Biology 5235

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The Praxis® Study Companion

Biology: Content Knowledge
5235

www.ets.org/praxis

Welcome to The Praxis® Study Companion

Welcome to The Praxis® Study Companion
Prepare to Show What You Know
You have been working to acquire the knowledge and skills you need for your teaching career. Now you are
ready to demonstrate your abilities by taking a Praxis® test.
Using The Praxis Series® Study Companion is a smart way to prepare for the test so you can do your best on test
day. This guide can help keep you on track and make the most efficient use of your study time.
The Study Companion contains practical information and helpful tools, including:
• An overview of the Praxis tests
• Specific information on the Praxis test you are taking
• A template study plan
• Study topics
• Practice questions and explanations of correct answers
• Test-taking tips and strategies
• Frequently asked questions
• Links to more detailed information
So where should you start? Begin by reviewing this guide in its entirety and note those sections that you need
to revisit. Then you can create your own personalized study plan and schedule based on your individual needs
and how much time you have before test day.
Keep in mind that study habits are individual. There are many different ways to successfully prepare for your
test. Some people study better on their own, while others prefer a group dynamic. You may have more energy
early in the day, but another test taker may concentrate better in the evening. So use this guide to develop the
approach that works best for you.
Your teaching career begins with preparation. Good luck!

Know What to Expect
Which tests should I take?
Each state or agency that uses the Praxis tests sets its own requirements for which test or tests you must take for
the teaching area you wish to pursue.
Before you register for a test, confirm your state or agency’s testing requirements at www.ets.org/praxis/states.

How are the Praxis tests given?
Praxis tests are given on computer. Other formats are available for test takers approved for accommodations (see
page 43).

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Welcome to The Praxis® Study Companion

What should I expect when taking the test on computer?
When taking the test on computer, you can expect to be asked to provide proper identification at the test
center. Once admitted, you will be given the opportunity to learn how the computer interface works (how to
answer questions, how to skip questions, how to go back to questions you skipped, etc.) before the testing time
begins. Watch the What to Expect on Test Day video to see what the experience is like.

Where and when are the Praxis tests offered?
You can select the test center that is most convenient for you. The Praxis tests are administered through an
international network of test centers, which includes Prometric® Testing Centers, some universities, and other
locations throughout the world.
Testing schedules may differ, so see the Praxis Web site for more detailed test registration information at www.
ets.org/praxis/register.

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Table of Contents

Table of Contents
The Praxis® Study Companion guides you through the steps to success
1. Learn About Your Test.....................................................................................................5
Learn about the specific test you will be taking
2. F
amiliarize Yourself with Test Questions.................................................................... 12
Become comfortable with the types of questions you’ll find on the Praxis tests
3. Practice with Sample Test Questions.......................................................................... 16
Answer practice questions and find explanations for correct answers
4. Determine Your Strategy for Success.......................................................................... 23
Set clear goals and deadlines so your test preparation is focused and efficient
5. Develop Your Study Plan.............................................................................................. 26
Develop a personalized study plan and schedule
6. Review Study Topics..................................................................................................... 30
Detailed study topics with questions for discussion
7. Review Smart Tips for Success..................................................................................... 41
Follow test-taking tips developed by experts
8. Check on Testing Accommodations............................................................................ 43
See if you qualify for accommodations that may make it easier to take the Praxis test
9. Do Your Best on Test Day.............................................................................................. 44
Get ready for test day so you will be calm and confident
10. Understand Your Scores............................................................................................. 46
Understand how tests are scored and how to interpret your test scores
Appendix: Other Questions You May Have .................................................................... 48

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Step 1: Learn About Your Test

1. Learn About Your Test
Learn about the specific test you will be taking

Biology: Content Knowledge (5235)

Test at a Glance
Test Name

Biology: Content Knowledge

Test Code

5235

Time

2.5 hours

Number of Questions

150

Format

Selected-response questions

Test Delivery

Computer delivered

Content Categories

Approximate
Number of
Questions

Approximate
Percentage of
Examination

History and Nature of Science

14%

II.

Molecular and Cellular Biology

20%

III. Genetics and Evolution

20%

IV. Diversity of Life and Organismal Biology

20%

16%

10%

V
IV

II
III

Ecology: Organisms and Environments

VI. Science, Technology, and Social Perspectives

About This Test
The Biology: Content Knowledge test is designed to measure the knowledge and competencies necessary for
a beginning teacher of secondary school Biology. Examinees have typically completed or nearly completed a
bachelor’s degree program with appropriate coursework in Biology and education.
The development of the test questions and the construction of the test reflect the National Science Education
Standards (NSES) and the National Science Teacher Association (NSTA) standards and recognize that there
are conceptual and procedural schemes that unify the various scientific disciplines. These fundamental
concepts and processes (systems; models; constancy and change; equilibrium; form and function) are useful in
understanding the natural world. Insofar as possible, then, the test questions will have the primary objective of
evaluating the content areas by using questions that focus on conceptual understanding, critical thinking, and
problem solving in science. The test content is developed and reviewed in collaboration with practicing high
school Biology teachers, teacher-educators, and higher education content specialists to keep the test updated
and representative of current standards.
The 150 selected-response questions include concepts, terms, phenomena, methods, applications, data analysis,
and problem solving in Biology, and include an understanding of the impact of science and technology on the
environment and human affairs. The topics are typically those covered in introductory college-level Biology
courses, although some questions of a more advanced nature are included, because secondary-school teachers
must understand the subject matter from a more advanced viewpoint than that presented to their students.

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Step 1: Learn About Your Test

Examinees will not need to use calculators in taking
this test.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

This test may contain some questions that will not
count toward your score.

Test Specifications
Test specifications describe the knowledge and
skills measured by the test. Study topics to help you
prepare to answer test questions can be found in
"6. Review Study Topics" on page 30.

Nature of Science: Scientific Inquiry,
Methodology, Techniques, and History
A.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
B.

Processes Involved in Scientific Inquiry

1.
2.
3.
4.

Differences among Facts, Hypotheses,
Theories, and Laws
I.

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Construct and Use Scientific Models to
Explain Complex Phenomena

Procedures Involved in the Safe
Preparation, Storage, Use, and Disposal
of Laboratory and Field Materials

Molarity and percent solutions
Acid and base solutions
Flammable and/or caustic materials
Biological specimens and waste
Appropriate and Safe Use and Care of
Laboratory Equipment

1. Optical equipment (e.g., microscopes,
spectrophotometers, UV light sources)
2. Separation equipment (e.g., gel
electrophoresis, chromatography, centrifuges)
3. Measurement, mixing, and heating equipment
(e.g., balances, stirrers, burners)
4. Sterilization equipment (e.g., autoclave, ovens)

Scientific Ideas Change over Time;
Contributions Made by Major Historical
Figures

1. Cell theory and germ theory (e.g., Hooke,
Pasteur)
2. Heredity, evolution, and ecology (e.g., Mendel,
Darwin)
3. Structure and nature of genetic material (e.g.,
Hershey and Chase, Franklin, Watson and Crick)
4. Classification of organisms (e.g., Linnaeus,
Woese)

Identify patterns and trends in data
Choose appropriate types of graphs or charts
Error analysis
Draw conclusions and make predictions

1. Limitations of models
2. Select models for a given purpose
3. Physical (e.g., anatomical models), conceptual
(e.g., fluid mosaic model), graphical and/or
mathematical models (e.g., population growth
or climate change models)

Science Involves Many Disciplines

1. Testable nature of hypotheses
2. Formulation of theories based on accumulated
data
3. Durability of laws

Precision versus accuracy
Metric and SI units
Unit conversions
Scientific notation and significant figures
Linear versus logarithmic scales (e.g., pH)
Read and Interpret Data Represented in
Tables, Graphs, and Charts

1.
2.
3.
4.

Making observations
Formulating and testing hypotheses
Identifying experimental variables and controls
Conclusions: proof versus support
Scientific sources and communicating findings

1. Chemical nature of biology
2. Calculations in biology (e.g., statistics,
probability)
3. Physical laws and principles governing
biological systems
C.

Appropriate Use of Scientific
Measurement and Notation Systems

Safety and Emergency Procedures for
Science Classrooms and Laboratories

1. Use of material safety data sheets (MSDS, or
safety data sheets, SDS)
2. Use of personal safety equipment: (e.g., gloves,
goggles, lab coats)
3. Use of laboratory safety equipment (e.g., fire
extinguishers, eye wash stations, emergency
showers)

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II.

Molecular and Cellular Biology
A.

Chemical Structures and Properties of
Biologically Important Molecules

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Atomic structure
Organic versus inorganic molecules
Chemical bonding (e.g., hydrogen, covalent)
Molecular structure (e.g., water, oxygen)
Water properties (e.g., cohesion, high specific
heat)
6. Macromolecules (e.g., carbohydrates, nucleic
acids, proteins, lipids)
B.

1.
2.
3.
4.

Major Differences between Prokaryotes
and Eukaryotes

Cell size
Membrane-bound organelles
Cell walls (e.g., peptidoglycan, cellulose)
Chromosome structure (e.g., circular versus
linear)

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Cells Maintain their Internal Environment
and Respond to External Signals

1. Selective permeability
2. Active and passive transport
3. Water movement (e.g., osmolarity, water
potential)
4. Cell surface proteins and cell communication
5. Exocytosis and endocytosis
6. Hormone action and feedback
H.

Cellular Division, the Cell Cycle, and How
They Are Regulated

1. Cell cycle stages ( G1, S, G2, M )
2. Mitosis and meiosis (e.g., stages, functions,
results)
3. Cytokinesis (e.g., cleavage furrow, cell plate)
4. Cell cycle checkpoints
I.

Structure and Function of Nucleic Acids

1.
2.
3.
4.

Sugar-phosphate backbone
DNA versus RNA
Complementary base pairing
Chromosome structure (e.g., nucleosomes,
telomeres, linear versus circular)
5. DNA replication

Biochemical Pathways and Energy Flow
Within an Organism

1. Cellular locations of biochemical pathways
2. Photosynthesis (e.g., photosystems, electron
transport, C3 and C4 )
3. Cellular respiration (e.g., fermentation, Krebs
(citric acid) cycle, electron transport chain)
4. Chemosynthesis (e.g., deep sea vent
microorganisms)
E.

Structure and Function of Enzymes and
Factors Influencing their Activity

1. Active site structure and substrate binding
(e.g., induced fit, lock and key)
2. Reaction kinetics (e.g., effects of temperature,
pH, and inhibitors)
3. Regulation (e.g., cooperative binding, feedback
inhibition)

Structure and Function of Cells and
Organelles

1. Plant cells versus animal cells
2. Cell membranes
3. Membrane-bound organelles (e.g., nucleus,
chloroplast) and ribosomes
4. Cytoskeleton

Biological Processes Are Dependent on
Chemical Principles

1. Chemical and physical gradients (e.g., osmosis,
diffusion, temperature)
2. Thermodynamics
3. Anabolic and catabolic reactions (e.g.,
hydrolysis)
4. Reduction-oxidation reactions
C.

Processes Involved in Protein Synthesis

1. RNA transcription
2. mRNA processing (e.g., polyadenylation,
splicing)
3. Translation (e.g., ribosome structure, tRNA)
K.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Regulation of Gene Expression

Promoters
Enhancers
Transcription factors
Operons
Environmental influences (e.g., epigenetics)

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Cells May Undergo Differentiation and
Specialization

1. Differential gene expression
2. Stem cells (e.g., sources, developmental
potential)
M.

Use and Applications of DNA
Technologies and Genetic Engineering

1. DNA sequencing and polymerase chain
reaction (PCR)
2. Genome sequencing projects (e.g., Human
Genome Project)
3. Gene therapy
4. Cloning
5. Transgenic and genetically engineered cells

Genetics and Evolution

1.
2.
3.
4.
B.

Mendel’s Laws and Predicting the
Probable Outcome of Given Genetic
Crosses

Independent assortment
Law of segregation
Monohybrid and dihybrid crosses
Pedigree analysis
Non-Mendelian inheritance

1. Linkage (e.g., recombination mapping)
2. Sex-linked inheritance
3. Multiple alleles, codominance, and incomplete
dominance
4. Polygenic inheritance, epistasis, and pleiotropy
5. Organelle inheritance (e.g., mitochondrial
inheritance)

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Sources of Genetic Variation

1. Mutation
2. Crossing-over
3. Genetic exchange (e.g., transduction,
transformation, conjugation)
4. Sexual reproduction (e.g., independent
assortment)

Use of Basic Laboratory Techniques to
Study Biological Processes

1. Gel electrophoresis
2. Microscopy
3. Spectrophotometry

III.

1. Changes in chromosome numbers (e.g., Down
syndrome)
2. Changes in chromosome structure (e.g.,
deletion, inversion, duplication, translocation)
3. Common genetic disorders (e.g., Sickle-cell
anemia, Tay-Sachs disease)

Nature of Mutations

1. Causes of mutations (e.g., recombination,
mutagens)
2. Types of mutations (e.g., point mutation,
deletion, inversion, translocation)
3. Somatic versus germline mutations

Chromosomal and Genetic Changes that
Lead to Common Human Genetic
Disorders

Mutations, Gene Flow, Genetic Drift, and
Nonrandom Mating Affect the Gene Pool
of a Population

1. Distribution and movement of alleles within
populations
2. Distribution and movement of alleles between
populations
F.

Principles and Applications of HardyWeinberg Equilibrium

1. Conditions of HW equilibrium
2. Calculating allele frequencies using the HW
equation
G.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
H.

Mechanisms of Evolution

Natural and artificial selection
Sexual selection
Genetic drift (e.g., bottleneck, founder effect)
Coevolution
Adaptive radiation
Evidence that Supports Evolution

1. Molecular evidence (e.g., DNA sequence
comparisons)
2. Structural and developmental evidence (e.g.,
homology, embryology)
3. Fossil record
4. Endosymbiosis
5. Convergent versus divergent evolution
6. Major evolutionary trends (e.g., cephalization,
multicellularity)

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Genetic Basis of Speciation

1. Reproductive isolation (e.g., prezygotic,
postzygotic)
2. Types of speciation (e.g., allopatric, sympatric)
J.

1. Body plans (e.g., radial versus bilateral
symmetry)
2. Body cavities (e.g., coelomates,
pseudocoelomates, acoelomates)
3. Modes of reproduction
4. Modes of temperature regulation (e.g.,
endotherm, ectotherm)

Models of Evolutionary Rates

1. Gradualism
2. Punctuated equilibrium
K.

Scientific Explanations for the Origin of
Life on Earth

1. Panspermia (e.g., asteroid seeding)
2. Abiotic synthesis of organic compounds (e.g.,
Miller-Urey experiment)
3. Biological influences on atmospheric
composition (e.g., photosynthesis)
4. Development of self-replication (e.g., RNA
world)
L.

1.
2.
3.
4.
F.

1.
2.
3.
4.
B.

Characteristics of Living Versus Nonliving
Things

Cellular organization
Growth and reproduction
Regulation and responses to the environment
Obtain and use energy

Historical and Current Biological
Classification Systems of Organisms

1.
2.
3.
4.

1. Kingdom system
2. Domain system
C.

Defining Characteristics of Viruses,
Bacteria, Protists, Fungi, Plants, and
Animals

1. Structure (e.g., capsid, cell wall, organelles)
2. Organization (e.g., prokaryote, multicellular)
3. Modes of nutrition (e.g., heterotroph,
autotroph)
4. Reproduction/replication (e.g., viral replication,
binary fission, budding)

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Cells
Tissues
Organs
Organ systems

Cardiovascular and respiratory
Reproductive
Digestive and excretory
Nervous and endocrine
Immune
Maintenance of Homeostasis in
Organisms

1. Role of structural components (e.g., kidney,
hypothalamus)
2. Feedback mechanisms
3. Role of hormones (e.g., antidiuretic hormone
(ADH), insulin)
4. Role of behaviors (e.g., diurnal, nocturnal,
basking)

IV. Diversity of Life and Organismal Biology
A.

Organizational Hierarchy of Multicellular
Organisms

Anatomy and Physiology of Major Organ
Systems in Animals

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Factors that Lead to Extinction of
Species

1. Lack of genetic diversity
2. Environmental pressures (e.g., climate and
habitat change)
3. Human impacts
4. Interspecific competition

Characteristics of the Major Animal Phyla

Reproduction, Development, and Growth
in Animals

Gamete formation
Fertilization
Embryonic development
Growth, development, and aging
Characteristics of Major Plant Divisions

1. Vascular versus nonvascular plants
2. Flowering versus nonflowering plants
3. Monocot versus eudicot (dicot)

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Structure and Function of Major Plant
Tissues and Organs

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
K.

Dermal
Vascular (i.e., xylem, phloem)
Ground (e.g., parenchyma, cortex)
Meristems
Flowers, stems, leaves, and roots

1. Sexual versus asexual reproduction
2. Parental investment
3. Number of offspring produced versus number
that survive
E.

Plant Life Cycles and Reproductive
Strategies

Plants Obtain and Transport Water and
Inorganic Nutrients

Plants Transport and Store Products of
Photosynthesis

1. Products (e.g., simple and complex
carbohydrates)
2. Phloem transport
3. Storage and support molecules (e.g., starch,
cellulose)
4. Storage structures (e.g., plastids, vacuoles,
tuber)

1.
2.
3.
4.

Biotic and Abiotic Components of an
Ecosystem Influence Population Size

1. Resource availability and abiotic factors (e.g.,
nutrients and temperature)
2. Habitat and niche
3. Competition and predation
C.

Models of Population Growth

1. Exponential growth
2. Logistic growth (e.g., carrying capacity)

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Energy Flow in the Environment

1. Trophic levels (e.g., pyramids of biomass,
pyramids of energy)
2. Food webs
I.

Biogeochemical Cycles

1.
2.
3.
4.

Hierarchical Structure of the Biosphere

Populations
Communities
Ecosystems
Biomes

Types and Characteristics of Biomes

1. Aquatic (e.g., stream, estuary, coral reef )
2. Terrestrial (e.g., desert, grassland, tropical rain
forest)

Ecology: Organisms and Environments
A.

Changes Occur During Ecological
Succession

1. Primary versus secondary succession
2. Biomass, diversity, productivity, and habitat
changes during succession

1. Roots
2. Xylem transport
3. Control (e.g., stomata)
M.

Relationships Within and Between
Species

1. Symbiosis (e.g., parasitism, commensalism,
mutualism)
2. Predation
3. Competition and territoriality
4. Altruistic behaviors

1. Alternation of generations (i.e., gametophyte,
sporophyte)
2. Pollination strategies (e.g., wind, insect)
3. Seed dispersal
L.

Relationship Between Reproductive
Strategies and Mortality Rates

Water cycle
Carbon cycle
Nitrogen cycle
Phosphorus cycle
Effects of Natural Disturbances on
Ecosystems

1. Temporal and spatial disturbances (e.g.,
climate, fire, disease)
2. Fragmentation of ecosystems
3. Natural ecosystem recovery
K.

Humans Affect Ecological Systems and
Biodiversity

1. Pollution (e.g., greenhouse gases, acid
precipitation)
2. Habitat destruction (e.g., deforestation)
3. Introduced species (e.g., non-native,
reintroduced)
4. Remediation (e.g., reforestation, mine
reclamation)

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Connections among Ecosystems on a
Local and Global Scale

1. Natural flow of material between ecosystems
2. Transport of materials by humans
3. Movement of organisms (e.g., migration)

VI. Science, Technology, and Social
Perspectives
A.

Impact of Science and Technology on the
Environment

Ethical and Societal Issues Arising from
the Use of Science and Technology

1. Pollution and pollution mitigation (e.g.,
burning fossil fuels, green building,
environmental cleanup)
2. Resource management (e.g., waste
management, recycling, efficiency)
3. Conservation (e.g., habitat protection, habitat
restoration, species protection)
4. Non-point sources of pollution (e.g., lawn
fertilizers)
B.

Impact of Human Activity and Natural
Phenomena on Society

1. Consequences (e.g., economic, social)
2. Disaster management (e.g., hurricane relief and
cleanup)
3. Global warming, sea levels, flooding
4. Epidemiology (e.g., malaria, influenza)
5. Agriculture and soil erosion
6. Estuary and wetland degradation
7. Water management
8. Production, use, and disposal of consumer
products (e.g., plastics)
C.

Societal Impacts Associated with the
Management of Natural Resources

1. Habitat preservation (e.g., Endangered Species
Act, National Parks)
2. Extraction of mineral and energy resources
(e.g., mining, drilling)
3. Agriculture, forestry, wildlife, and fisheries
practices
4. Renewable and/or sustainable use of resources

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Step 2: Familiarize Yourself with Test Questions

2. Familiarize Yourself with Test Questions
Become comfortable with the types of questions you’ll find on the Praxis tests
The Praxis Series assessments include a variety of question types: constructed response (for which you write a
response of your own); selected response, for which you select one or more answers from a list of choices or
make another kind of selection (e.g., by clicking on a sentence in a text or by clicking on part of a graphic); and
numeric entry, for which you enter a numeric value in an answer field. You may be familiar with these question
formats from taking other standardized tests. If not, familiarize yourself with them so you don’t spend time
during the test figuring out how to answer them.

Understanding Computer-Delivered Questions
Questions on computer-delivered tests are interactive in the sense that you answer by selecting an option
or entering text on the screen. If you see a format you are not familiar with, read the directions carefully. The
directions always give clear instructions on how you are expected to respond.
For most questions, you respond by clicking an oval to select a single answer from a list of options.
However, interactive question types may also ask you to respond by:
• Clicking more than one oval to select answers from a list of options.
• Typing in an entry box. When the answer is a number, you may be asked to enter a numerical answer.
Some questions may have more than one place to enter a response.
• Clicking check boxes. You may be asked to click check boxes instead of an oval when more than one
choice within a set of answers can be selected.
• Clicking parts of a graphic. In some questions, you will select your answers by clicking on a location (or
locations) on a graphic such as a map or chart, as opposed to choosing your answer from a list.
• Clicking on sentences. In questions with reading passages, you may be asked to choose your answers by
clicking on a sentence (or sentences) within the reading passage.
• Dragging and dropping answer choices into targets on the screen. You may be asked to select answers
from a list of options and drag your answers to the appropriate location in a table, paragraph of text or
graphic.
• Selecting options from a drop-down menu. You may be asked to choose answers by selecting options
from a drop-down menu (e.g., to complete a sentence).
Remember that with every question you will get clear instructions.
Perhaps the best way to understand computer-delivered questions is to view the Computer-delivered Testing
Demonstration on the Praxis Web site to learn how a computer-delivered test works and see examples of
some types of questions you may encounter.

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Step 2: Familiarize Yourself with Test Questions

Understanding Selected-Response Questions
Many selected-response questions begin with the phrase “which of the following.” Take a look at this example:
Which of the following is a flavor made from beans?
(A) Strawberry
(B) Cherry
(C) Vanilla
(D) Mint

How would you answer this question?
All of the answer choices are flavors. Your job is to decide which of the flavors is the one made from beans.
Try following these steps to select the correct answer.
1) L
imit your answer to the choices given. You may know that chocolate and coffee are also flavors made
from beans, but they are not listed. Rather than thinking of other possible answers, focus only on the choices
given (“which of the following”).
2) E
liminate incorrect answers. You may know that strawberry and cherry flavors are made from fruit and
that mint flavor is made from a plant. That leaves vanilla as the only possible answer.
3) V
erify your answer. You can substitute “vanilla” for the phrase “which of the following” and turn the
question into this statement: “Vanilla is a flavor made from beans.” This will help you be sure that your answer
is correct. If you’re still uncertain, try substituting the other choices to see if they make sense. You may want
to use this technique as you answer selected-response questions on the practice tests.

Try a more challenging example
The vanilla bean question is pretty straightforward, but you’ll find that more challenging questions have a
similar structure. For example:
Entries in outlines are generally arranged according
to which of the following relationships of ideas?
(A) Literal and inferential
(B) Concrete and abstract
(C) Linear and recursive
(D) Main and subordinate
You’ll notice that this example also contains the phrase “which of the following.” This phrase helps you
determine that your answer will be a “relationship of ideas” from the choices provided. You are supposed to find
the choice that describes how entries, or ideas, in outlines are related.
Sometimes it helps to put the question in your own words. Here, you could paraphrase the question in this way:
“How are outlines usually organized?” Since the ideas in outlines usually appear as main ideas and subordinate
ideas, the answer is (D).

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Step 2: Familiarize Yourself with Test Questions

QUICK TIP: Don’t be intimidated by words you may not understand. It might be easy to be thrown by words
like “recursive” or “inferential.” Read carefully to understand the question and look for an answer that fits. An
outline is something you are probably familiar with and expect to teach to your students. So slow down, and
use what you know.

Watch out for selected-response questions containing “NOT,” “LEAST,” and “EXCEPT”
This type of question asks you to select the choice that does not fit. You must be very careful because it is easy
to forget that you are selecting the negative. This question type is used in situations in which there are several
good solutions or ways to approach something, but also a clearly wrong way.

How to approach questions about graphs, tables, or reading passages
When answering questions about graphs, tables, or reading passages, provide only the information that the
questions ask for. In the case of a map or graph, you might want to read the questions first, and then look at the
map or graph. In the case of a long reading passage, you might want to go ahead and read the passage first,
noting places you think are important, and then answer the questions. Again, the important thing is to be sure
you answer the questions as they refer to the material presented. So read the questions carefully.

How to approach unfamiliar formats
New question formats are developed from time to time to find new ways of assessing knowledge. Tests may
include audio and video components, such as a movie clip or animation, instead of a map or reading passage.
Other tests may allow you to zoom in on details in a graphic or picture.
Tests may also include interactive questions. These questions take advantage of technology to assess
knowledge and skills in ways that standard selected-response questions cannot. If you see a format you are
not familiar with, read the directions carefully. The directions always give clear instructions on how you are
expected to respond.

QUICK TIP: Don’t make the questions more difficult than they are. Don’t read for hidden meanings or tricks.
There are no trick questions on Praxis tests. They are intended to be serious, straightforward tests of
your knowledge.

Understanding Constructed-Response Questions
Constructed-response questions require you to demonstrate your knowledge in a subject area by creating
your own response to particular topics. Essays and short-answer questions are types of constructed-response
questions.
For example, an essay question might present you with a topic and ask you to discuss the extent to which you
agree or disagree with the opinion stated. You must support your position with specific reasons and examples
from your own experience, observations, or reading.
Take a look at a few sample essay topics:
• “ Celebrities have a tremendous influence on the young, and for that reason, they have a responsibility to
act as role models.”
• “ We are constantly bombarded by advertisements—on television and radio, in newspapers and
magazines, on highway signs, and the sides of buses. They have become too pervasive. It’s time to put
limits on advertising.”
• “Advances in computer technology have made the classroom unnecessary, since students and teachers
are able to communicate with one another from computer terminals at home or at work.”

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Step 2: Familiarize Yourself with Test Questions

Keep these things in mind when you respond to a constructed-response question
1) A
nswer the question accurately. Analyze what each part of the question is asking you to do. If the
question asks you to describe or discuss, you should provide more than just a list.
2) A
nswer the question completely. If a question asks you to do three distinct things in your response,
you should cover all three things for the best score. Otherwise, no matter how well you write, you will
not be awarded full credit.
3) A
nswer the question that is asked. Do not change the question or challenge the basis of the
question. You will receive no credit or a low score if you answer another question or if you state, for
example, that there is no possible answer.
4) G
ive a thorough and detailed response. You must demonstrate that you have a thorough
understanding of the subject matter. However, your response should be straightforward and not filled
with unnecessary information.
5) R
eread your response. Check that you have written what you thought you wrote. Be sure not to
leave sentences unfinished or omit clarifying information.

QUICK TIP: You may find that it helps to take notes on scratch paper so that you don’t miss any details. Then
you’ll be sure to have all the information you need to answer the question.
For tests that have constructed-response questions, more detailed information can be found in "1. Learn About
Your Test" on page 5.

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Step 3: Practice with Sample Test Questions

3. Practice with Sample Test Questions
Answer practice questions and find explanations for correct answers

Sample Test Questions
The sample questions that follow illustrate the kinds of questions
on the test. They are not, however, representative of the entire
scope of the test in either content or difficulty. Answers with
explanations follow the questions.

4. Two parents who do not exhibit
phenylketonuria (PKU) have a son with PKU.
Which of the following conclusions can be
drawn from this situation?

Directions: Each of the questions or incomplete

(A) The allele for PKU is located on the
Y chromosome.

statements below is followed by four suggested answers or
completions. Select the one that is best in each case.

(B) PKU is a dominant trait.
(C) PKU is a recessive trait.

1. The movement of water upward in xylem
vessels of trees is most directly related to
which of the following?

(D) A mutation occurred in the sperm of the
father.

(A) Wall pressure
(B) Turgor pressure
(C) Transpiration

5. All of the following represent primary
consumers feeding on first-trophic-level
organisms EXCEPT

(D) Cytoplasmic streaming

(A) paramecia feeding on green algae
(B) mice feeding on seeds

2. Which of the following is a true statement
about the flow of energy in an ecosystem?
(A) Smaller organisms need less energy per
gram of body weight than do larger
organisms.

(B) Energy transfer between organisms
normally involves conservation of heat
energy.
(C) Energy flow between trophic levels is
inefficient.
(D) Chemical energy is converted into radiant
energy, which is then converted to
chemical energy at the next trophic level.
3. The diversity of the finches on the Galápagos
Islands is an example of which of the
following?
(A) Adaptive radiation
(B) Seasonal isolation
(C) Mechanical isolation
(D) Selective hybrid elimination

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The diagram above represents a cross section of
a leaf. Which region serves primarily to regulate
the stomatal opening?
(A)

(B)

Step 3: Practice with Sample Test Questions

7. Which of the following best describes the
pathway of a protein from its manufacture to
its secretion from the cell?
(A) Endoplasmic reticulum → Golgi complex
→ secretory vesicle
(B) Secretory vesicle → endoplasmic
reticulum → Golgi complex
(C) Secretory vesicle → Golgi complex →
endoplasmic reticulum
(D) Golgi complex → endoplasmic reticulum
→ secretory vesicle
8. All of the following are likely to increase after
large areas of tropical rain forests are cut
down EXCEPT the
(A) species diversity of the areas
(B) erosion by rivers flowing through the
areas

9. The graph above depicts the frequency of
expression of the range of leg lengths in a
population of grazing animals. In this species,
leg length is directly related to speed, which is
a heritable characteristic. These grazers are
being preyed on by a newly introduced
species of swift-running predators. Which of
the following graphs represents the range of
expression most likely to result from this
selection pressure over a long period of time?
(A)

(B)

(C)

(D)

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Step 3: Practice with Sample Test Questions

10. Which of the following are isomers?

14. Which of the following cellular processes
normally produces ATP from glucose in the
absence of oxygen?
(A) Krebs cycle
(B) Glycolysis
(C) Chemiosmosis
(D) Calvin cycle
15. Which of the following mechanisms can best
account for the higher concentrations of
mineral nutrients in the root cells of vascular
plants than in the surrounding soil
environment?
(A) Osmosis
(B) Diffusion
(C) Facilitated diffusion
(D) Active transport

11. If a DNA template has the base sequence
5′ —TAG— 3′, the corresponding base
sequence on an mRNA transcript would be

16. A person touches a hot object and
immediately moves her finger away from it.
Which of the following structures is the first to
receive an impulse triggered by the stimulus?
(A) Synapse
(B) Ventral root ganglion
(C) Motor neuron
(D) Sensory neuron

12. Which of the following structures is present in
the roots of vascular plants but NOT in
stems?
(A) Cambium

17. Males of a certain species of small mammal
have been observed to have either fluffy tails
or furless tails. Those with the fluffy tails have
been observed to attract significantly more
mates than those with furless tails. The
phenomenon described is an example of

(B) Pericycle

(A) kin selection

(B) disruptive selection

(D) Cortex

13. A certain autosomal recessive trait is
expressed in 1 percent of a population.
Assuming that the population is in HardyWeinberg equilibrium, what percent of the
population are carriers but do not express the
trait?

(D) sexual selection

(A) 10%
(B) 18%
(C) 27%
(D) 50%

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Step 3: Practice with Sample Test Questions

Directions for Questions 18–19: The group of
questions below describes an experimental situation.
First study the description of the situation; then
choose the one best answer for each question and
fill in completely the space on the answer sheet.
Sickle cell anemia is a genetic disorder.
Specialized techniques for DNA analysis are
used to detect carriers of the sickle cell anemia
allele and infants that are homozygous for the
trait. The DNA is cut into fragments that are
separated according to size by use of gel
electrophoresis. Radiolabeled probes can then
be used to identify both the normal allele and
the mutant (sickle cell) allele.
The reference data shown below indicate that
the DNA in lane I is from a noncarrier (AA), the
DNA in lane II is from a carrier (AS), and the DNA
in lane III is from an individual having sickle cell
anemia (SS). The sample data are from two
parents (lanes I and II) and their infant (lane III).

Directions for Questions 20–21: The group of
questions below consists of four lettered headings
followed by a list of phrases or sentences. For each
sentence, select the one heading that is most closely
related to it. One heading may be used once, more
than once, or not at all.

(A) Nephrons
(B) Flame cells
(C) Malpighian tubules
(D) Skin gills
20. Function in both arachnids and insects
21. Have cilia to drive waste products to excretory
pores
22. The bat is most closely related to which of the
following animals?
(A) Hummingbird
(B) Wolf
(C) Butterfly
(D) Chameleon
23. Which of the following is a unit for density?
(A) kg

18. Which of the following is correct concerning
the sickle cell trait in Parent 1 (lane I)?
(A) Parent 1 is a carrier (AS).
(B) Parent 1 is a noncarrier (AA).
(C) Parent 1 has sickle cell anemia (SS).
(D) The occurrence of the sickle cell trait
cannot be determined from the data.

(B) kg/m2
(C) g/m3
(D) m3/sec
24. Density-independent regulation is most likely
related to which of the following?
(A) Intense predation
(B) A rare storm event

19. Which of the following can be concluded from
the sample data?
(A) The infant is homozygous for the sickle
cell allele (SS).

(B) The infant is a carrier of the sickle cell
allele (AS).
(C) The infant is a noncarrier of the sickle
cell allele (AA).
(D) The occurrence of the sickle cell trait
cannot be determined for the infant.

The Praxis® Study Companion

Step 3: Practice with Sample Test Questions

Test
Tube
1

Materials Added

Initial
Color

Final
Color

Aquatic plant,
bromothymol
blue solution

Blue

Aquatic plant,
Yellow Blue
bromothymol
blue solution,
carbonated water
Bromothymol
Yellow Yellow
blue solution,
carbonated water

25. In a lab investigation designed to demonstrate
one aspect of photosynthesis, three test
tubes were treated as shown above. The test
tubes were then placed under a bright lamp
for 24 hours. Which of the following is the
best explanation for the observed color
change in tube 2?

26. Unfertilized sea urchin eggs can be induced
to develop into normal larvae by placing them
in appropriate magnesium solutions. Which of
the following best describes this process?
(A) Metamorphosis
(B) Oogenesis
(C) Homeostasis
(D) Parthenogenesis
27. Which of the following includes the classes
Gastropoda and Cephalopoda?
(A) Arthropoda
(B) Annelida
(C) Brachiopoda
(D) Mollusca

(A) The light bleached the solution from its
original color of yellow to blue.
(B) The aquatic plant produced carbon
dioxide, which changed into carbonic
acid and caused the color change.
(C) The aquatic plant used carbon dioxide,
raising the pH of the solution.
(D) The plant produces oxygen during
photosynthesis, which caused the color
change.

The Praxis® Study Companion

Step 3: Practice with Sample Test Questions

Answers to Sample Questions
1. The correct answer is (C). The upward
movement of water is caused by a “pull” generated
by water loss in the leaves (transpiration) and
facilitated by the cohesive properties of water in
narrow tubes such as xylem vessels.
2. The correct answer is (C). Biologists estimate
that large amounts of energy available to one
trophic level are lost and not transferred to the
next trophic level.
3. The correct answer is (A). The Galápagos finches
are a classical example of adaptive radiation of a
single species that arrived from the continent,
diversified, and underwent speciation following
isolation on several islands.
4. The correct answer is (C). PKU must be a
recessive trait because the parents did not exhibit
the disorder, yet must have been carriers for the
disorder.
5. The correct answer is (D). The first trophic level
consists of producers. As heterotrophs,
mushrooms are not producers. In (A), (B), and (C),
the producers are green algae, seeds, and tree
branches, and the primary consumers are
paramecia, mice, and deer.
6. The correct answer is (C). These are the guard
cells that regulate the stomatal opening.
7. The correct answer is (A). Proteins to be
secreted pass from the ribosomes into the lumen
of the endoplasmic reticulum. They are then sent
to the Golgi complex, where they are modified and
packaged into vesicles, which transport them to
the outside of the cell.
8. (A) is the exception. The continuing loss of the
diverse habitats found in tropical rain forests will
cause a decrease in species diversity, not an
increase. Thus, (A) is the correct answer.
9. The correct answer is (A). Selection pressure
would favor longer legs in the prey animals, and
(A) depicts a population with a large number of
individuals with longer legs.
10. The correct answer is (A). These molecules are
examples of structural isomers—compounds that
have the same empirical formula but whose atoms
are arranged in a different way. Both compounds
in (A) are alcohols with the formula C3H8O, but the
position of the OH group is different in each.

The Praxis® Study Companion

11. The correct answer is (D). The sequence of
bases in an mRNA molecule is determined by
antiparallel hybridization (opposite orientation of 5'
and 3' ends) between A, T, C, and G of the template
DNA and U, A, G, and C of the mRNA molecule,
respectively.
12. The correct answer is (B). In plant roots, the
vascular tissue is located in the center of the root
and is surrounded by a layer of endoderm cells. The
pericycle is a layer of cells on the inner side of the
endoderm in plant roots. Root branching is initiated
in the pericycle.
13. The correct answer is (B). The Hardy-Weinberg
equation states p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1, where p = the
frequency of the dominant allele of a gene and
q = the frequency of the recessive allele of a gene. If
a recessive trait is expressed in 1 percent of the
population (q2 = 0.01), the frequency of the allele in
the population is 0.1 (square root of 0.01). If the
frequency of the recessive allele = 0.1, then the
frequency of the dominant allele must be 0.9 (i.e.,
1.0 - 0.1 = 0.9). Therefore, 2pq = (2)(0.9)(0.1) = 0.18.
14. The correct answer is (B). In the absence of
oxygen, glycolysis can still occur, and it produces a
net yield of two ATP per molecule of glucose.
Neither chemiosmosis nor the Krebs cycle function
in the absence of oxygen. The Calvin cycle normally
uses ATP.
15. The correct answer is (D). Energy is required to
move minerals up their concentration gradient. In
both osmosis and diffusion, substances move down
a gradient.
16. The correct answer is (D). This question
describes a motor reflex loop between a
thermosensory neuron and a motor neuron. Most
reflex loops involve an impulse being initiated in a
sensory neuron and then passing either directly
from a sensory neuron to a motor neuron or from
the sensory neuron to an interneuron and then
from the interneuron to a motor neuron. The
neurons are separated by synapses.
17. The correct answer is (D). Mate selection based
on a physical feature defines sexual selection.
18. The correct answer is (A). By comparing the
data from Parent 1 to the reference data, it is clear
that Parent 1 is a carrier (AS).

Step 3: Practice with Sample Test Questions

19. The correct answer is (A). The infant is
homozygous for the sickle cell allele. This can be
seen by comparing lane III of the reference data
with lane III of the sample data.
20. The correct answer is (C). Malpighian tubules
are found in arthropods; arachnids and insects are
arthropods.
21. The correct answer is (B). Flame cells contain
cilia.
22. The correct answer is (B). Bats and wolves are
both mammals. While bats, hummingbirds, and
butterflies all fly, their wings are analogous
structures; the organisms are not closely related.
23. The correct answer is (C). Density is defined as
mass per unit volume. The gram is a unit of mass
and cubic meters is a volume.

25. The correct answer is (C). Bromothymol blue
can be used as an indicator of CO2 concentration.
CO2 dissolves in solution and a small percent
becomes carbonic acid. Plants utilize CO2 during
photosynthesis, thus raising the pH of the solution
and changing the color of the solution from yellow
to blue.
26. The correct answer is (D). Parthenogenesis is a
form of asexual reproduction in which offspring
are produced from unfertilized eggs. In nature,
there are a variety of animals that can reproduce in
this fashion.
27. The correct answer is (D). Mollusca is a large
phylum of invertebrates that includes Gastropoda
(freshwater and marine snails and slugs) and
Cephalopoda (marine organisms such as squid
and octopuses).

24. The correct answer is (B). Increasing
population density will likely lead to increased
death rate by increased predation, increased
competition for food, and increased disease
communicability but has no correlation with the
chance of a rare storm causing fatalities.

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Step 4: Determine Your Strategy for Success

4. Determine Your Strategy for Success
Set clear goals and deadlines so your test preparation is focused and efficient
Effective Praxis test preparation doesn’t just happen. You’ll want to set clear goals and deadlines for yourself
along the way. Otherwise, you may not feel ready and confident on test day.

1) Learn what the test covers.
You may have heard that there are several different versions of the same test. It’s true. You may take one
version of the test and your friend may take a different version a few months later. Each test has different
questions covering the same subject area, but both versions of the test measure the same skills and
content knowledge.
You’ll find specific information on the test you’re taking in "1. Learn About Your Test" on page 5, which
outlines the content categories that the test measures and what percentage of the test covers each topic.
Visit www.ets.org/praxis/testprep for information on other Praxis tests.

2) Assess how well you know the content.
Research shows that test takers tend to overestimate their preparedness—this is why some test takers
assume they did well and then find out they did not pass.
The Praxis tests are demanding enough to require serious review of likely content, and the longer you’ve
been away from the content, the more preparation you will most likely need. If it has been longer than a few
months since you’ve studied your content area, make a concerted effort to prepare.

3) Collect study materials.
Gathering and organizing your materials for review are critical steps in preparing for the Praxis tests. Consider
the following reference sources as you plan your study:
• D
id you take a course in which the content area was covered? If yes, do you still have your books or
your notes?
• D
oes your local library have a high school-level textbook in this area? Does your college library have a
good introductory college-level textbook in this area?
Practice materials are available for purchase for many Praxis tests at www.ets.org/praxis/testprep. Test
preparation materials include sample questions and answers with explanations.

4) Plan and organize your time.
You can begin to plan and organize your time while you are still collecting materials. Allow yourself plenty of
review time to avoid cramming new material at the end. Here are a few tips:
• C
hoose a test date far enough in the future to leave you plenty of preparation time. Test dates can be
found at www.ets.org/praxis/register/centers_dates.
• Work backward from that date to figure out how much time you will need for review.
• Set a realistic schedule—and stick to it.

The Praxis® Study Companion

Step 4: Determine Your Strategy for Success

5) Practice explaining the key concepts.
Praxis tests with constructed-response questions assess your ability to explain material effectively. As a
teacher, you’ll need to be able to explain concepts and processes to students in a clear, understandable
way. What are the major concepts you will be required to teach? Can you explain them in your own words
accurately, completely, and clearly? Practice explaining these concepts to test your ability to effectively
explain what you know.

6) Understand how questions will be scored.
Scoring information can be found in "10. Understand Your Scores" on page 46.

7) Develop a study plan.
A study plan provides a road map to prepare for the Praxis tests. It can help you understand what skills and
knowledge are covered on the test and where to focus your attention. Use the study plan template on page
28 to organize your efforts.
And most important—get started!

Would a Study Group Work for You?
Using this guide as part of a study group
People who have a lot of studying to do sometimes find it helpful to form a study group with others who are
working toward the same goal. Study groups give members opportunities to ask questions and get detailed
answers. In a group, some members usually have a better understanding of certain topics, while others in the
group may be better at other topics. As members take turns explaining concepts to one another, everyone
builds self-confidence.
If the group encounters a question that none of the members can answer well, the group can go to a teacher or
other expert and get answers efficiently. Because study groups schedule regular meetings, members study in a
more disciplined fashion. They also gain emotional support. The group should be large enough so that multiple
people can contribute different kinds of knowledge, but small enough so that it stays focused. Often, three to
six members is a good size.
Here are some ways to use this guide as part of a study group:

• P
lan the group’s study program. Parts of the study plan template, beginning on page 26 can help
to structure your group’s study program. By filling out the first five columns and sharing the worksheets,
everyone will learn more about your group’s mix of abilities and about the resources, such as textbooks, that
members can share with the group. In the sixth column (“Dates I will study the content”), you can create an
overall schedule for your group’s study program.
• P
lan individual group sessions. At the end of each session, the group should decide what specific
topics will be covered at the next meeting and who will present each topic. Use the topic headings and
subheadings in the Test at a Glance table on page 5 to select topics, and then select practice questions,
beginning on page 16.
• P
repare your presentation for the group. When it’s your to turn present, prepare something that is
more than a lecture. Write two or three original questions to pose to the group. Practicing writing actual
questions can help you better understand the topics covered on the test as well as the types of questions
you will encounter on the test. It will also give other members of the group extra practice at answering
questions.

The Praxis® Study Companion

Step 4: Determine Your Strategy for Success

• T
ake a practice test together. The idea of a practice test is to simulate an actual administration of the
test, so scheduling a test session with the group will add to the realism and may also help boost everyone’s
confidence. Remember, complete the practice test using only the time that will be allotted for that test on
your administration day.
• L earn from the results of the practice test. Review the results of the practice test, including the
number of questions answered correctly in each content category. For tests that contain constructedresponse questions, look at the Sample Test Questions section, which also contain sample responses to
those questions and shows how they were scored. Then try to follow the same guidelines that the test
scorers use.
• B
e as critical as you can. You’re not doing your study partner(s) any favors by letting them get away with
an answer that does not cover all parts of the question adequately.
• B
e specific. Write comments that are as detailed as the comments about the sample responses. Indicate
where and how your study partner(s) are doing an inadequate job of answering the question. Writing notes
in the margins of the answer sheet may also help.
• B
e supportive. Include comments that point out what your study partner(s) got right.
Then plan one or more study sessions based on aspects of the questions on which group members performed
poorly. For example, each group member might be responsible for rewriting one paragraph of a response in
which someone else did an inadequate job.
Whether you decide to study alone or with a group, remember that the best way to prepare is to have an
organized plan. The plan should set goals based on specific topics and skills that you need to learn, and it
should commit you to a realistic set of deadlines for meeting those goals. Then you need to discipline yourself
to stick with your plan and accomplish your goals on schedule.

The Praxis® Study Companion

Step 5: Develop Your Study Plan

5. Develop Your Study Plan
Develop a personalized study plan and schedule
Planning your study time is important because it will help ensure that you review all content areas covered on the
test. Use the sample study plan below as a guide. It shows a plan for the Core Academic Skills for Educators: Reading
test. Following that is a study plan template that you can fill out to create your own plan. Use the “Learn about Your
Test” and “Test Specifications" information beginning on page 5 to help complete it.
Use this worksheet to:
1. Define Content Areas: List the most important content areas for your test as defined in chapter 1.
2. Determine Strengths and Weaknesses: Identify your strengths and weaknesses in each content area.
3. Identify Resources: Identify the books, courses, and other resources you plan to use for each content area.
4. Study: Create and commit to a schedule that provides for regular study periods.
Praxis Test Name (Test Code):
Test Date:

Core Academic Skills for Educators: Reading (5712)
9/15/15

Description
of content

Content covered

How well do
I know the
content?
(scale 1–5)

What
resources do I
have/need for
the content?

Where can I
find the
resources I
need?

Dates I will
study the
content

Date
completed

Key Ideas and Details
Draw inferences and
implications from the
directly stated content
of a reading selection

Middle school
English
textbook

College library,
middle school
teacher

7/15/15

Determining Ideas

Identify summaries or
paraphrases of the main
idea or primary purpose
of a reading selection

Middle school
English
textbook

College library,
middle school
teacher

7/17/15

Determining Ideas

Identify summaries
or paraphrases of the
supporting ideas and
specific details in a
reading selection

Middle and
high school
English
textbook

College library,
middle and
high school
teachers

7/20/15

7/21/15

Middle and
high school
English
textbook

College library,
middle and
high school
teachers

7/25/15

7/26/15

Middle and
high school
English
textbook,
dictionary

College library,
middle and
high school
teachers

7/25/15

7/27/15

High school
textbook,
college course
notes

College library,
course notes,
high school
teacher, college
professor

8/1/15

High school
textbook,
college course
notes

College library,
course notes,
high school
teacher, college
professor

8/1/15

Close reading

Craft, Structure, and Language Skills
Interpreting tone

Determine the author’s
attitude toward material
discussed in a reading
selection

Analysis of
structure

Identify key transition
words and phrases in a
reading selection and
how they are used

Analysis of
structure

Identify how a reading
selection is organized
in terms of cause/effect,
compare/contrast,
problem/solution, etc.

Author’s purpose

Determine the role that
an idea, reference, or
piece of information
plays in an author’s
discussion or argument

(continued on next page)

The Praxis® Study Companion

Step 5: Develop Your Study Plan

Content covered

Language in
different contexts

Description
of content
Determine whether
information presented
in a reading selection
is presented as fact or
opinion

Contextual
meaning

Identify the meanings of
words as they are used in
the context of a reading
selection

Figurative
Language

Understand figurative
language and nuances in
word meanings

Vocabulary range

Understand a range
of words and phrases
sufficient for reading at
the college and career
readiness level

How well do
I know the
content?
(scale 1–5)

What
resources do I
have/need for
the content?

Where can I
find the
resources I
need?

Dates
I will
study the
content

Date
completed

High school
textbook,
college course
notes

College library,
course notes,
high school
teacher, college
professor

8/1/15

High school
textbook,
college course
notes

College library,
course notes,
high school
teacher, college
professor

8/1/15

High school
textbook,
college course
notes

College library,
course notes,
high school
teacher, college
professor

8/8/15

High school
textbook,
college course
notes

College library,
course notes,
high school
teacher, college
professor

8/15/15

8/17/15

High school
textbook,
college course
notes

College library,
course notes,
high school
teacher, college
professor

8/22/15

8/24/15

High school
textbook,
college course
notes

College library,
course notes,
high school
teacher, college
professor

8/24/15

High school
textbook,
college course
notes

College library,
course notes,
high school
teacher, college
professor

8/27/15

High school
textbook,
college course
notes

College library,
course notes,
high school
teacher, college
professor

8/28/15

8/30/15

High school
textbook,
college course
notes

College library,
course notes,
high school
teacher, college
professor

8/30/15

8/31/15

High school
textbook,
college course
notes

College library,
course notes,
high school
teacher, college
professor

9/3/15

9/4/15

High school
textbook,
college course
notes

College library,
course notes,
high school
teacher, college
professor

9/5/15

9/6/15

Integration of Knowledge and Ideas
Analyze content
presented in diverse
Diverse media and media and formats,
formats
including visually and
quantitatively, as well as
in words
Evaluation of
arguments

Identify the relationship
among ideas presented
in a reading selection

Evaluation of
arguments

Determine whether
evidence strengthens,
weakens, or is relevant
to the arguments in a
reading selection

Evaluation of
arguments

Determine the logical
assumptions upon
which an argument or
conclusion is based

Evaluation of
arguments

Draw conclusions from
material presented in a
reading selection

Comparison of
texts

Recognize or predict
ideas or situations that
are extensions of or
similar to what has been
presented in a reading
selection

Comparison of
texts

Apply ideas presented
in a reading selection to
other situations

The Praxis® Study Companion

Step 5: Develop Your Study Plan

My Study Plan
Use this worksheet to:
1. Define Content Areas: List the most important content areas for your test as defined in chapter 1.
2. Determine Strengths and Weaknesses: Identify your strengths and weaknesses in each content area.
3. Identify Resources: Identify the books, courses, and other resources you plan to use for each content area.
4. Study: Create and commit to a schedule that provides for regular study periods.
Praxis Test Name (Test Code): ____________________________________________________________
Test Date:
_____________

Content covered

Description
of content

How well do
I know the
content?
(scale 1–5)

What
resources do I
have/need for
this content?

Where can I
find the
resources I
need?

Dates I will
study this
content

Date
completed

(continued on next page)

The Praxis® Study Companion

Step 5: Develop Your Study Plan

Content covered

The Praxis® Study Companion

Description
of content

How well do
I know the
content?
(scale 1–5)

What
resources do I
have/need for
the content?

Where can I
find the
resources I
need?

Dates I will
study the
content

Date
completed

Step 6: Review Study Topics

6. Review Study Topics
Detailed study topics with questions for discussion

Using the Study Topics That Follow
The Biology: Content Knowledge test is designed to measure the knowledge and skills necessary for a
beginning teacher.
This chapter is intended to help you organize your preparation for the test and to give you a clear indication of
the depth and breadth of the knowledge required for success on the test.
Virtually all accredited programs address the topics covered by the test; however, you are not expected to be an
expert on all aspects of the topics that follow.
You are likely to find that the topics below are covered by most introductory textbooks. Consult materials and
resources, including lecture and laboratory notes, from all your coursework. You should be able to match up
specific topics and subtopics with what you have covered in your courses.
Try not to be overwhelmed by the volume and scope of content knowledge in this guide. Although a specific
term may not seem familiar as you see it here, you might find you can understand it when applied to a real-life
situation. Many of the items on the actual test will provide you with a context to apply to these topics or terms.

Discussion Areas
Interspersed throughout the study topics are discussion areas, presented as open-ended questions or
statements. These discussion areas are intended to help test your knowledge of fundamental concepts and your
ability to apply those concepts to situations in the classroom or the real world. Most of the areas require you
to combine several pieces of knowledge to formulate an integrated understanding and response. If you spend
time on these areas, you will gain increased understanding and facility with the subject matter covered on the
test. You may want to discuss these areas and your answers with a teacher or mentor.
Note that this study companion does not provide answers for the discussion area questions, but thinking about the
answers to them will help improve your understanding of fundamental concepts and will probably help you
answer a broad range of questions on the test.

The Praxis® Study Companion

Step 6: Review Study Topics

Study Topics

An overview of the areas covered on the test, along
with their subareas, follows.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Nature of Science: Scientific Inquiry,
Methodology, Techniques, and History
A.

Processes Involved in Scientific Inquiry

1. Making observations
2. Formulating and testing hypotheses
3. Identifying experimental variables and
controls
4. Conclusions: proof versus support
5. Scientific sources and communicating
findings
B.

Differences among Facts, Hypotheses,
Theories, and Laws

1. Testable nature of hypotheses
2. Formulation of theories based on
accumulated data
3. Durability of laws
D.

Scientific Ideas Change over Time;
Contributions Made by Major Historical
Figures

1. Cell theory and germ theory (e.g., Hooke,
Pasteur)
2. Heredity, evolution, and ecology (e.g., Mendel,
Darwin)
3. Structure and nature of genetic material (e.g.,
Hershey and Chase, Franklin, Watson and
Crick)
4. Classification of organisms (e.g., Linnaeus,
Woese)

Identify patterns and trends in data
Choose appropriate types of graphs or charts
Error analysis
Draw conclusions and make predictions
Construct and Use Scientific Models to
Explain Complex Phenomena

1. Chemical nature of biology
2. Calculations in biology (e.g., statistics,
probability)
3. Physical laws and principles governing
biological systems
C.

1.
2.
3.
4.

Science Involves Many Disciplines

Appropriate Use of Scientific
Measurement and Notation Systems

1.
2.
3.
4.
I.

Procedures Involved in the Safe
Preparation, Storage, Use, and Disposal
of Laboratory and Field Materials

Molarity and percent solutions
Acid and base solutions
Flammable and/or caustic materials
Biological specimens and waste
Appropriate and Safe Use and Care of
Laboratory Equipment

1. Optical equipment (e.g., microscopes,
spectrophotometers, UV light sources)
2. Separation equipment (e.g., gel
electrophoresis, chromatography, centrifuges)
3. Measurement, mixing, and heating
equipment (e.g., balances, stirrers, burners)
4. Sterilization equipment (e.g., autoclave, ovens)
J.

Safety and Emergency Procedures for
Science Classrooms and Laboratories

1. Use of material safety data sheets (MSDS, or
safety data sheets, SDS)
2. Use of personal safety equipment: (e.g.,
gloves, goggles, lab coats)
3. Use of laboratory safety equipment (e.g., fire
extinguishers, eye wash stations, emergency
showers)

The Praxis® Study Companion

Step 6: Review Study Topics

Discussion areas
• Vegetable crops growing on a commercial
farm are damaged by an unknown disease or
pest with a 70 to 90 percent mortality rate.
The farmer claims that he has not changed
his procedures for watering and fertilizer
application. Formulate a hypothesis about
the causative agent, given the observations
above. What type of experiments should be
used to help support or falsify the
hypothesis?
• Carl Woese based his phylogenetic
classification on analyses of what
macromolecule? As a result of Woese’s
analyses, how was the tree of life revised
from that based on morphological
similarities?
• What is the most effective way to compare
information obtained from television, a
newspaper article, a web site, and a scientific
journal for accuracy? For understandability?
For use in the classroom setting?
• A scientist studying nutrient requirements for
a particular type of bacteria inoculates three
flasks of culture medium with an equal
number of bacteria. Extra glucose is added to
one of the flasks, and extra lactose is added
to another. The number of bacteria per mL is
determined every two hours for a period of
12 hours. What type of graph is best used to
represent the data?
• Describe how to prepare 1 L of an
0.85% NaCl solution. If the solution is to be
used to culture live cells, is it important to
include a buffer in the solution? Explain.

II.

Molecular and Cellular Biology
A.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Biological Processes Are Dependent on
Chemical Principles

1. Chemical and physical gradients (e.g., osmosis,
diffusion, temperature)
2. Thermodynamics
3. Anabolic and catabolic reactions (e.g.,
hydrolysis)
4. Reduction-oxidation reactions
C.

Structure and Function of Enzymes and
Factors Influencing their Activity

Biochemical Pathways and Energy Flow
Within an Organism

1.
2.
3.
4.

The Praxis® Study Companion

Chemical Structures and Properties of
Biologically Important Molecules

Major Differences between Prokaryotes
and Eukaryotes

Cell size
Membrane-bound organelles
Cell walls (e.g., peptidoglycan, cellulose)
Chromosome structure (e.g., circular versus
linear)

Step 6: Review Study Topics

Structure and Function of Cells and
Organelles

1. Plant cells versus animal cells
2. Cell membranes
3. Membrane-bound organelles (e.g., nucleus,
chloroplast) and ribosomes
4. Cytoskeleton
G.

Cells Maintain their Internal Environment
and Respond to External Signals

Cellular Division, the Cell Cycle, and How
They Are Regulated

1. Cell cycle stages ( G1, S, G2, M )
2. Mitosis and meiosis (e.g., stages, functions,
results)
3. Cytokinesis (e.g., cleavage furrow, cell plate)
4. Cell cycle checkpoints
I.

Structure and Function of Nucleic Acids

1.
2.
3.
4.

Sugar-phosphate backbone
DNA versus RNA
Complementary base pairing
Chromosome structure (e.g., nucleosomes,
telomeres, linear versus circular)
5. DNA replication
J.

Processes Involved in Protein Synthesis

1. RNA transcription
2. mRNA processing (e.g., polyadenylation,
splicing)
3. Translation (e.g., ribosome structure, tRNA)
K.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Regulation of Gene Expression

Promoters
Enhancers
Transcription factors
Operons
Environmental influences (e.g., epigenetics)

Cells May Undergo Differentiation and
Specialization

1. Differential gene expression
2. Stem cells (e.g., sources, developmental
potential)
M.

Nature of Mutations

1. Causes of mutations (e.g., recombination,
mutagens)
2. Types of mutations (e.g., point mutation,
deletion, inversion, translocation)
3. Somatic versus germline mutations
N.

Use of Basic Laboratory Techniques to
Study Biological Processes

1. Gel electrophoresis
2. Microscopy
3. Spectrophotometry
O.

Use and Applications of DNA
Technologies and Genetic Engineering

1. DNA sequencing and polymerase chain
reaction (PCR)
2. Genome sequencing projects (e.g., Human
Genome Project)
3. Gene therapy
4. Cloning
5. Transgenic and genetically engineered cells
Discussion areas
• What are the four most abundant elements
in the human body?
• What are functional groups? How do the
differing charges of functional groups
influence the behavior of the functional
groups, the structure of molecules bearing
the functional groups, and the interactions of
the molecules with water?
• Why are fats insoluble in water?
• Describe the structural and functional
differences between starch and cellulose.
• What factors influence the rate at which an
ion diffuses across a cell membrane?
• How is ATP involved in the transfer of usable
energy between molecules?
• How do temperature, pH, and competitive or
noncompetitive inhibitors influence enzyme
activity?

The Praxis® Study Companion

Step 6: Review Study Topics

• What are the sources of CO2, O2, and water
used by a plant in photosynthesis or cellular
respiration? Through what structures and by
what processes do these molecules enter
and exit a plant?
• State some similarities and differences
between aerobic and anaerobic respiration.
• Explain the benefit, at the cellular level, of
producing ATP aerobically. After strenuous
activity, one may feel a burning sensation in
some muscles. What is responsible for the
sensation?
• How does the consumption of too many
carbohydrates lead to an increase in body
fat?
• Compare the structure of chromosomes in
eukaryotes, bacteria, and archaea.
• What structures are likely to be found in a
plant cell but not in an animal cell?

• Compare the structure of DNA and RNA:
number of strands, flexibility, molecular
composition.
• If a fragment of DNA has the sequence
5' ACTCGGTAC 3' , what is the sequence of
the complementary strand from 5' to 3' ?
• During DNA synthesis at a replication fork,
why is one new strand of DNA synthesized in
a continuous fashion and the other new
strand synthesized in a discontinuous
fashion?
• What is the signal for the start site of RNA
transcription? for the approximate end site of
transcription?
• What is the signal for the start site of
translation? for the end site of translation?
• What is an operon? The lac operon is
considered to be inducibly expressed.
Explain how this operon is regulated.

• What structures are likely to be found in an
animal cell but not in a bacterium?

• What causes human liver cells to be
structurally and functionally different from
human muscle cells?

• What organelles are likely to be present in
greater abundance in a cell that is secreting a
large amount of protein (e.g., an antibodysecreting plasma cell) than in a cell secreting
very little protein (e.g., a skin cell)?

• In what types of cells must a mutation be
found for the mutation to be passed on to
offspring? Mutations in what types of cells
are not inherited by offspring?

• Describe the difference between active and
passive transport. Compare simple diffusion,
osmosis, and facilitated diffusion.
• If an individual is stranded in a lifeboat on an
ocean, why is drinking seawater more
harmful to the individual than drinking no
water at all?
• Compare mitosis and meiosis: the stages,
genetic makeup of daughter cells, unique
features.
• Name the three cell cycle checkpoints. What
criteria must be met at each of the
checkpoints for a cell to progress through
the cell cycle?

• What types of molecules are typically
separated by gel electrophoresis? Where are
the largest molecules in a sample typically
found with respect to the wells in which the
samples are loaded onto the gel?
• What type of microscope is typically used to
examine live, anaesthetized fruit flies? What
type of microscope is typically used to
examine thin sections of cells?
• What are the roles of plasmids and restriction
endonucleases in DNA cloning?
• How are viruses used in gene therapy?

• In addition to killing many types of cancer
cells, why does chemotherapy treatment
cause side effects such as anemia,
gastrointestinal distress, and hair loss?

The Praxis® Study Companion

Step 6: Review Study Topics

III.

Genetics and Evolution

1.
2.
3.
4.
B.

Independent assortment
Law of segregation
Monohybrid and dihybrid crosses
Pedigree analysis

Sources of Genetic Variation

Mutations, Gene Flow, Genetic Drift, and
Nonrandom Mating Affect the Gene Pool
of a Population

1. Distribution and movement of alleles within
populations
2. Distribution and movement of alleles
between populations
F.

Mechanisms of Evolution

Natural and artificial selection
Sexual selection
Genetic drift (e.g., bottleneck, founder effect)
Coevolution
Adaptive radiation
Evidence that Supports Evolution

Chromosomal and Genetic Changes that
Lead to Common Human Genetic
Disorders

1. Mutation
2. Crossing-over
3. Genetic exchange (e.g., transduction,
transformation, conjugation)
4. Sexual reproduction (e.g., independent
assortment)
E.

Non-Mendelian inheritance

1. Changes in chromosome numbers (e.g.,
Down syndrome)
2. Changes in chromosome structure (e.g.,
deletion, inversion, duplication, translocation)
3. Common genetic disorders (e.g., Sickle-cell
anemia, Tay-Sachs disease)
D.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Mendel’s Laws and Predicting the
Probable Outcome of Given Genetic
Crosses

1. Linkage (e.g., recombination mapping)
2. Sex-linked inheritance
3. Multiple alleles, codominance, and
incomplete dominance
4. Polygenic inheritance, epistasis, and
pleiotropy
5. Organelle inheritance (e.g., mitochondrial
inheritance)
C.

Genetic Basis of Speciation

1. Reproductive isolation (e.g., prezygotic,
postzygotic)
2. Types of speciation (e.g., allopatric, sympatric)
J.

Models of Evolutionary Rates

1. Gradualism
2. Punctuated equilibrium
K.

Scientific Explanations for the Origin of
Life on Earth

Factors that Lead to Extinction of
Species

1. Lack of genetic diversity
2. Environmental pressures (e.g., climate and
habitat change)
3. Human impacts
4. Interspecific competition

Principles and Applications of HardyWeinberg Equilibrium

1. Conditions of HW equilibrium
2. Calculating allele frequencies using the HW
equation

The Praxis® Study Companion

Step 6: Review Study Topics

Discussion areas

• What structural and functional characteristics
of mitochondria and chloroplasts provide
evidence to support the theory of
endosymbiosis?

• In pea plants, the allele for purple flowers (W)
is dominant to the allele for
white flowers (w). To determine whether a
plant with purple flowers is homozygous or
heterozygous with respect to flower color,
the plant should be crossed with another
pea plant with what genotype and
phenotype with respect to flower color?
• A wild-type fruit fly that is heterozygous for
both the black body (b) and
vestigial wings (vg) genes is mated with a fly
that exhibits both of these recessive
mutations. Of 500 progeny produced, the
phenotypic distribution is:
199 wild-type body/wild-type eyes;
42 wild-type body/vestigial wings;
48 black body/wild-type wings;
211 black body/vestigial wings.
Are the b and vg genes most likely on the
same or different chromosomes? Explain.
• Name a genetic disorder that is most
commonly caused by fusion of a gamete
with a normal chromosome number with
another gamete that contains two copies of
a particular chromosome. What is the most
likely cause of the abnormal chromosome
number in the gamete?
• Describe the relationship between DNA
mutation, skin cancer, and prolonged
exposure to the sun.
• A particular genetic trait is inherited in an
autosomal recessive fashion. If one out of
every 400 individuals has the trait, what
percent of the population are expected to be
carriers of the trait?
• A particular population exhibits variation in
certain traits. For natural selection to act on
the variations, what two requirements must
be met by the variations?
• As a result of habitat fragmentation, a small
population of leopards becomes isolated
from the larger original population. As time
progresses, are allele frequencies and genetic
variation expected to differ between the
original population and the isolated
population? If so, describe how and why
they will differ.

The Praxis® Study Companion

• Horses and donkeys can mate and produce
viable offspring, but horses and donkeys are
considered to be separate species. Explain
why this is so.
• What organic compounds were produced in
the Miller-Urey experiment? How did the
design of the experiment support the
hypothesis that organic compounds are
likely to have arisen from abiotic materials
present in the atmosphere of early Earth?

IV. Diversity of Life and Organismal Biology
A.

1.
2.
3.
4.
B.

Characteristics of Living Versus
Nonliving Things

Cellular organization
Growth and reproduction
Regulation and responses to the environment
Obtain and use energy
Historical and Current Biological
Classification Systems of Organisms

1. Kingdom system
2. Domain system
C.

Defining Characteristics of Viruses,
Bacteria, Protists, Fungi, Plants, and
Animals

Characteristics of the Major Animal
Phyla

Step 6: Review Study Topics

1.
2.
3.
4.
F.

Organizational Hierarchy of Multicellular
Organisms

Cells
Tissues
Organs
Organ systems
Anatomy and Physiology of Major Organ
Systems in Animals

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
G.

Cardiovascular and respiratory
Reproductive
Digestive and excretory
Nervous and endocrine
Immune
Maintenance of Homeostasis in
Organisms

1.
2.
3.
4.
I.

Reproduction, Development, and Growth
in Animals

Gamete formation
Fertilization
Embryonic development
Growth, development, and aging
Characteristics of Major Plant Divisions

1. Vascular versus nonvascular plants
2. Flowering versus nonflowering plants
3. Monocot versus eudicot (dicot)
J.

Structure and Function of Major Plant
Tissues and Organs

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
K.

Dermal
Vascular (i.e., xylem, phloem)
Ground (e.g., parenchyma, cortex)
Meristems
Flowers, stems, leaves, and roots
Plant Life Cycles and Reproductive
Strategies

1. Alternation of generations (i.e., gametophyte,
sporophyte)
2. Pollination strategies (e.g., wind, insect)
3. Seed dispersal

The Praxis® Study Companion

Plants Obtain and Transport Water and
Inorganic Nutrients

1. Roots
2. Xylem transport
3. Control (e.g., stomata)
M.

Plants Transport and Store Products of
Photosynthesis

1. Products (e.g., simple and complex
carbohydrates)
2. Phloem transport
3. Storage and support molecules (e.g., starch,
cellulose)
4. Storage structures (e.g., plastids, vacuoles,
tuber)
Discussion areas
• A rock is found with patches of an unfamiliar
orange-colored flakey material on the
surface. What possible features of the
orange-colored material would indicate that
the material is alive?
• Describe the characteristics of mushrooms
that distinguish them as fungi rather than
viruses, bacteria, protists, plants, or animals.
• Give an example of an animal with radial
symmetry and one with bilateral symmetry.
Is cephalization likely to be a feature of either
one of these forms of symmetry? If so, of
which?
• Describe the features of body cavities by
which triploblastic animals can be
distinguished as coelomates,
pseudocoelomates, or acoelomates. Give an
example of an animal that is a coelomate,
one that is a pseudocoelomate, and one that
is an acoelomate.
• Trace the flow of a drop of blood from the
right atrium of the heart as the blood passes
through the heart, the lungs, and one
complete circuit of the human circulatory
system.
• Describe the two ways in which ventilation
in birds is particularly efficient in comparison
to ventilation in most mammals.
• Describe the digestion of proteins in the
human digestive system, specifically the
enzymes involved, the location of the cells
that produce the enzymes, and the organs in
which the digestion occurs.

Step 6: Review Study Topics

• Describe how B lymphocytes and cytotoxic
T lymphocytes respond to a viral infection in
a human.

1. Symbiosis (e.g., parasitism, commensalism,
mutualism)
2. Predation
3. Competition and territoriality
4. Altruistic behaviors

• Name two ways by which the integument
(skin) plays a role in thermoregulation in
humans.
• Name four features of monocots that can
frequently (although not always) be used to
distinguish monocots from eudicots.
• What materials are transported in the xylem?
What materials are transported in the
phloem? In which direction does material
flow in each type of vessel?

Ecology: Organisms and Environments
A.

1.
2.
3.
4.

Biotic and Abiotic Components of an
Ecosystem Influence Population Size

1. Resource availability and abiotic factors (e.g.,
nutrients and temperature)
2. Habitat and niche
3. Competition and predation
C.

Models of Population Growth

1. Exponential growth
2. Logistic growth (e.g., carrying capacity)
D.

Relationship Between Reproductive
Strategies and Mortality Rates

1. Sexual versus asexual reproduction
2. Parental investment
3. Number of offspring produced versus number
that survive

The Praxis® Study Companion

Types and Characteristics of Biomes

1. Aquatic (e.g., stream, estuary, coral reef )
2. Terrestrial (e.g., desert, grassland, tropical rain
forest)
H.

Energy Flow in the Environment

1. Trophic levels (e.g., pyramids of biomass,
pyramids of energy)
2. Food webs
I.

Biogeochemical Cycles

1.
2.
3.
4.

Hierarchical Structure of the Biosphere

Populations
Communities
Ecosystems
Biomes

Changes Occur During Ecological
Succession

1. Primary versus secondary succession
2. Biomass, diversity, productivity, and habitat
changes during succession

• In what root tissue are new root cells
produced? Name four important functions of
plant roots.
• Under what circumstance are stomata
typically closed? Describe the mechanism by
which ion flow and osmosis regulate the
opening and closing of guard cells.

Relationships Within and Between
Species

Water cycle
Carbon cycle
Nitrogen cycle
Phosphorus cycle
Effects of Natural Disturbances on
Ecosystems

1. Temporal and spatial disturbances (e.g.,
climate, fire, disease)
2. Fragmentation of ecosystems
3. Natural ecosystem recovery
K.

Humans Affect Ecological Systems and
Biodiversity

Connections among Ecosystems on a
Local and Global Scale

1. Natural flow of material between ecosystems
2. Transport of materials by humans
3. Movement of organisms (e.g., migration)

Step 6: Review Study Topics

Discussion areas

• What is the major natural route by which
nitrogen enters an ecosystem?

• Distinguish between a population of
organisms and a community of organisms.

• What are the major biotic and abiotic
processes that drive the water cycle?

• Name the two most common limiting factors
to primary production in aquatic ecosystems.

• What types of natural disturbances are most
likely to lead to primary ecological
succession? What kind of natural
disturbances are most likely to lead to
secondary succession? In the immediate
aftermath of a disturbance, what will be the
most likely effect on biodiversity of the
region?

• Draw the predicted growth curve for a
population introduced into a new
environment in which resources are initally
unlimited. How will the shape of the curve
change as the population reaches carrying
capacity? What factors might determine the
carrying capacity?
• Prairie dogs typically live in large colonies
and dig extensive underground systems of
burrows. If a predator approaches a colony, a
prairie dog who spots the predator will
sound a loud alarm that alerts the other
members of the colony, most of whom will
dive into the burrows and hide. The prairie
dog that sounds the alarm is however
drawing attention to itself and may be
attacked by the predator. Explain why this
behavior is often considered to be an
example of altruism in animals.
• Compare primary and secondary succession:
Is soil initially present in the environments
where each type of succession occurs? What
are the first organisms that typically colonize
the environment where each type of
succession occurs?
• Why is the density of water important to
freshwater pond ecosystems in temperate
regions?
• Why is the air temperature along the coast
generally higher than the air temperature of
inland areas in the same regions? How does
this influence the types of organisms present
in each region?
• A large percent of the mice in a particular
population are infected by a virus that is
usually fatal. What is the relationship
between the virus and the mice? How will
the viral infection most likely ultimately affect
other members of the ecosystem such as
grasses and owls?
• The major reservoir of carbon in the
biosphere is one that turns over very slowly;
what is it?

The Praxis® Study Companion

• What is meant by acid precipitation, and how
is it harmful? How do human activities
contribute to acid precipitation?
• Name some of the most likely reasons for the
increased number of emerging infectious
diseases affecting humans in recent years.

VI. Science, Technology, and Social
Perspectives
A.

Impact of Science and Technology on
the Environment

Impact of Human Activity and Natural
Phenomena on Society

1. Consequences (e.g., economic, social)
2. Disaster management (e.g., hurricane relief
and cleanup)
3. Global warming, sea levels, flooding
4. Epidemiology (e.g., malaria, influenza)
5. Agriculture and soil erosion
6. Estuary and wetland degradation
7. Water management
8. Production, use, and disposal of consumer
products (e.g., plastics)

Step 6: Review Study Topics

Societal Impacts Associated with the
Management of Natural Resources

Ethical and Societal Issues Arising from
the Use of Science and Technology

1. Ethical research concerns (e.g., stem cells,
toxic chemicals)
2. Ethical use of technology (e.g., genetically
modified organisms, cloning)
3. Societal concerns (e.g., security of genetic
information, equal access to medical
treatment)
Discussion areas
• How do lawn and agricultural fertilizers get
into the natural water system? Why are the
fertilizers harmful to many aquatic and
semi-aquatic organisms or to any organisms
that depend on the water supply?
• Why do many infectious diseases spread
rapidly through “temporary” settlements
established after an area is devastated by war
or by a natural disaster? Name a disease
transmitted by aerosol spray of a sneeze, a
disease transmitted through drinking water,
and a disease transmitted by an insect or
arthropod vector.
• What is the relationship between the
materials of which many plastics are
produced and nonrenewable resources?
• A significant threat to marine turtles is
incidental capture, injury, or death as a result
of commercial fishing practices. What
procedure has been implemented to protect
marine turtles that are caught in nets, and
what government agencies have been
involved in implementing the turtle
protection?
• What are some potentially beneficial uses of
embryonic stem cells? Why do some people
object to the use of these cells in research
and development?

The Praxis® Study Companion

Step 7: Review Smart Tips for Success

7. Review Smart Tips for Success
Follow test-taking tips developed by experts
Learn from the experts. Take advantage of the following answers to questions you may have and practical tips
to help you navigate the Praxis test and make the best use of your time.

Should I Guess?
Yes. Your score is based on the number of questions you answer correctly, with no penalty or subtraction for an
incorrect answer. When you don’t know the answer to a question, try to eliminate any obviously wrong answers
and then guess at the correct one. Try to pace yourself so that you have enough time to carefully consider
every question.

Can I answer the questions in any order?
You can answer the questions in order or skip questions and come back to them later. If you skip a question,
you can also mark it so that you can remember to return and answer it later. Remember that questions left
unanswered are treated the same as questions answered incorrectly, so it is to your advantage to answer every
question.

Are there trick questions on the test?
No. There are no hidden meanings or trick questions. All of the questions on the test ask about subject matter
knowledge in a straightforward manner.

Are there answer patterns on the test?
No. You might have heard this myth: the answers on tests follow patterns. Another myth is that there will never
be more than two questions in a row with the correct answer in the same position among the choices. Neither
myth is true. Select the answer you think is correct based on your knowledge of the subject.

Can I write on the scratch paper I am given?
Yes. You can work out problems on the scratch paper, make notes to yourself, or write anything at all. Your
scratch paper will be destroyed after you are finished with it, so use it in any way that is helpful to you. But make
sure to select or enter your answers on the computer.

Smart Tips for Taking the Test
1. S
kip the questions you find extremely difficult. Rather than trying to answer these on your first pass
through the test, you may want to leave them blank and mark them so that you can return to them later.
Pay attention to the time as you answer the rest of the questions on the test, and try to finish with 10 or
15 minutes remaining so that you can go back over the questions you left blank. Even if you don’t know
the answer the second time you read the questions, see if you can narrow down the possible answers, and
then guess. Your score is based on the number of right answers, so it is to your advantage to answer every
question.

The Praxis® Study Companion

Step 7: Review Smart Tips for Success

2. K
eep track of the time. The onscreen clock will tell you how much time you have left. You will probably
have plenty of time to answer all of the questions, but if you find yourself becoming bogged down, you
might decide to move on and come back to any unanswered questions later.
3. R
ead all of the possible answers before selecting one. For questions that require you to select more
than one answer, or to make another kind of selection, consider the most likely answers given what the
question is asking. Then reread the question to be sure the answer(s) you have given really answer the
question. Remember, a question that contains a phrase such as “Which of the following does NOT …” is
asking for the one answer that is NOT a correct statement or conclusion.
4. C
heck your answers. If you have extra time left over at the end of the test, look over each question and
make sure that you have answered it as you intended. Many test takers make careless mistakes that they
could have corrected if they had checked their answers.
5. D
on’t worry about your score when you are taking the test. No one is expected to answer all of the
questions correctly. Your score on this test is not analogous to your score on the GRE® or other tests. It doesn’t
matter on the Praxis tests whether you score very high or barely pass. If you meet the minimum passing
scores for your state and you meet the state’s other requirements for obtaining a teaching license, you will
receive a license. In other words, what matters is meeting the minimum passing score. You can find passing
scores for all states that use The Praxis Series tests at
http://www.ets.org/s/praxis/pdf/passing_scores.pdf or on the Web site of the state for which you are
seeking certification/licensure.
6. U
se your energy to take the test, not to get frustrated by it. Getting frustrated only increases stress
and decreases the likelihood that you will do your best. Highly qualified educators and test development
professionals, all with backgrounds in teaching, worked diligently to make the test a fair and valid measure
of your knowledge and skills. Your state painstakingly reviewed the test before adopting it as a licensure
requirement. The best thing to do is concentrate on answering the questions.

The Praxis® Study Companion

Step 8: Check on Testing Accommodations

8. Check on Testing Accommodations
See if you qualify for accommodations that may make it easier to take the Praxis test
What if English is not my primary language?
Praxis tests are given only in English. If your primary language is not English (PLNE), you may be eligible for
extended testing time. For more details, visit www.ets.org/praxis/register/accommodations/plne.

What if I have a disability or other health-related need?
The following accommodations are available for Praxis test takers who meet the Americans with Disabilities Act
(ADA) Amendments Act disability requirements:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

E xtended testing time
Additional rest breaks
Separate testing room
Writer/recorder of answers
Test reader
Sign language interpreter for spoken directions only
Perkins Brailler
Braille slate and stylus
Printed copy of spoken directions
Oral interpreter
Audio test
Braille test
Large print test book
Large print answer sheet
Listening section omitted

For more information on these accommodations, visit www.ets.org/praxis/register/disabilities.

Note: Test takers who have health-related needs requiring them to bring equipment, beverages, or snacks into
the testing room or to take extra or extended breaks must request these accommodations by following the
procedures described in the Bulletin Supplement for Test Takers with Disabilities or Health-Related Needs (PDF),
which can be found at http://www.ets.org/s/disabilities/pdf/bulletin_supplement_test_takers_with_
disabilities_health_needs.pdf
You can find additional information on available resources for test takers with disabilities or health-related needs
at www.ets.org/disabilities.

The Praxis® Study Companion

Step 9: Do Your Best on Test Day

9. Do Your Best on Test Day
Get ready for test day so you will be calm and confident
You followed your study plan. You prepared for the test. Now it’s time to prepare for test day.
Plan to end your review a day or two before the actual test date so you avoid cramming. Take a dry run to the
test center so you’re sure of the route, traffic conditions, and parking. Most of all, you want to eliminate any
unexpected factors that could distract you from your ultimate goal—passing the Praxis test!
On the day of the test, you should:
• be well rested
• wear comfortable clothes and dress in layers
• eat before you take the test
• bring an acceptable and valid photo identification with you
• bring an approved calculator only if one is specifically permitted for the test you are taking (see Calculator
Use, at http://www.ets.org/praxis/test_day/policies/calculators)
• be prepared to stand in line to check in or to wait while other test takers check in
You can’t control the testing situation, but you can control yourself. Stay calm. The supervisors are well trained
and make every effort to provide uniform testing conditions, but don’t let it bother you if the test doesn’t start
exactly on time. You will have the allotted amount of time once it does start.
You can think of preparing for this test as training for an athletic event. Once you’ve trained, prepared, and
rested, give it everything you’ve got.

What items am I restricted from bringing into the test center?
You cannot bring into the test center personal items such as:
• handbags, knapsacks, or briefcases
• water bottles or canned or bottled beverages
• study materials, books, or notes
• p
ens, pencils, scrap paper, or calculators, unless specifically permitted for the test you are taking (see
Calculator Use, at http://www.ets.org/praxis/test_day/policies/calculators)
• any electronic, photographic, recording, or listening devices
Personal items are not allowed in the testing room and will not be available to you during the test or during
breaks. You may also be asked to empty your pockets. At some centers, you will be assigned a space to store
your belongings, such as handbags and study materials. Some centers do not have secure storage space
available, so please plan accordingly.
Test centers assume no responsibility for your personal items.

The Praxis® Study Companion

Step 9: Do Your Best on Test Day

If you have health-related needs requiring you to bring equipment, beverages or snacks into the testing
room or to take extra or extended breaks, you need to request accommodations in advance. Procedures for
requesting accommodations are described in the Bulletin Supplement for Test Takers with Disabilities or
Health-related Needs (PDF).

Note: All cell phones, smart phones (e.g., Android® devices, iPhones®, etc.), and other electronic, photographic,
recording, or listening devices are strictly prohibited from the test center. If you are seen with such a device, you
will be dismissed from the test, your test scores will be canceled, and you will forfeit your test fees. If you are
seen using such a device, the device will be confiscated and inspected. For more information on what you can
bring to the test center, visit www.ets.org/praxis/test_day/bring.

Are You Ready?
Complete this checklist to determine whether you are ready to take your test.
❒ Do you know the testing requirements for the license or certification you are seeking in the state(s) where
you plan to teach?
❒ Have you followed all of the test registration procedures?
❒ Do you know the topics that will be covered in each test you plan to take?
❒ Have you reviewed any textbooks, class notes, and course readings that relate to the topics covered?
❒ Do you know how long the test will take and the number of questions it contains?
❒ Have you considered how you will pace your work?
❒ Are you familiar with the types of questions for your test?
❒ Are you familiar with the recommended test-taking strategies?
❒ Have you practiced by working through the practice questions in this study companion or in a study
guide or practice test?
❒ If constructed-response questions are part of your test, do you understand the scoring criteria for
these questions?
❒ If you are repeating a Praxis test, have you analyzed your previous score report to determine areas where
additional study and test preparation could be useful?
If you answered “yes” to the questions above, your preparation has paid off. Now take the Praxis test, do your
best, pass it—and begin your teaching career!

The Praxis® Study Companion

Step 10: Understand Your Scores

10. Understand Your Scores
Understand how tests are scored and how to interpret your test scores
Of course, passing the Praxis test is important to you so you need to understand what your scores mean and
what your state requirements are.

What are the score requirements for my state?
States, institutions, and associations that require the tests set their own passing scores. Visit
www.ets.org/praxis/states for the most up-to-date information.

If I move to another state, will my new state accept my scores?
The Praxis Series tests are part of a national testing program, meaning that they are required in many states for
licensure. The advantage of a national program is that if you move to another state that also requires Praxis tests,
you can transfer your scores. Each state has specific test requirements and passing scores, which you can find at
www.ets.org/praxis/states.

How do I know whether I passed the test?
Your score report will include information on passing scores for the states you identified as recipients of your
test results. If you test in a state with automatic score reporting, you will also receive passing score information
for that state.
A list of states and their passing scores for each test are available online at www.ets.org/praxis/states.

What your Praxis scores mean
You received your score report. Now what does it mean? It’s important to interpret your score report correctly
and to know what to do if you have questions about your scores.
Visit http://www.ets.org/s/praxis/pdf/sample_score_report.pdf to see a sample score report.
To access Understanding Your Praxis Scores, a document that provides additional information on how to read
your score report, visit www.ets.org/praxis/scores/understand.

Put your scores in perspective
Your score report indicates:
• Your score and whether you passed
• The range of possible scores
• The raw points available in each content category
• The range of the middle 50 percent of scores on the test
If you have taken the same test or other tests in The Praxis Series over the last 10 years, your score report also lists
the highest score you earned on each test taken.

The Praxis® Study Companion

Step 10: Understand Your Scores

Content category scores and score interpretation
Question on the Praxis tests are categorized by content. To help you in future study or in preparing to retake
the test, your score report shows how many raw points you earned in each content category. Compare your
“raw points earned” with the maximum points you could have earned (“raw points available”). The greater the
difference, the greater the opportunity to improve your score by further study.

Score scale changes
E T S updates Praxis tests on a regular basis to ensure they accurately measure the knowledge and skills that are
required for licensure. When tests are updated, the meaning of the score scale may change, so requirements
may vary between the new and previous versions. All scores for previous, discontinued tests are valid and
reportable for 10 years, provided that your state or licensing agency still accepts them.
These resources may also help you interpret your scores:
• Understanding Your Praxis Scores (PDF), found at www.ets.org/praxis/scores/understand
• T he Praxis Series Passing Scores (PDF), found at www.ets.org/praxis/scores/understand
• State requirements, found at www.ets.org/praxis/states

The Praxis® Study Companion

Appendix: Other Questions You May Have

Appendix: Other Questions You May Have
Here is some supplemental information that can give you a better understanding of the Praxis tests.

What do the Praxis tests measure?
The Praxis tests measure the specific knowledge and skills that beginning teachers need. The tests do not
measure an individual’s disposition toward teaching or potential for success, nor do they measure your actual
teaching ability. The assessments are designed to be comprehensive and inclusive but are limited to what can
be covered in a finite number of questions and question types. Teaching requires many complex skills that are
typically measured in other ways, including classroom observation, video recordings, and portfolios.
Ranging from Agriculture to World Languages, there are more than 80 Praxis tests, which contain selectedresponse questions or constructed-response questions, or a combination of both.

Who takes the tests and why?
Some colleges and universities use the Praxis Core Academic Skills for Educators tests (Reading, Writing, and
Mathematics) to evaluate individuals for entry into teacher education programs. The assessments are generally
taken early in your college career. Many states also require Core Academic Skills test scores as part of their
teacher licensing process.
Individuals entering the teaching profession take the Praxis content and pedagogy tests as part of the teacher
licensing and certification process required by many states. In addition, some professional associations and
organizations require the Praxis Subject Assessments (formerly the Praxis II® tests) for professional licensing.

Do all states require these tests?
The Praxis Series tests are currently required for teacher licensure in approximately 40 states and United States
territories. These tests are also used by several professional licensing agencies and by several hundred colleges
and universities. Teacher candidates can test in one state and submit their scores in any other state that requires
Praxis testing for licensure. You can find details at www.ets.org/praxis/states.

What is licensure/certification?
Licensure in any area—medicine, law, architecture, accounting, cosmetology—is an assurance to the public that
the person holding the license possesses sufficient knowledge and skills to perform important occupational
activities safely and effectively. In the case of teacher licensing, a license tells the public that the individual has
met predefined competency standards for beginning teaching practice.
Because a license makes such a serious claim about its holder, licensure tests are usually quite demanding. In
some fields, licensure tests have more than one part and last for more than one day. Candidates for licensure
in all fields plan intensive study as part of their professional preparation. Some join study groups, others study
alone. But preparing to take a licensure test is, in all cases, a professional activity. Because a licensure exam
surveys a broad body of knowledge, preparing for a licensure exam takes planning, discipline, and sustained
effort.

Why does my state require The Praxis Series tests?
Your state chose The Praxis Series tests because they assess the breadth and depth of content—called the
“domain”—that your state wants its teachers to possess before they begin to teach. The level of content
knowledge, reflected in the passing score, is based on recommendations of panels of teachers and teacher

The Praxis® Study Companion

Appendix: Other Questions You May Have

educators in each subject area. The state licensing agency and, in some states, the state legislature ratify the
passing scores that have been recommended by panels of teachers.

How were the tests developed?
E T S consulted with practicing teachers and teacher educators around the country during every step of
The Praxis Series test development process. First, E T S asked them which knowledge and skills a beginning
teacher needs to be effective. Their responses were then ranked in order of importance and reviewed by
hundreds of teachers.
After the results were analyzed and consensus was reached, guidelines, or specifications, for the selectedresponse and constructed-response tests were developed by teachers and teacher educators. Following these
guidelines, teachers and professional test developers created test questions that met content requirements and
E T S Standards for Quality and Fairness.*
When your state adopted the research-based Praxis tests, local panels of teachers and teacher educators
evaluated each question for its relevance to beginning teachers in your state. During this “validity study,” the
panel also provided a passing-score recommendation based on how many of the test questions a beginning
teacher in your state would be able to answer correctly. Your state’s licensing agency determined the final
passing-score requirement.
E T S follows well-established industry procedures and standards designed to ensure that the tests measure what
they are intended to measure. When you pass the Praxis tests your state requires, you are proving that you have
the knowledge and skills you need to begin your teaching career.

How are the tests updated to ensure the content remains current?
Praxis tests are reviewed regularly. During the first phase of review, E T S conducts an analysis of relevant state
and association standards and of the current test content. State licensure titles and the results of relevant
job analyses are also considered. Revised test questions are then produced following the standard test
development methodology. National advisory committees may also be convened to review and revise existing
test specifications and to evaluate test forms for alignment with the specifications.

How long will it take to receive my scores?
Scores for tests that do not include constructed response questions are available on screen immediately after
the test. Scores for tests that contain constructed-response questions or essays aren’t available immediately after
the test because of the scoring process involved. Official score reports are available to you and your designated
score recipients approximately two to three weeks after the test date for tests delivered continuously, or two to
three weeks after the testing window closes for other tests. See the test dates and deadlines calendar at www.
ets.org/praxis/register/centers_dates for exact score reporting dates.

Can I access my scores on the Web?
All test takers can access their test scores via My Praxis Account free of charge for one year from the posting
date. This online access replaces the mailing of a paper score report.
The process is easy—simply log into My Praxis Account at www.ets.org/praxis and click on your score report. If
you do not already have a Praxis account, you must create one to view your scores.

Note: You must create a Praxis account to access your scores, even if you registered by mail or phone.
*E T S Standards for Quality and Fairness (2003, Princeton, NJ) are consistent with the “Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing,”
industry standards issued jointly by the American Educational Research Association, the American Psychological Association, and the
National Council on Measurement in Education (1999, Washington, DC).

The Praxis® Study Companion

Your teaching career is worth preparing for, so start today!
Let the Praxis® Study Companion guide you.

To search for the Praxis test prep resources
that meet your specific needs, visit:

www.ets.org/praxis/testprep

To purchase official test prep made by the creators
of the Praxis tests, visit the E T S Store:

www.ets.org/praxis/store

Copyright © 2015 by Educational Testing Service. All rights reserved. E T S, the E T S logo, GRE,
PRAXIS II, PRAXIS, and THE PRAXIS SERIES are registered trademarks of Educational Testing Service (E T S). MEASURING THE POWER OF
LEARNING is a trademark of ETS. All other trademarks are property of their respective owners. 19117

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