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SAN JOSE
P UBLIC LIBRARY

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CAl in Action

March, 1970
Vol. 19, No. 3

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6 Strathmore Road
Natick, Mass.01760
(617) 655-4600

,,6 on Reader Service Card

Letters To The
Editor
A "New Notation" - Comments
I particularly enjoyed the January
issue of Computers and Automation,
and would like to obtain permission to
reprint "The Empty Column: A Parable
About a 'New Notation' of Long Ago"
[page 16]. It would appear in the ACM
"SICMICRO" Newsletter, and we would,
of course, credit the source.
I have no idea where this particular
gem originated, but I remember seeing
it at RCA in 1961 or 1962.
J. R. DOUGLAS
General Electric Co.
13430 N. Black Canyon Highway
Phoenix, Ariz. 85029
Ed. Note - Your comments are appreciated, and you are welcome to reprint the "The Empty Column" with our
standard reprint clause.
My copy of the parable about a
"New Notation" which appeared in
your January issue was attributed to an
article titled "Simplified Chemical
Coding" by William J. Wiswesser, copyright 1951, Willson Products, Inc.,
Reading, Pa.
LAWRENCE J. PRINCE, Chairman
Dept. 0/ Systems Analysis
School 0/ Applied Science
Miami University
Oxford, Ohio 45056
I was extremely gratified when I
discovered that you had reprinted "The
Empty Column: A Parable About a
'New Notation' of Long Ago" in your
January issue. I wrote that parable
twenty years ago, and never in my
wildest dreams would I have believed
that it could have reached such deeply
rewarding honorable mention.
WILLIAM J. WISWESSER
The Chemical Notation Association
3103 River Rd.
Reading, Pa. 19605

Applause for APL
I was pleased to see the article
"APL: A Perspicuous Language" in
your November issue [page 24]. Garth
Foster did an excellent job of describing the features of APL which make it
such a powerful programming tool.
Please note, however, that the IBM
1500 is not a computer, but a lowcost terminal system which may be attached to either an IBM 1130 or 1800
computer. The APL/1500 system operates with either CPU and supports up
to 32 terminals.
As an APL "old-timer", I am glad to
see that the language is starting to get
4

its just due, and hope to see more APL
articles in the future.
THOMAS D. McMURCHIE, Co-Author
APLI1500 Terminal System
C.A.I. Center
Florida State University
Tallahassee, Fla. 32306

Editor

Edmund C. Berkeley

Assodctte Editor

Sharry Langdale

Assistant Editors

Moses M. Berlin
Linda Ladd Lov,tt
Neil D. Macdonald

Software Editor

Stewart B. Nelson

Numbles
I am writing this letter concerning
Numble 701. Tonight I was in the
libarary studying for an examination.
Unfortunately, I happened to pick up
the January issue of Computers and
Automation. As I was briefing through
it, I encountered Numble 701. Well,
for the next hour and a half I accomplished no studying, but I did
manage to solve your cute puzzle. If
I fail my exam, I will hold you responsible!
/s/ Computer Nut
MICHAEL VESTA, JR.
Rutgers University
New Brunswick, N.J. 08903
The solution to Numble 6912 [December 1969 issue, page 40] is: "What
smarts, teaches." Working time was 16
minutes, which indicates that Numbles
are getting easier . . . or I'm getting
smarter!
G. P. PETERSON
General Electric Co.
St. Petersburg, Fla. 33733

Advel·tising Director
Art Directors

Bernard Lane
Ray W. Hass
Daniel T. Langdale

Contributing Editors

John Bennett
Andrew D. Booth
John W. Carr III
Ned Chapin
Alston S. Householder
Peter Kugel
Leslie Mezei
Rod E. Packer
Ted Schoeters

Advisory Committee

T. E. Cheatham, Jr.
James J. Cryan
Richard W. Hamming
Alston S. Householder
Victor Paschkis

Fulfillment Manager

William J. McMillan

AdtJertising Representatives
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1127 Statler Office Bldg., 617-542-7720
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254 West 31 St., 212-279-7281
PASADENA, CALIF. 91105, Douglas C. Lance
562 Bellefontaine St., 213-682-1464

Special Type Heads
Prepared for IBM
Selectric Equipment
Camwil supplies custom modifications of existing IBM and
Camwil type heads for Selectric
typewriters, Composers, accounting machines, and computer terminals.
We also mold new type heads
to your specified formats or you
may choose from our stock of
molded type heads which includes computer and teletype
codes, foreign languages, chemical and library formats.
Designate No. 20 on Reader Service Card

CAMWIL, INC.
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Honolulu, Hawaii 96814

ELSEWHERE, The publisher
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CIRCULATION AUDITED BY
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Computers and Automation is published 13 times a
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published in June) at 815 Washington St., Newtonviffe,
Mass. 02160, by Berkeley Enterprises, Inc. Printed in
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Change of address: If your address changes, please
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(as it appears on the magazine address imprint), and
allow three weeks for the change to be made.

COMPUTERS AND AUTOMATION for March, 1970

CDlY1puters
and automation
Vol. 19 No.3 -

March, 1970

The magazine of the design, applications, and implications of information processing systems.

Special Feature
Computers and Education
18

STUDENT·TO-STUDENT INTERACTION IN COMPUTER TIME-SHARING
SYSTEMS
by Dr. Glenn L. Bryan
Some important exploratory findings that show that isolation of students in a com·
puterized system is not necessary-and may not even be desirable.

THE VALUE OF THE COMPUTER AS A PUPIL
by A. Kent Morton
Why a strategy in which the student programs the computer himself is a most important
component in contemporary education.

COMPUTER ASSI5..TANCE FOR INDIVIDUALIZING INSTRUCTION
by Richard L. Ferguson
How three variables in schools-educational goals, individual capabilities, and instructional means-can be better managed with the aid of a computer.

USE OF A REMOTE CONSOLE SYSTEM ON A UNIVERSITY CAMPUS

The front cover picture
shows children engrossed in
computing at the Willow
School, East Palo Alto, Calif.
V p to 32 children can use
this computer-assisted instruction system simultaneously. For more information,
see page 50.

by Herbert D. Schwetman
A convenient and versatile way of accessing a powerful central computing system.

COMPUTER SCIENCE AS A LIBERAL ART
by David F. Foster
Why the ideas of the computer and information sciences should be incorporated into
the liberal arts curriculum.

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS FOR SOCIAL DECISIONS
by Joseph L. Bower
The nature and promise of the yet revolutionary idea of the information engineer as
a solver of social problems.

Regular Features
Editorial
6

NOTICE
Who's Who in Computers and
Data Processing is to be typeset
by computer. As a result, it
should be possible to include
new entries (and to modify pre·
vious entries) CONTINUOUSLY especially since Who's Who will
be published periodically.
Consequently, if you have not
yet sent us your up-to-date filledin Who's Who entry form, PLEASE
SEND IT TO US QUICKLY - the
chance is good that your entry
can be promptly included. Use
the entry form on page 17 of
this issue, or a copy of it.

Computers, Language, and Reality, by Edmund C. Berkeley

C&A Worldwide
35

Report from Great Britain, by Ted Schoeters

The Profession of Information Engineer and His Bridges to Society
44

11
13
13
13
14
15
15
15

16
16
16
17
17
17

Ac;ross the Editor's DeskComputing and Data
Processing Newsletter

Advertising

National Goal Setting and Planning, by Thomas J. Watson, Jr.

Multi-Access Forum
10

Departments

"The Invasion of Privacy and a National Information Utility for Individuals"-Comment, by
L. A. Welke
"The Status of Women in the Field of Computing"-Comment, by Mary R. Standard
Computer Turns Student On, by Richard G. Bethle and ·Warren E. Brant
"Computer Programmer Trainees Can't Find Jobs"-Comment, by Dorothy Vezetinski
Activities of Computer Professionals for Peace, by Edward Elkind
Martin Luther King Memorial Prize Contest-Second Year
Can a Machine be Conscious?, by Dr. Kenneth M. Sayre
Total Size of Exhibitions at Future Joint Computer Conferences Will Be Limited, by
Richard I. Tanaka
1970 Fall Joint Computer Conference-Call for Papers, by L. E. Axsom
CODASYL Report on Data Management Is Now Available, by A. Metaxides
"Biomedical Computing"-A New International Journal, by Dr. Robert Ledley
October 1970 National Data Processing Conference of the Information Processing Association of Israel-Call for Papers, by P. Stein
October 1970 Annual Symposium on Switching and Automata Theory-Call for Papers, by
Sheldon B. Akers
Annual Index-Page Numbering Correction
Who's Who in Computers and Data Processing-Entries

COMPUTERS AND AUTOMATION for March, 1970

8
26
4

Index

As We Go To Press
Calendar of Coming Events
Letters to the Editor

Monthly Computer Census

New Contrac:ts

New Installations

Numbfes
by Neil MacDonald

Problem Corner
by Walter Penney,

Punc;h

CDP

Lines

EDITORIAL

Computers, Language, and Reality
One of the subjects which computer professionals need
to think about is language in general and the manysided influence which linguistic symbols have on correct
thinking. Of course, for a long time computer people have
had problems of how to "talk" to a computer. As a result,
probably over 500 special languages have been developed
for giving orders to the "idiot genius", the computer, of
which COBOL, FORTRAN, LISP, APL, and others promise
to be memorable languages.
But computer programming languages are only a small
part of the problem of the relation of language to reality.
There is a more important part of the problem: what constructs should we designate, among the vast array of
multiple stimuli from the real world? For a simple ex. ample, in French there are three words fOJ a device
that keeps time, "montre, pendule, horloge", but in English
only two, "clock" and "watch": the real world of devices
for keeping time is divided up differently in French and
English.
Alan Watts in "The Way of Zen" (published by Pantheon
Press, New York, 1957) remarks that:
. . . We have no difficulty in understanding that the
word "tree" is a matter of convention. What is much
less obvious is that convention also governs the
delineation of the thing to which the word is assigned . . . the way in which our culture has tacitly
agreed to divide things from each other, to mark out
the boundaries of our daily experience. Thus scientific
convention decides whether an eel will be a fish or a
snake, and grammatical convention determines what
experiences shall be called objects and what shall
be called events or actions. How arbitrary such conventions may be can be seen from the question,
"What happens to my fist (noun-object) when I open
my hand?" The object miraculously vanishes because
an action was disguised by a part of speech usually
assigned to a thing! In English the differences between things and actions are clearly, if not always
logically, distinguished; but a great number of Chinese
words do duty for both nouns and verbs so that
one who thinks in Chinese has little difficulty in
seeing that objects are also events and that our world
is a collection of processes rather than entities.
There is a game I like to play which emphasizes almost
with a shock, how much of what we observe and remember
is influenced and conditioned by the conventionally prepared patterns in our minds, by means of which we observe.
Here is the game (presently called Macdonald's Game):
1. Preparation. Assemble two collections of 20 small
objects each in two small boxes; also obtain a
tray and a cover. The first collection consists of
20 small, common, household articles such as a
tack, a pin, a key, a penny, etc. The second
collection consists of 20 small very strange
objects such as diverse metal stampings and
fasteners.
2. Play. Out of sight of the players, the first collection
(of common objects) is spread on the tray and
covered. The tray is then uncovered in front of
the players, and the 20 objects are displayed
for 60 seconds. Then the tray is covered again,
and the players write down from memory what
they saw. Usually people can remember and list
6

only 15 to 17 of the objects. Then in the same
way the second collection is displayed for just
one minute. But this time people usually can
name, describe, or draw pictures of, only 3 to 5
objects.
I know of no better, quick demonstration that what people
can look at and perceive is enormously influenced by the
prepared patterns in their minds.
As more and more applications of computers to real
problems occur, there should result as a byproduct useful
insights on how to delineate parts of reality, and make
useful symbols.
But in a more basic sense, we human beings deeply
need more adaptable, less conventional patterns in our
minds, so as to think better - and to escape limitations
from culture, history, language, propaganda, etc. Consider
George Orwell's remark in "1984" (published by Harcourt
Brace, New York, many editions):
The purpose of Newspeak was not only to provide a
medium of expression for the world-view and mental
habits proper to the devotees of Ingsoc, but to make
all other modes of thoughts impossible .
When a computer professional or information engineer enlists himself in the service of society and humanity, one of the questions he is faced with is:
How do I increase my understanding of the world?
How do I escape from the provincial world-view,
mental habits, cultural conventions, biases, "Newspeak", etc., of my own country, community, and associations?
There are some reasonable steps. One is to cut down on
reading, listening, or watching information of little value propaganda, comic strips, entertainment, advertisements,
commercials, columnists, news on trivial subjects, etc.
Another is to read newspapers, magazines, articles, books,
with focused purposes chiefly to look for answers to
important, preselected questions. For example:
Why did the secession,ist region of Nigeria, Biafra,
receive such great publicity support in the United
States press, before finally its leader Ojukwu fled in
an airplane taking his Mercedes car with him?
I have put together a list of some dozen books that, I
think, are useful to help liberate one's mind from the
overwhelming propaganda and Newspeak of today. We will
be glad to send a copy of this list to any reader who
circles No.2 on the Readers Service Card. The book I have
most recently added to this list is "Teaching as a Subversive Activity",. by Neil Postman and Charles Weingartner (Delacorte Press, New York, 1969). About three
quarters of this book seems to me very illuminating, although the remaining portion is expressed in such sweeping generalities that they "turn me off" (but perhaps I am
01 d-fash i oned !).
We invite discussion in the pages of Computers and
Automation of the problems here alluded to, in the interrelations of:
language reality thought
computers propaganda - communication.

~c.~
Editor

}

COMPUTERS AND AUTOMATION for March, 1970

ctoputer&
When you go Octoputer, a 3 billion dollar
communications company backs you up all the way.
Getting a new compu ter
system is no joke.
I t involves lots of money.
And importan t decisions,
like the maker and the
equipment.
And then getting the equipment going and keeping it
going.
RCA's making it all easier.
We make your decisions
easier.
Most of our salesmen started
as systems men.
They've put systems together.
They know your problems.
So they know what you need
at least as well as you do.
We make getting a compu ter
eaSIer.
Check our new plan that
buys you a compu ter at
15% off.

No other computer maker
has a plan like it.
We make the switch-over
from your old system easier.
Our systems men are known

as some of the best in the
business. Just ask our customers.
We've made computing
easier, too. The Octopu ters
bring computing to you, instead of vice versa. Use yours
from across the room or
across the country.
I t's a concept called remote
computing.
It's based on communications,
RCA's trump card.
Get an Octopu ter, and you
get RCA.
That's a lot of company to
keep you company.

nell

COMPUTERS

Designate No. 28 on. Reader Service Card

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Varatek can meet your smallcomputer requirements efficiently,
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varatek

computer systems Inc.
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lexington, mass. 02173

TOT AL SYSTEMS CAPABILITY
System Definition
Systems Analysis
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APPLICATIONS PROGRAMMING
Numerical Control
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Data Acquisition
HARDWARE CAPABILITY
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Telephone:

(617) 275-0870

IBM APPEARS LIKELY TO LAND TIlE CONTRACT FOR THE UNITED AIRLINES RESERVATIONS SYSTEM, although it was
reported that Burroughs may still
submit a new proposal to United.
United cancelled its $39. million
contract with Univac because of
"severe cost overruns and schedule
slippages". The dollar size of
the proposed IBM contract has not
been officially stated. Reportedly
the system would include five IBM
computers, probably System 360/65's,
and it is expected the contract
would exceed the cancelled Univac
contract.
U.S. STEEL CORP. WILL OFFER COMPUTER SERVICES through USS Engineers and Consultants, Inc., a subsidiary of U.S. Steel in Pittsburgh, Pa. The company plans to
sell such services as: proprietary computer programs, systems
design, time sharing, and educational seminars. E. Ronald Griffith has been named as Director
of Sales for Computer Information
Services. U.S. Steel's communications network and computing facilities will be used to support the
services offered.
CHILDREN'S IMPRESSIONS OF COMPUTERS
IS THE SUBJECT OF A NATIONWIDE ART
CONTEST currently being sponsored
by Data General Corp., Southboro,
Mass. Children from preschool age
through twelve are eligible to submit their graphic interpretation of
what a computer is or what a computer does. Drawings, crayon portraits, watercolors, sculptures or
any other method of expression a
child might use will be acceptable.
Judges for the contest include
Walter H. Allner, Art Director of
Fortune magazine, Toshihiro Katayama of the Harvard Univ. Carpenter Center for the Visual Arts,
and Mrs. Signe Hanson of the Children's Museum in Bos ton. Top award
for the contest is a $500 scholarship fund for the best entry.
Deadline for entries is March 21;
winners will be announced April 7.
Entries should be sent to Data
General Corp., P.O. Box H, Southboro, Mass. 01772.
Data General has also announced
the formation of Datagen of Canada
ltd., which will operate as a wholly
owned subsidiary of Data General.
Datagen will make and sell Nova
and Supernova computers and related peripherals in the Canadian
market. Juan Monico will head the
new firm.

CONTROL DATA CORP. HAS FORMED A
NEW EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION, Control Data Education Institutes
(CDEI) to provide multi-level computer training to customers, management, employees and the general
public.
An outgrowth of Control
Data's price unbundling, CDEI will
support five instructional areas:
computer technology (entry level),
advanced technology, management
education, international education,
and a franchising service. L. G.
Kinney will be responsible for the
five new divisions that make up
CDEI.
Following this announcement of
plans for expansion of its commercial computer education operations, Control Data also revealed
plans to reduce its number of personnel at its Minneapolis headquarters, and to cut other costs.
A reduction in contracts for
"large" computers from aerospace
companies was cited by company officials as a major reason for
the cutback. Control Data employs
15,000 people in Minnesota.
SIGNIFICANT PROGRESS TOWARD REACHING INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENT IN
KEYBOARD STANDARDIZATION was reported as the outcome of a recent
meeting of the TC95/SC14, a Committee of the International Organization for Standardization. The
first step taken by the Committee
was to agree on a basic core comprising an alphabet of 26 letters,
the numerals, fullstop and comma.
The second step was to define a
suitable layout for the alphanumeric part of the keyboard. Two
standardized keyboards were then
proposed by the Committee, one
version in which national letters
could be implemented, and a second
version in which further graphic
symbols could be used. Additional
information about the work of the
Committee may be obtained from D.
Hekimi, the Secretary General of
The European Computer Manufacturers Association, Rue du Rhone 114,
1204 Geneva, Switzerland.
SALARIES OFFERED BY BUSINESS TO
JUNIOR PROGRAMMERS HAVE RISEN AS
MUCH AS 16.6% IN THE LAST YEAR
according to the Annual Prevailing
Salaries Survey for 1970 published
by Robert Half Personnel Agencies
Inc. Other salary level increases
in medium-size data processing installations include: programmeranalyst, 4.2%; systems analyst, 9.1%;
and data processing manager, 8.3%.

COMPUTERS AND AUTOMATION for March, 1970

ASWEngineers

We need men with pencils
to hunt submarines.
We've expanded our hybrid computer organization and created two new software groups. And, right
now, we need senior people on our prime contracts for
total ASW systems software design and integration.
These programs include the U. S. Navy's P-3C, new
S-3A, and numbers of advanced R&D projects.
COMPUTER PROGRAMMERS
Hybrid: To perform continuous system simulation and dynamic analysis, using hybrid techniques, in
support of advanced engineering concepts.

General-Purpose: To develop software for tactical, system-test, and diagnostic real-time programs for
advanced ASW systems.
Simulation: To develop software for tactical and
mission programs for man-machine ASW simulators.
For more information or to submit your resume,
write to C. R. Alexander, Employment Manager,
Department 1303, 3407 Empire Avenue, Burbank,
California 91503.
An equal opportunity employer.

LOCKHEED-CALIFORNIA COMPANY
A DIVISION OF LOCKHEED AIRCRAFT CORPORATION

Designate No. 19 on Reader Service Card

MULTI-ACCESS FORUM

liTHE INVASION OF PRIVACY AND A NATIONAL INFORMATION UTILITY FOR
INDIVIDUALSI I - COMMENT
L. A. Welke, Pres.
International Computer Programs
2511 E. 46th St.
Indianapolis, Ind. 46205
I noted with great interest the article on "The Invasion
of Privacy and a National Information Utility for Individuals" appearing in your January 1970 issue [page 48].
And I must take issue with the conclusion of the author
[Richard E. Sprague].
There should be no doubt in anyone's mind as to the
happenings in and around a credit bureau file. The fact
that information in these files is abused and misused
should be common knowledge at this point. Obviously this
information situation has developed in a legal. vacuum, to
the detriment of the pUblic. New legislation will correct
much of this merely by allowing the citizen to have access
to any record, and to give him the right to know who is
inquiring into his file would be sufficient to generate a
self-policing system.
It does not follow in any respect that any of the individual files currently in existence must, per se, be
replaced by a master file run by a central authority such as
the Federal Government, or anyone else. There is no reason

to assume that a single national system would be any
better or worse than the multiple local interest ones that
would result from the legislation. In addition, there is no
logical cause for a national data bank to be brought into
existence and if there were, it could be done by private
capital rather than public spending.
The author of your article, Mr. Sprague, rightfully points
out the amount of vested interest involved in the current
setup. Any file is going to have vested interest surrounding
it. For that matter any new legislation will not necessarily
mean the removal of the vested interest - indeed, it might
even cause a black market on individual information,
which would then have to be allowed for in the new
legislation.
But after all, this is what human beings, society, and
the business community is all about. This has been true
for the age of man and will undoubtedly continue to be
ture until a superior being emerges to replace us. These
superior beings may not have manifested themselves as
the leadership of the business community as yet, and this
is unfortunate. By the same token, I have yet to see a
trace of them in the group of public officials that
supposedly serve people.
0

liTHE STATUS OF WOMEN IN THE FIELD OF COMPUTING I I
Mary R. Standard
232 W. 16th St., Apt. 5R
New York, N.Y. 10011
In regard to the article by Gerald H. F. Gardner (liThe
Status of Women in the Field of Computing", January
1970, page 57), I should like to point out that the discriminatory practice of some newspapers in segregati'ng the
"Help Wanted" ads by sex is not only unjust and shortsighted, but also illegal under Title 7 of the Civil Rights
Act of 1964.
The National Organization for Women (NOW) obtained a
ruling from the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) which applies Title 7's specific ban against
discriminatory help wanted advertising to sex discrimination as well as discrimination on the basis of race, color

COMMENT

or religion. While some newspapers have obtained an injunction to delay enforcement of this ban, other newspapers,
including the New York Times have ceased to list jobs separately under "Help Wanted - Male" and "Help Wanted Female" categories, unless sex is a bona fide occupational
qualification for the job.
The enforcement of the ruling appears at the moment
to still be somewhat cloudy, and I thank Mr. Gardner for
his supportive sentiments. As a· female who was early discouraged from showing an interest in mathematics and
other intellectual matters ("Boys don't like girls to be too
smart," as my dear mother would have put it) and who
later in life for economic among other reasons fought her
way up from clerk-typist to programmer/analyst, l can
only regret that observations such as Mr. Gardner's are
still necessary.
0
COMPUTERS AND AUTOMATION for March, 1970

COMPUTER TURNS STUDENT ON
I. Letter to the Editor from Richard G. Bethle, Director of Public Relations, Call-A-Computer, Inc., 1500 S. Lilac
Dr., Minneapolis, Minn. 55416
I see that the March issue af Computers and Automation will facus an the special theme af camputers and
educatian, and I thaught yau might be interested in the
text af a letter we received recently fram a lacal father.

The basic thought he expressed made everyane here feel
pretty gaad, far this is the kind af testimanial that reminds us that there is mare to' this time sharing business
than just making a prafit.

II. Letter to Call-A-Computer from Warren E. Brant, 2099 LaCrosse Ave., St. Paul, Minn. 55119
A year agO' last fall yaur campany made camputer service
available to' St. Paul Schaals. One terminal was installed in
Harding Sr. High Schaal and made available to' 12th grade
students.
My san, Jerry, happened to' be ane af the very fartunate
students whO' was given an appartunity to' be expased to' the
field af camputer sciences at this level. He had pretty well
decided by this time that he wauld gO' an to' St. Paul
Vacatianal fallawing graduatian, as his interests and best
marks were in metal shap and mechanical drawing.
That camputer turned him an. His math shat up to'

straight A's! He was advised to' enter the University and
try far engineering. We learned that Wiscansin State River
Falls had an excellent math pragram and camputer
center.
He has just campleted his first quarter there halding his
high scares in math and warking especially hard an his
English. We cannat tell at this paint, af caurse, whether
he will gO' an to' majar in math, physics, camputer sciences
ar samething else but ane thing is far sure ... yaur camputer at Harding had a prafaund effect an his life, interest
and destiny. We want yau to' knaw that.
0

IICOMPUTER PROGRAMMER TRAINEES CAN'T FIND JOBSII - COMMENT
Dorothy Vezetinski, Supervisor
Data Processing Placement
C.T.C. Education Systems, Inc.
19728 Scriber Lake Rd.
Lynnwood, Wash. 98036
This letter is in respanse to' the article "Camputer Pragrammer Trainees Can't Find Jabs" by Helen Salem, which
was published in the August 1969 issue af Computers and
Automation.
I quate fram the article: "There is nO' demand far camputer pragrammer trainees." This may be true in Hillsbara,
Oregan, but jab apenings are fairly gO' ad here. On December
12, far example, we graduated 17 persans fram aur Data
Pracessing Caurse, Of these 17 peaple:
7 were placed in the surraunding area
1 went to' New Yark in respanse to' a review af his
resume

1 persans' references were requested by Washingtan
State Univ.
2 are being cansidered by a lacal insurance campany
2 went an to' cal lege
4 are still actively seeking jabs.
Cansidering the jab temperature in this area, which is law
at the mament, we feel this is a pasitive result. The
average minimum starting salary available far aur graduates during December was $485.
This disputes Mrs. Salem's camment that "Yaung peaple
whO' have had nO' previaus data pracessing experience find
staunch emplayer resistance to' hiring trainees
whether ar nat they have taken special caurses which
suppasedly allaw them to' be called 'trainee'."
Where wauld we be if there were nO' inexperienced
peaple to' be malded intO' the experienced Systems
0
Analysts af the future?

ACTIVITIES OF COMPUTER PROFESSIONALS FOR PEACE
Edward Elkind
Computer Professionals for Peace
P.O. Box 1591
Brooklyn, N.Y. 11202
Because af the apparent cantinued interest af yaur
readers in the sacial respansibilities af camputer peaple,
we felt they might be interested in the fallawing summary repart af the activities af aur arganizatian, Camputer
Prafessianals far Peace (CPP).
Camputer Prafessianals far Peace (CPP) was arganized
in January 1968 in appasitian to' the Vietnam War. In
additian, we have became increasingly cancerned about the
related prablems af paverty, racism, militarism and the
misuse af technalagy. As an arganizatian af camputer
prafessianals we have the pawer to' help bring abaut a
salutian to' these prablems; we insist an using aur skills
far canstructive, nat destructive, purpases.
COMPUTERS AND AUTOMATION for March, 1970

CPP members have:
• Participated in peace demanstratians thraughaut
the cauntry.
• Helped arganize Camputer Persannel Develapment
Assaciatian (CPDA) to' train ghettO' yauths in
camputer aperatians and find them jabs.
• Pratested and circulated petitians against the
ABM.
• Attended majar Camputer Canferences in arder to'
answer military and industrial speakers and
facus attentian an sacial and palitical prablems.
• Established a Service Organizatian to' pravide D.P.
services to' peace, palitical and sacial actian
groups did system stUdies and pragramming
far several arganizatians.
• Spansared warkshaps far discussian af sacial and
palitical prablems and the relatianship af camputer technalagy to' these prablems.

• Investigated racism in the industry and exploitation
by phony computer schools.
• Participated in the March 4th movement to protest
the militarization of science and technology.
• Demonstrated against Honeywell's complicity in
the war particularly their high rank as a
"defense" contractor (20th) and their manufacturing of anti personnel fragmentation bombs.
• We currently publish a newsletter -INTERRUPT- to
publicize our activities and provide a forum for
our views.
CPP is now a national organization with groups forming
in Boston, Poughkeepsie, Washington, Berkeley, Los Angeles

and Chicago. We plan to organize in other areas as the
membership grows. Our members are programmers, operators, teachers, analysts, scientists and engineers.
Our position:
1. We are for immediate and total withdrawal of U.S.
troops from Vietnam.
2. We are opposed to the ABM and other forms of
militarism.
3. We urge all computer professionals to seek employment in projects unrelated to war.
We invite everyone who is interested in our activities to
D
write us at the address above.

MARTIN LUTHER KING MEMORIAL PRIZE CONTEST
- SECOND YEAR
(Please post this notice)

Computers and Automation has received an anonymous gift and announces the annual Martin Luther
King Memorial Prize, of $300, to be awarded each
year for the best article on an important subject in
the general field of:
The application of information sciences and
engineering to the problems of improvement in
human society.
The judges in 1970 will be:
Dr. Franz L. Alt of the American.1 nstitute of
Physics; Prof. John W. Carr III of the Univ. of
Pennsylvania; Dr. William H. Churchill of Howard Univ.; and Edmund C. Berkeley, Editor of

Computers and Automation.
The closing date for the receipt of manuscripts this
year is April 30, 1970, in the office of Computers and
Automation, 815 Washington St., Newtonville, Mass.

02160.
The winning article, if any, will be published in the
July issue of Computers and Automation. The decision of the judges will be conclusive. The prize will
not be awarded if, in the opinion of the judges, no
sufficiently good article is received.
Following are the details: The article should be
approximately 2500 to 3500 words in length. The
article should be factual, useful, and understandable.
The subject chosen should be treated practically and
realistically with examples and evidence - but also
with imagination, and broad vision of possible future
developments, not necessarily restricted to one nation
or culture. The writings of Martin Luther King should
be included among the references used by the author,
but it is not necessary that any quotations be included in the article.
Articles should be typed with double line spacing
and should meet reasonable standards for publication.
Four copies should be submitted. All entries will

become the property of Computers and Automation.
The article should bear a title and a date, but not the
name of the author. The author's name and address
and four or five sentences of biographical information
about him, should be included in an accompanying
letter - which also specifies the title of the article
and the date.

"Many people fear nothing more terribly than to
take a position which stands out sharply and clearly
from the prevailing opinion. The tendency of most is
to adopt a view that is so ambiguous that it will
include everything and so popular that it will include
everybody ... , Not a few men who cherish noble
ideals hide them under a bushel for fear of being
called different."
"Wherever unjust laws exist, people on the basis of
conscience have a right to disobey those laws."
"There is nothing that expressed massive civil
disobedience any more than the Boston Tea Party,
and yet we give this to our young people and our
students as a part of the great tradition of our nation.
So I think we are in good company when we break
unjust laws, and I think that those who are willing to
do it and accept the penalty are those who are a part
of the saving of the nation."
- From "/ Have a Dream" - The Quotations of Martin Luther King, Jr., compiled
and edited by Lotte Haskins, Grosset and
Dunlap, New York, 1968.
Reverend Martin Luther King, Jr., was
awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1964,
when he was age 35.
He was in jail in the United States more
than 60 ti meso
He was assassinated in Memphis, Tennessee,
April 4, 1968.

COMPUTERS AND AUTOMATION fo-r March, 1970

CAN A MACHINE BE CONSCIOUS?
Dr. Kenneth M. Sayre
Associate Professor of Philosophy
University of Notre Dame
Notre Dame, Ind. 46556
The Institute for the Study of Artificial Intelligence at
the University of Notre Dame is using a computer to consider the ultimate philosophical question: What does it
mean to be a conscious human being?
A workable definition for consciousness is being sought
by examining such related questions as, "Can a machine
be conscious? If so, what would it be like?" The Institute
believes its studies can offer two advantages to scholarship first, to create more flexible programs that increase the usefulness of the computer, and second, to use
these programs to gain a clearer, more practical understanding of how human beings perform various tasks.
Until the advent of the computer, philosophers had no
laboratory in which to test their theories, while scholars in
the sciences have long had the advantage of trying their
ideas out in controlled experiments. Although the computer is limited as a tool for determining the worth of
philosophical theories, it does provide some basis for

accepting or rejecting ideas on how human beings perform basic intellectual tasks.
In programming the computer to recognize lines of
handwritten material, for example, it was found the machine had difficulty recognizing badly formed letters.
Humans have an advantage in that they do not rely
purely on form, but can reserve judgment on which letter
is meant until the context of the word or sentence is
clear. So the computer was then programmed to employ
this flexible approach in identifying letters by telling the
machine which letter combinations are statistically likely,
and which are not. If confused by a badly formed letter,
the computer could then consult these lists of likely
combinations before making a choice.
Such flexibility could be called a form of consciousness,
though not on a level with that of a man, or even a cat.
Actually we do not expect that the future will produce
machines capable of consciousness as complete as man's
- a machine which is aware of its actions, feels affection
and pain, and exercises will or volition. The reason such a
machine will probably never exist is not because it would
be impossible from a technical point of view. There simply
is no practical reason to commit the resources it would
take to create one.
0

TOTAL SIZE OF EXHIBITIONS AT FUTURE JOINT COMPUTER CONFERENCES WILL
BE LIMITED
Dr. Richard I. Tanaka, Pres.
American Federation of Information Processing
Societies
210 Summit Ave.
Montvale, N.J. 07645
The American Federation of Information Processing Societies (AFIPS) will limit the total size of future exhibitions held in conjunction with its Joint Computer Conferences. Future exhibitions will be held to a maximum of
1000 booths, in order to maintain the high quality of the
exhibit program, and to assure that the exhibition does
not escalate to a prohibitive size. We strongly feel that any
increase in size beyond the present level would diminish
the usefulness of the exhibits for those attending the
conferences, and would tend to detract from the overall
focus of the conference and the technical program.

There are several additional changes that are being
made relative to the Joint Computer Conferences. One is
that the option of registering only for the exhibits is being
eliminated, in order to assure that those attending the
conference itself will have an appropriate opportunity to
view the new developments in hardware and software
being shown.
There will also be changes in the conference registration fees. Fees for individuals who are not members of
AFI PS' constituent societies wi II be increased to $40 from
the previous level of $30. Of this amount, $10 is applicable
towards membership in anyone of the AFIPS constituent
societies. The registration fee for both members and nonmembers includes one copy of the Conference Proceedings,
which may also be purchased separately. The registration
fee for full time students will be increased to $5.00; the
fee for members of AFIPS' constituent societies will remain at $20.
0

1970 FALL JOINT COMPUTER CONFERENCE - CALL FOR PAPERS
L. E. Axsom, Chairman
Technical Program Committee
1970 Fall Joint Computer Conference
P.O. Box 61449
Houston, Tex. 77061
The 1970 Fall Joint Computer Conference, sponsored by
the IEEE Computer Group and the American Federation of
Information Processing Societies, will be held Nov. 17-19,
1970, at the Astrohall in Houston, Texas. Original papers
describing significant activity in the general areas of
hardware, software, analog, hybrid, applications and interdisciplinary aspects of the computer field are invited.
The schedule for the technical program will be arranged
so that authors will have adequate time to present their
papers.
COMPUTERS AND AUTOMATION for March, 1970

The material submitted must include: (1) A 100-150
word abstract. (2) Six copies of the complete draft manuscript (not to exceed 6000 words), typed, double spaced
on one side of the paper only, and any original drawings
and photographs keyed to the text. The first page should
contain only the title, full name of author(s), co-author(s)
in desired order; affiliation(s); complete mailing address
and telephone number of the responsible author. Author's
name and page number should appear on each subsequent page. The author should obtain any necessary company approval before submission.
The material should be submitted for review to the
address above before April 10, 1970.
0

CODASYL REPORT ON DATA MANAGEMENT IS NOW AVAILABLE
A. Metaxides, Chairman
CODASYL Data Base Task Group
Bell Telephone Laboratories
2F-104
2 Jackson Drive
Cranford, N.J. 07016
A report on data management has been completed by
the Data Base Task Group of the Conference on Data
Systems Languages (CODASYL). The report is the result
of several years of voluntary effort by special ists in data
management from many companies who manufacture computers as well as major computer users.
The report contains proposals and detailed specifications for a Data Description Language and a Data
Manipulation Language. The Data Description Language is
used to describe a data base. The Data Manipulation
Language, when associated with the facilities of a host
language such as COBOL, PL/l, ALGOL, JOVIAL, FORTRAN, etc., allows manipulation of data bases described by the Data Description Language.
The major objectives of the Data Base Task Group in
developing its proposals were to:
• achieve flexibility without data redundancy; i.e., to
allow data to be structured in the manner most
suitable to each application, regardless of the
fact that some or a II of that data may be used
by other applications.
• allow more than one run-unit to concurrently retrieve or update the data in the data base.
• provide and permit the use of a variety of access
methods against an entire data base or portions

of a data base.
• provide protection of the data base against unauthorized access of data and from untoward
interaction of programs.
• allow the user to plan and implement his system
as if he had a virtual memory at his disposal.
• provide the Data Base Manager with the capability
to control the physical placement of data.
• allow the declaration of a variety of data structUres ranging from those in which no connection exists between data elements to network
structures.
• allow the user to interact with the data while being
relieved of all of the mechanics of maintaining
the structural associations which have been
declared.
• allow programs to be as independent of the data
as current techniques will permit.
In developing its proposals the Data Base Task Group
paid special attention to keeping its proposals in line
with what can be currently implemented and was careful
to avoid concepts and proposals which it considered to be
unattainable within the present state of technological
development. Its proposals are thus of immediate interest
to all computer users, and the Data Base Task Group
hopes that its report will be widely studied and commented upon.
Copies of the report (approximately 200 pages) are
available at $4.00 per copy, prepaid, from the Association
for Computing Machinery, 1133 Avenue of the Americas,
New York, New York, 10036.
D

IIBIOMEDICAL COMPUTINGII - A NEW INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL
Dr. Robert Ledley, Pres.
National Biomedical Research Foundation
11200 Lockwood Dr.
Silver Spring, Md. 20901
A new international journal, Biomedical Computing, is
being published to encourage the exchange of important
research, instruction, ideas, and information on the expanding use of computers in bioscience and medicine.
The quarterly pUblication wi II focus on such areas as:

(1) Analysis of Biomedical

Systems: Solutions of Equations; (2) Synthesis of Biomedical Systems: Simulations;
(3) Special Medical Data Processing Methods; (4) Special
Purpose Computers and Clinical Data Processing for Real
Time Clinical and Experimental Use; and (5) Medical
Diagnosis and Medical Record Processing.
Readers interested in contributing to this new journal
are invited to write me at the address above.

OCTOBER 1970 NATIONAL DATA PROCESSING CONFERENCE OF, THE
INFORMATION PROCESSING ASSOCIATION OF ISRAEL - CALL FOR PAPERS
P. Stein, Secretary
6th National EDP Conference
c/o Kenes
30 Dizengof St.
Tel Aviv, Israel
The Information Processing Association of Israel (lPA)
is planning the 6th National Data Processing Conference
to be held at the Tel Aviv Hilton Hotel on October 12-13,
1970. About 1000 participants are expected at the Conference, which will also include a small exhibition.

Papers to be presented at the Conference are invited.
The main subjects to be covered include: Managing
Data Processing, Data Bases, Programming Languages,
Programming Standards, and The Impact of the Computer
on Sciences, Business and Government.
Abstracts (in English or Hebrew) containing no more
than 500 words should be presented to the address above
no later than April 15, 1970. The Program Committee will
confirm acceptance of papers by June 1, and final papers
wi II be due on August 31.
COMPUTERS AND AUTOMATION for March, 1970

OCTOBER 1970 ANNUAL SYMPOSIUM
ON SWITCHING AND AUTOMATA
THEORY - CALL FOR PAPERS
Sheldon B. Akers, Publicity Chairman
Switching and Automata Theory Committee
General Electric Co.
Bldg. 3, Room 226
Electronics Park
Syracuse, N.Y. 13201
The Eleventh Annual Symposium on Switching and
Automata Theory, sponsored by the Switching and Automata Theory Committee of the IEEE Computer Group and
the Department of System Science of the University of
California, Los Angeles, will be held in Santa Monica,
California on October 28, 29, and 30, 1970. Papers describing original research in the general areas of switching
theory, automata theory, and the theoretical aspects of
computers, computation, and programming are being
sought. Typical (but not exclu,sive) topics of interest
include:
Algorithms of Minimal Complexity
Computational Complexity
Formal Languages
Minimization Techniques
Models of Computers
Reliability and Fault Diagnosis
Theoretical Aspects of Computer Organization
Computer Algorithms
Computational Processes and Structures
Parallel Computation
Simulation
Authors are requested to send seven copies of an
extended abstract (no word limit), by May 15, to:
Professor Peter Weiner
Department of Computer Science
Dunham Laboratory
Yale University
New Haven, Connecticut 06520
The abstract must provide sufficient details to allow the
program committee to apply uniform criteria for acceptance. (A length between 5 and 8 typewritten pages is
suggested. In particular, full reference and comparison to
extant work should be included.)
Authors will be notified of acceptance or rejection by
July 3. For inclusion the Conference Record, a copy of
each accepted paper, typed on special forms, will be due
at the above address by August 21.
0

ANNUAL INDEX - PAGE NUMBERING
CORRECTION
In the "Annual Index" published in the January, 1970
issue, two consecutive pages were erroneously interchanged and numbered incorrectly. The page number on
existing page 44 should be changed to page 43, and the
page number on existing page 43 should be changed to 44.

COMPUTERS AND AUTOMATION for March, 1970

Who's Who in Computers
and Data Processing
Who's Who in Computers and Data Processing will
be published jointly (as an annual publication) by
The New York Times Book and Educational Division
and Computers and Automation. The fifth edition
is scheduled to be published in three volumes in
hard cover in early 1970, and will include upwards
of 8000 capsule biographies.
Who's Who in Computers and Data Processing is
to be typeset by computer. As a result, it should
be possible to include new entries (and to modify
previous entries) CONTINUOUSLY -- especially since
Who's Who will be published periOdically.
Consequently, if you have not yet sent us your
up-tO-date filled-in Who's Who entry form, PLEASE
SEND IT TO US QUICKLY -- the chance is good that
your entry can be promptly included. Use the entry
form below, or a copy of it.
WHO'S WHO ENTRY FORM
(may be copied on any piece of paper)
1.

2.
3.

4.
5.
6.

7.
8.
9.
10.
11.

Name? (Please print)~~_____________________
Home Address (with Zip)? ______________________
Organization? ____~~=_---------------------It s Add re s s (w it h Zi P n _____________________
Your Title? ______~------------------------Your Main Interest?
Applications
( ) Mathematics
Business
( ) Programming
Construction
( ) Sales
Design
( ) Systems
Logic
( ) Other
(Please specify)
Management
()
Yea r of Bi r t h? ___-----:::----------------------Education and Degrees? _______________________
Year Entered Computer Field? __________________
Your Present Occupation?~--~---------------Publications, Honors, Memberships, and other
Distinctions?

(attach paper if needed)
12. Do you have access to a computer? ( )Yes ( )No
a. If yes, what kind of computer?
Manufacturer?
~Iode 1 ?
------------------------------b. Where is it installed:
Manufac turer?
Address?
----------------------------c. Is your access: Batch? ( ) Time-Shared? (
Other? ( ) Please explain: _________________
d. Any rema rk s? _________________________
13. In which volume or volumes of Who's Who do you
think you should be included?
Vol 1. Systems Analysts and Programmers
Vol 2. Data Processing Managers and Directors
Vol 3. Other Computer Professionals
14. Associates or friends who should be sent Who's
Who entry forms?
Name and Address

(attach paper if needed)
When completed, please send to:
Who's Who Editor, Computers and Automation,
815 Washington St., Newtonville, ~Iass. 02160

STUDENT-TO- STUDENT INTERACTION IN
COMPUTER TIME-SHARING SYSTEMS
Dr. Glenn L. Bryan, Director
Psychological Sciences Division
Office of Naval Research, Code 450
Washington, D.C. 20360

((Informal peer discussions leading to learning ought to be among the
prime benefits to be derived from student terminal-sharing at the time
of contact with the material to be learned."
Modern educational technology has recognized the potential of computer time-sharing as a means for providing
truly individualized instruction. It is important that these
evolving systems be designed to permit and encourage
person-to-person interactions which are generally recognized to be desirable, but which as yet have received
little systematic attention from the system designers.
Exponents of Computer-Assisted I nstruction (CAl) frequently depict the ideal CAl system as one where each
student has his own private carrel. There he pursues his
studies without interruption or distraction. Typically, the
computer with which the student is to interact has modern
time-sharing capabilities. Consequently, he cannot even
tell whether or not anyone else is using the system at
the same time he is using it (let alone interact with the
other person in a common pursuit of knowledge). The
CAl enthusiasts are correct in their desire for systems
which can provide the kind of splendid isolation that
current systems provide. Undoubtedly, there are some times,
some topics, and some students who would benefit from
such isolation. However, it is not always desirable and it
is not a necessary consequence of time-sharing. Systems
can be devised which permit and even stimulate desirable
student-to-student interactions. It is hoped that the
considerations presented in this article will so influence
the design of future CAl systems.
From a research standpoint, very little has been done
in the area of student-to-student interaction in timeshared CAl systems. To all intents and purposes, there
are no hard data. But, several exploratory efforts have
been made and they indicate that such approaches have
real promise. It is interesting to examine a few of these
efforts and to speculate regarding other possible arrangements for promoti ng student-to-student interactions.

Isolated Student
A series of simpl ified diagrams is used throughout this
article to focus the discussion. The diagrams in the series
This article is based on a talk given at the Symposium on Education
and Information Science, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, June

24, 1969.

are cumulative in the sense that each embellishes its
predecessor. New features are identified as they are
introduced. Figure 1 depicts a single terminal system capable of conversational interaction between a central processing unit (CPU) and a student (S) by means of a terminal (T).

Figure 1. Simplified schematic of a single terminal system serving a
single student.

As it stands, such a system has no time-sharing capability
(in the sense in which the term is used here) and, of
course, there can be no student interactions where just
one student is involved. Most current CAl programs seem
to have been designed with such a system in mind. Although they serve more than a single student, they do so
to share costs and to share resources not to promote
student-to-student interactions.

Terminal Sharing
However, such interactions become possible when a
second student is added as shown in Figure 2. This
figure shows two students sitting in front of a single
terminal. Experiments with such a "terminal-sharing" arrangement have demonstrated that each student learned
as well under these circumstances as he might have been
expected to learn if he had had the terminal all to himself
(Grubb, 1965). This is an important finding from an
economic standpoint since it suggests that it may not be
essential to provide a separate terminal to each and every
student in a CAl system. Although the experiment described by Grubb did not try to exploit the potential advantages of having a second student present during the
COMPUTERS AND A UTOMATION for March, 1970

of thinking about the subject they are studying and ways
of talking about it that prove useful when they extend
their discussions beyond the carrel.

A Two-Student Program

Figure 2. An example of a "Terminal Sharing" serving two students
at the same terminal.

learning sessions, it is interesting to speculate how
the student-to-student situation might have been exploited
to promote learning by means of social facilitation,
modeling, and observation. Discussion of these factors is
beyond the scope of this paper, but the interested reader
will find excellent treatments of them in Chapter 3 of
Principles of Behavioral Modification (Bandura, 1969).
One can think of two rather different schemes for
dealing with the two-students-at-a-terminal case (i.e., terminal sharing). In the first of these, the computer program
which would be used would be identical to the program
which would be used if the terminal were occupied by just
one student. The second scheme would employ a program
tailored explicitly with the terminal-sharing situation.

A One-Student Program
As in example of the first scheme, assume that a program originally written for a single student is used. Assume, further that the program goes through the following
loop. It asks a question, accepts a reply, evaluates the
reply, provides "feedback" based upon the analysis of
the reply, selects another question and performs the loop
again until it runs out of questions or is instructed to
stop. Student-to-student interactions under these circumstances can be governed by "responding rules" which are
either informally agreed upon by the two students themselves, or enforced by some agent in control of the learning
situation (e.g., a human monitor). Many examples of such
responding rules leap to mind. One is to take "turn about."
Another example is "if you are sure that you know the
answer, give the other student a chance to answer first."
Or, it might be desirable to allow "whoever knows the
answer to supply it as quickly as possible." Or, the
students could be required to talk it over until they both
agreed upon an answer before it was entered into the system. Obviously, the use of different "responding rules"
permits considerable flexibility. The rules are limited primarily by the ingenuity of the people who make them up.
As an aside, it is interesting to note that some of these
interactions in the terminal-sharing environment could be
quite noisy. But, such noisy interactions are far more
appropriate in the CAl environment than they would be in
the conventional classroom learning situation. Compare, if
you will, this CAl situation with two students sharing a
terminal in a carrel with that of the same two students
sitting beside each other in a conventional classroom
where any attempt to communicate with one another disrupts the class and distracts the instructor. Carrels can
easily be designed so students can engage in protracted,
even heated, discussions without "holding up the class."
As a matter of fact, informal peer discussions leading to
learning ought to be among the prime benefits to be
derived from student-to-student interaction at the time of
contact with the material to be learned (not after class).
Systems like this permit communication between students
in their own language. They create a condition where
students, through their common experiences, develop ways

COMPUTERS AND AUTOMATION for March, 1970

The second genera I scheme for hand ling student-tostudent interactions in a terminal-sharing environment is
to design the computer program to take the dual occupancy of the terminal into account in an explicit manner.
Again, there are numerous ways that this can be done. For
example, each question can be addressed to each student
by name. In this manner the program keeps track of the
progress of each student and enforces the response rule in
effect at any given time. The program could even deal with
the students differentially on the basis of their personal
response histories. The following fictitious example might
result from such an arrangement. Assume that John and
Mary are terminal-sharing.
PROGRAM:

John, who discovered America?

JOHN:
PROGRAM:

Columbus.
Mary, when did Columbus discover
America?
In 1066.

MARY:
PROGRAM:
JOHN:
PROGRAM:
MARY:
PROGRAM:

Do you agree with that Johnny?
No, it was in 1492.
Is that right Mary?
I don't know. I don't think dates are important.
The study of history is certainly a lot more
than memorizing a lot of dates. But, there
are some dates that are commonly used to
sort of punctuate history. The date that
Columbus discovered America is such a
date in this country. John, tell Mary how
you manage to remember 1492 as the year
when Columbus discovered America.

Etc.
Fictitious examples are easy to write. Whether or not it
would be possible to write a program to handle two
students at the same time in this way is, at present, an
empirical question. But, in principle, such a program
could be written. It is used here simply to suggest how a
program might interact with each terminal-sharing student
as an individual and, at the same time, encourage them to
interact with each other.

Simple Linking
But, let us move on from the simple terminal-sharing
case to true time-sharing cases where each student has
his own terminal in his own carrel. Figure 3 shows the

Figure 3. An example of a
interaction.

"student·to·student" computer·mediated

basic system configuration with multiple terminals. Although only two terminals are shown in the figure, comments regarding the relationships between these two
may be extended to any specified number of terminals in
a larger, multi-terminal complex.

Since, in the ardinary time-sharing system, terminals
are functianally isalated, the first step in providing
student-ta-student interactian in such a system is to' write
additianal programs to' cantrol the intercannectian af
specified terminals withaut "clabbering" the entire system.
There are many degrees af intercannectian. The simplest
is to' allaw ane terminal to' "eavesdrap" an anather. Anather simple type af intercannectian permits ane terminal
to' "call" anather terminal via the camputer. These twa
capabilities are cambined in the CONNECT pragram at
Praject PLATO (Bitzer, Hicks, Jahnsan and Lyman, 1967)
sa that the authar af a CAl pragram can manitar the pragress af a student warking an a pragram. If the student's
behaviar indicates that he is having trouble, the authar
can type aut a message which appears an the student"s
terminal. The message identifies the authar, expresses his
willingness to' help, and inquires as to' the nature af the
student's difficulties. This arrangement was devised as an
aid to' an authar whO' wished to' revise a CAl pragram, and it
cantained ather features nat described here. Hawever, the
same type af program might permit twa students to' work
tagether an an exercise by allawing each to' loak aver the
ather's shaulder, sa to' speak, and to' cammunicate freely
with each ather via the intercannected terminals. Under
thase circumstances, it might even be useful to' permit
them to' talk directly to' each ather by telephane as well.
Nate that the CONNECT pragram simply arranges far the
intercannectian af the terminals and does nat prescribe
the nature af the communicatian between the terminals.
In ather wards, the cammunicatian is bath unguided and
unlimited.

where ane af the terminals is accupied by a student and
the ather is accupied by a piece af electronic equipment
which receives autputs from a terminal and pravides inputs
to' it. A diagramatic representatian af this situatian is
given in Figure 4. The daub Ie-headed arrow indicates a

r- - --,
I
I

Prog.

L ____

...J

G~-B-8o
Figure 4. Arrangement where an item of electronic equipment serves as
a "student" in a student·to·student computer.mediated interaction.

"hard-wire" cannectian between the equipment and
Terminal-2. Signals passing to' the right in the diagram
and entering the equipment change its state. Signals
passing from the equipment to' the left pravide detailed
indicatians af the status af the equipment. In this manner,
the student-experimenter sitting at Terminal-1 makes entries
at his keybaard which signal the equipment to' change its
status. The results af thase changes are returned to' the
camputer where they can be processed and returned to' the
student-experi menter.

Prescribed Interactions

Interactive Laboratory Experimentation

The TALK program, which was develaped by Bitzer and
Praf. Harold Guetzkaw (then af Northwestern University)
and their assaciates, went a step further (Hicks, 1966). It
explared the passibilities af intercannected terminals with
respect to' a program af man/ camputer simulatian. In the
TALK program, cantingency specificatian stared in the
camputer cantrolled the intercannectian af terminals and
limited the nature af the interactians amang them. This
pragram control af the nature of the interactians is a
significant feature and we shall return to' it later. But, far
the present, just sa the idea wan't be taO' vague and
mysteriaus, assume a situatian where twa campetitars in a
camputerized business game are situated at different
terminals. Assume, alsO', that the program allaws them to'
cammunicate and negatiate with each ather via the computer in matters pertaining to' (say) municipal bonds, but
daes nat allaw them to' cammunicate an any ather matters.
This type af program cantrol aver the nature and cantent
af the terminal-ta-terminal interactian is the feature af
the TALK program which is af interest. One can easily see
haw programs cauld be written to' require student-tastudent interactians at same paint af the teaching pragram and in regard to same tapics while restricting this
type of interactian at ather paints in the sequence.

My first appartunity to' abserve this type af arrangement was at the University af IIlinais where ane terminal
af the PLATO system was accupied by an elabarate labaratary setup far advanced experiments in surface physics.
Once set up, the experimental apparatus cauld be aperated fram ane af the ather terminals. There were several
advantages to' this. Far instance, it reduced persannel
hazard. It alsO' protected the equipment fram the bumbling
ar inept experimenter in twa ways: mechanically, he
cauldn't knock it aver ar physically misalign it, and since
the camputer cauld be pragrammed to' interpret the cammands emanating fram a student-experimenter's terminal,
it cauld "refuse" to' pass alang cammands that might be
harmful to' the equipment if executed. (Actually, the experiment in paint was carried aut by seniar faculty members and I am nat certain that the pragram cantained such
safeguards. But, abviausly, it cauld.) Far mare impartant,
thaugh, was the fact that the data being 'generated by
the experimental apparatus cauld be analyzed an-line, in
real time under the cantral af the experimenter. Thus,
pawerful mathematical and analytical techniques cauld
be applied to' the data to' explare a wide range af variables
and to' test aut variaus hypatheses withaut an extensive
cammitment ardinarily required far a farmal labaratary investigatian. Such a situatian is especially suitable far early
phases af investigatian since it encaurages the experimenter to' "play around with" thE:! variables sa as to' come
to' knaw their interrelatianships better while planning mare
farmal experiments.
Uttal (Uttal 1968) discusses the general advantages af
interactive and cantingent labaratary experimentatian.
Undaubtedly, it represents a "wave af the future" and may
very well prave to' be a useful means far cammunicating
knawledge to' students as well as a gaad way to' praduce
it in the first place. But, aur purpase in discussing it here

Terminal-to-Terminal Processing
A program feature which builds upan the cancepts af
prescribed interactians and adds to' them the vast capabilities af the camputer to' aperate upan the autput af one
terminal (i.e., an the input to' the camputer supplied by
ane terminal) as requested by the student lacated at the
ather terminal. Althaugh I knaw af no case where such
techniques are utilized where the terminals are bath occupied by students, there are same interesting cases

COMPUTERS AND AUTOMATION for March, 1970

is to show that terminals have been interconnected in a
manner that applies the processing power of the computer
to the information routed from one terminal to another.
The next section will indicate how this capability is employed explicitly for teaching purposes.

Stored Interaction Models
A network with the processing capabilities just described
is easily modified to incorporate a stored model of the
interactions to be expected in the network. This model of
the interactions that could occur then monitors the interactions that do actually occur and automatically causes
the computer program to intervene under certain specified
circumstances. The only real-life examples of this sort of
interaction employ a piece of electronic equipment at
one of the student terminals while the student-trainee sits
at the other.
Again the example is drawn from the work of Bitzer and
his associates at Illinois; this time working in collaboration
with Rigney and his colleagues from the University of
Southern California. The dotted line added to Figure 5

permitted several modes of instruction. It could lead a
neophyte through the procedures telling what to do and
checking to be certain that he had followed directions. Or,
it could pose a problem situation and intercede when
the trainee's performance indicated that he was deviating
from the model (which was not a simple step-by-step
procedure). Or, it could allow him complete flexibility to do
whatever he wanted to try to do, only interceding when he
sought to do something that would damage the equipment
or the trainee himself. Under those circumstances the
computer simply refused to relay the commands of the
trainee to the equipment. It could do this since all access
to the inner workings of the transceiver was via the com-.
puter. Even the front panel controls produced a signal
which was interpreted by the program, evaluated in terms
of the stored interaction model, and then, if appropriate,
was relayed to the URC-32 for action. With such a program
it is a simple task to incorporate comments which can be
made to the student by the program to indicate what he
had done wrong and what he should do next, if the program
writer wishes to do so.

Game Playing

r - - --,
I
I
I
Prog. I
L ___ --1

8GJ-B-~.;0
+
+
I

Direct Visual & Manual Access
--

1- _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

Figure 5. Arrangement incorporating
interaction with program monitoring.

I
..J

"hands·on" student/equipment

indicates that the terminals were located in such a manner that the trainee had direct visual and manual access
to the equipment at Terminal-2. This is to say, that he
could see the equipment and could operate all of its front
panel controls. The computer was connected to the equipment under study (a URC-32 which is a standard Navy
radio transceiver) in such a manner that the computer
could detect the exact positions of all front panel controls
and indicators. As a consequence, whenever the student
did anything to the front panel of the transceiver, the
computer "knew what he had done." The objective of this
arrangement was to instruct the trainee in the tuning,
operation, and maintenance of this type of transceiver.
The key to the program's success was the fact that the
entire range of possible interactions between the trainee
and the transceiver could be described in terms of a
goal-oriented model of the interactions which could be
represented in the computer program.
Rigney and Towne describe the rationale for this type
of computer program as being able "to manipUlate symbolic representations of task structures, recognizing actiongoal hierarchies, task constraints and antigoals wherever
they are supplied separately from the task goal structure."
(Rigney and Towne, 1969, page 117). This arrangement
COMPUTERS AND AUTOMATION for March, 1970

With a little ingenuity an arrangement of this type can
be extended to accommodate a two-person zero-sum game
for instructional purposes. In addition to the basic functions of storing the rules of the game, seeing that they
are followed, and scoring the game, the computer would
be able to evaluate the play of each player against a model
of the game which it had in storage. In this way, the program could keep track of each student-player's playing
history, stage of learning and skill level. It could then
adjust the parameters of the game accordingly. In a configuration such as that shown previously in Figure 2, a
computer program could sit between two players who were
playing against each other. It could control and oversee
the manipUlation of symbols by each player and could
intervene selectively to privately call each player's attention to aspects of his own play and that of his opponent.
To make this more concrete, imagine that each terminal
is equipped with a checkerboard display on which he can
manipUlate checkers in the interest of becoming a better
checker player. The game starts by one player making the
first move (after having been selected by some random
means of course). Then the other player moves. The program alters the displays to indicate the new locations of
the pieces after each move. It enforces the rules of
checkers and performs other "housekeeping functions." In
addition, its stored model would enable it to evaluate
moves. So if a player indicated that he wanted to make a
foolish move, instead of executing it, the program could
urge him to reconsider. Or, it could indicate the likely
consequences of such a move. Similarly, if one player
made a move that constituted a grave threat to the other
the program could call the threatened player's attention to
his plight. Of course, the checker playing illustration is
introduced for the sake of simplicity. It is easy to think of
other two-person zero-sum games that have greater social
importance. The point is that the existence of stored
models of the interactions "open up" the instructional
situation in ways that can make student-to-student interaction both exciting and productive.
The checker-playing example depends upon competition
between players. However, if the program designer does
not wish to foster such competitiveness, it doesn't take a
great deal of imagination to devise situations which put a
premium on co-operation among players. In such cases, the
program simply pays off according to the extent to which

Figure 6. A fictitious competitive/co-operative team learning arrangement.

each player demonstrates his ability to co-operate, to assist, to collaborate, or to participate as a member of a
learning group.
The above-mentioned concept suggests a combination of
both competitive,ness .and co-operation, as in the following
example, in which teams of students cooperate with their
own teammates while competing against the other student
teams.

A Rich Competitive! Co-operative
Learning Situation
Figure 6 portrays five different teams, each of which is
served by a terminal connected to a central processing
unit. Each team has five student members. It is our objective to develop, to the maximum extent possible, three
characteristics of each student. These characteristics are:
the sUbstantive skills and knowledges associated with
successful individual participation in the domain of interest, the team skills that enable each student to participate as an effective member of a team which must function as a cooperative group in competition with the other
teams, and person learning and teaching skills required to
upgrade the student's own competence as well as assisting
other members of his team to upgrade theirs.
For the purpose of the illustration, let us suppose that.
each team is the governing board of a mutual fund. It is
the responsibility of each team to invest its resources responsibly and profitably. Throughout the game transactions are handled by the computer. The program keeps
continuous track of the relative success of each team.
This results in a subscore for each member of each team
which we shall call his Team Score (TS). Periodically
during the extended period of the game, play is interrupted and each member of each team is independently
tested to determine how well he understands the stock
market and the factors which influence its fluctuations.
Each player's Personal Score (PS) is a subscore based
upon the cumulative average of his scores earned on
these personal tests. A third subscore is derived by averaging the Personal Scores of all of the other members of a
particular team. Let us call this subscore the Other

Member's Score (OMS). These three subscores are combined for each student to produce a Composite Score (CS),
which is the ultimate basis for comparisons among
students. For the sake of this illustration, let us assume
that the pay-off schedule is such that students will work
very hard to improve their composite scores.

The Effect of Scores
Now, as you can see, there are three ways that this can
be done: by increasing each one's knowledge of the
market, by improving the interactive skills of all the
members of one's team, and by improving the team's investment decisions. A few extreme cases may clarify how
this scoring arrangement directs each man to concentrate
on areas of his own weakness and how social factors produce student-to-student interactions which are likely to
influence learning under these circumstances.
Consider, the case where S1 has a very high TS, a high
PS, and avery low OMS and, therefore, a CS which could
stand improvement. In such a case it looks like S1 is
highly knowledgeable with regard to the market and is
making all of the decisions on behalf of his team. The
other members of his team, S2, S3, S4, and S5, have low
personal scores which are dragging down S1'S composite
score. The scoring scheme ought to put pressure on the
other members to "hit the books" and study the charts so
as to raise their personal scores. They should feel some
responsibility toward S1 to do this since he is "carrying
them on his back" in the inter-team competition. By the
same token S1 should feel some pressure to work with the
other members of the team to assist them to grasp the subtle
dynamics of the market so as to increase their personal competence, raise their personal scores and thus
raise the composite score of every other member of their
own team.
Let us take a second case where one member of the
team has an abnormally low score, the team has a moderate score, and all of the other members of the team have
moderate scores. Under these circumstances, the low score
member should feel the social pressure to improve his

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PS and each of the other members should have a stake
in helping him to do so. They may attempt to instruct
him or to get him to discipline himself. It is not unlikely
that the other members of the team might take a dim
view of the idea of the low-scoring member "goofing off"
at night as long as his score remained so low.
Also, imagine a third case where all team members have
high PS and therefore high OMS but the team has a low
score. This situation would develop if the team had not
learned how to operate as a team. Perhaps all members are
vying for leadership. Perhaps they need to learn how to
plan, to organize, or to allocate their individual efforts to
various aspects of the problem. I n any case, they need to
do something to improve their team score. It would behoove
them to get together and talk about ways that they might
do that. Possibly the computer-based system itself could
be made available for some after-hours drill on the development of team skills.
The important thing to notice in all of these examples
is that the scoring system seeks to motivate the students
to interact with other members of the team, and that
through such interaction the students get useful practice.
They learn to learn. They learn to teach. They learn to
cooperate. They learn to persuade. They learn a lot about
the investment business. In short, the team learning
situation is quite complex. There is good experimental
evidence (Glaser & Klaus, 1966, 1969) to indicate that
very careful contingency management is called for if all
of the benefits of training are to be gained and if the
situation is to be avoided where some members of the
team don't pick up bad habits. And one can see how the
capabilities of the computer lend themselves to this type
of student-to-student interaction.

COMPUTERS AND AUTOMATION for March, 1970

Conclusion
Present trends in computer-assisted instruction have
not emphasized interaction between students. In this
article I have attempted to build a case for what I believe
to be an important direction for future instruction - and
to show that isolation among students in a computerized
system is not necessary and may not even be desirable. The interaction examples, both real and fictitious, ought to be considered carefully. It is hoped that
they will serve as a useful basis for those who would like
to conduct further investigation into the stimulation of
learning by means of student-to-student interactions in
CAl systems.
0

References
Bandura, A., Principles of Behavior Modification. New York: Holt,
Rinehart, & Winston, 1969.
Bitzer, D. L., Hicks, B. L., Johnson, R. L., and Lyman, E. R., "The PLATO
System: Current Research and Developments," IEEE Transactions on
Human Factors in Electronics, 8, 64-70, (June 1967).
Glaser, R., & Klaus, D. J., A Reinforcement Analysis of Group Performance. Psychological Monographs, 1966,80, (13), Whole No. 62l.
Glaser, R.,& Klaus, D. J., Reinforcement Determinants of Team Proficiency. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 1969 (in
press).
Grubb, R. E., The Effects of Paired Student Interaction in the Computer
Tutoring of Statistics. New York: International Business Machines
Corporation. 1965.
Hicks, Bruce L., "GIN-INS Program (Group Interaction,) Inter-Nation
Simulation." An oral report given at a PLATO seminar on May 24,
1966 at the University of Illinois.
Rigney, J. W., & Towne, D. M., Computer Techniques for Analyzing
the Microstructure of Serial-Action Work in Industry. Human Factors,

1969, 11(2), 113-122.
Uttal, W. R., Real-Time Computers: Technique and Applications in the
Psychological Sciences. New York: Harper & Row, 1968.

THE VALUE OF THE COMPUTER AS A PUPIL
A. Kent Morton
Kiewit Computation Center
Dartmouth College
Hanover, New Hampshire 03755

Quite possibly the question most frequently asked of
those concerned with educational technology is:
"How can your justify the use of computers in education?"
In its various forms, this question seeks justification in
terms of cost per student, how effectively the standard
material can be presented, results obtained, and even the
possibility of teacher obsolescence.
It's a fair question.
However, it would also have been fair to ask:
"How can the use of audio-visual materials in education be justified?"
in the days when record players, records, projectors, language labs, and closed circuit television comprised the
whole scope of educational technology. That was as recently
as ten years ago. Yet there was nowhere near the degree of
controversy over the advantages and disadvantages of audiovisual equipment as there is today over the pros and cons
of the far more versatile computer.
I would say there are two major reasons why this contrast
in controversy exists.

Familiarity with Audio-Visual Devices
Th,e ,first is that record players, recorders, projectors, and
teleVISion - the standard inventory of audio-visual equip~ent were all household items long before they arrived on the educational scene. Almost everyone had operated at least one of the items; most had seen all of
them in use more than once; and many owned more than
one of them. Consequently, they were acquainted with the
specific function and capabilities of each, knew their
value, and their limitations. In short, there was no mystique
surrounding these machines at the time when they began
to be used in education.
, I have been speaking primarily of adult society, in partlcu.la.r those ad~lts who are responsible for making the
decIsions regarding the acquisition and deployment of

A. Kent Morton received his B.A. from Amherst College in
1966. While studying for his Master's degree in Slavic languages and Literatures at Harvard University, he became interested in educational technology, and particularly the role of
computers in education. After receiving his degree in 1969, he
ioined the staff at the Kiewit Computation Center at Dartmouth
College as the Coordinator of the Regional College Consortium
Proiect.

such equipment. The same may be said, however, for most
students: only a very small percentage of students were
introduced to these machines for the first time in school.

Lack of Familiarity with Computers
Unfortunately, the same cannot be said of computers,
nor will it be said for some years to come. Although
steadily diminishing, there persists a pervasive mystique
about computers. Whereas they are every bit as stupid as
a record player or a projector, their capabilities are not so
restricted or well-defined. One record player may perform
with greater fidelity than another, but its never-changing
task is soley to play records. I suppose there is some security in the knowledge of the constantcy of its function
compared with the ever-changing, ever-elusive role of computers.

Cost
The second reason is more simply stated: computers cost
more than record players, projectors, and television. Therefore, a school or college can purchase a great deal more
A-V equipment per tax dollar than it can computing
equipment. That is the current argument, at any rate,
vastly oversimplified. Whether or not one receives comparable educational value is a subject of hot debate.
With these comments in mind, I'd like to return to the
original question of justification and try to answer it in the
light of my encounters with time-sharing at Dartmouth.
First, it seems to me that teacher obsolescence is an
unfounded concern. Virtually no one in educational technology today seriously entertains the possibility that computers in any form will replace teachers. Instead, more will
be expected of teachers who are colleagues of computers;
they must become better, not fewer. The reasons for this
will become clearer later in this discussion.
Cost per student will not be treated here either, for
two reasons. First, I wish primarily to illustrate the educational value of computing. If we were not forced to consider educational computing from a financial point of view,
we would concern ourselves entirely with its educational
value, which is fitting. Secondly, cost figures have little
me~ning unless their origin is very precisely defined,
which space does not allow here. Costs vary greatly according to the hardware and software used, communications equipment and distances,·· type(s) of interface,
whether the service is supplied by a commercial source or
an educational institution, and, very importantly, the type of
instruction attempted by the system.
COMPUTERS AND AUTOMATION for March, 1970

((The necessity for approaching every problem clearly and logically
is probably the most valuable learning experience associated with
computing in education."

Educational Strategy
I would like to turn now to the topic of educational
strategy as it concerns computers, the kinds of uses to
which computers have been put, and their impact on
"learning" and "education".

Second, he learns that computers don't know everything.
In fact, he soon realizes, to his great delight, that he knows
more than the computer, and that the computer doesn't
understand anything that he hasn't told it. This realization
greatly helps in destroying the mystique, and will eventually place computers in the comfortable category now occupied by A-V equipment.

Computer-Controlled Instruction
Educational strategy evolves from a decision as to the
proper relationship between the student and the computer: basically, which is to be master? The most publicized approach, Computer-Assisted I nstruction, casts the
computer in the role of master. In this mode it makes
sense to speak of "presenting the standard material" to
the student. The customary ingredients of a classroom
education are presented to each student via cathode ray
tube or remote terminal, and each student is put through
his paces until he masters as much of the material as he
can. This can be a very effective technique in certain areas
and for certain categories of students. The students learns
but is he being educated? Is he learning to use his
own mind to extrapolate from what he sees before him,
or is he merely learning what he sees?
Educational value aside, I am convinced that one of
the chief disadvantages of the CAl strategy is its perpetuation and reinforcement of the mystique surrounding computers. A student who is spoon-fed by an all-wise, nevererring machine is going to end up believing a computer is
an unconfoundable genius that can do anything, and of
course nothing could be further from the truth!

Learner-Controlled Instruction
The second strategy has no widely recongized name as
yet, which seems to make it psychologically more difficult
to accept. It advocates the importance of the student learning to program the computer. This strategy has proved
tremendously successful at Dartmouth College and the
forty colleges and secondary schools which have access to
the Dartmouth Time Sharing System (DTSS). While these
schools appreciate the value of the computer as a ready
source for stored facts, they feel it is far more useful as a
problem-solving tool which the student can learn to program. The student, therefore, is master and teacher.

Advantages
This strategy has three major advantages. First, it removes the restrictions of a programmed curriculum, enabling the student to use the computer to solve the
problems he needs to solve, not just the problems someone
else presents to him.

COMPUTERS AND AUTOMATION for March, 1970

Thorough Understanding
Third, and most important in my estimation, is the fact
that the student must thoroughly understand every problem
he submits to the computer for solution. If he doesn't,
he can't program the computer for it, and it won't be
solved. This necessity to approach every problem clearly
and logically is probably the most valuable learning experience associated with computing in education.
Those are the sorts of results which justify the use of
computers in education.

Examples
There are concrete examples to support the preceding
argument. Two years ago two time-shared terminals came
to Vermont Technical College as part of a project sponsored by the National Science Foundation to investigate
the feasibility of using computers in education. Today,
Vermont Tech requires a programming course, which is
given concurrently with introductory calculus and emphasizes the use of the computer as a problem-solving tool.
Seven problems are required; they differ from year to
year, but they include calculating mortage rates, working
with doubly-subscripted arrays, and using Newton's method
for approximating the roots of various functions, including logarithmic and trigonometric functions as well as
polynomials of varying degree. This situation is now common at many of the schools.
One student who failed calculus twice has become so
inspired by computing that he passed the course with
flying colors the third time, and is now, in conjunction
with another student, writing a program for the admissions
office at his school.
Agricultural students use the computer to determine
the proper mix of several types of feed for livestock, a
proportion which depends upon the type of animal, its age,
activity, sex, and nutritional requirements in general.
Social science instructors are using programs which
manipulate the extensive data files developed by Project
IMPRESS at Dartmouth. The main point of these programs
is multi-variable analysis.
In all the colleges which have access to DTSS, the
computer is used in virtually all courses which deal

repeatedly with large amounts of quantitative data. Reduction of data taken in laboratories and plotting lines of
best fit by computer are extremely common practice. Not
so common, however, are the programs of one Civi I Engineering Department, which check surveying data taken in
the field for accuracy, or determine vertical curvature,
stopping distances, drainage rates, and other factors for
different types, conditions, and sections of highway. A
mechanics department uses the computer to determine
optimum gear and pulley ratios.
Several language departments use the computer for drill
in vocabulary and grammar. The Department of Radiology
at one medical school is adapting a program which
analyzes the contour of the patient's body and determines
where, and at what angle of entry, to administer the
proper amount of radiation to treat a cancerous growth
without endangering vital organs.
Virtually all the colleges in the Dartmouth Regional
Consortium use the computer in differential equations
courses, to demonstrate the concept of limit in calculus,
and as an analytical tool for determining properties of
equations, curves, and series.
Programming Means Understanding

Students and faculty alike at these schools report an
increased understanding of concepts presented. Simply
stated, it boils down to "If you can program it, you understand it thoroughly." For their part, programs that demonstrate through their output a concept such as convergence
help a student to see what the concept really implies,
and to get a feel for it as well.

Course Grading Programs

As far as administrative usages are concerned, most
schools are now adopting their own versions of grading
programs which generate each student's courses, credit
hours, grade, quality points, semester and cumulative
index. One college runs a program which shows how
many grades of what type are given in each department.
The admissions program referred to before is designed to
compute the number of students who have applied to
each program at a particular time; additional information
is given regarding sex, geographical origin, SAT scores,
previous education, and whether or not the application fee
has been paid!
A good indication of the success of the project at
Dartmouth lies in the number of colleges which have
purchased, or have plans to purchase, their own computers
so that they will have more computing power available at
their schools. Two or three terminals are woefully inadequate servants for an entire student body.
Summary

In summary, the strategy in which the student programs
the computer is a most important' component in contemporary education. It contributes to the development of
a disciplined mind that copes clearly and logically with
the problems it encounters, rather than relying on memorized facts. And it produces a population of people who
are not alarmed at the prospect of being colleagues of a
computer, because they understand what computers are
just as clearly as they understand what record players are. D

CALENDAR OF COMING ,EVENTS
March 17-20, 1970: IEEE Management and. Economics
in the Electronics Industry Symposium, Appleton
Tower, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Scotland / contact: Conference Secretariat, Institution of
Electrical Engineers, Savoy Place, London, W.C.2,
England
March 22-25, 1970: Society of Research Administrators,
Western Section Conference, Hilton Inn, San Diego,
Calif. / contact: Chet Palmer, Chmn., Rancho Los
Amigos Hospital, 12826 Hawthorn St., Downey, Calif.
90242
March 23-25, 1970: Eighth Annual Symposium on Biomathematics and Computer Science in the Life
Sciences, Houston, Tex. / contact: Office of the Dean,
The University of Texas Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences at Houston, Division of Continuing
Education, P.O. Box 20367, Houston, Tex. 77025
March 23-25, 1970: INFO-EXPO-70, the Second National Meeting of the Information Industry Association, The Shoreham Hotel, Washington, D.C. / contact:
Paul G. Zurkowski, Information Industry Association,
1025 15th St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20005
March 23-25, 1970: TIMS College on Simulation and
Gaming Symposium on "Corporate Simulation Models", Univ. of Washington, Seattle, Wash. / contact:
Prof. Albert N. Schrieber, Graduate School of Business Admin., Univ. of Washington, Seattle, Wash.
98105
April 2-3, 1970: First National Symposium on Industrial
Robots, IIT Research Institute, Chicago, Ill. / contact:
Mr. Dennis W. Hanify, IIT Research Institute, 10
West 35 St., Chicago, Ill. 60616
;April 3, 1970: Computer Graphic Workshop, Marriott
Motel, Rosslyn, Va. / contact: Special Interest Group
for Graphics, Box 933 Blair Sta., Silver Spring, Md.
20910
26

Apr. 7-9, 1970: Computer Software & Peripherals Show
& Conference, Western Region, Anaheim Convention
Center, Los Angeles, Calif. / contact: Show World,
Inc., 37 West 39th St., New York, N.Y. 10018
Apr. 8-10, 1970: Seventh Annual Meeting and Technical
Conference of the Numerical Control Society, StatlerHilton Hotel, Boston, Mass. / contact: Numerical Con·
trol Society, 44 Nassau St., Princeton, N.J. 08540
Apr. 13-16, 1970: Computer Graphics International
Symposium, Uxbridge, England / contact: R. Elliot
Green, Cg. 70, Exhibition Organiser, BruneI University, Uxbridge, Middlesex, England
Apr. 14-17, 1970: Conference on Automatic Test Systems (IEEE), Birmingham, Warwickshire, England /
contact: Conference Registrar, The Institution of
Electronic and Radio Engineers, 8-9, Bedford Square,
London, WC1, England
Apr. 17-19, 1970: National Gaming Council Ninth Symposium, Hotel Sonesta, Washington, D.C. / contact: Dr.
Peter House, Envirometrics, Inc., 1100 17th St. NW,
Washington D.C. 20036
Apr. 26-28, 1970: Data Processing Supplies Association,
Affiliate Membership Meeting, Rome, Italy / contact:
Data Processing Supplies Association, 1116 Summer
St., P.O. Box 1333, Stamford, Conn. 06904
Apr. 26-29, 1970: National Automation Conference of
the American Bankers Association, Masonic Temple,
San Francisco, Calif. / contact: American Bankers
Association, Automation Dept., 90 Park Ave., New
York, N.Y. 10016
Apr. 28-May 1, 1970: National Microfilm Association,
19th Annual Convention, Hotel Hilton, San Francisco,
Calif. / contact: Dave Banks, National Microfilm Association, P.O. Box 386, 250 Prince George St., Annapolis, Md. 21404
(Please turn to page 62 )
COMPUTERS AND AUTOMATION for March, 1970

COMPUTER ASSISTANCE FOR
INDIVIDUALIZING INSTRUCTION
Richard L. Ferguson
Learning Research and Development Center
Univ. of Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh, Pa. 15213

({If learning specialists and psychologists can determine the variables
which represent the best input for making wise decisions) then a computer can be programmed to perform the task which a single teacher
would no doubt find impossible to manage."
It seems widely agreed that if an educator provides for
the uniqueness of each learner (whether this uniqueness
is due to ability to learn, or rate of learning, or interest,
or goals, or other factors), then the probability of learning
increases. If this premise is valid, then any educational
plan should adapt its instruction to individuals. Now, if
differential treatment for individuals is desired, then the
educational system must insure that such treatment can
and does occur. This article gives a summary ·of the key
features of a system for individualized education, and
describes some potential uses of the computer in a school
environment so that it will attend to the different needs of
individuals.

Variables in Education
Individually Prescribed Instruction (IPl)l, a system developed by the Learning Research and Development Center
at the University of Pittsburgh, represents the adaptation
of a variety of instructional strategies to providing for
individual requirements. Cooley and Glaser!! list three
component variables in the system: (1) educational goals,
(2) individual capabilities, and (3) instructional means.
The educational goals for a particular individual are determined in a variety of ways. Society requires that an
individual be capable of reading and writing; the individual
with the aid of teachers and parents may elect a specific
program of study; the student may choose or not choose to
study a particular unit of instruction; and with the
teacher's assistance short term goals are set for him
dai Iy. Such decisions may in part be made on the basis
of the individual's capabilities, the proficiencies which
represent the repertoire of skills he has acquired in the
course of formal and informal learning experiences. The
content and processes he learns and the manner in
which they are learned represent instructional means. Although a II three components are subject to change over
extended periods of time, it is assumed that each can be
well defined for a particular act of instruction.
In light of the preceding perceptions regarding the educational process, the following sequence of operations can
be used to define a general model of instruction. 3

Richard L. Ferguson is a Research Associate at the University
of Pittsburgh's learning Research and Development Center. He
received his Ph.D. from the University in 1969, and received a
post-doctoral appointment to work with the development of
computer management instruction and testing for the Center's
Individually Prescribed Instruction (lPI) Project.

COMPUTERS AND AUTOMATION for March,

1~70

(1) The goals of learning are specified in terms of

observable student behavior and the conditions
under which this behavior is to be manifested.
(2) When the learner begins a particular course of
instruction, his initial capabilities, those relevant to the forthcoming instruction, are assessed.
(3) Educational alternatives suited to the student's
initial capabilities are presented to him. The
student selects or is assigned to one of these
alternatives.
(4) The student's performance is monitored and continuously assessed as he learns.
(5) Instruction proceeds as a· function of the relationship between measures of student performance, available instructional alternatives,
and criteria of competences.
(6) As instruction proceeds, data are generated for
monitoring and improving the instructional
system.
A simple analysis of these operations reveals that each
could be successfully implemented without benefit of computer assistance. However, it seems entirely reasonable to
hypothesize that the computer could provide substantial
support for the professional staff in such a system. Further,
it could be utilized in such a way as to take maximum
advantage of its unique capabilities for computer-assisted
instruction (CAl) and computer-assisted testing (CAT).

The Computer
Attempts at individualization in conventional classroom
environments by the most imaginative of teachers are
likely to lead to at best modest success and at worst
nervous frustration. The major difficulty in such an undertaking, that which is most I ikely to overshadow its
successful implementation, is the management of instruction for large numbers of students with widely varying
competencies and needs. The initiation of a system like
IPI, although solving the immediate problem of providing
instructional sequences for students with diverse needs,
does not obviate the management problem. Rather, it shifts
the emphasis of management from providing a lesson for a
student to providing the optimum instructional strategy
for him given the maximum amount of information which
would be useful in making such a choice and the restrictions imposed by available instructional resources. An
even more crucial element of individualization may be the
management of the student's schedule. Given the rapid
growth of his proficiencies in a particular curriculum and

more labored progress 'in another, global goals might best
be accomplished by re-allotting time assigned for instruction in the former curriculum for study in the latter.

Management
Many of the professional staff associated with the
development of I PI have stated that management of the
educational process ranks extremely high among their
con,cerns. It is in the management domain that computers,
in concert with their roles in testing and instruction,
promise applications in education which will yield a perceptible improvement in the planning and implementation
of individualized instruction. The remarks which follow
represent a general description of how the computer might
be applied in an IPI school. Not all of the applications
described are suited for every curriculum in the instructional program. That is, the manner in which the computer is used will require adaptation to the unique features
of each curriculum.
The specific services which the computer will be called
upon to provide are: (1) collection and storage of data, (2)
information retrieval, (3) testing, (4) instructional planning,
and (5) instruction. It is stressed that each of these functions can be performed without benefit of the computer
but would require large expenditures of the time and
energies of the school staff. None of these functions are
independent of all others and thus each will be examined in terms of its role in the total educational environment.

Instructional Planning
The determination of immediate and long range instruc. tional plans for an individual may well prove to be one of
the keystones for success in a program of individualized
instruction. Setting reasonable, attainable goals for a
student, or better yet, having him participate in defining
those goals may well influence the rate and quality of
his progress in achieving them.
Thus, the first step in the educational process is the
establishment of a plan tailored for instruction of the
individual. The elementary school does not afford the
opportunity for setting grossly different long range goals for
each student. To a large extent, elementary school educators have translated the demands of society into a well-defined program of studies which provide no real opportunities for substantive deviations. That is, decisions regarding what track to enter or what courses to take reflect
long range planning which is apt to be non-existent in
the elementary school.
However, the computer can prove to be extremely valuable
in planning for more immediate action. By monitoring a
student's progress in each of many curricula, the computer
can, provided decision rules by the professional staff,
suggest adjustment of the student's instructional timetable to concentrate upon some area in which he is particularly weak.
Planning can be further served by the computer in the
day to day instructional decisions which are required. At
Oakleaf, an experimental IPI elementary school, the curriculum has been planned so as to provide for realizing goals
in a variety of ways. For example, in mathematics the
teacher and/or student may select elements from among a
set of instructional materials to achieve proficiency in a
given skill. In science, a student's short term goal may be
to learn all he can about some subject of immediate interest to him. From a large collection of books he may
choose to read one of interest to him and in so doing
progress toward the terminal goals of the reading curriculum.

To cite a specific example of the computer's potential for
assisting in the planning of educational activities, consider IPI science. With fewer content-oriented demands
placed upon it, the goals of elementary science can be
achieved and still permit the individual 'to pursue interests
not shared by all other students. With some effort expanded on identifying the structure of available lessons,
the computer could be programmed to allow a student to
specify a lesson in the curriculum he wished to study and
then supply him with a tailored list of prerequisite lessons. Such a list would be compiled as the intersection of
the skills required and the skills he has already acquired
and would serve as a plan for his instructional activities.

Computer Testing and Instruction
Primary to the progress of students toward achievement
of their goals is the continuous assessment of their competencies. In IPI, unit placement tests are given to ascertain the student's proficiency on each of the objectives which comprise a unit. A placement test for a unit
with eight objectives would consist essentially of eight
subtests, each measuring competency, in one of the skills.
Outcomes from the test would then be used to determine
instructional activities directed at removing the deficiencies which had been detected. Once instructional activities
have been successfully completed, a posttest measuring
the objectives of the unit would be administered. Thus,
tests represent a large investment of time for both the
students and the aides who score them. In the interest of
easing the problems just described and with the explicit
goal of tailoring testing as well as instruction to individuals, a measurement procedure has been developed
which takes advantage of the known prerequisite relationships which exist among the objectives of a unit. 4 The
notion of prerequisite relationships can be represented by
the structure pictured in Figure 1. In this structure, objective 8 is the terminal objective and all other objectives
are prerequisite to it. Thus, it is assumed that if 8 is
mastered, all prerequisite objectives must also have been
mastered. By a similar analogy, if the student is not proficient in objective 5 then it can be inferred without
testing that he is not proficient in either objective 7 or 8.
The essential features of the testing technique include
the computer generation of test items from item forms
stored in the computer, the application of Wald's sequential probability ratio test for decisions regarding proficiency of an objective according to arbitrarily set criteria, and branching as a function of the hierarchy of objectives being tested, thus not requiring the testing of
each skill but only those for which no inferences based on
the hierarchical structure can be made.
Such a test relieves the problem of scoring and provides
for immediate storage and retrieval of data. In addition,
experience with such testing has shown that it can substantially reduce the investment in time required by
testing with the added bonus that more reliable test information could be obtained from the computer-assisted
test than from the conventional fixed length test because
the errors resulting from decisions made about a student's
proficiency in an objective could be controlled as a function of the item-sampling technique employed.

Diagnostic Tests
Success with the technique of testing just described has
encouraged interest in the development of diagnostic tests
tailored to detect the types of errors made on a single
objective. By using the computer to analyze error types,
COMPUTERS AND AUTOMATION for March, 1970

extract them from the data, then a computer can be
programmed to perform the task which a single teacher
would no doubt find impossible to manage.

Data Requirements

I
4
ll'

I
5

I
1

Figure 1
Testing Hierarchy for an Eight-Obiective Unit in IPI Mathematics

Each of the computer applications which has been described either generates or requires the retrieval of data.
Computer-assisted testing generates large quantities of
data, all of which must be available for the computer to
suggest prescriptions for instruction. If instructional decisions are to reflect due consideration of all relevant
information about an individual, provision must be made
for storing such data. The problem of what to store is a
matter for the concern of instructional technologists and
psychologists. That is, they must determine which data;
intelligence measures, aptitude tests, and general background information can be combined with a daily expanding base of instructional and test data to provide the substance for decisions related to planning future goals or
specifying immediate instructional strategies. The requirements related to the structure for the data files is not at
all independent of what is to be stored. Whatever the
data requirements, a flexible and efficient system for data
management is required. It seems likely that instructional
technology will be more backward in identifying the necessary components for optimizing decision making than will
be computer technology in providing for its convenient use.
Apart from the use already implied for the data generated in the IPI system, it is also used for systematic evaluation and improvement of the system. By examining data
obtained through its operation, system procedures and
instructional materials undergo constant scrutiny and occasional alteration. In addition, as new knowledge about learning and instruction accrues, often by experimentation within
the system, it is integrated into IPI. The computer facilitates
both the storage and retrieval of pertinent research data and
in addition provides the computational power for its analysis.

The Small Computer
prescriptions directed at eliminating the observed deficiencies could be generated at the conclusion of a
testing session at a computer terminal. These prescriptions would be determined as a function of available
resources and if it exists, information regarding the individual's style of learning. The latter might include information such as whether he requires intensive detailed
lessons or less formalized instruction. A particular prescription may include a lesson administered by the
computer at a teletype terminal or a cathode ray tube
(CRT). The qualifier "may" is invoked since CAl lessons
are not likely to be available for all objectives, nor is
there any reason to believe that such lessons if available,
would be suitable for all students in all situations.
Apart from the fact that prescriptions for instruction
could be conveniently generated concurrent with testing,
there is additional reason for suggesting this role for the
computer. The teacher, in making decisions affecting a
child's instruction, is apt to use only that information
which is readily available to her. Whether or not all
pertinent data is accessed and properly processed in determining an instructional decision, a decision will be
made. The computer by permitting instant identification of
available instructional materials and access to data relevant to making a decision as to their best use for the
given individual, can serve as a valuable tool to the
student or teacher in making short term instructional
plans. Further, if learning specialists and psychologists
can determine the variables which represent the best input
for making wise decisions and how systematically to
COMPUTERS AND AUTOMATION for March, 1970

Experiences which have been the product of the initial
implementation of a computer management system for IPI,
supplemented by studies with CAT and CAl, have resulted
in the evaluation of the hypothesis that a small computer
could support educational management, computer testing, and some CAl lessons. To test this hypothesis, a
Learning Research and Development Center project is
being supported by funds from the National Science
Foundation. Plans for the school initially include a small
local computer with a terminal configuration consisting of
a mixture of CRT's and teletypes. The scopes wi II be used
for testing in mathematics, for generating tentative prescriptions as a function of test outcomes, and the teletypes
for producing hard copies of output when required. Teacherpupil planning sessions will be centered around the CRT's,
thus permitting the quiet and efficient retrieval of data
required by the teacher. They will also be used for CAl
and for inputting data not directly entered via CAT and
CAL
0

References
1C. M. Lindvall and J. O. Boivin, in Programed Instruction, P. Lange,
Editor. (National Society for the Study of Education, Chicago, 1967).
2W. W. Cooley and R. Glaser, "The Computer and Individualized Instruction," Science, 166, (1969).
3R. Glaser, in Evaluation of Instruction, N. C. Wittrock and D. Wiley,
Editors. (Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York, in press).
4R. L. Ferguson, "Computer-Assisted Criterion-Referenced Testing,"
Working Paper 49, Learning Research and Development Center, University of Pittsburgh.

USE OF A REMOTE CONSOLE SYSTEM ON
A UNIVERSITY CAMPUS
Herbert D. Schwetman
Computation Center
The Univ. of Texas at Austin
Austin, Tex. 78712

((During the past three years) over 100)000 jobs submitted through
remote consoles have been processed."
A large modern university has diverse needs for computing facilities. At The University of Texas at Austin,
these needs are being satisfied by a large central computer system with several methods of user access. One of
these methods is a remote console system called
RESPOND. RESPOND has been in service at the University for almost three years; during this time, over one
hundred thousand remotely submitted jobs have been
processed. The users of RESPOND have found it to be a
convenient and versatile way of accessing the powerful
central computing system.

The System

Herbert D. Schwetman received a B.S. in Mathematics from
Baylor University in 1961 and a Sc.M. in Mathematics from
Brown University in 1965. He worked for IBM for three years
as a Medical Applications Programmer. Currently, he is pursuing
a Ph.D. in Computer Sciences at The University of Texas at
Austin. He is also employed by the Computation Center there
as a systems programmer and has maintenance responsibility
for the RESPOND system.

The Computation Center at The University of Texas at
Austin provides most of the computing service for a large
university community of some thirty thousand students.
The central computing system consists of a Control Data
Corporation (CDC) 6600 computer and a locally modified
descendant of the SCOPE 2.0 operating system. This large,
fast system presently satisfies the computing needs of the
university by processing about fifty thousand jobs per
month. The characteristics and configuration of the system
are described in Appendix A.
Access to the 6600 system is provided in three distinct
ways:
1. "Over-the-counter", using one of the central card
readers,
2. Through any of five satellite computers, or
3. Through RESPOND, a remote console system. 1
RESPOND is a multi-access, remote batch entry system
with limited file editing capabilities. While not possessing
some features norma Ily associated with a comprehensive
time sharing system,2,3 RESPOND does allow remote users
to conveniently use the 6600 as a tool in their problem
solving. While providing this remote service, RESPOND is
still economical in the sense that it requires only a part of
the system resources available,4 in other words, normal job

COMPUTERS AND AUTOMATION for March, 1970

THE UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS

THE COMPUTATION CENTER

AUSTIN, TEXAS

DISPLAYS
RATES
READERS 1200c/m
PRINTERS 1000 11m
PUNCH 250 c/m
TAPES 120000 ch/sec

200 USERS TERMINAL

f
1
1

CDC 8231 SYSTEM

CDC 1700 SYSTEM

PDP 7 SYSTEM

PEARCE HAlL
ROOM 105

ENGINEERING
SCIENCE

18 - BIT WORDS

TAYlOR HAll
ROOM 113

1000 11m

8M CH

12- BIT WORDS

1200

ACCElERATOR
CONTROL
ROOM

18- BIT WORDS

c/m
MAGNETIC TAPE DRIVE
SDS 930 SYSTEM

MAGNETIC TAPE DRIVES

20K ch/sec.

ENGINEERING SCIENCE
ROOM 531

CDC 3100 SYSTEM

24-BIT WORDS

B
BUSINESS -ECONOMICS
ROOM 66
24- BIT WORDS

8M Ch

500 11m

MAGNETIC TAPE DRIVES

20K

ch./sec.

MAG. TAPES

60K

COMPUTERS AND AUTOMATION for March, 1970

CONVERTERS

ch/sec

processing is able to continue at the substantial rate of
100 to 150 jobs per hour while RESPOND is serving up to
25 remote users simultaneously.
This article demonstrates that the somewhat limited
capabilities provided by a system like RESPOND are still
sufficient to allow remotely located users to accomplish a
wide variety of significant computing tasks.

RESPOND
A remote console user communicates with RESPOND
through a teletypewriter and a telephone line. He can enter
commands and manipulate files consisting of programs
and data from his keyboard. Furthermore, he can have
RESPOND diagnostics and the contents of his files displayed on his teletypewriter printer. His files are automatically saved for his use at a later time. The classes of
RESPOND commands are as follows:
1. Commands to create arid edit files,
2. Commands to submit jobs to the 6600 input
queue, and
3. Commands of a housekeeping or utility nature.
An important type of file which a remote console user
can create is one consisting of system control cards. By
creating such a file and submitting it to the 6600 input
queue, the remote user has access to all facilities which
are ava i la bl e to over-the-counter users of the computer,
and these control cards are identical to those employed
by users with other means of access to the 6600 system.
System resources such as the Fortran compi ler, system
utility routines, and magnetic tape and disk files, are the
same for users of all three methods of computer access.

However, since jobs. submitted by RESPOND receive a
boosted input priority, they are limited to a running-time
limit of 127 central processor seconds, and must fit within
a block of 32,000 words of central memory.
The original version of RESPOND was provided by CDC
to the Computation Center in March, 1967. Since that
time, extensive modifications have been made locally to
that original version. These modifications include those
which correct mistakes (bugs), those which extend a user's
capabilities, and those which make operation of the system
more practical.

Modifications
Some of, the user-oriented modifications include a new
command, PLOT, which allows the contents of a RESPOND
file to be diverted to a CALCOMP 565 remote plotter
which can be attached tp a teletypewriter. Another added
feature is the CONVERSE command which permits interaction between a remote console and a program running in
the system.
In the current configuration, access to RESPOND is
through a dial-up systetn Which consists of twenty-five
telephones, thus limiting the number of simultaneous
users of RESPOND to twenty-five. RESPOND can service
up to sixty telephones. One hundred and eighty-five users
hold RESPOND passwords and maintain over fourteen
hundred files within the system. Since installation of
RESPOND in 1967, over one hundred thousand jobs have
been submitted through RESPOND. These jobs represent
about twelve per cent of the jobs processed by the 6600
during that period.

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~."".~~.
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WHO MADE THE PAST
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THE FUTURE ...

COMPUTERS AND AUTOMATION for March, 1970

Applications
The 185 RESPOND password holders come from many
different departments and centers, both on and off the
Austin campus. Table 1 lists these groups along with the
number of password holders within each group. Table 2
lists the 20 groups with the most connect-time over the
ten month period September, 1968, to June, 1969.

Architecture
600

SEP

DEC

JAN

JUN
1969

1968

CONNECT
FIGURE

TIME
1

In one day of the 1969 summer session at the University,
the 6600 system processed 2978 jobs, 1260 of which
were from the five satellite computer sites and 669 of
which were submitted by RESPOND users. The total amount
of RESPOND user connect-time on that day was 130.2
hours. These figures are fairly typical of daily use of the
system. Monthly user connect-time for a period of ten
months is shown in Figure 1. In September, 1969, the
maximum number of passwords was raised from 250 to
500.
Table 1
NUMBERS OF RESPOND PASSWORD HOLDERS
WITHIN DEPARTMENTS AND CENTERS

Austin Campus
Physics Department
School of Engineering
School of Business
Computation Center
Computer Science Department
Chemistry Department
Zoology Department
School of Architecture
Astronomy Department
Center for Teacher Education
Atmospherics Sciences Department
Linguistics Research Center
Mathematics Department
Psychology Department
Center for Nuclear Studies
Art Depa rtment
Biology Department
Geology Department
Population Research Center
Linguistics Department
Computer Assisted Instruction
Bureau of Engineering Research

29
26
19
19
19
13
12
8

7
3
3

3
3
2
2
1
1
I
1
1
1
1

Abilene Christian College
Mathematics Department

Texas A and M University
Physics Department

Southwestern University
Mathematics Department
Marine Sciences Institute
COMPUTERS AND AUTOMATION for March, 1970

Users of RESPOND are engaged in various types of research; some of these make inventive use of the remote
service. One user, in the School of Architecture, has found
RESPOND to be a valuable tool in the study of form and
verbal representations of form. By using the PLOT command in RESPOND, he is able to graph his program output
on a remote plotter in his office.
In a graphics-oriented field like architecture, the ability
to have a graphic representation of an object of interest
often conveys much more information than other representations. Using the remote plotter and RESPOND,
graphic files can be quickly generated and viewed. The
rapid turnaround of RESPOND-submitted jobs is extremely
valuable because a user is able to go quickly from an
idea to the graphic representation of that idea. The
physical presence of the teletypewriter and plotter in the
School of Architecture has been a great help in generating
interest in the use of the computer by members of that
School.

Chemistry
A researcher in the Chemistry Department gathers data
from X-ray diffraction patterns of crystals and mathematically reduces this data to a set of X, Y, Z coordinates of
the atoms which make up the molecules of the crystals.
This mathematical reduction is done by a series of
Fortran programs, each of which feeds its results forward
to the next program in the series. Frequent checking of
intermediate results enables the user to alter, if necessary,
subsequent processing of the data. Such a reduction
usually takes about one week using the over-the-counter

Table 2
TWENTY GROUPS WITH MOST CONNECT TIME
SEPTEMBER 1968 THROUGH JUNE 1969

Group
Hours
1. Computer Sciences Department
Tf1iO
2. Computation Center
1036
3. Zoology Department
803
4. Physics Department
594
5. Electrical Engineering Department
588
6. Chemistry Department
496
7. Civil Engineering Department
453
8. Astronomy Department
421
9. Nuclear Physics Laboratory
401
10. School of Architecture
312
11. Texas A and M, Physics Department
289
12. Accounting Department
241
13. Mechanical Engineering Department
234
14. Special Education Department
188
15 .. Southwest Education Development Laboratory 137
16. Mathematics Department
110
17. Management Department
109
18. Psychology Department
108
19. Atmospheric Sciences Department
89
20. Art Department
88

method of computer access. Using RESPOND, the same
amount of work, can be finished in a single afternoon. The
job submission feature, which permits complicated sequences of job steps, is particularly useful. The convenience of having the remote console in the laboratory
contributes to the savings in time.

Curriculum Enrichment
Still another application of RESPOND is being undertaken. This application involves giving access to RESPOND
and the 6600 system to neighboring colleges and universities. These institutions will use teletypewriters and
RESPOND as a means of giving computer access to their
students and researchers. Eight schools, ranging in size
from 770 to 8500 students, are to participate in this
project. These schools are located as far away as 250
mi les from the computer in Austin. Funds for this project
are being provided by the National Science Foundation,
The University of Texas, and each of the participating
colleges and universities. The overall aim of the project
is to enrich the curriculum of all the participating schools
by supplying both computational facilties and educational
interchange. This enrichment of curriculum is intended to
affect several academic areas.

Zoology
In the Zoology Department, researchers have used the
computer in several projects including the statistical analysis of data, the simulation of population and genetic
evolution, mathematical modeling of plant growth, and
ecological studies of population distributions. The use of
the computer in this department was stimulated by a
graduate student who developed a package of statistical
subroutines which are tai lored for use from a remote
console. He feels that many researchers now do a better
job of data analysis because of the convenient access to
the computer provided by RESPOND.

Art
The Art Department is using RESPOND as a vehicle for
handling a large data base made up of information about
projection slides. The slide library consists of approximately ninety thousand slides, a number which makes
thorough use of the library difficult. Information about the
contents of the library is being prepared in a form suitable
for machine retrieval. This slide library data base should
enable art instructors to easily locate slides which are
pertinent to upcoming lectures. The convenience of being
able to use a remote console is an important factor in the
acceptance of such a system.

User Opinions
The people who have used RESPOND for the past three
years have expressed many opinions about the system.
Some of the early users of RESPOND were often dissatisfied with the system, since it often lost their files and
was generally undependable. Others discovered that if
adequate back-up procedures were employed, they could
make effective use of the system.
RESPOND has been improved; today, files are rarely
lost, and RESPOND is as dependable as other components
of the computer system. Many prefer to use RESPOND
because job turnaround is much faster than with other
methods of computer access. Also, users find that the
location of a remote console in a place which is convenient for them, rather than convenient for the computer,
is a great advantage.

Summary
A remote console system, such as RESPOND, offers a
reasonable compromise to computer centers that want to
provide both an efficient "over-the-counter" or batch service and a remote console service. The remote service
'does require some system resources, but the encroachment
on the resources required by the batch service seems to be
at an acceptable level. The remote system can efficiently
handle many consoles and can satisfy most user commands quickly. The commands which cannot be satisfied
can be submitted to the batch input queue for service by
that system and the results quickly retrieved. At the same
time, the batch system can also process jobs in a rapid
and efficient manner. The wide diversity of projects described above illustrate that such a remote console system
can be a powerful and flexible method of using a computer.

o
Appendix A
CDC 6600 System-at the Computation Center
Characteristics and Configuration

Computer
Central Processor
Central ~1emory
Peripheral Processors (10)

3 million instructions
per second (approx.)
131,072 60-bit words
1.0 usec. cycle time
4096 12-bit words

Data channels (12)
Input/Output Equipment
Disk Cabinets (4)

Tape Dri yes (6)
Card Readers (2)
Line Printers (4)
Card Punch (1)
TTY Multiplexer
Satellite Computer
Multiplexers (2)

80 million characters
per cabinet
800,000 characters per
second, transfer rate
120,000 characters per
second, transfer rate
1000 cards per minute
750 1 ines per minute
(approx. )
250 cards per minute
64 telephone lines
(max. )
4 high speed lines
(40.8 KHz) per multiplexer

Graphic Display System
Microfilm Recorder
Operating System
Cent ra 1 ~lemory Res i dent
Peripheral Processors

Disk Storage
RESPOND
Central ~~emory
Disk Storage (User

File~

Central Processor Time
Peripheral Processors

13,824 words
Monitor - 1
System Display
Dri ve r - 1
Pool Processors - 8
6 million characters
22,100 words (avg.)
14.5 million characters
(avg. )
4.7 per cent (avg.)
1.5 of 8 available in
pool (avg.)

References
1. Pearson, E. A., RESPOND, A User's Manual, The Computation Center, The University of Texas at Austin, 1967.
2. McCarthy, J., "Time-Sharing Computer Systems," Computers and the
World of the Future, Greenberger, M. (ed.), The M.I.T. Press, 1962,
pp 220, 248.
3. Fano, R. M. and F. J. Carbato, "Time-Sharing on Computers,"
Scientific American, September 1966, Volume 215, Number 3, pp
128-140.
4. Schwetman, H. D. and J. R. Deline, "An Operational Analysis of a
Remote Console System," Proceedings of the 1969 Spring Joint
Computer Conference, AFIPS Press, pp 257-264.

COMPUTERS AND AUTOMATION for March, 1970

WORLDWIDE

REPORT FROM GREAT BRITAIN
/
Attack on the European Bureau Market
Three important happenings are putting ICl, Britain's
computer "white hope", on the Europe~n map: In reverse
chronological order they are: a strong alliance with an American software consultancy group to attack the European
bureau market, an agreement with Britain's biggest bank to
reinforce and expand ICl's bureau operatio~s at hom~, and
participation in an inter-European consortium to bid for
space research business.
. .
Key to the bureau venture is the European subsidiary of
Computer Data Systems, a Washington-~ased pr!vate company which was set up in 1968 by ex-Univac senl.or staf!ers
including Joseph H. Easley who started the major Univac
software project known as "Exec 8".
Computer Data Systems Internationr.ll Limited is the new
European subsidiary, CDSll for short, and Easley is its president. It has signed an agreement with ICl which will promote both parties' plans to penetrate Europe. CDSll was
formed to sell time-sharing services in Britain and other
European countries. Its senior staff have been looking at
available equipment for many months and finally picked on
ICl's 1904A, a machine able to run at least 35 terminals for
time-sharing and/or batch and remote batch work. Cost for
cost, it has a significantly better performance than the IBM
360/50 and is more suitable for this type of work, Easley
told me.
However, he said ICl had done all the software except
time-sharing and this is what CDSll would provide.

Financing
The terms of the financial agreement on the venture include a 25 per cent participation in the equity of CDSll
by ICl through the purchase at an agreed price of 250,000
shares of common stock. In addition, CDSll gets a contract
to develop a time-sharing and communications package for
the bureau operation. Both partners are reticent about the
amount of money involved but a close look at the equipment
it is proposed to instal shows that it is likely to be over the
$20m mark in the initial drive.
Seven 1904A centres are to be set up, the first in Geneva
next May at the headquarters of Cyberna, a 100% CDSll
subsidiary, which is already running a small European service
on a 1904. Paris and Stuttgart will follow-they are already
linked over MDS equipment with Geneva-with Stockholm
scheduled for later this year. In 1971, Milan and Amsterdam,
as well as london would be added, but there is nothing
rigid in this timetable which depends how much business
can be won in the various cities involved. Becau~e so few
bureau operations have been launched in Europe, in contrast
to the U.S. and British scenes, there is every chance of
success.
The london end of th is operation wi II be closely associated
with a new company set up between ICl and Barclays bank,
not yet named, and aimed at winning an even larger slice
of the booming British bureau business.
ICl is putting in all the assets of ICSl, its bureau subsidiary, which now has a turnover of about $15m as well as
1,000 staff and 16 machines. This represents 60 per cent
COMPUTERS AND AUTOMATION for March, 1970

of the equity. Barclays-which claims to be the UK's largest
bank-is contributing its Customer Services Division and a
payment of £ 1112m or $3.6m.
.. .
The Barclay contribution could be underestimated If It
were not for the fact that it has 3,300 branches; one in
practically every city, town or major village in Britain. This
does not mean that small companies out in the sticks will
suddenly flock to the merged ICSl-Barclay bureau. But
ICSl's offices and the Barclay branches will be kept in touch
with each other by liaison officers and extra business must
result.
When it is remembered that Barclays uses IBM machines
for its london operations and Burroughs in the on-line system it is aiming to bring into operation early next year, the
development is significant. ICl so far has had a bare toehold
in the banks and that only in the clearing centre for the big
joint stock banks, set up in london under the name of Bank
Giro.

Eurodata
Another major piece in this jig-saw is ICl's participation
with Olivetti of Italy, AEG-Telefunken of Germany and CII
of France in a consortium called Eurodata to bid for contracts to provide computing and communications facilitie.s
at three centres of the European Space Research Organization where IBM is strongly entrenched.
The're is a European precedent for such electronic collaboration. The big MADAP air traffic control system and
the Bretigny air traffic simulator system, both belonging to
Eurocontrol, were set up by a consortium of Plessey (U.K.),
AEG-Telefunken (Germany) and CSF (France).
Even though Eurodata's equipment would come from
many sources rather than a single manufacturer, there is
pressure for a European "technological renascence" which
might easily overcome this difficulty-it would provide a
big fillip to standardisation!
Contracts may be awarded very soon. More than any
other recent bid, this will have stirred IBM's opponents
in Europe to action. Meantime, ESRO has a go-it-alone
lobby that wants to build its own synchronous satellites
and the means to put them into a high orbit. Europe's
rockets may be rudimentary, but its computers are not.
Success with Eurodata as with CDSll, plus the bureau
base and a continued favorable business-the first postmerger year was better than expected-could put ICl firmly
on the map of Europe as a major contender to IBM and
GE-Bull. There is only one proviso and that is for the next
government to leave the company undisturbed for at least
five years. Any attempt by a future Tory Governmentwhich we are very likely to get in about 12 months-to
withdraw the £ 18m of government money invested in ICl
would be catastrophic.

Ted Schoeters
Stanmore, Middlesex
England
35

COMPUTER SCIENCE AS A LIBERAL ART
David F. Foster
3233 M Street N.W., Apt. 5
Washington, D.C.

((A II of the developments in the (information sciences' of the last 25
years have had the same kind of interdisciplinary implications ... yet
the elements of this synthesis are far too little recognized or understood
(even by high-level professionals)) and not a trace of it has yet reached
the level of general undergraduate education."

There has been much talk, in recent years, of the "information explosion" - the supposedly exponential growth
of knowledge at a rate which is forcing us all to specialize
ever-more narrowly. However, as Bellman of the RAND
Corporation has emphasized, the real problem is not the
sheer volume of knowledge, but the lack of new theoretical
frameworks into which it can be meaningfully integrated.
The problem is especially acute for college students, who
are faced with a large number of distinct and seif-contained
disciplines, with no attempt whatsoever made to integrate
and synthesize them. Yet, as Poincare pointed out in
1900, it is precisely through the integration of disparate
concepts that progress takes place. In his words, " ... new
connections are constantly being discovered between objects which seemed destined for perpetual separation,
scattered facts cease to be irrelevant to one another, and
tend to order themselves into an impressive synthesis."l
At present there is nothing so important for the intellectual world in general and the college curriculum in
particular - as the development of new conceptual frameworks in which this kind of synthesis can take place.

Developing New Theoretical Frameworks
The publ ication of Norbert Wiener's Cybernetics 2 was
quite possibly the most important event of this century,
as far as the development of new theoretical frameworks is
concerned. Wiener showed that the concept of negative
feedback is not limited to man-made control systems, but
is also applicable to biological, psychological, and social
processes. All of the developments in the "information
sciences" of the last 25 years have had the same kind of
interdisciplinary implications information theory, general systems theory, modelling and simulation, work on
abstract languages, the multilevel system concept, etc. We
are at the dawn of what may turn out to be one of the
most significant periods of synthesis in the history of
thought - yet the elements of this synthesis are far too
little recognized or understood (even by high-level pro-

fessionals), and not a trace of it has yet reached the level
of general undergraduate education.
The average student probably thinks "cybernetics" is
some kind of Russian plot, if he has ever heard the word
at all. (I recently encountered a group of 8 college graduates, all "A" students, all planning to go to graduate
school, none of whom had the vaguest idea what the
word meant.) Yet it is certainly apparent that advanced
thinking in psychology, the social sciences, and even
philosophy will be more and more influenced by the ideas
of the computer and information sciences, just as in
previous years it was so greatly influenced by Newtonian
and later Einsteinian physics. (See McLuhan 3 for a fascinating and quite controversial discussion of the nature of
this influence.)

New World Views in the Curriculum
I am arguing, then, that the concepts of the computer
and information sciences are sufficiently rich and general
to be of interest not only to scientists and engineers, but
also linguists, artists, philosophers, and historians. What
we are dealing with here is not only a technology, but a
Weltanschauung a conceptual system which carries
with it, as do all major conceptual systems, a new way of
looking at the world. And new world-views are sufficiently
rare and important events to deserve a significant place in
a college liberal-arts curriculum. A non-specialists' course
in computer science, taught with an emphasis on integrative concepts, could be a source of considerable intellectual stimulation to the student. The outlines of such a
course are still vague and hazy, because the outlines of
our conceptual framework are still vague and hazy. However, in the remainder of this article I would like to jump
in and make a specific proposal.

A Proposed Course
Suppose that we develop a course based around the
idea of modelling and simUlation. This course will be de-

COMPUTERS AND AUTOMATION for March, 1970

signed for students who may have no previous experience
with computers, mathematics, or science. It wi II be designed to give the student an integrated understanding of
computers, modelling, and the nature of complex systems.
A possible outline for such a course is presented below:
1) The idea of modelling. Drawings, ordinary language,
and equations as models. Problems of comparing
models with reality.
2) Algorithmic models. Experiments with hand-simulation for simple discrete-time models, such as
a simple queueing system.
3) Algorithmic languages. Student is introduced to a
high-level computer language (possibly BASIC)
and uses it for simple modelling problems.
Time-sharing or fast batch turnaround is essential here for quick learning.
4) Models of simple physical systems. Such systems
as falling objects, oscillating springs, etc. can
be dealt with using simple numerical integration techniques. Of course, no attempt at a
formal development of calculus would be made.
5) More complex models, both continuous and discrete-time. Problems of calibration and verification.
6) Modelling in psychology, sociology, etc. Problems of
free-will, self-consciousness, reductionism. Special problems of calibration occurring in these
fields. (See Winch,4 Wiener,5 and an earlier
paper by Robinson and myself6 for a discussion
of these problems.) The old question of whether
there are general laws of human nature and of
history reconsidered in the light of the modelling
concept.
7) Models that build models survey of artificial
intelligence research.

NUMBLES
NUMBER PUZZLES FOR NIMBLE MINDS
-AND COMPUTERS
Neil Macdonald
Assistant Editor
Computers and Automation
A "numble" is an arithmetical problem in which: digits
have been replaced by capital letters; and there are two
messages, one which can be read right away and a second
one in the digit cipher. The problem is to solve for the
digits.
Each capital letter in the arithmetical problem stands for
just one digit 0 to 9. A digit may be represented by more
than one letter. The second message, which is expressed in
numerical digits, is to be translated (using the same key)
into letters so that it may be read; but the spell ing uses
puns or is otherwise irregular, to discourage cryptanalytic
methods of deciphering.
We invite our readers to send us solutions, together with
human programs or computer programs which will produce
the solutions.

NUMBLE 703

THINKS

WHO

T H L H MK

T MI I 0

Need for Intuitive Presentation

•

It may seem difficult to believe that this wide a set of
concepts could be covered in a reasonable time by students
with no relevant background. However, I believe that if the
presentation is made intuitive rather than mathematically
formal, and if the material covered is tied together by a
single unifying concept in this case, modelling surprising progress may be made. I recollect vaguely that
some company has experimented with teaching Junior
High school students an integrated mixture of calculus,
physics, and programming. The programming was used to
make numerical solutions to problems feasible, thus avoiding the need to choose between complicated analytical
solutions and "cookbook" formula memorization. This
project was successful, and illustrates the power of an
integrated approach. I think that equal success might be
obtainable with the still broader integration proposed in
this article. At any rate, it should be most interesting to
see what kind of student reaction and comprehension is
obtained from a course of the kind outlined here.
0

References
IGeneral Systems, Yearbook of the Society for General Systems Re·
search (1968), p. 11.
::!Norbert Wiener, Cybernetics, or Control and Communication in the
Animal and the Machine (1948).
3Marshall McLuhan, Understanding Media: the Extensions of Man

(1964).
-1peter F. Winch, The Idea of a Social Science (1958).
i3Wiener, p. 24·25.
61ra Robinson and David Foster, Simulation of Human Systems, in
Digest of the Second Conference on Applications of Simulation

(1968).

COMPUTERS AND AUTOMATION for March, 1970

WELL

CDIO=KTSU

76617

41132

709404

Solution to Numble 702
In Numble 702 in the February issue, the digits 0
through 9 are represented by letters as follows:

R=O
N=l
E,I,V
2

U=3
D,T =4

S=5
L=6

A=7
H=8
P=9

The full message is: "Stupidity is a hardy perennial."

Our thanks to the following individuals for submitting
their solutions to Numble 701: W. B. Ard, Atlanta, Ga.;
A. Sanford Brown, Dallas, Tex.; T. Paul Finn, Indianapolis,
Ind.; E. D. Gingerica, Sudbury, Mass.; B. L. Gingrich, Endicott, N.V.; Douglas A. Heath, Port Jefferson, N.V.; Henry
Hines, Bethlehem, Pa.; Doris C. Knapp, Washington, D.C.;
Bernard Kren, Cypress, Calif.; Charles M. Myers, Louisville,
Ky.; Lambert J. Simon, Irving, Tex.; Robert C. Solomon,
Stamford, Conn.; Michael Vesta, Jr., New Brunswick, N.J.;
and Robert R. Weden, Edina, Minn. Numble 6912: A. M.
Adamowski, Warsaw, Poland; Ralph B. Clifton, Hampton, Va.;
B. L. Gingrich, Endicott, N.V.; B. Kraul, Cypress, Calif.; G. P.
Petersen, St. Petersburg, Fla.; and Robert R. Weden, Edina,
Minn.

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS FOR SOCIAL DECISIONS
Joseph L. Bower
Graduate School of Business Administration
Harvard University
Boston, Mass. 02138

({The problem of order in society) which was originally conceived as
the task of God) and later the task of kings and prime ministers) has
now been reconceived) at least partly) as the field of endeavor for a new
kind of engineer."
YSTEMS ANALYSIS far sacial decisians is a very
apprapriate title far the last half af the twentieth
century. It captures perfectly what Michel Crazier(l) has
described as "aggressive confidence in human reason and
in the capacity of America to solve all problems by its
use." While Crozier's analysis of the American theme may
be somewhat optimistic in its evaluation af the accomplishment of the new methodology, he has captured the goals
and philosophy of the current approach in a way that the
participating technocrat does not.

dividual and his family living in a city has much to do
with whether that city is safe, whether it has high
welfare costs, and whether it will continue to survive as a
viable and healthy social organization.

Two Principal Kinds

What my title implies is a fundamental and very
modern belief that the tools of quantitative analysis applied to societal problems in their full technological, economic, psychalagical, and political camplexity can resolve
what were traditionally viewed first as religious and then
as political issues. In effect, the problem of order in
society, which was originally conceived as the task of God,
and later the task af kings and prime ministers, has now
been reconceived, at least partly, as the field of endeavor
for a new kind of engineer.
The purpose af this paper is to examine the nature and
promise of this revolutionary approach to social problems.
To do so it is first necessary to examine what is meant by
social decisions, and how these decisions are usually
made. It is then possible to examine systems analysis as
a new approach, consider its worth, and determine what
prerequisites must be met before it is useful.

It is worth noting that there are two principal categories
of social decisions, each of which tends to pose different
kinds of problems. There are, first of all, social decisions
that must be made by society in one organized form ar
another. An example of such a decision is the construction
of a giant hydroelectric dam, the provision of electric
power, or the development of a transp,ortatian system. So. cieties have always regarded these as tasks which must be
undertaken by one kind of organized group or another.
In contrast, education, housing, and even public safety
have at some points in history been considered as services that individuals can obtain for themselves. The great
importance of this distinction derives from the fact that
the decision to regard any ane of these latter areas as an
arena for social planning implies a political choice to arganize for that purpose. What is then true is that the
choice of organizational form may be as important to
society as the act of the chosen organization.
In short, technology has always forced us to accept some
tasks as inherently the object of group effort. Others, because they are technologically capable of being performed
by individuals for themselves pose a prior question of organization for society.

Social Decisions

Ways Society Has Chosen to Organize Tasks

A sacial decision in its most commonly understood form
is a decision made by society for itself. Examples of such
decisions are the choice of a leader in a popular election,
and the distribution of rewards and status in a social
group. However, this paper uses a wider interpretation af
the phrase 'social decisions' - it is used to' describe the
decisions taken by individuals or groups that have material
effects on individuals other than those involved in making
the decision. In the economist's terms, we are talking
about decisions with external effects. In modern industrial
societies more and more decisions have become social
decisions as technology has increasingly strengthened the
web of interconnection that binds one individual to
another.
Examples of this phenomenon are numerous and certainly for this audience it is not necessary to state them
at length. The problem of rationalizing and humanizing
the urban environment is one such issue. How to provide
the cleanest air, comfortable housing, convenient transportation, and good education for millions af people
gathered together in cities is a problem we have not yet
resolved. I n a way, each part of the urban problem, environmental pollution, housing, transportation, and education, represents a problem of external effects. Viewed in
its most threatening aspect, the life available to each in-

The implication of this distinction is that many of what
we regard as culturally derived social institutions in fact
represent choices concerning the mode by which, and the
direction in which, social resources will be allocated.
Public schools, cemeteries, narrow winding roads and
superhighways, airports, and universities are all examples
of this proposition. These institutions represent ways in
which society has chosen to organize for its tasks. Implicit
in the notion of calling these arganizations the results of
social decisions is the idea that there are or were alternatives to the particular choices that were made. The
existence of alternatives is important because it raises
sharply a new distinction, that between means and ends.
Many political and social institutions that often regard
themselves as social goals in and of themselves were
created as means to achieve separable end objectives.

The Problem of Order in Society

Education
As an example, let us look at an area that has been
handled most traditionally to see what kind of alternatives
are available education. To begin with, the education
of children could be left to the process of experience, although parents have almost never been willing to allow
COMPUTERS AND AUTOMATION for March, 1970

their children to grow up without any of the benefits of
their own experience. Even animals seem to insist upon
family education. An alternative to the family is the
private tutor. Beyond the tutor are various forms of private
schools, and various arrangements of educational curricula.
For example, most children can be given a basic education
and then turned out early to society to work for an elite
who progress to graduate education. Or as seems to be the
case in America today, a majority of the population can go
on to university education. Curricula can be either general
or specialized. Training can be academic or vocational.
The technology of education can be varied substantially.
Today the various available pedagogic devices range from
the face-to-face discussion of tutor and student to the
lecturer addressing an audience of 1,000, to the pupil
before his programmed teaching machine, to the student
working in a laboratory with little guidance, to discussion
groups, and finally to correspondence courses. All of these
devices represent alternative ways of educating men to
lead individually and socially useful lives.

Scarce Resources
The very thought of choosing among these alternatives
raises a second important aspect of social decisions. Almost always the resources that have been allocated in one
way or another are scarce; that is, it is not possible most of
the time to resolve a decision as to how some end of
society shall be achieved by pursuing more than a limited
number of alternatives. Apparent in this observation is
another implication of the concept of social decisions. As
soon as one thinks of some aspect of society as a social
choice to allocate scarce resources in a given fashion in
order to meet a given objective, it is immediately obvious
that these resources might be used to achieve other objectives as well as achieving the same objectives in different ways. So that one not only has to think of how
given educational objectives will be achieved but also of
the possible relations of housing or transportation to
education.

The Traditional Approach to Decisions
One question that is of immediate interest is the somewhat
skeptical inquiry, "It's all very well to say that the notion
of taking social decisions explicitly is revolutionary, but
we have been making social choices for a long time. How
does the implicit process work and what is wrong with it?"
In the normal course of events, the issues we have
raised are shaped by a variety of policies. The principal
difference between the decision process when viewed systematically as a social decision and traditional methods is
that traditionally policy is an outcome. Policy is something decision makers use to explain a sequence of events
after the events have happened. In every nation there is a
variety of institutions that have evolved historically to
carry out some set of specified tasks. The military is
charged with the defense of the nation, the postal service
with delivering mail, the medical profession with the health
of the citizenry, and the police with public safety. Over
time, as new tasks arise, they are assigned to newly created
organizations or added on to existing ones.
For example, in the United States the turbulent thirties
saw the creation of a host of new government organizations.
But, in some cases, they were set in very surprising contexts. For example, electric power in the United States
was principally the responsibility of the Department of
the Interior. But because President Roosevelt did not trust
his Secretary of the Interior to carry out his rural electrification program with sympathy, it was placed under the
Department of Agriculture.

COMPUTERS AND AUTOMATION

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March, 1970

Self-Preservation of Organizations
Added to the often haphazard evolution of the agencies
and institutions that serve the needs of society is the
phenomenon best studied by Professor Parkinson, the insitutionalization, and then bureaucratization, of organization. Units created to serve even temporary needs have a
way of finding new tasks for themselves, in effect, making
themselves permanent. It does seem clear that the true
end of any organization is its own self-preservation.

Budget Changes
The problem is even worse, however. One of the most
unvarying findings of the emerging research on organizations is that, except in time of revolution, no organization
permits a decrease in its budget save by some small increment. Existing organizations are always fighting for
their share of the pie. Even in time of stress when their
own need is of somewhat lower priority, they wi II resist cuts
in their budget. In times of abundant resources they will
also resist increases in other's shares of the budget much
beyond their own. Implicit in this characterization is the
argument that in normal process of using resources consists of giving each agency of government and society
roughly the same portion that they had in previous periods
with only minor adjustments. And such is the fact. However, over long periods of time, radical shifts do take
place some sectors rise and some decline. But the
trend is slow and primari Iy responsive to the power of the
organizations in question. It is common to see institutions
of society resist recommended change coming from seemingly all-powerful sources.

Policy the Result of Bargaining
Let us see what this means in summary. The assignment
of a particular task to a particular institution in society is
historically often a matter of accident. Over time, institutions created for one purpose acquire others. Finally,
institutions once created seldom die and seldom give up
their share of society's resources over any short period of
time. Hence, at any point in time when an issue arises,
the way in which the decision is made determines what
policy will be. The decision that is made is almost always
a resultant of bargaining among the agencies and departments that feel they have an organizational stake in the
issue at hand.

Public Health
This is particularly true when we talk of the broad,
sweeping social problems of interest in our nation today.
Let us take as an example the problem of public health in
its institutional setting in the United States. Of critical
importance to any medical problem is the community of
medical practitioners - the doctors. These men acting individually and through their organization, the American
Medical Association, take supposedly objective expert
stands on all issues affecting organization for the provision of health care in the United States. As revolutionary
a bi II as the Heart, Stroke, and Cancer amendment
(which asserts the right to adequate health care for every
citizen in the United States) has in its preamble a phrase
to the effect that the sweeping programs contemplated
under the act wi II be carried out subject to the caveat
that "the traditional doctor-patient relation will not be
changed." In other words, the doctors have a great deal to
say about how society organizes to provide health care. But
also involved in any health problem is the US Public
Health Service and its constituent agencies, the National

Institutes of Health, the National Institute of Mental Health,
the Bureau of Health Services, and the Bureau of Health
Manpower. In addition, involved with the provision of health
service is the Social and Rehabilitation Service Agency,
including the Children's Bureau, as well as the Social
Security Administration. But we are not through, for the
Department of Defense and its four branches spend over
$1 billion for health related activities, the Veteran's Ad·
ministration spends over $1 billion, and five other
agencies of the government spend more than $50 million
each on medical and health related programs. When we
remember that medical research is conducted principally
in the universities and the drug and chemical companies
of the country, the complexity of the field is obvious. The
point is that any set of activities in the health arena in
the United States represents less a policy designed to cope
with a set of perceived issues and much more the combined momentum of the assorted agencies active in the
health field.

Historical Accidents
One could go on with examples, if one liked taking one's
cases from the problems of other nations. But there is no
need for that. We can agree that usually it is purest accident for the particular institutions that have developed
historically as responsible for a set of tasks to address
themselves to the full consequences of a major new
problem facing society. They are simply not organized to do
so because it was not their job at the time that they
were created. If a railroad was established to supply
passenger transportation between two points, it is unlikely that a century later the organization designed to
run that railroad will be adequate to the task of planning
urban transportation. Nor will the combined efforts of
motor car companies, highway commissions, railroad managements, and air transportation boards acting separately
provide any more coherent a policy. Nor will a joint committee of this group. Only a single vast entrenched institution, with no competition, that believes that it fully
understands the new problems is worse than the usual
fragmentation. For instance, take the situation in the field
of education in most countries, where an enthroned establishment constitutes an insuperable obstacle to systematic social choice.

Systems Analysis: Planning-Costs-BenefitsAlternatives
What, then, is the alternative to the existing process? It
is the basic process of planning as it has come to be
understood in military and industrial organizations. This
process consists of specifying long-term objectives and
values, evaluating in terms of costs and benefits the
alternate routes to the achievement of these objectives,
and choosing among the available alternatives the course
of action that will best exploit present and potentially
available resources. Systems analysis, despite its aura of
sophistication, is really no more.
It is true that systems studies often involve models, and
almost always emphasize quantitative analysis. But a model
is merely a very specific way of expressing a system of
relations for the purposes of analysis. Models are useful
for clarifying the cause-and-effect or input-output interactions that characterize the elements of a problem. And
the use of quantitative analysis is less a reflection of the
measurability of the operative variables in a social system
and more a testimony to the usefulness in analysis and
communication of the commonly understood assumptions
underlying the language and logic of arithmetic.
40

Specifying Goals
Despite the simplicity of the planning format, it is possible to draw strong prescriptions for the social decisionmaking process. To begin with, the process of specifying
goals implies that each major decision to commit resources requires a reassessment of objectives. Rather than
regarding any action as an occasion for the extrapolation of
some institutional founding father's intent, objectives must
be tested for completeness, consistency, and relevance.

Administration of Welfare
It is not unusual for an organization to find its conception of purpose lacking on all three counts. For example,
standards of fairness, efficiency, and accountability often
conflict directly with the achievement of purpose. The
administration of welfare in the US is a classic example
of a program that defeats its own ends through its pursuit
of short-run equity in the redistribution of income. In
order to avoid using taxpayers' money to subsidize fully
families already earning a partial income, the welfare administration designs and policies actively a system that
encourages husbands to remain 'unemployed and to desert
their families. During the 1930's the clientele of the administration was such that the rules might have achieved a
kind of equity, but in the 1960's the system exacerbates
the problem it is designed to cure.

Bureau for Fair Wage Standards
Another instructive example is available in the bureau
responsible for enforcing fair wage standards. It was found
when they were asked to examine their objectives that they
were oriented through their internal performance measurement system so as to consider organizational success to be
a high number of complaints received and resolved in
favor of the complaining worker. They had lost almost all
interest in any steps to achieve or measure over-all compliance with the fair wage law.

Evaluation of Goals
In short, institutions making social decisions will often
find that society has changed, leaving them less relevant
and less useful than before. Evaluation of objectives in
planning will protect the organization from obsolescence.
It will also protect it from the penalties of incompleteness.
Moreover, an understanding of the multiplicity of objectives
that an organization may serve will keep it from ignoring
distributional and process effects. In social matters,
one man's benefits are often another man's costs. Care
must be taken in establishing goals to see that aggregate
goals are not achieved through unintended individual
costs.
This kind of examination of prior goals - both long-run
objectives and standards of process - is absolutely critical,
for it leads to the discovery of the integral relation of the
ends of society, and the means of achieving these ends.
The fact is that, except for a very religious or otherworldly minority, most of us are interested in the state of
affairs along the road to a better world, as well as the
attributes of that better world when we get there. Frequently the choice of ends must be determined by the
availability of acceptable means.

Relation to the Environment
Having determined the basic goals that will structure
analysis, attention must be given to the nature of the
COMPUTERS AND AUTOMATION for March, 1970

organization and its relation with its environment. It is
particularly important to understand where the boundaries of the unit are, how the subparts of the unit operate, and how this system interacts with the environment.
An example is available in the plight of a Boston businessman who tried to provide better jobs for negroes by hiring
them in his company. He found that they could not get
to his place of work in the suburbs because they lacked
the proper transportation because they could not afford
automobiles; they could not afford automobiles because
their jobs were poor; their jobs were poor because their
education was poor; their education was poor because
they lived in the ghetto; and so on. For his purposes, the
whole city was the relevant system. On the other hand, for
some purposes - perhaps public health - he might have
found that he could operate on only one part of the city
with satisfactory results. The point is that the definition of
the relevant system varies with the problem under consideration and the goals of action.
It is important in looking at the environment to determine
what opportunities it offers for progress toward basic goals,
what threats are posed by hostile forces, and what risks
are associated with various lines of action. For example,
there are those in the United States who for years have
argued that a stable monetary policy implied higher rates
of unemployment than would be necessary if a slow degree
of inflation were tolerated. They argued that the concentration of unemployment among certain obvious minority
groups was so debilitating to society that the cost of inflation was worth bearing in order to reduce unemployment.
A good many policy makers who objected to this argument
may have reevaluated their position in the flickering light
of burning cities.

Limited Resources
At least as important to the planning process and a
systemic view of an organization in its environment is a
consideration of opportunities in terms of organizational
resources. Useful planning begins with the recognition
that all goals cannot be achieved at once. Beyond the
fact that some may be inconsistent, it is also true that
agreed upon benefits generally entail costs and they
cannot be borne without limits.
In order to permit a careful consideration of alternative
uses of resources, the pursuit of each of the several goals
must be specified in a series of alternate programs. By
a program we mean a timed sequence of moves that commit resources in a purposeful fashion. When this stage
in planning is completed, it is possible to contemplate
an array of alternate programs that, to a greater or lesser
degree, contribute to fulfilling a list of objectives. It is
then possible to assess these alternate programs in terms
of their relative costs and benefits. While measures of
cost! effectiveness do not constitute a pol icy, they permit
a much more informed choice of program.
At this point in the analysis it is also important to
recognize that an instrumental view of organization is implied. That is, it is assumed that the choice of goals
and programs to achieve those goals will provide criteria
for the structuring of institutional arrangements, the
design of information systems, and the design and management of systems of motivation and reward. Where these
structural phenomena are not available as instruments
to the problem solver but, rather, are constitutionally
given, then they must enter into the analysis as important
constraints on action. In either event, alternative programs
must be judged in terms of their organizational consequences as well as their economic costs.

COMPUTERS AND AUTOMATION for March, 1970

Administrative Feasibility
What emerges from this pattern of analysis is a concept
of administrative feasibility. Some programs, attractive to
technically oriented specialists, must be discarded because
the administrative problems they raise are such as to make
the programs too costly or infeasible. The goals involved
must be achieved by some other route. Alternatively, a pet
program of the administrative type may have dramatically
excessive economic costs.
At this phase of the planning and decision making
process, what is properly called systems analysis is complete. The pursuit of objectives has been clarified by
considering the alternative approaches to applying resources in the context of the entire relevant set of institutional, technological, and environmental relations.

Political Issues
Again, it is important to realize that no choice is implied by this analysis. Rather the analysis informs the
judgment of decision makers by illuminating the question
of how resources may best be used to attain a set of
objectives. This 'how to' decision is substantially different
from the decision 'should we.' Some of the most dramatic
political conflicts associated with the application of systems analysis in the United States arose not because of
the 'how to' analysis, but because the 'how to' analysis was
used to serve a particular set of political interests involved in the decision 'should we.'

Instrument of Social Change
It might be well to state here at an early stage in the
evolution of the use of systems analysis that the 'should
we' question is almost always a political one. I disclaim a
belief that systems analysis will resolve the basic social
questions of society; but there is some evidence that
systematic analysis of social questions can help decision
makers make better choices for society.
It cannat be denied that by this mechanism systems
analysis may be an instrument of social change. Certainly
by providing an alternate to the mechanism of institutional
bargaining described above, systems analysis is a threat to
those who have a purely structural stake in existing
modes of decision making. Moreover, where there is an
agency or department with a fundamentally valid capability
to operate in a particular sphere, systems analysis may provide precisely the lever that can free capable experts from
the shackles of bureaucratic tradition.

Example: Education in Philadelphia
Two examples of the application of systems analysis may
be instructive. The first is the project of a local government
in the field of education, the second a study performed
for a state government in the field of information storage
and retrieval. Education was chosen for one example because it is a field in which the entire population is involved, experts disagree on all major issues, all sorts of
types regard themselves as experts, and measurement is
very difficult. On the other hand, in principle, information
storage and retrieval is a nearly technical subject, involving
few political problems.
The site of the systems study in education is Philadelphia (my account is based on references 2 and 3). It
originated in substantial dissatisfaction with the local
public school system on the part of a small group of
businessmen. They provided the impetus and continued
political support for a new Superintendent of Schools.
He took over a system with no plan beyond one year,
with no priorities among goals, with a budget arranged to

control items such as pencils and salaries, with none but
political measures of performance, and a structure that
left virtually complete control over school programs and
curricula in the hands of a School Board of teachers and
laymen but no professional administrators.
The first steps taken involved establishing a planning office reporting to the Superintendent and introducing a
planning, programming, and budgeting system. Broad fiveyear goals for the school system were provided by a newly
constituted Board of Education. The means by which each
school district carried out the goals of the Board were
called programs and activities (subprograms). In 1967
there were twelve programs such as "Early Childhood Education," "Senior and Technical Higher Education," and
"Community Education." They were formulated so as to
facilitate relating program planning to financial budgeting.
The budget, in turn, was a program budget: a listing of
proposed expenditures by program-goal categories rather
than objects of expense. In a program budget system, financial budget elements are arranged primarily in terms
of the benefits expected from expenditures, and only
secondarily in terms of input. For example, an 'output' of an
elementary program would be boosting student skills in
reading or arithmetic, an 'input' would be a specified
number of teacher aids at a specified cost.
In 1968-1969, the Philadelphia effort also began to introduce ways of measuring the benefits of programs as a
method for altering the allocation of resources among programs. Moreover, an attempt is being made to convert to a
system of managerial accounting using an accrual concept, rather than the traditional cash-expenditure method.
As a result of the systems study by the planning office,
it was recommended that these planning and program
goals be served by a second major step, a decentralization
of decision making in the system. Finally, an educational
information center has been proposed to provide control for
the Superintendent over the activities of his system and
its relations with its public.
The skeptic will say, "These are all promises for the
future, and besides what contribution has be"en made by
systems analysis." The latter objection has already been
considered indirectly systems analysis is merely a
convenient phrase for systematic purposive planning. The
contribution of planning in Philadelphia is clear: it has
indicated how limited funds can be used to improve the
quality of the city's public system of education. (The
cynic will say "Have you changed the teachers?" The
answer is that the system they work in is being changed
for the better without strikes or riots.)
As for the prospective aspect of these gains, the existence
of a five-year plan has permitted the creation of a capital
budget. Proposed for the period 1969-1974 is a $489
million construction program involving 67 new schools
and 38 other projects. The plan takes into account new
demographic physical planning standards, revised curricula, new concepts of architectural design, and goals
for racial integration and community development. An
advisory committee of businessmen has aided in planning
the program to finance this renewal of the city's schools.
To put this program in perspective, of 245 schools in
1968, 54 were built prior to 1906, and another 67 were
more than 40 years old; 54 per cent of the elementary
schools, 84 per cent of the junior high schools, and 78
per cent of the senior high schools were considered overcrowded. A high percentage were racially imbalanced.
If all systems analysis did was serve as catalyst for the
response to the situation, it would have proved itself. If
it turns out to have guided the use of resources wisely, it
will have made a truly remarkable contribution.

Example: a State-Wide Information System
When we turn to the study of a state-wide information
system, the story is both briefer and more ambiguous. The
Lockheed Missiles and Space Corporation, at the invitation of Governor Brown, conducted an over-all study of the
information requirements of the state and local governments of California.
On the basis of both present uses and future projections,
some conclusions were reached about the nature of information flow in California; for example, extensive flow
exists among state-level organizations, but local governments are the largest collectors of information, with a
heavy flow of data moving upward from local to state agencies; electronic data processing is growing widely and
rapidly at state and local levels, with a large potential for
duplication of efforts.
"The study team demonstrated the feasibility and desirability of a state-wide information system and recommended
the evolution of a federation of information processors
and users. Geographic centralization of organizational files
was not recommended, nor was the rigid restructuring of
existent files.(4)"
The recommended system would allow various State and
local agencies to remain autonomous and independent;
they would be required only to maintain standards of
compatibility so that information exchange would be
possible. The recommended system was estimated to cost
$68 million over 10 years to develop, and $13 million
annually (after 10 years) to run. Savings through mechanization and elimination of duplication were estimated at
$116 million annually.
In all fairness it should be added to this report that one
expert commentator described the study team as "information technicians [who] mistook their own ignorance for
objectivity, and never knew when they were retreading
worn ruts . . . Many recommendations turned out to be
commonplace or common sense . . ." But, the same commentator noted "first and foremost, the systems approach
... enables the government planner to examine questions
implicit in many of the problems [he faces] but never
openly addressed in a political and bureaucratic contest." (;"))

Prerequisites for Systems Analysis
What can we conclude from these two examples? Beyond
what we have already said, we learn primarily that there are
political, technical, and organizational prerequisites for
successful application of systems analysis.
By a political prerequisite we mean that, in each of the
two instances cited, and wherever success is expected, it
is necessary for the political leadership to support the
analytical innovation. For a systems study to be successful, it must serve, in an objective fashion, the legitimate
leaders of the organization in question. Moreover, those
performing the study must understand the political content
of the problem they are analyzing. In the arena of social
problems, much that the systems analyst desires to change
is part of the constitutionally given political structure.
While it is possible that elements of the structure can be
changed so that, for example, authority resting in one
political unit can be transferred to another, the analyst
must be aware of these issues as he proceeds to study
the problems of a system from a functional point of view.
Moreover, the results of systems analysis tend to be
long-range programs. Usually political tenure does not coincide with the duration of such efforts, and thus planning
and funding cannot be guaranteed. In some instances,
because the time horizon of the planner and administrator
diverge, the best solutions to be derived from systems
analysis may in the short run be politically unproductive.
COMPUTERS AND AUTOMATION for March, 1970

PROBLEM CORNER
Walter Penney, CDP
Problem Editor
Computers and Automation

PROBLEM 703: TOURNAMENT TURMOIL
"Are those the pairings for the big Kriegspiel tournament you're working on?", Joe asked, seeing Pete bent over
a sheet full of 3x3 squares.
"Yes, and I think I'll have to write a program to work
it out," Pete said. "Every time I try to do it by hand I end
up with someone playing the same opponent twice, or
never being referee, or something."
"Shouldn't be much of a job to do by hand. Aren't
there only nine of us playing?"
"Right, but the boss wants this to be a sort of mixer to
get everyone acquainted. He wants everyone to come in
contact with everyone else in some capacity either as
opponent or referee."
"O.K. You've got nine people. Three games can be going
on at one time, with two people playing and one acting
as referee. It should take only four rounds for everyone to
have been in a game with everyone else."
"Yes, if it's properly planned." The furrows in Pete's

To implement such a result would call for statesmanship of
a high order. Where such statesmanship is not forthcoming,
the systems analyst ought to be able to produce secondbest, but politically feasible, alternative programs.
The second prerequisite for a successful systems study
is technical, because there must be substantive contributions available for systems analysis to be useful. If, as in
the field of community development, the basic problems
have not been thought through and resolved, then what is
needed is basic research and not elaborate analytical
studies.

Organization
Finally, organization is a key prerequisite. The study of a
state-wide information system was one of four commissioned by the state of California. It was found that many
agencies of the state government lacked the capability to
monitor contracts, to guide the progress of analysis, or
even to evaluate the results. More of a problem, perhaps,
was the fact that in some agencies there was no one who
could or would make use of the analysis. Sometimes this
problem extends to entire departments of a government
system.
It is also true that, throughout a systems study, continuous coordination is necessary among all who will be
involved in its conclusions and whose support will be
needed if they are to view it as an opportunity and not as
a threat. This is also a problem for the systems analyst
and for involved parts of the government, both of whom
typically lack experience working with the strange sort of
creature that the other represents. One aspect of this
problem is that language is a barrier. Systems analysts
have a great desire to talk a jargon all their own regardless
of how strange or even how irrelevant it sounds to outsiders. On the other hand, public administrators are certainly not guiltless in this regard.
COMPUTERS AND AUTOMATION

fOT

March, 1970

forehead deepened. "But I haven't been able to figure it all
out. Maybe it can't be done in four rounds."
Can it?

Solution to Problem 702: A Toss of the Coin
If we let Do and D1 be the price of Dynamem a year ago
and today, respectively, and Po and P1 be the corresponding prices for Picotronics, we have D1 = LIDo, P1 = .8Po,
D1
P1
.625, Do
Po - 10, from which Do
28%,
D1
31%, Po
38 3A, P1
31.

= +
=
=

Readers are invited to submit problems (and their
solutions) for publication in this column to: Problem
Editor, Computers and Automation, 815 Washington St.,
Newtonville, Mass. 02160.

Conclusion
All these problems are difficult to overcome. But when
these prerequisites are satisfied or even where they are
only partially satisfied, the evidence available at this time
is that the conduct of systems studies contributes more
than the exhilaration of an exercise in logic. Rather it
makes a substantial contribution to the intelligent use of
society's resources. It does this either by informing and
providing insight to those who will continue to use judgmental methods of decision making, or it helps by providing the framework both for a system of planning and
budgeting and for reorganizing the resource-allocation
process. In either way, systems analysis can help make
social decision-making a reality. By doing so it gives us some
promise that ways will be found to reduce and then
perhaps resolve the complex web of problems that encumber
modern industrial society.
D

References
1. Michel Crozier, "The lonely Frontier of Reason," The Nation, p.
691, May 27, 1968.
2. Donald Rappaport, "New Approaches in Public Education," The
Price Waterhouse Review, Winter 1967.
3. Mark R. Shedd, "Managing the Public Schools," talk given to the
Philadelphia Chapter of the American Society of Public Administration, October 17, 1967.
4. Harold H. Walt, "The Four Aerospace Contracts: A Review of the
California Experience," in Technology and the American Economy,
The Report of the Commission, Appendix Vol. V, p. 55 and passim,
Washington, D.C., 1966.
5. Ida Hoos, "A Critique on the Application of Systems Analysis to
Social Problems," paper given at the 13th Annual Meeting of the
American Astronautical Society, Dallas, Texas, May 1-3, 1967.

Reprinted with permIssIon from Operations Research for Nov.-Dec.,
1969, published by the Operations Research Society of America, Baltimore, Md. 21202

THE PROFESSION OF INFORMATION ENGINEER AND HIS BRIDGES TO SOCIETY
Computers and Automation believes that the profession
of information engineer includes not only competence in
handling information using computers and other means,
but also a broad responsibility, in a professional and engineering sense, for:
• the reliability and social significance of pertinent
input data;
• the social value of the output results.
In the same way, a bridge engineer takes a professional
responsibility for the reliability and significance of the
data he uses, and the safety and efficiency of the bridge
he builds, for human beings to risk their lives on.

Accordingly, this department of Computers and Automation will publish from time to time, articles and other
information related to socially useful input and output of
data systems in a broad sense. To this end we shall seek
to publish here what is unsettling, disturbing, criticalbut productive of thought and an improved and safer
"house" for all humanity, an earth in which our children
and later generations may have a future, instead of facing
extinction.
The professional information engineer needs to relate
his engineering to the most important and most serious
problems in the world today: war, nuclear weapons, pollution, the population explosion, and many more.

NATIONAL GOAL SETTING AND PLANNING
Thomas J. Watson, Jr.
Chairman of the Board
International Business Machines Corp.
Old Orchard Rd.
Armonk, N. Y. 10504

((We have littered the last decade with the bones of good intentions)
and we've come out disillusioned and angry. With today's rapid communications and computer abilities) it is becoming possible to test
alternatives-to know if a program is workable and to get some feeling
on what its real costs will be before we commit this enorm01lS nation
to an unrealistic or incomplete goal."
I want to talk to you about an obscure but important
problem of the times in which we live. It's not a very
much noticed problem today, but it is a problem which if
neglected in the future could cause our country really
major difficulties.
Ten years back, in the twilight years of the Eisenhower Era, I served with some very distinguished Americans
on a committee called the Commission on National Goals.
Some of the names of the members are still familiar:
Frank Pace, John Gardner, Clark Kerr and August Heckscher. Our job, back in the late 1950's, was to suggest
goals for our country in the 1960's, and two things surprised me at the time. First was the realization that this
country had no specific goals set down on paper; and
second was the realization that no matter what goals we
chose, there was practically no mechanism in government
to methodically implement them. And there isn't now.
Of course, we had the Bill of Rights and the Constitution, -and these in a sense are goals, but they are very
broad and subject to various interpretations. We were not
suggesting by our efforts that these documents are not the
very roots from which this free country grows. We just
thought that the complexity of the society demanded
more specific targets.
The nation was bouncing along as it is now, geared to
annual appropriations by Congress, in about the way it had
in the 19th century. There was no road map, there was no
one to say - here's where we are, here's where we want to
go, and here's the route to get there.
In 1952, I was made president of IBM. Then we, too,
operated from year to year, and in 1952 the hope of our
future was the electronic computer. We began to increase
our research and development expenditures substantially,
and suddenly for the first time in many years, we showed

no net increase in profit for that year over the previous
one. A terrible shock; an obvious lack of planning and
control, but we learned our lesson, appointed a director
of budgets, made other changes and we haven't made that
error since. We run our corporation in balance.
In most businesses, and certainly in highly technological
industries, the United States has learned how to set fairly
precise goals. We've learned that we have to implement
them, step-by-step, in a disciplined way over a long period
of time.
I believe that the complexity of our modern economy
demands national goal setting and planning closely
paralleling that which is commonplace in industry.

The Decade of the '60's
Looking at the goals we named a decade ago and reviewing what actually happened is interesting. The nation
did aim toward many of those recommendations in the
60's. We saw vast increases in higher education, for example, and enormous growth in our economy. Our Commission really didn't set these goals and identify them to the
country for the first time; rather they are implicit in the
we merely emphasized them. But we
United States missed some of the problems of the times. Pollution, for
example, did not get much attention and we were overly
concerned about others, like Appalachia as a specific area
of poverty, rather than a country-wide condition.
And our call to stop communism anywhere despite
the price - drifted us into an unattainable goal in Vietnam. Since we have no formal mechanism to study, adjust,
and reset our national priorities in an integrated fashion,
we pursued the Vietnam goal to a costly point. The lives
of 40,000 of our men have been lost, vast resources have
been wasted, and the morale of our youth eroded.
COMPUTERS AND AUTOMATION

fOT

March, 1970

Recognizing Goals

Money Is Not Enough

This and other lessons convince me that we must recognize the existence of national goals. They are not formally
set, but they are there nevertheless. Today, they are a mixture of party platforms, State of the Union messages, and
editorial nagging from it all comes that elusive thing
called public opinion, and from public opinion comes
direction.
Since we have goals, even though they are raggedly
cast, there is every possibility that the country will pursue
them. It follows that we ought to be in dead earnest
about setting them. Tomorrow's tragedies as well as tomorrow's triumphs come from today's goals.
The national goals of this country should be set and
restudied annually. They should be costed and readjusted
on an integrated basis just as a larger industrial enterprise sets and controls its goals. This process cannot
come about by the periodic appointment of National
Goals Commissions like the one I served on.
What we need is a completely new governmental body;
perhaps a Senate/ House/Citizen group, to sit permanently
on this matter and report to the President. Congress would
have to pass enabling legislation giving this commission
substantial power if it's to do the job that's needed.
For instance, I believe we can pour as much concrete
as we want to pour in this country.
If we're serious about rebuilding the cities, they will be
rebui It.
If we're serious about cleaning up pollution, Manhattan
will have Hudson and East River swimming clubs by 1980.

The failures of the 60's were not entirely for want of
resources. Whi Ie defense took 37 per cent of our new
money, health, welfare and education got over 40 per cent.
The failures stem from different reasons. Let me mention
them, for I have come to believe that they are ingrained in
the way we manage our national affairs. Money is essential,
but it is no longer enough. A major shortcoming, I believe,
is that we don't take into account the differences between
a fully utilized economy and an economy where there are
slack and unused resources.
Essentially, throughout the late 60's, the U.S. was an
economy running beyond safe limits, and it is likely to be
running flat out through the 70's. When that is the situation, a government program which pours money into one
section of the economy does not call forth unemployed
labor or idle plants; there aren't any. What it does is
reallocate. It takes from one part of the economy and
gives to another.
I don't believe this was understood, for instance, when
Congress passed the Medicaid bill. Medicaid essentially
gave one group, and a very deserving one, the purchasing
power to compete for an already scarce resource, health
care. Medicaid did not build more hospitals, it did not
train more doctors and nurses. It did not, so far as I
know, even do much to impact our worst medical shortcoming, the high infant mortality rate in this country one of the highest in the developed world.
I don't think the current result should be too surprising
spiralling medical costs as the public sector bids
against the private for an inelastic supply.
I'm sure this was not understood when our legislators,
with the very best of intentions, voted for Medicaid. I use it
to illustrate a point about goals. In the new and complex
economy, without the luxury of idle resources, one goal
diverts resources from another, and we have to factor this
into the decision making.

Economics
There's another lesson from the 60's which is basic in
talking about the coming decade. We have learned something about economics in recent years. Depression is no
longer inevitable; in fact, we can look forward to rapid
and fairly steady economic growth if we are wise in the
way we manage the economy. This is essential to our
national goals. We can have more resources we can
do more.
A reasonable estimate for ten years from now shows a
$1.5 trillion economy, in today's dollars, a per capita income that has grown from the $3,140 of today to $4,370,
and government revenues, Federal, state and local, that
will have grown from $303 billion to half a trillion. The
resources will be there, but what are we trying to achieve
with them?
Are we still aiming at eliminating communism? Well,
we'd better think again. It's a happy comfortable thought to
believe that we can indeed make ourselves relatively safe
and the Soviet Union relatively unsafe with anti-missile
missiles and so forth. But think a little deeper. Our efforts
might leave 50 million survivors here at home instead of
25 when the holocaust is over, while we kill two-thirds of
the Russians instead of only one-half. This, to me, is
only half thinking and, if we set our national goals on this
basis, we'll be following an impossible path.
If I'm correct then, one goal which we should have in
our minds for the 1970's is a more relaxed attitude, a
detente, if you will, toward the more tractable communist
countries.
The most important national priority is first reaching
some kind of arrangement with the Soviets. A lot is riding
on those negotiations that began in Helsinki. If they fail,
the 1970's will tend to be a replay of the 60's, with
defense absorbing a goodly share of the new resources we
generate.

COMPUTERS AND AUTOMATION for March, 1970

Balance and Compromise
Just as General Motors can't develop two new Cadillacs
for 1971, so the U.S. must balance and compromise toward an integrated set of goals and accomplishments. If
health care is not adequate, then the first step should be
training doctors and nurses; the second is bringing into
the system people who have been neglected. I don't object
to seeing both of those steps carried out simultaneously,
but, as you know, the step that we took was the second
one; and the first one still hasn't been attended to.
We're undertaking change through the instrument of
government on a scale of vastness that we never even
contemplated before. We're trying to get the results of
detailed planning without the discipline of planning.
Currently, we're talking about a dreadful housing shortage which will increase during the 70's. I see little evidence that this is reflected in increased enrollment in
architectural schools, in vocational schools, in new approaches to zoning and land condemnation or in relaxation of building trades' work rules. We have to understand
that if you want another 26 million housing units by
1980, a lot has to happen in 1970, and I don't think that
it is.
We have littered the last decade with the bones of good
intentions, and we've come out disillusioned and angry.
Just as we've learned something about economics, imperfectly, but something, we have the beginnings of a
science of input/output analysis. We're beginning to understand how parts of the economy interrelate, how
things fit together and affect each other. With today's

rapid communications and computer abilities, it is becoming possible to test alternatives to know if a program is workable and to get some feeling on what its real
costs will be before we commit this enormous nation to
an unrealistic or incomplete goal.

PUNCH LINES . . .
People Resources
Less developed, but becoming feasible, are some new
ways of understanding our people resources; and we know
that people are not infinitely versatile. A bond trader
makes a very fine executive, but so far not one of them
has done much in nuclear physics. To what degree can we
shift? To what degree can we find people to take on new
tasks? That, I believe, is our greatest constraint, and it
isn't considered very often. As I said earlier, if we're
going to get these problems solved in the future, goal
setting and goal analysis has to be elevated in government.
Presidential commissions aren't enough, and we've got to
get started.
In the final analysis, it's not really hard to set most
of our goals education, health care, a decent standard
of living there's nothing very complicated about what
we want. It will be harder to decide on priorities, but
that's what the political process is all about. The real
gain, if what I'm suggesting can be made to work, is quite
different. The debate about the priorities could be limited
to the possible, and the trade-offs, which are mostly
ignored today, would be understood.
A new Congressional program offered to the country as
a Congressional bill would have to be integrated to the
overall goals and priorities of the country before being
presented to the public, and its impact on all of the other
programs would be presented at the same time.

Acknowledging Success
Finally, I believe we should begin to acknowledge our
successes. One by-product of the way we manage today is
the endless dialogue of despair. Well-intentioned people
believe the only way the national dinosaur can be moved
is by noisily kicking it. Their criticism is magnified in
minds less experienced and less aware of where we've
come from and where other societies are now. The result
a rejection of
increasingly is nihilism in the young America without any appreciation of what it is achieving.
A permanent goals body would not only set the goals - it
would report progress and achievement.
As an institution begins to grow, it must change the way
it manages its affairs. This is true in business, and it's no
less true in government. Without goals, explicit goals, and
plans for getting from A to B we don't know where we're
going, and we don't know whether or not we'll have the
resources .to get there. Without goals, follow-up and critical
analysis, there is no way to monitor and to evaluate, to
distinguish between good management and bad, to distinguish between programs that are succeeding and programs that are failing. And without goals, we have few
triumphs, few reasons to say, "This is what we've decided
to do, we've worked hard, and we've sacrificed to do it,
and here, world, we've succeeded."
It's a sad thing, a very sad thing when a nation like
this one has to creep into a new decade with its tail between its legs. I don't want to do that again. I want to sail
into the 1980's - and I want to see flags flying and hear
bands playing. We can do that, I'm convinced, if we're
willing to take a hard, cold and constant look at how
D
we're running the biggest enterprise in the world.
This article is based on remarks Mr. Watson made on January 7, 1970,
at a meeting of the Bond Club of New York.

The computer is really a great big logic machine. It's a
machine that helps us reason. And that is why, not because it is a big calculator, but because it can help us
reason, I believe we are at the threshold of a real revolution in the way society and man can conduct themselves.
-Robert B. Muchmore, Vice Pres. and Gen. Mgr.
Software and Information Systems Div.
TRW Systems Group
One Space Park
Redondo Beach, Calif. 90278
Major typographers and printing houses are losing
hundreds of thousands of dollars annually because of unnecessary labor costs. At optimum efficiency, key punch
operators can enter on magnetic tapes, paper tapes, or
punch card devices, no more than 8000 characters per
hour each. Optical character recognition equipment can
handle at least 1,600,000 characters per hour, with a lower
error frequency.
-Theodore Lamoreaux, Systems Manager
Scan-Data Corp.
800 E. Main st.
Norristown, Pa. 19401
Will the computer world adjust to the realities of unbundling? I think so. But computer users will have to
mature. They will also have to spend more. IBM has cut the
umbilical cord; the user must become more independent
of his vendor. He must learn how to reduce his price
increases through careful planning, training, and careful
selection of alternatives for outside services.
-Paul D. Oyer, President
Oyer Professional Services, Inc.
369 Lexington Ave.
New York, N.Y. 10017
During 1970 and 1971, separate pricing will have an
increasingly beneficial effect on all proprietary software
which, while it currently only totals some $30 million of
the estimated $4 billion software industry, will triple to
$100 million in 1971, reach $2 billion annually by 1975,
and $5 billion by 1980. It is doubtful that IBM's share of
this market will exceed 40%, with the remaining 60% being
split up by other hardware manufacturers and independent
software firms.
-Dr. Walter F. Bauer, President
Informatics, Inc.
5430 Van Nuys Blvd.
Sherman Oaks, Calif. 91401
The idolatry enjoyed by the early computers during the
1960's was perpetuated by a generation of users who had,
to a great extent, participated in the painstaking creation
and refinement of the product. But soon we will have a
whole new generation of users who have actually grown up
with the computer, and to whom it is as commonplace as
the telephone and all other mechanical and electrical devices available to serve their needs. This new wave of computer personnel, unharnessed by false idolatry, will more
readily address themselves to greater, more meaningful
applications in this new decade.
-Isaac L. Auerbach, Pres.
Auerbach Corp.
121 N. Broad St.
Philadelphia, Pa. 19107.

COMPUTERS AND AUTOMATION for March, 1970

ACROSS THE EDITOR'S DESK

Computing and Data Processing Newsletter

Table of Contents

APPLICATIONS

St. Francis Hospital Computerizes Its Medical Library
Lie Detector Research Aided by Computer
Computer-based Breathing Test Aids Early
Detection of Lung Disease
California Will Soon Computerize Adoptions
PDP-8 Automates Star Theater at Strasenburgh
Planetarium
4000 Freight Cars Per Day Automatically
Switched by Computer in Railroad Yard

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DATA/360 -- IBM Corporation
GRAPHICS -- Turnkey Systems Inc.
INFO/I -- PDA Systems, Inc.
MARK IV/260 System for Spectra 70 Computers
-- Informatics Inc.
MOFACS (Multi-Order Feedback and Compensation Synthesis) -- Compro Associates
Subscription Fulfillment System -- North
American Computer Corp.
Varian 620/i MOS -- Varian Data Machines

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52

Peripheral Equipment
EDUCATION NEWS

University Computer Centers Join International Network

NEW PRODUCTS
Digital

Auditronic 770, A General Purpose Compact
Computer -- Olivetti Underwood Corp.
Minicomputer Models CIP/2000 and CIP/2100
Cincinnati Milling Machine Co.
GE-58 Small-Scale Computer -- General
Electric
Univac 1108 Shared Processing System -Sperry Rand Univac Division
Mini-Computer Time-Sharing System -- Wang
Laboratories

49
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50

Special Purpose Systems

Low-cost Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAl)
System -- Hewlett-Packard
File Search IV Information and Retrieval
System -- AIL Information System
Turnkey Drafting System -- Gerber Scientific
Instrument Co.

COMPUTERS AND AUTOMATION for March, 1970

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55
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Data Processing Accessories

OCR Tape Splicer -- Computer Accessories
"Astron" ANew Computer Tape -- Memorex Corp.
Digital Magnetic Tape Cassette -- Information Terminals Corp.
Video Display Work Stations -- Wright Line

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COMPUTING/TIME·SHARING CENTERS

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Software

BANKSERV® Time Deposit Certificate -- Arthur
S. Kranzley and Company
Burroughs GL II -- Computer Sciences Corp.

Memories

Semiconductor Storage Unit -- Advanced
Memory Systems, Inc.
Swapping Drum Added to PDP-IO Line -Digital Equipment Corp.
Series SMP Low Power Plated Wire Memories
Space and Tactical Systems Corp.

Model 7001 Instrumentation Cassette Recorder
-- Dallas Instruments
Portable Audio Terminal in Attache Case -IBM Corporation
Disc Drive Controller Interfaces With Minicomputers -- KDI Interactive Data Systems
Paper Tape Perforator for Computer Applications -- Pivan Data Systems, Inc.
INFO-MAX Printer/Plotter -- Info-Max
Random Number Generator -- Varatek Computer
Systems
Remote Card Reading Terminal -- Data Computing, Inc.
Cartridge-Loaded Magnetic Tape System -Tri-Data Corp.

On-Line Plotting Service Offered by Axicom
Systems
Computing Time Now Available On An IBM System/360 Model 85 from EDP Resources, Inc.
First of Nationwide Infonet Facilities Begins Operation

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NEW LITERATURE

New Guidebook Lists 2000 Self-Instructional
Programs
NASA "Computer Program Abstracts" Now
Available

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APPLICATIONS
ST. FRANCIS HOSPITAL COMPUTERIZES ITS MEDICAL LIBRARY
The St. Francis Hospital medical library in Wichita, Kansas, is
believed to be the first medical
library of its kind to make "automated" reference material available
on a 24-hour basis to every physician. Whereas physicians normally
spend hours researching medical
journals, they now can see, in less
than two seconds, what journal
articles are available in the 1 ibrary on a given subject.
The St. Francis system uses a
partial generic key search technique which enables approximatelypresented or vaguely-known titles·
to be found instantly.
A videoterminal, located in the hospital's
medical library, is wired into the
insti tution' s
computer systems.
Presently, 7500 medical subj ects
are on-line in the computer.
A
companion computer storehouse contains specific listings for each
medical subj ect as they are catalogued monthly in Index Medicus and
the annual Cumulated Index Medicus.
At the time of its inception,
January 12, the computer contained
4,482 articles from roughly 100
selected journals for a two month
period of 1969.
In six months,
the computer will contain 1968-69
categorical listings as they appear
in Index Medicus.
Ultimately, it
will carry a complete listing of
all journal articles available in
St. Francis library for the past
ten years.

LIE DETECTOR RESEARCH
AIDED BY COMPUTER
Prof. William Yankee, academic
dean of Delta College (University
Center, Mich.) and a nationally
known polygraph expert, is us ing
an IBM computer to more accurately
analyze factors he feels are critical in determining deception by a
polygraph test subject. At present,
polygraph test results are only as
reliable as the operator of the
machine. "We hope to develop formulas to cut errors in human evaluation," Prof. Yankee said.
His project is based on the bel ief that changes in heart rate,
pulse amplitude, diastolic and systolic blood pressure, breathing
patterns and the skin's resistance
to electricity can be evaluated and
measured on the computer. The research involves commission of a
mock theft by student volunteers,
who then submi t to the polygraph

with instructions to answer in the
negative to all questions. Results
are correlated by an IBM System/360
Model 40 computer, enabling researchers to better determine at
what point in the tests deception
occurred. The picture shows Prof.

age, weight and sex. The computer
reports the findings on a printer
near the spirometer and is ready
for the next patient.
Since the breathing test can be
administered anywhere long distance
communications lines exist to link
the spirometer with the IBM 1800
data acquisition and control system,
the test is able to reach large
numbers of people. When lung disorders are indicated by the computer, x-rays and other methods of
detailed examination are used to
pinpoint the extent and exact nature
of the problem.

CALIFORNIA WILL SOON
COMPUTERIZE ADOPTIONS

Yankee, left, and Ben Paulson,
systems analyst, examining a student
test record.
Items listed on the
sign are among those used in the
mock thefts.

COMPUTER-BASED BREATHING
TEST AIDS EARLY DETECTION
OF LUNG DISEASE
Researchers at the Uriivers i ty of
Nebraska Medical Center have developed a computer-based breathing
test to aid in early detection of
crippling lung disease. The proj ect
was partially funded by the Nebraska
Tuberculosis and Respiratory Disease
Association.
Government reports
rank lung diseases sixth among fatal
diseases and our fastest ris ing
public health problem. Only heart
disease cripples more working men
between the ages of 40 and 45. At
best, lung damage can only be arres ted, not reversed; therefore,
early detection is v i tally important.
Using an IBM system and portable
test equipment, doctors are able to
screen large numbers of people
quickly and inexpensively.
The
test consists of two parts: a brief
questionnaire indicating a patient's
his tory of pas t lung diseases; and,
a breathing test performed by a
portable spirometer,which measures
the volume and rate of air leaving
the lungs.
The breathing test which takes
only three minutes is as follows:
the patient exhales forcefully and
rapidly into a tube attached to
the spirometer and the computer
compares the flow, volume and duration of the exhalation against
standards for persons of the same

The State of California soon will
begin using electronic data processing to match hard-to-adopt children wi th potential adoptive parents.
Hard-to-adopt children, traditionally one of the major headaches of
the adoption agencies, generally
include children with handicaps,
those from minori ty groups and/or
older children. Most adoptive parents want a newborn baby with physical characteristics similar to
their own.
Michio Suzuki, social
services division chief of the State
Social Welfare Department, and Helen
Clauson, chief of the Adoption and
Foster Care Bureau said the new
system should substantially increase the placement of these hardto-adopt children.
At present the information exchange relative to placing the
children is handled by various
adoption agencies on a regional
basis. Representatives meet periodically in an attempt to obtain
possible matches a laborious
and time-consuming process. Under
the new sy stem, the name s of all
children who have been reI inquished
to adoption agencies in the state
for more than 60 days will be fed
into a computer along wi th the names
of all prospective parents who do
not have a child under cons ideration for adoption.
The computer
will provide potential matches almost instantly.

PDP-8 AUTOMATES STAR THEATER
AT STRASENBURGH PLANETARIUM
Strasenburgh Planetarium (Rochester, N.Y.) plans to become the
world's first totally automated
"Star Theater." The project, undertaken by the Roches ter Museum and
Science Center and Yondata Corp.,
aims to provide a "total experience"
of meaning and enj oyment to the
public.
Hopefully, by July 1970,
phase two of the proj ect will permi t
Digi tal
Equipment Corporation's

COMPUTERS AND AUTOMATION for March, 1970

PDP-8 computer to control all of the
movements of the giant-sized Zeiss
Model 6 Planetarium Projector.
Presently, the PDP-8 controls
special light and sound effects
which include:
300 projectors of
different size and type located
around the periphery of the planetarium's 65-foot dome; numerous
light banks; 3 tape decks in the
sound system; and, a double series
of 12 custom-built panoramic projectors with cross-fade capability
that can be used to simulate a
limitless variety of horizon scenes.
Wi th the completion of phase two,
the planetarium will have a total
system for automated programs to
standardize, refine and repeat all
shows perfectly. The system eliminates the possibili ty of human error
that is always present in manually
operated live shows. In addition,
dificult routines can be repeated
perfectly every time. For example,
a moon rocket sequence would require
several dozen different and distinct
movements of the controls within a
few seconds - impossible for a man
to do. The routine, therefore, has
been compromised in the past. The
PDP-8 will be able easily to complete up to 500 such moves wi thin
the same period of time.

4000 FREIGHT CARS PER DAY
AUTOMATICALLY SWITCHED BY
COMPUTER IN RAILROAD YARD
A computer in Southern Pacific's
Houston (Texas) railroad yard automatically directs the switching of
some 4000 freight cars a day.
An
IBM 1800 data acquisition and control system allows switching of each
car into any of 64 tracks in the
Englewood Yard, where trains are
assembled. The cars are headed for
delivery to hundreds of different
destinations across the country.

the "hump".
The IBM system consul ts stored information and, as the
cars start down, takes control of
routing, automatically triggering
the switches that send the rolling
car to the proper track.
On the
average, this procedure is repeated
4000 times each day as some 29
freight trains are assembled.

EDUCATION NEWS
UNIVERSITY COMPUTER CENTERS
JOIN INTERNATIONAL NETWORK
Throughout the Uni ted States and
Canada, univers i ty and college computer centers have been linked into
a network which eventually will allow direct electronic connection.
EDUCOM, the Bos ton-based Inter-university Communications Council, is
directing the proj ect, the Educational Information Network (EIN).
EIN, two years in its planning and
development, now includes 63 university and college computer centers.
The service publ ishes the EIN
SOFTWARE CATALOG in which members
list computer programs they will
run for other members.
The next
phase of operation will provide
direct network communication lines,
which means that any computing resource in the network will be available to any network member. EIN is
partially funded by the U.S. Office
of Education and the National Science Foundation.

NEW PRODUCTS

Digital
AUDITRONIC 770, A GENERAL
PURPOSE COMPACT COMPUTER /
Olivetti Underwood Corp.

Yardmaster W.L. Timmons directs
the operation from his office high
above the tracks.
The cars are
lined up in front of a switch engine that slowly pushes them to the
crest of a man-made hill some 35
feet high. Just as they reach the
top, they are uncoupled and start
to coast down the other s ide of

seven separate forms simultaneously; (3) three keyboards (a 96character typewriter, a 10-key numeric and a control keyboard); and

The first in a series of compact computers announced by Olivetti,
the Auditronic 770, is designed as
a stand-alone system or as a realtime terminal. The system consists
of a central proces sing unit, an
alphanumeric and control keyboard,
and a mobile print unit.
Modular
peripherals des igned for the new
computer include:
units for an
auxil iary memory, magnet ic ledger
cards, paper tape punch and reader,
and on-line transmission control.
The Auditronic 770 has four
special features: (1) two magnetic tape cartridges which allow a
memory capacity of 74,000 characters; (2) an operating sequence and
program control which can handle

COMPUTERS AND AUTOMATION for March, 1970

(4) a display above the keyboard
which guides the operator through
procedural steps and locks the mach ine if and signa 1 is ignored,
forcing corrective action.
These features, and the library
of applicational programs, provide
a system that can be used effectively in a large variety of commercial applications in both small
and large companies.
(For more information, circle #41
on the Reader Service Card.)

MINICOMPUTER MODELS
CIP/2000 AND CIP/2I00 /
Cincinnati Milling Machine~,o.
One of the largest numerical
control producers,Cincinnati Milling Machine Co., has entered the
real-time digital compu ter field
wi th two low-cost, microprogrammable
models - one specifically des igned
for dedicated applications, and the
other for general purpose operations.
The dedicated model, the CIP/2000,
is a microprogrammable unit with
read-only memory des igned for all
types of applications.
It allows
the user to define his own instructions, input-output, and interrupt
capabilities to suit his particular
needs. Standard features include:
15 general purpose, 8-bit file
registers; 7 dedicated working registers; microprogram control; 16
microinstructions (including logical,
arithmetic, control and literal
data); 220 nanoseconds microinstruction execution time; and read-only
memory space up to 1,024 instructions.
The general purpose minic'omputer,
the CIP/2100, is a microprogrammed
adaptation of the 2000 with magneticcore memory which can be programmed
by software.
The basic system is
converted by the microprogram (firmware) into a software .programmable,
general-purpose computer. The programs are stored in the core memory
and instructions are interpreted
by microprogram sub-routines in
49

the read-only memory.
Standard
features include 6 operational registers; extensive instruction set,
including 89 instructions; 8 operand
addressing modes; mUlti-precision
1, 2, 3 or 4-byte load, store and
arithmetic operations; concurrent
input-output; and built-in bootstrap
loader.
(For more information, circle #42
on the Reader Service Card.)

main storage; partial redundancy
among sys tern components; storage
protection and program address relocation access shared memory.

GE-58 SMALL-SCALE COMPUTER /
General Electric

MINI-COMPUTER TIME-SHARING
SYSTEM / Wang Laboratories

The small-scale GE-S8 computer
is aimed for first-time users in
small- to medium-size bus ines ses who
presently are us ing manual methods,
accounting machines or tabulating
equipment. Operating at speeds of
more than 8,000 instructions per
second, the GE-S8 is available in
card, tape and disc versions.
It
can communicate with other computers, can accept either batch
programs or direct data entry with
digital display,
and has mul tiprogramming capabilities.

Wang Laboratories, Inc., has
entered the computer field with a
low cost, easily operated minicomputer, known as the Model 3300 BASIC.
The Wang System beg ins at $lS, 2S0
for a central processor and two
teletype terminals including BASIC.
The system accommodates any number
of terminals up to sixteen.
With
the Wang Modelll03A acoustic coupler, the user may operate from remote locations using the Wang 331S
Teletype terminal and standard telephone lines.

Both the hardware and software
in the 1108 SP System are fully compatible wi th the present 1108 system
and also wi th the Univac 1106 system.
(For more information, circle #44
on the Reader Service Card.)

The basic system comprises a
central processor designed for an
office env ironment, a data entry
station, digital display, 100 or
200 - lines - per - minute printer, a
100 or 200-card-per-minute reader
and a 40-card-per-minute punch.
Core memory for the GE-S8 is S,OOO
bytes, expandable to 10,000. Cycle
time is 1.2 microseconds.
The new system, first announced
last fall to the European market,
is being introduced in several metropolitan areas of the U.S.
As
field service and marketing activities are expanded, it will be introduced in other areas.
(For more information, circle #43
on the Reader Service Card.)

UNIVAC 1108 SHARED
PROCESSING SYSTEM /
Sperry Rand Univac Division
The recently introduced Univac
1108 SP System is a two processor
configuration; one of the processors
incorporates all of the input/output
of the system, while the other is
dedicated to processing. The system prov ides roughly two-thirds more
computational power than is available to an 1108 Unit Proces sor.
Additionally, the system is organized to allow a number of tasks to
be performed s imul taneously under
the direction of a common Executive
Control System.
Among the features included in
the Univac 1108 SP System are: 128
integrated circuit registers in
both processors; shared, large,
modular parity-checked, high-speed

The central processor is an 8-bi t
computer,called the Wang 3300,with
a 1. 6 microsecond full cycle memory
in 4K uni ts expandable to 6SK, binary and decimal arithmetic, a repertoire of 70 instructions, over
20 memory reference instructions,
push/pop addressing system, both
character bus and direct memory access I/O, and priority interrupt.

Special Purpose Systems

LOW-COST COMPUTER-ASSISTED
INSTRUCTION (CAl) SYSTEM /
Hewlett-Packard
The new Hewlet t-Packard ComputerAssisted Instruction System provides
mathematics drill and practice for
grades one through six at a cos t of
about $lSO,OOO for a typical 32terminal installation. Previously
available systems have been in the
million-dollar-and-up price range.
In addition, CAl systems have been
based on a large centrally located
compu ter sys tern, connec ted by telephone 1 ines to teleprinter terminals
at the schools.
By contrast, the
entire HP/CAI system normally is
located right at the school -- and
behaves exac tly 1 ike the larger,
more expensive ones. An HP/CAI system is installed and operating (see
student below) at the Willow School,
Ravenswood City School District,
East Palo Alto, Calif.
The HP/CAI System is a modified
vers ion of the HP 2000A Time-Shared
Computer System. In the 32-terminal
educational vers ion, an HP 2114B
minicomputer is used to handle the
terminal input/output processing
for the central processor.
The
mathematics instruction program,
one developed and validated at Stanford University, has been written
in the BASIC language, and the system treats it like any other timeshared program.
The program is
presented by a teleprinter (or

Several features make the Wang
3300 stand alone even as a minicomputer.
An example is the push
up/pop down address ing sys tern in
the core memory. This means that,
unlike most minicomputers with only
3 to 10 index registers, the entire
3300 core serves as index registers.
A choice of terminals is offered
including a Wang developed IS charac ter per second I/O writer (this
is a modified typewriter wi th character buffer and BASIC comptabile
character set). For secondary storage wi th the I/O writer, Wang's
high speed tape cassette driver is
capable of operating two magnetic
tape cassettes.
A single system
may combine multiple cassette drivers.
(For more information, circle #4S
on the Reader ServIce Card.)

equivalent). Each student receives
from S to 10 minutes of drill per
day. Ten-minute drills equal about
one hour of in-class math practice.
Instruction may be either self
paced or group paced.
The new system will be generally
available for delivery to schools
throughout the country, in time for
the Fall '70 semester.
Teacher
in-service training is available
from HP, as well as user aids.
(For more information, circle #46
on the Reader Service Card.)

COMPUTERS AND AUTOMATION for March, 1970

FILE SEARCH IV INFORMATION
AND RETRIEVAL SYSTEM I
AIL Information Systems
File Search IV, a computer-based
system, can automatically make sophisticated requests of a large
data base numbering in the mill ions
of documents. The system combines
high quality film imag ing and recording technology wi th a Dig i tal
Equipment Corporation PDP-8/1 computer.
The PDP-8/1 gives File
Search IV (in addition to its expanded data processing capability,
the ability to interface directly
with other data processing systems
and/or the ability to be remotely
queried.
System software allows queries
of up to 40 terms connec ted by
Boolean logic to be used in making
either a single request or multi
reques ts that mus t be batched for
processing during one pass of the
file.
System software provides
data base management and also makes
selective listings of new inputs
to the file.
Additional software
and mass storage peripherals provide a capability to store profiles,
i.e., standing requests from various system users.
System applications include medical research, technical library
retrieval, security or personnel
file search and intelligence analysis.
(For more information, circle ~47
on the Reader Service Card.)

TURNKEY DRAFTING SYSTEM I
Gerber Scientific
Instrument Co.
The new turnkey drafting system,
called Draft Aid, directs the translation of rough sketches into cameraready, ink-on-vellum drawings. The
system allows draftsmen untrained
in computer technology to produce
quali ty drawings quickly and easily.
The self-contained system is
composed of a Gerber Series 1200
stored program control incorporating a Hewlett-Packard computer with
8K of core memory, teletypewriter,
and 400 cps photo electric tape
reader and spooler which processes
the input data and outputs commands
directly to the drafting table.
Storage for an unlimited number of
drafting symbols and commands is
provided by a compact cartridge
magnetic tape storage unit interfaced with the control.
Applications for Draft Aid include logic diagrams, technical publications, electrical and electronic
schematics, flow and PERT charts,
and statistical charts.
(For more information, circle ~48
on the Reader Service Card.)

Memories

SEMICONDUCTOR
STORAGE UNIT I
Advanced Memory Systems Inc.
l

The new Semiconductor Storage
Unit (SSU) is a random addressible
storage system which bridges the
gap between high-speed, high-bit
dens i ty drums and disks and the more
costly core systems.
An improved
block transfer capability facilitates swapping, paging and staging.
Up to 128 million bytes of SSU
storage can be attached to a System/360 selector channel.
Jerry
Larkin, AMS Vice President of Marketing, points out that because of
the amount of data the SSU can
handle, users can increase the number of jobs being proces sed, serv ice
a greater number of terminals for
an existing timesharing system, or
decrease the response time of equipment they now have.
SSU can go
on-line immediately after installation.
Deliveries are scheduled
for the fourth quarter of this year.
(For more information, circle ~49
on the Reader Service Card.)

SWAPPING DRUM ADDED
TO PDP-10 LINE I
Digital Equipment Corp.
A high-speed fixed-head drum
memory, designated RMIOB, has been
added as an option to the PDP-lO
product line.
The new drum can
significantly increase the number
of simultaneous users in a typical
PDP-IO time-sharing configuration.
The RMIOB has a storage capac i ty
of 345,600 36-b i t words, acces s
time of 8.3 milliseconds (at 3600
rpm) and a transfer rate of more
than 240,000 words per second.
Four RMIOB drums can be supported
by a single control unit. The new
drum beings to three - drum, swapping disk,disk packs - the number
of high-speed rotating memory options a customer can specify for a
PDP-lO system depending upon his
storage, access time and transfer
rate requirements.
(For more information, circle ~50
on the Reader Service Card.)

SERIES SMP LOW POWER
PLATED WIRE MEMORIES I
Space and Tactical
Systems Corp.
The new SMP series low power
plated wire memories use SPACETAC' s
tested design approach with thick
film hybrid modules mounted vertically on printed circuit mother
boards. These memories are available in capacities up to 4096 words.
of twelve bits each. The SMP 1212
memories, des igned for operation

COMPUTERS AND AUTOMATION for March, 1970

in nondestructive readout mode, are
suitable for aerospace and central
storage applications where loss of
all or any portion of the stored
data cannot be tolerated.
Read
cycle time is 400 nanoseconds, and
wri te cycle time is 550 nanoseconds.
At a 100 kHz word rate,write power
consumption is 800 milliwatts in the
write mode and 450 milliwatts in the
read mode.
The SMP 1212 occupies
only 110 cubic inches and weighs
less than 4.5 Ibs.
(For more information, circle ~51
on the Reader Service Card.)

Software
BANKSERV® TIME DEPOSIT CERTIFICATE I
Arthur S. Kranzley and Company,
Cherry Hill, N.J. I Fully automates certificate of deposit accounting operations. Multi-bank
processing capabilities are incorporated in the system through
the use of bank parameters. The
program is written in COBOL and
operates on an IBM 360/30 tape or
disk system with 65K memor~ The
Kranzley Company will provide
documentation, on-site installation, and a full warranty on the
performance of the new CD accounting system.
(For more information, circle ~52
on the Reader Service Card.)
BURROUGHS GL II I Computer Sc iences
Corp., Los Angeles, Calif. and
Ennis Brandon Computer Services,
Inc., Dallas, Texas I A mOdification of CSC's GL II system, initially designed for IBM System
360 computers.
The new system
automatically prepares general
and subsidiary ledgers, voucher
and invoice records, and numerous
other budgetary reports on BurroughS B2500 and B3500 computers.
(For more information, circle ~53
on the Reader Service Card.)
DATA/360 I IBM Corporation, White
Plains, N.~ / A key-to-disk data
entry program which simulates the
functions of the IBM 29 keypunch
and 59 verifier. Video terminals
wi th keyboards can be used to
enter source data directly into
a computer with the new program.
DATA/360 will run on an IBM System/360 model 30 or larger with
a minimum core size of 65K.
It
operates under Disk Operating
System/360 and is written in assembler language.
Delivery is
planned for the fourth quarter of
1970.
DATA/360 will support up
to 24 IBM 2260 display stations
and is being offered under a license agreement at a monthly
charge of $50.
(For more information, circle 11:54
on the Reader Service Card.)

GRAPHICS / Turnkey Sys tems Inc.,
Norwalk,Conn. / A complete package for controlling on-line display terminals, including the IBM
2260. The proprietary program is
wri t ten in COBOL, uses a common
overlay area for all one-time
system functions and application
programs. It operates ina single
partition (24K minimum), and interfaces with existing operating
systems.
Sys tem offers medium
scale data processing users the
opportuni ty to rapidly install
complex inquiry, data entry, and
file update applications with
minimal programming effort. Purchase price is $15,000 and includes three weeks of on-s i te
installation assistance. GRAPHICS
also may be leased for $400 per
month (36 months minimum).
(For more information, circle :tt55
on the Reader Service Card.)
INFO/I / PDA Systems, Inc., New
York, N. Y. / A modularly-designed
file management and information
retrieval system designed to enable non-programmers to fully
utilize all capabilities of their
IBM/360 computer systems including creating, maintaining, and
merging data files; selectively
retrieving and manipulating information from the file; and output ting this information in any
desired format. System consists
of several special purpose modules
wri t ten in 360 as sembler language
and linked together by a system
supervisor routine.
INFO/I can
be installed on any IBM 360 series computer under DOS or OS with
a minimum core size of 32K.
(For more information, circle :tt56
on the Reader Service Card.)
MARK IV/260 SYSTEM for Spectra 70
computers / Informatics Inc.,
Sherman Oaks, Calif. / New vers ion
of MARK IV System (previous ly
available only for the IBM 360)
has all the automatic and time
saving features of the standard
MARK IV/260 System, including
seven optional special features.
(For more information, circle :tt57
on the Reader Service Card.)
MOFACS (Multi-Order Feedback And
Compensation Synthesis) / Compro
Associates, East Troy, Wis. /
A digital computer programwritten
to synthesize the linear and/or
non-linear feedback parameters
required to achieve a des ired
trans ient response in the machine
or process
being controlled.
The synthes is process is noniterative.
(For more information, circle :tt58
on the Reader Service Card.)
SUBSCRIPTION FULFILLMENT SYSTEM /
North American Computer Corp.,
Beltsville, Md. / Software pack52

age des igned to satisfy both publication circulation requirements
and those of the Audit Bureau of
Circulation.
Provides maximum
flexibility through the use of
parameterized input which in effect specifies and controls the
policies of a particular publication.
Personal, gift and bulk
subscriptions all are processed
by the system.
The system is
coded in assembler language and
COBOL and is written for the IBM
360-30/40. It operates under DOS
and requires a minimum of 45K.
NACOM can provide subscription
fulfillment services or the complete system can be purchased.
(For more information, circle :tt59
on the Reader Service Card.)
VARIAN 620/i MOS / Varian Data Machines, Irvine, Calif. / Master
Operating System (MOS) for the
Varian 620/i computer includes
input/output control, system executive, system loader, assembler,
FORTRAN IV compiler, and maintenance and debugging packages. The
MOS software system will run on
any existing or new Varian 620/i
installation with a minimum of
8K memory, a teletype, and either
a drum memory or a magnetic tape
transport.
(For more information, circle :tt60
on the Reader Service Card.)

moni toring of record/reproduce mode
data signals, and the operator may
insert voice comments as desired.
Applications include recording and
analysis of data associated with
shock, vibration, noise, pollution,
automation, information display,
telecommunications, plant maintenance, process variables and medical
research.
(For more information, circle :tt61
on the Reader Service Card.)

PORTABLE AUDIO TERMINAL
IN ATTACHE CASE I
IBM Corp.
Built into an attache case, the
new IBM 2721 portable aud io terminal
allows users to enter alphabetic and
numeric information into an IBM/360
wi th audio response capabilities
and get computer-compiled spoken
responses to their inquiries. Employees who need access to a variety of records -- salesmen, insurance agents and others -- may "talk"
to their home office computers from
any standard telephone (even one in
a roadside booth) al though they may
know nothing about operating a
computer.

Peripheral Equipment

MODEL 7001 INSTRUMENTATION
CASSETTE RECORDER I
Dallas Instruments
Convenient cas set te tapes are
utilized by the new single channel,
dc to 1000 Hertz ins trumentation
recorder announced by Dallas Instruments.
The portable,
II-pound
battery powered instrument contains

The handset of the telephone
fi ts into the terminal's acoustic
couple~ which transmits the user's
signals; the computer's reply is
heart over the terminal's built-in
speaker, or through an earphone.
The IBM 2721 has 60 keys, 26 letters, 10 numerals and 24 spec ial
characters and controls.
These
can be adapted for specific applications with the use of plastic keyboard overlays.
To prevent unauthorized access to data stored
in the computer, each 2721 can be
assigned an identification code.

FM record/reproduce electronics and
has pushbutton calibration. Designated the Model 7001 Instrumentation Recorder, it has provisions
for visual, audible or external

The terminal operates continuously for at least eight hours on
rechargeable batteries, or can be
plugged into any 110 v AC line.
(For more information, circle :tt62
on the Reader Service Card.)

COMPUTERS AND AUTOMATION for March, 1970

DISC DRIVE CONTROLLER INTERFACES WITH MINICOMPUTERS /
KDI Interactive Data Systems

numeric characters (8,000 perminute) ,
geophysical contours, engineering
drawings, and financial graphs.

A disc drive controller, called
DC-16, enables minicomputers to
provide greatly expanded data bases.
It interfaces with all available
minicomputers and from one to eight
IBM 2311 or 2312 type disc drives.
The DC-16 avoids the former requirement for the processor to drive the
disc.

The bas ic INFO-MAX 57 holds a
250 foot roll of eleven inch paper,
but rolls up to 2,000 feet can be
accommodated. The device also can
handle fan-fold paper.
(For more information, circle ~65
on the Reader Service Card.)

The system has 10 records containing 2,560 bytes per track.
Us ing a one drive system, a minicomputer would have immediate access to 5,196,000 bytes at a transfer rate of 158,000 bytes per second.
Blocking of I/O channels also is
eliminated by the direct to or from
memory transfer for data.
The controller provides for simultaneous seek operations. Track
location and data transfers are
verified and checked for errors by
hardware. The DC-16 requires only
seven commands for easy programming.
(For more information, circle ~63
on the Reader Service Card.)

PAPER TAPE PERFORATOR FOR
COMPUTER APPLICATIONS /
Pivan Data Systems, Inc.

The dij i tpunch 400 paper tape
perforator accepts low level BCD
inputs and records data in a computer compatible code. The portable
perforator has asynchronous operation up to 10 characters/second and
self-contained tape handling. The
perforator mechanism only moves
when punching tape, thus increasing
reliability. The acoustically insulated cabinet has a hinged front
door for easy tape access. Digitpunch applications include moni toring devices such as dig i tal vol tmeters, counters, A/D converters,
keyboards, conveyor systems, laboratory recording and field moni toring.
(For more information, circle ~64
on the Reader Service Card.)

INFO-MAX PRINTER/PLOTTER /
Info-Max
The new computer graphics hard
copy printer, known as INFO-MAX 57,
has been designed for direct interface with a computer or data link.
This new Printer/Plotter also is
effective for X-Y plotting, facsimile, line printing and automatic
drafting.
The
INFO-MAX Printer/Plotter
needs only 5 seconds to place
1,000,000 fine black dots in a 10
inch square. Each dot is accurately
positioned by digital logic to
form desired patterns such as alpha-

RANDOM NUMBER GENERATOR /
Varatek Computer Systems
Varatek Computer Systems has developed a wired-hardware randomnumber generator.
This device is
comprised of a random-state buffer
register capable of being strobed
into a small computer.
Each bit
of the buffer is driven from its
own noise source, to insure statistical independenc~ This device
makes available a random number
which can be accessed in one machine
cycle, eliminating the need for the
usual cumbersome software routines.
The price per bit is low.
(For more information, circle ~66
on the Reader Service Card.)

REMOTE CARD READING TERMINAL / Data Computing Inc.
The Card liner 30, 1 ates t in a
family of remote card reading terminals, has a speed compatible with
CRT terminals. The Cardl iner 30 accepts Holleri th coded cards and
outputs ASCII code at 300 baud. It
can be operated with CRT and GE
Terminet 300 terminals or used independently. Cardliners are offered
on a rental plan based on customer
use of the terminal. The plan has
a sliding scale of charges per card
as volume increases, or the customer
may opt for a fixed monthly rental.
(For more information, circle ~67
on the Reader Service Card.)

CARTRI DGE-LOADED MAGN ETIC
TAPE SYSTEM / Tri-Data Corp.
A cartridge-loaded magnetic tape
system has been announced for use
with minicomputers, data terminals,
test equipment, and process control
systems.
The system, called the
1024 CartriFile, includes a tape
transport, read and wri te electronics, power supply and tape con troller in a single low-cost rackmountable cabinet. The 1024 CartriFile provides the same interfaces
as the four-transport Model 4096
CartriFile, and is available with
interfaces to more than 24 minicomputers.
(For more information, circle ~68
on the Reader Service Card.)

COMPUTERS AND AUTOMATION for March, 1970

Data Processing Accessories
OCR TAPE SPLICER /
Computer Accessories Corp.
Splicing small tapes into larger
rolls which approach the maximum
capacity of the on-line optical
scanner may now be eas ily accomplished with a new product the
Model 204 OCR Tape Splicer.
The
new splicer is available in several
width sizes to accommodate tapes in
the two to four inch range.
A splice is easily accomplished
with the use of transparent gummed
tape and the Model 204 OCR Tape
Splicer.
Critical alignment is
controlled by two screw adj ustments
of the spl it joiner table.
Since
the bond is on the reverse side of
the OCR print and the leading tape
overlaps the trailing tape as it
passes through the scanner, the
splice itself is not critical.
A two-week trial of the product
is offered.
(For more information, circle ~69
on the Reader Service Card.)

"ASTRON" A NEW COMPUTER
TAPE / Memorex Corp.
A new back-coated computer tape,
called "ASTRON", is said to increase
resistance to scratching and prevent
build up of particle-attracting
static charges. Both features reduce "dropouts", the most common
source of computer tape errors.
A special Memorex protective
coating applied to the back of the
tape produces the new tape's improved
characteristics. The coating also
is des igned to reduce tape damage
caused by slippage of the tape layers
when wound on a reel; and, the tape
will provide more consistent start/
stop performance on a large number
of tape drives.
Prices will be
$2.00 more per reel than conventional computer tapes presently
marketed by Memorex.
First customer deliveries of Astron are
planned for late spring.
(For more information, circle ~70
on the Reader Service Card.)

System/360's, 7074's, 1401's for
lease, sell or buy. Also Tape and
Disk Drives and components.
20%-60% off IBM's rental prices.
SUMMIT COMPUTER CORP.
785 Springfield Avenue
Summit, New Jersey 07901
(201) 273-6900

DIGITAL MAGNETIC
TAPE CASSETTE I
Information Terminals Corp.

A new storage medium for the
computer industry
a digital
cassette - has been designed for
the exacting requirements of digi tal
data recording. The cassettes are
available wi th 300 and 150 ft. tape
lengths and are certified after
final assembly to "zero" dropouts
in spec ially des igned cas set te certification equipment. They are designed for operation at search
speeds up to 120 ips, forward and
reverse, and read and write speeds
up to 15 ips.
(For more information, circle ~71
on the Reader Service Card.)

VIDEO DISPLAY WORK STATIONS I
Wright Line

The new Video Display Work Stations are des igned to accommodate
remote terminal CRT displays or
micro-film viewers.
They are des igned at normal desk height providing comfortable access to keyboards as well as additional flat
work surface.
Work tops are nonglare plastic laminate.
The work stations are equipped
with two drawers.
The smaller
drawer has a built-in utility tray
and room for two card trays; the
larger drawer will hold hanging
file folders, . binders or miscellaneous supplies.
A lock is pro~
vided for security.
(For more information, circle ~72
on the Reader Service Card.)

COMPUTING/TIME-SHARING
CENTERS

ON-LINE PLOTTING SERVICE
OFFERED BY AXICOM SYSTEMS
Axicom Systems, Inc. (New Jersey)
has added, to its computer serv ices,
a high-speed, remote, interactive
plotting service. The new service,
called AXI-PLOT, makes it possible
for Axicom's Univac 1108, EXEC 8
Operating System to command plotters
at remote locations via Axicom's
recently announced 30-character-persecond communications network.
The AXI-PLOT system utilizes the
Houston Instrument PTC-4 (patent
pending) plotter controller; a COMPLOT® DP-l 01 inch) or COMPLOT
DP-3 (21 inch) plotter; a CTC Datapoint 3300 visual displa~ or other
Teletype compatible device; and an
acoustical coupler. The PTC-4 plotter controller makes it possible
for the user to converse with Axicom's 1108, EXEC 8 time-sharing

system, us ing the CRT or some equivalent device. The user can build,
edit or execute programs stored on
the drums of the Axicom computer.
The bas ic AXI-PLOT package includes a complete plotting subroutine library. Several applications
programs, including three-dimens ional
and contouring packages, also are
available.
(For more information, circle ~73
on the Reader Service Card.)

COMPUTING TIME NOW AVAILABLE ON AN IBM SYSTEM/360
MODEL 85 FROM EDP RESOURCES,
INC.
Users of data processing services now are able to purchase computing time on an IBM System/360
Model 85 on a shared bas is.
The
new services will be marketed in
the Northeas tern United States by
EDP Resources, Inc. (White Plains,
N.Y.), which has signed an exclusive
agreement with Systems Dimens ions
Limi ted of Ot tawa, Canada, owner of
the $11 million IBM computer system.
The System/360 Model 85 is the most
powerful IBM computer currently
available for both commercial and
scientific applications, and is
particularly advantageous for large
batch processing jobs.
EDP Resources will provide access
to the computer through various highspeed terminals located on the customers' premises, us ing remote batch
entry.
Initially, the Model 85's
computer time will be sold in the
New England states, New York and
New Jerse~ Later, the arrangement
may be extended to cover other areas
in the United States.
(For more information, circle ~74
on the Reader Service Card.)

FIRST OF NATIONWIDE INFONET
FACILITIES BEGINS OPERATION
Computer Sciences Corporation's
information network service, known
as Infonet, became operational in
late January in New York City, Washington, D.C., Los Angeles and San
Francisco. Four additional cities
(Chicago, Detroit, Philadelphia,
and Hartford) will begin Infonet
service by the end of March. They
are the first in a planned nationwide computer time sharing network
that will utilize up to 20 Univac
1108 computers.
Initial users of
the service include organizations
in the fields of manufacturing,
finance, electronics, engineering,
research, education and government.
The initial Infonet service,
designated Basi~ enables subscribers to solve problems and develop
new applications programs in a conversational mode, us ing low-speed

terminals with typewriter-like keyboards.
Wi thin a few weeks, two
more services will be added -- Remote Job Entry (RJE) which provides
subscribers with the benefits of
a large scale computer for processing programs too large, too complex or too expans i ve to operate on
their own equipment; and Conversational Remote Job Entry (CRJE)
which combines the benefits of conversational time-sharing and remote
processing of data in batch form.
(For more information, circle ~75
on the Reader Service Card.)

NEW LITERATURE

NEW GUIDEBOOK LISTS 2000
SELF-INSTRUCTIONAL PROGRAMS
The Yearbook of Educational and
Instructional Technology 1969/70
Incorporating Programmes in Print
lists two thousand self-instructional programs. The 459-page book,
published in England, now is available in the United States from
Educational Technology Publications,
Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J. Many
of the programs catalogued are produced in the United States.
Most
are applicable for use in the United
States and other English-speaking
countries.
In addition to listings of programs, the Yearbook provides specifications on hundreds of teaching
machines and audio-visual equipment.
The Yearbook is priced at $7.95 ppd.
(For more information, circle ~76
on the Reader Service Card.)

NASA "COMPUTER PROGRAM
ABSTRACTS" NOW AVAILABLE
"Computer Program Abstracts,"
now is being published quarterly
by the National Aeronautics and
Space Administration's Office of
Technology Utilization.
The new
publication lists documented computer programs developed by and for
NASA and the Department of Defense.
The first issue lists some 500 programs in a variety of disciplines
and applications which are available to domestic United States purchasers for nominal fees.
The journal is available either
by subscription or individual issues
from: Superintendent of Documents,
Uni ted States Government Printing
Office, Washington, DC 20402. The
first issue, Nos. 1 and 2 combined,
sells for $1.50. Number 3 and other
single copies are 70 cents.
The
annual subscription rate is $2.75.

COMPUTERS AND AUTOMATION for March, 1970

NEW CONTRACTS
Sperry Rand Univac Division,
Philadelphia, Pa.

University Computing Co.,
Dall as, Texas

Burroughs Corp., Detroit,
Mich.

Scotland Yard, Hendon, England

Cubic Corp., San Diego, Calif.

Northrop Corp., Los Angeles,
Calif.

Sangamo Electric Co., Springfield, Ill.

U.S. Navy

Lockheed Electronics Co., Data
Products Div., Los Angeles,
Calif.

Applied Logic Corp., Princeton, N.J.

Computing and Software, Inc.,
Los Angeles, Calif.

Systematic Services of California, Inc., Oakland, Calif.

Terminal Data Corp., Van
Nuys, Cali f •

Beta Instrument Corp., Newton Upper Falls, Mass.

Datacraft Corp., Fort Lauderdale, Fla.

Conductron-Missouri Division
of Conductron Corporation

Ampex Corp., Culver City,
Calif.

Digital Equipment Corp.,
Maynard, Mass.

United Telecontrol Electronics,
Inc., Asbury Park, N.J.

Daedalus Computer Products,
Inc., Syracuse, N.Y.

Beta Instrument Corp.,
Newton Upper Falls, Mass.

Microform Data Systems, Inc.,
Palo Alto, Calif.

Sylvania Electric Products
Inc.! Needham. Mass.
International Computer Sciences, Inc., Neptune, N.J.

U.S. Department of Defense
Ziff-Davis Publishing Co.

Electic Computer Corp. (formerly Computer Equipment Corp.),
Dallas, Texas

Philco-Ford Corp., Willow
Grove, Pa.

Honeywell Electronic Data
Processing, Wellesley Hills,
Mass.
Princeton Time Sharing Services, Inc., Princeton, N.J.

Compu ter-Opti cs Inc." Bethe I,
Conn.

RCA, New York, N.Y.

Health Evaluation Systems,
Inc.

Sanders Associates, Inc.,
Nashua, N.H.

General Electric Co., Electronics Laboratory, Syracuse,
N.Y.

Recognition Equipment Inc.,
Dallas, Texas

Southwestern States Bankcard
Association, Dallas, Texas

SofTech, Inc., Waltham, Mass.

U.S. Air Force

New Jersey Education Association (NJEA), Trenton, N.J.

COMPUTERS AND AUTOMATION for March, 1970

Computer equipment which includes Univac
110S computers and related communication
subsystems
A large-scale Burroughs B6500 computer
system -- the inti tal equipment acquisition for a $40 million computer information network being established throughout
England. Scotland and Wales
The basic data transmission link of a new
military system known as Joint Services InFlight Data Transmission System (JIFDATS)
which will be used by the four major United
States military services
Design and manufacture of a preproduction
lot of magnetic tape recorder/reproducers
to be used in sonar signal classification
and operator training -- intended for installation on destroyers
Mainframe memory expansion; the six memory
units will substantially increase the capability of the Dual AL-IO interactive
time sharing system
Providing complete data processing services for Systematic's customers, enabling
C&S to introduce its computing services
and proprietary packages to a fifth major
regional market
DisplayMate system, a computer-operated
on-line system which records computer output, as displayed on a cathode ray tube,
onto microfilm or microfiche
Three DC 6024 Digital Computer Systems for
incorporation into the Conductron-built
pilot training simulators for the LingTemco-Vought A-7D attack aircraft
Planar pluggable stacks, designed to DEC
specifications, for incorporation in the
core memories of various DEC computers
Model 5033 Mesa 200 core memory systems
for use in Daedalus' Model 711 Programmable Data Terminal
A computer output microfilmer, the Beta
COM 600; a second will be delivered and
installed at a later date. Systems will
be used as part of an automatic information and retrieval system
Design, fabrication, and assembly of
digital data processing equipment
Handling subscription fulfillment functions for Ziff-Davis on all of the firm's
trade publications
Thirteen Model 640 tape systems to be
used in computer systems as part of an
optical scanning system for faster
sorting of ZIP-coded mail
Providing nationwide maintenance for
Computer-Optics' line of CRT display
systems
Complete service of all NJEA data processing; major applications will include
registration, membership accounting, publication circulation control, and master
file maintenance
Defining role of electronics and data processing technology in a nationwide network
of health screening centers planned for the
near future
A computer driven display system to be used
for exploring the use of computer graphics
in engineering design and to investigate
the development of new display techniques
Lease of a large-scale optical character
recognition (OCR) system for automatically
processing credit card sales tickets and
statements
Distributing, maintaining and enhancing
the Automated Engineering Design (AED)
software system which was developed, with
Air Force and industry sponsorhip, by the
Computer Applications Group of M.I.T.'s
Electronic Systems Laboratory

$15.2 million
$4.8 million

$3 million

$810,000

$800,000+

$600,000
(approximate)

$522,750

$500,000+

$500,000
$450,000
(approximate)
$302,000

$300,000
$250,000+
$100,000+

NEW INSTALLATIONS
Burroughs B500 system

Nassau Trust Co., Glen Cove, N.Y.

Burroughs B2500 system

Oklahoma City Federal savings and
Loan Association, Okla.

Spartan MillS, Spartanburg, S.C.

Burroughs B3500 system

ARIES Corporation, Fairfield, N.J.
Data Associates of Washington, D.C.

Burroughs B5500 system
Control Data 1700 system
Control Data 6400 system

Digital Equipment PDP-8/L system

Commonwealth of Massachusetts, Department of Public Safety, Boston,
Mass.
•
Electricity Supply Commission
(Escom), Camden Power Station,
South Africa
Fluor Corporation, Los Angeles,
Calif.
U.S. Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) ,
Nevada Operations Office, Las Vegas,
Nev.
Digital Equipment of Canada, Ltd.,
Carleton Place, Ontario, Canada
(2 computers)

GE-55 computer system

Riverview Osteopathic Hospital,
Norristown, Pa.

IBM System 3

Lasko Metal Products, Inc., West
Chester, Pa.
Galverdin Company, New York, N.Y.

IBM System/360 Model 67

Computers Unlimited, Inc., Rochester, N.Y.

NCR Century 200 system

Ford Motor Company, Mt. Clemens,
Mich.
Kettering Medical Center, Kettering, Ohio

NCR Series 500 system

Hans Liebherr Group, London
(5 computers)

RCA Spectra 70/45 system

Public Service Indiana, Plainfield, Ind.
Fernmeldetechnisches Zentralamt
(FTZ), Darmstadt, Germany
(2 computers)

Univac 1108 computer system

Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Co.,
Kawasaki, Japan
Univac 9200 computer system

HERALD-NEWS, Passaic, N.J.

Univac 9300 computer system

Regal Manufacturing Co., Hickory,
N.C.
City of Anderson, Ind.

Xerox Data Systems Sigma 3 system

Faradata Systems, New York, N.Y.

Christmas club, savings and demand deposit accounts,
personal loans and hospital outpatient billing: replaces a B300 system
A total information file system as it relates to
savings and loan applications; also will provide
service for three additional savings and loan associations
(system valued at over $750,000)
Accounts receivable and payable, stock inventory
and controlling efficiency of carding, spinning
and weaving operations
(system valued at about $450,000)
A wide range of unique or routine data processing
services for ARIES' customers
(system valued at over $740,000)
Financial applications for banks and private business firms -- on-line, real-time and time-sharing
(system valued at about $1.6 million)
A state-wide computerized communication network to
link law enforcement agencies
Supplementing the normal complement of operating
staff in surveillance of the 200,000 Kilowatt
generator
Monitoring and reporting on progress, needs and incurring costs at each of construction sites of the
firm's global operations
A variety of nuclear energy experiments
A minicomputer-based numerical control system; the
system controls 30 semi-automatic wire wrap ma-*
chines which produce logic frames for several of
DEC's computer lines
Accounts receivable, age analysis, income and expense distribution, payroll and related records,
atient rofiles and inventor mana ement
Handling payroll, billing and other accounting jobs
for its two plants (the other is in Franklin, Tenn.)
Accounting and record keeping jobs for both individual and group tours
On-premise batch processing, as well as timesharing and remote job entry operations originating via telephone hook-up to terminals in distant users offices
Overall inventory control and forecasting
Student grade and attendance reporting, inpatient
accounting, accounts receivable, payroll and general ledger: other applications will be added
later; system replaces an NCR 315
A variety of applications including stock control,
financial accounting and payroll processing in four
member firms, located in England, Ireland, and West
Germany
Customer accounting as well as scientific and
technical data processing
Implementing an information system for the German
Postal, Telephone and Telegraph Service's communication network, for the planning of communication
lines, planning equipment, technical documentation
and scientific calculations
(system valued at $8 million)
Directing an order entry system, which includes
production scheduling, parts inventory control,
production control, and production inventory control
(system valued at about $2.6 million)
Preparing circulation and advertising reports,
payroll processing, dealer and carrier billing,
and general accounting
Billing, general accounting, payroll processing,
sales analysis and inventory control
Utility billing, numerous law enforcement and safety reports, inventory control of supplies and processing of the city payroll: also for data processing training in a high school and vocational school
Typesetting highly technical material -- justify
lines of type, hyphenate words, construct mathematical expressions, select appropriate type fonts for
subscripts and italicized insertions and other editorial and typographic functions automatically
COMPUTERS AND AUTOMATION for March, 1970

MONTHLY COMPUTER CENSUS
tle i 1 /1acdona 1d
Survey Editor
CO/1PUTERS AND AUTO/'ATIOIJ
The following is a summary made by COIlPUTERS II.ND AUTOMATION of reports and estimates of the number of general purpose electronic digital computers manufactured and installed, or to be manufactured and on
order. These figures are mailed to individual computer manufacturers
from time to time for their information and review, and for any updating or comments they may care to provide. Please note the variation
in dates and reliability of the information. Several important manufacturers refuse to give out, confirm, or comment on any figures.
Our census seeks to include all digital computers manufactured anywhere. We invite all manufacturers located anywhere to submit information for this census. We invite all our readers to submit information that would help make these figures as accurate and complete as
poss i b 1e.
Part I of the Monthly Computer Census contains reports for United
States manufacturers. Part II contains reports for manufacturers
outside of the United States. The two parts are publ ished in alternate months.

The following abbreviations apply:
(A)

authoritative figures, derived essentially from information
sent by the manufacturer directly to COIlPUTERS AND
AUTO/1ATION
figure is combined in a total
acknowledgment is given to DP Focus, Marlboro, Mass., for
their help in estimating many of these figures
fi gure est imated by CO/IPUTERS AND AUTO/IAT ION
manufacturer refuses to give any figures on number of installations or of orders, and refuses to comment in any
way on those numbers stated here
figures derived all or in part from information released
indirectly by the manufacturer, or from reports by other
sources 1 ikely to be informed
sale only, and sale (not rental) price is stated
no longer in production
information not obtained at press time

C
(D)
E
(N)
(R)
(S)

SUMMARY AS OF FEBRUARY IS, 1970
NAME OF
MANUFACTURER
Part I. United States Manufacturers
Autonetics
Anaheim, Calif. (R) (1/69)
Bailey Meter Co.
Wickliffe, Ohio (R) (1/69)
Bunke r- Ramo Co rp .
Canoga Park, Calif.
(A)

( 10/69)
Burroughs
Detroit, Hich.
(N)

( 1/69-5/69)

Control Data Corp.
Minneapolis,llinn.

(2/69-4/69)

Data Gen'eral Corp.
Southboro, Mass. (A) (12/69)
Datacraft Corp.
Ft. Lauderdale, Fla. (A) (2/70)
Digiac Corp.
Plainvie\~, N.Y. (A) (2/70)
Digital Equipment Corp.
/1aynard, Mass.
(A)

(2/70)

NAME OF
COMPUTER
RECOIIP I I
RECOMP III
Bai ley 756
Bai 1ey 355
BR-130
BR-133
BR-230
BR-300
BR-330
BR-340
205
220
BI 00
B200
B300
B500
B2500
B3500
B5500
B6500
B7500
B8500
GIS
G20
LGP-21
LGP-30
RPc4000
636/136/046 Series
160/8090 Series
924/924A
1604/A/B
1700
3100/3150
3200
3300
3400
3500
3600
3800
6400/6500
6600
6800
7600
NOVA
SUPERNOVA
DC6024
Dc6024/3
Digiac 3080
Digiac 3080C
PDP-I
PDP-4
PDP-5
PDP-6
PDP-7
PDP-8
PDP-8/1
PDP- 8/s
PDP-S/L
PDP-9
PDP-9/L
PDP-10

COMPUTERS AND AUTOMATION for March, 1970

DATE OF
FI RST
I NSTALLAT I ON

AVERAGE OR RANGE
OF MONTHLY RENTAL
$ (000)

11/58
6/61
2165
4/68
10/61
5/64
8/63
3/59
12/60
12/63
1/54
10/58
8/64
11/61
7/65
10/68
2/67
5/67
3/63
2/68
4/69
8/67
7/55
4/61
12/62
9/56
1/61

2.5
1.5
60-400 (s)
100.0
(S)
2.0
2.4
2.7
3.0
4.0
7.0
4.6
14.0
2.8
5.4
9.0
3.8
5.0
14.0
23.5
33.0
44.0
200.0
1.6
15.5
0.7
1.3
1.9

5/60
8/61
1/60
5/66
5/64
5/64
9/65
11/64
3/68
6/23
2/66
8/64
8/64
6/67
12/68

2.1-14.0
11.0
45.0
3.8
10-16
13.0
20-28
18.0
25.0
52.0
53.0
58.0
115.0
130.0
235.0

2169
4/70

8.0
II. 7
54-200
33-200
19.5
25.0
3.4
1.7
0.9
10.0
1.3
0.5
0.4
0.3

12/64
10/67
11/60
8/62
9/63
10/64
11/64
4/65
3/68
9/66
11/68
12/66
11/68
12/67

1.1
8.0

NUMBER OF INSTALLATIONS
Outside
In
In
U. S .A.
Worl d
U.S .A.
30
6
17

(s)

(S)
(S)
(S)
(S)

30
6

3
15

160
79
15
18
19
19
25-38
28-31
90
370-800
180-370

52-57
44
65-74
4

65-130
68-90
40-45
38-100
12

(s)

o
o

X
X
X
X
X

2
2

13
70
40

12
18
7

o
o
o

41-50
15-20
15
17-25
4

30
18
23-50
32-40

9
2

14-17
II

I
1

o
o

130

NUMBER OF
UNFILLED
ORDERS

o
o
o

27-40
30-33
103
440-870
220-410

64-69
62
72-81
4

o
I

X
X
X

31
150
70
117
190
8
60
13
5

295
20
165
322
75
29
610
29
59
106-180
83-110
55-60
55-125
16

X
X
X
X

C
C

39
20
37-67
43-51

X
X
X
C

C
C
C
C

C
C

I
1

C
C

136

Total:
160
800

o
6
o

o
5

5
2

50
40
90

5
10

C
C
C
C
C

C
C

C
C
C

C
C

52
45
100
23
160
1440
2145
1017
2050
415
36
123

X
X
X

X
X
C
C

C
C
C
C
C

NAME OF
MANUFACTURER
Digital Equipment Corp. (Cont'd.)

Electronic Associates Inc.
. Long Branch, N.J. (A) (2/70)
EMR Computer
. Minneapol is, Minn.
(N)

(10/69)

NAME OF
COMPUTER
PDP-12
PDP-15
LINC-8

640
8400
ADVANCE 6020
ADVANCE 6040
ADVANCE 6050
ADVANCE 6070
EMR 6130
EMR 6135

DATE OF
FI RST
INS TALLAT ION

AVERAGE OR RANGE
OF tl0NTHL Y RENTAL
$(000)

6/69
2/16
9/66

17.0

4/67
7/65
4/65
7/65
2/66
10/66
8/67

1.2
12.0
5.4

Nut1BER OF I NSTALLAT IONS
Outside
In
In
U.S.A.
U.S.A.
World
233
1
142

70
19

95
25

Process Control Computers:
(A)
(10/69)
Hewlett Packard
Cupertino, Cal if.
(A)
(2/70)
Honeywe 11
Computer Control Div.
Framingham, Mass.
(A)
(2/70)

Honeywe 11
EDP Div.
Wellesley Hills, Mass.
(A)
(2/70)

IBM
White Plains, N.Y.
(N) (D)
(1/69-5/69)

105A
105B
105RTS
115
120
130
205
210
215
225
235
245
255 T/S
265 T /S
275 T/S
405
410 T /S
415
420 T /S
425
430 T /S
435
440 T/S
615
625
635
655
4020
4040
4050
4060
2114A
2115A
2116A
2116B
DDP-24
DDP-116
DDP-124
DDP- 224
DDP-316
DDP-516
H632
H1648
H-ll0
H-120
H-125
H-200
H-400
H-800
H-1200
H-1250
H-1400
H-1800
H-2200
H-3200
H-4200
H-8200
System
305
650
1130
1401
1401-G
1401-H
1410
1440
1460
1620 I, II
1800
7010
7030
704
7040
7044
705
7070, 2
7074
7080
7090
7094-1
7094-1 I

6/69
6/69
7/69
4/66
3/69
12/68
6/64
7/60
9/63
4/61
4/64
11/68
10/67
10/65
11/68
2/68
11/69
5/64
6/67
6/64
6/69
9/65
7/69
3/68
4/65
5/65
2/67
8/64
12/66
6/65
10/68
11/67
11/66
9/68
5/63
4/65
3/66
3/65
6/69
9/66
12/68
11/68
8/68
1/66
12/67
3/64
12/61
12/60
2/66
7/68
1/64
1/64
1/66
2/70
8/68
12/68
12/57
10/67
2/66
9/60
5/64
6/67
11/61
4/63
10/63
9/60
1/66
10/63
5/61
12/55
6/63
6/63
II/55
3/60
3/60
8/61
II/59
9/62
4/64

Total:
1350 E
15
2

6.6
9.0
15.0
5.0
2.6
Total:
90 E

General Electric
Phoenix, Ariz.
(N)
(2/70)

NUMBER OF
UNFILLED
ORDERS

1.3
1.4
1.2
2.2
2.9
4.5
2.9
16.0
6.0
8.0
12.0
13.0
17.0
20.0
23.0
6.8
11.0
7.3
23.0
9.6
17.0
14.0
25.0
30.0
41.0
45.0
80.0
5.0
3.0
7.0
8.5
0.25
0.41
0.6
0.65
2.65
0.9
2.2
3.5
0.6
1.2
3.2
12.0
2.5
4.2
6.0
9.2
10.0
30.0
11.6
12.0
14.0
50.0
16.0-26.0
24.0
32.5
50.0

Total:
30 E

200-400

420-680

620-1080

11
35
15
145
60-100

o
o

11
35
16
160
77-117

1
15
17

10-40
170-300
50-100

15-45
70-100
20-30

240-400
70-130

23
20-40

3
3

26
23-43

113
45
22
18

38
20
1

151
65
23
20
684
650
361
972
90
250
90
60
150
500

3
150
800
70
800
46
58
225
130

60
100
160
275
40
10-12
90
40

6
3

15
125

o
8

o
3

1.1

3.6
4.8
1.5
5.4
2.3
1.3
17.0
4.1
10.0
4.1
5.1
26.0
160.0
32.0
25.0
36.5
38.0
27.0
35.0
60.0
63.5
75.0
tl3.0

40
50
2580
2210
420
180
156
1690
194
285
415
67

15
18
1227
1836
450
140
116
1174
63
186
148
14
1
1
27
13

4
12
35
28
18
10

44
13

4
10
6

3
3
26
2
2

4
4

10
210
900
230
1075
86
70
315
170
10
18
180

17
11

o
55
68
3807
4046
870
320

272
2864
257
471
563
81

5
13
2
41
21
13
70
15

6
14
10

COMPUTERS AND AUTOMATION for March, InO

NAfIE OF
t1ANU FACTURE R
I Bt4 (Cont'd.)

NAI1E OF
COtlPUTER
360/20
360/25
360/30
360/40
360/44
360/50
360/65
360/67

360175

Interdata
Oceanport, N.J.
(A) (10/69)
NCR
Day ton, Ohio
(R)
(2/70)

Pacific Data Systems Inc.
Santa Ana, Calif. (N) (1/69)
Phi leo
Wil low Grove, Pa.
(N) (1/69)
Potter Instrument Co., Inc.
Pia inview, N.Y. (A) ( 10/69)
RCA
Cherry Hill, N.J.
(N)
(5/69)

360/85
360/90
360/195
tlodel 2
tlode 1 3
110del 4
304
310
315
315 RMC
390
500
CenturY'100
Century 200
PDS 1020
1000
2000-210, 211
2000-212
PC-9600

DATE OF
FI RST
IIJSTALLAT ION
12/65
1/68
5/65
4/65
7/66
8/65
11/65
10/66
2/66
11/67

7168
3/67
8/68
1/60
5/61
5/62
9/65
5/61
10/65
9/68
6/69
2/64
6/63
10/58
1/63

2/61
6/59
11/62
7/64
9/65
9/65
1/67
11/65

301
501
601
3301
Spectra 70/15
Spectra 70/25
Spectra 70/35
Spectra 70/45
Spectra 70/46
Spectra 70/55
11/66
Raytheon
12/60
250
Santa Ana, Cal i f.
440
3/64
(A)
520
10/65
(2170)
10/67
703
704
3170
706
5/69
Scientific Control Corp.
650
5/66
Dallas, Tex.
10/66
655
(A)
660
10/65
(10/69)
670
5/66
4700
4/69
6700
2/70
DCT-132
5/69
OCT -32
11/69
Standard Computer Corp.
I C 4000
12168
Los Angeles, Cal if.
I C 6000
5/67
(N) (8/69)
IC 7000
6/69
Systems Engineering Laboratories
810
9/65
Ft. Lauderdale, Fla.
810A
8/66
(A)
810B
9/68
(2/70)
840
11/65
840A
8/66
840MP
1/68
Systems 86
UN I VAC (Div. of Sperry Rand)
I & II
3/51 & II/57
New York, N.Y.
III
8/62
(R)
Fi Ie () mputers
8/56
Sol id-State 80 I, II,
( 1/69-5/69)
90, I, II, & Step
8/58
418
6/63
490 Series
12/61
1 004
2/63
4/66
1005
1050
9/63
1100 Series (except
1107, 1108)
12/50
1107
10/62
1108
9/65
9200
6/67
9300
9/67
9400
5/69
LARC
5/60
Varian Data Machines
620
11/65
Newport Beach, Calif.
620i
6/67
R-620i
(A)
4/69
520i
10/68
2 0
Xerox Data Systems
505-92
/ 5
El Segundo, Cal if.
505-910
8/62
(N)
505-920
9/62
(2/69-4/69 )
505-925
12/64
SDS-930
6/64
505-940
4/66
505-9300
11/64
5 igma 2
12/66
Sigma 5
8/67
Sigma 7
12/66
COMPUTERS AND AUTOMATION for March, 1970

AVERAGE OR RANGE
OF MONTHLY RENTAL
$ (000)
2.7
5.1
10.3
19.3
11.8
29.1
57.2
133.8
66.9
150.3
(5)
232.0
0.25
0.4
0.6
14.0
2.5
8.7
12.0
1.9
1.5
2.7
7.5
0.7
7.0
40.0
52.0
16.0
7.0
14.0-18.0
14.0-35.0
17.0-35.0
4.3
6.6
9.2
22.5
33.5
34.0
1.2
3.6
3.2
(5)
(5)
(5)
0.5
2.1
2.1
2.7
1.8
90.0
0.7
0.3
9.0
16.0
17.0
1.1
0.9
1.2
1.5
1.5
2.0
10.0
25.0
21.0
15.0

NUMBER
In
U.S.A.
4690
0
5075
1260
65
480
175
9
14
0
5

15
8
460
125
240
1700
550
100
145

OF INSTALLATIONS
Outside
In
U.S .A.
Worl d
3276
7966
4
4
3144
8219
498
1758
13
78
109
589
206
31
4
13
17
3
0
0
0
5

2
0
400
45
500
950
150
50

2
52
57
X
X

10
X
X
X

16
16
12
(5)
140-290
22-50
2
24-60
90-110
68-70
65-100
84-180
1
11
155
20
26
135
0
15
23
III
27
1
13
0
23
0
6
9
3
24
158
58
3
36
26
0
23
25
13

100-130
1
0
1-5
35-60
18-25
20-50
21-55
0
1
20

20
0
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
4
1
0
2
0
0

210
76
75
1502
637
138

36
11
628
299
62

35.0
57.0
68.0
1.5
3.4
7.0
135.0
0.9
0.5

9
8
38
127
106
3
2

0
3
18
48
38
0
0

10- 0
150-170
93-120
20
159
28-35
21-25
60-110
15-40
24-35

240- 420
23-51
2
25-65
125-170
86-95
85-150
105-235
1
12
175
20
27
155
0
18
23
III
27
1
13
0
23
0
6
9
3
24
162
59
3
38
26
0
31

8.0
11.0
30.0
1.9
2.4
8.5

1.5
2.0
2.9
3.0
3.4
14.0
8.5
1.8
6.0
12.0

16
163
80
17
8
860
170
740
2650
700
150

NUMBER OF
UNFILLED
ORDERS

2
7-10
5-12
1
14
0
1
10-15
6-18
5-9

112
86
2130
936
200
9
11
56
175
144
3
2
75
900
20
100
12- 2
157-180
98-132
21
173
28-35
22-26
70-125
21-58
29-44

X
X
11
3
15
0
25
12
0
79
1
509
3

10 E
X
48
17
X
X
5
2
X
X
X
X
20
35
20
90
10

X
75
850
550
60
0
380
25
320

CALENDAR
(Continued from page 26 )

Apr. 29-30, 1970: Fifteenth Annual D.ata ~rocessing
Conference Univ. of Alabama, Engmeermg Bldg.,
1919 Eighth Ave., South Birmingham, Ala. / c?n~~ct:
C. E. Adams, Coordinator of Conference ActivIties,
Box 2987, University, Ala. 35486
May 5-7, 1970: Spring Joint Computer Conference,
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