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Introduction to
Human Resource
Management and
Human Resource
Information Systems
❖
PPAARRTT II
11
Evolution of
Human Resource
Management and
Human Resource
Information
Systems
The Role of Information Technology
Mohan Thite
Michael J. Kavanagh
❖
EDITORS’ NOTE
The purpose of this chapter is to provide an introduction to the fields of human
resource management (HRM) and information technology (IT), and the com-
bination of these two fields into human resource information systems
(HRIS). The first chapter will lay the groundwork for the remainder of this book,
3
VIGNETTE
There are numerous federal and state laws and regulations regarding the treatment of
employees, as will be discussed throughout this book. For example, some of these laws
regulate the number of working hours in a week and overtime requirements, union-
management relations, and unfair discrimination in the personnel practices of a firm. One
such law, Title VII of the Civil Rights Law of 1964 as amended by the Equal Opportunity
Act of 1972, protects individuals against unfair discrimination based on race, national ori-
gin, and gender in any personnel decision—for example, hiring. This law protecting the
rights of individuals is generally referred to as EEqquuaall EEmmppllooyymmeenntt OOppppoorrttuunniittyy((EEEEOO))leg-
islation. To determine if organizations are complying with this law, all U.S. companies must
complete an annual report for the federal government, called the EEO-1 report. This report
describes the composition of the work force by job in terms of gender, race, and national
origin (see Chapter 9). This report is often referred to as an EEO or Affirmative Action
Audit. The important point is that the employees must be categorized into jobs, and then
and as such, it is important to thoroughly understand the concepts and ideas in this
chapter. This chapter contains definitions for a number of terms in common use in
the HRM, IT, and HRIS fields and will emphasize the major underlying themes of
this book. Finally, an overview of the entire book will be covered, showing how
each chapter is an integral part of the entire field of HRIS.
4❖INTRODUCTION TO HRM AND HRIS
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
After completing this chapter, you should be able to
Describe the historical evolution of HRM, including the changing role of the
human resources (HR) professional
Discuss the impact of computer technology on the evolution of HRM
Describe the three types of HR activities
Explain the relationship between strategic HRM and HRIS
Explain the purpose and nature of HRIS as well as the differences between
the types of HRIS
Discuss the use of information from an HRIS in decision making
Describe the central themes of the book and how they relate to manager-
ial decision making
Understand how HRM and HRIS fit into a comprehensive model of orga-
nizational functioning
the number and percentage distributions of racial, gender, and national origin of employ-
ees must be determined.
A regional distributor and service center for a national appliance company with
300 employees had to complete all annual government reports on employees for the pre-
vious year by January 31. All the employee records were in paper files. The Director of
Human Resources indicated that the compliance with the EEO laws in terms of complet-
ing the EEO-1 report took one full-time HR employee working for 1 month to complete
the report. The lengthy time taken to complete the report was due to the fact that the
employee records had to be searched each year since there were new hiring, promotions,
terminations, and other turnover during the year. After this company acquired HRIS soft-
ware for all government reports, it only took about 4 hours to complete the EEO-1 report.
This company example illustrates one important advantage of conversion to an
HRIS from a paper-based system—reduction of staff time on reports. It should be noted,
however, that accuracy of reports is still a concern, and accuracy of employee records is
determined mainly from the correct inputting of employee data for the software
programs. It is also important to note that the cost savings of reducing staff time to
generate the report is not the only benefit from adoption of computer-based HR soft-
ware. As will be discussed later in this chapter, the time saving means that the HR pro-
fessional can be assigned to other, more important tasks for the company. These
characteristics of an HRIS—speed and accuracy—will be emphasized throughout this
book as the major advantage of an HRIS.
Introduction
Leading management thinkers suggest that “it is not technology, but the art of human-
and humane-management” that is the continuing challenge for executives in the
21st century (Drucker, Dyson, Handy, Saffo, & Senge, 1997). Similarly, Smith and Kelly
(1997) believe that “future economic and strategic advantage will rest with the orga-
nizations that can most effectively attract, develop and retain a diverse group of the
best and the brightest human talent in the market place” (p. 200).
In general, to maintain a competitive advantage in the marketplace, firms need to
balance the resources available to the firm to achieve the desired results of profitabili-
ty and survival. The resources that are available to the firm fall into three general
categories: physical, organizational, and human. In discussing how to gain a competi-
tive advantage in the global market, Porter (1990) noted that management of the
human resources is the most critical of the three. The idea of treating human resources
as a means of gaining a competitive advantage in both the domestic and the global
marketplace has been echoed by other authors. As Greer (1995) states,
In a growing number of organizations human resources are now viewed as a source of
competitive advantage. There is greater recognition that distinctive competencies are
obtained through highly developed employee skills, distinctive organizational cultures,
Chapter 1 Evolution of HRM and HRIS ❖5
management processes, and systems. This is in contrast to the traditional emphasis on
transferable resources such as equipment. ...Increasingly, it is being recognized that com-
petitive advantage can be obtained with a high quality work force that enables organiza-
tions to compete on the basis of market responsiveness, product and service quality,
differentiated products, and technological innovation. (p. 105)
The effective management of human resources in a firm to gain a competitive
advantage in the marketplace requires timely and accurate information on current
employees and potential employees in the labor market. With the evolution of com-
puter technology, meeting this information requirement has been greatly enhanced
through the creation of HRIS. A basic assumption behind this book is that the man-
agement of employee information will be the critical process that helps a firm maximize
the use of its human resources and maintain competitiveness in its market.
The first purpose of this book is to provide information on the development, imple-
mentation, and maintenance of an HRIS. The second purpose is to demonstrate how an
HRIS can be used in HRM programs, such as selecting and training employees, to make
them more efficient and effective. The final purpose is to provide an opportunity for you
to apply your knowledge through the analysis of the cases at the end of each chapter.
Historical Evolution of HRM and HRIS
One can analyze the historical trends of the HR function from different viewpoints:
the evolution of HRM as a professional and scientific discipline, as an aid to manage-
ment, as a political and economic conflict between management and employees, and
as a growing movement of employee involvement influenced by developments in
industrial/organizational and social psychology. This historical analysis will demon-
strate the growing importance of employees from being just one of the means of pro-
duction in the 20th-century industrial economy to being a key source of sustainable
competitive advantage in the 21st-century knowledge economy.
Since this is a book on HRIS, we will examine the development of the fields of
both HR and IT in terms of their evolution since the early 20th century. This means
examining the evolution of HRM intertwined with developments in IT and describing
how IT has played an increasing role in the HRM function. In addition, this historical
analysis will show how the role of HRM in the firm has changed over time from
primarily being concerned with routine transactional HR activities to dealing with
complex transformational ones. Transactional activities are the routine bookkeeping
tasks—for example, changing an employee’s home address or health care provider—
whereas transformational activities are those actions of an organization that “add
value” to the consumption of the firm’s product or service. An example of a transfor-
mational HR activity would be a training program for retail clerks to improve cus-
tomer service behavior. Thus, transformational activities increase the strategic
importance and visibility of the HR function in the firm. This general change over
time is illustrated in Figure 1.1 and will become evident as we trace the historical evo-
lution of HRM in terms of five broad phases of the historical development of indus-
try in the United States. For more information on this historical development, you
should consult Kavanagh, Gueutal, and Tannenbaum (1990) or Walker (1982).
6❖INTRODUCTION TO HRM AND HRIS
Pre–World War II
In the early 20th century and prior to World War II, the personnel function (the pre-
cursor of the term human resource management) was primarily involved in record keep-
ing of employee information; in other words, it fulfilled a “caretaker” function. During
this period of time, the prevailing management philosophy was called “scientific man-
agement.” The central thrust of scientific management was to maximize employee pro-
ductivity. It was thought that there was one best way to do any work, and this best way
was determined through time and motion studies that determined the most efficient
use of human capabilities in the production process. Then, the work could be divided
into pieces, and the number of tasks to be completed by a worker during an average
workday could be computed. These findings formed the basis of piece-rate pay systems,
which were seen as the most efficient way to motivate employees.
At this point in history, there were very few government influences in employment
relations, and thus, employment terms, practices, and conditions were left to the own-
ers of the firm. As a result, employee abuses such as child labor and unsafe working
conditions were common. Some employers set up labor welfare and administration
departments to look after the interests of workers by maintaining records on health
and safety as well as recording hours worked and payroll. It is interesting to note that
record keeping is one of the major functions built into the design of an HRIS today;
however, there was simply no computer technology to automate the records at this
time in history. Of course, paper records were kept, and we can still see paper record
HR systems in many smaller firms today.
Post–World War II (1945–1960)
The mobilization and utilization of labor during the War had a great impact on the
development of the personnel function. Managers realized that employee productivi-
ty and motivation had a significant impact on the profitability of the firm. The human
relations movement after the War emphasized that employees were motivated not just
by money but also by social and psychological factors, such as recognition of work
achievements and work norms.
Chapter 1 Evolution of HRM and HRIS ❖7
Role of HRM
Early 20th Century 21st Century
Caretaker Strategic partner
Employee focus Cost effectiveness
Records Employee development
❖Figure 1.1 Historical Evolution of HRM
Due to the need for classification of large numbers of individuals in military service
during the war, systematic efforts began to classify workers around occupational cate-
gories in order to improve recruitment and selection procedures. The central aspect of
these classification systems was the job description, which listed the tasks, duties, and
responsibilities of any individual who held the job in question. These job description
classification systems could also be used to design appropriate compensation programs,
evaluate individual employee performance, and provide a basis for termination.
Because of the abusive worker practices prior to the War, employees started form-
ing trade unions, which played an important role in bargaining for better employment
terms and conditions. There were a significant number of employment laws enacted
that allowed the establishment of labor unions and defined their scope in relationship
with management. Thus, personnel departments had to assume considerably more
record keeping and reporting to governmental agencies. Because of these trends, the
personnel department had to establish specialist divisions, such as recruitment, labor
relations, training and benefits, and government relations.
With its changing and expanding role, personnel departments started keeping
increasing numbers and types of employee records, and computer technology began to
emerge as a possible way to store and retrieve employee information. In some cases in
the defense industry, job analysis and classification data were inputted into computers
to better understand, plan, and use employee skills against needs. For example, the U.S.
Air Force conducted a thorough and systematic job analysis and classification through
its Air Force Human Resources Laboratory (AFHRL), which resulted in a comprehen-
sive occupational structure. The AFHRL collected data from thousands of airmen in
jobs within the Air Force, and through the use of a computer software program called
the Comprehensive Occupational Data Analysis Program (CODAP), it was able to
more accurately establish a job description classification system for Air Force jobs.
Personnel departments outside the defense industry were not using computers at this
time. Computers were being used for billing and inventory control, and there was very little
use in the personnel function except for payroll. The payroll function was the first to be
automated. Large firms began harvesting the benefits of new computer technology to keep
track of employee compensation, but this function was usually outsourced to vendors since
it was still extremely expensive for a firm to acquire or develop the software for payroll. It is
important to realize that computer technology was just beginning to be used at this time,
and it was complex and costly. With increasing legislation on employment relations and
employee unionization, industrial relations became one of the main foci of the department.
Union-management bargaining over employment contracts dominated the activity of the
personnel department, and these negotiations were not computer based. Record keeping
was still done manually despite the growing use of computerized data processing in other
departments, such as accounts and materials management. What resulted was an initial
reluctance among personnel departments to acquire and use computer technology for their
programs. This had a long-term effect in many firms when it came to adopting advance-
ments in computer technology even though it got cheaper and easier to use.
Social Issues Era (1963–1980)
This period witnessed an unprecedented increase in the amount of labor legislation
that governed various parts of the employment relationship, such as prohibition of
8❖INTRODUCTION TO HRM AND HRIS
discriminatory practices, occupational health and safety, retirement benefits, and tax
regulation. As a result, the personnel department was burdened with the additional
responsibility of legislative compliance that required collection, analysis, and report-
ing of voluminous data to statutory authorities. For example, to demonstrate that
there was no unfair discrimination in employment practices, data pertaining to all
employment functions, such as recruitment, training, compensation, and benefits, had
to be diligently collected, analyzed, and stored. To avoid the threat of punitive damages
for noncompliance, it was necessary to ensure that the data were comprehensive, accu-
rate, and up-to-date, which made it essential to automate the data collection, analysis,
and report generation process. As you go through the chapters of this book, these vary-
ing laws and government guidelines will be covered within the specific HR topics.
It was about this time that personnel departments were beginning to be called
Human Resources Departments and the field of human resource management was born.
The increasing need to be in compliance with numerous employee protection legisla-
tions or suffer significant monetary penalties made senior managers aware of the impor-
tance of the HRM function. In other words, effective and correct practices in HRM were
starting to affect the “bottom line” of the firms, so there was a significant growth of HR
departments, and computer technology had advanced to the point where it was begin-
ning to be used. As a result, there was an increasing demand for HR departments to
adopt computer technology to process employee information more effectively and effi-
ciently. This trend resulted in an explosion in the number of vendors who could assist
HR departments in automating their programs in terms of both hardware and software.
Simultaneously, computer technology was evolving, and delivering better produc-
tivity at lower costs. These technology developments and increased vendor activity led
to the development of a comprehensive management information system (MIS) for
HRM. The decreasing costs of computer technology versus the increasing costs of
employee compensation and benefits made acquisition of computer-based HR sys-
tems (HRIS) a necessary business decision. However, the personnel departments were
still slow in adopting computer technology, even though it was inexpensive relative to
the power it could deliver for the storage and retrieval of employee information in MIS
reports. So, the major issue at this time in the historical development of HRIS was not
the need or capabilities of technology but how to best implement it.
Another factor was the booming economy in most industrialized countries. As a
result, employee trade unions successfully bargained for better employment terms,
such as health care and retirement benefits. As a result, labor costs increased, which put
pressure on personnel managers to justify cost increases against productivity improve-
ments. With the increased emphasis on employee participation and empowerment,
the personnel function transformed into a “protector” rather than a “caretaker” func-
tion, shifting the focus away from maintenance to development of employees. Thus,
the breadth and depth of HRM functions expanded, necessitating the need for strate-
gic thinking and better delivery of HR services.
Cost-Effectiveness Era (1980 to the Early 1990s)
With increasing competition from emerging European and Asian economies, U.S. and
other multinational firms increased their focus on cost reduction through automation
and other productivity improvement measures. As regards HRM, the increased
Chapter 1 Evolution of HRM and HRIS ❖9
administrative burden intensified the need to fulfill a growing number of legislative
requirements, while the overall functional focus shifted from employee administration
to employee development and involvement. To improve effectiveness and efficiency in
service delivery, through cost reduction and value-added services, the HR departments
came under pressure to harness technology that was becoming cheaper and more
powerful.
In addition, there was a growing realization within management that people costs
were a very significant part of their budgets. Some companies estimated that personnel
costs were as high as 80% of their operating costs. As a result, there was a growing demand
on the HRM function to cost justify their employee programs and services. In one of the
first books to address this growing need to cost justify the HRM function, Cascio (1984)
indicated that the language of business is dollars and cents and HR managers need to real-
ize this fact. In a later edition of his book, Cascio (1991) quotes Jacques Fitz-Enz (1980),
who more accurately states the need for HRM to cost justify their function:
Few human resources managers—even the most energetic—take the time to analyse the
return on the corporation’s personnel dollar. We feel we aren’t valued in our own organiza-
tions, that we can’t get the resources we need. We complain that management won’t buy our
proposals and wonder why our advice is so often ignored until the crisis stage. But the
human resources manager seldom stands back to look at the total business and ask: Why am
I at the bottom looking up? The answer is painfully apparent. We don’t act like business
managers—like entrepreneurs whose business happens to be people. (p. 41)
Even small and medium firms could afford computer-based HR systems that were
run by increasingly user friendly microcomputers, and could be shown to be cost-
effective. The prevailing management thinking regarding the use of computers in HR
was not a reduction in the number of employees needed in HR departments but that
their activities and time could be shifted from the transactional record keeping to
more transformational activities that would add value to the organization. This change
in the function of HRM could then be clearly measured in terms of cost-benefit ratios
to the “bottom line” of the company.
Technological Advancement Era and
Emergence of Strategic HRM (1990 to Present)
The economic landscape underwent radical changes throughout the 1990s with
increasing globalization, technological breakthroughs (particularly Internet-enabled
Web services), and hypercompetition. Business process reengineering exercises became
more common and frequent, with several initiatives, such as right sizing of employee
numbers, reducing the layers of management, reducing the bureaucracy of organiza-
tional structures, autonomous work teams, and outsourcing.
Firms today realize that innovative and creative employees who hold the key to
organizational knowledge provide a sustainable competitive advantage because unlike
other resources, intellectual capital is difficult to imitate by competitors. Accordingly,
the people management function has become strategic in its importance and outlook
and is geared to attract, retain, and engage talent. These developments have led to the
10 ❖INTRODUCTION TO HRM AND HRIS
creation of the HR or workforce scorecard (Becker, Huselid, & Ulrich, 2001; Huselid,
Becker, & Beatty, 2005) as well as added emphasis on the return on investment (ROI)
of the HR function and its programs (Cascio, 2000; Fitz-Enz, 2000, 2002).
The increased use of technology and the changed focus of the HRM function as
adding value to the organization’s product or service led to the emergence of the HR
department as a strategic partner. With the growing importance and recognition of
people and people management in contemporary organizations, strategic HRM (SHRM)
has become critically important in management thinking and practice. SHRM derives
its theoretical significance from the resource-based view of the firm that treats human
capital as a strategic asset and a competitive advantage in improving organizational
performance (Becker & Huselid, 2006).
Reflecting the systems view, Becker and Huselid (2006, p. 899) stress the impor-
tance of HR structure—that is, the “systems, practices, competencies, and employee
performance behaviors that reflect the development and management of the firm’s
strategic human capital”—for organizational performance. Context is a crucial ele-
ment in SHRM, and therefore, researchers increasingly emphasize the “best-fit”
approach to SHRM as opposed to the “best-practice” approach. The success of SHRM
is contingent on several factors, such as national and organizational culture, size,
industry type, occupational category, and business strategy. Accordingly, Becker and
Huselid (2006) argued that “it is the fit between the HR architecture and the strategic
capabilities and business processes that implement strategy that is the basis of HR’s
contribution to competitive advantage” (p. 899).
A good example of the importance of HR and the information provided by an HRIS
can be found in the human resources planning (HRP) function. HRP is primarily con-
cerned with forecasting the need for additional employees in the future and the availabili-
ty of those employees either inside or external to the company. A good example is when a
company is considering a strategic decision to expand by establishing a production facili-
ty in a new location. Using the information recorded and analyzed in the HRIS, HRP can
provide estimates of whether or not there are enough people available in the external labor
market of the new location to staff the new facility. Thus, the availability of potential
employees in the labor market may be critical to the strategic decision to build the new
facility, and this, of course, could involve millions or billons of dollars.
Therefore, in determining the strategic fit between technology and HR, it is not
the strategy per se that leads to competitive advantage but rather how well it is “imple-
mented,” taking into account the environmental realities that can be unique to each
organization and, indeed, between units and functions of the organization.
HR Activities
Typical HR programs involve things such as record keeping, recruiting, selection, train-
ing, employee relations, and compensation. However, all these programs involve multiple
activities, and these HR activities can be classified into three broad categories: transac-
tional, traditional, and transformational (Wright, McMahan, Snell, & Gerhart, 1998).
Transactional activities involve day-to-day transactions that have to deal mostly with
record keeping—for example, entering payroll information, employee status changes,
Chapter 1 Evolution of HRM and HRIS ❖11
and the administration of employee benefits. Traditional activities involve HR
programs such as planning, recruiting, selection, training, compensation, and perfor-
mance management. These activities can have strategic value for the organization if
their results or outcomes are consistent with the strategic goals of the organization.
Transformational activities are those activities that add value to the organization—for
example, cultural or organizational change, structural realignment, strategic redirec-
tion, and increasing innovation.
Wright et al. (1998) estimate that most HR departments spend approximately
65% to 75% on transactional activities, 15% to 30% on traditional activities, and 5%
to 15% on transformational activities. One of the major advantages of the design,
development, and implementation of an HRIS is to reduce the amount of time the HR
staff have to spend on transactional activities, allowing the staff to spend more time on
traditional and transformational activities. This notion of using technology to process
transactional activities more efficiently is the central theme of this book and provides
one of the primary justifications for a computer-based system. In later chapters that
discuss various HR programs such as selection and training, we will see how a com-
puter-based system can aid in both traditional and transformational activities to make
them consistent with the strategic goals of the organization.
Interface Between HR and Technology
The IT-driven automation and redesign of work processes certainly help reduce costs
and cycle times as well as improve quality. Management information systems (MIS)
can further help decision makers to make and implement strategic decisions. However,
IT is only a tool and can only complement, not substitute, the people who drive it.
Often, organizations mistake IT as a message and not the messenger and divert time,
effort, and money away from long-term investment in people to developing and
deploying information technologies (Thite, 2004). In fact, the critical success factors in
information systems project implementation are nontechnical and are due more to
social and managerial issues (Martinsons & Chong, 1999).
With the increasing use of information technologies in HR planning and delivery,
the way people in organizations look at the nature and role of HR itself may change
(Roehling et al., 2005). With HR data and reports now being readily available on their
desktop, would managers interact less with the HR department and see it as being less
important? If that is so, how would it affect the attitude of HR professionals toward
their jobs and profession? Would they resist adoption of technology if they perceive
that technology lessens their status?
In traditional organizations with silo mentalities, turf wars between departments
and functions acting as independent entities are common. Therefore, top management
needs to be mindful of organizational politics in managing change. Through most of
its evolution, HRM has had an administrative and caretaker focus in its delivery. With
technology significantly decreasing the time required for administrative tasks, many
HR professionals may find it difficult to redefine their jobs and may thus resist the
change to an HRIS. This calls for redefining and transforming the role of HRM through
value-added, strategic initiatives and interventions. This also involves learning new
12 ❖INTRODUCTION TO HRM AND HRIS
skills for HR professionals and rethinking the way the HR department is organized and
delivers its services. With the improved job skills of HR professionals, technology will
be seen as HR’s “partner in progress.” While having an advanced, full-fledged system
will not automatically make HR a strategic business partner, it acts as a building block
and an effective aid in the process (Lawler & Mohrman, 2003).
A Primer on HRIS
What Is an HRIS?
After reviewing the many definitions of an HRIS, Kavanagh et al. (1990) defined it
as a
system used to acquire, store, manipulate, analyze, retrieve, and distribute information
regarding an organization’s human resources. An HRIS is not simply computer hardware
and associated HR-related software. Although an HRIS includes hardware and software, it
also includes people, forms, policies and procedures, and data. (p. 29)
It is important to note that a company that does not have a computerized system
still has an HRM system; that is, the paper systems that most companies used before
the development of computer technology were still comparable with an HRIS, but the
management of employee information was not done as quickly as in a computerized
system. If a company did not have a paper system, the development and implementa-
tion of a computerized system would be extremely difficult. For the purpose of this
book, however, we will use the term HRIS to refer to a computerized system designed
to manage the company’s HR.
The purpose of the HRIS is to provide service, in the form of accurate and timely
information, to the “clients” of the system. As there are a variety of potential users of HR
information, it may be used for strategic, tactical, and operational decision making (e.g.,
to plan for needed employees in a merger); to avoid litigation (e.g., to identify discrimi-
nation problems in hiring); to evaluate programs, policies, or practices (e.g., to evaluate
the effectiveness of a training program); and/or to support daily operations (e.g., to help
managers monitor time and attendance of their employees). All these uses mean that
there is a mandatory requirement that data and reports be accurate and timely and that
the “client” can understand how to use the information.
Because of the complexity and data intensiveness of the HRM function, it is one
of the last management functions to be targeted for automation (Bussler & Davis,
2001/2002). This fact does not mean that an HRIS is not important; it just indicates the
difficulty of developing and implementing it compared with other business functions—
for example, billing and accounting systems. Powered by information systems and the
Internet, today almost every process in every function of HRM is being computerized.
The systems and process focus helps organizations keep the customer perspective
in mind, since quality is primarily defined and operationalized in terms of total cus-
tomer satisfaction (Evans, 2005). Today’s competitive environment requires organiza-
tions to integrate the activities of each functional department while keeping the
customer in mind. An effective HRIS helps by providing the technology to generate
accurate and timely employee information to fulfill this objective.
Chapter 1 Evolution of HRM and HRIS ❖13
Why Do We Need HRIS?
There are several advantages to firms in using HRIS (Beckers & Bsat, 2002). They
include the following:
•Providing a comprehensive information picture as a single, comprehensive database; this
enables organizations to provide structural connectivity across units and activities and
increase the speed of information transactions (Lengnick-Hall & Lengnick-Hall, 2006)
•Increasing competitiveness by improving HR operations and improving management
processes
•Collecting appropriate data and converting them to information and knowledge for
improved timeliness and quality of decision making
•Producing a greater number and variety of accurate and real-time HR-related reports
•Streamlining and enhancing the efficiency and effectiveness of HR administrative functions
•Shifting the focus of HR from the processing of transactions to strategic HRM
•Reengineering HR processes and functions
•Improving employee satisfaction by delivering HR services more quickly and accurately
to them
The ability of firms to harness the potential of HRIS depends on a variety of factors,
such as
•the size of the organization, with large firms generally reaping greater benefits;
•the amount of top management support and commitment;
•the availability of resources (time, money, and personnel);
•the HR philosophy of the company as well as its vision, organizational culture, struc-
ture, and systems;
•managerial competence in cross-functional decision making, employee involvement,
and coaching; and
•the ability and motivation of employees in adopting change, such as increased automa-
tion across and between functions (Ngai & Wat, 2004).
In assessing the benefits and impact of an HRIS to an organization, typical
accounting methods do not work with the HRM function (Becker et al., 2001; Cascio,
2000; Fitz-Enz, 2000, 2002; Huselid et al., 2005; Thite, 2004; Ulrich & Smallwood,
2005). While there are several tangible benefits in implementing an HRIS, such as pay-
roll efficiencies and reduction in labor costs due to automation, there are several intan-
gible or hidden benefits as well (Roberts, 1999). They include employee satisfaction
with streamlined and efficient HR processes and freeing up HR from routine, admin-
istrative matters to focus on strategic goals.
Furthermore, HR practices can help organizations untangle the rigidity and inertia
associated with the mechanistic, routine nature of enterprise resource planning (ERP).
ERP software applications are a set of integrated database applications or modules that
carry out the most common business functions, including HR, general ledger, accounts
payable, accounts receivable, order management, inventory control, and customer rela-
tionship management. Obviously, HRM’s emphasis on knowledge management, human
capital stewardship, and relationship building can provide considerable assistance in the
14 ❖INTRODUCTION TO HRM AND HRIS
implementation and use of ERPs (Lengnick-Hall & Lengnick-Hall, 2006). Therefore,
active engagement of HR professionals in the introduction and ongoing functioning of
an ERP is important so that organizations can realize the strategic benefits associated
with these systems (Dery & Wailes, 2005).
Different Types of HRIS
There are multiple typologies for the classification of computer-based systems; however,
we are going to define the most basic types of systems and then apply them to their
development and use within an HRIS. One of the earliest books in the field of comput-
er-based systems (Sprague & Carlson, 1982) placed systems under three basic categories:
Electronic Data Processing (EDP), Management Information Systems (MIS), and
Decision Support Systems (DSS). EDP is primarily electronic storage of information and
was first applied to automate paperwork. As Sprague and Carlson (1982) note,
Its basic characteristics include:
•A focus on data, storage, processing, and flows at the operational level
•Efficient transaction processing
•Scheduled and optimised computer runs
•Integrated files for related jobs
•Summary reports for management (p. 6)
As discussed earlier in this chapter, this category of HRIS was the earliest form intro-
duced in the HR field and fits in with the transactional level of HR activities.
In the MIS category, Sprague and Carlson (1982) state that
the characteristics of MIS include:
•An information focus, aimed at middle managers
•Structured information flows
•Integration of EDP jobs by business function (production MIS, marketing MIS ...)
•Inquiry and report generation (usually with a data base) (p. 7)
This type of HRIS emerged as technology improved over time, and it fits the tradi-
tional level of HR activities, such as recruitment, selection, and compensation.
Sprague and Carlson (1982) note that
DSS are focused still higher in the organization, with an emphasis on the following
characteristics:
•Decision focused, aimed at top managers and executive decision makers
•Emphasis on flexibility, adaptability, and quick response
•User initiated and controlled
•Support for the personal decision-making styles of individual managers (p. 7)
HRIS at this level began to emerge in the cost-effectiveness era of HRM development,
and it fits the transformational level of HR activities—adding value to organizational
processes.
Chapter 1 Evolution of HRM and HRIS ❖15
16 ❖INTRODUCTION TO HRM AND HRIS
There is another type of HRIS, identified by Kavanagh et al. (1990), which should
be used in organizations to maximize the effect of computer-generated knowledge on
managerial decision making. There are numerous reports generated on a regular basis
from both the EDP and the MIS types of HRIS—for example, overtime and benefits
usage. The critical question is, How many of these reports are used by either line man-
agers or HR professionals in their daily work, particularly in their decision-making
capacity? All HRIS software is designed to generate a standard set of reports, but sur-
veys and reports from both managers and HR professionals indicate that many of
these reports are typically discarded. Thus, it is apparent that another type of HRIS
exists—the human resources management decision system (HRMDS). This type has
the following characteristics:
•Report formation and generation based on identified managerial needs for decision
making
•Categorization of reports by management level
•Timing of report generation based on frequency of managerial use: daily, weekly, monthly
•Historical information retained and reported in a timely manner so that managers and HR
professionals can see the results of their use of the information in their previous decisions
This type of system could be described as the ideal system since it provides critical
information for decisions involving the human resources of the company, and thus,
should be used as a standard for the development and application of any HRIS.
System Development Process for an HRIS
From the engineering and information processing literature, the formal design of any
information processing system is supposed to follow a set of steps labeled the System
Development Life Cycle (SDLC). However, as Sprague and Carlson (1982) and other
writers (Aktas, 1987; Davis, 1983) have noted, the traditional SDLC is somewhat difficult
to use as originally specified. But there is agreement that the SDLC has five general phas-
es: (1) planning, (2) analysis, (3) design, (4) implementation, and (5) maintenance. As
will be seen, particularly in Parts I and II of this book, there are multiple references to
the SDLC and its phases.
Kavanagh et al. (1990), applying the main concepts and phases of the traditional
SDLC to the HRM function, recommended the following system development process
for an HRIS: “The HRIS development process refers to the steps taken from the time
a company considers computerizing its human resources functions through the analy-
sis, design, development, implementation, maintenance, evaluations, and improve-
ment of the system” (pp. 92–93). This system development process is quite similar to
the one proposed by Walker (1982). He indicated that development of an effective
HRIS should follow seven stages: “Proposal to Management, Needs Analysis, System
Specifications, System Design, System Development, Installation and Conversion, and
Evaluation” (p. 38).
Although this book will cover all the phases in the development and implementa-
tion of an HRIS, there are two critical points to be emphasized from these descriptions
of the phases or stages of system development. One, the system development process
begins when the company first begins to consider computerizing its HR
functions. It is important to document this beginning of the process so that it can be
considered when the system is being evaluated and maintained. The second critical
point is the importance of the evaluation and, as needed, improvements to the system.
This evaluation must be continuous and occur not only after the system has been
implemented but also at every stage of the development. The quality of these evalua-
tions of the system will depend heavily on the documentation of the stages of the
entire system development process. The documentation of the planning and develop-
ment of a system is one of the most important determinants of successful system
implementation, and continued improvement.
A Model of Organizational Functioning
Figure 1.2 depicts a model of an organizational system centered on HRIS. This model
depicts the interrelatedness of the parts of an organization that can affect the function-
ing of the organization. It shows the interrelatedness between the strategic management
system, the strategic HRM system, and the performance goals, business and HR, that are
generated during the strategic planning process. Note particularly how the business goals
directly affect the HR goals, and this relationship should be an ongoing process in an
organization to make adjustments to either set of goals as needed. The HR goals drive
the HR programs that provide management the tools for the efficient and effective use
of employees. As will be emphasized throughout this book, the alignment between the
strategic management system, the strategic HR management system, the business goals,
the HR goals, and the HR programs is critical to the organization to maintain its com-
petitiveness in its market (Evans & Davis, 2005; Huselid, Jackson, & Schuler, 1997).
There are several aspects of this model that are critical for its use in this book. First,
this model is a framework to use in reading, organizing, and understanding the infor-
mation given in this book. Second, this is a systems model; that is, it is organic and can
change over time as represented by the feedback loops from goal achievement to other
parts of the model. Third, the model is centered on the use of an HRIS as critical to the
efficient operation of an organization. Note that if the HRIS were removed, it would
still be a model of organizational functioning. However, it is our contention that it
would run more slowly and less efficiently, and this could hurt the competitiveness of
an organization in its marketplace. Fourth, the HRIS and the HR program evaluation
results in terms of HR metrics, and cost-benefit results (value added and ROI) are in
continual interaction. This emphasis is consistent with current thinking in the HRM
field (Cascio, 2000; Fitz-Enz, 2000, 2002) and has generated the HR or workforce score-
card (Becker et al., 2001; Huselid et al., 2005). Finally, it is important to note that the
successful design, development, and implementation of an HRIS depend equally on IT
and on HR knowledge, which is the basic philosophy of this entire book.
There are other aspects of this model that are important. First, all the factors in the
external environment will influence the internal functioning of the organization. The most
important of these factors is national culture. National culture will affect all the factors in
the external environment: government regulations, labor market, societal concerns, tech-
nology, HRM research, and competition. These factors in turn will have an impact on the
Chapter 1 Evolution of HRM and HRIS ❖17
organization. Simple comparisons across various countries—for example, the United
States, Australia, Europe, and China—on most of these six factors would provide signifi-
cant differences on each of these external factors. We feel that these differences are impor-
tant and have devoted a chapter to them. Second, the two-way arrow between the strategic
management system and strategic HR indicates our understanding that this interaction
will improve the functioning of the organization. Finally, note that corporate culture
influences the entire internal operation of the organization. In the next section, the major
themes of this book that are central to the operation of this model are discussed.
Central Themes of the Book
There are some central themes that are emphasized in this book, which can also be seen
in the model of organizational functioning. These are the major factors that influence
the effective operation of the organization through their effects on managerial deci-
sions. In addition, they directly affect the success of both the HRM programs and the
use of the HRIS. These factors are as follows:
1. The effective alignment between the strategy of the firm, the HR strategy, and HR
programs
18 ❖INTRODUCTION TO HRM AND HRIS
National culture environment
Government regulations Labor market Societal concerns
Technology HRM research Competition
Corporate culture
HR Programs
Planning
Recruiting and selecting
Training
Performance management
Compensation
Quality of life and safety
Employee and labor
Strategic
management
system
HR programs
evaluation
HR metrics
HR scorecard
Value-added
ROI
Legal compliance
Strategic human
resources
management
Business
plan and
goals
IT knowledge HR knowledge
Feedback
Feedback
HR goals
Retention
Climate/morale
Productivity
Accident rate
Human Resource
Information System
❖Figure 1.2 Model of an Organizational System Centered on HRIS
2. The importance of legal considerations in all HR programs and functions
3. The need for a cooperative relationship between HR and IT professionals
4. The critical need for the creation and use of HR metrics to both guide decision making
and evaluate the cost effectiveness of the HR strategy and programs
All the chapters of this book will contain some reference to some or all of these
factors, and their effects will be discussed in detail in the chapters.
Overview and Structure of the Book
This book is divided into five main parts. Part I, “Introduction to Human Resource
Management and Human Resource Information Systems,” includes three chapters. In
this first chapter, the evolution of HRM and its interface with IT was covered to show
how the field of HRIS emerged. In addition, a general introduction to the types of
activities in which HRM engages was provided, as well as a brief introduction to the
current interface between HR and technology. Finally, a detailed description of an
HRIS was provided, and the model of organizational functioning was discussed. At the
beginning of each chapter, the place of the chapter topics in the model will be identi-
fied so that there is a unifying theme in the book.
The second chapter, “Database Concepts and Applications in HRIS” by Janet Marler
and Barry Floyd, is focused on understanding databases and the applications of IT on
the HRIS. This is an introductory chapter, which provides a solid basis for later chapters
in the book. The third chapter, “Systems Considerations in the Design of an HRIS:
Planning for Implementation,” by Michael Bedell, Michael Canniff, and Cheryl Wyrick,
is focused on foundation knowledge that is critical for the design and subsequent imple-
mentation of an HRIS. The different types of information about users/customers of the
HRIS, categorization of HRIS data into categories of human capital, and the main con-
cepts of hardware and database security are covered. This chapter is also a good lead-in
for the next part of the book—“Determining HRIS Needs.”
Chapter 4, “HRIS Needs Analysis” by Bradley Alge and Karen Upright, covers the
first formal analysis of the need for an HRIS in an organization. It should be noted that
a needs analysis can be done for an organization that only has a paper system or for an
organization that is planning to improve or update its current HRIS. In this chapter,
the steps in an HRIS needs assessment are covered—namely, who is involved in the
assessment and the deliverables from a comprehensive needs assessment. In Chapter
5, “System Design and Acquisition” by Richard Johnson and Jim Dulebohn, the fun-
damentals of system design based on the needs assessment are covered. Chapter 5 also
covers the process of acquiring a system once the design has been completed. It should
be noted that the activities described in Chapters 4 and 5 always remain focused on
implementation of the HRIS since this is an important element in the success of the
HRIS. Chapter 6, “Cost Justifying HRIS Investments” by Kevin Carlson and Michael
Kavanagh, describes one of the most important aspects of the needs analysis,
design, and development of the HRIS—cost justification of the HRIS. Without a care-
ful analysis of the costs and benefits of an HRIS, there should not be any attempt to
Chapter 1 Evolution of HRM and HRIS ❖19
implement the system. There are numerous stories and examples of failed systems that
were implemented without a comprehensive needs assessment. In addition, a compre-
hensive needs assessment will be very useful during the evaluation phase after the
system has been fully implemented. The needs assessment will define many of the
evaluative criteria by which to judge the success of the HRIS. Thus, this chapter is a
convenient introduction to Part III of the book—“HRIS Implementation.”
Chapter 7, “Project Management Development and HRIS Acceptance” by Sal
Belardo, Peter Otto, and Michael Kavanagh, provides a comprehensive discussion of
project management techniques and their importance to the implementation and
acceptance of an HRIS. Project management provides excellent tools for ensuring that
the implementation of the HRIS proceeds in an orderly fashion by establishing goals
and timetables for the tasks and activities during implementation. Chapter 8, “Change
Management: Implementation, Integration, and Maintenance of the HRIS” by Romuald
Stone and Joyce Davis, emphasizes the people processes necessary for successful imple-
mentation of an HRIS—a major organizational change. Although there typically will be
some technical difficulties during the HRIS implementation, the major issues will be
with the lack of employee and user involvement in the implementation. Chapter 8
offers a variety of approaches to organizational change, both theoretical and practical,
that can be used to focus on the behavioral aspects of the HRIS implementation.
Part IV of the book, “HRIS Applications,” provides information and guidelines for
the use of an HRIS in the programs involved in the operation of the HRM function. In
Chapter 9, “HR Administration and HRIS,” Linda Isenhour covers the administrative,
transactional aspects of HRM. This chapter illustrates the fact that HRM is still a care-
taker of employee records; however, the existence of an HRIS makes this information
readily available and useful for managerial decision making. Most important, Linda dis-
cusses how the HRIS can cover legal compliance with government mandates much
more easily than a paper system. In Chapter 10, “Job Analysis and HR Planning,” Hazel
Williams discusses the use of an HRIS in completing job analysis and job description in
an orderly and accurate fashion. HRP is discussed in Chapter 10 with a focus on the
speed of obtaining employee information when discussing potential strategic plans for
the company. In Chapter 11, “Recruitment and Selection in an Internet Context,” by
Kimberly Lukaszewski, David Dickter, Brian Lyons, and Jerard Kehoe cover both HRIS
and Internet applications within the context of a computer-based HRM function.
Chapter 12, “Training and Development: Issues and HRIS Applications” by Ralf
Burbach, provides information and ideas for how to use the power of an HRIS to
address important issues in training and development programs. In Chapter 13,
“Performance Management, Compensation, Benefits, Payroll, and the HRIS,” Charles
Fay and Ren Nardoni focus on one of the major motivational aspects of the HRM sys-
tem and how the existence of an HRIS can improve the operation of many aspects of
the management and motivation of employees. Finally, Chapter 14, “International
Human Resource Management” by Michael Kavanagh and John Michel, covers the
complexities that are created when a company enters the international marketplace.
The last part of this book, “Special Topics in HRIS,” covers two additional topics of
importance to the effective operation of an HRIS. In Chapter 15, “Information Security
and Privacy in HRIS,” Yuk Kuen Wong and Mohan Thite discuss the many legal, ethi-
cal, and moral issues that surround the use of an HRIS, with a focus on e-HR. In the
20 ❖INTRODUCTION TO HRM AND HRIS
final chapter, “The Future of HRIS: Emerging Trends in HRM and IT,” Michael
Kavanagh and Mohan Thite take a look at what new developments to expect in the con-
tinuing use of an HRIS in the operation of the HRM function in an organization.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. What are the factors that changed the primary role of HRM from a caretaker of records
to a strategic partner?
2. How does technology help deliver transactional, traditional, and transformational HR
activities more efficiently and effectively?
3. Justify the need for an HRIS.
4. Explain how an organization that is yet to use technology to automate its HR function
can graduate from EDP to MIS and finally to DSS.
5. Using the organizational model presented in this chapter, explain why and how national cul-
ture and organizational culture influence the nature and importance of the HRIS function.
CASE STUDY: POSITION DESCRIPTION AND
SPECIFICATION FOR AN HRIS MANAGER
One great way to assess the nature and importance of a particular function or position
is to examine the job description and job specification as they tell us what is involved
in the job and what is required to perform the job. The following real job advertise-
ment for an HRIS manager for a community college was placed in the Job Central sec-
tion of the Internet site for the International Association for Human Resource
Information Management (www.ihrim.org, accessed September 7, 2007).
Manager—HRIS
In this position the Manager will manage all operational aspects of the Human
Resources information process, including the timely and accurate processing, reporting,
analysis, and documentation of HR data, HRIM security and the implementation and
coordination of associated processes, procedures and technologies.
Additional responsibilities are as follows:
•Supervises the Human Resources information management team
•Ensures data integrity in both personnel files and the online Human Resource Infor-
mation System
•Organizes and manages personnel file audits to ensure compliance with all regulations,
policies, procedures, and guidelines for records management
•Updates and administers enhancements to the Human Resource Information System
•Updates and maintains system tables
•Ensures security of the HRIS and time and attendance system
•Works in collaboration with Payroll and Finance to maintain the online interactive
Position Control, Personnel, and Payroll database systems
•Works with end-users and business managers to understand business processes and
determine how to use the system to meet those needs
Chapter 1 Evolution of HRM and HRIS ❖21
•Partners with Technology Systems Resources to support upgrades, testing, and other
technical projects
•Develops HR dashboards and develops and runs reports, both scheduled and ad-hoc
•Provides detail and aggregate information for salary surveys and regulatory reporting
(i.e., CUPA, EEO, OSHA, IPEDS)
•Collaborates with the Human Resource Technical Consultant and other Human
Resource staff on operational issues and special projects
•Maintains current knowledge of best practices, vendor offerings, and market trends
•Other related duties as assigned
Required qualifications:
•Bachelor’s degree
•Minimum four years of Human Resources Information Systems (HRIS) experience
•Proven leadership and team building skills
•Working knowledge of ERP technology, with specific focus on HR modules
•Proficiency with Microsoft Office software applications, reporting writing tools, and
SQL query language
•Strong written, verbal, and interpersonal communication skills
•Strong analytical thinking and decision making skills
•Excellent project management skills
•Demonstrated experience in maintaining confidentiality and data integrity
•Demonstrated ability to interact and collaborate with individuals at all levels
Case Study Questions
1. How does this position help the HR function become a strategic partner of the
organization?
2. From the position description, identify the traditional, transactional, and transforma-
tional HR activities that this position is involved with.
3. Using the key responsibilities identified for this position, explain why and how the
HRIS function plays a pivotal role in the organizational model as described in this
chapter.
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