high speed paper
tape reader and punch - and teletype.
With the PDP-9 ADVANCED System Software package, you
can program real-time data collection and complex analysis
in FORTRAN IV or macro assembly language. Both languages produce compatible and relocatable object codes.
You can call MACRO-9 subroutines from the FORTRAN programs and vice versa. There are two monitors, an 1-0 programming system, a peripheral interchange program, a
debugging system, an editor, and a relocating link loader.
In 90 days from receipt of order. Maybe sooner.

mamaamD

COMPUTERS' MOOULES

DIGITAL EQUIPMENT CORPORATION, Maynard, Massachusetts 01754. Telephone: (617) 897-8821 • Cambridge, Mass .• New Haven· Washington, D.C .•
Parsippany, N.J .• Princeton, N.J .• Rochester, N.Y .• Long Island, N.Y .• Philadelphia' Huntsville· Pittsburgh· Chicago' Denver· Ann Arbor· Houston·
Albuquerque' Los Angeles· Palo Alto· Seattle· Carleton Place and Toronto, Ont. • Montreal, Quebec· Reading and Manchester, England· Paris, France
• Munich and Cologne, Germany· Oslo, Norway • Stockholm, Sweden • Sydney and West Perth, Australia· Modules distributed also through Allied Radio

Designate No. 18 on Reader Service Card

ACROSS THE EDITOR'S DESK
Table

APPLICATIONS
ORGANIZATION NEWS.
EDUCATION NEWS
NEW PRODUCTS
Digital.
Memories

41
. 44
45
• 46
46

Contents
Software
Data Collection.
Peripheral Equipment
Data Processing
Accessories.
BUSINESS NEWS.

• 47
· 49
· 49
51
51

APPLICATIONS

NAVAJO TRIBE USING COMPUTER
TO PERFORM MORE THAN 125
DISTINCT PROJECTS

In a land of contrasts, where
Navaj 0 chi Idren are learni ng both
the "new math" and the traditional
art of handweaving rugs, tribesmen
are us i ng an IBM Sys tem/360 to help
control tribal expenditures and to
manage ami lli on-dollar-a-month i ncome. Astaff of twenty-one, eighteen of whom are Navaj os, man the
data process i ng center on day and
eveni ng shifts.

During the day, young Navajos
may be using their computing system
for a variety of purposes: to run
a statistical analysis of oil leases;
to produce budget up-dates on construction projects; or to prepare
uti 1 i ty bi 11s •
At night, many
trioesmen sleep in scattered and
isolated camps. Because they prefer it that way, some Navajos will
go to bed on di rt floors in mud and
log huts, wrapping themselves in
sheepskin, as their ancestors slept.
The Navajo Tribal Council, a
74-man elected legis lati ve body,

COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1968

governs the tribe's affairs.
The
tribe's main source of income is
deri ved from royalty payments on
oil, gas and uranium leases, scattered across the Navajo nation's
mi Ie-high, 15-mi lli on acre reservation inArizona, NewMexico, and Utah.
Other tribal enterprises include
two motels, two restaurants, a saw
mill, a coal mine, and a crafts
guild which sells handwoven rugs
and silver and turquoise jewelry.
Tribal funds are spent in such
acti vi ties as developing the resources of the land, digging water
wells, operating courts and a police department, and improving housi ng and roads.
Raymond Nakai, tribal chairman
and a former radio broadcaster in
Flagstaff, said, "Contrary to popular
belief, individual Navajos do not
receive income from mineral rights
or fron the federa 1 government.
The Navajo people still earn their
li vi ng from thei r farms, or wages
from the increasing number of new
industries attracted to the area.
Howeve~ per ca~ita income is low."
The tribe uses its computer
system to perform more than 125
distinct projects, varying from
preparing statements for the tribe's
credi t uni on members to mai ntai ni ng
an inventory of all livestock on
the reservation. Thelivestock inventory enables the tribe to quickly
know how to distribute grain supplies during winter emergencies.
Other computer applications
include inventory of all tribal
equipment, analysis of water well

drilling costs and maintaining circulation lists for subscribers to
the Navajo Times, a weekly publication owned by the tribe.
"Dineh" or "The Prople", as
the Navajos call themselves, are
investigating ways to apply the
computer in planning for their future. The tribe now is making master plans for some 40 new communities onthe reservation. They will
be looking at ways to use their
computing system to help determine
population trends and to predict
such needs as water supply, utility,
service, sewers, streets and shoppi ng centers.

ESSEX PLANT
COMPUTER TESTS
THERMOSTATS AUTOMATICALLY

Thermostats that do everything
from controlling the cooking temperature of a roast to keeping a
guided missile on target are being
tested by a computer under the conditions they will encounter once in
use. The advanced electronic testing system was put into operation
at the Controls Division of Essex
Wire Corp., Mansfield, Ohio, soon
after installation last year of an
IBM 1800 data acquisition and control system.
Operations Manager Chandler
Stevens said the computer, linked
to automated testing devices, puts
each of the Stemco thermostats made
at Mansfield through its paces,
testing it at temperatures ranging
from mi nus 30 degrees to 500 degrees

Newsletter
Farenhei t •
"As a resul t, "
Mr.
Stevens said, "we knowthe performance record of a thermostat before
it is shipped to the Army and we
are assured through testing that it
will not cause a missile to stray
off course."
Explaining the role of a thermostat in a guided missile, Mr. Stevens
said, "A thermostat simply is an
on-and-off switch which responds to
temperature changes instead of being physically activated. It controls the temperature level within
the missile where electronic circuits and other sensitive devices
are housed.
As a missile climbs
into the atmosphere, the cooler
outside airmust beoffset with more
heat inside themissile to keep all
guidance circuits operating properly.
On reentry, the reverse is
true."

on its intended end use or on performance specifications outlined by
the user. If a thermostat does not
perform properl~ the computer will
identify it and indicate the phase
of the test it failed. The device
is then removed and either adjusted
or scrapped, depending on the nature of the failure.

DOCUMENTARY EVIDENCE FOR
COURT CASE ORGANIZED
BY COMPUTER AT
INFORMATION ENGINEERING

A computer was used recently
to organize a mass of documentary
evidence for a court case. The citations were arranged in several
ways: bydate, bydocument numbers,
and by every principal person involved. A key-word-in-context index (a concordance) tot he citations was prepared.
The significant result is that
pieces of evidence were brought together ina way t ha t enabl ed the
at t orneys to percei ve reI at ions hi ps
among these pieces that would not
otherwise have been discovered. The
manipulations required to organize
the data would have been impractical by any manual technique.
The work was carried out for
a client by Information Engineering, Philadelphia, Pa.

-- Here, Dottie Henry begins to load a batch of
dime-sized thermostats that
control the heal level in
computers, into an air
heated "testing pot"
The company's IBM 1800 computer
moni tors tests and provides instructions for eight thermostat testing
stations, each of which can check
a batch of35 thermostats ata time.
In six of the stations, thermostats
are bombarded wi th heated ai r to
test their reaction to changes in
temperature.
It takes 20 minutes
to test each batch at prescribed
increments up to 500 degrees Farenheit.
At two of the testing stations, thermostats are immersed in
water heated at increments of one
degree at a time, upto 210 degrees
Farenheit. This test requires about
30 minutes as it also checks to insure the thermostat is hermetically
sealed.
The method for tes ti ng a thermostat, water versus air, is based

TEXAS INSTRUMENTS USES
COMPUTER-CENTERED
CIRCUIT CALIBRATOR

A computer-centered circuit
designer/calibrat.or, fabricated and
delivered by IRA Systems Inc. of
Lexington, Mass., now is fuliy integrated into the production of
diode/resistor circuitry at the
Control Products Division of Texas
Instruments Inc., Attleboro, Mass.
Replacing a manual calibrator which
averaged seven minutes percircuit,
the IRA system averages one minute
per circuit. This seven-times reduction has enabled a corresponding
decrease in labor and substantially
increased accuracy, wi th vi rt ual
elimination of human error.
The ci rcui t des igner/cali brator is capable of automatically
finding ~ set of three interdependent resistors needed to match a
diode pair or quad to five different voltage/ampere ratios.
The
system is built around a small
third-generation computer, a precision digital voltmeter, programmable resistors, an ASR 33 tele-

type, a computer-selectable currenL
source and a device-select maLrix.
The calibrator also final-tests
circuits after theselected resistors are soldered to the diode circui ts •
The interface hardware, precision current generator, circuit
scanners and system software were
designed and developed by IRA Systems Inc. aftera thorough analysis
of the particular requirements of
the di ode ci rcui t producti on procedure. Aunified systems approach
to this problem turned this complex
job into a "turnkey" operation in
approximately 100 days.

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS
INSTITUTE FOR MATERIALS
RESEARCH APPLIES AUTOMATION
AT THE CRYSTAL DATA CENTER

The Crystal Data Center of the
Institute for Materials Research
has as a major mission the revision
of Crystal Data Determinative Tables.
These tables, when completed, will
appear as a Nat i onal Bureau of
Standards (NBS) publication within
the National Standard Reference
Data Systems (NSRDS) series.
The
tables will
contain crystallographic data abstracted from the
scientific literature and comprise
a bibliography forthe use of crystallographer~mineralogists, chemists, and physicists.
The first edition of Crystal
Data, which was published in 1954
by the Geological Society of America as Memoir 60, contained about
6000 entries including data current
to January I, 1952.
In 1963 the
second edi tion appeared as Monograph
Number 5 of the American Crystallographic Association and contained
around 13,000 ent ries current to
January I, 1961.
The third edition,
bei ng prepared under the genera!"
management supervision of the Crystallography Section of the NBS Institute for Materials Research,
will contain approximately 30,000
entries and be current to January
I, 1967.
The third edition will be produced by tape-controlled photocomposition. The editing of the tape
will be done by computer.
The text and data are bei nn
keyboarded into punched-paper tape,
partly from the previous edition
and partly from sheets onwhich new
information has been recorded. Onefourth to one-third of the information is new.
Keyboarded data arc
processed through a phototypeseL-

COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 19G5

Newsletter
ting machine which produces a film
positi ve.
The fi lm posi ti ve is
proofread and corrections marked.
All data from these tapes are
transcribed automatically on magnetic tape by as pecial transcriber.
The magnetic tapes are fed into a
general purpose computer, which
first inserts the corrections and
then performs a variety of editing
tasks. Theinformation is arranged
into the order in which it is to
appear in pri nt • The comput er then
prepares two al phabetical indexes one by chemical formula, one by
chemical compound name. These are
put automatically intothe arrangement inwhich theyare tobe printed.
Finally, the computer deletes
certain keypunched signals which
are not wanted in print and breaks
the copy into lines of proper length,
inserting spaces between paragraphs,
breaki ng i nt 0 pages, ins ert i ng page
head i ngs and page numbers.
The
output of the computer is recorded
on magnetic tape which is converted
to l5-level paper tape. The latter
drives a photocomposition unit operated by the Government Printing
Office.
Prodtiction by computer should
save time the second edi tion
took three years to produce - and
avoid errors in routi ne indexi ng
through its automatic checking features.
Another great advantage
is expected to be the ease of inserting future corrections and additions; completely up-to-date information always will be available
on tape and can be printed more
frequently with less effort.

The computer assists in the
drilling process by scanning and
analyzing electrical signals from
sensing devices on the rig floor.
The signals provide a measurement
of various drilling factors, such
as the weight on the dri lli ng bi t
and the speed at which the drill
pipe is turning. The rate ofpenetration through the underground
formations is tested automatically
at di fferent bit weights and rota ry
speeds, and the computer detennines
the combination of bit weight and
rotary speed which will result in
the lowest drilling cost.
Mi nimum-cost dri lli ng forumlas
which the company developed are
used in the computer system, being
developed in conjunction with the
Rucker Company, Systems & Control
Division, Oakland, Calif.
Incorporated into the minimum-cost formulas are various drilling measurements
including the drilling
rate, formation properties, the
rate of drilling bit wear, and associated costs.
The electronic equipment includes a Honeywell DDP-1l6 highspeed digital computer.

IBM COMPUTER HELPS
CENTURY·OLD MACHINE
TURN OUT HEAT SHIELDS
FOR ASTRONAUTS

The massive turret lathe pictured below, built 40 years before
the Wright brothers flewtheworld's
first airplane, is playing a vital
role in America's space program.
The 25-ton machine -with anassist

COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1968

Each heat shield must wi thstand temperatures ranging from 150
below zero to 5,000 above.
And,
since a shield is subjected to different temperatures at different
points on its surface, Avco engineers save weight and, consequently, fuel - by varying thicknesses at these points. The hotter
it gets, the thicker the shield •••
and vice versa.
An IBM System/360 Model 75 is
used by Avco to calculate the required thicknesses of the shield at
one half million points. The computer then produces 50,000 feet of
punched tape that guides the turret
lathe through the intricate shaping
process.
The shields are made of
a res i nous material developed by
Avco scientists.

TWO MILE LONG ELECTRON BEAM
PROBES ATOM WITH AID
OF COMPUTER

A beam of electrons traveling
at almost the speed of light through
a two-mile long copper tube, ends
in a room at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Centers (SLAC), Stanford,
Cal if. Three mass i ve s pect rometers,
one weighing 1,700 tons, are used
by nuclear physicists to probe the
submicroscopic world of the atom.
Each spectrometer contains a maze
of magnets which directs atomic particles so that they can be measured.
The electron beam also bombards various substances such as
hydrogen and copper, creat ing a
shower of new atomic particles.
These particles are directed into
chambers where their tracks are
photographed.
With these photographs, scientists can see how particles interact, collide and curve
when influenced bymagnetic fields.

COMPUTER IS OPERATING
DRILLING RIG FOR
HUMBLE OIL

First use of a digital computer to control oil-well drilling operations is being carried out by
Humble Oil & Refining Company in
the Bayou Carlin oil field of South
Loui s iana, the company has announced.
Humble, chief United States affiliate of Standard Oil Company (New
Jersey), said the computer-control
sy:; tem was developed and now is
receiving its first test in the
company's Louisiana drilling progrnm for the purpose of obtaining
efficient operation of drilling
rigs at the minimum cost. Studies
are continuing at the drilling
site, according to Humble, both to
develop further the potential of
the new control system and to measure its economic benefits.

signed to protect astronauts during
their fiery return from outer space.
These shields, forApollo space vehicles, are made in Lowell, Massachusetts by the Space Systems Division of Avco Corporation.

By a process of electronic
scanning, each photo is converted
into a series of numbers, which 1s
stored in an IBM Sys tem/360 Model
75. Once instorage, the data from
the s pect rometers and t he photo
chambers can be convert ed i nt 0 meaningful charts and graphs and displayed on a television-like device
for the physicist.
from an IBM computer
is shown
shapi ng an ablati ve heat shi eld de-

Newsletter

ORGANIZATION NEWS

FOUR TOP COMPUTER
MANAGEMENT OFFICIALS
FORM COMPUTER LEARNING CORP.
Four computer executives from
Control Data Corporation and Planning Research Corporation have resigned from their management positions to form a new company specializing incomputer education and
training. Forming the new company
- called Computer Learning Corporation - are:
Thomas E. Stone, a former Vice
President of Control Data Corporation who will serve as President of
the new company.
Swen A. Larsen, the head of one
of the largest computer training
organizations inthe world. He established and was president of Control Data Institutes in the United
States and Europe, (a wholly-owned
subs idiary of Control Data Corp.)
and until his resignation fromControl Data, he also headed Automation Institutes of America, a chain
of some 50 computer schools across
the United States.
He will serve
as Vice President of Computer Learning Education Centers.
Robert F. McIntosh, a former
General Manager, Management Cont rol
Systems Division of Planning Research Corporat i on, a Los Angel es
Computer firm.
He will serve as
Vice President of Education Development and Consulting Services.
William C. Thompson, former Hegional Manager of Applications Analysis at Control Data Corporation, who will serve as Vice President for Management Education and
Special Services.
Mr. Stone said in a statement
that t he new organi zat i on wi 11 provide a full range of computer education and training programs for
three major areas of need by the
computer industry:
1) Young men
and women looking for a career; 2)
the computer professional trying to
keep posted on the latest software
and hardware applicati ons/techniques
and; 3) the executive and manager
who wants to learn practical applications of computers and data processing.
Mr. Stone said, "It is my
judgment that more organizations
wi 11 follow our lead in providi ng
a 'one-stop' computer education/

training center to supply the vast
needs consumed today and tomorrow
by the computer industry. To keep
up with this dynamic technology
people of all sorts must betrained,
retrained, educated and reeducated
- that is where we come in."

GE AND SYSTEMS CAPITAL CORP.
AGREEMENT MAKES SOME GE
COMPUTER LINES AVAILABLE
FOR LONG-TERM LEASING
General Electric and Systems
Capi tal Corporati on (SCC) have concluded an agreement that will make
several General Electric computer
lines available under a variety of
long-term leasing arrangements. In
a joint announcement, the two companies said that under the SCC plan
General Electric willsell GE-115s,
GE-200 and GE-400 Ii ne computers to
SCC which will in turn arrange for
long-term leasing to computer users
who elect this arrangement. The new
plan will be in addition to standard GE sale and lease agreements.
Systems Capital Corporation,
with administrative offices in Phoenix and Philadelphia. Pa.,specializes in the development and implementation of leasing programs in a
variety of industries.
SCC will
offer the General Electric computers
at a range of rental prices which
diminish as the length of lease increases. Four-year leases will be
avai lable at 92.5 percent of, each
year's standard rental cost; fiveyear leases at 90 percent; six-year
leases at 85 percent.
Louis E. Wengert, Deputy Division General Manager of GE's Informati on Systems Division, said
that the arrangement represents a
significant step forward in the financing of computer systems.
Mr.
Wengert pointed out that under the
new "4-5-6" plan, GE computer users
would have available the most comprehensive and flexible set of financing plans in the industry.

PARAGON SYSTEMS ENTERS
DIGITAL PERIPHERAL FIELD
Paragon Systems, Inc •• Houston,
Texas, is entering the expanding
field of independent digital peripheral equi pment manufact urers. Paragon Systems has designed and is
manufacturing high speed digital
I/O peripheral devices; analog and
digi tal graphic dis play and hardcopy recording equipment and is
performing custom interfacing tasks
for other fi rms •

William W. Witt, president of
Paragon Systems, stated that the
company plans to design, manufacture
and market applications -oriented
digit al peri pheral equi pment i ncluding a complete graphics terminal product line with hardcopy
produced ondry write strip recorders and an on-line digital plotter
product series.

NCR, SANDERS ASSOCIATES
ANNOUNCE MULTI-MILLIONDOLLAR AGREEMENT
The National Cash Register
Company and Sanders Ass oci ates of
Nashua, N.H., have announced a multi-million-dollar agreement coveri ng world-wide market i ng of Sanders
data display systems for use with
NCR computers.
The new data display system, to be known as NCR 795,
offers on-line, visual communication between the user and the company~s 315 family of data processing equipment. Anydata ordinarily
included in a computer printout can
be flashed on the display screen
for instantaneous use.
First deli veri es of the equi pment are scheduled for this month.
Owen B. Gardner, NCR's data
processing vice -president said,
"This agreement wi 11 enable our
customers to benefit from the most
advanced commercial data display
system available.
It will result
in a variety of applications in retailing, banking, and industry."
Sanders Associates has been in
the field of display technology for
six years.
The company's display
systems are installed at Cape Kennedy and the Marshall Space Center
for automatic checkout of the Saturn
V missile.

COMPUTER APPLICATIONS INC.
PURCHASES HOME TESTING
INSTITUTE/TVQ, INC.
Computer Applications Inc.,
NeON York. N. Y., has pu rchas ed Home
Testing Institute/TvQ. Inc..
a
leading market research firm engaged in product testing, consumer
surveys and TV audi ence res earch.
HTI/TvQ, Inc., established in 1953,
is based in Manhasset, Long Island,
N.¥.
John A. DeVries, president of
Computer Applications, said the
purchase of HTI/TvQ, Inc., is consistent with the firm's long established philosophy of extending

COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1968

Newsletter

and fortifying a broad base of operations in the fast-paced information industry.
Henry Brenner, founder ofHTI/
TvQ, Inc., will remain with the
company In his present capacity as
president, Mr. DeVries said.

MOHAWK DATA SCIENCES
TO ACQUIRE DASA

v. E. Johnson, Chairman of the
Board and President of Mohawk Data
Sciences Corp., and Richard S. Leghorn, President of DASACorporation,
announced jointly that theircorporati ons had reached agreement in
principle for the tax-free acquisition by MDS of the assets of DASA
for shares of MDS common stock.
The acquisition is subject to
approval by the Boards of Directors
of both companies and the stockholders of DASA, the preparation
and execut i on of a defi ni t i ve agreement and plan of reorgani zat i on,
and the compliance by both companies with the terms and conditions
to be contained in the agreement.
MDS, which is listed on the
American Stock Exchange, manufactures and distributes auxiliary
electronic data processing equipment. DASA is engaged inthe business of manufacturing and distributing telecommunication and peripheral data products and microfilm
reproduction equipment.
Mr. Johnson stated that it is
the i nt ent i on of MDS to conti nue
DASA's operations at Andover,Mass.,
under its present officers and
management.

COOK ELECTRIC COMPANY AND
LABORATORY FOR ELECTRONICS
AGREE TO MERGE

Di rect ors of Cook Elect ric Co.,
Morton Grove, Ill., and Laboratory
for Electronics, Waltham, Mass.,
have agreed to merge, a joint announcement has disclosed.
The
agreement is subject to approval of
shnreholders of the two electronics
manuftlc turers •
lIenry W. Harding, Presdient of
Laboratory forElectronics, will be
Chai rman of the combi ned operat ions,
and John H. Mangle, President of
Cook Electric, will become President.
Laboratory for Electronics is
a di vers i fied manufacturer of elec-

COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1968

tronic products, including aircraft
navigational systems, computer memory arrays, automatic traffic cont rol systems, and nuclear process
control systems.
Cook Electric Company is a 70year old manufacturer of a wide
variety of telephone products, automatic controls, data handling equipment and s pace/defense communications systems.

EDUCATION NEWS

Trainer Model CT-650 is designed
for use in junior and senior high
schools, vocational schools and in
industry.
The device is easily programmed
to carry out addi t i on, subt ract i on,
multiplication, division, and other
mathematical and data processing
functions.
These operations are
performed through manual rather
than transistor switching, thus enabling the student to program, follow and understand each step in sequence, and correlate them to those
of standard digital computers. The
program drum stores up to 90 programmed instructions on a single
mylar sheet.

OHIO STATE TO GRANT
DEGREES IN THE FIELD
OF COMPUTER AND
INFORMATION SCIENCE

Ohio State University, Columbus, 0., will grant its first degrees in the field of computer and
information science at the close of
the winter quarter, which began
January 3rd. The Ohio Board of Regents on December 15, 1967, approved
the granting of bachelor's, master's
and doctor's degrees by the university's Division of Computer and Information Science.
The division is a teaching department created last summer in the
College of Engineering to carryon
teaching and research in such fields
as computer systems organization
and programming, numerical analysis,
and the theory of information with
its application in natural and artificial information-processing systems.
In addition, the division
operates a Computer and Information
Science research Center under a
grant from the National Science
Foundation.
The division also cooperates
with the university's neighbors -Battelle Memorial Institute and
Chemical Abstracts Service -- both
in its teaching and research programs.

ARKAY INTERNATIONAL
ANNOUNCES DESKTOP
TEACHING MACHINE

A new desktop teachi ng machine
that simulates a full-size digital
computer ••• containing input, output, arithemetic, core memory, program drum and control units ••• 'has
been announced by Arkay International, a Division ofComspace Corporation, Brooklyn, N.Y. Computer

Computer Trainer Model CT-650
The CT-650 plugs intoa standard 110 volt outlet and operates at
very low voltage, making it safe
for students touse. It comes complete with an operating manual and
a comprehensive course of study
"The Craft of Computer Technology",
including Student's Textbook, Laboratory Manual and Teacher's Handbook.
(For more information, designate
:tt41 on the Reader Service Card.)

COMPUTER RELATED SERVICES

COMPUTER CAMPAIGN SERVICES,
A NEW COUNSELING SERVICE

A new bipartisan counseling
service to acquaint political candidates and commi ttees with the use
of computers in campaigns has been
announced by Albert M. Kreger,
President of Tech-Ed Systems,Inc.,
Washington, D.C., computer systems
firm.
The new division, to be
called Computer Campaign Services,
is the outgrowth of a conference
last fall at which, for the first
time, a small group of experts in
computers met with severnl of the
country's foremost political consultants to determine the practical
methods of using computers to help
win elections.

Newsletter
Director of Computer Services
for Computer Campaign Services wi 11
be Dr. Jack Moshma~ presently Managing Director for Management Sciences of EBS Management Consul tants,
Inc. Chief consultant to Democratic
candidates will be JosephNapolitan,
President of Joseph Napolitan Associates, Inc., a political counseling firm with offices in Washington and London.
The chief Republican counsel will be F. Clifton
Whi te, Pres ident of F. Cli ft on Wh it e
& Ass oci ates of New York. Mr. White
is best known as the organizer of
Senator Barry Goldwater's victory
at the Republican National Convention in 1964.
Executive Director
of Computer Campaign Services will
be Richard Smolka.

Design improvements incorporated in the Model 25 inelude:
a
main memory that operates in less
than a millionth of a second; a
small "scratch-pad" memory made of
ti ny monolithic circuits and five
times faster than the main memory;
and an easy-to-use console that reduces operator training time and
increases operating efficiency.
The tlscratch pad" memory (held
by the girl at the console) is designed to increase the computer's
processing speeds. The computer
can switch up to 64 bytes of data

The new organi zat i on wi 11 meet
wi th candidates or commi t tees and
deliver to them a written report
analyzing how computers can beused
in their campaigns and the cost of
c om put er programs. "We wi 11 be in
a posi tion to implement the program
for the client, if he wishes," said
Kreger, "or he can utilize his own
computer facilities." In addition,
the firm can provide continuing
assistance to elected officials and
legislative bodies after the elections.
"There is a great uncharted
area where computers can be of vast
benefit to officeholders and legis:"
lators," Kreger said.
"We intend
to demonstrate how computers can
make government easier to understand and less expensive to operate."

NEW PRODUCTS

Digital

IBM ADDS MODEL 25
TO SYSTEM/360

IBM Corporation, Whi te Plains,
N.Y., has built another bridge between its old and new computi ng
systems with the announcement of a
versatile new System/360 for users
of small andmedium sized computers.
The System/360 Model 25 can operate
as an IBM 1401, 1440 or 1460.
It
also can process a full range of
Sys t em/360 Model 30 jobs, and us ers
can convert to a larger System/360
without reprogramming.

been announced by Sperry Rand's
UNIVAC Division, Philadelphia, Pa.
The new system, knownasthe UNIVAC
8410 Disc File, makes it possible
for users to bridge the costly gap
between punched card and di rect access processing.
Suitable for
field-installation on any UNIVAC
9200/9300 System, the 8410 Disc
File provides removable direct access storage of 3.2 to 12.8 mi lli on
bytes, or 6.4 t025.6 million digits
in packed decimal format.
A basic 8410 System includes
a master dual disc drive expandable one drive at a time to a total
of eight drives. Each drive holds
a reversible disc cartridge (illust rated) with two storage surfaces
- one of which is on-line.
By
interchanging disc cartridges, unlimited storage is provided for
applications which require serial
processing.

in and out of the device in 180
billionths of a second.
This is
equivalent to reading and writing
more than 500 full-length novels a
second.
Wi th the new console, many
functions formerly keyed in by separate buttons on the console, now
are entered directly through the
system's typewriter keyboard. These
include a variety of commands and
inquiries, as well as job interruptions.
For example, a programmer
working at the console can display
and alter a portion of main memory
by simplytyping inhis instructions.
The versatile Model 25 is designed to bring a wider choice to
users of small and medium sized
computers in converting to System/360.
(For more information, designate
n:42 on the Reader Service Card.)

Memories

DIRECT ACCESS STORAGE SYSTEM
FOR UNIVAC 9000 SERIES

A ne~ low-cost, direct access
storage system designed for the
UNIVAC 9000 series computers has

Each disc drive can access
10,000 160-byte records plus an
8000 byte fast access track called
the Fastband. All disc dri ves contain a fixed head for reading and
writing on the Fastband and a movable arm wi th two heads for the
remainder of the disc surface. The
average time required to locate and
read a record on a random basis is
approximately 135 milliseconds.
Fastbands can be used for program
storage, index tables, or storage
of frequently accessed data files.
Another feature of the UNIVAC
8410 Disc File is a high-speed buffer permitting all disc reading,
writing, checking, or searching to
be performed simultaneously with
9200/9300 processing and peripheral
operations.
(For more information, designate
n:44 on the Reader Service Card.)

MEMOREX 630 SERIES
DISC DRIVE

A new and improved disc storage dri ve unit for advanced computer systems
the Memorex 630
COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1968

Newsletter
Series Disc Drive -- now is available from Peripheral Systems Corp.
of Sunnyvale, Calif., a subsidiary
of MemorexCorp., Santa Clara, Calif.
The newly developed 630 Series
Disc Drive, fully compatible with
IBM 2311 disc drive equipment, is
plug-compatible with the IBM 2841
Controller, and accommodates Memorex Mark I orIBM 1316 disc packs.
In addi tion to providing variable
length recording, the newdisc drive
can be supplied with the exact
adapter interface required for systems integration.
The Memorex 630 Series incorporates an improved access mechanism which is said to deliver the
fastest access time in the industry.
A head load/unload mechanism provides quicker set tling times during
loadi ng. Together the two features
provide faster data throughput.
(For more informati on, des ignate
~45
on the Reader Service Card.)

handling and soldering; planes fit
flush, one against the other, providing structural rigidity; pins of
an upper plane can contact pins of
a lower plane allowing dip soldering; and a frame is replaceable
(without disturbing any mat wires)
by heating the pins and sliding a
thin blade between them.

The ease of maintenance is one
of the benefits of the new series.
In the photo, a worker is shown
removing one of the system's compact core memory stacks. Surrounding integrated circuit electronics
are mounted on printed ci rcui t cards
as are panel lights and swi tches
for maximum maintainability.

Flexibility in design is made
possible byaccommodating a variety
of winding configurations with up
to 32 sense and inhibit terminals.
The plane is available, off-theshelf, with 30-mil Ferramic® cores
in several matrices.
The plane
also can be strung with 20-mil cores.

The system can handle up to
16,384 words x18 bits, 8,192 words
x 36 bits or 4,096 words x 36 bits
without any modification of the 7"
high x 19" wide x 21" deep configuration.
(For more information, des ignate
~3
on the Reader Service Card.)

Although Cor-Gard is designed
for coincident current applications,
it can be modified for linear select
memories on special request.
The
plane meets temperature requirements of MIL-E-5400 and MIL-E-16400.
(For more information, designate
~6 on the
Reader Service Card.)

Software

INDIANA GENERAL INTRODUCES
NEW MOLDED MEMORY PLANE

ELECTRONIC MEMORIES ADDS
900 NANOSECOND SYSTEM
TO NANOMEMORY LINE

A new memory plane for coincident-current applications in commercial, military and industrial
computers is available from Indiana
General Corp., Keasbey, N.J.
The
plane, named Cor-Gard,
includes
supporting plates to prevent core
mat sag, encapsulating compound
over solder connections and a foam
pad (optional) over the cores, resulting inhigh resistance to shock
and vibration.

A compact,
900 nanosecond
2-1/2D core memory system now is
avai lable from Elect ronic Memories t
Inc., Hawthorne, Calif., to complement its 650 nanosecond NANOMEMORy
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