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SCIENCE &

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TEafN~LbGY

February, 1972

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Vol. 21, No. 2

CD

Playing Checkers with a Computer

How To Get the Best Out of a Computer Manufacturer Computers at Crisis
3400 Organizations Required by Court Order To Furnish
Confidential Data to IBM
Computers and Dossiers - II
Pictorial Reasoning Tests, and Aptitudes of People - III
Zingo - A New Computer Game

5f.\1

SA~

Vern Countryman
Neil Macdonald
Edmund C. Berkeley

P .... KIlbU
P~r

180

David Futcher
Milton R. Wessel

00ICALS SL( 126 0157

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95 113

Announcement

The Most Important of All Branches of Knowledge
(Based on the editorial in the April 1971 issue of Computers and Automation)
It may be that there is a branch of knowledge which is
the most important of all.
If so, I would maintain that it is a subject which used to
have the name "wisdom" but nowadays does not have a
recognized scientific name, or in any college a recognized
department or faculty to teach it. This subject currently is a
compound of common sense, wisdom, good judgment,
maturity, the scientific method, the trained capacity to
solve problems, systems analysis, operations research, and
some more besides. Its earmark is that it is a general
subject, not a special one like chemistry or psychology or
astronautics. Useful names for this subject at this time are
"generalogy" or "science in general" or "common sense,
elementary and advanced".
Many editorials published in "Computers and Automation" have in one way or another discussed or alluded to
this subject:
Examples, Understanding; and Computers / December 1964
The Barrels and the Elephant: Crackpot vs. Pioneer /
May 1965
Some Questions of Semantics / August 1965
Perspective / April 1966
Computers and Scientific Models / May 1967
New Ideas that Organize Information / December
1967
How to Spoil One's Mind - As Well as One's
Computer / August 1968
The Catching of Errors by Inspection / September
1968
Tunnel Vision / January 1969
The Cult of the Expert / May 1969
Computers, Language, and Reality / March 1970
Computers and Truth / August 1970
The Number of Answers to a Question/March 1971
In the editorial "The Cult of the Expert" we offered a
leaflet that belongs in this subject, "Right Answers - A
Short Guide for Obtaining Them". More than 600 readers
asked for a copy; so clearly this subject is interesting to the
readers of C&A.
This subject is related to computers and the computer
field in at least two ways:
First, many of the general principles which this subject
contains can be investigated in experimental or real situations by means of a computer. In fact, far more can be
investigated by computer than can possibly be investigated
by ordinary analytical mathematics.
Second, since computer professionals are in charge of
computing machines, many people consider these professionals responsible for the worthwhileness of the results of
computers. Because of "garbage in, garbage out", computer
professionals have a responsibility to apply common sense
and wisdom in at least three ways:

Input - in the selection and acceptance of the data
with which they begin;

Processing - in the processing through a system;
Output - in the interpretation and use of the answers.
Then the computerized systems will produce stIOng structures that human beings can use and rely on, and not weak
structures which will crash with false information or ridiculous results.
" Computers and Automation" for April 1971 conta,ins an
article, "Common Sense, Wisdom, General Science, and Computers", which deals with this subject. For more than a dozen years I have been studying this subject - ever since I searched in a.very large and good public library for a textbook ?n
common sense or wisdom and found none at all. There IS,
however, a great deal of Information to be gather~d on this
subject because a large number of great men, anCIent, medieval, and modern, have made remarks and comments (usually while talking or writing about something else) that belong
in this subject.
The subject of wisdom is particularly important in these
modern days. The subject has been neglected, while special
sciences have been cultivated. Investigators have pursued
the special sciences with the enthusiasm of a child with a
new toy. Specialized science and specialized technology
have rendered our earthly world almost unrecognizable:
All major cities on the planet are only a few hours
.
apart by jet plane.
Millions upon millions of people who otherwIse
would be dead are alive because of miracle drugs,
- thus creating a population explosion;
Nuclear weapons if used can destroy mankind and
civilization in a few hours; etc.
To deal with so many diverse, vast problems we need
wisdom. To use wisdom we should study it.
The staff of "Computers and Automation" have decided
that it is desirable to make the drawers full of information
we have been collecting on this subject more accessible and
more widely distributed. We have decided to publish twice
a month a publication of newsletter type called "The C&A
Notebook on Common Sense, Elementary and Advanced"
For more details, see the announcement on page 3 opposite.
(The first few issues of the Notebook are free.)
We invite you, our readers, to join us in the pursuit of
this subject, as readers of the Notebook, and as participators with us in the research and study.
Wisdom is a joint enterprise - and truth is not shaped so
that it can fit into the palm of anyone person's hand.

~~~ .. ~
EDITOR

}

DO YOU WANT TO

PREVENT MISTAKES BEFORE THEY HAPPEN?
- avoid pitfalls?
- . find new paths around old obstacles?
- apply in practical situations the observations and
wisdom of great scientists and wise men?
- stimulate your resourcefulness?

see new solutions to old problems?
distinguish between sense and nonsense?
increase your accomplishments?
improve your capacities?

IF SO, TRY-

The C&A Notebook on
COMMON SENSE, ELEMENTARY AND ADVANCED
devoted to research, development, exposition, and illustration of one of the most important
of all branches of knowledge, i.e. the subject of WHAT IS GENERALLY TRUE AND IMPORTANT =

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+

+

+

+

+

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THE FIHST SIX ISSUES ARE FREE - see the coupon - THE NEXT 20 ISSUES ARE:
Editor: Edmund C. Berkeley,
author, businessman, actuary,
scientist, computer professional,
first secretary of the Association
for Computing Machinery 1947-53,
editor of Computers and Automation.

RETURNABLE IN 7 DAYS
FOR FULL REFUND, IF
NOT SATISFACTORY WHY NOT TAKE A LOOK?
..... HOW CAN YOU LOSE?

-

7. The Elephant and the Grassy Hillside
8. Ground Rules for Arguments
9. False Premises, Valid Reasoning,
and True Conclusions
10. The Investigation of Common Sense,
Elementary and Advanced
11. Principles of General Science, and
Proverbs
12. Common Sense - Questions for
Cons ideration
13. Falling 1800 Feet Down a Mountain
14. The Cult of the Expert
15. Preventing Mistakes from Failure
to Understand
16. The Stage of Maturity and Judgment
in any Field of Knowledge

17. Doomsday in St. Pierre, Martinique

- Common Sense vs. Catastrophe
18. The History of the Doasyoulikes
19. Individuality inHuman Beings, ...
20. How to be Silly
21. The Three Earthworms
22. The Cochrans vs. Catastrophe
23. Preventing Mistakes from Forgetting
24. What is Common Sense? - An Operational Definition
25. The Subject of "What is Generally
True and Important": Common
Sense, Elementary and Advanced
26. Natural History, Patterns, and
Common Sense

- - - - - - - -'- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (may be copied on any piece of paper) - - - - - - - - __ - - - __ - - - _
To:

COMPUTERS AND AUTOMATION
815 Washington St., R5, Newtonville, Mass.

02160

YES, please enter my subscription to the C&A Notebook on Common Sense at $12 a year,
24 issues (newsletter style), and extras.
Please send me (as FREE premiums for subscribing) the first six issues:
1. Right Answers - A Short Guide to Obtaining Them
4. Strategy in Chess
2. The Empty Column
5. The Barrels and the Elephant
3. The Golden Trumpets of Yap Yap
6. The Argument of the Beard
I enclose $
( ) Please bill me
) Please bill my organization
Title___________________________________
Name
Organization _______________________________________________________________________________________

------------------------------------------------------

Address ____________________________________________________________________________________________
Signature ___________________________________________________ Purchase Order No. ______________

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Vol. 21, No.2
February, 1972

computers
and automation
The magazine of the design, applications, and implications
of information processing systems - and the pursuit of
truth in input, output, and processing.

Editor

Edmund C. Berkeley

Assistant Editors Barbara L. Chaffee
Linda Ladd Lovett
Neil D. Macdonald
Software Editor Stewart B. Nelson
Advertisi1lg
Director

Edmund C. Berkeley

Art Director

RayW. Hass

Publisher·s
Assista1lt

Paul T. Moriarty

Contributing
Editors

John Bennett
Moses M. Berlin
Andrew D. Booth
John W. Carr III
Ned Chapin
Alston S. Householder
Leslie Mezei
Ted Schoeters
Richard E. Sprague

AdvisOI1'
COI1l;lIittee

The Computer Industry
8

HOW TO GET THE BEST OUT OF A COMPUTER
[T A]
MANUFACTURER
by David Futcher, SCICON, London, W 1, England
How the business relationship between computer manufacturers and computer users may lead to a reasonable
and sound strategy for a computer user.

10

[NT A]
COMPUTERS AT CRISIS
by Milton R. Wessel, Attorney, New York, N.Y.
An informative study of the trends and practices which
have brought about the present crisis in the computer
industry; and a warning as to what may happen if the
computer industry's present course continues
unchecked.

21

3400 ORGANIZATIONS REQUIRED BY COURT

James J. Cryan
Alston S. Householder
Bernard Quint

Editon'alOffices Berkeley Enterprises,lnc.
815 Washington St.,
Newtonville, Mass. 02160
617-332-5453

[NT A]
ORDER TO FURNISH CONFIDENTIAL DATA TO IBM
by Leon Davidson, John D. French, Norman R. Carpenter,
and Philip Neville

47

[T A]
COMPUTERS, CIPHERS, AND CRYPTOGRAPHY
by Otis Minot, R. A. Sobieraj, and K. E. Streetman
Comments on substitution ciphers, polyalphabetic
ciphers, random keys, and the role of the computer
in cryptography and cryptanalysis.

49

SHARE, AND THE MULTIPLY CARRY BUG
by Herb Bright, Computation Planning, Inc.,
Washington, D.C.

[T F]

Computers and Society
Advertising
Contact

THE PUBLISHER
Berkeley Enterprises,lnc.
815 Washington St.,
Newtonville, Mass. 02160
617-332-5453

Computers and Automation is published monthly (except
two' issues in June) at 815 Washington St., Newtonville,
Mass. 02160, by Berkeley Enterprises, Inc. Printed in U.S.A.
Subscription rates: United States, 11 monthly issues and
two issues in June (one of which is a directory issue) $18.50 for 1 year, $36.00 for 2 years; 12 monthly issues
without directory issue in June) - $9.50 for 1 year; $18.00
for 2 years. Canada, add 50¢ a year for postage; foreign, add
$3.50 a year for postage. Address all U.S. subscription mail
to: Berkeley Enterprises, Inc., 815 Washington St., Newtonville, Mass. 02160. Second Class Postage paid at Boston,
Mass.
Postmaster: Please send all forms 3579 to Berkeley Enterprises Inc., 815 Washington St., Newtonville, Mass. 02160.
@ Copyright 1972, by Berkeley Enterprises, Inc.
Change of address: If your address changes, please send
us both your new address and your old address (as it appears
on the magazine address imprint), and allow three weeks
for the chll":J:l to be made.

4

14

COMPUTERS AND DOSSI ERS - Part II
[NT A]
by Vern Countryman, Harvard Law School,
Cambridge, Mass.
How the Internal Revenue Service, the FBI, the Army,
the Internal Security Committee of the House of Representatives, and other agencies make use of dossiers
(that are being computerized) to spy on individuals;
and how the present state of the law needs to be
changed.

34

[NT F]
MARTIN LUTHER KING MEMORIAL PRIZE
CONTEST - FOU RTH YEAR
A $150 prize for the best article on the application of
information sciences and engineering to the problems
of improvement in human society.

37

[NT E]
THE HOUSE IS ON FIRE
Editorial by Edmund C. Berkeley, reprinted from
Computers and Automation, February, 1970

COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1972

The Selection of Personnel - for Computers and Other Purposes
29

Pictorial Reasoning Tests, and Aptitudes
People - III
by Neil Macdonald, Assistant Editor

[NT F]

30

Pictorial Reasoning Test - C&A No.2

[NT F]

31

Pictorial Reasoning Test - C&A No.3

[NT F]

The Profession of Information Engineer, and the Pursuit of Truth
43

WHO SHOT PRESIDENT KENNEDY? - OR FACT AND [NT A]
FABLE I N HISTORY
by Gareth Jenkins, Weston, Mass.
How the physical evidence actually published by the
Warren Commission relating to the assassination of
President John F. Kennedy shows conclusively that more
than one man was responsible for the shooting - contrary
to the Commission's own report.

41

THE CIA: A VISIBLE GOVERNMENT IN INDOCHINA [NT A]
by Fred Branfman and Steve Cohn, New York, N.Y.
How the Central Intelligence Agency of the U.S.A. is
organized and is operating in the United States and in
IndoChina - information that the established press in
the United States avoids publicizing.

38

THE ACTIVITIES OF THE CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE
[NT A]
AGENCY, AT·SIX BILLION DOLLARS A YEAR
by Edward K. Delong, Washington, D.C.
Howa one-time professor, Victor Marchetti, spent fourteen
years in the CIA, and resigned - after seeing much he did
not like in the clandestine attitude, the amorality, and the
distortion of intelligence for the benefit of special interests.

Computers, General Knowledge, and Common Sense
6

[NT E]
THE CURSE OF A MAGAZINE
by Edmund C. Berkeley, Editor, Computers and Automation
The curse is this: what is in an issue of a magazine becomes
more and more outdated, more and more junk, and harder
and harder to get access to. How deal with the curse?

2

The Most Important of All Branches of Knowledge

[NT F]

3

The C&A Notebook on Common Sense, Elementary and
Advanced

[NT F]

Front Cover Picture
At the Children's Museum in
Boston, Mass., young people have
an opportunity to play checkers
with a computer. The young person makes his move on a numbered
checkerboard, and then informs the
computer (a PDP-8 made by Digital
.Equipment Corp.) by typing his
move on a teletype keyboard'. The
computer types back its move and
the person moves the computer's
piece (no robot hand is available).

Departments
51

Across the Editor's Desk Computing and Data
Processing Newsletter
Advertising Index
Calendar of Coming
Events
Classified Advertisement
Correction
Monthly Computer
Census
New Contracts
New Installations

57
58
57
29
56
54
55

Computers, Games, and Puzzles
32

[NT A]
ZINGO - A NEW COMPUTER GAME
by Edmund C. Berkeley, Editor, Computers and Automation
A new game using 21 dice per player (or a computer
equivalent), which is fun to play with another person,
fun to play with a computer, and fun to explore.

Key

29

Numbles
by Neil Macdonald

[T C]

[A]
[C]
[E]
[F] -

57

Problem Corner
by Walter Penney, COP

[T C]

[NT]
[T] -

1,5

Computer Checkers at Children's Museum, Boston, Mass.

COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1972

Article
Monthly Column
Editorial
Forum
Not Technical
Technical Computer
Information

[NT F]

5

C- a
EDITORIAL

THE CURSE OF A MAGAZINE
A periodical publication, a "magazine", carries
with it a curse as well as charms. What is a magazine?
From the Encyclopedia Britannica (11th edition,
published 1910-11):
MAGAZINE, primarily a warehouse for goods or
merchandise (Arabic, makhzan, a storehouse, from
khazana, to store up). In Morocco makhzan (or
maghzen) has come to be used as the name of the
government. The Spaniards adopted the Arabic
in the form magacen, and the English form comes
through the older French magazin, modern magasin.
The meaning of a storehouse or large shop, common in French, is rare in English except in the
military use of the term for a building for the
storage of explosives and ammunition. It is applied to the chamber of a repeating rifle or machine-gun containing the supply of cartridges.
The name as applied to a periodical publication
containing articles on various subjects was first
used in the Gentlemen's Magazine (1731) described
as "a monthly collecti on, to treasure up as ina
magazine" of articles on the subjects with which
it was proposed to deal.
For a publication that is a magazine, these then
are the properties which we should focus on:
- timeliness vs. outdatedness;
- value vs. junk;
- storehouse, and access to the items in it.
The curse is this: what is in an issue of a magazine becomes more and more outdated, more and more
junk, and harder and harder to get access to.
Timeliness and value are evanescent. A storehouse holding 100 treasures at one time at some later time almost always becomes a storehouse containing 5 treasures and 95 pieces of junk. The advent of the automobile caused hundreds of thousands
of buggies to become junk. If new technology enables fine diamonds (which are only crystallized
carbon) to be made for only a few dollars apiece,
the world's entire stock of diamonds would fast
become junko The galloping progress of new technology in the computer field is converting a great
many once good central data processors into pieces
of first class junk. And many, many articles in
the issues of a monthly magazine will after a few
years become of remarkably little value.
But some things never become junk. never attain
zero value or zero worth o An example is the painting of Mona Lisa by Leonardo da Vinci in 1505. It
now hangs in the Louvre Museum in Paris. The painting has suffered over time: some of its paints have
6

changed from
ded out; but
there for it
thousands of

one color to another; others have fathere is still enough enchantment
to be interesting and appealing to
visitors a year.

Some ideas, some poetry, some theorems like the
Pythagorean theorem, even some articles expressing
important ideas, remain of lasting value o
What about access to things of continuing value
in the "storehouse" consisting of a magazine for
which 20 volumes (about 250 issues) have been published from 1951 to 1971 - "Computers and Automation"?
1. Index o To provide some degree of access, we
publish in the January issue of "Computers and
Automation" in each year an index to the subjects,
titles, and authors of every item we have published
in the issues that.came out in the preceding year.
Usually the index includes well over a thousand
entrieso An index has been published covering
every issue since we started publication in September 19510
20 Reprintingo In addition, once in a while we
reprint currently something that was published
previously. In this issue we reprint an edi torial "The House is on Fire" - which was first published
two years ago, and which reported a start in a new
direction for us - the deliberate coverage in our
magazine of certain non-computer subjects which
deal with the great problems facing the human race:
nuclear war, population, certain brands of dictatorship, etc o This change in editorial ,contents
sought to encourage computer professionals to become information engineers o
3. Mining. But the crucial problem of access is
access to the information that is still valuable
in back issues of "Computers and Automation" mining gold amid dross. Perhaps the best solution
is to prepare books from time to time which include
summaries, condensations, updatings and in some
cases, full copies of things still timely and valuable that we have published in the past. We hope
that during 1972 we can go further in this task.
In the meantime, all back copies (except one - the
June 1965 Computer Directory) are in print or should
be in print and available (usually at $2) and we are
also preparing lists of articles that together deal
with certain topics.
In these three ways we hope to defeat "the curse
of the magazine", and help our readers separate the
treasure from the junk.

Edmund Co Berkeley
Editor
COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1972

WANTED
PART-TIME PUBLISHER'S ASSISTANTS
in many cities and suburbs in the United States, Canada, Great Britain, Australia, Japan, and elsewhere

TO DO THE FOLLOWING FOR "COMPUTERS AND AUTOMATION":
-

obtain capsule biographies for "Who's Who in Computers and Data Processing"
discover distinguished computer professionals in the area
report their names and addresses
invite the completion of their "Who's Who" entry forms
find out new addresses for expired and former subscribers
find out names and addresses (no selling necessarily involved) of logical prospects to
solicit for subscription to "Computers and Automation", "Who's Who", and "The
C&A Notebook on Common Sense"
- invite interested persons to fill out our "Pictorial Reasoning Test - C &A No.1"
- help in other surveying and reporting tasks we need done
so that we, "Computers and Automation", can do a better and more effective job.
FRANKLY, THE POSTAGE INCREASES ARE MAKING A GREAT PROBLEM
FOR US - AND SO WE NEED TO INCREASE THE EFFICIENCY OF OUR
MAILING AND SURVEYING EFFORTS - AND WE ASK FOR HELP FROM
PERSONS WHO HAVE SOME SPARE TIME (i. e., about 3 to 6 hours a
week, usually, for which we would make reasonable payment. )
If you are interested, please fill in the following coupon and send it to us:

(Note: We now have volunteer publisher's assistants in the local areas:
Orlando, Fla.; New Bruns'wick, N. J.; New York, N. Y. ; Portland, Ore.;
Philadelphia, Pa.; Milwaukee, Wisc. Anyone else interested ?)

- -(may be copied on any piece of paper)- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - To: Neil Macdonald, Survey Editor, "Computers and Automation"
815 Washington St., Newtonville, Mass. 02160, U. S. A.
Yes, I would be interested in being a part-time publisher's assistant for
"Computers and Automation" to the extent of about
hours a 'week.
Attached is information about:
- the local area that I could cover by telephone or in other ways ;
- my background, qualifications, and interests;
- a short statement of what I think about "Computers and Automation";
- other relevant subjects.
Name ________________________________________Telephone___________________________
Address

--------------------------------------------------------------------------

City_____________________________State___________________________ Zip_______________
COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1972

7

How To Get The Best Out of a Computer ManuFacturer
David Futcher
SCICON
Sanderson House
Berners St.
London, W1, England

". .. our chance of obtaining our share of our supplier's scarce resources depends on the
relevance of our account to his marketing strategy. "

Criticism of computer manufacturers is often
unfair because of the unreasonable expectations
of us users. So, having made this statement which
may, I hope, stir you into thinking rather hard
about it, let us examine the business relationship
to see what expectations are reasonable for us to
have from our suppliers. To do this it is useful
to start by asking a few questions to help direct
our thinking.
10 What business are computer manufacturers in?

2. Where do our suppliers make their profit now?
3. Whence do our suppliers expect to derive
future profit?
4. What are the major factors that affect either
their short or long term profitability?
These questions appear to have obvious answers,
and indeed do. But before answering them it might
be interesting and perhaps worthwile to state the
assumptions underlying the answers we should give.
Having started with four questions we might perhaps
follow through with four assumptionso These are:
1. Computer manufacturing companies are run by
able people who understand the business they
are in and intend to continue in it.
2. These suppliers run on the basis of budgets,
just as any other businesses do.
3. Budgets exist to control planned costs.
4. Budgeted costs recognise a planned level of
service to disriharge accepted responsibilities.
With these basic assumptions in mind let us now
examine the questions first stated.
The Business Computer Manufacturers Are In

First was "What business are computer manufacturers in?". I suggest the answer is a very very
8

simple one indeed and quite straightforwardly it is,
Selling Hardware. The manufacture of hardware is
undertaken by our suppliers to reduce their product
costs and, in fact, until unit volume is sufficient,
hardware is bought. We can all think of examples of
disk drives, supplied from specialist manufacturers;
drums, tapes; card equipment and indeed the great
array now available of the various types of terminal.
It would obviously be uneconomic for any computer
manufacturer to undertake to make himself any type
of terminal which any of his users required. My
answer to the question is presumably going to stimulate questions in your mind about unbundling, as to
what this really represents in the business of our
computer suppliers, but if I may I should like to
leave this and consider it a little later.
The Source of Profit

My second question was "Where do our suppliers
make their profit now?" Before answering this I
would like to rephrase it slightly and ask instead
"Fr.om which part of the market in which they operate
do they make a profi t now?". The answer wi 11 vary
slightly from one manufacturer to another. The
first part of the market of importance is that of
new users - people who have either not had computers
before or are obtaininithem for the first time from
a particular supplier. Secondly, there are additions to existing installations where perhaps the
need has been found to add a second printer or core
storage, additional tape drives, or disk drives or
any of the other types of hardware addition there
may be. The third part of the market is replacement of earlier equipment where, with the availability of later equipment which is faster, better
and has all the many other virtues claimed for it
by computer hardware salesmen, somebody makes the
decision that the earlier equipment should be
replaced.
Having re-phrased the second question it would
now in fact be sensible to follow suit with the
third one. Re-phrasing of this would make it
"From which part of the market do our suppliers
plan future profits to come?" Ag.ain, the answer
COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1972

would vary slightly with the manufacturer but the
trend is towards upgrading and replacements to
supply an increasing percentage of total sales and
a higher percentage of profit.
New Accounts

One obvious implication is that to secure future
profits manufacturers must, of course, have accounts
now. Therefore we can expect an emphasis in their
marketing policy upon obtaining new accounts. This
can be seen and indeed is known to many people in
terms of there being special commissions for salesmen obtaining new name accounts or winning accounts
from users of competitive equipment; there are
sometimes special prizes for this as well as special
commissions.
One simple way of confirming the manufacturers'
assessment of the market and its future can readily
be obtained by demonstrating a serious interest in
a change of supplier. The attention you receive
from your regular sales representative can be an
interesting departure from the norm.
Having answered the questions we should now
perhaps look more closely at the implications of the
underlying assumptions.
Business Plan

First, computer manufacturers intend both to be
profitable and to continue in their business. They
therefore have an appropriate business plan which in
some cases may cover only three years, in one or two
cases certainly covers ten, in most around five
years.
Budgets for present operations are derived from
the business plans. Since a plan covers considerably
more than one year, the budgets reflect this with
the distribution of revenue achieved by the budgets
planned to leave some profit for the current year.
The elements of the business plan will gather
together the responsibilities the suppliers are
willing to accept and also the unavoidable supporting functions.
The following major components of the manufacturers' business are listed in no particular
order of priority but all are certainly considered
in his business plan and we should therefore be
aware of them.
Customer Engineering

First we have customer engineering. In general
all costs of this service are now covered by separate maintenance agreements but historically this
was not so. In the case of certain manufacturers
there was a switch of revenue from what might be
cohsidered the sales budgets onto the engineering
budgets and here perhaps we could divert momentarily to consider unbundling.
The various suppliers have now come out with
statements wich say that they either are or are not
unbundling now or at sometime in the future. As
they all provide a similar array of software, much
of it of course different in detail, and they all
have to pay for the development of it, one can see
that supply of this can in fact be covered in the
way in which engineering used to be. Certain of the
cost can be recovered by a separate specific budget
and market position which is supposedly self-supporting while other manufacturers have decided
not to do this but in fact to keep the lot bundled
COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1972

up. Of course, even in the case of IBM there is no
definition to say that the cost of providing some
software for each and every type of equipment will
be covered from the individual arrangements they
undertake under the unbundling pattern for supply of
such facilities to their users, but, in total, the
software costs are now planned to be recovered
separately from hardware.
Research

A second major element in any business plan is
going to be an allocation of funds to research and
development - the "n"th generation has to be "discovered", planned and produced.
Thirdly, corporate management has to be financed
in order to deal with
a) the future planning of the operations which,
remember, are On an international basis.
b) with present operations supervision of these
at high level, and
c) the co-ordination of various countries in
their different requirements.
From the money we supply our manufacturers they
also have to cover their provision of supporting
services in order that their business can function
so that they then can meet our orders. This
includes such things as order processing; personnel
functions; patents and legal functions; which in
the case of IBM perhaps amount to a substantial
amount of their revenue now and again; the accounts
function; purchasing function; and, in fact, here
we should even include hardware manufacturing or
acquisition, as well as basic software writing or
acquisition.
Sales and Marketing

We then come to another division which is a
major one and also the one which most closely
affects us as users; that is, the sales and marketing area with its multiple sub-divisions of cost.
So let us examine this in rather more detail than
we have the other major headings.
As I run through the list of headings you might
perhaps care to reflect upon how many of these
headings are in the areas in which manufacturers'
management policy determines this investment in you
rather than what you need. The various headings
are again in no particular order of priority but all
of them have to be financed.
Marketing Management

Marketing Management covers the cost of market
research to determine the size of future markets and
to try to estimate what the users' requirements
might be in say ten years time. An example of this
in any other field is easy to find; we might perhaps refer to the GPO survey into data transmission
where we were required to report in 5, 10, and 15
year periods ahead from the date of the surveys.
Next there is sales management with its recruitment and management functions to perform on the
various people that we meet.
Then we have salesmen's salaries and commissions,
and you might pause to consider here for a moment
(Please turn to page 35)

9

COMPUTERS AT CRISIS
Milton R. Wessel, Attorney
New York, N. Y. 10022

"The hard commercial fact is that computers and computer services are simply not yet
economically ready for every customer and every application, despite all too many claims to
the contrary ... and the evidence is that the public is learning the bitter, hard way . ..

The American computer industry has reached a
point of crisis. Unless its present course is reversed, there is real danger that the much-heralded
onset of the "computer age" will turn out to be as
blue sky as the prices which Wall Street until 1969
was forecasting for almost any company with the name
"computer" in it.
Despite some technical problems, the Apollo missions certainly prove that the computer can perform
business applications as the industry claims. But
it is a far cry from the multiple back-up systems
and limitless testing of a moon mission, to operations in the competitive marketplace. The hard commercial fact is that computers and computer services
are simply not yet economically ready for every customer and every application, despite all too many
claims to the contrary. The public is beginning to
learn this from hearing about a wide and increasing
range of computer disasters and from bitter personal experience itself with business systems and
credit billings. Computerized voting was set back
for years by the November 1970 voting debacle in
Detroit, when snafus kept the results from being
known for several weeks, and the multi-million dollar charges by TWA and Burroughs against each other
charging misrepresentation and incompetence in connection with an automated airlines reservation and
management information system, show that even the
giants are not immune.
Economic Precipice

How did the industry get here and why? The answers lie in a series of events coincidentally affecting the smaller companies in the industry. Thus
far the impact has been most serious in the services
and software segments of the industry, although evThis paper was originally presented as an address
to an American Management Association conference,
given in February, 1971. It is published now, because events such as RCA's demise in computer hardware manufacturing in September, 1971, and the disclosure of the computer services industry's overall
8.3% loss for 1970, totalling about $165,000,000
(ADAPSO, Fifth Annual Economic Survey), indicate
that the comments may be more timely than ever.
Copyright ~197l by Milton R. Wessel

10

ery segment has been hurt, and the depression is
spreading. By "software" we mean here the instructions and related intangibles by which the computer
is told how to operate -- the systems, programs,
and operating manuals. These coincidences led,
first, to fantastic growth; second, to financial
disaster; and third, to the economic precipice now
being faced.
If the industry's present course continues unchecked, the public may soon confuse cause and effect and conclude that computers just can't ~ork in
the new and yet unproved applications required for
growth. Should this happen, the flow of business,
confidence, and money will be so sharply cut off
that the industry won't recapture its growth for a
decade. This would be a tragic result, for the real
cause of the current decline -- mismanagement in
all but the major hardware manufacturing segment of
the industry -- is correctible. The bright computer age could arrive on schedule, bringing all its
promise to our society.
Fantastic Growth

The first stage of tremendous expansion of the
computer industry started in the late 1950s and
very early 1960s. It resulted from technical breakthroughs and developments in hardware which began
in World War II (software did not become the major
problem it is today until much later), coupled with
a burgeoning economic climate and easy accounting
techniques which permitted concealment of reality.
"Creative accounting" became an industry catch'phrase.
Capital Available

With the IBM example of investment success always in the forefront, confirmed by the even more
telescoped early Control Data success story, the
computer industry quickly became the public's darling. It could -- and did -- do everything. The
natural consequence was that investors extrapolated
from technical capability and IBM performance to
commercial success generally. Partly because the
industry practice of leasing equipment reduces the
amount of initial capital required, the services
and software segments have always been characterized
by ease of market entry to new entrepreneurs. The

COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1972

relatively limited capital needed soon became available to almost anyone and anything promising to employ it in a computer or computer-related enterprise.
What this investment enthusiasm wanted, of course,
was an outlet -- any outlet. Soon the ambitious
young employees of the major computer manufacturers
-- technically qualified but many in their early
twenties and without management and administrative
training -- began to realize this. Sam Wylie of
University Computer Company and H. Ross Perot of
Electronic Data Systems Corporation achieved Horatio
Alger status. In small numbers at the beginning and
then in ever-increasing hordes as the successes became apocryphal, computer salesmen and technicians
of all kinds -- engineers, scientists, programmers,
systems analysts -- began setting up electronic data
processing services and software companies and, later, a wide variety of computer peripheral equipment
and "minicomputer" manufacturing and assembling operations.

be even forecast to achieve profitability, adopted
the routine corporate form rather than the limited
partnership or Subchapter S structures, designed to
provide investors with tax shelter advantages. Most
of these benefits were thereby irretrievably lost -a double tragedy when considered in light of today's
financing distress.
"Creative" Accounting

As far as investors were concerned, "creative"
accounting permi tted capi talization. of huge sofh.are
and related expenses -- without much inquiry whether
these were being spent upon intangibles of short or
uncertain life. What couldn't be accomplished internally, was frequently achieved by merger and acquisition -- and companies were bought and sold more
for what could be done to the balance sheet and income statement than with an eye to real value.
"Pooling of interests" was a term at least as v.ell
known to the EOP entrepreneur as any technical
phrase.

Second Wave of New Entrepreneurs

This second wave of industry entrepreneurs soon
outnumbered the more conservative and established
services/software industry pioneers, who consisted
primarily of persons experienced in electrical accounting machinery, also called tabulating or punch
card equipment. (The industry commonly calls these
somewhat older persons who had constituted the first
wave into the business, "EAM" or "TAB" men.)
The plethora of capital was at least equalled by
the availability of customers for most services
(time sharing, especially in scientific applications,
was a notable exception in some areas). American
industry was becoming overwhelmed with escalating
wages and other costs, and the paper work resulting
from growth was already unmanageable, as Wall Street
was soon to learn. Any measure which promised cost
savings and control had to be tried. A businessman
could not afford to let his competitor get the jump
on EOP equipment and services in very tight supply.
Executives are also human; along the line the computer became a prestige item. This too had its impact,
for many a self-respecting official turned to EOP
because he did not want to admit to associates and
friends that he didn't have a computer, or that he
wasn't computer-reporting his inventory or sales or
financial analyses; at least the reception accorded
to a computer salesman was invariably far better
than to any other.
Growth Financed by Public Money

The result was growth of an almost unparalleled
character. New EOP companies got customers and
more customers. By the mid-1960s, financial analysts
had begun to value computer companies as a multiple
of sales and sales growth rates, with little regard
for profits, net worth, product, performance, or anything else. An EOP data center with a good growth
curve in a large market was worth in 1968 (in shares
of stock, not cash) as much as three times the preceding year's sales.
Because this growth was easily financed with public money, profits and cash flow were relegated to
secondary and even tertiary or lower consideration.
Money was in fact so easy to come by that neither
the industry nor its financial advisers bothered to
pay attention to financing techniques which would
have permitted tens of millions of dollars in tax
savings to be passed through to investors. Time
sharing companies, necessarily predicting huge losses at their inception before sufficient volume could

COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1972

Modern science is usually several steps ahead
of society's ability to apply its learning, and computers are no exception. All of this growth was
much too rapid to permit adequate personnel to be
trained in the new technolo~y. The result was that
there were two pillars of sand upon which the new
industry was built. These were almost totally concealed by the excitement until revealed by the 1969
financial crunch.
The first sand pillar was that both the initial
wave of EAM/TAB men and the second wave of former
computer salesmen and scientists running these companies were often entirely untrained in necessary
management techniques. This was in sharp contrast
to the competence of some of the major hardware
manufacturers, notably IBM.
The Worst "People Shortage"

It will surprise laymen to learn that the worst
people shortage in the computer industry is not programmers -- it is competent managers. These new
entrepreneurs may have been great successes v.hen
they had the staff support of IBM or others, but
they simply did not know how to operate in the new
free environment. The first wave lacked the needed
imagination and marketing skills; the second relied
all too much on what came to be known as the "PR"
(public relations) approach. Neither had thE essential professional expertise in such areas as finance,
accounting or market research, nor, far more important, recognized the need to retain and use such
professional assistance. Cost analysis and control
and other key management tools were largely unknown
-- and appeared unnecessary with the great emphasis
upon growth. Few companies even had adequate current financial reporting or income and cash flow
statements or other projections. With essential
information and controls missing, costs got out of
line, products were marketed without regard to economics, and the seeds of disaster were soon sown.
No one seemed to know it, but a good part of the industry was actually operating at a loss.
The second pillar of sand was that there simply
weren't enough technically qualified people to do
what had to be done in the face of this growth. As
a result, new and often completely unqualified
training schools sprang up, and began turning out
thousands of new "programmers" and "systems analysts", induced to pay for training and join the industry by the promise of huge salaries and quick
advancement in the new, exciting, and esoteric specialty.
11

Demand for Programming Talent

Programming talent was so much in demand that th¢
right pre-employment interview questions weren't or
couldn't be asked, and job skipping an~ escalating
wages continued to be routine; yet it_takes 'more
than even a good six months training course to turn
out a qualified programmer, and a great many of these
new trainee-graduates (and some of the: older ones
also) couldn't perform as they were supposed to.
(The extent of the demand for personnel is suggested
by the six approaches made tome for jobs requiring
technical background at the first Joint Computer
Conference I attended -- one handed to me in a sealed
unmarked envelope by a lovely young lady recruiter
as I walked off the plane -- al th~ough I am a lawyer
with none of the necessary qualifications.) Products
became more and more uncertain and inadequate. Customer dissatisfaction increased alarmingly, although
unsophisticated accounts could be put off with the
special jargon and doubletalk of the industry -for a time.
Financial Disaster

Then a second set of coincidental events pinpricked the economic bubble. Roughly simultaneously,
tight money and recession set in, limiting the flow
of cash; underlying quali ty and :performance inadequacies increased to unacceptable levels, limiting
the flow of customers and creating claims, liabilities and uncollectible receivables as well; and the
accounting profession
smarting from wounds itself
received in all kinds of attacks, including even
criminal prosecutions -- began to insist on more
realism and fuller disclosure, limiting the location
of new sources for these essentials of additional
money and business. Huge write-9ffs of intangible
assets were taken:
•
•

•

These
shock
nally
suits

Computer Applications,: Inc., $16 million;
discontinuance of operations of Speedata,
Inc. an 81% owned subsidiary that used computers to provide a nation-wide information
service on the movement, sales and pricing
of groceries;
Computer Sciences Corp. 's $13 million
scrapping of Computicket Corp., a majorityowned subsidiary that sold theatre and
sports tickets through computer terminals.

were early examples of chargeoffs that sent
waves through the industry. True losses ficame to light; disputes and sometimes lawbecame the order of the day.

Some of the losses were these:
•

•
•
•
•
12

Viatron's loss of $30 million on sales of
only $2.5 million, disclosed after this
paper was given, led the staid Wall Street
Journal to write a front page feature,
headlined' "They Said It Couldn't Be Done,
but Viatron Did It With Dispatch." Viatron petitioned for reorganization under
Chapter II but was forced into Chapter 10
bankruptcy by the SEC;
Scientific Resources Corp.' s net worth
dropped from $46.8 million in 1969 to $4
million in 1970;
Data Automation Co. posted a loss, including writedowns of $3:7 million for the 6
months ending July 31, 1970;
University Computing Co. reported a 1970
net loss of $17,565,000, including an almost $5 million writedown;
Computer Technology. Inc. wrote off $2.3
million in the second quarter of 1970.

Third Generation Equipment

Added to all this was the advent of the third
generation of equipment, which proved a disaster to
many of the older companies which turned to it before they were ready, as well as to those newer ones
which acquired computer capability far beyond their
reasonable requirements -- perhaps hoping to sell
excess time at a profit. By "third generation" we
mean here computers with integrated circuitry; "second generation", transistorized circuitry; "first
generation", vacuum tube circui try. "Fourth generation," which is even less precisely defined, is generally a reference to large-scale integrated circuitry -- that is, even more compact andconcentrated equipment having far greater power and especially useful for major time-sharing applications.) Indeed, many service centers who had not yet recovered
from the costs and other burdens of converting from
first to second generation equipment, converted from
second to third. A high percentage of these had not
even upgraded their first generation programs so as
to operate in second generation mode, and thus had
never achieved the available, economies of the second
generation. But to tell stockholders and customers
that one had an IBM System 360 Model 30 seemed most
important of all!
Services and Software Segment

The result was -- and still is -- a financial
crISIS in the services and software segments of the
industry, perhaps more severe than in any other important area of the American economy. Thus far the
major hardware manufacturer segment of the industry
has been less hard hit, or appears so, partly because
dominant IBM at least has sustained itself with foreign sales (the rest of the world has not yet experienced the catastrophic rise and fall of the American computer services and software segments); partly
because the practice of leasing has a leveling effect
and results in projecting these economic problems
into the future; and partly because profits from
other operations unrelated to computers (credit or
insurance, for example) have masked true losses in
the computer divisions. But software and services
are already larger in volume than hardware and there
simply is no room for doubt that what hurts the former must ultimately and inevitably have effect upon
the latter, which is both its customer (for software) and supplier (for hardware).
The Edge of the Economic Precipice:
Duress Financing

Were the computer industry an ordinary one, the
shakeout just described would have solved its problems by cleaning out the incompetent, and letting
those who remain carryon. And indeed there are
some signs that this could be happening and that the
industry may be coming out of its despair -- the result, predicted by some, would be an industry reorganization into a relatively few large economic
units, something like that which occurred to the
automotive industry two generations ago when a large
number of shaky producers were consolidated (oreliminated) into a few large ones.
But a third set of related economic factors seems
almost to reward the inefficient EDP company and
drive the others down to its level, so that the necessary shakeout can be deferred for too long. The
gravest danger lies in the impact on the public of
such a third stage of the industry's debacle.
The clue is found in the oft-repeated industry
phrase "you can't kill a computer services company."
Despite the disaster of the last two years, only a
COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1972

relatively few of the larger companies have closed
up shop. (Smaller ones have been hit -- hard in many
areas. The 1971 New York yellow-page directory contains four less pages of EOP service offerings than
its predecessor.) A great many survive using up
funds raised from the public during the industry's
heyday, or by a kind of duress financing obtained
from suppliers and customers. Growth is achieved by
incremental costing and pricing -- all to disastrous
effect.
Hardware expense represents about 20-25% of the
costs of the average EOP services company. If the
equipment was purchased during the public financing
boom, the cost of depreciation need not actually be
paid out and the day of reckoning can be put off. If
the equipment is leased, the lessor can also be put
off, at least for a time -- for who wants an old computer b~ck these days? The result is that in some
areas excess computer time is being marketed at lower
~han the price required to be paid the manufacturer
for the additional time, with the cash used to pay
wages and other expenses rather than the manufacturer.
Telephone line communications expense, sometimes representing an even larger fraction of the costs of the
typical time-sharingEOP company, is beginning to
appear as another example of the same kind of duress
financing by suppliers in some of the local Bell Telephone areas.
The Locked-In Dissatisfied Customer

Customers who have given up their own manual bookkeeping operations can be so dependent upon their EOP
supplier that they have no alternative but to assist
the dying company to stay alive -- by advance payment
and even by guarantees or direct financing. At the
least they remain far longer as dissatisfied customers than in most other industries.
Some forms of incremental costing and pricing were
EOP services industry hallmarks even during apparent
prosperity. With survival as the objective, it is
not surprising that these have now degenerated into
the most cutthroat variety, with other even more serious adverse consequences than just money losses.
Once a company has a computer and an office, the
cost of putting on additional business is small. As
long as the price charged is more than the incrementally related cash expense which must be paid out
promptly -- wages, electricity, forms and the like
(and even here, all too many companies don't know
what these variable costs really are) -- the excess
cash received contributes to survival and the greater
loss makes no difference, for there are no material
degreei of bankruptcy. The consequence has been an
intolerable form of price competition, especially in
the larger ci ties, wi th a special kind of "low-ball"
sales to customers who really shouldn't have a computer or computer services in the first place but who
thereafter become locked in to an uneconomic activity
from which they cannot easily escape.

Of course there must and will be a finish to this.
But it is going on right now with no early end in
sight. And the evidence is that the public is learning the bitter, hard way. Businessmen no longer accept so readily the promises and representations of
computer salesmen. More and more refuse even to submit proposals to the thorough analysis which would
winnow reality from dream, in the belief that the
effort isn't warranted. If this goes on too long,
the consequence will be a loss of confidence that
only a decade can repair.
The Outlook

The computer industry can produce a quality product for a sufficiently large part of our economy to
more than sustain those competent to produce it -with great growth. It cannot yet serve everyone or
everything. It must introduce a sense of true professionalism and industry responsibility, so that it
limits its offerings and representations to the public to accord with reality.
Indictment

My industry friends -- if they remain after this
expression of views -- will complain that this is an
undeserved and unfair indictment of the whole industry. But if it is an indictment, it is one with a
purpose, for the near-term future of the industry is
at stake. There are some concerned industry associations and leaders who are trying valiantly to ring
the bell. The American Federation of Information
Processing Societies (AFIPS) is engaged in public
information activities and is taking a long hard look
at certification of professionals and systems; the
Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) and Data
Processing Management Association (OPMA) are concerned with industry training schools; and The Association of Data Processing Service Organizations, the
industry's trade association (AOAPSO), is doing yeoman work in an effort to upgrade management capabilities. Also it has undertaken to educate the public
to understand realistic computer capabilities and
thereby nullify the extravagant and unjustified
claims of the touts.
But thus far these voices have been lost to the
shouts and clamor of the marketplace. OPMA, the EOP
managers' association, which should be taking a lead
in these areas, has done very little, and is being
roundly criticized throughout the industry for its
inaction. Some of the hardware manufacturers and
larger services and software companies seem almost
to delight in asserting their independence, and refuse to participate in or even support important industry corrective efforts. The manufacturers' industry association, Business Equipment Manufacturer's
Association (BEMA), is notoriously silent and unconcerned. Government interference seems unlikely and
probably would be ineffective in any event; so thus
far the prognosis continues black.
Responsibility in Promise and Performance

Destructive Competition and Decay

In this atmosphere of destructive competition and
decay, integrity of effort and quality of service and
performance necessarily suffer. The representation
necessary to capture the sale is made, without regard
to reality; the program patch of the moment is all
that is done without regard to the basic revision
necessary for tomorrow's problem. Even the adequately financed and capable manager finds it necessary to
descend to the competitive level to avoid the loss of
his own incrementally profitable business.

COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1972

But despite the seriousness of the problem, its
solution is really not extremely difficult, nor need
the present phase of the computer industry have any
more serious adverse long-term effects than did similar experience in other developing industries. Essentially what is called for is responsibility in
promise and performance -- "Truth in Computers." To
achieve it requires concerted and aggressive industry action, participated in especially by the presently still recalcitrant larger companies and associations, without whose active assistance the
chances for success are slight. Let us hope they
will hear the call.
D
13

COMPUTERS AND DOSSIERS
Vern Countryman
Harvard Law School
Cambridge, Mass. 02138

"The effect of computers on the vast number of personal dossiers already collected
is to give us a National Data Bank now . .. and one more vulnerable to unauthorized use
than a single storehouse of information would be. "

(Part 1 of this article was published in the January, 1972 issue of "Computers and Automation",
starting on page 13. It included information on
dossiers, credit ratings, who can obtain credit reports and dossiers, their unreliability, and the
threat of future dossiers by computer. Part 2 explores what information gets into official dossiers,
where it comes from, and who can gain access to it
and suggests congressional interest and action
in protecting privacy.)
What Gets Into the Files?

So much for sources, What of the official dossiers compiled from them? Starting with the proposition -- probably quite literally true -- that
God only knows what is contained in the files of the
CIA, some information is available about the files
of the more obvious compilers,
FBI Files Closed to Public - and Growing

Congressional committees occasionally hear something about the FBI, but save for J, Edgar Hoover's
annual appearances before appropriations committees,
they never hear from the FBI, From the director's
appearances we are advised that the FBI's computerized National Crime Information Center, which is
tied to twenty-four computerized terminals throughout the country, contains in excess of 1.7 million
personal files, as well as more than 195 million
sets of fingerprints. The latter collection (with
a substantial assist from state police forces and
the Selective Service System, and a lesser one from
visitors to FBI headquarters who are persuaded to
ink their fingers) is increasing at the rate of
about 7 million a year. Even with some allowance
for foreigners, it must be approaching 100 per cent
coverage of the adult population of the United States,

14

One can only speculate as to the contents of the
1,7 million files, They are not to be disclosed to
the public, save as Hoover sees fit to reveal their
contents in a book, an article or a speech, But we
can be sure that they are not confined to information related to enforcing the criminal laws, Since
1947 the FBI has been investigating. under the federal loyalty-security program, federal employees and
applicants for federal employment; somewhat later
the program was expanded to cover the personnel of
those who contract with various agencies and departments of the government, Investigations under that
program delve even more deeply into the morality.
beliefs and associations of the subjects than do the
investigations conducted for private employers and
insurance companies by the Retail Credit Company,
From a careful study of all available data, Prof,
Ralph Brown concluded in 1958 (Loyalty and Security)
that the federal program then covered more than 13
million people, or one-fifth of the national labor
force. The same fraction today would produce a figure in excess of 16 million, Professor Brown also
estimated that the cumulative total of those dismissed under the program in 1958 was in excess of
10.000, It is a fair guess that their names, and
the names of many others who were not dismissed but
about whom derogatory information was recorded, are
included in the FBI files, But there is no reason
to suppose that all of them are included in the 1,7
million files reported in the National Crime Information Center,
Vern Countryman. a professor at Harvard Law
School since 1964, was clerk to Justice William
O. Douglas (1942-43); assistant and associate
professor, Yale Law School (1948-55); and dean,
University of New Mexico Law School (1959-64).
He has published several books.

COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1972

If that were all, most of us who have never worked for, or sought to work for, the executive branch
of the federal government or its contractors, and
who have never done anything which would be likely
to make us suspects of a federal crime (including
the burgeoning list of political crimes), could rest
easy so far as the FBI files are concerned.
FBI Reports to "Interested Federal Agencies"

But that is not all. Under the Emergency Detention Act of 1950, the President is authorized to
declare an "Internal Security Emergency" in the
event of invasion, declaration of war or "[iJnsurrection within the United States in aid of a foreign enemy." In that event, the Attorney General
is to apprehend and incarcerate "each person as to
whom there is reasonable ground to believe that
such person will engage in, or probably will conspire with others to engage in, acts of espionage
or sabotage." Obviously, speed will be of the essence and any diligent Attorney General charged with
enforcing this Act must have a list of suspects prepared' in advance. The Washington Post recently remarked that the Department of Justice does maintain
such a list and made a "conservative guess" that it
contains 10,000 names. Data alleged to support such
a list are doubtless lodged in the files of the FBI.
The FBI has long operated under a Department of
Justice order providing:
All official files, documents, records, and
reports in the Department of Justice shall be
regarded as of a confidential nature, and the
content thereof shall be disclosed only in the
performance of official duties.
Except upon specific authorization of the
torney General, no officer or employee shall
ward to any person outside the Department of
tice • • • any information obtained from the
eral Bureau of Investigation • . •

AtforJusFed-

But there are vague authorized exceptions. Department regul ations allow for exchange of "identification records, including personal fingerprints voluntarily submitted," with "law-enforcement and other
governmental agencies," and for the operation of
"a central clearinghouse of police statistics . • •
and a computerized nationwide index of law-enforcement information under the National Crime Information Center." And Hoover has said that "the FBI
has long followed a policy, approved by several Attorneys General, of relaying information believed
to be of interest to other Governrr.ent agencies."

The file is augmented when the IRS launches an investigation of tax liability or has to resort to
collection efforts. In some instances, those efforts are quite strenuous.
In 1965 the Commissioner of Internal Revenue admitted to a Congressional committee that the Service
had in the past used two-way mirrors and bugging devices in conference rooms where taxpayers and their
lawyers met prior to and during discussions with
IRS agents; and that some agents, in an excess of
"zeal emanating from the highest motives," had employed illegal bugs and wi~e taps. He assured the
committee that all such practices had been terminated. Later he advised the committee that agents who
engaged in illegal eavesdropping had been disciplined
by reprimand and transfer and that there had been
some voluntary separations from service. There was
no mention of criminal prosecution.
Illegal Search of First-Class Mail

Another practice, not disavowed by the IRS, involved the opening of a taxpayer's first-class mail,
either in search of evidence of tax liability or of
assets from which taxes might be collected. Federal
statutes forbid, and prescribe criminal penalties
for, the opening of first-class letters or parcels
by anyone save an employee in the dead letter office
or a person holding a search warrant. But it is a
nuisance to obtain a search warrant: the application must make some showing of probable cause for
the search, the warrant may be annoyingly specific
as to the items to be seized, and there have been
instances when warrants have been refused. Hence,
the IRS hit upon a more "efficient" scheme.
Provisions of the Internal Revenue Code authorize
the IRS to make its own administrative levy on "property of" a taxpayer "for the payment of" taxes.
These provisions also direct that "as soon as practicable after the seizure of the property" it shall
be sold. In any event, they reach only to property
of the taxpayer, and postal regulations provide that
the sender of mail can reclaim it at any time before
it is delivered to the addressee. Nonetheless, it
was the practice of the IRS to serve levies on the
Post Office, which would thereupon surrender mail
addressed to taxpayers -- not for the purpose of
sale but to be opened and examined by the IRS. When
this practice was exposed, Congress promptly amended
the Internal Revenue Code to exempt all undelivered
mail from the IRS levy.
The Well-Travelled Federal Tax Return

Private Favors, Too?

The official position remains that the contents
of FBI files are not to be disclosed to private
parties, but there is room for doubt about operations
in the field. Do the FBI agents who receive information from Retail Credit Company and the credit
bureaus ever return the favor? Mayor Alioto of San
Francisco recently told a Senate subcommittee that
he had proof that the FBI had supplied information
to Look for an article charging him with underworld
connections. The Department of Justice replied that
an FBI agent had not "furnished," but had 'confirmed,"
information which the magazine might have obtained
from other federal agencies and that the agent involved had been disciplined and forced to retire.
How IRS Spies on Taxpayers

Most adults in the country are required to initiate a file with the IRS by filing a tax return.
COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1972

It might be supposed that information which the
government compels the citizen to supply in his tax
returns would be held in confidence and used only
for the purpose for which it is supplied. In fact,
the confidentiality of tax returns is preserved by
a statute which has all the containing qualities of
a sieve. Federal tax returns are fully available
to state tax officials and The Wall Street Journal
has reported (April 21, 1970) that at least 45 million of some 75 million returns filed in 1970 were
to be put on computer tapes and mailed to at least
thirty states.
Tax returns are available also to any select
commi ttee of either House of Congress "aut~JOri zed
to investigate returns," and to anyone authorized
by executive order. Between 1957 and 1970 fiftythree such orders were issued. These orders are
not confined to the returns of named persons, but
authorize inspections of all returns for designated
15

periods of years. Two of the chief beneficiaries
of these Presidential dispensations have been committees that have nothing to do with internal revenue matters -- the House Un-American Activities Committee (which changed its name to the House Internal
Security Committee two years ago) and its counterpart in the Senate, the Senate Subcommittee on Internal Security.
Moreover, by relying on these executive orders,
I am substantially understating the extent to which
tax returns, or their contents, are disseminated.
The discovery about a year ago that Presidential
aide Clark Mollenhoff was examining tax teturns without an executive order -- or at least without a published order -- led to further disclosures that similar practices had been followed in the Kennedy administration. It was reported also that IRS employees had not infrequently leaked the contents of returns, and that in one instance a friendly revenue
agent had obliged a federal prosecutor by screening
the tax returns of 150 prospective jurors in a tax
case. No one could recall, however, that any IRS
employee had ever been prosecuted under a statute
imposing criminal penalties for such activities.
Army Investigation of Civilians

The Army, of course, has personal files on those
who are, or have been, in its service. But in January of last year, a former captain of Army intelligence revealed that the Army since 1965 had been
collecting information on civilians and maintaining
files on them in its computerized data bank at Fort
Holabird in Baltimore -- ostensibly to enable it to
anticipate civil di sturbances. Then followed a
series of somewhat contradictory reports. Rep. Cornelius Gallagher, chairman of the House Subcommittee
on Invasion of Privacy, announced that the Army had
assured him that its surveillance of civilians would
cease. Somewhat later, Secretary of Defense Melvin
Laird announced that the surveillance operation had
been transferred to civilian control in the Department of Defense.
Later hearings before a Senate subcommittee revealed details of the Army's 1968 "Ci vi! Disturbance
Information Plan." Defense Department spokesmen
testified that the Department had since 1968 maintained an index of 25 million names (now being computerized), about 80 per cent of which were keyed
to dossiers; and that since 1968 the compilation had
included civilians who had taken part in civil rights
or anti-war activities, and who were thus regarded
as at least potential civil disturbance risks.
Also included were prominent persons friendly
with such suspects, among them Sen. Adlai E. Stevenson III, Rep. Abner"Mikva and former Illinois Gov.
Otto Kerner. The Army's share of the dossiers -about 8 million -- were said to be accessible to
only 688 authorized officials. Asst. Atty. Gen.
William Rehnquist testified that surveillance of
civilians had now been transferred from Defense to
Justice, conceded that there had been abuses due to
"excessive zeal," opposed any legislative limitations on such surveillance, and urged the Congress
to rely upon""self-discipline" on the part of the
executive branch.
Case of Army vs. Privacy to be Tried

Before the Corigressional hearings started, the
ACLU had filed two actions to enjoin the Army's civilian surveillance programs as a violation of the
First and "Fourth Amendments and of a con"sti tutionally protected right of privacy. In each instance
the complaint was dismissed; in both cases appeals
16

were taken rnd the Court of Appeals in the District
of Columbia has in one case reversed the dismissal
and ordered the Army to trial.
House Internal Security Committee

Not all the dossier compilers of the federal
government are in the executive branch. Since 1938
the former House Un-American Activities Committee
has been compiling dossiers on persons and organizations it deems insufficiently anti-Communist. (In
a more sporadic fashion, the Senate Internal Security Subcommittee does the Dame thing.) The House
committee does not reveal the number of its dossiers,
but by 1949 they occupied thirty file cabinets, and
by 1955 the committee was converting them to microfilm.
The Supreme Court has held unconstitutional a
state statute requiring registration of members of
organizations cited by the committee, because the
committee's procedures do not include minimum safeguards to "insure the rationality" of its compilations. Those compilations are, nonetheless, widely
used both privately and officially.
Anyone can obtain a copy of a committee dossier
by requesting it through a member of Congress. During the past year the committee responded to 1,057
such requests, and its files were also examined
1,348 times by twenty-five executive departments and
agencies of the federal government. In 1968 Rep.
Don Edwards wrote to several executive agencies and
departments and asked them to what extent they searched committee files and why. All responded that
they searched the files in connection with the federal loyalty-security program and e~timated the frequency of their searches as follows:
Housing and Urban Development
"about once a
month."
Health, Education and Welfare
"several times
each week."
Defense Department -- "approximately 120 t'imes
a week."
Civil Service Commission -- "approximately 288,000
times in fiscal 1967."
Bill To Restrict Committee's Actions

Rep. Edward Koch has recently introduced a bill,
applicable only to the House Internal Security Committee, which would require the committee to notify
each individual on whom it keeps a file that the
dossier exists, to allow the individual to inspect
and supplement the file (but not learn the source
of the information in it), and to forbid any disclosure of the file to persons outside the committee
and its staff without the consent of the subject -but with a blanket exception from all these provisions for files that two-thirds of the committee decide should "be kept secret in the interest of national security."
List of "Radical" Speakers

During the summer of 1970 the committee sent a
questionnaire to 179 colleges and universities, asking them to list all campus speakers for the previous two-year period, together with the honoraria
paid. After checking the replies received against
its dossiers, the committee produced and released
to the press a list of sixty-five "radical" campus
speakers. Some of those so named protested and the
list was pared to fifty-seven.
The ACLU brought an action to enJoln official
publication and distribution of the list. Judge
COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1972

Gesell decided that he could not direct an injunction to committee members because of the "speech or
debate" clause of the Constitution, but did enjoin
the Public Printer from printing or distributing
the list, which he found to have no legitimate legislative purpose but to be designed solely to agitate college officials, alumni and parents in an
effort to inhibit free speech on the campuses. Although the government has appealed the decision,
the committee persuaded the House to adopt a resolution directing the Public Printer to publish the
list and he has done so.
Index of

"Names Mentioned"

From time to time, the committee also publishes
a cumulative index of the names of all individuals,
organizations and publications mentioned in any of
its own publications. The index for the period
1938-54 includes the names of some 38,000 individuals. A supplement published last year lists about 25,000 names mentioned in committee reports,
hearings or "consultations." Since I am in the
supplement, though not in the original volume, I
used the index to discover what had brought me into
such distinguished company. I discovered that in
the 1966 hearings a witness had cited an article of
mine which described as unconstitutional a "Criminal
Conspiracies Control Act" which the committee was
sponsoring. [See "Clear and Present Danger" by
Vern Countryman, The Nation, July 4, 1966.J But
that was not the extent of my misdeeds. During the
1967 hearings of the committee, the Washington representative of the National Committee to Abolish
HUAC, of which I am also an official, distributed
to the press a statement I had written contending
that proposed amendments to the Internal Security
Act, which were enacted in 1968, were also unconstitutional. Of course I have no ground for complaint
at being included in a list which also names, among
others, all known and suspected members of the Communist Party and the Ku Klux Klan. The committee
protects my good name by saying, in fine print in
the front of the index: "The fact that a name appears in this index simply indicates that said individual, publication, or organization, has been
mentioned in a hearing, report, or consultation.
It is not per se an indication of a record of subversive activities. A careful check of references
in the hearing, report, or consultation will determine the circumstances under which such individual, publication or organization is named." Anyone with access to the committee's hearings and
reports, and time to devote to them, can determine
the basis for most of the citations. The committee
does not explain, however, how one is to check out
its "consultations." Presumably one asks his Congressman to obtain a copy of the committee's dossier
on the person in question.
Census Data Officially Restricted

Although the Constitution directs a decennial
"enumeration" of the population for the purposes of
apportioning Representatives among the states, the
Census Bureau, an arm of the Department of Commerce,
is now directed by statute to collect and publish
information not only on the population but also on
industry, business, agriculture and governments, on
crime and on defective, dependent and delinquent
classes. The population census, far from being a
mere "enumeration," covers matters of sex, race and
national origin, place of birth, marital status,
family size, nature of household, quality of housing,
geographical location and mobility. In addition to
the information which it collects itself, the Census
Bureau also obtains information from such other agencies as the Internal Revenue Service and the Social
COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1972

Security Administration. Like the benevolent private compilers, the Census Bureau is not interested
in individuals but in groups. But, as in the case
of the private compilers, its data cannot be kept
up to date or programmed for new uses unless a key
to the identity of each individual is preserved,
and such a key is preserved.
Everyone over 18 years of age is required by law
to respond to the bureau's inquiries. The bureau is
authorized to furnish state governments, courts and
individuals with "data for genealogical and other
proper purposes," but the information so furnished
is not to be "used to the detriment of" the subject.
Otherwise, the bureau is forbidden to use the information supplied by the citizens for "other than
statistical purposes," or to permit anyone outside
the Department of Commerce to "examine individual
reports." Criminal penalties are prescribed for unauthorized disclosure.
The Federal Trade Commission Found a Loophole

The bureau claims that th'~re has never been a
known violation of these restrictions on use and
that it does not supply individual information to
other federal agencies, but the Federal Trade Commission found a loophole. Pursuant to an investigation of possible violation of antitrust laws, it
issued an administrative subpoena for a corporation's
file copy of its census returns. The Supreme Court,
in an opinion equally applicable to all census returns, and probably to tax returns as well, held
that the subpoena should be judicially enforced, although the census report form was marked "Confidential" and stated that it could not "be used for
purposes of taxation, investigation or regulation."
Both the legend on the forms and the statutory restrictions on disclosure were held to run only against the Census Bureau and not to impose limitations on the power of other governmental agencies
to compel the subject to disclose its file copies.
Congress promptly passed an amendment forbidding
any governmental agency from obtaining copies of
census returns retained by the subject.
Other Federal Dossiers

This survey of official dossier compilers is by
no means complete, even at the federal level. For
instance, The Associated Press reported last year
that the Civil Service Commission has files on 10
million persons who have sought federal jobs since
1939, and additional files on 1.5 million suspected
of "subversive activities," who presumably have lost
or will never get federal jobs .. The Secret Service
has computerized 100;000 names and accumulated 50,000
dossiers. Personal files are kept on virtually all
of the labor force by the Social Security Administration, and the Passport Office keeps a computerized file of more than 243,000 citizens whose applications for passports are brought to the attention
of law-enforcement agencies. A 1966 survey of all
federal executive departments and agencies revealed
that they had 3.1 billion personal files, including
264.6 million police records, 342 million medical
histories, 279.6 million psychiatric records, and
187.8 million "security or other investigative reports."
Congressman Koch and Sen. Birch Bayh have introduced bills to enact a Citizens' Privacy Act. Applicable to all federal agencies and departments
subject to the Administrative Procedure Act (but not
to Congressional committees), the Act would require
the same notice to the subject, opportunity for him
to supplement the file, and petition against disclosure without his consent that Congressman Koch's
17

bill would impose on the House Internal Security
Committee -- but with exceptions for files "compiled for law-enforcement purposes" so long as "reasonably necessary to commence prosecution or other
action," and for files "specifically required by
executive order to be kept secret in the interest of
the national security."

another day. The effect of computers on the vast
numbers of personal dossiers already collected by
private and official compilers is to give us a National Data Bank now, albeit one not as "efficient,"
and one more vulnerable to unauthorized use, than a
single storehouse of information would be.
Computerized Dossiers Can Be Raided

The States' Efforts to Inform Themselves

Taking a cue from the federal government, the
states are also compiling mountains of data. The
New York State Identification and Intelligence System, established in 1965, has a computerized central data bank serving 3,600 law-enforcement agencies in the state. The Oklahoma Office of InterAgency Coordination, established in 1969 with federal Law Enforcement Assistance funds, is now facing an ACLU lawsuit seeking the dismantling of its
files of 6,000 dossiers. The Massachusetts Civil
Liberties Union is preparing a similar suit against
the State Police's Subversive Activities Division,
whose continued operation is also being challenged
in the state legislature.
In a New Orleans suit now before the United States
Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit, the commander of the city's intelligence division has testified that his men attend and take photographs at all
public events where "controversial" views are likely
to be expressed. In New Jersey, the attorney general sent a memorandum to local law-enforcement officials asking them to report to the State Police
Central Security Unit the names of all persons involved in "incidents" such as "civil disturbance,
riot, rally, protest, demonstration, march, confrontation, etc.," including information on spouses,
draft status, affiliations, education and credit
status. In a class action for a declaratory judgment that such a program violated the First Amendment, the trial court gave summary judgment for the
plaintiffs and ordered the attorney general to produce and destroy all dossiers except those that
"will be used to charge persons with specifically
defined criminal conduct." On appeal, the decision
was reversed. The summary judgment was held to be
improper because plaintiff's fears that the dossiers
would be improperly used was considered "fanciful"
the police, it was suggested, may have intended
to use the dossiers only to call upon those listed
to help dissuade others from resorting to violencel
An amended complaint has been filed in this action.
We Already Have a "National Data Bank"

As I mentioned earlier, a proposal, originating
with certain academics and encouraged by the Bureau
of the Budget, was made several years ago to establish a Federal Data Center, not for the purpose of
compiling personal dossiers but solely to compile
statistical information on groups. After a series
of Congressional hearings in which it was conceded
that some key to the identity of those in the group
must be maintained if the group compilations were
to be kept up to date and adaptable to new uses, a
commitment was obtained from the Bureau of the Budget that, before such a central data bank was established, the problems of threat to privacy would
be evaluated by a panel including constitutional
lawyers, computer experts, suppliers and users of
statistical information and representatives of Congress, and that specific legislative authorization
would be sought on any recommendations of the panel.
There the matter rests.
It would be incautious to conclude from that,
however, that a National Data Bank is an issue for

18

Many private compilations are already computerized, more are in process of transfer to computers,
and the dossiers of many noncomputerized compilers
have been fed into the computers of other private
or official compilers. The federal government acquired its first all-electronic computer during World
War II for use by the Army Ordnance Corps. By 1964
at least 2,000 computers were in federal use, excluding "equipment which is used in military operational and certain classified activities within the
Department of Defense."
The computer can store infinite bits of information and can retrieve them at the rate of a few nanoseconds (billionths of a second) per bit. Computers
can be connected by interfaces and can be tapped,
not only by theft of printouts or by tampering with
wires but by laser beams and other nonmechanical intrusions. Access codes can and are broken, after
which the intruder can "display and manipulate the
data stored within the system." No completely effective security system against such intrusions has
been or probably ever will be devised.
The intruder in quest of data on a particular
subject will, of course, have to locate his quarry
in the bank, but in many cases that may not be difficult. Enough knowledge in advance about the subject to pose a few pertinent questions to the raided computer will quickly identify him. In many other cases, an even easier technique may be available.
Social Security numbers are entered on federal and
many state tax returns. In several states that number is also used on drivers' licenses. One and a
half billion of those 3.1 billion federal personal
files also contain the subjects' Social Security
numbers.
Laws - and Their Goals - Inadequate

Computers not engaged in compiling or stealing
dossiers can also make t~eir contributions to the
data bank. The airline~' computerized reservation
service will reveal where you flew, whether you rented an automobile for use after landing and, perhaps, where you made hotel reservations. The hotels'
computerized reservation service will provide the
latter information if the airlines' service does
not, and will say also whether you shared the accommodation with one claiming to be your spouse. Your
bank's computerized check-processing system will reveal details of many of your expenditures and, as
we move into the checkless, cashless society, will
ultimately reveal the details of your every expenditure.
Measured against this monstrous technological
capacity to search out most of the details of our
lives, the present state of the law -- and most of
the proposals for new law -- seem to me inadequate
to achieve their professed objectives. And those
goals, in time, promise inadequate protection, even
if they could be achieved.
Insuring the Accuracy of Dossiers

Some concern about the accuracy of the proliferating dossiers arises from what computer men call

COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1972

the GIGO principle -- Garbage In, Garbage Out. In
fact, the computerization of personal dossiers may
provide the first literal application of that principle, since the investigators of private individuals have been known to comb through the subjects'
garbage.
The main purpose of the Fair Credit Reporting
Act, and of the proposals for legislative restrictions on some federal compilers, is to insure that
the information in all our dossiers will be accurate. The chief mechanism provided to achieve this
end is notification to the subject, who then has an
opportunity to correct erroneous entries; the Act
also requires the compiler to discard out-of-date
entries on his own initiative. These measures almost surely will not achieve their objectives for
at least two reasons:
1

(I) Many subjects will never receive notice that
their dossiers exist. The only sanctions in the
Fair Credit Reporting Act are compensatory damages
for negligent failure to give notice and punitive
damages for willful failure to give notice. The
Act even purports to prevent the states from expanding their tort law to award damages for erroneous
reports against compilers who are not guilty of malice or willful intent to injure. Since subjects
who do not receive notices will never know that they
may have a cause of action, compilers have considerable incentive to be sparing with notices.
The proposed legislation applicable to executive
departments and agencies not excepted in "law-enforcement" and "national security" cases seems to
provide even less incentive to give notice. The legislation contains no sanctions of its own, and it is
doubtful that the nebulous provisions of the Federal
Tort Claims Act can be read to incorporate the compensatory damage provisions of the Fair Credit Reponting Act. Beyond this, there appears to be only
the possibility of an action, possibly a class action, to compel compliance, and that will also be of
little value to one who does not learn that he is
the subject of a dossier. The proposed legislation
applicable only to the House Internal Security Committee, which also contains no sanctions of its own,
seems even more toothless. Since the Federal Tort
Claims Act extends only to executive departments and
agencies, an action to compel compliance may not reach
to members of Congress, and apparently will not reach
to employees of the committee if the committee is
careful not to delegate to them the duty of giving
notice.
(2) The credit reporting agencies managed to put
over on Congress the monstrous proposition that they
should remain free to collect and disseminate erroneous dossiers -- subject only to liability for
malice or willful intent to injure -- and that the
burden should fall upon their subjects to come in
and correct the errors. The pending bills that are
applicable to some federal compilers proceed on the
same assumption. But many subjects, even if they
receive notice, may conclude that life is too short,
or their resources too limited, to make the effort
toward correction. Particularly may they reach this
conclusion when they discover that they cannot learn
the sources of ~dverse entries (except for credit
bureau reports), nor compel deletion of such entries,
but must content themselves with entering their versionof'matters in the file -- and that under the
Fair Credit Reporting Act they cannot actually see
the files but must be content with the compiler's
disclosure of the "nature and substance" of the information therein.
COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1972

Restricting Access to Dossiers

The Fair Credit Reporting Act imposes two restrictions on access to the dossiers of commercial compilers without consent of the subject. First, the
compiler is to furnish information only to persons
and governmental agencies who, the compiler "has
reason to believe," have a "legitimate business need"
for the information or, in the case of a government
agency, wish to determine the subject's eligibility
for a license or other benefit. Any compiler who is
negligent in establishing his "reason to believe"
is liable for compensatory damages, and any compiler
who willfully acts without such reason is liable for
punitive da~ages -- if the subject learns what was
done and is able to persuade a court that the need
was not "legitimate" and that the compiler acted
negligently or willfully. These remedies, I would
suppose, will be invoked almost as rarely as the
criminal penalties prescribed for officers or employees of a compiler who knowingly and willfully disclose information to one "not authorized" to receive
it. The standard for authorized access -- "legitimate business need" -- is probably too vague to satisfy due process requirements for a criminal statute
and is certainly too vague to hold out much promise
for an effective civil remedy.
Second, the Fair Credit Reporting Act forbids disclosure, except in response to court order, of more
than identifying information -- name, present and
former addresses, and present or former places of
employment -- to any government agency not engaged
in determining eligibility for a license or other
benefit or which does not have a "legitimate business need." No substantive limit at all is placed
upon governmental agencies empowered to issue statutory subpoenas enforceable by court order, that
can convince the court that the information is relevant to an inquiry they are authorized to make; the
Act does impose upon them the inconvenience of obtaining the court order.
Should the Subject Decide Who Sees His Files?

The FBI has no subpoena power. It is thus left
with three alternatives in cases where it does not
wish to obtain a search warrant or to proceed on
the assumption that the Fourth Amendment does not
apply to the federal e~ecutive: (1) it can stop
using the files of the commercial compilers; (2)
its agents can obtain access to the files by means
of false pretenses and risk prosecution by the Department of Justice; or (3) without false pretenses,
its agents can persuade officers or employees of
the commercial compilers to risk prosecution by the
Department of Justice by knowingly and willfully
making an unauthorized disclosure. The record of
Department of Justice prosecutions for illegal wire
taps under the Communications Act of 1934 strongly
suggest that the FBI will not feel confined to the
first alternative.
Some concerned computer men have suggested that
privacy may be adequately protected if disclosure
of personal data is limited to instances when the
subject consents to such disclosure. The Fair Credit Reporting Act also authorizes disclosure of
dossiers to anyone, pursuant to "the written instructions of" the subject. But obviously, when
the subject is seeking employment, when he is seeking insurance, or even when he is seeking credit,
his consent will be far from voluntary. Indeed,
one of the compilers' arguments against compelling
them to give the subject a copy of his dossier was
that someone else might, by economic coercion, "invade his privacy" by compelling him to produce it.
19

The proposed legislation applicable to some federal compilers would -- with generous exceptions
for "national security" and "law-enforcement" files
-- forbid any disclosure of information without
the "permission" of the subject. Here again, any
consent given by a subject seeking federal employment will often not be voluntary. In any event,
the limited sanctions available under these proposals are not likely to deter improper disclosure,
or to provide effective relief to one injured by
such disclosure.
Limiting the Content of Dossiers

It has been suggested that limitations be placed
upon the content of personal dossiers. Some of
the proponents of a formal National Data Center,
for instance, suggested that its files should include only "statistical" data, not personalized
data of the sort found in FBI, IRS, military, civil
service and medical records. But they could devise
no standard precise enough to permit effective control. Moreover, they apparently contemplated the
continued compilation of the various types of more
personal dossiers that they would not include in
the National Data Center, and it is the existence
of such dossiers and the ubiquity of the computer
which have created the present, informal, National
Data Center.
The Right to Privacy

Even if all dossiers were absolutely accurate, or
if remedies for inaccuracy were absoluteiy adequate,
the question of the right to privacy would remain.
By a "right to privacy" I do not confine myself to
the right to protection against unwanted publicity
and palpable intrusion into private affairs which
finds some limited protection by common law or by
statute in some states. Nor do I confine myself to
recently emerging constitutional concepts which thus
far have forged slightly beyond the Fourth Amendment
to permit married persons to receive birth control
information, and anyone to contemplate in the sanctity of his home material which might otherwise be
forbidden as obscene, but which do not protect against erroneous but nonmalicious publicity about public officials, public employees embroiled in public
issues, and private citizens who have been injected
into the news by events beyond their control.
liThe Right to be Let Alone"

I refer rather to a concept of privacy which Justice Brandeis described as "the right to be let
alone -- the most comprehensive of rights and the
right most valued by civilized men." Justice Douglas has characterized it as the freedom of the individual "to select for himself the time and circumstances when he will share his secrets with others
and decide the extent of that' sharing." Such a concept of privacy is offended by the gross compilation
of details about a person's private affairs, however
accurately and delicately the compilation is
ted, ~nd the dissemination of those details
ers, whethe~ they be private or public users
information'and regardless of their number.
Congress and the Limitation of Dossiers

I do not regard it as conceivable that courts or
state legislatures, in the development of private
law remedies, or that criurts in the development of
constitutional doctrine, will establish such a concept of privacy in time to mee~ the dangers of the
computerized dossier. Only the Congress seems cap20

able of acting with the speed required. And, in
order for it to act effectively, it must first comprehend the concept of privacy which its efforts must
be designed to insure. It must also rid itself of
three misconceptions which it shares with many outside of the Congress:
(1) That whatever technology can produce should
be used; (2) that anyone who can show that information is useful, or comforting, to him in the conduct of private or public affairs has shown a "legitimate need" for its use; (3) that whatever is efficient is desirable.
If a meaningful concept of privacy were adopted
and these three misconceptions were discarded, Congress should then proceed on the assumption that, as
long as dossiers exist on the present scale, they
will be used in disregard of whatever restrictions
may be imposed. Law-enforcement officials "in an
excess of zeal" will disregard those restrictions
and, in an excess of tolerance, will not invoke criminal sanctions against themselves or others who similarly disregard them. And with the use of dossiers
at its present magnitude, no privately enforceable
remedies will ffiffice to check unauthorized use.
To Eliminate Dossiers -

Appraise Need

The only hope for substantial protection of privacy against the computerized dossiers, therefore,
is that they not exist -- at least that they not exist on the present scale. And if the "legitimate
need" for dossie~s were appraised as an actual need
for a vital public purpose, rather than as a convenience or comfort for any acceptable purpose, the
great bulk of existing dossiers could be eliminated
and the growth of dossiers in the future drastically
curtailed. Careful study of the contents of various
compilations, and careful consideration of the justification therefor, would be required before lines
could be drawn, but it seems apparent that a rigorous application of the test of actual need for a
vital public purpose would drastically clear the
files.
To cite but a few examples: No such need justifies the retention in FBI files of all information
amassed by it and by cooperating state police authorities on all persons investigated in connection
with a particular crime after the case has been
closed. Similarly, there is no such need to retain
in both FBI and Civil Service Commission files the
collection of gossip, rumor and hearsay -- or even
of hard facts -- on an applicant for federal employment after his application has been denied. The
only "need" for preserving keys to person31 identity
in the Census Bureau's population statistics is that
those keys facilitate keeping the statistics up to
date and adapting them to new uses during the tenyear period between censuses. How vital is that
need, and could it not perhaps be met instead by
taking a population census at more frequent intervals?
Efficiency or Individual Liberty?

There is no such need at all for the highly untrustworthy files of the House Internal Security
Committee. There is even room to question the need
for those permanent dossiers which constitute the
lifeblood of the credit bureaus. As I have previously indicated, they are as likely to induce as
to preclude an unwise credit extension. Yet the
business volume of the users of those dossiers is
(Please turn to page 36)

COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1972

3400 Organizations Required

by

Court Order-

to Furnish ConFidential Data to IBM
Leon Davidson, John D. French, Norman R. Carpenter, and Philip Neville

Contents

1. Introductory Note: Something Almost .Unbelievable,

by Edmund C. Berkeley, Editor, "Computers and
Automation"
2. Challenge, by Leon Davidson, President, Metroprocessing Corporation of America
3. "Your Company is One of Those That Must Answer",
letter by John D. French and Norman R. Carpenter,
Faegre and Benson, Attorneys

A reporter of Business Week has stated that over
1500 organizations have so far responded to these
inquiries, at heavy expense; and that he was able to
see and read their responses on a visit to the court
clerk.
We publish here the actual text of the letters
from IBM attorneys and the court orders accompanying
them. We include first a letter from the president
of one small organization, Metroprocessing Corporation of America, White Plains, N.Y., who courageously refuses to SUbilli t to an act that bears all the
earmarks pf dictatorship. even when issuing from
a judge of the United States District Courts.

4. "Attached is List of Examples Which IBM Believes
are Part of Electronic Data Processing Industry",
letter by John D. French and Norman R. Carpenter,
Faegre and Benson, Attorneys

2. Challenge

METROPROCESSING
CORPORATION OF AMERICA
64 Prospect Street
White Plains, NY. 10606

5. Examples of Some EDP Products and Services, by
IBM Corporation
6. "Companies Shall Mail Their Written Answers Not
Later than January 21, 1972", Court Order (Dec.
13, 1971), by Philip Neville, U. S. District Judge
7. "Order Requiring Written Answers to Questions On or
Before October 20, 1971", Court Order (Sept. 20,
1971), by Philip Neville, U. S. District Judge
8. Guidelines to Questions That Must Be Answered by
You, by Philip Neville, U. S. District Judge

Dec~mber

21, 1971
Re: 3-68 Civ. 312
3-70 Civ.328
3-70 Civ. 329

Clerk
U.S. District Court
316 N. Robert St.
St. Paul, Minn. 55101
Dear Sir:

9. "Questions That Must Be Answered by You", by
Philip Neville, U. S. District Judge
10. "Non-party Deponents' Motions to Vacate Rule 31
Order are Hereby Denied", Court Order (Nov. 12,
1971), by Philip Neville, U. S. District Judge
1. Introductory Note: Something Almost Unbelievable
Edmund C. Berkeley
Editor, Computers and Automation

Once in a while something happens in the United
States that is almost unbelievable.
An example is the order of Judge Philip Neville
of the U.S. District Court, St. Paul, Minn., at first
to 2700 organizations and then to 700 additional ones
to furnish confidential data to IBM Corporation (formerly International Business Machines Corp.). The
purpose of this order is to aid IBM in their defense
in a suit on charges of monopoly brought by Control
Data Corporation.
Furthermore, each of the 3400 responding organizations has to pay the cost itself of gathering and
furnishing the required information; and there is apparently nothing in the court order(s) which enables
the plaintiff, CDC, to obtain access to the information in order to counteract whatever IBM may assert
about the information in court.
COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1972

I. We have received a Court Order dated Dec. 13,
1971. in the above matter, requiring us (and some
700 other deponents not named) at our own expense
to furnish to you sensitive and proprietarY de~ails
of our business. for use by IBM and its outside experts, in defending IBM in the Antitrust actions.
2. Some 2700 firms were ordered to provide such
information in the Sept. 20, 1971 Court Order in
this matter. Since IBM is limited to only 15 fulltime employees to work with the information being
collected in these depositions (under terms of the
Protective Order of Nov. 12, 1971), no feasible
means exists for using this mass of material except
for IBM and its outside experts to create a large
"data bank" from it.
This data bank would contain detailed proprietary
information from every major and most minor firms in
the computer industry, as well as firms which buy or
are likely to buy computers or use computers. If
the court proceedings and appeals last for three to
ten years more, the data bank would remain available
to IBM for the same period. There is no actual
means today for guaranteeing that this data will not
leak out within the IBM organization (despite the
intent of the Protective Order) and be used for competitive advantage. It is possible that IBM will
periodically 'request the Court to order deponents to
furnish updated information as the years go by. to
help perfect its case (and its data b~nk).
21

3. IBM is seeking to maXImIze the Court's idea of
the size of the so-called "EDP Industry", to minimize its apparent share of the market. To this end,
it has tried to include significant investments and
revenues of the telephone companies, the teletype
networks, radar defense networks, and other "information processing" systems in the so-called EDP industry. This is shown by the examples provided in
the Sept. 22, 1971, letter from IBM's law firm,
Faegre & Benson.
If the Court permi ts thi s "catch-all" approach,
everything from gas station pumps to self-timing
kitchen sink garbage disposers would be subject to
inclusion, and IBM would have made its case. Every
telephone in the country can transmit data to a computer; so if the telephone plant investment is figured as part of the computer industry. IBM becomes
proportionally quite small.

7. The Clerk is also hereby requested to send us
a copy of the list of some 700 "additional companies" covered by the Court Order of Dec. 13, 1971,
on which our name purportedly appears, according to
Faegre and Benson. We have been refused a copy of
this list by Faegre & Benson, when we requested it
by telephone.
8. We will await a reply to this letter before
taking any further action pursuant to the Court
Order of Deco 13, 1971. We believe that this letter
fully satisfies the spirit of the Court Order, and
therefore request that all information furnished in
this letter (and noted as coming under the application of the Protective Order) be indeed covered by
the Protective Order, as provided by Par. (2)
thereof.
Very truly yours,
Leon Davidson
President

4. To adapt a phrase, "De minimus non est disputandum."
Our firm is so small that we feel that the following information about us provides all that the
Court or IBM could reasonably need, for purposes of
the Antitrust case. We were organized in 1967 and
incorporated in N.Y. state in 1968. We have never
had gross sales exceeding [deleted] in any year.
(The protective order of Nov. 12, 1971, applies to
this information.) Our price list and product brochure are enclosed.
EVen if there were 10,000 other firms such as our
own, on your list of required deponents, the total
annual gross sales represented would be less than
IBM's annual earnings. The time and effort of digesting the requested detailed information from such
small firms would clog up the proceedings under way,
to the advantage of the respective defendants. Yet
nothing substantive would be added to the true picture of IBM's domination of the market.
5. The natural human leakage of the information
gathered from these depositions, despite the Protective Order, would probably benefit IBM's sales
and marketing organization, well known to contain
highly-motivated individuals under strong pressure
to produce sales.
The quantitative probability that such leakage
could be prevented by the protection provided in
the Protective Order of Nov. 12, 1971, is arguable.
The Order only refers to the destruction of files
by the "outside experts", after the case is disposed
of, and says nothing about what IBM's 15 full-time
employees must do with their copies of the files and
data banks of the deposition data.
We do not believe that the Court has considered
all of the implications of the Protective Order, as
issued, and suggest that "amicus curiae" advice be
sought from the "Protection of Privacy" committees
of the professional computer organizations such as
A.C.M., D.P .M.A., LE.E.E., etc.
6. The Protective Order (page 9, par. (3)) implies that the Court Order of Sept. 20, 1971, instructed the Clerk of the Court to disclose the
depositions only to a designated list of names.
However, the actual text of the Sept. 20 order contains no such instruction or list.

3. "Your Company is One of Those That Must Answer"

Faegre & Benson
1300 Northwestern Bank Building
Minneapolis, Minnesota 55402
Area Code 612
227-0827
December 13, 1971
He:

Greyhound Computer Corporation v. IBM
CDC v. IBM; CCC, Additional Defendant

Gentlemen:
This packet of material contains several orders of
a United States District Judge requiring many companies to answer the written questions enclosed herein.
Your company is one of those which must answer those
questions, pursuant to the orders of the Court.
The date for your written response to the questions
has been set for January 21, 1972. In the preparation of your response, your attention is called to
the guidelines, particularly u3 and u9, which are
intended to facilitate and simplify preparation of
your answers.
Very truly yours,
John D. French (signed)
Norman H. Carpenter (signed)
4. "Attached is List of Examples Which IBM Believes
are Part of Electronic Data Processing Industry"

Faegre & Benson
1300 Northwestern Bank Building
Minneapolis, Minnesota 55402
September 22, 1971
He:

Greyhound Computer Corporation v. IBM
CDC v. IBM; CCC, Additional Defendant

Gen tlemen:
We would like to receive from the Clerk a copy
of the list of persons filed with the Clerk pursuant
to par. (1) of the Protective Order of Nov. 12,
1971, who are authorized to have access to the "protected" responses in the depositions.
22

In connection with the accompanying census (questions 1 through 5 of which were proposed to the
Court by IBM and questions 6 through 10 of which
were proposed by Greyhound Computer Corporation) you
COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1972

are, as indicated in the Guidelines, to submit information with respect to all electronic data processing products or services. Attached is a list of
examples of some companies and examples of some
products and services which IBM believes are part of
the electronic data processing industry. Please
bear companies and products and services of those
types in mind in answering the questions.
Very truly yours,
John D. French (signed)
Norman R. Carpenter (signed)
5. Examples of Some EDP Products and Services
IBM Corporation

EXAMPLES OF SOME EDP PRODUCTS AND SERVICES
American Telephone and Telegraph
Electronic Switching Systems
Teletype Inktronic Data Terminal
Teletype Model 33 KSR Terminal
AMP, Inc.
SYSCOM Credit Card Reader
Ampex Corp.
TM-1624 Magnetic Tape Transport
Anderson Jacobson, Inc.
ADAC 1200 Coupler
Applied Data Research
AUTOFLOW Flowcharting Program
Applied Data Research Programmatics, Inc.
PI SORT 2 Sort Program
Astrodata, Inc.
1561 Electronic Data Sorter
BASF Systems, Inc.
1100 Disk Pack
Bunker-Ramo Corp.
Telequote III Stock Quote System
Burroughs Corp.
D825 Modular Data Processing System
EIOI Electronic Digital Computer
F4224 Electronic Bookkeeping Machine
TC-500 Terminal Computer
204 Computer
California Computer Products, Inc.
563 Plotter
Calma Co.
480 Analog Graphical Data Digitizer
Cincinnati Milacron Co.
CIP/2100 Minicomputer
Clary Corp.
3030 Electronic Sales Recorder
Collins Radio Co.
C8401 Data Processor
Comma Corp.
"EDP" Maintenance Service
Computer Communications, Inc.
CCI-7000 Communications Processing System
Computer Learning and Systems Corp.
CASE Simulation Program
X-RAY Hardware/Software Monitor Systems
Computer Network Corp.
COMNET-ALPHA Time Sharing System Program
Computer Sciences Corp.
"EDP" Systems Analysis and Design Service
Computer Usage Co.
"EDP" Programming Service
Comress, Inc.
Dynaprobe Computer Performance Monitor Program
SCERT Computer Simulation Program
Control Data Corp.
162 Magnetic Tape Synchronizer
180 Data Collector
915 Optical Character Page Reader
COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1972

3106 Communication Channel
6601 Central Computer
7614 Central Processing Unit
8068 Supervisory Console
9300 TJcket Printer
Data General Corp.
NOVA Central Processing Unit
Data Products Corp.
1500 Uptime Speed reader
Satellite Print Station
Digi-Data Corp.
System 11 Magnetic Tape to Paper Tape Converter
The Die~old Group, Inc.
"EDP" Consulting Service
Digital Equipment Corp.
PDP-8 Computer
Digitronics Corp.
522 Magnetic Tape Terminal
D7530 Communications Buffer
Electronic Data Systems Corp. EDS
"EDP" Facilities Management Service
Electronics Associates, Inc.
TR-20 Analog Computer
205 Variplotter
Ex-Cello-O Corp.
Bryant CPhD Drum Memory System
Fabri-Tek, Inc.
Mod 30+ 360/30 Compatible Main Storage
Fairchild Camera & Instrument Corp.
Comp/Set 330-1 Typesetting Computer
Ford Motor Co.
Philco Basicpac Tactical Field Computer
Philco-Computer Control Console
Foto-Mem, Inc.
FM-390 Photo-Optical Random Access Memory
Fuj i tsu, Ltd.
Facom 230/25 Processor
General Automation, Inc.
1200 SPC-12 Stored Program Controller
General Electric Co.
GE/PAC 4020 Processing Unit
General Instrument Corp.
Am Tote-Computer Totalisators Pari-Mutuel System
General Telephone and Electronics Corp.
..
Programming Methods, Inc.--INTERCOM CommunIcatIons
Communications Monitor Program
Sylvania 9400 Central Processing Unit
Graham Magnetics, Inc.
Epoch 4 Magnetic Tape
Honeywell Inc.
CCT Communications Control Terminal
HDC 501 Computer
Peripheral Interface Unit
III Central Processor (Series 200)
201 Central Processor (Series 200)
285 Audio Unit
GE CP 8064 GE-615 Central Processor
GE DC 8032 Input Output Processor
Informatics, Inc.
"EDP" Custom· Contract Service
MARK IV/2 File Management Program
Information Displays, Inc.
IDIIOM (IDI Input Output Machine)
Information Storage Systems, Inc.
ENVIRON/l Data Management System Program
Interdata, Inc.
Model 3 Central Processing Unit
International Business Machines Corp.
SAGE Computer (AN/FSQ7)
4 Pi TC2 Central Processing Unit
026 Printing Card Punch
1131 Central Processing Unit
1402 Card Read Punch
1403 Printer
1801 Processor Controller
2030 Processor (System/36O Model 30)
2065 Processing Unit (System/36O Model 65)
t

23

2282 Film Recording Scanner
2721 Portable Audio Terminal
4872 Modem
6405 Accounting Machine
7255 Radar Data Buffer
International Telephone and Telegraph Corp.
245 Cryptel Electronic Scrambler
600 Vanguard Data/Message Controller
Kybe Corp.
TMS 200 Tape Certifier
Lambda Corp.
TIMES Forecasting Program
Litton Industries, Inc.
L 3050 Tacfire Computer
Lundy Electronics and Systems, Inc.
9600 MICR Reader-Sorter
The Magnavox Company, Inc.
FADAC (Field Artillery Digital Automatic Computer)
Memorex Corp.
630 Disk Drive
Mohawk Data Sciences Corp.
1101 Keyed Data-Recorder
National Cash Register Co.
Thermal Page Printer
315-501 Central Processor
353 CRAM (Card Random Access Memory)
395 Electronic Accounting System
481 All Field MICR Encoder
627 Emulation Unit
North American Rockwell Corp.
Autonetics D37 Airborne Central Data Processor
Olivetti Corp.
TC 600 Retail Terminal
Peripheral Equipment Corp.
Series 800 Incremental Magnetic Tape Recorder
Potter Instrument Co., Inc.
AT 2427 Magnetic Tape Unit
Raytheon Company
70410 Central Processor (Model 704)
75431 Digital Plotter and Controller
RCA Corp.
MICROPAC Digital Computer
70/55 Processor (Spectra)
70/216 Input/Output Typewriter
70/820 VIDEOCOMP Typesetter
70/6381 Line Concentrator
110 Industrial Control Computer
6042 Code Translator
Sanders Associates, Inc.
708 CRT Display Console
The Singer Co.
Friden 2301 Flexowriter
Automatic Writing'Machine
Friden 5015 COMPUTYPER
Electronic Accounting Machine
Sperry Rand Corp.
UNIVAC AN/UYK-7 Processor
UNIVAC 2010 1004 Processor
UNIVAC 3011 1108-11 Processor
UNIVAC 3030 9300 Processor
UNIVAC 8187 490 Central Processor
Standard Computer Corp.
IC 6000 Processing Unit
Systron-Donner Corp.
SD BOH Analog/Hybrid Computer
Tally Corporation
R-5000 Paper Tape Photoreader
Texas Instruments, Inc.
Model 960 Manufacturing and Process Control
Computer
Toshiba America, Inc.
1415P Electronic Calculator
Turnkey Systems~ Inc.
TASK/MASTER Telecommunication Monitor Program

24

Varian Associates
ADCO 626 Microfilm Storage and Retrieval System
Wang Laboratories, Inc.
700 Advance Programmable Calculator
PHI Computer Services Generalized Payroll
Program Package
Xerox Corp.
XDS 8201 Sigma 5 Central Processor
XDS AD20 Analog-to-Digital Converter
6. "Companies Shall Mail Their Written Answers Not Later
than January 21, 1971", Court Order

UNITED STATES DISTRICT COURT
DISTRICT OF MINNESOTA
THIRD DIVISION
Control Data Corporation,
Plaintiff, •
vs.
International Business Machines •
Corporation, Defendant, •
and
Commercial Credit Company,
Additional Defendant
on Countercl aim.
Greyhound Computer Corporation, •
Inc., Plaintiff, •
vs.
International Business Machines •
Corporation, Defendant ••

3-68 Civ. 312

3-70 Civ. 328
3-70 Civ. 329

Upon motion by International Business Machines
Corporation, and without opposition from any other
party, IT IS HEREBY ORDERED:
(1) This Court's Order for the Taking of Depositions Under Rule 31 of the Federal Rules of Civil
Procedure dated September 20, 1971 entered in the
above-titled consolidated litigation be and it hereby is extended to include those additional companies
herewith designated by International Business Machines Corporation and Greyhound Computer Corporation, Inc.;
(2) Copies of the Court's Order of September 20,
1971 be mailed forthwith to those newly designated
companies;
(3) Those Companies shall mail their written answers to the questions posed under the said Order
not later than January 21, 1972 to
Clerk
United States District Court
316 North Robert Street
St. Paul, Minnesota 55101
In all respects except as herein, the court's
orders of September 13, 1971 and September 20, 1971
shall remain in force and effect.
DATED: this 13th day of December 1971.
Philip Neville
UNITED STATES DISTRICT JUDGE

COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1972

7. "Order Requi ring Written Answers to Questions On
or Before October 20, 1971", Court Order

To: THE PRESIDENT OR CHIEF EXECUTIVE OFFICER
XYZ Corporation (total of
3400 organizations)
UNITED STATES DISTRICT COURT
District of Minnesota
Third Division
Control Data Corporation,
Plaintiff,

v.
1

International Business
Machines Corporation,
Defendant.
3-68 Civ. 312
Commercial Credit Company,
Additional Defendant on . Order for the Taking
Counterclaim. . of Depositions under
Rule 31 of the
Federal Rules of
Civil Procedure
Greyhound Computer Corpora~
tion, Inc., \lainti£f,
3-70 Civ. 328
v.
International Business
3-70 Civ. 329
Machines Corporation,
Defendant.
In the above actions brought under the Federal
Antitrust Laws, the relevant market for electronic
data processing and its various subdivisions and
components is a material factor. Rule 31 of the
Federal Rules of Civil Procedure provides for the
taking of depositions upon written questions rather
than on oral examination. This order is directed to
some 2,700 companies or concerns said to be members
of the industry in one capacity or another. This
order requires written answers to the questions which
accompany themailingofa copy of this order. Answers shall be mailed on or before October 20, 1971
to
Clerk
United States District Court
316 N. Robert Street
St. Paul, Minnesota 55101
Answers shall be subject to this court's protective
order of January 24, 1970. Let a copy of this order
be transmitted to the various deponents by registered
mail, return receipt requested.
Dated~

September 20, 1971.
S. by PHILIP NEVILLE
Philip Neville
United States
District Judge

of. In answering, information for unconsolidated
subsidiaries and affiliates should be separately
stated.
3. Where some or all of an answer is not readily
available, provide (a) an explanation of why such
information is not available and (b) whatever comparable, related or estimated information is available. For example, where figures on a calendar year
basis are required but records are only maintained
on a fiscal year basis, state that records are only
maintained on a fiscal year basis and provide the
available fiscal year figures. Likewise, if the
precise amount of revenue from leases of a product
to customers located in the United States [called
for by Question 4(g)(2)J is not available, give your
best estimate, identifying your response as an estimate.
4. Electronic data processing ("EDP") products
and services includes all EDP products and services.
5. The sale and lease of EDP products and services
includes the sale and lease (and resale and release)
of products and services by leasing companies, data
centers, time-sharing services and service bureaus
and all other instances in which products and services are sold or leased by the minute, day, week,
month or year, or fractions or multiples thereof.
6. As used herein "customers located in the United
States" includes the United States government regardless of where the products or services are shipped,
installed or used.
7. Where responses by calendar year are required,
respond for each calendar year since and including
1952 and for the first six months of 1971.
8. Responses will be subject to
order in effect in the above cases
of responses to the litigation and
use in the business of the parties
other purpose.

the protective
which limits use
which prohibits
or use for any

9. Where applicable, the information called for
with respect to assets, revenue and operations is
that provided in papers furnished to the SEC, reports
to stockholders and other comparable statements.
10. Questions or requests should
Norman R. Carpenter, Esq., or John
Faegre & Benson, 1300 Northwestern
Minneapolis, Minnesota, telephone:

be directed to
D. French, Esq.,
Bank Building,
(612) 227-0827.

11. Where additional space is required to answer
the questions please so note on the form provided
and attach additional pages, each referring by number, to the question being answered.

9. "Questions That Must Be Answered by You"
1. Specify:

8. Guidelines to Questions That Must Be Answered by You

1. The following questions must be answered by you
and the answers executed in writing by an officer of
your company having knowledge of the facts before a
notary public or other qualified person.
2. As used herein, "you", "your" and "respondent"
includes the Organization identified in the accompanying order and all subsidiaries (whether owned or
controlled in whole or in part) and affiliates thereCOMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1972

(a) your full name and address together with any
prior names and addresses
(b) date organized
(c) date(s) incorporated (together with state(s)
of incorporation)
2. Specify by each calendar year your
(a) net assets (in dollars) at year end and at
date of organization
0) total
(2) used in connection with the development,
manufacture, marketing or maintenance of
EDP products or services
25

(b) gross revenue
(1) total
(2) from the sale and lease of EDP products
and services to customers located in the
United States
(3) from the sale and lease of EDP products
and services to customers located outside
the United States
(c) number of customers for EDP products
(d) number of customers for EDP services
(e) expenditures for EDP
(1) research and development
(2) customer education
(3) sales and marketing other than advertising
(4) advertising
(5) promotion
(f) name of chief executive officer (together with
last known address for persons no longer employed by respondent)
3. List and identify by calendar year
(a) each of your subsidiaries, affiliates and
divisions involved in EDP business
(b) each organization involved in EDP business
acquired by you together with from whom
acquired
(c) each organization involved in EDP business
sold, spun off or otherwise disposed by you
(d) each joint venture involved in EDP business
in which you participated, together with a
list of all other participants therein.
4. List and identify each EDP product which you
offer or have offered for sale or lease and for
each specify
(a) its name and type and model number
(b) its specifications
(c) its general function
(d) applications for which it may be used
(e) if such prcduct is manufactured or developed
by respondent,
(1) the period (by beginning and ending
dates) planned
(2) the period (by beginning and ending
dates) developed
(3) the date publicly announced
(4) the date first offered for sale or lease
(5) the date first installed
(6) the date withdrawn
(f) if such product is purchased or leased by respondent and then resold or released in whole
or in part, specify the date(s)
(1) first announced or offered for sale or
lease by respondent
(2) first purchased or leased by respondent
together with from whom respondent purchased or leased it
(3) first sold or leased by respondent
(g) revenue by calendar year
(1) total
(2) from customers located in the Uni ted States
(3) from sales of new product to customers
located in the United States
(4) from sales of used product to customers
located in the United States
(5) from other sales of new product
(6) from other sales of used product
(7) from leases to customers located in the
United States
(8) from other leases
(h) quantity sold by calendar year
(1) to customers located in the Uni ted States
(2) other
(i) quantity sold after installation on lease by
calendar year
(1) to customers located in the United States
(2) other
(j) quantity installed (total) by calendar year
at year end together with the monthly rental

26

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

value and purchase value thereof
(1) wi th customers located in the Uni ted States
(2) other
(k) quantity installed on lease by calendar year
at year end together with the monthly rental
value and purchase value thereof
(1) to customers located in the United States
(2) other
(1) quantity manufactured by calendar year together with the monthly rental value and
purchase value thereof
(1) in the United States
(2) other
em) quantity uninstalledo i. e., in inventory at
year end together with the monthly rental and
purchase value thereof
(n) the quantity presently on order for sale
(0) the quantity presently on order for lease
(p) prices at which product was offered by respondent for sale or lease together with
period (by beginning and ending dates) offered
and the class of customers to whom offered.
List and identify each EDP service which you offer
or have offered, and for each specify:
(a) its nature and description
(b) its purpose
(c) date(s)
(1) planned
(2) first offered
(3) first rendered
(4) withdrawn
(d) revenue by calendar year
(1) from customers located in the United States
(2) other
(e) prices at which service was offered together
with the period (by beginning and ending
dates) offered and kinds of customers to
whom offered.
Have you manufac tured any style or type of Central
Processing Unit (CPU) during the period 1956 to
date?
(a) If your answer is in the affirmative, then:
(1) identify each style, type or model CPU
manufactured and state the number of
units of each style or type manufactured
during the period 1956 to date.
(2) during the period in which you have manufactured CPUs, state the years in which
you have leased s~ch CPUs to customers.
(b) if your answer is in the negative, have you,
during the period 1956 to date, purchased
any CPUs? If so:
(1) identify each CPU which you have purchased and give a general description of
what other equipment has been used with
each such CPU since you purchased the same.
If you are not a manufacturer of CPUs but have
purchased CPUs state:
(a) were such purchases of CPUs exclusively for
your use?
(b) have you leased CPUs which you have purchased?
If so, state the annual receipts from such
leases during the period 1956 to date.
(c) have you sold CPU time on a "time-sharing"
basis? If so, state the annual revenues for
such service for the period 1956 to date.
If you are a manufacturer of CPUs for the period
1956 to date, state the approximate percentage of
your CPU sales to each of the following customers:
(a) United States government (all parts)
%
(b) Universities and colleges
%
(c) Leasing companies (who purchased
CPUs to leaseback)
%
(d) All others (general commercial users) ~
Total
%
If you leased CPUs, estimate your total lease revenues for each year from 1956 to date, broken into

COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1972

r

the
(a)
(b)
(c)

foilowing categories:
United States government (all parts)
%
Universities and colleges
%
Leasing companies (who purchased
CPUs to leaseback)
%
(d) All others (general commercial users) ~
Total
%
10. If you have sold CPU time on a "time-sharing" basis
estimate your total receipts per year, broken into
the following categories:
(a) United States government (all parts)
%
(b) Universities and colleges
%
(c) Leasing companies (who purchased
CPUs to leaseback)
%
(d) All others (general commercial users) ~
Total
%
IJ

Signature of Company Officer
Sworn and subscribed to before me
this
day of
, 1971
Notary Public
UNITED STATES DISTRICT COURT
DISTRICT OF MINNESOTA
THIRD DIVISION
Control Data Corporation,
Plaintiff,
Vo

3- 68 Ci v
International Business Machines •
Corporation,
Defendant,
and
Commercial Credit Company,
Additional Defendant
on Counterclaim~
PRETRIAL ORDER
Greyhound Computer Corporation, •
Plaintiff,
3-70 Civo
Vo
3-70 Civo
International Business Machines
Corporation
Defendanto
0

312

NO.9
328
329

During the past several weeks a series of pretrial conferences has been held in Sto Paul, and
Minneapolis, Minnesota and in New York City, New
York, principally to hear motions objecting to the
court's order of September 20, 1971 (originally
issued September 13, 1971) entitled Order for the
Taking of Depositions Under Rule 31 of the Federal
Rules of Civil Procedure (The Rule 31 Order)o Hearings were held on October 28, and November 5 in St.
Paul, November 2 in Minneapolis and on October 29 in
New York Ci ty
0

Oppenheimer, Brown, Wolff, Leach and Foster, Sto
Paul, Minnesota, by Richard Lareau, Elmer Bo Trousdale and Eric Miller, Esqso, together with McBride,
Baker, Wienke & Schlosser, Chicago, Illinois, by
John Po Ryan, Jr. Esqo, appeared for Control Data
Corporation; Winston, Strawn, Smith & Patterson,
Chicago, Illinois, by Edward Lo Foote, Robert
Bernard and Stanley A. Walton, Esqso, together with
Haverstock, Gray, Plant and Mooty, Minneapolis, Minnesota, by Robert Eo Bowen, Esqo, appeared for Greyhound Computer Corporation: Faegre & Benson, Minnea~olis, Minnesota, by John Do French and Norman Ro
Carpenter, Esqso, together with Cravath, Swaine &
Moore, New York, N.Y., by Thomas Do Barr, Frederick
Ao 0, Schwarz, Jro, and Leonard Po Novello, Esqso
COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1972

appeared for International Business Machin~s; John
Mo Furlong, Esqo, appeared for Honeyweil, Inco; Henson, Webb & Tully, Minneapolis, Minnesota, by Robert
Fo Henson, and Joseph To Dixon, Jro Esqso appeared
for Burroughs Corporation; Donald P. McCormick and
Theodore Fo Brophy, Esqso appeared for General Telephone & Electronics Corporation; Gaston, Sno~Motley
& Holt, Boston, Massachusetts, by Ansel Bo Chaplin
and Richard Jo Testa, Esqso appeared for Digital
Equipment Corporation; Ropes & Gray, Boston, Massachusetts, by John S. Hopkins, III, Esqo, appeared
for Bolt Beranek and Newman, Inc. and The Delos International Group Inco; William Ho Talmadge, Esqo
appeared for National Cash Register; Irell & Manella,
Los Angeles, California, by Richard Ho Borow and
Gregory R. Smith, Esqso appeared for Computer Design
Corporation, Memory Systems, Inco, Unicorn Systems
Company, and Wyle Laboratories.
The order as will appear is designed to secure
information from some 2,700 companies not parties to
the litigation said to be in the e~ectronic data
processing industry in an effort to define the relevant market for purposes of trial.
The court has before it several matters with respect to its Rule 31 order dated September 20, 1971:
(a) Motions of Honeywell, Inco, Burroughs Corporation, Digital Equipment Corporation joined in by
National Cash Register, Computer Design Corporation,
Memory Systems, Inco, Unicorn Systems, Inco, Wyle
Laboratories and a separate order to show cause of
General Telephone and Electronics Corporation, all
objecting to compliance with the Rule 31 order and
in the alternative seeking a protective order pursuant to Rule 26(c) of the Federal Rules of Civil
Procedure and payment of expenses incident to compliance; (b) IBM's motion to compel General Telephone and Electronics Corporation to respond to the
census.
10 Jurisdiction to Enter Rule 31 Order
The court has concluded that its appointment as a
transferee judge for coordinated and consol\dated
pretrial proceedings pursuant to 28 U.S.C. § 1407
empowered it with jurisdiction over the various nonparty deponents at the time of entering its Rule 31
Order o This conclusion is consistent with the interpretation that one of the purposes of § 1407 is
"to avoid unsupervised wrangling of counsel and
breakdown of the continuity of the deposition and
inefficient references of questions 000 to a judge
with no prior knowledge of the litigationo" Manual
for Complex and Multidistrict Litigation, § 2032
(1970). Moreover, the Judicial Panel on Multidistrict Litigation believes it desirable to have all
determinations in the transferred litigation made by
the transferee court to avoid inconsistent rulings,
multi-circuit appeals, and dual control over the
litigation by two or more district courtso See
McDermott and Peterson, "Multidistrict Litigation:
New Forms of Judicial Administration," 56 A.B.A.J.
737, 745 (1970).
- - -To meet the jurisdictional arguments raised by
some of the deponents, however, this court has received an intercircuit.assignment by Mro Chief Justice Burger pursuant to 28 U.S.C. § 292 designating
it as a District Judge in the Southern District of
New York, the District of Massachusetts, and the
District of the District of Columbiao
20 Motions to Vacate Rule 31 Order
Attorneys for the non-party deponents have ably
argued their clients' opposition to the Rule 31
Ordero It is true that the Order does not envision
literal compliance with Rule 31 of the Federal Rules
27

of Civil Procedure. Rather, it is an innovative attempt by the court to permit discovery and at the
same time to limit the burdensome and time-consuming
procedure or oral depositions of non-party witnesses.
While the court realizes that some oral depositions
may be sought in addition to the Answers to the Ru~e
31 Order, it is the court's opinion that this streamlined Rule 31 Order would alleviate a significant
number of proposed depositions. Plaintiff Greyhound
Computer has urged that the "leasing industry" of
which it is a part is or may be in distress if certain alleged practices are not abrogated and thus an
early trial date is requested. The Rule 31 Order
was evolved in an effort to accomplish such.
The court has a broad discretion in managing the
discovery process fashion that will implement the
philosophy of full disclosure of relevant information. The basic philosophy of the amended Federal
Rules of Civil Procedure is to allow a very broad
scope of discovery and to have any restrictions imposed directed to the use of, rather than the acquisition of, the information discovered. C. Wright
& A. Miller v Federal Practice and Procedure: Civil
§ 2001 (970). It is the conrt vs belief that the
protective order issued herein will provide deponents the maximum protection against harmful side
effects from the use of information provided in
responses to the Order.
THEREFORE, IT IS ORDERED That non-party deponents V
motions to vacate the Rule 31 Order are hereby
denied.
IT IS FURTHER ORDERED That each deponent who has
not heretofore responded v includ'ing the obj ectors
above named v must file, by December 20, 1971, its
complete response to the courtVs order of September
20 v 1971, mailed to the clerk of court as provided
in that order.
IT IS FURTHER ORDERED That responses to the Rule
31 Order need only encompass data and information
through December 31, 1970, or any fiscal years occurring thereafter.
.
3. Objections Raised by Various Deponents.
The basic contention of the deponents objecting
to the Rule 31 Order is that disclosure of the information requested by IBM, claimed to be the dominant competitor, would result in irreparable injury
to their competitive position in the EDP industry.
Defendant IBM, of course, has the right to undertake
discovery of information and material relevant to
the issues in the case, and should have the opportunity to develop by pretrial discovery the facts
upon which its defenses may rest. Turmeme v. White
Consolidated Industries. Inc., 266 F. Supp. 35, 37
CD. Mass. 1967). Thus, the claims of irreparable
competitive injury asserted by deponents must be
balanced against IBMvs need for the information in
the preparation of its defense. Covey Oil Co. v.
Continental Oil Co., 340 F.2d 993, 999 (10th Cir.),
cert. denied, 380 U.S. 964 (1965).
The non-party'deponents must remember that the
delineation of the relevant market in an antitrust
case presents a complex and difficult issue. An
informed resolution of such an issue requires information from competitors in the industry. See
United States v. Lever Bros. Co., 193 F. Supp. 254,
256 (S.D. N.Y. 1961), 'cert. denied, 371 U.S. 932
(1962)j Julius M. Ames~ v:-sostitch, Inc., 235 F.
Supp. 856, 857 (S.D. N.Y. 1964). The court does not
feel that it can deprive IBM of its attempt to discover information which it asserts will aid it in

showing what its share of the relevant market is,
and yet an early trial date must be kept in mind.
The court is unaware of any rule or statute that
requires it necessarily to protect sensitive competitive information from such disclosure as is relevant to the subject matter involved in the pending
action. Olympic Refining Co. v. Carter v 332 F.2d
260, 265 (9th Cir. 1964)j accord, National Util.
Servo Inc. v. Northwestern-steel & Wire Co., 426
F.2d 222, 227 (7th Cir. 1970). The court agrees
with the response in United States v. Lever Bros.
~, supra, to a similar concern expressed by .a
third party in that litigation:
" .•• [TJhe framers of the discovery rules gave
much thought and consideration to this facet of
the problem, and concluded that the inconvenience
caused to third parties in the federal courts was
outweighed by the public interest in seeking the
truth in every litigated case, with both sides
better prepared, and the element of unfair surprise completely eliminated. Id. at 257 Accord,
Carter Products, Inc. v. Eversharp, Inc., 360
F.2d 868 (7th Cir. 1966).
II

It is the courtVs hope that through negotiations
with IBM's counsel and a sensible application of
Guidelines 3 and 9 accompanying the Rule 31 Order
problems relating to the compilation of data and
submission of responses can be resolved without intervention by the court. The court strongly urges
IBM to negotiate with deponents and to be agreeable
to accepting information as prepared which complies
as far as possible and in good faith in response to
the order. All responses are to be furnished by
December 20, 1971. This is necessary to prevent undue delay in the preparation of the trial of the
Greyhound case.
Burroughs claims that information requested for
the period 1968 to 1970 is extremely sensitive from
a competitive position. The court does not intend
to alleviate the burdens imposed upon Burroughs by
the Rule 31 Order for the years leading up to 1968.
However, for the years 1968 through 1970, Burroughs
can respond to the Order by furnishing consolidated
systems figures in arriving at its answers and where
appropriate, preparing averages for groups of
systems.
Deponent General Telephone and Electronics Corporation (G.T.E.) has resisted answering the order on
the ground that it would have to gather information
from some 130 subsidiaries. The court has been apprised by counsel for IBM that relatively few of
those 130 subsidiaries are involved in the EDP industry. The court believes that IBM should issue
copies of the Rule 31 order to those relevant subsidiaries and G.T.E. should require said subsidiaries to answer where they are involved in the EDP
business.
Counsel for IBM have informed the court that no
order is necessary with respect to the Massachusetts
respondents, Bolt Beranek and Newman, Inc. and The
Delos International Group, nor Sperry Rand, as they
have agreed to produce and furnish the requested
answers.
4. IBM Must Respond to Rule 31 Order by December
20, 1971.
The court sees no reason why IBM should be placed
in a posture differing from the other deponents with
respect to responding to the Order. Surely if IBM
expects the non-party deponents to respond by Decem(Please turn to page 49)

28

COMPUTERS a nd AUTOMATION for February, 1972

[7

NUMBLES
Neil Macdonald
Assistant Editor
Computers and Automation

D

PICTORIAL REASONING TESTS AND
APTITUDES OF PEOPLE - III

A "numble" is an arithmetical problem in which: digits
have been replaced by capital letters; and there are two
messages, one which can be read right away and a second
one in the digit cipher. The problem is to solve for the
digits.
Each capital letter in the arithmetical problem stands for
just one digit 0 to 9. A digit may be represented by more
than one letter. The second message, which is expressed in
numerical digits, is to be translated (using the same key)
into letters so that it may be read; but the spelling uses
puns or is otherwise irregular, to discourage cryptanalytic
methods of deciphering.
We invite our readers to send us solutions, together with
human programs or computer programs which will produce
the solutions. This month's Numble was contributed by:
Andrew M. Langer
Newton High School
Newton, Mass.

In the October 1970 issue (p. 40), and again in
the December 1970 issue (p. 42), we published Pictorial Reasoning Test C&A No.1. The so-called
"correct" answers to this test, the reasoning for
them, and the statistical analysis so far, will be
published in the March issue.

In this issue we publish two more tests, C&A Pictorial Reasoning Tests No.2 and No.3 (pp 30, 31).
Both contain many items produced by a "Pictorial
Reasoning Pattern Generator" computer program, which
we have worked out to run on our Digital Equipment
Corp. PDP-9 computer. This program has enabled us
to produce easil~ diagrams made by a pseudo-random
number generator as well as diagrams made by definite rules.

WHO S E
XBREAD
WTOHAB

Consequently, this program broadens considerably
the complexity ~f a picture or diagram which we can
easily design, and the kind of reasoning that we
can test. For.example, it enables us to pose items
which ask: "Can you decide that such and such a
picture was produced randomly?" "Can you decide
that the pattern of this item is the same as the
pa t tern of tha t item?"

E= A

I RBS 0 E
I W0 S 0 A

W= R
B=D

TTHIWD
RTOHED

26619

24470

524205

Solution to Numble 721

In Numble 721 in the January issue, the digits 0 through
9 are represented by let,ters ~s follows:

s=o
V=l
H=2
R=3
E=4

"There is a place for non-verbal, non-mathematical
testing, which is not culture-limited and not background-limited - and which might enable finding
and employing many useful people. "

More Tests

NUMBLE 722

W RIG SAD RID

Neil Macdonald
Assistant Editor, Computers and Automation

0=5
A=6
I, y= 7
C=8
P=9

The message is: Very cheap is very dear.
Our thanks to the following individuals for submitting
their solutions - to Numble 7112: Ed Balke, Bellwood,
Ill.; Marijoe Bestgen, Shawnee Mission, Kans.; T. P. Finn,
Indianapolis, Ind.; Joe Krashoc, Bartlett, Ill.; Harold L.
Smith, Thomson, Ga.; and Howard B. Wilson, Richmond,
Va. - to Numble 7111: R.1. Farrar, Barrington, Ill.;
T. F. Finn, Indianapolis, Ind.; and Howard B. Wilson,
Richmond, Va. - to Numble 7110: Marc Graham and
Brenda Peck, Cambridge, Mass.
COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1972

Responses

In regard to C&A Pictorial Reasoning Test No.1,
we have now received additional responses from (1)
another 150 readers of "Computers and Automation",
and (2) over 100 responses from high school students, sent to us by Mr. Howard P. Dodge, Wilbraham
Academy, Wilbraham, Mass.
The number of responses on pictorial reasoning
tests has surpassed our greatest expectations. We
feel as if we were mining a pocket of gold in a
ledge of gold-bearing quartz. We invi te our readers
to come with their picks and shovels, respond, and
contribute. Since these pictures, tests, and ideas
can be copied freely, the gold of one miner is the
gold of all.

CORRECTION

In the December 1971 issue, on page 42, at the
bottom, delete "(Please turn to page 56)". Many
readers referred to this as "the most difficul t
item" on the page, since the December issue only
contained 52 pages. We regret the error.
29

PICTORIAL REASONING TEST - C&A No.2 - (may be copied on any piece of paper)

1.

The following Pictorial Reasoning Test is a
test to see how carefully you can observe and
reason. It is not timed.
In each row, find the four pictures that are
alike in some way, and find the one that is

2.

A

A

0
000

0

0

0

0

x

x

x

x

x

x
x

x

x

x

X

X

0
0
0

, ,J

- .J

(

x

o

0

" - - -.
. - --

I
I
\

X

"

I

J

J

"

(

-

I \

\,

x

)

(

0

)

(

0

J

x
x

-

I
I

0

! 000 !
000 )
( 000 )
(

10

•

0
I
(
(

o

0 0

Answers:

! 0
0
( 0
(

)

o

0

"

1.

15

I,

.-

(

0

I

I

)

(

)

(

o0 0
xxx
xxx

\

"

)

(

)

)

0
0

)

1

4

*

-J

o -

*

• x

#

M
I

I

*

I

M

M

•• x
• x

x •

• x •

"

"

I \,

I

,

" "

I "

\

.
\

.

.

• x •

x •

\,

\,

! "

"

"

\

"

,
"

·" " "

\

" "..

• x

x
• x •

"

"
" " " "" " "
" " " " " " " " " ""
" " " " " "" " " " "" "" " " " "" "" " " " " "" " " " ""
" "
"
""
"

"
2D "

"

2
3

x •

~

," "" "

.""

11

)

0

•

x •

I

M

*

x •

# $

M

*
M

."

18

I 000 I

•

•

J

)

(

0

*

0

0

I \

"

17

I

*

M

M
I

x

0

0

$ #

-

X
J

)

x
x

0 0

"
"" "" "
"""

\
\

•

*

0

0

0

*
-

• x •
• x ••

0

Insert in each blank one
letter out of A, B. C, 0,
E, or F, designating your
choice.

Survey Data:

I

#

M

x x x
)

0

"

-

*

M

000

I 0
I 0

•

"

0

J
)

* :

x

0

0 -

0

0

X I 0
X I 0

\

0
0

ILf

0
0
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x

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xx

)

\,

o

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0
0
0
0

--

xxx

7

0

13

# $

X

X

o

x

X

X

X

000 0

12

X
K

0

C0

0

x

0

0

x

x

X

X
X

x
x

X

o x

D

0

0

0

0
0
0

x

x

x
K

X

x• • • x

x

x

s

'" x

0

0

4-

x •

o x

1/

0
0
0

0
0

2

c

B
o

0
0
0

0

1

3.

c

B

0

not like all the others and write its letter
as your answer.
If you become convinced that no picture is essentially unlike the others, write F (for "defecti ve" or "fatally ambiguous") as your answer.

5
6

9
10

7

11

8

12

13
14
15
16

Name __________________________________________________

2.

17

18
19
20

Ti tle

3. Organization______________________________________________________________________________________________
4. Address __________________________~----~--~--~--~~~~~~~~------~~~~~--__~----Average?
Good?
Excellent?
Not your field? Other (please sp~)
5. In computer programming, are you:
6. In systems analysis, are you:
7. In managing, are you:
8. What fields (not mentioned above) are you fairly good in (or even expert in)? ______________________________

I

9. What other capacities do you have?

(Please don't be bashful -- but be objective) ___________________________

10. Any remarks? ___________________________________________________________________________________________
(attach paper if needed)
When completed, please send to: Neil Macdonald, Survey Editor,
Computers and Automation, 815 Washington St., Newtonville, Mass. 02160
30

COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1972

PICTORIAL REASONING TEST - C&A No.3 - (may be copied on any piece of paper)

The following Pictorial Reasoning Test is a
test to see how carefully you can observe and
reason. It is not timed.
In each row, find the four pictures that are
alike in some way, and find the one that is

1.

2.

A

c

B

,p

2

3

x x x
x x
x
0
0 0

0

0
0

0

0

'" 0
'" 0

x x x
x x
x
'" 0
* 0 0

0

x xx
0 x
x

f

o

'"

x
x
x
x

x
x

*
c

x

0

c

,c

,

,

x • x

x

x • x

x

Answers:
f

0
0

x •

,

c

*

0

0
0
0
0
0

o

c

17

o • x

0

0
0

0 000

x • x

x • x
x

x • x

0
0

0

x

x

x

x • x

x • x

1

2
3
4

0
o 0 • 0 0
• 0
00.
0 .00

0 • 0
0 o •
0 o 0 • 0
• 0 • 0 0
• 0
• 0

• 0
0 0 o 0
• 0 0 0

0

• 0

,x

x

20

x

5
6

0

• 0
0
0

x

• n

o x

• 0

0

o

• 0 0

0 o 0
0 0 • 0 0
0 o • • 0
• 0 • 0

0 0 • 0 •

• 0

o 0
o •

• 0 0

• 0
0

o

• 0 • 0
0 0 o
• 0 0

o

~

c1

x

0

• 0
0

x • n

• 0

o x

0

0

o x

0

• 0
0

o
0

o

0

• 0
0
0
o 0

• 0 •
0 0
• 0 0 • 0

0

000

o

0

•

.00
• 0 • 0

n

~ ~ ~ ~

Ito

•

X

x
x

!
I
I •

Insert in each blank one
letter out of A, B, C, 0,
E, or F, designating your
choice.

Survey Data:

,

c

• 0 0 0
0 • 0
0 • 0 o 0
• 0 0 • 0
o 0 0 o 0

• 0

0
0

• n
o x

~

15

D

• 0
0

o x

• 0
• 0

• 0
.00
o 0 0
• 0

x

c

0

x

x
x x

x
x

c

B

o x
• 0
0
• 0
0 x • 0
o x
0
0
0
0

o • 0
x 0
o x

000 • 0

J,+

000

c

c

x

0

13

'0"

X X X X X

x •

o '"
o '"

*

c

X

0

• x

xx x x

- - •- - -

10

0 0

x x

0
0
0

i
x
x
x
x

o

12

• x

x
x
x x
x

0
0
0

000

7

0

x •

x •
x x
x
x
x

x
x x
x x x

x •

*

b

o

0

"

0

0

0

0

• 0

x •
x

x
x 0
x x x

0

o '"

• 0

1

A

F"

D

x

• 0

5

3.

'" '" '" '"

I

not like all the others and write its letter
as your answer.
If you become convinced that no picture is essentially unlike the others, wri te F (for "defecti ve" or "fatally ambiguous") as your answer.

0

n
x

• 0

x

• 0

• 0
• 0

n

n x

n

0

o x

0

• 0

o

0

•
• 0
• 0

0

0

o

0 0 0

0
0

o

0

• 0

•

o 0
o •

• 0 0 0 •
• 0 •
• 0
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~ ~~~ ~
() c9 CD 8
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l)

1:1

1"1

10

14
15
16

18
19
20

7

11

8

12

1. Name

2.

D

[IJ

Title

3. Organization
4. Address
Average?
5. In computer programming, are you:
6. In systems analysis, are you:
7. In managing, are you:

Good?

Excellent?

Not your field?

Other (please

spec~)

I

8. What fields (not mentioned above) are you fairly good in (or even expert in)? _______________________________
9. What other capacities do you have? (please don't be bashful -- but be objective) __________________
10. Any rema rks? __________ .______________________________________________________________

-----------------------------------------------------------------When completed, please send to: Neil Macdonald, Survey Editor,
Computers and Automation, 815 Washington St., Newtonville, Mass. 02160

COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1972

31

ZINGO - A New Computer Game
o
Edmund C. Berkeley
Editor, Computers and Automation

I

1

"Dice in quantity, inste.ad of just singles or pairs, provide an exciting 'learn-as-you-play'
introduction to probability and statistics. They are much more interesting and much easier
to toss, than pennies in quantity."

From time to time computer people hunt for games
that are fun to investigate, fun to play with another person, and fun to play with a computer.
Such a game is Zingo.
are as follows:

The rules for playing it

5. Scoring. If a player uses up all the outcomes
shown by his dice in his throw, by making combinations that produce the agreed number, he scores
2 points, for "going out". If the number of his
combinations exceeds the number of combinations
of the other player (or all the other players),
then he scores 3 additional points.

Rules of Zingo

1. NUmber of Players. There are two or more
players, each using 21 dice (or some other chosen
number of dice).
2. Choices. The players agree on a NUMBER to be
PRODUCED from a throw of the dice and the allowable arithmetical OPERATIONS to produce it.
For example, in Advanced Zingo, the number to be
produced might be 35, and the allowable operations
might be addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, raising to a power, and factorial. In Elementary Zingo, the number to be produced might be 2,
and the allowable operations might be addition and
subtraction.
3. Throw. Each player then rolls his 21 dice, and
obtains a THROW.
4. Production. Each player then arranges his dice
in allowed arithmetical COMBINATIONS to PRODUCE
the agreed NUMBER.

Thus there is a premium on using all of the dice in
one's throw, and a premium on making more combinations than the other player (or players).
Incidentally 35 is a particularly interesting
number to produce because it cannot pe produced by
two dice, but it can be produced by about 10 or 11
or 12 combinations of 3 of the numbers 1 to 6 using
addition, subtraction, multiplication, division,
raising to a power, factorial, and square root. If
a player finds that he cannot produce 7 combinations
making 35, each of them using 3 dice, he is compelled to drop back to 6 combinations and is very
likely to lose.
An Example

For example, suppose that Player A rolls the
following throw:
11

Thus in Advanced Zingo, suppose the NUMBER to be
produced is 35. If a player's THROW of 21 dice included a two, a three, and a five, he could use
those 3 dice to PRODUCE 35 because of the COMBINATION 2 to the 5th power plus 3 equals 35.
In Elementary Zingo, suppose the NUMBER to be produced is 2. Then the player could use the two by
itself to PRODUCE one 2, and the three and the five
to PRODUCE a second 2 because of the COMBINATION 5
minus 3 equals 2.
32

223334455555666666

In Advanced Zingo, he can use up all the outcomes of
his dice in the manner given in Table I, and he will
thus score 2 points. Whether Player A scores 3 additional points depends on Player B, and whether B
makes 6 combinations or fewer.
In Elementary Zingo he can use up all the outcomes
of his dice to produce 2, in the manner given in
Table 2, and he will thus score 2 points. Whether
Player A scores 3 additional points depends on
COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1972

Player B and whether Player B makes 9 combinations
or fewer.
Supply of Dozens of Dice

II

11

It is usually difficult to buy or obtain a supply
of dozens of dice at a reasonable price. Yet dice
in quantity -- instead of just singles or pairs -provide an exciting "learn-as-you-play" introduction
to probability and statistics. They are much more
interesting -- and much easier to toss -- than pennies in quantity •• 1 remember the first time I
tossed about 60 dice together on to a table, and
began to note the proportions of the outcomes 1, 2,
3. 4, 5, 6. Of course, the proportion tended to be
1/6 (or ten dice) for each outcome. Right in front
of me was visible evidence of the working of probabili ty laws.

111223334455555666666
and the Agreed Number to be produced is 35. The
possible combinations of least cost (which is 3) are
shown in Table 3.
Table 3
COMBINATIONS THAT PRODUCE 35 - ADVANCED ZINGO
Ident.
Combination
Formula
~

Table 1
USE OF THE THROW TO PRODUCE 35 - ADVANCED ZINGO

Combination

(3)
Amount
of Use

(4)
Total Dice
Used UQ

1, 6, 6
3, 4, 5

3
2

9

2, 3, 5
2, 5, 5

1

6
3

1

3

Count, 7

Cost, 21

(2)

0)
Formula

(6X6)-1 = 35
41+3!+5 = 35
25+3 = 35
(2+5)X5 = 35

USE OF THE THROW TO PRODUCE 2ELEMENTARY ZINGO

(2)

Formula

Combination
2

2

1+1

=2

1, 1
3, 5

5-3 = 2
6-4 = 2
6+1-5 = 2
(6+6/6)-5

2

4, 6
1, 5, 6
5, 6, 6, 6

(3)
Amount
9f Use

(4)
Total Dice
Used UQ

2

2

1

2

3

6
4

2
1

3
4

Count, 10

Cost, 21

The Working Out of a Throw
For example, suppose a throw of 21 dice is as
follows:
COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1972

{6X6)-1
25+3

4

{5+2)X5
{3+4)X5 or 4!+3!+5

5
6

51/3-5
5!/4+5
4!+5+6

7

8
9
10
~

{6X5)+5

1, 2, 6
1, 5, 6
1, 6, 6
2, 3, 5
2, 5, 5
3, 4, 5
3, 5, 5
4, 5, 5
4, 5, 6
5, 5, 6

It is usually easy to "use up" left-over numbers
by means of one or both of the following devices:
Plus zero, which equals plus!!. minus !!.;
(2) Times one, which equals ~ divided by!!.;

(1)

In fact, it may be possible to demonstrate that
"going out" is fairly trivial, and can be achieved
in a great many common cases.
A Computer Program for Zingo
This game can be easily programmed for a computer
on many different levels from simple to complex.
Some of the programming modules which will be needed
inside a computer program for playing Zingo will be
the following:
Module 1: A "message handler" which can input a
"throw" of 21 dice, as typed on the keyboard by a
human being, for instance, and which will store
these 21 numbers accessibly in a buffer, which we
can call the Throw Buffer.
Module 2: A "pseudo-random number generator",
which when "fil tered" will give just the numbers
from 1 to 6. Then the computer instead of the human
being could produce a throw of 21 dice to be placed
in the Throw Buffer.

Table 2

0)

(6+l)X5

3

If any reader is interested in obtaining dozens
of dice for use in Zingo (and similar games and statistical experiments), please see our offer at the
end of this article.
A computer, of course, is a source that is even
better than a large supply of dice for obtaining
random or pseudo-random numbers in quanti ty. Also,
the computer can be programmed to count, average,
determine the standard deviation, etc., for each
category of observations that one thinks of. The
computer eliminates much tedious clerical work with
statistical observations. But even so, there is
still an undeniable satisfaction in actually taking
many small dice in one's hands, and tossing them -as the Romans did over 2000 years ago, and countless
other persons have ever since.

6 2 _1

1
2

Module 3: A buffer which we can call the Combination Buffer, which will store combinations producing the agreed number, and "cost". Fbr example, to
produce 35, the Combination buffer will store 1, 6,
6 (since six times six minus one equals 35) and its
"cost" of 3, the number of dice this combination
uses.
In Stage 1 the inventory of combinations for a
given number to be produced can be input by a human
being using the keyboard. In· Stage 2, another module
will calculate the suitable combinations.
Module 4: A subprogram which will "tag" the set
of dice outcomes in the Throw buffer according to
whether or not they have been "used up" to make a
combination. For example, 1, 6, 6, "used up" out of
a throw of 21 dice, will leave only 18 unused dice
available for the next selection of a combination.
33

In view of the nature of the Zingo program, it is
foolish to include certain possible modules. One
such is floating point arithmetical operations.
Instead we need a simple module which will store
the sum, difference, product, quotient, and result
of exponentiation and factorial, for only a certain
few numbers.

MARTIN LUTHER KING
MEMORIAL PRIZE CONTEST

The reason is that (1) the only numbers we start
with are the six whole numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and
(2) to make many successful combinations, we have to
keep the "cost" of each combination low. That is,
we shall probably never want to use a combination of
numbers that "costs" more than 4.

"Computers and Automation" announces the
fourth year of the annual Martin Luther King
Memori al Pri ze, to be awarded for the best arti cle
on an important subject in the general field of:
The application of information sciences and
engineering to the problems of improvement
in human society.

In about six hours of programming we worked out a
Zingo computer program to run on our computer, a DEC
PDP-9. This program gives exactly five least-cost
solutions for this throw. (See Table 4) The program
at present contains about 230 machine language instructions. It receives as one input the combinations listed in Table 3; the other input is the
throw. The program does not yet compute the least
cost combinations since a module for that purpose
has not yet been written. The function which we
have put into this program is the one that is hardest for a human being: testing selections and patterns of combinations exhaustively one after another,
and making sure that no possible case has been
omitted. The program is the work of Andrew Langer,
Junior, Newton High School.

The judges in 1972 will be:
Dr. Franz L. Alt of the American Institute
of Physics; Prof. John W. Carr III of the
Univ. of Pennsylvania; Dr. William H.
Churchill of Howard Univ.; and Edmund C.
Berkeley, Edi tor of "Computers and
Automation".
The amount of the prize in 1972 will be $150.
The closing date for the receipt of manuscripts this year is April 30, 1972, in the office of "Computers and Automation", 815 Washington St., Newtonville, Mass. 02160.

Table 4
ALL LEAST-COST COMBINATIONS FOR GIVEN THROW

The winning article, if an~ will be published
in a subsequent issue of "Computers and Automation." The decision of the judges will be conclusive. The prize will not be awarded if, in
the opinion of the judges, no sufficiently good
article is received.

Iden t.
~

Combination

1

126

166

166

235

345

345

556

2

126

166

166

235

345

355

456

3

156

166

166

235

235

345

456

4

166

166

166

235

235

345

455

5

166

166

166

235

255

345

345

Following are the details: The article should
be approximately 2500 to 3500 words in length.
The article should be factual, useful, and understandable. The subject chosen should be
treated practically and realistically with examples and evidence -- but also with imagination,
and broad vision of possible future developments,
not necessarily restricted to one nation or culture. The writings of Martin Luther King should
be included among the references used by the
author, but it is not necessary that any quotations be included in the article.

Note on the Origin of Zingo

This game was worked out in my family when my two
sons were very young, in a very elementary version.
As they grew older, the version of Zingo that we
played became more and more sophisticated until now,
ten years later, the game is still fun, in an advanced version. And it has taught a good deal of
arithmetic, mathematics, probability, and statistics
in a learn-as-you-play style.
[J
- - -- - -

- -(may be copied on any piece of paper)- - - - To:

Computers and Automation
815 Washi ngton St., Newtonvi lle, Mass. 02160
Yes, please send me-----package(s) of 50 small
dice (about 3/8-inch on an edge) for playing
Zingo, and making other statistical investigations.
For each package, I enclose $2.30 plus 20 cents
for handling (a total of $2.50 per package).

Total Enclosed $

~

Articles should be typed with double line
spacing and should meet reasonable standards for
publication. Four copies should be submitted.
All entries will become the property of "Computers and Automation". The article should bear
a title and a date, but not the name of the
author. The author's name and address and four
or five sentences of biographical information
about him, should be included in an accompanying
letter -- which also specifies the title of the
article and the date.

(Prepayment is necessary.)

Name _____________________________________________
Address __________________________________________
_______________________________________Zip________

34

COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1972

and specialised software, and by this I
mean sufficient software to enable applications programs to be written and made to
work.

Futcher - Continued from page 9

the special commissions mentioned earlier in terms
of obtaining new accounts, again a policy matter.
There are the sales training costs associated
with having any effective sales force.

•

There are branch office costs, rents, with rates,
administration overheads, etc. which again are controlled by policy because as users we would probably
each of us like to have the local branch office
next door, or certainly not too far away.
In that office we expect to see branch systems
and programming staff and again they have to be
paid for from this overall budget for Sales and
Marketing.

r
There is then specialist industry in terms of
people who know the industries in which we work and
who should be able to provide specialist advice
about various types of problems we might meet.
Again these are financed from the same budget, but
the people available are unlikely to be located in
the branch next door.
Special Software

There is also the provision of special software
to be financed; development of compilers which are
needed by perhaps an uneconomically small number of
users, the development of special operating systems
where again the same might apply, for very few
users need large complex operating systems to
handle the various types of device which are available, and of course having mentioned that, there
are special software routines to be written for the
handling of the various terminals which may be
attached.

Uptime. It is interesting to discuss with different
potential suppliers how they calculate what their
up-time or available time is, and in fact if you
analyse in detail what various formulae mean, you
can see very easily that an acceptable performance
standard to the manufacturer may provide a completely unacceptable continuing availability of
computer time for our own use.
•

Installation. We can also expect advice on
the installation of the equipment, the
environment in which it should be, the
power supplies it needs, and perhaps fallback power supplies in the case of breakdown.

•

Layout. We can expect advice also on
efficient layout of the equipment so that
the operators don't waste too much time
skirting round little utilised peripherals
in order to change tapes or disks, or
change the paper, or insert the cards, or
whatever, in the various input devices.
Availability of technical training and
availability of manuals can be expected,
but here let me re-emphasize my use of the
word availability. It is again a matter of
policy for the manufacturer as to how much
if anything is charged for either of these
two particular requirements of ours. Again
practice has changed. Historically there
used to be unlimited technical training
available; there used to be unlimited
numbers of manuals sent to users. The
costs however became disproportionate and
manufacturers then recognised that they
were not in a glamorous game of supplying
computers, they were in a competitive
business in which there were costs to be
managed and they therefore started charging
or limiting the availability of both
technical training and manuals.

•

Standards. We can also expect a supply of
basic advice and standards to cover such
things as systems, programming and operations.
And here it is perhaps constructive to consider what might be considered basic and
what therefore we should not expect to have
as a free service.

To attract new business there will be advertising
and public relations costs.
There will be costs for providing a technical
education service to customers, and of course one's
own staff have to be trained, and so there is the
overhead cost of technical education to be considered.
Having indicated a number of headings (and I
would not suggest that this list is exhaustive) we
must remember that financial and manpower resources
are limited. Allocation of them both will depend
again upon management policy, so let us now look at
a summary of our suppliers' business situation.
Costs Reduce Profit

All costs reduce profit. To be justified all
avoidable expenditure must therefore either provide
essential customer services at a planned level or it
must work to procure future business. So allocation
o~ revenue will depend upon our supplier's marketing
position and his particular planned strategy to
improve it. We can therefore say that our chance
of obtaining our share of his scarce resources
depends on the relevence of our account to our
supplier's marketfng strategy. We should, however,
as users buying a system -- and here let us remember
that we are buying a system that we need to do a
job for our business; we are not buying just the
computer -- have reasonable expectations of what
should be supplied to us and these are:
•

Working hardware, working software.
for the basic system, not highly advanced

COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1972

Advice. We can expect advice on the use
of that software and on the resolution of
difficulties with it and, here let's be
honest and perhaps a little self-critical
for the moment: there are sometimes calls
made on manufacturers which result from
failure to read manuals and other instructions properly; and understandably they
become a little cross about this and perhaps reluctant, as in the case of the fairy
tale about "crying wolf", to come rushing to
our rescue whenever we howl. We can expect
engineering support to provide an acceptable
(to the manufacturer) standard of performance from our hardware.

One simple analogy is a basic standard for motor
car maintenance which says that at 5,000 miles you
must change the oil. This could be considered a
basic standard, more detail is in fact needed to
35

make the thing worthwhile as an instruction. For
example, we should be told whether or not the
filter is to be changed at that mileage and also it
would perhaps be useful to know what grade of oil
should be supplied to replace that being drained out.
•

Software Supplied. To return to computers,
most manufacturers will supply commonly
used routines in the commercial or the
mathematical field and examples of these
are PAYE calculation routines, and routines
to perform certain basic mathematical
functions.

•

Common Applications. We can also expect
some advice on common applications.
Recognise though, what it is reasonable to
request. One major supplier, I.C.L., has
established a separate company to provide
other than minimal support and this reflects
that company's business plan. Here again
must be borne in mind the relevance of our
account to our supplier's marketing
strategy. So, pick the right one for your
business. Here, of course, you will have
conflicts where the manufacturer's representati ve wi 11 say very cheerfully, "Yes,
we have lots and lots of lovely people who
don't know your business in detail, but
yours will be our first account in your
business area and you will therefore be
given special attention as the lead-in to
this sector of the market for us." This
sounds fine, but remember the picture
often given of the pioneer is that of the
man out in front with the arrows sticking
out of his bottoml It could well be much
more to your advantage to pick a supplier
already familiar with your business from
whom you can therefore expect some
worthwhile advice based on experience.
Also you may well be able to obtain useful
advice from discussions with fellow users.

•

Contract. Do look at a supplier's contract.
There are few, if any, which do not exclude
anything which has gone before, in particular the sales proposal, and any letters. You
will find the contract relates only to the
supply of hardware, not the system you need
for your business.
Support

In order to obtain the right support for you, I
would advise drawing up an agreement with the local
branch and here do remember that the branch manager can only commit the resources under his direct
control. In this he is little different from any
other manager that we might discuss in terms of
position within any company. In this local agreement you should define all the items to be supplied
which are not covered by the head office contract.
The aspects of support covered by marketing policy
are the relevant ones and if specialist support is
supposedly available from a different part of the
organisation, obtain a letter of undertaking from
the responsible manager at that location. When
drawing up this agreement or attempting to persuade
people that such an agreement should be drawn up
and should exist because an understanding on the
old boy net is simply not good enough for a large
business investment -- remember you are trying to
buy, as we have to try to buy, something which our
supplier may not be selling.
We want a system; he is selling hardware.
36

[]

Countryman - Continued from page 20

such that their losses are almost infinitesimal.
I have asked many bankers and finance company representatives about their loss ratios on consumer
receivables and have yet to be given a figure higher than .5 per cent. In other instances the consumer finance companies have claimed a loss ratio of
1.5 per cent, and the bankers have claimed 2 per
cent. But the latest word I have seen, from a
spokesman for the American Bankers Association, is
that on consumer transactions "in commercial banks
the loss ratio is less than half a per cent; it is
perhaps now getting close to a quarter of 1 per
cent." If the customers of the credit bureaus can
do that well on the sort of information they now
receive, how much worse would they do if left to
their own devices? The oft-stated assumption that
losses would greatly increase, with a consequent
increase in the cost of consumer credit and a throttling of the economy based on that credit, has' not
been sufficiently challenged.
If a tough-minded inquiry were directed to the
actual need for most of the existing compilations,
we might expect to hear even more from the compilers than we have in the past about "efficiency."
It is more efficient to preserve the dossiers for
future possible use than to require a new investigation of the subject whenever information about
him becomes necessary, or helpful, or comforting.
Certainly it is more efficient. It is more efficient to preserve in a place of convenient access
every police investigation of anyone ever made, no
matter how unwarranted, against the possibility
that such an investigation may again be made in
the future. It is efficient to have the Selective
Service System provide the FBI with fingerprints
and other information on all persons it processes,
against the possibility that a small percentage of
them may at some future date be involved in an infraction of the law. It would be more efficient to
extend the Alien Registration Act to citizens.
But we have not, in this country, been content
in the past to let efficiency be the determining
factor when individual liberty was jeopardized thereby. We have decided against efficiency and in favor
of constitutional bans on unlawful searches and seizures and self-incrimination, and for jury trials in
criminal cases. In view of the massive threat to
individual privacy posed by the present and growing
body of computerized dossiers, efficiency will hardly serve to justify their preservation.
Adequate Inquiry Overdue

These are the assumptions on which, it seems to
me, Congressional inquiry should proceed. If it
were to proceed so, I am confident that it would
conclude that most of our present National Data Bank
must be wiped out. If the inquiry were to proceed
on those assumptions it would also produce some meaningful restrictions on access to the dossiers which
survive because they have some reasonable relation
to a vital public purpose, and these restrictions
would themselves justify the preservation and continuing use of such dossiers. If Congress were to
proceed on those assumptions, finally, it would not
place the policing of restrictions to access in the
hands of those most likely to violate the restrictions.
We have not yet had an inquiry based on such assumptions, and the time for it is overdue. The computerized dossiers are multiplying by the day. We
are only thirteen years from 1984.
0
COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1972

,

(Reprinted from Computers and Automation, February, 1970.) .

EDITORIAL

"The House is on Fire"
In the computer field, there are basically two kinds of
attitudes about the applications of computers and data
processing-information handling-to the solving of problems.
On the one hand there is the attitude:
Computers are tools like matches-and we are just
mechanics. We take the data as given (the kindling).
Our responsibility is the processing-swift, economical,
correct (making a fire with matches). The answers belong to our employer (he uses the fire as he sees fit).
The group who holds this attitude-let's call it Group 1takes the data and the problem as given-given by the
corporation or the government, the employer or the client,
who has the problem.
This group works on payrolls, etc.-and on the targeting
of nuclear missiles and on calculations of the dissemination of nerve gases. And they work on the latter with
the same "I'm just doing my job" attitude that they work
on the former. In Nazi Germany Group I would have
worked "under orders" on the design of ovens for efficient
mass incineration of thousands of corpses from the gas
chambers. (The Nazis put to death in concentration camps
over 11 million Jews, Russians, Poles, Czechs, French,
etc., in pursuit of the "final solution".) If you read
"Treblinka" by Jean-Francois Steiner (Simon & Schuster,
New York, 1967) you find out how one Nazi scientist
graded corpses from fat to thin so the fires would burn
better.
On the other hand there is the attitude:
Computers are tools like bridges-and we are professional engineers. We take the data as given (the
materials and the site) but we check the data independently. Our responsibility is not only processing-swift,
economical, correct (building a bridge with girders)but also worthwhile answers (bridges that work). The
bridges we build must carry people, and we don't want
them to crash.
The group who holds this attitude-let's call it Group II
-works on payrolls, etc.-but they will refuse to work on
calculations for the dissemination of nerve gases, or on
calculations for targeting of nuclear weapons, or on calculations for the design of crematoria for thousands of human
corpses. They see a responsibility greater than that to their
government or employer-they see a primary responsibility
to their fellowman.
A recent vote of members of the Association for Computing Machinery indicated that the proportion of Group
I to Group II is about two to one. In other words, twothirds of the computer people who replied to the survey on
the "questions of importance", voted that the ACM should
not "take a stand on deeply political questions."
The attitUde of Group I is a characteristically conservative attitude: "The world is going along pretty well"-"Let
us not rock the boat"-"The existing system should be
tolerated"-"Things will eventually work out all right""Professional people have their major allegiance to the
persons who pay them"-;-"A computer professional has no
social responsibility different from that of the nonprofessional man"....
The attitude of Group II is a characteristically liberal
attitude: "The world can be a much better place than it is
now"-"It is important to try to improve the world""Such a vast number of sad and evil things happen in the
COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1972

world that everybody must do something significant to
help prevent them"-"The fact that thousands of human
beings have been killed by both sides in the Viet Nam
conflict requires people everywhere to seek withdrawal of
foreign armed forces from that unhappy civi I war."
Scientifically it is easy to show that the attitude of
Group I will lead to the destruction and extinction of the
human race, just as the dinosaurs became extinct. Scientifically it is not possible to show that the attitude of
Group II will lead to the survival of human beings on the
earth: it is only possible to show that the attitude of
Group II offers human beings some hope of survival in the
increasingly more difficult environment on earth, the
"house" for aII of us.
For lithe house is on fire": the eqrth as an environment
for human beings has changed enormously in the last 25
years and is deteriorating fairly rapidly. Before 1945, the
factor of sufficient distance from a danger could almost
always save human beings alive. Now, distance is not
enough. Now, because of interlocking planet-wide systems
of consequences, the environment of the earth is no
longer safe for human beings. For example:
Large-scale nuclear war (and its radioactivity) between two countries in the Northern hemisphere can
kill all the inhabitants of that hemisphere. International anarchy allows this to break out at the
choice of one government.
The explosive increase in the number of human
beings alive-the so-called population explosionseriously threatens the power of the earth to support them. Worldwide anarchy allows any man and
woman to bear children unrestrictedly.
Pollution of the air, the water, and the land by man's
activities is becoming world-wide. Again, international anarchy allows' this to happen everywhere.
Etc.
"The house is on fire". So it is necessary for all persons
living in the "house" to take some time away from their
play rooms, their work rooms, and their bedrooms, their
computer rooms, their laboratories, and their ivory towersand to try to help put out the fire. The fire is licking at
the edges of the roof and the walls and' the floors-and
time is pressing and will not wait.
Accordingly, Computers and Automation with this issue
is starting a department in the magazine which for the
present wi II bear the subtitle "The House is on Fire" and
the title "The Profession of Information Engineer." Here we
plan to publish information from time to time which will
help focus the attention of computer professionals in the
direction of becoming information engineers, "bridge" engineers,-not mechanics, not artisans. For we are, first
of all, human beings with professional training, and secondly, we are computer professionals. We need to shed light on
major urgent problems of the earth today. These are the
great problems which cause our children to be "a generation
in search of a future," to use the phrase of Professor George
Wald, Nobel prizewinner in biochemistry. These are the great
problems which rc::ise the great question:
Will there be any future at all for our children?

c.~
Editor

\
37

The Activities of the Central Intelligence Agency I
at Six Billion Dollars a Year
Edward K. DeLong
United Press International
Washington, D.C.

"Whenever you are working on a problem that the military is deeply interested in because it's affecting one of their programs """ and you're not saying what they want
you to say, the browbeating starts """ the pressure to get the report to read more like
they wan t it to read" "

(Based on a dispatch distributed by UPI
on October 3, 1971)
Victor Marchetti embarked 16 years ago on a career that was all any aspiring young spy could ask.
But two years ago, after reaching the highest levels
of the Central Intelligence Agency, he became disenchanted with what he perceived to be amorality,
overwhelming military influence, waste and duplicity
in the spy business. He quit.
Fearing today that the CIA may already have begun "going against the enemy within" the United
States as they may conceive it -- that is, dissident student groups and civil rights organizations
-- Marchetti has launched a campaign for more presidential and congressional control over the entire
U.S. intelligence community.

Offer of Job in CIA

Through a professor secretly on the CIA payroll
as a talent scout, Marchetti netted the prize all
would-be spies dream of -- an immediate job offer
from the CIA. The offer came during a secret meeting in a hotel room, set up by a stranger who telephoned and identified himself only as "a friend of
your brother."
Marchetti spent one year as a CIA agent in the
field and 10 more as an analyst of intelligence relating to the Soviet Union, rising through the ranks
until he was helping prepare the national intelligence estimates for the White House. During this
period, Marchetti says, "I was a hawk. I believed
in what we were doing."
Moving Up

"I think we need to do this becausewe'regetting
into an awfully dangerous era when we have all this
talent (for clandestine operations) in the CIA -and more being developed in the military, which is
getting into clandestine "ops" (operations)
and
there just aren't that many places any more to display that talent," Marchetti says.
Running Operations Against Domestic Groups

"The cold war is fading. So is the war inSoutheast Asia, except for Laos. At the same time, we're
getting a lot of domestic problems. And there are
people in the CIA who -- if they aren't right now
actually already running domestic operations against
student groups, black movements and the like"-- are
certainly considering it.

Then he was promoted to the executive staff of
the CIA, moving to an office on the top floor of
the Agency's headquarters across the Potomac River
from Washington.
For three years he worked as special assistant
to the CIA chief of plans, programs and budgeting,
as special assistant to the CIA's executive director, and as executive assistant to the Agency's
deputy director, V. Adm. Rufus L. Taylor.
"This put me in a very rare position within the
Agency and within the intelligence community in
general, in that I was in a place where it was being all pulled together," Marchet ti said.
I Began To See Things I Did Not Like

"This is going to get to be very tempting," Marchetti said in a recent interview at his comfortable
home in Oakton, (Va.),a Washington suburb where
many CIA men live.
"There'll be a great temptation for these people
to suggest operations and for a President to approve
them or to kind of look the other way. You have
the danger of intelligence turning against the nation itself, going against the 'the enemy wi thin. tt,
Marchetti speaks of the CIA from an insider's
point of view. At Pennsylvania State University he
deliberately prepared himself for an intelligence
career, graduating in 1955 with a degree in Russian
studies and history.

38

"I could see how intelligence analysis was done
and how it fitted into the scheme of clandestine
operations. It also gave me an opportunity to get
a good view of the intelligence community. too:
the National Security Agency, the DIA (Defense Intelligence Agency), the national reconnaissance organization -- the whole bit. And I started to see
the politics within the community and the politics
between the community and the outside. "This change
of perspective during those three years had a profound effect on me, because I began to see things I
didn't like."
With many of his lifelong views about the world
shattered, Marchetti decided to abandon his chosen

COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1972

career. ,One of the last things he did at the CIA
was to explain to Director Richard Helms why he was
leaving.
"I told him I thought the intelligence community
and the intelligency agency were too big and too
costly, that I thought there was too much military
influence on intelligence -- and very bad effects
from that -- and that I felt the need for more control and more direction.
"The clandestine attitude, the amorality of it
all, the cold-war mentality -- these kinds of things
made me feel the agency was really out of step with
the times," Marchetti said.

For instance, Marchetti said, the National Security Agency -- charged in part with trying to decode
intercepted messages of foreign governments -- ~astes
about half its I-billion-dollar yearly budget.
"They have boxcars full of tapes up at Fort Meade
(Md.) that are 10 years old -- boxcars fulll -- because in intercepting Soviet (radio) communications,
for instance, the Soviets are just as sophisticated
as we are in scrambler systems. It is almost a
technical impossibility to break a scrambled, coded
message. So they just keep collecting the stuff and
putting it in boxcars. They continue to listen all
over the world. They continue to spend fortunes
trying to duplicate the Soviet (scrambling and encoding) computers," he said.

"We parted friends. I cried all the way home."

r

Marchetti, 41, hardly looks the stereotype of a
man who spent 14 years in the CIA.

"By the time someone can break it, a decade or
two has gone by. So you find out what they were
thinking 20 years ago -- so what?"

His dark-rimmed glasses, full face, slightly
stout figure, soft voice, curly black hair and bushy
sideburns would seem more at home on a college campus. He pronounces his name the Italian way -- Marketti.

Marchetti said at one time a national intelligence review board tried to cut out an expensive NSA
program that analysts agreed was useless. The CIA
Director, he said, wrote a memorandum recommending
the program stop.

"The Rope Dancer"

"But Paul Nitze, on his last day in office (as
Deputy Secretary of Defense), sent back a memo in
which he said he had received the recommendation
and considered it, but had decided to continue the
program," Marchetti said. He said this was possible
for Nitze because, although the Director of the CIA
is officially in charge of all the nation's intelligence activities, 85 per cent of the money is hidden
in the Defense Department budget.

Marchetti's first impulse after quitting the CIA
was to write a nonfiction account of what was wrong
with the U.S. intelligence community. But, he said,
he could not bring himself to do it then.
Instead he wrote a spy novel -- "a reaction to
the James Bond and British spy-story stereotypes"
which he says looks at the intelligence business realistically from the headquarters point of view he
knows so well.
The novel, "The Rope Dancer," was published last
month. It is a thinly disguised view of the inner
struggle over Vietnam and Russian strategic advances
as Marchetti saw them within the CIA, the Pentagon
and the White House under President Johnson.
Writing the novel took a year. Then came two
tries at nonfiction articles -- one rejected as too
dull and the other turned down as too chatty -- and
a start on a second novel.
But Marchetti said the need for intelligence reform continued to gnaw at him, and as his first novel
was about to come out he came into contact with
others who agreed with him, including Representative
Herman Badillo (Oem.), of New York.
Now, Marchetti said, the second novel has been
laid aside so he can devote full time to a campaign
for reform.
"Intelligence Business is Just Too Big"

Although now a dove -- particularly on Vietnam,
which he calls an unwinnable war to "support a
crooked, corrupt regime that cannot even run an election that looks honest" -- Marchetti says he still believes strongly in the need for intelligence collection.
'''It's a fact of life," he said. "For your own
protection you need to know what other people are
thinking.
-, "But intelligence is now a 6-bi llion-dollar-ayear business, and that is just too big. It can be
done for a lot less, and perhaps done better when
you cut out the waste."

COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1972

This, said Marchetti, gives the military considerable power to shape intelligence estimates. He
gave as an example a conflict between military and
CIA estimates of the number of North Vietnamese and
Viet Cong in South Vietnam during the late 1960s.
The mi Ii tary wanted a low figure "to show they
were killing the VC and North Vietnamese and were
winning the war." The CIA reported far too many
Communists in South Vietnam to support this military desire, he said.
Ultimately, Marchetti said, the military won and
the CIA issued an estimate in which "tricky wording"
seemed to make its views agree with those of the
generals.
"Browbeating, Pressure" to Change Reports

"Whenever you're working on a problem that the
military is deeply interested in -- because it's
affecting one of their programs or their war in
Vietnam or something -- and you're not saying what
they want you to say, the browbeating starts: the
delaying tactics, the pressure to get the report to
read more like they want it to read," he said -- "in
other words, influencing intelligence for the benefit
of their own operation or activity.
"Somehow, some way, you've got to keep your i ntelligence objective. It can't be a private tool of
the military -- nor, for that matter, a private tool
of the White House."
Marchetti said there is also waste in almost every
technical intelligence-gathering program -- such as
spy satellites, special reconnaissance aircraft, and
over-the-horizon radars -- because when either the
military or the CIA makes a new advance the rival
agency follows suit with something almost the same
but just different enough to justify its existence.
39

"The CIA People Can Start Up Wars"

The thing that troubles Marchetti most about the
CIA is its penchant for the dark arts of clandestine
paramilitary actions -- an area made doubly attractive
to the Agency because the military scarcely can operate in this field.
"One of the things the CIA clandestine people can
do is start up wars," he said. "They can start up a
private war in a country clandestinely and make it
look like it's just something that the local yokels
have decided to do themselves."
This, according to Marchetti, is how the United
States first began active fighting in Vietnam.' It
is the type of activity now going on in Cambodia and
Laos, where recent congressional testimony revealed
the CIA is running a 450-million-dollar-a-year operation, he said.
Marchetti said he is convinced the CIA not only
engineered the 1963 overthrow of the Diem regime in
(South) Vietnam, which President Nixon also has said
was the case, but was also responsible for the coup
that ousted Prince Norodom Sihanouk (of Cambodia) in
early 1970, making possible the U. S.-South Vietnamese raid on Communist sanctuaries in that country several weeks later.
The Southeast Asia clandestine operations years
ago caused the CIA to set up a phony airline company,
Air America, which now has as many employees as the
18,000-member working staff of the CIA itself, he
said.
Moving Up

"Well, the CIA is not only monkeying around in
Vietnam and in Laos," Marchetti said -- "they're
looking at other areas where these sorts of opportunities may,present themselves.
"When they start setting up private air companies
and everything else that goes with the wherewithal
for supporting a government or an antigovernment
movement, this is very, very dangerous, because they
can do it in a clandestine fashion and make it difficult for the public to be aware of what is going
on."
Marchetti said areas wher~'th~ CIA might launch
future clandestine paramili~ary activities include
South America, India, Africa and the Philippines -all places in the throes of social upheaval. Upheaval, he said,' is what prompts the CIA Director
to begin planning possible clandestine activities
in a country.
"That is so if the President says, 'Go in and do
something'; he's already got his fake airlines to
fly in people. He may have a program going with the
police in thi s country or the mili tary in that,"
according to Marchetti.
In addition to Air America, Marchetti said, the
CIA has set up both Southern Air Transport in Miami
and Rocky Mountain Air inPhbenix for possible use
in paramilitary operations in South America.
Similar fake airlines have been bought and sold
allover the world, he said, including one in Nepal
and another in East Africa.
He also said the CIA has a big depot in the Midwest Uni ted States "where they have all kinds of
mili tary equipment, all kinds of unmarked weapons."

40

"Over the years they have bought everything they
can get their hands on allover the world that is
untraceable -- to prepare for the contingency that
they might want to ship arms to a group in a place
like Guatemala," Marchetti said. "They even used to
send weapons buyers around to buy arms from the
(Soviet) bloc countries."
Understanding the Men of the CIA

To fully understand why the CIA conducts semilegal operations around the world, why it might begin to conduct them in the United States and why it
more control needs to be exercised over the Agency,
Marchetti said it is necessary to understand the
men of the CIA.
Most of them, he said, got their start in the
intelligence business during or shortly after
World War II, when the cold war was going strong.
"These people are superpatriots," he said. "But
you've got to remember, too, they're amoral. They're
not immoral; they're amoral.
"The Director made a speech to the National Press
Club where he said, "You've just' got to trust us.
We are honorable men.'
"Well, they are honorable men -- generally speaking. But the nature of the business is such that it
is amoral.
"Most things are right or wrong, good or evil,
moral or immoral. The nature of intelligence is
that you do things because they have to be done,
whether it's right or wrong. If you murder
Marchetti did not complete the sentence.
Because the men of the Agency are superpatriots,
he said, it is only natural for them to view violent
protest and dissidence as a major threat to the nation. The inbred CIA reaction, he said, would be
to launch a clandestine operation to infiltrate dissident groups.
That, said Marchetti, may already have started
to happen.
"I don't have very much to go on,' he said.
"Just bits and pieces that indicate the U. S. intelligence community is already targeting on'groups in
this country that they feel to be subversive.
"I know this was being discussed in the' halls of
the CIA, and that there were a lot of people who
felt this should be done."
Needed: "More Controls by Congress"

With the lack of control that exists now over the
Agency, Marchetti said, an extremely reactionary
President could perhaps order the CIA's clandestine
activities to go beyond mere infiltration.
"I don't think the likelihood of this is very
great," Marchetti said~ but one of the ways to prevent this is to let a little sunshine in, to have
some more controls by the Congress.
"There's no reason for so much secrecy. There's
no reason the intelligence community shouldn't have
its budget examined. It just bothers the hell out
of me to see this waste going on and this hiding behind the skirts of national security. You can have
your national securi ty -- wi th controls -- and you
don't need 6 bi Ilion dollars to do it."
0
COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1972

THE CIA: A VISIBLE GOVERNMENT IN INDOCHINA
Fred Branfman and Steve Cohn
New York, N. Y.

"The CIA mayor may not be an invisible government here at home ." but to those
close to the war it is one of the most visible - and important - governments in
Indo-China today,"

As American soldiers are wi thdrawn from Indochina,
the role of the Central Intelligence Agency (C.I.A.)
is increasing. The C,I.A. mayor may not be an invisible government here at home. But to those close
to the war, it is one of the most visible -- and important -- governments in Indochina today.
C IA Secret Army

As we shall explain further in weeks to come, the
C. LA.' s budget in Laos and Cambodia exceeds those of
the Laotian and Cambodian Governments by 20 or 30 to
I; the C, LA. recruits, supplies, and di rects a polyglot "Secret Army" of 100,000 men that does,most of
the front-line fighting in these two nations; C,I.A.
photo interpreters and intelligence operatives control targetting, the most important part of the air
war; C.I.A. pol{tica~ operatives are the main dayto-day intermediaries between the U,S. Government
and local Lao and Cambodian poli ticians and generals.
And, of course, normal espionage, sabotage, assassination, and extortion -- the C.I,A.'s standard
fare anywhere -- continue as usual (see Pentagon Papers memos No. 15 and No. 22 for Colonel Lansdale's
descriptions of such activities as long as 10 and 20
years ago.)
In South Viet Nam, the C.I.A. role is also rising. The "pacification" program has taken on
greater importance under Richard Nixon, and this of
course is under the direct control of the C.I.A.
through the deputy ambassador for pacification, always a C.I.A. man.
Phoenix Project

The key aspect of pacification is the Phoenix
Project, an admitted program of murder and torture
of civil ians suspected to be working for the National
Liberation Front. Since Phoenix's inception, it
openly admitted that the C.I.A. has killed and abducted more civilians than even the U.S. Government
claims have been similarly mistreated by "Viet Cong
terrorists" (see accompanying chart).
In discussing the role of the C.I.A. in Indochina
today, let us note at the outset that this is not an
aberration: the C.I.A. devotes most of its budget
(Reprinted from the American Report: Review of
Religion and American Power, Vol. 2, No. 11, Dec.
10, 1971, published by Clergy and Laymen Concerned,
a non-profit national committee, 637 West 125 St.,
New York, N.Y. 10027)

COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1972

and personnel to waging political and military warfare in all corners of the globe, with only a small
percentage going into strict intelligence-gathering.
Carefully Cultivated Myth

This is not generally known, of course, for one
of the most carefully cultivated myths in America
today is that the C.I.A.'s main job is to prepare
intelligence estimates for the President -- the only
job it is legally mandated to perform.
Whether in a recent Newsweek cover story on
C.I.A. chief Richard Helms, or in a speech by
Helms himself to an association of newspaper editors earlier this year, the theme is constantly repeated that the C.I.A.'s'major role is merely to
provide estimates of things such as Russian missile
strength or morale in North Viet Nam.
In fact, nothing could be farther from the
truth.
Highly informed sources reveal that of 18,000
people employed directly by the C.I.A. today, no
more than 2,000 are actually involved in intelligencegathering and analysis. The vast majority are engaged in C.I.A. covert operations stretching from
Bolivia to the Congo to Iran to Viet Nam.
Four Major Divisions

The C.I.A. is divided into four major divisions:
(1) The DIRECTORATE OF PLANS (cover name for the
division of covert operations or clandestine
services) -- 6,000 people;
(2) The DIRECTORATE OF SUPPORT (the division providing logistics support to the Directorate
of Plans) -- 6,000 people;
(3) The DIRECTORATE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
4,000 people;
(4) The DIRECTORATE OF INTELLIGENCE -- 2,000
people.
Thus fully two thirds of the C.I.A.'s directhire employees -- and a far higher percentage of its
estimated two- to six-billion dollar budget -- go
to waging political and/or military warfare.

41

Table 1

"CIA Contractors"

In addition, our sources reveal that the ranks
of C.I.A. operatives are greatly swelled by a vast
number of individuals employed on a contract basis.
Even more men are contracted to the C.I.A. than are
on direct hire, ranging from former Green Berets and
mercenaries now leading its "Secret Army" in the
jungles of Laos and Cambodia, to the men running and
flying its giant airline, Air America, to assassins
and killers in every corner of the globe.
A Novel on the CIA

A new novel on the C.I.A., The Rope
idly and authoritatively describes the
of the agency, running from its buying
of foreign politicians and governments
creasing power here at home.

Dancer, vivtrue nature
and selling
to its in-

The Rope Dancer itself is not too different from
the scores of spy novels that appear every year.
What makes it special, however, is its author, Victor Marchetti.
Victor Marchetti "Going Public"

Marchetti is the highest-ranking member of the
C.I.A. ever to go public, an official of the executive suite, and participant in daily staff meetings
chaired by C.I.A. Director Helms. His credibility
has not seriously been challenged.
Marchetti has revealed a good many important
points about the situation in Indochina in a series
of published interviews in the last few months. He
has confirmed that William Colby is the number three
man in the C.I.A., that he has used the title of
deputy ambassador as a cover, and that his real role
has been that of the highest-ranking C.I.A. official
in the Indochina theater; he has revealed that Helms
spends li ttle time on the" intelligence estimate"
portion of his role, and that his real interest is
political and military warfare at home and abroad;
and that C.I.A. station chiefs have far more power
than the American ambassadors to Laos and Cambodia.

CASUALTIES ADMITTED BY THE CIA

YEAR

CIA OPERATION PHOENIX
(State Department)
Killed

Captured

CIVILIAN CASUALTIES
FROM "V. C. TERROR" .:'
(Dept. of Defense)
Assassinated Abducted

2,259
6,187

11 ,288

1969

8,515

5,389
6,202

8,759
6,289

1970

8,191

6,405

5,947

6,931

May 1971

3,650

2,770

2,234

3,259

1968

19,772
25,238
TOTALS
20,287
28,978
1968 to
Terrorized:
May 1971 "Neutrali zed"1 :
45,110
49,265
':'Most Americans who have lived in South Vietnam dismiss these figures as highly inflated propaganda.
See for example The Unheard Voices by Don Luce (Cornell University Press, 1969). We include them here
to illustrate that CIA terroristic attacks far outnumber even those "V.C. attacks" claimed by the American Embassy.
lAmbassador Colby, Senate Foreign Relations Committee
Hearing, 1970: "The Viet Cong infrastructure has not
been severely hurt -- in short the V.C. infrastructure is sti 11 there."
Table 2

YEAR

CIVILIAN
CASUALTIES
SO. VIET NAM
Senate Refugee Comm.
Estimate

1966

150,000

1,093,000

Unavailable

1967

175,000

2,139,000

App. 5,500

1968

300,000

2,933,000

App. 6,500

But what is most disturbing of all is Marchetti's
main point:

1969
1970

232,000
137,000

2,790,000
2,158,979

App. 5,500
Unavailable

He says that he resigned from the C.I.A. in protest against its growing surveillance and infiltration of domestic groups, and the arrogance, capriciousness, and limited abilities of many top C.I.A.
officials who nonetheless continue to consolidate
their power at home and abroad.

May 1971

The Urgency of Marchetti's Message

Two recent events have increased the urgency of
Marchetti's message:
(1) Richard Helms has been appointed chief of all
"intelligence" operations, signaling his
triumph in a complicated bureaucratic struggle with the C.I.A. and increased power for
the agency.
(2) The Senate has just rejected a Symington
sponsored amendment to limit funds available
for" intelligence" purposes.
The C.I.A. may well come to be a more visible
government here at home, even as it continues to become our main war-making agency abroad in the de~ade
to come.
[]

42

40,000 App.

ORDNANCE
EXPENDED BY
U.S. FORCES
IN TONS - Dept.
of Defense

ORDNANCE
EXPENDED
N.L.F.-N.V.
(Dept. of
Defense Public
Affai rs)

785,000

Unavailable
2
TOTAL
1,034,000
11,998,000
36,000 (Pro1966 to
j ec ti ng from
May 1971
1967-1969)
lCarl Strock, after one and a half years in South
Viet Nam with the American Friends Service Committee,
estimated "99 and a li ttle more" percent of all ci vilian casualties to be the responsibility of the U.S.
and A.R.V.N. forces. In 1971 the Senate Refugee Committee indicated "most of the casualties are caused
and people made refugees by American and Allied military activity." (Staff interview, April 3,1971, The
New York Times.)
1

2At the height of the Tet offensive, the N.L.F. and
N.V. forces utilized approximately 27 tons of ordnance daily. This figure represents the tonnage of
one B-52 bombing strike. There were 20,500 B-52
strikes in 1968, and there will be approximately
12,000 this year. In 1966 the 27,000 pounds of U.S.
dud bombs was more or less five times the total ordnance employed by the N.L.F. and D.R.V.

COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1972

WHO SHOT PRESIDENT KENNEDYor Fact and Fable in History
Gareth Jenkins
Cambridge School of Weston
Weston, Mass.

"I do not know who killed Kennedy nor their motives, etc. But I think I have shown
satisfactorily from physical evidence ... that Oswald alone could not have shot President
Kennedy.
There was a conspiracy to the extent that his accomplice(s) remain
undiscovered. "

Nov. 22, 1971 was the eighth anniversary of the
assassination of President John F. Kennedy in Dallas,
Texas. What follows here are some observations on
the treatment of that event by the special investigatory commission set up by the then-new President
Lyndon B. Johnson (the "Warren Commission"). I will
concentrate .on the implausibility of the "facts" assembled by that commission to support their contention that a single man, Lee Harvey Oswald, was solely responsible for Kennedy's death. It is my countercontention that the bare physical evidence published
by the commission itself, fragmentary as it is, does
not support the commission's main findings in the
least. On the contrary, this article shows -- using
the Commission's own cited evidence -- that at least
two gun men -- Oswald possibly being one of them -cut Kennedy down in a hail of bullets on Nov. 22,
1963. The other person (or persons) involved are
still at large.
First, let me express a note on the documentation
in this article. The Warren Commission published its
one-volume, 888-page report on Sept. 23, 1964, and
published a short time later a 26-volume compendium
of hearings, depositions, and exhibits accepted in
evidence before the commission. Citations to the
report itself are denoted by the initials WR (Warren
Report) and the page number, thus: (WR435), citations
to the 26 volumes of hearings are denoted by Roman
numerals; as an example; (XXX,114) denotes Volume
25, page i14 of Hearings/Exhibits. See the bibliography at the end of thi s articl e for ci tations from
other sources.
Summary

A capsule summary of the main events and official findings according to the Warren Commission
report runs like this.
President Kennedy, on a political fence-mending
trip in Texas in late Nov. 1963, was scheduled to
address an open-air rally at the Trade Mart in Dallas on Nov. 22. His arrival was to be in the grand
manner, with an open-car motorcade through the city
to precede the speech. Kennedy, his wife Jacqueline, (now Mrs. Aristotle Onassis), Governor John
Connally (now Secretary of the Treasury), his wife.
and two Secret Service agents (one driving) were
the occupants of the lead car in the noontime parade. The crowds were heavy and enthusiastic, with
COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1972

hundreds taking pictures (of great importance later
on for the investigation) all along the parade
route.
At the corner of Elm and Houston Streets in Dallas, somewhat past the densest crowds and the city
center, the motorcade approached a tall building
known as the Texas School Book Depository (TSBD),
which housed firms dealing in book distribution and
other firms in other lines of business.
At 12:30 p.m. CST Kennedy's car had just passed
this building, moving at about 10 mph, when several
shots rang out. The first shot hit President Kennedy in the upper back (or neck) and, according to
the Warren Commission, passed completely through
him at the neck to hit Gov. Connally (seated on a
jump seat directly in front of Kennedy) in the midback.
This first shot broke Connally's fifth rib -right side -- and passed out of his body to the
front also. where it fractured his right wrist and
lodged finally in his left mid-thigh.
The second shot fired at the motorcade (all shots
were later said to have come from the sixth floor
of the TSBD) was a probable miss. In any case a
bullet did hit the sidewalk near President Kennedy's
car, throwing fragments which slightly wounded a
bystander. James T. Tague, on the cheek.
The third shot hit President Kennedy in the
head, inflicting a mortal wound, from which he died
30 minutes later.
In the ensuing melee and pandemonium. speculation, rumors. and conflicting eye-witness reports
of many kinds circulated. No suspect, armed or
otherwise, was detained on the spot, though several
hobos in a nearby railroad stockyard were picked up
for questioning.
About an hour later a Dallas police officer, J.
D. Tippit, was shot to death in the Dallas Oak
Cliff district, resulting in a huge dragnet that
bagged Lee Harvey Oswald in a movie theater at 1:45
p.m. Oswald was booked at 2 p.m., and shortly
thereafter charged with the murders of both Officer
Tippit and President Kennedy. A rifle, thought to
be the assassination weapon, had been found on the
sixth floor of the TSBD: it was established later
43

on that it in fact belonged to Oswald. Oswald was
interrogated through Friday afternoon (the 22nd)
and Saturday (no transcript of these discussions
was kept). During this time he maintained his innocence; he even declared, at a tumultuous midnight
"news conference" on Saturday the 23rd that he was
a "patsy".
On Sunday morni ng, Nov. 24th, Oswald was to have
been moved to a more secure jail (the Dallas city
jail having been deluged with death threats against
Oswald). The transfer was to be covered on live
TV -- at least Oswald's departure from the city
jail through a below-ground garage. Oswald appeared in the company of several marshals in this garage at about 10:20 a.m. Sunday, walking to the
armored-car transfer vehicle. Whereupon, those of
us who were watching TV that morning were treated
to the ultimate in live-action melodrama: Oswald
was shot to death, on camera, by Jack Ruby, a Dallas strip-joint operator who had, somehow, gotten
into the heavily-guarded area (WR 1-21 passim).
(I saw this happen.)
Facts

Well, what are the facts? What actually is left
behind from this reported chain of events that is
tangible, measurable, physical evidence?
Here I wish to concentrate on Kennedy's death
alone, setting aside Oswald's guilt or innocence,
Tippit's murder, Ruby's role, etc.
Narrowing the present inquiry in this way we
will examine the following:
the elapsed time of the President's assassination;
the rifle purportedly used;
the number of shots fired;
the wounds suffered by Kennedy and Connally;
ballistics evidence linking the TSBD rifle
to the shooting; and
the Warren Commission's tests and reconstructions of the event and the inadequacies
thereof.

few as 90, show the impact of all the shots hitting
Kennedy and Connally. In other words, simple arithmetic shows that the entire shooting of the two
men took between 4.9 and 5.6 seconds.
The Rifle

Shortly after the assassination a rifle was found
in the TSBD on the 6th floor. It was a 6.5mm
Mannlicher-Carcano rifle with a 2.5X power Japanese
telescopic sight mounted. The Carcano was the main
infantry rifle used by the Italian Army from 1896
to 1945, its design being' unchanged in that period.
It is a powerful and accurate weapon which is readily and cheaply available in gun shops or by mailorder (I bought one myself in a hardware store in
1966 for $9.95).
Testing of the alleged assassination rifle by
National Rifle Association experts showed that, in
firing the rifle, the minimum time between rounds,
necessitated by manual operation of the rifle's
rather long bolt action, is 2.3 seconds (111,407).
This 2.3 seconds is only bolt operation time and
does not .include aiming, which adds, in my estimation, at least 0.5 second to the complete roundto-round firing time.
It is impossible to aim this weapon while operating the bolt, as it slides back 4-plus inches
into the face of the shooter if his cheek is held
to the rifle's stock.
Number of Shots

Next to the Carcano rifle in the TSBD three empty shell cases were found by the police. It is entirely possible that more shots were fired. But
(1) it has been established already that this rifle
could not be fired faster than approximately 2.52.6 seconds between rounds; with a stopwatch running from the first round at least 5.0-5.2 seconds
were required to get off two additional rounds.
(2) The Zapruder film shows the entire event, that
is, the inflicting of all the wounds as taking 4.95.6 seconds.
It is immaterial to this discussion whether more
wild shots were fired before or after the events
shown in this 5-odd second span. Those who argue
that Oswald did somehow fire 4 or more shots have
to explain why other empty shell cases were not
found.

Elapsed Time
Wounds

As mentioned earlier, the parade route was lined
with spectators, many taking photographs. At least
three persons at the assassination site were taking
motion-picture film from home~movie type cameras.
Only one of these films has been widely seen, however, that of Mr. Abraham Zapruder, which was sold
to Life magazine.
The entire assassination sequence is contained
on Zapruder's film reprinted serially, frame-byframe, in XXVIII ,1-80. The films of two other
movie-makers, Muchmore and Nix were not published
by the commission.
What is critical for this inquiry is the fact
that any motion picture camera exposes a certain
number of still frames per second, which when run
in sequence at the exposure speed create the movement seen on a screen. Zapruder's camera, after
FBI testing, was found to expose film when fully
wound (as his was) at 18.3 frames per second (WR, 49:
V, 160-1). Not more than 105 frames, perhaps as
44

Kennedy and Connally are both visibly and seriously wounded within the first 1.5 seconds of the
actual assassination sequence on Zapruder's film.
Kennedy was wounded first in the upper back at a
spot 5~ inches below the top of his shirt collar and
about 2 inches to the right of center, as is measurable in a straightforward way by looking at the holes
in his shirt and suitcoat (exhibit picture, XVII,25).
Evidence of this location for the back hit Kennedy
sustained is reinforced by the pathologists' markings
on a routine autopsy form made the night of Nov. 22
in Bethesda, Md., at a naval hospital to which Kennedy's body had been flown. (Pathologist's sketch,
XVII ,45) .
The commission later said in its report that this
bullet had entered the nape of Kennedy's neck [disregarding the location of the holes in his clothes]
and passed through Kennedy completely, hitting at his
necktie knot, thence into Connally sitting ahead of
him. Since there is a one-plus second lag in KenCOMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1972

nedy's and Connally's reaction times (both visible
on Zapruder's film), the commission said Connally had
a "delayed reaction" to his wound (WR,1l2-3). However, Connally himself said that he heard the first
shot clearly and was turning to see what was happening (all visible on Zapruder's film) before he was
struck. Since bullets travel faster than sound this
account by Connally is reasonable: otherwise he would
have felt the hit before hearing it.
In any event a small hole in Kennedy's neck adjacent to his tie knot, which was much enlarged by a
desperate tracheotomy performed at the Dallas Parkland Hospital by surgeons trying to keep the President alive, was construed by the commission as the
exit hole for the above bullet which hit Kennedy in
the back. This bullet, by the commission's hypothesis, then hit Connally in the mid-back, breaking his
fifth rib, exiting from his chest in front to fracture the right wrist before stopping finally in his
left thigh. The bullet in passing through Connally
left a trail of fragments in both his chest and wrist
areas.
The crucial question here is, could one bullet
have done all the things claimed for it? Since both
men were wounded within 1.5 seconds of each other,
it is physically quite impossible for both of them
to have been hit by separate shots from the Carcano
rifle described above, whose minimum round-to-round
time is 2.5 seconds. Therefore, they had to have
been hit by one bullet if the singl~-assassin version of this event was to be upheld~ If one shot
didn't do it all, then there were at least two assassins.
Commission Exhibit 399, the Magic Bullet

While President Kennedy and Gov. Connally were
being treated at the Dallas hospital, a bullet slug,
Commission Exhibit n339(XVII,49) was found on one of
the stretchers used to carry the men into emergency
surgery. This slug is virtually whole, that is, it
is neither dented, distorted, crumbled, or reduced
significantly from its manufactured weight (160grains
new, 156.4 when discovered).
There are exactly three possibilities:
(1) This bullet lodged in Kennedy's body and fell
out during closed-chest massage performed on
him in surgery, in which case it did not hit
Connally as above, and therefore there were
two assassins.
(2) This bullet did pass through both men, as the
commission expects us to believe, in which
case we have extraordinary and very real difficulties in explaining how it came out in its
pristine condition after leaving a trail of
fragments, and shattering two heavy bones in
Gov. Connally.
(3) A conspirator planted this slug at Parkland
Hospital in an effort to implicate the owner
of the Carcanol It was established beyond
doubt that this slug, Commission Exhibit n399,
did come from the Carcano rifle found at the
TSBD (see below).
The autopsy findings on Kennedy's death were reported in the initial FBI investigations (FBI agents
were present throughout on this occasion (II,131))as
showing that the shot that .hit Kennedy in the back
did not pass through his body, but lodged in his back
after-penetrating less than.two inches.
The commission's mammoth hearing/exhibits include
things like Jack Ruby's mother's dental records
COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1972

(XXII,394-5) and what amount to Lee Oswald's 7th
grade school report cards (XXII,558-9). However,
the commission declined to publish this reportl Its
important details however can be found in facsimile
in Epstein, pp. 184 and 198.
The commission claims the President was wounded
in a different spot than that indicated by the holes
in his clothes and that the bullet passed all the way
through, but provides no evidence in support of this
claim other than sketches done by a naval medical
corpsman who never saw the body (Comm. Exhibits ns
385,386; XVI,977). Perhaps this point of entry for
the first shot was changed to provide a straight-line
trajectory between Kennedy and Connally that would
dispose of the difficulty raised immediately below
in this article (see (3) below). Further difficulties and doubts arise about this autopsy when we
learn that the notes taken by the autopsy pathologist,
Naval Commander Humes, had been burned (XVII,48).
The physical evidence to this point alone has us
in a cul-de-sac:
(1) There is no physical evidence at all to support the back hit on Kennedy entering the nape
of his neck.
(2) Even if this is granted, and the bullet slug
passed through him as claimed, it could not
possibly have then also hit Connally, fractured two bones and left a trail of fragments
and emerged from it all unscathed as it was
discovered on the stretcher at Parkland Hospital.
(3) The bullet slug could not, by anybody's arguments, have hit Kennedy where the holes in the
shirt and coat are, then curved upwards to
exit at his tie knot, then plunged downwards
violently to hit Connally as would be required
by the commission's hypothesis. Bullets do
not trace such gyrating trajectories unless
they are ricocheting. No bony structures in
Kennedy were hit aside from his head (WR,543;
XVI,983).
Where then did the small front wound near Kennedy's tie knot come from? Autopsy surgeons suggest
that it came from the exploding impact of the shot
which struck Kennedy's head, which threw over 40
fragments in all directions. One of these fragments
passed out of Kennedy's head in a depressed forward
trajectory making a small 4-5mm diameter hole (FBI
report of Jan., 1964; facsimile in Epstein, 198-9).
Indeed, the surgeons from Parkland Hospital interrogated by the commission said that the front neck
wound might have been an exit hole for a virtually
whole bullet, but only if the bullet in effect fell
out of Kennedy with no energy left to hit Connally
(VI,55). Any bullet passing out of a body at high
velocity will make a larger exit than entry hole
owing to the mushrooming, snowball effect of tissue
being forced ahead and to the side of the passing
slug. The hole in Kennedy's front neck was, however,
smaller than the 6.5mm dia. of the Carcano's slugs
(XVI, 976).
Ballistics

All modern firearms with "rifled" barrels -- i.e.,
manufactured with spiral ridges in their barrels
which spin the passing slug and stabilize its flight
-- are unique in that every weapon makes a slightly
different pattern of impressions from its ridges on
the passing slugs. The science of taking the "fingerpri nts" (so to speak) of a gun by mi cro-photographi c
analysis is called ballistics. The bullet found in
Parkland Hospital on the stretcher was beyond any
45

doubt fired from the Carcano rifle, which purportedly
belonged to Oswald. No other slugs were recovered
intact, though many fragments were found in Connally,
and on the floor of the Kennedy car, and on the
street. The commission said these fragments were
"consistent" with being fired from the Carcano rifle,
a claim I will accept even though such fragments do
not ordinarily provide absolute ballistics identification of a rifle used.
The fragments are, however, patently inconsistent
with the commission's own Exhibit ~399, the whole
bullet found on the stretcher, which, on the commission's own analysis, must have been the one from
which all these fragments emerged. For, if this bullet did not hit Connally, then Oswald did not have
time to get off the second shot whose impact on Connally is recorded on the Zapruder film. Further,
if the second shot did hit one of the two men, then
how do we account for the wounding of the bystander
with the presumed stray second shot? Indeed, bullet
~399 was said by the hospital orderlies who had found
it to have come from Kennedy's stretcher, but the
commission later said they were mistaken and that it
had come from Connally's stretcher.
The explanation I offer which reasonably accounts
for the discovery and condition of bullet ~399 is
(I) that in fact it lodged in Kennedy's back, as
the initial autopsy reports first showed (it
would appear that, in effect, the official
autopsy report was later altered in a manner
not well explained);
(2) that it hit in the spot indicated by the hole
in Kennedy's clothes;
(3) that it penetrated "less than a finger length"
in the soft back tissues that would not damage
a bullet as the FBI report suggested (Epstein,
196);
(4) that it fell out of Kennedy onto his stretcher
during closed chest massage performed by the
doctors at Parkland who were in fact using
this method to try to revive Kennedy's heart
action (WR,538).
These statements are well documented; but the official version is both incredible and undocumented.
If my explanation of bullet ~399 is correct, then
Kennedy and Connally could not both have been shot
by the same man. They were wounded too close in time
for this to be in any way conceivable.
There is an argument that Oswald, in his extremity
of fear, desperation, and rage, performed a superhuman
feat of mechanical manipulation in his use of the Carcano rifle. In regard to this argument, (I) there is
no evidence for such a claim but imagination, and
some counter-evidence as to Oswald's marksmanship capability (see below) and (2) such explanations allow anybody to explain anything any way they see fit.
It is a fudge-factor explanation.
Reconstructions and Tests

The Warren Commission ran numerous tests of the
rifle, and tried to duplicate wounds sustained by
Kennedy and Connally in test carcasses, etc., to
lend support to its thesis that Oswald did it all
himself .
I wish to point out the following:
(I) The telescopic sight on the Carcano rifle was
improperly mounted and had to be remounted
and realigned by a machinist before this wea46

pon would shoot straight for test purposes
(III,443-5) .
(2) The commission had three riflemen attempt to
duplicate Oswald's gunplay. They fired from
a thirty-foot-high tower at fixed targets 18
inches on a side 180 to 265 feet distant,
with a repaired rifle, with as much time as
they wanted for the first shot and with no
trees obscuring vision anywhere on the test
range. These three riflemen, I must add,
were all rated as masters by the National
Rifle Association; that is, they are qualified for the most exacting Olympic competition and are crack shots.
Oswald, on the other hand, was sixty feet from
the ground in his supposed perch in the TSBD, had the
same distance to shoot through, but at a moving target (granting it was moving fairly slowly and almost
entirely away from him with little lateral movement),
with a faultily aligned scope, and no time at all to
deliberate on the first shot as his alleged vantage
point to the target was obscured by a large oak tree
until 0.5 seconds before he let loose the first round
and Kennedy was struck. Further, Oswald was rated by
his former Marine Corps commander as a "rather poor
shot n while on military duty in that service (WR,191;
VIII, 304ff) .
What were the test results? All three master riflemen were able to hit their (fixed) targets with
the same regularity as Oswald, but only one of the
three equalled Oswald's alleged speed. (III,445). We
are not told whether the three hit their silhouette
targets in the actual target area or not -- they merely had to put bullets into the advantageously large
squares that included both a white background and the
black head-upper body silhouette (III,445-6).
I wish to conclude my article by emphasizing that
I am nursing no devil theory of history. I do not
know who killed Kennedy nor their motives, etc. But
I think I have shown satisfactorily from physical
evidence- the number and types of wounds, the time
elapsed, ballistics evidence involving bullet ~399
and the types of wounds it is compatible wi th - that:
Oswald alone could not have shot President
Kennedy.
I suggest that there was a conspiracy to the extent
that his accomplice{s) remain undiscovered. I am
convinced that the entire case should be reopened
for a properly-handled, full-scale investigation:[]
Bibliography of books used and recommended to anyone
interested in pursuing this matter:
1. Report, President's Commission on the Assassination of President Kennedy (Washington, Govt.
Printing Off.,1964). Citation in the article to
this hardbound edition. Paper editions available.
2. Hearings before the President's Commission on the
Assassination of President Kennedy, 25 vols. (Washington, Govt. Printing Off., 1964).
3. Epstein, Edward J., Inquest: The Warren Commission
and the Establishment of Truth (Viking Press, New
York, N.Y., 1966); paper edition available.
4. Meagher, Sylvia, Accessories After the Fact: The
Warren Commission, the Authorities, and the Report
(Bobbs-Merrill Co., Inc., New York, N.Y., 1967).
5. Lane, Mark, Rush to Judgment (Holt, Rinehart and
Winston, New York, N.Y., 1966); paper edition
available.
6. Thompson, Josiah, Six Seconds in Dallas (Bernard
[]
Geis Associates, New York, N.Y., 1967).
COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February,' 1972

COMPUTERS, CIPHERS, AND CRYPTOGRAPHY
"The ability of the computer to generate keys and perform numerous operations
without error at high speeds makes it one of the most important cryptographic devices
ever invented. "

I.

Otis Minot
Lexington Research
10 Muzzey St.
Lexington, Mass. 02173

Regarding the truncated alphabets which you discussed in "Communication and Ciphers, with a Hexadecimal Alphabet and Variations" by O. N. Minot, E.
C. Berkeley, and Neil Macdonald, "Computers and
Automation", September 1971, p. 36 ff:
Of course, my hexadecimal alphabet was aimed at
making a fairly simply readable and wri table reduced
alphabet, which will work with a 16-key typewriter,
a 4-channel tape, and a 4-bit code.
The use in coding is certainly intriguing, as
you point out so thoroughly. Your alphabet is far
better for coding and machine reading from the
standpoint of nonambiguity, for one thing. Of
course, much of the ambiguity of mine disappears
with intelligent human reading.
I also had in mind some ideas about the efficiency of communication. You point out that Z is
used about 1/100 as much as E in most communication,
which constitutes a cost to all communicators who
must reserve a character for Z. This can be further explored from the viewpoints of efficiency and
cryptography. I also had in mind the possible efficiencies of fi t ting an alphabet to the binary-octalhexadecimal technology -- tapes, cores, logic circuits, etc. This had led me to design a rather efficient 32 character alphabet or rather a "alphanumerobet", for di splay purposes. Inquiries to us
are welcome.
It is most gratifying that your publication
keeps as part of its format and policy the encouragement of such informal communication.

1/.

R. A. Sobieraj
707 Parker St.
Perth Amboy, N.J. 08861

It is true that the use of machines to produce
ciphers and to perform enciphering and deciphering
produces a new level of complexi ty. The use of computers provides a powerful tool for cryptanalysis.
But they would not be used for something as trivial
as a substitution cipherl
The weak point of any substitution cipher is the
frequency with which certain letters appear. Decrypting the first paragraph of Table 4 in the article "Communications and Ciphers tl shows this.
COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1972

First of all a count of the frequency of the
letters shows a high proportion of J, P, V, and B;
sixteen letters are missing completely. This points
out the main characteristic of the "Macdonald Decimal Alphabet". Decrypting begins by substituting
the most frequent combinations (PV, JP, JV, BJ) by
selected unused characters (z, y, x, s). This identifies the first letter (C), the penultimate letter
(G), and the letter K as true substitutions. (Replacing the double characters with a single one
shows that a simple substitution cipher remains the
same even if two characters replace one; and it is
easier for me to solve it this way.) Other combinations of letters are similarly replaced: FJ by a,
PJ by d, JJ bye, PP by h, BF by i, BB by 1, PB by
m, VB by 0, FB by r, FF by t, and VJ by u. In doing
this a few of the previous replacements will have
to be changed. This results in the classic simple
substitution cipher.
Once again a frequency count is made. The letters c, g, z occur 16 to 19 times; the letters k,
x, q occur 11 to 13 times; the letters s, y, a, h
occur 7 to 9 times, etc. The frequency tables show
the three most common letters as E, T, A; the next
three are 0, I, N, etc. Substitution now begins on
a trial and error basis but with educated guesses.
One help in doing this is a table of common English
digrams. For example, kx occurs five times in the
cipher. It probably stands for a combination of 0,
I, or N. A common digram is IN, so this substitution is made and turns out right. The common occurrence of gg in the cipher causes its replacement by
EE. This results in q being replaced by a and c, z
by A, T. The occurrence of a between the known letters T and E results in its replacement by H. By
now its possible to guess at words and the solution
comes quickly.
One other shortcoming of this cipher is its inefficiency: a plaintext of 159 letters causes a cipher of 253 letters. This would not occur with
more advanced ciphers such as the Playfair or the
Vigenere.
The book "Cryptanalysis" by H. F. Gaines (reprinted by Dover Publ., New York) is a good introduction to the subj ect. It covers everything down
to around the end of World War I. For example,
page 102 of the Dover edi tion (956) covers a cipher
in which one letter is transformed into two. This
cipher uses ten letters of the alphabet so numbers
could be used as well (packed two to a byte?).
This is the first article in the literature on
computers and programming that I have seen dealing
explicitly with ciphers.
Subjects such as list processing and random number generators ~ave uses in cryptography.
47

Ciphers such as the Vigenere depend on a key for
enciphering and deciphering. The periodic use of
the key offers a starting point for decrypting.
But a random number generator can create a key as
long as the message.
List processing can be defined as the manipulation of symbols instead of numeric data. Decrypting
a simple substitution cipher is an example. A
cryptanalyst wi th a termi nal-oriented li st processor
could decrypt it wi thin minutes after it was entered.
Ciphers are being mentioned lately because of
their use in guarding stored data. Anyone contemplating this should stay away from a simple substitution cipher and at least adopt a polyalphabetic
cipher like the Vigenere.
After that, the programs that encipher the data
will have to be really guarded!
III.

K. D. Streetman
Physicist
Union Carbide Corp.
Post Office Box P
Oak Ridge, Tenn. 37830

I was very pleased to read the article on communication and ciphers in the September issue of Computers and Automation. This is an interesting
field and one in which computers can and do find a
great deal of use. I hope to see more articles on
this subject. Relative to your comment on the use
of ciphering systems such as the Minot Hexadecimal
Alphabet or the Macdonald Decimal Alphabet, let me
offer the following comments.
1)

2)

Both are essentially of the simple substitution
class of ciphers; i.e., one symbol (or one pair)
corresponds to one and always the same letter in
the plain text. Such a cipher is of course vulnerable to attack from the standpoint of a frequency count, particularly if the text is long.
The use of a limited number of symbols implies
that some plain text letters must be represented
by at least pairs of letters. Analysis of the
frequency of contact should in principle sort out
those ciphers that should occur as pairs.

Both of these problems can of course be easily
overcome by the liberal use of nulls and by a transposition of the cipher text to destroy the proper
contingence of the cipher letters.
Relative to other systems here are some examples
that may be of interest to you. You may judge for
yourself the similarities and differences between
them and the MDA, for instance.
Basic Checkerboard
The alphabet is written into a 5 x 5 block with
coordinates for row and column used to specify the
cells. This may involve the use of 5, 10, or many
different indices as follows:

A
E
I
Q
0

48

ABC D E
F GHI K
L MN 0 P
Q R STU
V WX Y Z
Block 1

DHKUL
F MS Y B

C J DVQ

A E IOU
L
Z
R
E
P

ABC D E
F GHI K
L MN 0 P
Q R STU
V WX Y Z
Block 2

A
G
N
T
Z

ABC D E
F GHI K
L MN 0 P
Q R STU
V WX Y Z
Block 3

Using these blocks, the word CIPHER becomes
Block I:

AIEOIUEIAUOE

Block 2:

LDZVRQZDLQEJ

Block 3:

ASGUNBGSALTH

or

AKGYNLGKABTM
German ADFGX Cipher

A very successful version of the checkerboard
type of system was the German ADFGX cipher used in
World War I. It used the five letters ADFGX as in
block I above, then wrote the resulting cipher in a
rectangular array which was taken out of the block
by columns according to a numerical key.
Soviet Espionage Cipher
Perhaps the most similar system to the MDA is one
used by the Russian spy rings that operated in Swi tzerland and Japan during World War II. It is an adaptation ,of the Nihilist Substi tution System used
during the period of the Czars. The letters were
placed in a checkerboard with single numerical coordinates for the most frequent letters and double
ones for the others as follows:

o

I 234 5 6 789

8

ETAONIRS
BCD F G H J K L M

9

P Q U V WX Y Z . /

with. and / used to indicate a break and a numeric,
respectively. Using this block, CIPHER becomes
81 5 90 85 0 6.
The MDA system by analogy would be handled in a
similar manner using a block of the following form.
B F J PVC G K Q W
A E IOU
B
F
J
P
V

BCD
F GH
J KL MN
P QR S T
V WX Y Z

I
2
3
4
5

I 234 5 6 7 8 9 0
Again, plain text CIPHER becomes B F K P B F J G _
P J. If we substitute numerics for the letter coordinates, the cipher text becomes I 2 8 4 I 2 3 7 4 3.
The Russian system went one step further than the
simple substitution and added a random key which
made the cipher unbreakable. Using this technique
with the MDA with numerical coordinates and a random
number key which is added, CIPHER becomes

12841

2 3 7 4 3

6 I 052

4 9-7 I I

7 3 8 93

6 2 4 5 4

cipher text
random key
final text

The ability of the computer to generate keys and
perform numerous operations without error at high
speeds makes it one of the most important cryptographic devices ever invented.
[J
COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1972

Davidson, et al - Continued from page 28

ber 20, 1971, it should also be obligated to respond
by that date. Without the inclusion of its responses, no compilations can be made.

existence with respect to answers submitted pursuant
to the court's order for the taking of depositions
under Rule 31 of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure
dated September 20, 1971, the court hereby orders
and directs that:

IT IS SO ORDERED.
5. Deponents' Various Motions Requesting Payment
of Expenses
Deponents have moved the court for an order compelling IBM to bear the expense associated with the
production and compilation of information and data
responsive to the Rule 31 Order. The court is aware
that it has the discretion to order the parties seeking discovery to pay the expenses caused thereby.
However, the court does not deem it appropriate at
this time to assess IBM the expenses incurred by
some 2,700 deponents responding to the Order.
6. Protective Order
Rule 26 (c) of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure empowers the court to make a wide variety of
orders for the protection of parties and deponents
in the discovery process. The non-party deponents
that have recently appeared before the court have
demonstrated a need for a more restrictive protective order than the one entered January 24, 1970,
which applied to the parties in this Ii tigation. Cf. United States v. United Fruit Co., 410
F.2d 553:, 557 (5th Cir. 1969). As discussed above,
the information requested is sufficiently relevant
to the issues in this litigation that the court is
requiring responses, and the protective order is
appropriate to shield respondents from misuse of
their responses.
It is the court's intention that the protective
order herein will apply to all deponents responding
to the Rule 31 Order. Some of the restrictions requested by deponents are unduly broad. An unduly
broad protective order not only subjects the parties
to possible sanction, but it imposes burdens upon
their preparation of their case, hinders the efforts
to analyze and present data and imposes severe limits upon the freedom or ability of their executives
and employees to carry out their business affairs
without being sujbect to threat of suit for wrongful use of confidential information.
It does not seem feasible to limit the disclosure
of "confidential" information only to the attorneys
involved in the Ii tigation nor to retained outside
experts. Few attorneys are knowledgeable enough to
digest and analyze the substantial technical and
statistical data to be submitted in response to the
census. Therefore, it is clear that IBM's counsel
should be permitted to discuss this data with designated company personnel. The information involved
is of a nature which inherently requires discussion
with expert personnel and those intimately familiar
with the computer industry, to be meaningful. Examination and evaluation by expert IBM, Greyhound
and Control Data personnel is necessary if the data
is to have any meaningful significance to counsel in
preparation of their defense. Cf. United States v.
Lever Bros. Co., supra at 257.
The court is of the opinion that any public information provided in response to the Rule 31 order
would not be afforded confidential treatment and
would not be within the scope of the protective
order.
10. "Non-party Deponents' Motions to Vacate Rule 31
Order are Hereby Denied", Court Order

Having heard arguments with respect to the need
for a more restrictive protective order than now in
COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1972

(1) Answers by deponents to any and all of the
questions accompanying the Rule 31 Order, including documents or other writings given in response
to those questions shall, in the first instance
be available only for examination by counsel, by
a limited number of employees engaged in working
on the litigation, and outside experts, the names
of the employees and experts to be designated in
writing by counsel for IBM, Greyhound and C.D.C.
and furnished to the objectors listed above in
this pretrial order No. 9 and any other main
frame manufacturers and filed with the clerk of
court forthwith.
(2) Any deponent submitting answers pursuant
to the Order shall designate the answers to which
the protective order is to apply.
(3) All answers received by the cierk of court
under coverage of this protective order shall be
segregated from all other records and shall not
be disclosed by the clerk to anyone other than
those designated in the court's order of September 20, 1971.
(4) The distribution of the answers received
pursuant to the order of September 20, 1971,
shall be limited as follows:
(a) IBM shall make the said answers available only to its counsel and to not more than
15 of its non-clerical employees who are employed fUll-time on the current litigation,
and, further, IBM shall establish a procedure
whereby no employee working fUll-time on the
litigation shall be transferred to any other
position within IBM except upon 15 days notice
to those objectors listed above in this pretrial order No. 9 and upon review and determination by the Vice President and General Counsel of IBM that such transfer will in no way
jeopardize the interests of any person supplying answers pursuant to the Rule 31 order.
CDC and Greyhound shall comply with this paragraph but with a limitation of 10 non-cleiical
employees even though not full-time employed
in the litigation.
(b) Any of the parties may make the said
answers available to such outside experts as
they deem reasonably necessary, provided that
any such expert shall first agree in writing
to be bound by the Protective Order, as hereby
amended, and not to use any information shown
to them in the course of said expertQs business or for any business purpose of said
expert.
(5) No confidential answer or any portion
thereof shall be used by the respective parties
or on behalf of any parties to this action for
business or competitive purposes or for any
purpose whatever other than for the preparation
and trial of this action. Expert employee and
non-employee advisers shall each sign an affidavi~ to this effect prior to obtaining access to
any confidential answers.
(6) If, at the time of trial, counsel for any
of the parties intends to introduce into evidence
any answer made pursuant to the Order of September 20, 1971, and covered by the Protective Orde~
(Continued on next page)

49

Davidson, et al - Continued from page 49
he shall so inform this court as far in advance
as possible and this court will take such steps
as it shall deem reasonably necessary to preserve
the confidentiality of such answer.

Herb Bright
Computation Planning, Inc.
5401 Westbard Ave.
Washington, D. C. 20016

(7) All depositions taken in this litigation
shall be subject to the Protective Order. as
hereby amended. provided that the deposition witness and his counsel shall be entitled to examine
any such answer made pursuant to the Order of
September 20. 1971. as shall be shown to them for
the purpose of eliciting testimony from such witness. on the condition that such witness and
counsel shall agree in writing to be bound by the
provisions of the Protective Order.

It was a dark and stormy night. There was to be
a SHARE meeting in a week or so, and a very strange
letter had come to me (at WB (Westinghouse Bettis
Laboratory)) for SSD processing. (I was SHARE Secretary at the time.)

(8) Upon final termination of this action. including all appeals, outside counsel for the respective parties shall assemble and return all
confidential answers produced under the Order and
shall destroy all copies of confidential answers
in their possession. Outside counsel for the respective parties shall be entitled to retain all
memoranda embodying information derived from any
such confidential answers, but without source
identification. and such memoranda shall be used
only for the purpose of preserving a file on this
case and shall not. without written permission be
disclosed to any other person.
(9) Any personnel obtaining access to information covered by this protective order shall not
make copies, or reveal the contents of the documents, or use the information for any purpose .
other than for the preparation and trial of this
li tigation.

(10) Any deponent who desires, may in its answers or by separate writing to counsel for the
parties, bring itself within and be covered by
the provisions of this protective order.
DATED:

November 12, 1971.

Philip Neville
United States District Judge

USE ECONOMICAL C&A CLASSIFIED ADS to buy or sell
your computer and data processing equipment, to offer services to the industry, to offer new business opportunities, to
seek new positions or to fill job vacancies, etc.
Rates for Classifed Ads:
~Oe

per word - minimum, 20 words

First line all capitals - no extra charge
(Ads must be prepaid)
Send Copy to:
COMPUTERS AND AUTOMATION
815 Washington Street
Newtonville, MA 02160
Telephone (617) 332-5453

50

SHARE AND THE MULTIPLY CARRY BUG

MURA, that strange organization that had the
tapeless 704 with the CRT display, reported a hardware"problem:
"When MPY (fixed-point multiply) was executed with operands such that there were unusually long carries during one or more of
the add-cycles in the multiply, the result
was a very wrong number. In fact, it seemed
to be a random string of bits. IBM did not
feel that a problem existed."
I went over the letter carefully with Lou Ondis.
He wrote a short routine to multiply a couple of
constants that would yield some long carries. Wrong
answerl We blackboarded it, tried it on both octal
and decimal desk calculators ... there was no question but that the 704 had erred. Further, it erred
differently each time we tried.
Our head customer engineer (CE), one of the best,
checked the machine and pronounced it normal ... but
he agreed the numbers were wrong. A telephone call
to CE Heaven yielded only the intelligence that, as
quoted by MURA, fiNo problem exists."
Lou and I decided to put SHARE to the test. He
dolled up his program a bit (made it loop and print
wrong answers when they occurred) and produced it in
the form of a single binary card. We reproduced a
couple of dozen copies and mailed them to a couple
of dozen SHARE installations that I trusted with the
request that they try it at once and report at the
next week's SHARE meeting.
Came meeting time, I called for responses at the
opening plenary session. A total of 12 members reported tests. 4 had consistently got the right answer, 3 had got wrong answers occasionally, and 5
were solid bad -- wrong all the time and usually
different each time. It did indeed look as though
there was a problem.
Don Pendery, bless his heart, rose up for IBM
without calling IBM Poughkeepsie and stated flatly
that IBM would investigate the matter immediately
and would fix it as soon as possible. That did happen. An Engineering Change fix was in the field
within a couple of weeks.
The explanation, it seems, is that, with 704's
containing some subassemblies that were at the slow
end of the speed tolerance range, timing for carry
propagation was marginal for the 35-bit fixed point
magnitude, although it was O.K. for the 27-bit
floating-point fraction part; with such a machine,
where there happened to be an unusually long carry
in an MPY, it might not ripple all the way before
the machine strode on. SHARE HAD PASSED THE TEST.
*MURA gained early fame in SHARE as a result of
their SHARE-distributed routine, "Reflexive 704",
which caused a 704 to simulate a 407 running at
half speed.
COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1972

ACROSS THE EDITOR'S DESK
Computing and Data Processing Newsletter
Table of Contents

APPLICA TlONS

Operation Clean Sweep -- a City's War
on Grime
Poinciana, New Florida City, Being Planned
With Aid of Computers
Pontiac Dealers Use Computer To Track
Car Production for Consumers
District's Superior Court Uses Computer To
Keep Track of 100,000 Criminal Cases

EDUCA TlON NEWS

51
51

New Jersey Correctional Institution Pioneers
Data Processing Education for Inmates
Faculty Loans to Black Colleges

52
52

ORGANIZA TlON NEWS

51
52

APPLICATIONS

Sperry Rand and RCA Sign Final Agreement
Goodyear Patents "Debugging" System

53
53

RESEARCH FRONTIER

Tiny Lamps that Glow for 100 Years

53

POINCIANA, NEW FLORIDA CITY,
BEING PLANNED WITH AID OF COMPUTER

McDonnell Doug/as Automation Co.
St. Louis, Mo. 63166
OPERATION CLEAN SWEEP
- A CITY'S WAR ON GRIME

James P. Alexander, Director
Department of Environmental Services
Government of the District of Columbia
Washington, D. C. 20004

Faced with moving a quarter million tons of trash
a year off District streets, a land pollution index
and a computer have been enlisted to help the city's
war on grime. Both the index and computer are part
of phase II of Operation Clean Sweep, a ci ty-wide
program designed to give District residents clean
streets and, at the same time, a new sense of community pride and spirit.
The land index is like an air or water pollution
index, only it's designed to measure the accumulation
of fi 1 th on streets and alert the Department to problem areas in the city. Department inspectors match
every street against a series of photographs that
set cleanliness standards. If a street doesn't
measure ~p, it's reported to the Department so immediate action can be taken. The action may include
re-scheduling a sanitation truck and crew from one
part of the city to another.
The Department is currently using an IB~I System!360
Model 50 to help keep track of the 83 trucks that
travel the 165 routes and stop at 135,000 trash
pick-up points each week. Using a computer program
called VSP for Vehicle Scheduling Program, the Department can simulate changes in any route and, as
a result, tell what will happen to service in other
areas of the city before the route is changed.
There are also plans to use the computer for dayto-day reports on the amount of trash collected in
each area of the city. From the report, the Department will be able to spot problem areas and make
changes on a 24 hour basis.
It costs the city $38,000 a year for a truck and
crew. The computer is an important tool in making
sure all of them are used as efficiently as Possible.
The computer is also saving manpower for the District
by cutting the time it used to take to re-configure a
route by hand, from 15 days to only one.
COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1972

A completely planned ci ty for 250,000 people under
development near Orlando, Florida, is being subdivided and platted with the computerized service of
McDonnell Douglas Automation"Company in St. Louis.
Known as Poinciana, the city is taking shape on a
47,300-acre tract of land (on the fringes of Walt
Disney World) owned and under development by GAC
Properties, Inc., a unit of GAC Corporation. Poinciana will be a complete community with schools,
churches and industrial parks.
Poinciana eventually will contain about 60,000
lots. The computerized service entails both sizing
the acreage to produce the maximum number of lots
per acre and platting the sized lots on linen sheets
for recording by the county engineer as official
documents. GAC Properties and its engineering consulting firms first provide McDonnell's land development staff wi th an engi nee red concept plan of each
subdivision, or neighborhood, along with maximum
and minimum lot specifications. This information
is then processed on an IBM Model 85 computer and
an incremental line plotter in St. Louis, which produces a final plat and a complete description of'all
parcels and streets.
This description includes: (1) coordinates of all
points, (2) complete curve data, (3) complete parcel
data on all lots, streets and tracts, (4) di stances
and bearings of all line segments and (5) the area
and acreages of each lot li sted by sheet number, block
number and lot number. This data also is printed in
tabular form for use by the engineer and surveyor.in
laying out sewer and utility lines after the streets
have been laid out.

PONTIAC DEALERS USE COMPUTER TO TRACK
CAR PRODUCTION FOR CONSUMERS

William F. Grimshaw
General Electric News Bureau
6 East 43 St., 8th Floor
New York, N. Y. 10017

Pontiac dealers across the U.S. recently inaugurated an industry "breakthrough" -- computer-controlled delivery for all 1972 new car orders from
51

customers. GM's Pontiac Motor Division, by linking
with General Electric's Information Services Division have, in effect, created a single nation-wide
data processing-data communications system out of
an array of large-scale GE and IBM processors.
The idea is to enable customers to know exactly
when they can drive away in their 1972 Pontiac -and with on-the-hour accuracy, something the industry could not do before. According to Pontiac, dealers will be keeping computer-track of the status of
each customer's new car order all the way through
Pontiac's production system. And if a "tie-up" is
discovered, immediate corrective delivery action
can be taken.

EDUCATION NEWS
NEW JERSEY CORRECTIONAL INSTITUTION PIONEERS
DATA PROCESSING EDUCATION FOR INMATES

G. Thompson Durand
State of New Jersey
Department 0 f Institutions and Agencies
State Office Building
Trenton, N.J. 08625

The new program is made possible by GE's new INTERPROCESSING (a GE servicemark) computer service
that links its computer information network in Cleve~
land to Pontiac's computer in Pontiac, Mich. The
GE system provides a data collection and processing
link to teletype-like terminals in Pontiac's zone
and dealer offices across the country.

A complete program in data processing education
is being given at the Yardville Youth Reception and
Correction Center in Trenton, N.J. The program aims
at dramatically increasing the inmates rate of rehabilitation by offering them a chance to get into a
field with a future. The desire to enter the course
has been high, since the inmates feel it is both a
mental challenge and a chance at a career with a
high potential.

During the night, the Pontiac's computer compiles
the status of every car in the order-production-distribution cycle. Early each morning it sends this
information by phone to GE' s computer network. Throughout the day, sales personnel in Pontiac's zone and
dealer offices use their terminals, which are connected to telephones, to determine from the GE computer system the status of various car orders.

The project, now in its second full year, was initiated by the Manpower Development and Training Office of the New Jersey Department of Education and
is federally funded. It is the fi rst at any correctional institution in the U.S. to incorporate a
fully-developed curriculum, a fUll-time staff of instructors, and a computer -- an IBM 1130 -- dedicated solely to teaching.

DISTRICT'S SUPERIOR COURT USES COMPUTER TO
KEEP TRACK OF 100,000 CRIMINAL CASES

Joseph M. Burton, Clerk
Superior Court of the District of Columbia
Washington, D. C. 20001

The Superior Court of the District of Columbia
has turned to a computer to help keep track of more
than 100,000 criminal cases including the defendants,
witnesses. lawyers and judges that are involved in
each one of them. This court docketing system helps
speed the flow of justice by giving lawyers, judges
and court administrators up-to-the-minute reports on
criminal cases and by helping them better plan for
the use of their time.
Under a manual system, it's difficult for an attorney or judge to find the current status of all
cases that he's involved in. Handwritten records
are kept in ledgers that must be searched by a file
clerk for up-to-date information. It's als9 difficult for a judge or attorney to project his workload
for more than a week at a time.
With the new system, the current status of any
case along with the names of the lawyer, defendant
and judge can be located by the computer in less
tban five seconds. Stored in Superior Court's IBM
System/360 Model 40 is information on the 105,000
criminal cases -- traffic, misdemeanors, and felonies -- filed with the court since January, 1971.
Connected to the computer are four IBM 2260 video
displays. Information on any case can be quickly
checked by typing the case number or the name of the
defendant, lawyer or judge on the unit's keyboard.
Chief Judge ~arold H. Greene said the docketing
system is part of a total data processing program
that, when fully developed, will provide the court
with one of the most advanced judicial information
systems in the nation.
52

The training is divided into three phases, each
progressively more difficult, in which inmates advance through the skills of keypunching, computer
operations and computer programming. Each phase
lasts four months and provides 420 hours of classroom and laboratory instruction (six hours a day,
five days a week).
During the first year of the program, 60 inmates
started the course. One-third of the group finished
the first phase; one-third, the second; and the remaining 20 completed all three phases. This year,
40 inmates are expected to complete the full curriculum. They are selected for the course on the basis
of aptitude and desire, and must also be high school
graduates or have passed equivalency tests.
After one year of operation on an experimental
basi s, how well has the program at Yardville worked?
The New Jersey state civil service examination
in data processing is one yardstick. To date, results are available only for those inmates who took
tests for keypunch and computer operator. Among 15
who took the keypunch test, 14 passed. And on the
computer operator test. seven of 10 were successful.

FACULTY LOANS TO BLACK COLLEGES

E. Nanas
IBM Corporation
Old Orchard Rd.
Armonk, N. Y. 10504

A new program of business support to black colleges -- the transfusion of teaching talent from
corporation to campus -- has been undertaken by IBM
Corporation in cooperation with officials of public
Bnd private black colleges.
Eighteen scientists, engineers and other volun~
teers from IBM's professional staff, on paid leaves
from their regular jobs, are spending the current
COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1972

academic year teaching at 18 different black colleges in the South. (Robert E. Lee, an electronics
engineer from IBM's laboratory in Burlington, Vt.,
is shown in the
picture, second
from left, as he
instructs Tuskegee
Institute electronics students
in the use of the
laboratory oscilloscope.) Each
participating colleg-e identified
skill and curriculum needs last
spring. These
were matched with the abilities and experience of
IBM volunteers and interviews were conducted on campus so that both school officials and volunteers
could be reasonably assured of a good match.
The volunteers are teaching undergraduate and
graduate courses in physics, mathematics, business,
chemistry, computer science and engineering. The
departments to which they are assigned generally have
fewer than a half-dozen staff members. In many instances, the courses they arc teaching are being offered for the first time. The impact of the volunteers on the campus often extends beyond the classroom. In addition to teaching, most of the volunteers are helping to develop new curricula, setting
up new labs, conducting faculty seminars and working on interdepartmental study programs.

ORGANIZATION NEWS
SPERRY RAND AND RCA SIGN FINAL AGREEMENT

D. F. Kyle
Sperry Rand Corporation
1290 Avenue of the Americas
New York, N. Y. 10019

Sperry Rand Corporation and RCA Corporation
signed a final agreement on December 17, 1971 under
which Sperry Rand acquired RCA's customer base in
general purpo se computers. Under terms of the agreement, Sperry Rand's Univac Division, as of January 1,
is providing software and hardware maintenance and
systems support to RCA's former computer customers
in the United States, Canada and Mexico. These include more than 500 users with more than 1,000 computers installed.
The agreement was signed by J. Frank Forster,
Sperry Rand chairman and chief executive officer
and Anthony L. Conrad, president and chief operating officer of RCA. It results from RCA's decision
to withdraw from the computer business September 17,
1971, and an agreement in principle on November 19,
1971; for Sperry Rand to purchase parts of the business. The agreement called for Sperry Rand to make
initial cash payment of $70 million on January 7,
followed by additional shared revenue contingency
payments estimated at between $30 million and $60
million over the next five years.
About 2,5000 RCA computer personnel will be j oining the Univac organization to insure continuity of
service to the RCA customers.

COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1972

"DEBUGGING SYSTEM" FOR COMPUTERS
PATENTED BY GOODYEAR TIRE & RUBBER

The Goodyear Tire and Rubber Co.
Akron, Ohio 44316

A "debugging" system for computers that locates
errors in a fraction of the time required by older
methods has been patented by The Goodyear Tire &
Rubber Co., Akron, Ohio. Its inventor, Robert S.
Enabnit, who directs Goodyear's electronics research,
said that when a computer programming-error occurs,
the error itself is fed back into the computer. The
computer then automatically backtracks to the source
of the error for easy identification and correction
by the programmer. As described in the patent papers, the invention "relates to a method and circuitry for debugging of on-line programmable digital computers."

RESEARCH FRONTIER
TINY LAMPS THAT GLOW FOR 100 YEARS

Western Electric Company, Inc.
195 Broadway
New York, N. Y. TO007

When people ask Wilson Chen what he does for a
living, he tells them, "I grow lamps."
Wearing a white smock and a gauze cap, Chen
doesn't. look much like a farmer. In fact, he's a
senior engineer at Western Electric's Reading (Pa.)
Plant. Instead of planting seeds, he uses chemicals'
instead of sun and rain, he relies on carefully con-'
trolled heat and pressure; and instead of a hothouse,
he works in a laboratory that's as clean as a hospital operating room. His harvest is small, delicate
and very valuable.
Chen grows an unusual chemical compound called
gallium phosphide. It's a solid, transparent material that resembles amber. When a small electric
current is passed through a suitably prepared crystal, the gallium phosphide gives off a bright red
or green light with almost no heat -- a light that
should have an average life of 100 years.
The new light is important because it's compatible with solid-state circuits. And it was developed
for the same reasons that electron tubes have been
replaced with solid-state components such as transistors and diodes: low power consumption, small
size, fast switching speed, little heat emission,
long life, extreme reliability and low cost.
Using these new lamps in a format that forms letters or numbers, a telephone of the future could
have a readout panel that would allow a caller to
dial a code when he comes home, and see the phone
numbers of the people who called while he was out,
dial,a bank and see his balance; or call a comput~r,
put In a problem and see the answer immediately.
The tiny crystal device, called a light-emitting
diode, resulted after years of research and development by Bell Laboratories scientists and Western
Electric engineers. This new lamp will be used in
future telephones, switchboards, private branch exchanges, electronic switching systems, and display
boards. The first use by the Bell System in a consumer product is in a new compact, solid-state
Speakerphone currently undergoing field tests.
53

NEW CONTRACTS

Olivetti Corporation of
America, New York, N,Y.

EMBRATEL (Empresa Brasilera
de Telecomunicacoes), Brasil

Control Data Corporation
Minneapolis; Minn,

Union Bank of Switzerland
(UBS) , Zurich

Digital Equipment Corp.
Maynard, Mass.
Honeywell' Inc., Well e sl ey
Hill s, Mass.

Digitek Corp.
Marina Del Rey, Calif,
State of New Hampshire

Fairchild Systems Technology Division, Sunnyvale, Calif,
Honeywell Inc., Wellesley
Hill s, Mass,
National Cash Register
Dayton, Ohio
Victor Comptometer Corp,
Computer Division, Chicago,

Oklahoma City Air Materiel.
Area, Tinker Air Force Base,
Okla,
Andresens Bank A/S; Wilh.
Wilhelmsen; and Time-Sharing
,A/S
Oslo, Norway
Union Bank of Switzerland
(UBS) , Zurich
Employers Commercial Union
Companies; Boston, Mass,

14,900 teleprinters for expanding the telex
services for the entire country; includes
direct connections with neighboring countries, and via satellite, with entire world
Multi-computer system; first step in restyling Bank's operations; centered about
2 CYBER 70 model 73 systems, service will
be available in any branch no matter how
far removed
Ten DECsystem-l040's for use in batch and
on-line services to customers
Equipment and maintenance of a Honeywell
Series 6000 computer which will service all
agencies of state government in support of
integrated management information systems
Development and production of systems to be
used in testing of ground support equipment
for the Joint Services A-7 aircraft
A Honeywell Series 6030 system for joint
use; commercial services range from local
batch to conversational time-sharing; bank
use will include on-line banking
NCR 270-201 banking teller terminals and
NCR 754 remote multiplexers; part of first
installation phase in Bank's new system
29 Victor Series 800 mini-computer systems
for national insurance network

$33+ million

$12,3 mill ion

$4+ million
$3.6 million

$2,5 million
$2+ million

$2 million
$1,6 million

Ill.

ITT's Compagnie Generale de
Constructions'Telephoniques
(C,G.C,T.)

Aeroflot, Moscow, U.S.S.R.

Image Systems, Inc,
Culver City, Calif.

Eastern Airlines
New York, N.Y,

Westinghouse Electric Corp.
Westinghouse Justice Institute
Pittsburgh, Pa.

Miami Valley Council of
Governments, Dayton, Ohio

Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, Cambridge,
Mass.

Council on Library Resources

C. M, Leinwand Associates,
Inc" Newton, Mass,

U,S. Office of Economic
Opportunity, Washington,
D.C.
U,S, Office of Education
Washington, D,C.

The Council of the Great City
Schools, Washington, D.C,
GTE Sylvania Inc., SocioSystems Products Organization, Mountain View, Calif.
Los Angeles Unified School
District, Calif.

District of Columbia Dept.
of Highways and Traffic,
Washington, D.C.
U.S. Dept. of Health, Education, and Welfare, Washington,
D.C.

Computer Automation, Inc.
Newport Beach, Calif.

(not identified because of
proprietary nature of
products)

Control Data Corp.
Minneapolis, Minn.

Pittsburgh Mercy Hospital
PittSburgh, Pa,

Synergistic Computer Systems,
Inc., Orange, Calif,

J. F. Earp and Associates,
Lakeland, Fla.

Lockheed Electronics Co.,
Inc., Los Angeles, Calif.

Iotron Corp,
Bedford, Mass.

54

Electronic telegraph message switching
system which will handle all telegraphic
message transmission switching for Soviet
civil aviation
Maintenance and servicing of 1,640 CAROb
units at airline's regional reservations
centers in U.S., San Juan and Montreal
Design of mUltipurpose information system
to be integrated on regional basis to
serve combined needs of police, judicial
and correctional agencies in area surrounding Dayton (Ohio)
One year support of an experimental, computer-operated technical library; Project
Intrex (for information transfer ~eri­
ments) could be prototype for information
retrieval systems in libraries of future
Providing computer data management services in conjunction with a major project
being undertaken by the O.E.O.
Implementing its Planning and Management
Information System (PMIS); designed to be
transferable; will become available to all
22 Council member city districts later
A computerized surveillance and control
system to improve traffic flow in D.C.

$1.3 million

Development of computer based management
information system, called AIMS (Automated
Instructional Materials~Services)'capable
of providing administrators, teachers and
students with central source of information
for entire array of learning materials
stocked by school district
100 NAKED MINI 8 computers that will
operate and control new consumer-oriented
devices; are being incorporated into coinoperated machines for general public use
Long-term management agreement; CDC will
provide total data processing services,
on-site, for wide range of administrative
and clinical functions
Installation of a complete SYNCOMP MICRO/l
Computer System to handle all phases of
consulting engineering, subdivision map
plotting, a management accounting system,
as well as state-wide data communications
Fifty MAC 16 minicomputers for use as components of Iotron's automatic anticollision navigation system, DIGIPLOTD, for
shipboard use

$234,102

$1 million
$400,000

$400,000

$332,542
$300,000

$242,000

$205,000

COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1972

NEW INSTALLATIONS

Control Data 6400 system

Temple University
Philadelphia, Par

Honeywell Model 115/2 system

Union Discount Company of London
Ltd., Cornhill, England

Honeywell Model 6030 system

Banco de Vizcaya, Madrid, Spain
SEAT, Spain

IBM System/3 Model 6

Pisano French Bread Baking Co.
Redwood City, Calif.

IBM System/3 Model 10

Arizona Automobile Association
Phoenix, Ariz.
Town and Village Insurance
Service, Inc., Columbus, Ohio

IBM System/36O Model 20

Sunbell Corp.,
Albuquerque, N.M.

IBM System/370 Model 145

Cessna Aircraft
Wichita, Kan.

IBM System/370 Model 155

International Harvester Company
Hinsdal.e. Ill.

IBM System/370 Model 165

Gulf Oil Corporation
Pi ttsburgh , Par
Morton Metalcraft Company
Morton. Ill.
Harrison and Company
Atlanta, Ga.

NCR Century 50
NCR Century 100

International Commercial College
Kaohsiung. South Taiwan
Japan Air Lines
Los Angeles, Calif.
NCR Century 200

Municipality of Jersey City
New Jersey

NCR Century 300

Carlton Industries,
Richmond, Va.

SYSTEMS 86

MI Corporation
Baltimore, Md.
Domestic and Foreign Missionary
Society of the Protestant Episcopal Church, New York, N.Y.
O. E. Stapley Company
Phoenix, Ariz.
Braden Industries
Broken Arrow, Okla.
Central Oklahoma Economic Development District (COEDD), Shawnee, Okla.
George Transfer and Rigging Co.
Baltimore, Md.

UNIVAC 9200 system
UNIVAC 9200 II system
UNIVAC 9300 system
UNIVAC 9400 system

Xerox Sigma 3 system

Pacific Northwest Bell Telephone
Co., Seattle, Wash.

COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February. 1972

Time-sharing applications to meet increased workload; will service remote terminals located in
classrooms, labs and offices on campus, health
science center and several off-campus locations
Replacing visible record machines used for all the
company's accounting operations
(system valued at $245,000)
Complementing existing systems at both Bilbao
headquarters and at Madrid to better serve commercial bank customers
Implementing planned national communications network; system will include 10 Series 50 computers as
remote terminals and several hundred remote typewriter-like terminals
Assistance in baking and delivering its 180 different products to restaurants and markets from San
Francisco to Monterey.
Handling all club records, keeping track of types
and causes of automobile breakdowns, maintaining
running inventory of road maps and itineraries
available at its service locations
Calculating automobile insurance premiums (is programmed to automatically review all factors that
affect an individual's insurance rates); also for
premium billing of health and home-owners policies,
and other financial control functions within agenct
Aiding Sioux moccasin-makers to keep in touch with
Sunbell; applications include payroll, inventory,
and sales forecasting
All of Cessna's computing, including accounting,
payroll, service parts inventory control, market
forecasting and research, production planning,
engineering. financial analysis. etc.
Studying wide range of possible designs for loaders
and backhoes; using 2250 display unit, designer
may alter model until satisfied
Host computer to some 25 smaller systems in use
at Gulf locations as far away as London
Production analyses, labor accounting, and payroll
preparation
A variety of applications including the codification
of state laws, preparation'of invoices, inventory
control and sales analysis
Advanced educational data processing
Preparing purchase orders, writing shipping invoices,
and paying suppliers; will soon be tied into JAL's
inventory control operation in Tokyo
Nucleus of a fiscal modernization program; now consolidating data processing operations for city's
water, sewer and real-estate tax collections; will
eventually control disbursement of all city funds
and produce each morning an updated balance of 40
different accounts, 'detailing all receipts, deposits
and checki ready for mailing
Expanding data processing operations, including preparing bills of lading for transmission and management reports
A crew training simulator being developed for the
new U.S. Navy EA-6B aircraft
A wide range of business applications'including
general accounting tasks, mailing list preparation, and parochial reports
Inventory control and general accounting
Improving production control procedures, inventory control and accounting operations
Expediting accounting operations in some 19 hospitals located in rural areas in Oklahoma
Real time communications covering 28 dispatching
terminals in 11 states and the District of Columbia;
also, payroll processing, general accounting, equipment reports and sales analysis in batch processing mode; replaces smaller 9300 system
Monitoring traffic volume and quality of service in
switching offices~in Washington, Oregon and Idaho to
instantly detect abnormalities in service; when fully
implemented, up to 150 offices will be on-line and
will be ~ble to request special reports at any time
for printout on a remote terminal
55

MONTHLY COMPUTER CENSUS
Neil Hacdonald
Survey Editor
COMPUTERS AND AUTOMATION
The following is a summary made by COMPUTERS AND AUTOMATION of reports and estimates of the number of general purpose electronic digital computers manufactured and installed, or to be manufactured and on
order. These figures are mailed to individual' computer manufacturers
from time to time for their information and review, and for any updating or comments they may care to provide. Please note the variation
in dates and reliability of the information. Several important manufacturers refuse to give out, confirm, or comment on any figures.
Our census seeks to include all digital computers manufactured anywhere. We invite all manufacturers located anywhere to submit information for this census. We invite all our readers to submit information that would help make these figures as accurate and complete as
possible.
Part I of the Honth1y Computer Census contains reports for United
States manufacturers. Part II contains reports for manufacturers
outside of the United States. The two parts are published in alternate months.

The following abbreviations apply:
(A) --

C
(D)
E
(N)
(R)
(5)
X

authoritative figures, derived essentially from information
sent by the manufacturer directly to COMPOTERS AND
AUTOMATION
figure is combined in a total
acknowledgment is given· to DP Focus, Harlboro, Hass., for
their help in estimating many of these figures
figure estimated by COMPUTERS AND AUTOMATION
manufacturer refuses to give any figures on number of installations or of orders, and refuses to comment in any
way on those numbers stated here
figures derived all or in part from information released
indirectly by the manufacturer, or from reports by other
sources likely to be informed
sale only, and sale (not rental) price is stated
no longer in production
information not obtained at press time

SUHMARY AS OF JANUARY 15, 1972
DATE OF
AVERAGE OR RANGE
NUHBER OF INSTALLATIONS
NAHE OF
NAHE OF
FIRST
OF HONTHLY RENTAL
Outside
In
In
MANUFACTURER
COMPUTER
U.S.A.
INSTALLATION
$(000)
U.S.A.
World
Uni
ted
States
Manufacturers
Outside
Part II.
60
60
8/68
2.0
0
NORD 1
A/S Norsk Data E1ektronikk
(5)
11
0
11
8/69
4.0
NORD-2B
Oslo, Norway
0
0
0
(A) (Jan. 1972)
NORD-5
40
12/60
0
40
GIER
2.3-7.5
A/S Regnecentra1en
19
19
6/67
3.0-20.0
0
Copenhagen, Denmark
RC 4000
(A) (Jan. 1972)
(5)
225
E1bit Computers Ltd.
Elbit-lOO
10/67
4.9
Haifa, Israel
(A) (Feb. 1971)
Series 90-2/10/20
GEC-AEI Automation Ltd.
New Parks, Leicester, England
1/66
13
25/30/40/300
1
S-Two
3/68
(R)
2
12/64
(Jan. 1969)
130
9
330
3/64
1
-/65
959
12/61
8
1010
1
1040
7/63
0
CON/PAC 4020
CON/PAC 4040
5/66
9
CON/PAC 4060
12/66
5
6
6
International Computers, Ltd. (ICL)
Atlas 1 & 2
1/62
65.0
0
London, England
Deuce
7
7
4/55
0
(A)
58
58
KDF 6-10
9/61
10-36
0
(Jan. 1972)
KDN 2
4/63
1
0
1
Leo 1, 2,
10-24
-/53
0
59
59
Hercury
-/57
0
13
13
Orion 1 &
1/63
20.0
17
17
0
Pegasus
30
4/55
30
0
Sirius
-/61
22
22
0
16
16
503
-/64
0
803 A, B, C
12/60
83
0
83
1100/1
-/60
22
5.0
0
22
1200/1/2
68
68
-/55
3.9
0
1300/1 /2
-/62
196
196
4.0
0
1500
7/62
6.0
110
0
110
12/61
2400
23.0
4
4
0
12/64
1900-1909
3-54
2
2200
2202
Elliott 4120/4130
10/65
2.4-11.4
160
0
160
10/67
S~stem 4-30 to 4-75
5.2-54
400
400
0
Japanese Hfrs.
(Hfrs. of various models include: Nippon Electric Co., Fuj i tsu,
(N) (Sept. 1970)
Hitachi, Ltd., Toshiba, Oki Electric Industry Co., and Hitsubishi
Total:
Electric Coq~.)
4150 E
Harconi Co., Ltd.
Hyriad I
3/66
I:.36.0-I:.66.0
(S)
37
0
37
O·
Chelmsford, Essex, England
Myriad II
(5)
10/67
I:.22.0-M2.5
17
17
(A) (Jan. 1970)
N.V. Philips E1ectrologica
PlOOO
8/68
7.2-35.8
60
Ape1doorn, The Netherlands
P9200
3/68
300
(A)
P9200 t.s.
3/70
4
(Jan. 1972)
P800
9/70
40
ELXl
5/58
12.0
22
ELX2/8
3/65
6-21
27
DS714
-/67
27
PR8000
1/66
23
Redifon Limited
R2000
7/70
12
0
12
Crawley, Sussex, England
(A) (Dec. 1971~
Saab-Scania Aktiebolag
D21
12/62
7.0
0
38
38
Linkoping, Sweden
D22
11/68
15.0
31
0
31
(A) (Oct. 1971)
D220
4/69
10.0
12
0
12
Se1enia S.p.A.
(5)
10.9
72
72
G-16
7/69
0
Roma, Italy
GP-160
5.6
(A) (Nov. 1971)

56

NUHBER OF
UNFILLED
ORDERS
29
11
1
0
3
50

X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X

Total:
800 E
9
12
40
50
2
45

0
5
31
250

COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1972

NAME OF
MANUFACTURER
Siemens
Hunich, Germany
(A)
(July. 1971)

NAME OF
COHPUTER

301
302
303
304
305
306
,2002
3003
4004/15/16
4004/25/26
4004/35
4004/135
4004/45
4004/46
4004/55
4004/150
4004/151
404/3
404/6

DATE OF
FIRST
INSTALLATION

11/68
9/67
4/65
5/68
11/67
6/59
12/63
10/65
1/66
2/67
7/66
4/69
12/66

AVERAGE OR RANGE
OF HONTHLY RENTAL

$(000)
0.75
1.3
2.0
2.8
4.5
6.5
13.5
13.0
5.0
8.3
11.8
17.1
22.5
34.0
31.3
41.0
51.5
1.9

NUMBER OF INSTALLATIONS
Outside
In
In
U.S.A.
U.S.A.
World

82
28
70
63
93
-,

39
32
99
54
185
248
10
22
10
22

NUMBER OF
UNFILLED
ORDERS
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C

10

C

Total:

298
BESH 4
BESH 6
HINSK 2
HINSK 22
HIE
NAIR 1
ONEGA 1
URAL 11/14/16
and others

lJSSR
(N)

(Hay 1969)

C
C
C

C

C

C
C

C
C

C
C
C

C
C
C

C

Total:

Total:

6000 E

6000 E

Solution to Problem 721: A Scheme of Sorts

PROBLEM CORNER
Walter Penney, COP
Problem Editor
Computers and Automation

PROBLEM 722: CLEANING UP?

"Would you like to get in on something good?" asked
Sam as Tom entered the Computer Center.
"Not another get-rich-quick scheme, I hope," Tom
replied.
"No, I think it's all on the level, and in any case it's a
pretty small operation. But I thought it might be fun.
Drab, the Super Detergent, has a contest with a picture in
each box. Get a complete set of ten and you win a prize
worth ten dollars."
"How many boxes do you think you'll have to buy to
have a good chance of getting a complete set?"
"I don't know exactly. I'm writing a little program to
simulate this. But I estimated that if I bought twenty
boxes I'd have a very good chance of winning. Since it's
two for 69 cents at the super market, this would mean less
than $7.00. I figure it's a good deal."
Tom looked a little skeptical. "What if it's a racket and
one picture occurs only once in a thousand boxes?"
"Well, I admit that would foul things up, but I'm assuming this is all very honest." Sam paused a moment, then
continued, "How about it, do you want to go in on this
with me? We could- each buy ten boxes and split if we
win."
"No, and I'd advise you not to try it. I don't think you
stand much. chance."
Is Tom right?
COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1972

If an n-bit vector V contains r I's, occuring in positions
aI' a , ... a (from the left), V will occupy position
r
2
r
ak
I +

L~
k=I

L~

(nr_-ki) in the list.

i=I

Readers are invited to submit problems (and their
solutions) for publication in this column to: Problem
Editor, Computers and Automation, 815 Washington St.,
Newtonville, Mass. 02160.

CLASSIFIED ADVERTISEMENT
DIRECTOR OF COMPUTING ACTIVITIES WANTED TO
direct administrative and academic computing activities at
a state university in urban location. Current systems consist of 360/40 and 360/44. Responsibilities will include development of a centralized- facility and development of
plans for a regional educational computer system. Please
address replies, with resume and salary requirement, to:
Dr. Donald Ewing, Chairman, Computer Committee,
Department of Electrical Engineering, The University of
Toledo, Toledo, Ohio 43606.

ADVERTISING INDEX

Following is the index of advertisements.
Each item contains: name and address of
the advertiser / page number where the advertisement appears / name of the agency,
if any.
COMPUTERS AND AUTOMATION, 815 Washington St., Newtonville, Mass. 02160 / Pages 2, 3,7,
59
THE NEW YORK PUBLIC LIBRARY, Fifth Ave.
and 42 St., New York, N.Y. 10018 / page 60
57

CALENDAR OF C'OMING EVENTS
Feb. 1·3, 1972: First International CAD/CAM Conference and Exhibits, Royal Coach Motor Hotel, Atlanta, Ga. / contact: Society
of Manufacturing Engineers, Public Relations Dept., 20501 Ford Rd.,
Dearborn, Mich. 48128
Feb. 2-4, 1972: 1972 San Diego Biomedical Symposium, Sheraton
Hotel, Harbor Island, San Diego, Calif. / contact: Norman R. Silver·
man, M.D., San Diego Biomedical Symposium, P.O. Box 965, San
Diego, Calif. 92112
Feb. 14-15, 1972: ASM WriHen Communications Conference, AtlantaAmerican Hotel, Atlanta, Ga. / contact: John N. Gilbride, Association for Systems Management, 24587 Bagley Rd., Cleveland, Ohio
44138
Mar. 6-8, 1972: 18th Annual Systems Management Conference, Americana Hotel, New York City, N. Y. / contact: Miss G. De Sapio,
Conference Information Coordinator, American Management Association, Inc., AMA Bldg., 135 West 50th St., New York, N. Y. 10020
Mar. 7·10, 1972: Computer Graphics in Medicine, ACM SIGGRAPH
Symposium, Point Park College, Pittsburgh, Pa. / contact: Dr. John
D. Canter, Chmn., Point Park College, 201 Wood St., Pittsburgh,
Pa. 15222
Mar. 8.9, 1972: Annual Spring Conference of the Association for
Systems Management (Toronto Chapter), Royal York Hotel, Toronto,
Ontario, Canada / contact: Mr. Donald T. Laughton, North American Life Assurance Co., 105 Adelaid St. West, Toronto 1, Ontario,
Canada
Mar. 8.10, 1972: Fifth Annual Simulation Symposium, Tampa, Fla.
contact: Annual Simulation Symposium, P.O. Box 1155, Tampa, Fla.
33601
Mar. 13-14, 1972: ASM Organization Planning Conference, Pontchartrain Hotel, Detroit, Mich. / contact: John N. Gilbride, Association
for Systems Management, 24587 Bagley Rd., Cleveland, Ohio 44138
Mar. 20-23, 1972: IEEE International Convention & Exhibition, Coliseum & N. Y. Hilton Hotel, New York, N. Y. / contact: IEEE Headquarters, 345 E. 47th St., New York, N. Y. 10017
Mar. 26-29, 1972: IEEE International Convention, Coliseum & N.Y.
Hilton Hotel, New York, N.Y. / contact: J. H. Schumacher,
IEEE, 345 E. 475th St., New York, N.Y. 10017

May 21·24, 1972: 7th Annual Mass Retailers' Convention and Product
Exposition, Marriott Motor Hotel, Atlanta, Ga. / contact: MRI Headquarters, 570 Seventh Ave., New York, N. Y. 10018
May 21·24, 1972: 1972 International Systems Meeting, Fontainebleau
Hotel, Miami Beach, Fla. / contact: R. B. McCaffrey, Assoc. for
Systems Management, 24587 Bagley Rd., Cleveland, Ohio 44138
May 23·25, 1972: Annual Society for Information Display Interna·
tional Symposium. Jack Tar Hotel, San Francisco, Calif. / contact:
Mr. J. L. Simonds, Eastman Kodak Co., Rochester, N. Y. 14650
May 24-26, 1972: Second Annual Regulatory Information Systems Con·
ference, Chase-Park Plaza Hotel,' St. Louis, Mo. / contact: William
R. Clark, Missouri Public Service' Commission, Jefferson City, Mo.
65101
June 12.14, 1972: Conference on Computers in the Undergraduate
Curricula, Sheraton-Biltmore Hotel and Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Ga. / contact: Computer Sciences Project,
Southern Regional Education Board, 130 Sixth St., N.W., Atlanta,
Ga. 30313
June 12.14, 1972: International Conference on Communications,
Sheraton Hotel, Philadelphia, Paw / contact: Stanley Zebrowitz,
Philco-Ford Corp., 4700 Wissahickon Ave., Philadelphia, Paw 19144
June 12.14, 1972: Third International Congress on Advances in Auto·
mated Analysis, New York Hilton Hotel, New York, N.Y. / contact: Dept. R 39, Technicon Instruments Corp., Tarrytown, N.Y.
10591
June 15·16, 1972: ACM SIG/CPR Tenth Annual Conference on Com·
puter Personnel Research, Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, Univ. of Toronto. Toronto, Canada / contact: SIGCPR, c/o
ACM, 1133 Ave. of the Americas, New York, N.Y. 10036
June 19·21, 1972: International Symposium on Fault·Tolerant Com·
puting, Boston, Mass. / contact: John Kirkley, IEEE Computer Society, 8949 Reseda Blvd., Suite 202, Northridge, Calif. 91324
June 19.21, 1972: Ninth Annual Design Automation Workshop, Statler Hilton Hotel, Dallas, Tex. / contact: R. B. Hitchcock, IBM
Watson Research Center, P.O. Box 218, Yorktown Heights, N.Y.
10598

April 5.8, 1972: "Teaching Systems '72", International Congress,
Berlin Congress Hall, Berlin, Germany / contact: AMK Berlin,
Ausstellungs-Messe-Kongress-GmbH,
Abt.
Presse
und
Public
Relations, D 1000 Berlin 19, Messedamm 22, Germany

June 27·30, 1972: DPMA 1972 International Data Processing Confer·
ence & Business Exposition, New York Hilton at Rockefeller Center,
New York, N.Y. / contact: Richard H. Torp, (conference director),
or Thomas W. Waters (exposition manager), Data Processing Management Association, 505 Busse Hwy., Park Ridge, III. 60068

April 9-12, 1972: International Business Forms Industries 19th An·
nual Meeting, EI San Juan Hotel, San Juan, Puerto Rico / contact:
International Business Forms Industries/PIA, 1730 North lynn St.,
Arlington, Va. 22209

July 3·6, 1972: First Conference on Management Science and Com·
puter Applications in Developing Countries, Cairo Hilton, Cairo,
U.A.R. i contact: Dr. Mostafa EI Agizy or Dr. William H. Evers,
IBM Corporation, Armonk, N.Y. 10504

April 16-19, 1972: Meeting of National Federation of NCR Computer
User Groups, National Cash Register Co., Dayton, Ohio / contact:
Public Relations Dept., National Cash Register Co., Dayton, Ohio
45409

Sept. 19.22, 1972: Western Electronic Show & Convention (WESCON),
los Angeles Convention Ctr., los Angeles, Calif. / con1act: WESCON, 3600 Wilshire Blvd., Los Angeles, Calif. 90005

April 17.19, 1972: Ninth Annual Meeting and Technical Conference
of the Numerical Control Society, Palmer House, Chicago, III. /
contact: William H. White, Numerical Control Society, 44 Nassau
St., Princeton, N. J. 08540
April 25·28, 1972: Conference on Computer Aided Design, Univ. of
Southampton, Southampton, England
contact: lEE Office, Savoy
Place, london W.C. 2, England
May 15·18, 1972: 5th Australian Computer Conference, Brisbane,
Queensland, Australia / contact: A. W. Goldsworthy, Chmn., Australian Computer Society, Inc., Computer Center, Australian National
Univ., P. O. Box 4, Canberra, A.C.T. 2600
May 15.18, 1972: Spring Joint Computer Conference, Convention Ctr.,
Atlantic City, N.J. / contact: AFIPS Headquarters, 210 Summit Ave.,
Montvale, N.J. 07645
May 16-17, 1972: liT Research Institute Second International Symposium on Industrial Robots, Chicago, III. / contact: K. G. Johnson,
Symposium Chairman, liT Research Institute, 10 West 35 St., Chicago, III. 60616

58

Oct. 3·5, 1972: AFIPS and IPSJ ~SA.Japan Computer Conference,
Tokyo, Japan / contact: Robert B. Steel, Informatics Inc., 21050
Vanowen St., Canoga Park, Calif. 91303
Oct. 8·11, 1972: International Conference on Systems, Man and
Cybernetics, Shoreham Hotel, Washington, D.C. / contact: K. S.
Nurendra, Yale Univ., 10 Hill House, New Haven, Conn. 06520
Nov. 1·3, 1972: Northeast Electronics Research & Engineering Meet·
ing (NEREM), Boston, Mass. / contact: IEEE Boston Office, 31 Channing St., Newton, Mass. 02158
Nov. 9·10, 1972: Canadian Symposium on Communications, Queen
Elizabeth Hotel, Montreal, Quebec, Canada / contact: IEEE Headquarters, Technical Conference Svcs., 345 E. 47th St., New York,
N.Y. 10017
Nov. 13·16, 1972: Fall Joint Computer Conference, Convention Cen·
ter, Las Vegas, Nev. / contact: AFIPS Headquarters, 210 Summit
Ave., Montvale, N.J. 07645
April 10·13, 1973 PROLAMAT '73, Second International Conference
on Programming Languages for Numerically Controlled Machine
Tools, Budapest, Hungary / contact: IFIP Prolamat, 73, P.O. Box
63, Budapest 112, Hungary
COMPUTERS and AUTOMATION for February, 1972

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THE INFORMATION REVOL UTION AND THE BiLL OF RIGHTS,
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EMPLOYMENT, EDUCATION, AND THE INDUSTRIAL SYSTEM,
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