A Guide To Style And Usage

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CONGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES

CONGRESSIONAL BUDGET OFFICE

CBO

A Guide to

Style and

Usage

2013

I feel strongly that our reports should be lucidly written and comprehensible to

noneconomists. We should break with the ponderous prose of most official

economic writing and aim at giving Congressmen themselves something they can

actually read and understand. We should assume that the reader is an intelligent,

well-informed person without formal training in economics (the average

Congressman is a middle-aged lawyer who may or may not have had an

economics class 30 years ago in college). We should not be patronizing or talk

down to the audience, but we should avoid jargon and explain all the concepts as

we go along.

— Alice Rivlin, Founding Director of CBO, 1975

Preface

Since its inception, the Congressional Budget Office (CBO) has stressed the importance of

good, clear writing. This guide to style and word usage, the fourth in CBO’s history, updates

the 1996 publication A Style Guide for CBO. It reflects the evolution of the agency’s style rules

and should be followed in all CBO documents.

The bulk of the guide consists of entries, arranged alphabetically, that answer the most

frequently asked questions about grammar, punctuation, and word usage at CBO. In general,

examples of correct usage are shown in italics, and examples of incorrect usage are shown

in quotation marks. Entries that consist of a word or phrase without further explanation

are intended to illustrate a term’s spelling, capitalization, hyphenation, or lack thereof.

Definitions of common economic and budgetary terms come from the glossary periodically

published with CBO’s Budget and Economic Outlook.

The style guide concludes with a section about footnotes and references that shows in detail

how to cite many types of source material. The notable addition to that section is information

about citing online sources (which were not widely used when the previous guide was

published).

Unless shown otherwise in the style guide, the spelling of words in CBO documents

should agree with the latest edition of Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary (available at

www.m-w.com). When Webster’s lists alternative spellings of a word, CBO’s practice is

generally to use the first one listed. For more details about grammar, punctuation, and word

usage than are contained in this guide, good sources to consult are The Chicago Manual of

Style and The New York Public Library Writer’s Guide to Style and Usage.

Table of Contents

Alphabetical Guide to Style and Usage 1

Special Topics

Abbreviations 2

Active and Passive Voice 3

Foreign Phrases and Abbreviations 27

Hyphenation and Compound Words 33

Numbers 48

Plain English 53

Possessives 54

Pronouns 57

Footnotes and References 77

What to Put in References 78

Examples of References 81

CBO Publications 81

Books, Reports, and Working Papers From Nongovernment Sources 83

Articles in Periodicals 85

Government Publications 87

Legislation, Laws, Regulations, and Court Cases 90

Websites 94

Other Sources 94

CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

a-. achromatic, atypical. See prefixes.

abbreviations. For information about when and

how to use abbreviations, see the box on page 2.

Some common terms and their abbreviations

are listed separately and alphabetically in this

style guide.

acquired immunodeficiency syndrome.

See AIDS.

across. Do not use across to mean “between” or

“among,” as in “The new program would avoid

inequities across crop types.” Such construc-

tions sound like jargon and are best avoided.

Across, however, is an appropriate substitute for

“throughout”: Payments have been evenly distrib-

uted across the school district. Also see among/

between.

act. Lowercase when not part of a formal title:

Referring to the provisions of ERTA, critics argued

that the act would have grave repercussions.

Uppercase in shortened titles: Congressional

Budget Act of 1974, the Budget Act, the Balanced

Budget Act. Names of Congressional acts are not

italicized or underlined.

active-duty personnel

active voice. See the box about Active and Passive

Voice on page 3.

act/bill/law/measure/resolution. A piece of

legislation in the Congress is a bill until it is

passed by either the House or the Senate; then it

is called an act. A joint resolution, by contrast,

continues to be called a joint resolution when

it is passed by either House. Acts and joint

resolutions become laws after passing both

Houses of Congress and being signed by the

President (enacted). Note that it is usually

inaccurate to say “The Congress enacted a law.”

Except in very rare cases in which the Congress

overrides a Presidential veto, enacting a law

requires action by both the Congress and the

President.

One exception is a joint resolution proposing

an amendment to the Constitution. Before a

constitutional amendment takes effect, it must

be approved by two-thirds of both Houses

and ratified by three-fourths of the states.

Presidential approval is not required.

Simple resolutions and concurrent resolutions

do not become laws when they are agreed to.

Instead, they serve to express the sense of one

House (a simple resolution) or both Houses

of Congress (a concurrent resolution) or to

accomplish housekeeping functions.

All of the types of legislative vehicles discussed

above may be referred to as measures. The

Congress considers and disposes of measures.

Also see adopt/agree to/approve/enact/pass/

ratify.

acute care. No hyphen as an adjective: acute care

hospital.

ad hoc. Not italicized. See the box about Foreign

Phrases and Abbreviations on page 27.

adjustable rate mortgage (ARM)

adjusted gross income (AGI). Income from

all sources not specifically excluded by the

tax code, minus certain deductions. Personal

exemptions and the standard or itemized

deductions are subtracted from AGI to

determine taxable income.

Administration. Uppercase when referring to

the executive branch of the U.S. government:

one of the Obama Administration’s proposals, a

program carried out by several Administrations.

(Refer to a plan or budget of the Administration

2CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

ADMINISTRATION • ADVANCED

as the Administration’s plan, not “the Adminis-

tration plan.”) Lowercase administration when

referring to the management of something.

Administrator. See titles of office.

adopt/agree to/approve/enact/pass/ratify.

When discussing legislation, using the correct

verb is important. Congressional amendments,

ordinances, resolutions, and rules are adopted,

agreed to, or approved. Bills, acts, and joint

resolutions are passed. Laws are enacted. Trea-

ties and constitutional amendments are ratified.

Also see act/bill/law/measure/resolution.

ad valorem. Not italicized. A term characterizing

an excise tax as one levied on the value of a

commodity rather than on some physical

measurement such as the commodity’s weight

or volume.

advanced/advance. The adjective advanced is

frequently used where advance is correct.

Advanced means “far on in time or course” or

“beyond the elementary or initial stage”:

advanced degree, advanced mathematics. Advance

means “furnished ahead of time” or “going or

situated before”: advance funding, advance

procurement, advance guard.

Abbreviations

Abbreviations are a useful tool to avoid repeating cumbersome names or phrases, but they require work on the part

of readers to remember them, so use them judiciously. If a term appears once or only a few times in a document, do

not abbreviate it. Also, try to avoid abbreviating terms of just two words, such as budget authority.

If a report is heavily laden with often-used special terms or names of organizations, a list of abbreviations can be

helpful. Such a list can appear in a box early in the text; a longer list can appear as a glossary at the end of the

report.

Where to Use. At first mention in the text of a document, spell out a name in full and give its abbreviation in

parentheses: the consumer price index (CPI), power marketing administrations (PMAs), the Congressional

Budget Office’s (CBO’s). If a report is divided into chapters, in any chapter after the one in which the abbreviation

was introduced, spell out the name at its first appearance, with no parenthetical abbreviation—The Congressional

Budget Office has analyzed the 2011 budget—and then use the abbreviation freely. However, in reports with

chapters that may be read independently, such as The Budget and Economic Outlook, spell out a name and include

its abbreviation in parentheses at the first mention in each chapter.

Because appendixes and boxes are generally treated as independent of the main text and of each other, a name

should be spelled out and followed by its abbreviation in parentheses at the first mention in each appendix or box.

The same is true in a summary that functions as a separate chapter rather than as the first section of a report.

Once a term has been introduced, the full name, the abbreviation, or an informal reference (the act, the program,

the department) can be used interchangeably for variety.

Punctuation. Although a few abbreviations take periods (U.S., U.N., U.K.), most do not (NATO, ROTC). Plural

abbreviations take no apostrophes: the GNPs of the United States and Japan. Possessive abbreviations do take

apostrophes: DoD’s report, the USPS’s budget.

With Definite Article. Whether to use “the” before an abbreviation is not established by any reliable rule. In

general, an abbreviation that starts with a vowel (or with a consonant that has a vowel sound) takes a definite article

(the IRS, the USPS, the SBA, but OMB and EPA); one that begins with a consonant usually does not (CBO, HUD,

DoD, VA). The most important thing is to treat an abbreviation consistently within a document.

In Tables and Figures. Avoid abbreviations in tables and figures. If they must be used because of lack of space,

as in a column heading, spell them out elsewhere in the table or in a note at the bottom. (Note: CPI = consumer

price index.)

ADVERB PLACEMENT • AGES

CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

adverb placement. When an adverb modifies a

verb that includes one or more auxiliary verbs

(such as can or could, may or might, will or

would), the adverb should generally follow the

first auxiliary verb for readability: The subsidies

would greatly reduce total revenues. She may actu-

ally have said that. Do not confuse the place-

ment of adverbs in this situation with their

placement when they modify an infinitive; see

split infinitive.

affect/effect. Affect is used primarily as a verb

meaning “influence”: The programs may affect

low-income families. (Affect also means “to

feign,” which has little application at CBO.)

The result of affecting is the noun effect:

Low-income families are likely to experience

pronounced effects. Effect can also be used as a

verb meaning “to bring about, to cause to

happen”: The new law effected a change in

participation. Also see impact.

Affordable Care Act. This term refers to the

Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act

(Public Law 111-148); the health care provi-

sions of the Health Care and Education

Reconciliation Act of 2010 (P.L. 111-152);

and, in many cases, the effects of related

judicial decisions, statutory changes, and

administrative actions.

African American. Never hyphenated.

after-tax income. After-tax and before-tax are

preferable to “posttax” and “pretax.”

agency. Uppercase when referring to a specific

agency by name: the Agency for International

Development. Lowercase when referring to the

same body informally: projects funded by the

agency.

agencywide

agenda, agendas (pl.)

ages. Ages of people should be given in numerals:

7-year-olds, a 3-month-old boy, a worker who is

30 years old, people ages (not “aged”) 45 to 50,

women age 60 or older, the under-25 population.

Ages of other things should follow the general

rule for numbers—spelled out below 10, in

numerals above that: three-year fight, a city that

is more than 200 years old.

Active and Passive Voice

To be readable, writing should mirror speech patterns. Thus, most sentences should be in the active voice rather

than the passive voice. (The passive voice generally contains a form of the verb to be plus a past participle: “was

said,” “is driven.”)

The active voice emphasizes the doer of an action (George processed 12 applications today). The passive voice

subordinates the doer to what is done, or drops the doer entirely, and thus sounds either stilted (“Twelve applica-

tions were processed by George today”) or imprecise (“Twelve applications were processed today”—by whom?).

Notice the difference in clarity and strength between these passages in passive and active voice:

In 1981, the legislation was passed by the Congress, although the potential adverse effects of increased

inflation and added pressure on interest rates were noted during the deliberations by a vocal minority.

When the Congress passed the legislation, in 1981, a vocal minority noted potential drawbacks: the

threat of increased inflation and pressure on interest rates.

Use the passive voice sparingly—for example, when you want to emphasize the action rather than the doer or when

the doer is unknown or unimportant.

4CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

AGGREGATE DEMAND • AMONG

aggregate demand. Total purchases by

consumers, businesses, government, and

foreigners of a country’s output of final goods

and services during a given period.

agree to. See adopt/agree to/approve/enact/pass/

ratify.

AIDS. Stands for acquired immunodeficiency

syndrome. AIDS is well enough known by its

acronym that it does not need to be spelled out.

aircraft. Names of aircraft have hyphens after

letters (A-12, B-1, F-16) but not after numbers

(C-5A, F/A-18E/F).

aircraft carrier battle group

air-defense radar system

airfield

Air Force. Uppercase when referring to the

U.S. Air Force. Lowercase when referring to the

services of other countries: China’s air force.

Air National Guard (ANG), the Guard

Airport and Airway Trust Fund (AATF),

airport and airway tax rates

airspace

air-support mission

air traffic control (ATC) system

air wing

all-. all-around, all-day, all-encompassing,

all-important, all-inclusive. See prefixes.

alliance, allies. Lowercase even when referring

to the NATO allies.

allot, allotted, allotting

all-payer system

All-Volunteer Force (AVF)

alternative-fuel vehicle (AFV)

alternative minimum tax (AMT). A tax

intended to limit the extent to which higher-

income people can reduce their tax liability (the

amount they owe) through the use of prefer-

ences in the tax code. Taxpayers subject to the

AMT are required to recalculate their tax

liability on the basis of a more limited set of

exemptions, deductions, and tax credits than

would normally apply. The amount by which a

taxpayer’s AMT calculation exceeds his or her

regular tax calculation is that person’s AMT

liability.

although/though. These two words mean the

same thing and are generally interchangeable.

Although is the more commonly used of the

two and is preferable at the beginning of a

sentence. Also see however and while.

a.m. Stands for ante meridiem. Never use with

“morning”: 10:45 a.m., at 9:30 in the morning.

amendments. Lowercase when referring to an

unratified constitutional amendment: the

balanced budget amendment. Uppercase when

referring to a ratified amendment if its formal

title or number is used: the Fifth Amendment,

the 18th Amendment.

American. If possible, avoid using the word

American—as either an adjective or a noun—

when referring to people in the United States,

because all citizens of Central, North, and

South America are Americans. An alternative is

to use U.S. as an adjective and U.S. residents or

U.S. citizens (if citizenship is important in the

context) as a noun.

among/between. The rule seems simple enough:

Use between when discussing two things,

among when referring to more than two.

Rivalry has long existed between the two compa-

nies. Revenues were distributed evenly among the

four states involved. Unfortunately, enough

exceptions exist to bedevil even the most careful

AMONG • A PRIORI

CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

writer. The distinction to bear in mind is that

among implies a looser, less direct relationship.

Between should be used for more than two

items if each item is considered separately.

Therefore, it is correct to write Talks betwee n

France, Germany, and the United Kingdom ended

in an agreement to divide the responsibility among

the three nations or Train service is available

between New York, New Haven, and Hartford.

Also see across.

analytic, analytical. Synonyms that mean “of or

relating to analysis”; analytic is a bit neater.

and. This conjunction may be used sparingly to

begin a sentence within a paragraph. When

used that way, and imparts emphasis. It is a

poor way to start a paragraph, however. (The

same applies to but.) Also see comma.

and/or. This usage is awkward and sounds too

bureaucratic for CBO writing. Instead of “X

and/or Y,” better options are X, Y, or both or

X or Y or both. Also, in many cases, using or by

itself conveys the same meaning. For example,

fiscal policy can affect behavior by changing

people’s current or expected income implies that

fiscal policy can affect current income for some

people, expected income for other people, and

both types of income for yet others.

annualized. In writing intended for a general

audience, average annual is clearer.

another. Means “one more of the same kind” and

thus, in reference to a number, should be used

only when repeating a number mentioned

earlier. For example, another is incorrect in

this sentence: “The cuts will reduce outlays by

$62 billion in 2013 and by another $640 billion

in 2014”; another would be correct only if the

second number was also $62 billion. With a

different number, say by an additional

$640 billion or by $640 billion more.

anti-. antiair, antiaircraft, antidiscrimination,

antipathy, antisatellite, antiship, antisocial,

antisubmarine, antitank, antitrust, but

anti-inflationary, anti-intellectual. See prefixes.

any. In terms of subject-verb agreement, any

follows the same rule as collective nouns: If

what follows any is plural, use a plural verb

(Any of my friends are happy to go); if what

follows is singular, use a singular verb (Check

to see whether any of the cash is missing).

anybody, anyone. These nouns take singular

verbs and pronouns: Anybody who enrolls in

the auto club receives a decal for his or her car

window. When “his or her” proves too awkward,

recast a sentence in the plural. For example,

instead of writing “If anyone arrives before the

meeting, he or she will not be able to park his or

her car,” write If any participants arrive before the

meeting, they will not be able to park their cars.

The same rules apply to everybody and everyone.

Also see the box about Pronouns on page 57.

any-willing-provider law

Appalachian Regional Commission (ARC)

appendix, appendixes (pl.). Uppercase when

referring to a specific section of a report: see

Appendix B. Lowercase when referring to such

sections nonspecifically or when there is only

one: in the three appendixes to this paper or see the

appendix.

appreciation. Gain in the exchange value of a

currency.

appropriation. The legal authority for a federal

program or agency to incur obligations

and make payments from the Treasury.

Appropriations takes an s only when used as a

noun: Those appropriations would permit HHS

to expand the program. The adjective form is

appropriation: the appropriation process, the

appropriation act. The one exception is

the appropriations committee. Also see

spending/funding.

approve. See adopt/agree to/approve/enact/pass/

ratify.

a priori. Not italicized. Also see the box about

Foreign Phrases and Abbreviations on page 27.

6CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

ARCTIC NATIONAL WILDLIFE REFUGE • AVERAGE INDEXED MONTHLY EARNINGS

Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR)

areawide

Army. Uppercase when referring to the U.S. Army.

Lowercase when referring to the services of

other countries: Russia’s army.

Army Corps of Engineers, the Corps, the

Corps’

Army National Guard (ARNG), the Guard

around. As a synonym for approximately, around

has informal connotations. A better choice is

about or roughly.

as. See because/since/as and like/as.

Asian American. Never hyphenated.

assure/ensure/insure. Assure means “to make

safe or certain,” but it also implies the idea of

“reassuring or giving confidence to someone.”

Ensure and insure both mean “to make

certain,” but insure also carries the idea of

guaranteeing against loss. The distinctions are

correct in the following sentence: The Senator

assured the panel that the new provision would

ensure that homeowners were insured against

floods.

authorization. A law that sets up or continues a

federal program or agency. Authorizing legisla-

tion is normally a prerequisite for appropria-

tions. For some programs, the authorizing

legislation itself provides the authority to incur

obligations and make payments.

autumn. Lowercase even when used with a year:

in autumn 2011.

average indexed monthly earnings (AIME)

CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

baby-boom generation, baby boomers. The

cohort born between 1946 and 1964.

bachelor’s degree, bachelor of arts (B.A.),

bachelor of science (B.S.)

balance-billing. Always hyphenated.

balanced budget amendment. Never

hyphenated.

Balanced Budget and Emergency Deficit

Control Act of 1985 (Public Law 99-177).

Also known as the Deficit Control Act or

Gramm-Rudman-Hollings. The law established

specific deficit targets and a sequestration

procedure to reduce spending if the targets

were exceeded. It also set rules that governed

the calculation of CBO’s baseline.

balance of payments. Not hyphenated as a

noun: a crisis in the balance of payments.

Hyphenated as an adjective: a balance-of-

payments crisis.

barrels per day (bbl/day)

base-case scenario

based on/on the basis of. Which phrase to use

depends on whether the phrase is serving as an

adjective (modifying a noun) or an adverb

(modifying a verb). Based on is the adjective

form: CBO released a new cost estimate based on

data from the IRS (“based on” modifies “esti-

mate”). On the basis of is the adverb form:

CBO estimated the cost on the basis of data from

the IRS or On the basis of data from the IRS,

CBO estimated that the program would cost

$27 billion (“on the basis of” modifies

“estimated”).

Why is the distinction between the two phrases

important? Consider the following sentences,

which have different meanings depending

on which phrase is used: Courts have invalidated

state laws based on both types of preemptions

implies that the laws are based on the pre-

emptions. Courts have invalidated state laws on

the basis of both types of preemptions implies that

the invalidation is based on the preemptions.

baseline. Always one word: the current baseline,

baseline projections. A baseline is a benchmark

against which the budgetary effects of proposed

changes in federal revenues or spending are

measured. As defined in the Balanced Budget

and Emergency Deficit Control Act of 1985,

CBO’s baseline is the projection of new budget

authority, outlays, revenues, and the deficit or

surplus into the budget year and succeeding

years on the basis of current laws and policies,

calculated following the rules set forth in

section 257 of that law.

base realignment and closure (BRAC).

A process of consolidating or shutting U.S.

military installations as recommended by

the Defense Base Closure and Realignment

Commission (known informally as the BRAC

commission).

basis, bases (pl.)

basis point. One one-hundredth of a percentage

point. For example, the difference between

interest rates of 6.4 percent and 6.2 percent is

20 basis points.

because/since/as. Both because and since can

mean “for the reason that.” Avoid using since,

however, when it could mean both “because of”

and “from the time of.” For example, The soccer

team has not won many games since its top scorer

broke her leg could mean either that the team

started losing when the player was injured or

that the team started losing because the player

was injured. Similarly, avoid using as to mean

“because” (as in “We left the party, as I was

getting tired”); it sounds stilted and can be

misread as meaning “while.” Also see like/as.

8CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

BEFORE-TAX INCOME • BUDGET AUTHORITY

before-tax income. Before-tax and after-tax are

preferable to “pretax” and “posttax.”

benefit, benefited, benefiting

benefit-cost analysis. Synonymous with cost-

benefit analysis. Whichever term appears in a

CBO document should be used consistently

throughout the document.

benefit package (not “benefits package”)

beside/besides. Beside is a preposition meaning

“by the side of” or “in comparison with”: Orig-

inal estimates of Medicaid’s cost pale beside the

actual spending. Besides means “except,” “in

addition to,” or “furthermore”: No one is going

besides me. Besides her other car problems, her rear

tire was flat.

better off. Not hyphenated after a noun: The

family is better off than before. Hyphenated

before a noun: better-off families.

between/among. See among/between.

bi-/semi-. When referring to time, bi- properly

means “occurring in every two instances of

atime unit” (biweekly, every two weeks;

bimonthly, every two months). The only excep-

tion is biannual, which means “twice a year,” as

opposed to biennial, which means “every two

years.” In general, use semi- to mean “occurring

twice in a unit of time” (semiweekly, twice a

week; semimonthly, twice a month). See prefixes.

bill. See act/bill/law/measure/resolution.

black. Lowercase as a racial designation.

Black Lung benefits, black lung disease

Blue Chip consensus forecast. The average of

about 50 private-sector economic forecasts

compiled for the monthly publication Blue

Chip Economic Indicators. The name Blue Chip

is always italicized.

blue-collar. Always hyphenated.

book-value accounting

Britain. See United Kingdom.

British thermal unit. The abbreviation is Btu

following a number (378 Btu) and Btus other-

wise (the Btus needed to cool a given space).

Brookings Institution. In text references, lower-

case “the” before Brookings; in footnote

citations, drop it completely.

budget. A detailed statement of actual or

anticipated revenues and spending during

an accounting period.

Whether the adjective form should be budget

or budgetary does not depend on any rule;

rather, it is a matter of preference. Over the

years, CBO has demonstrated a preference for

the following usages, which should be followed

for the sake of consistency: budget analysts,

budget cycle, budget deficit, budget outlook,

budget policy, budget process, budget projections,

budget scenarios, but budgetary challenges,

budgetary cost, budgetary effects, budgetary

imbalance, budgetary outcomes, budgetary path,

budgetary perspective, budgetary resources,

budgetary savings, budgetary shortfalls.

budgetary resources. All sources of authority

provided to federal agencies that permit them to

incur financial obligations. Budgetary resources

include new budget authority, unobligated

balances, direct spending authority, and

obligation limitations.

budget authority. Authority provided by law to

incur financial obligations that will result in

immediate or future outlays of federal govern-

ment funds. Budget authority may be provided

in an appropriation act or authorization act and

may take the form of a direct appropriation of

funds from the Treasury, borrowing authority,

contract authority, entitlement authority, or

authority to obligate and expend offsetting

collections or receipts. Offsetting collections

BUDGET AUTHORITY • BY-

CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

and receipts are classified as negative budget

authority. Also see spending/funding.

In text, spell out budget authority rather than

abbreviating it as “BA.”

budget deficit. The amount by which the federal

government’s total outlays exceed its total reve-

nues in a given period, typically a fiscal year.

budget function. One of 20 subject categories

into which budgetary resources are grouped so

that all budget authority and outlays can be

presented according to the national interests

being addressed. There are 17 broad budget

functions, including national defense, inter-

national affairs, energy, agriculture, health,

income security, and general government. Three

other functions—net interest, allowances, and

undistributed offsetting receipts—are included

to complete the budget.

Lowercase the names of budget functions:

Outlays for function 300, natural resources and

environment, will decline this year.

budget neutral. Not hyphenated after a noun:

The proposal would be budget neutral. Hyphen-

ated before a noun: budget-neutral proposals.

budget-planning exercise

budget resolution. A concurrent resolution

(adopted by both Houses of Congress) that

sets forth a Congressional budget plan for the

budget year and at least four succeeding years.

The plan consists of targets for spending and

revenues. Later appropriation acts and authori-

zation acts that affect direct spending or reve-

nues are expected to comply with those targets.

budget surplus. The amount by which the fed-

eral government’s total revenues exceed its total

outlays in a given period, typically a fiscal year.

budget year. Never hyphenated. The budget year

is the fiscal year for which the budget is being

considered. In relation to a session of Congress,

it is the fiscal year that starts on October 1 of

the calendar year in which that session of

Congress began.

-builder. home builder, shipbuilder. See suffixes.

buildup (n.), build up (v.)

bullets. See lists.

bureau. Uppercase when referring to a specific

bureau by name: the Bureau of Land

Management. Lowercase when referring to the

same body informally: projects funded by the

bureau.

business cycle. Fluctuations in overall business

activity accompanied by swings in the unem-

ployment rate, interest rates, and corporate

profits. Over a business cycle, real (inflation-

adjusted) activity rises to a peak (its highest level

during the cycle), then falls until it reaches a

trough (its lowest level following the peak),

whereupon it starts to rise again, defining a new

cycle. Business cycles are irregular, varying in

frequency, magnitude, and duration.

business fixed investment. Spending by busi-

nesses on structures, equipment, and software.

Such investment is labeled “fixed” to distinguish

it from investment in inventories.

but. This conjunction may be used sparingly to

begin a sentence within a paragraph. When

used that way, but imparts emphasis. It is a poor

way to start a paragraph, however. (The same

applies to and.) Also see comma.

buy. As a verb, buy is a short, good substitute

for purchase, procure, or acquire. As a noun,

however, buy sounds like slang (as in “DoD’s

annual weapons buys”) and should not be used.

by-. bylaw, byline, bypass, bystander, but

by-election, by-product. See prefixes.

10 CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

Cabinet. Uppercase when referring to the

President’s Cabinet: a meeting of the Cabinet, a

Cabinet member. Lowercase when referring to

other cabinets: the British cabinet, a state

cabinet.

calendar year. Lowercase when not part of a

formal title: outlays for calendar year 2014.

Calendar year is always spelled out in full, not

abbreviated to “calendar 2014” or “CY 2014.”

It is never hyphenated.

cancel, canceled, canceling, cancellation

capital. Tangible and intangible resources that can

be used or invested to produce a stream of bene-

fits over time. Physical capital—also known as

fixed capital or the capital stock—consists of

land and the stock of products set aside to

support future production and consumption,

including business inventories and capital goods

(residential and nonresidential structures and

producers’ durable equipment). Financial

capital is wealth held in the form of financial

instruments (such as stocks, bonds, and mort-

gages) rather than held directly in the form of

physical capital. Human capital is the education,

training, work experience, and other attributes

that enhance the ability of the labor force to

produce goods and services.

capital gains or losses. The increase or decrease

in the value of an asset that comes from the

increase or decrease in the asset’s market price

after it was purchased. A capital gain or loss is

realized when the asset is sold.

capital income. Income that is derived from

capital, such as stock dividends, realized capital

gains, an owner’s profits from a business, or the

interest paid to holders of debt. Compare with

labor income.

capital-intensive. Always hyphenated.

capitalization. Terms commonly used at CBO

and their correct capitalization are listed

separately and alphabetically.

Resolve most other questions about capitaliza-

tion by consulting Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate

Dictionary (www.m-w.com). As a general rule,

capitalize proper nouns but not common

nouns. Thus, capitalize the name of a specific

agency, act, or program but lowercase later

references to it (the act or the agency). Capitalize

specific regional names (the Northeast) but

lowercase general geographic indications

(western Missouri).

In headings or titles, do not capitalize definite

and indefinite articles (a, an, the) or coordi-

nating conjunctions (and, or, but, nor, for, so,

yet). Do not capitalize prepositions unless they

contain at least four letters (in, With, Through)

or are an inseparable part of a verb (Five Steps to

Clean Up Hazardous Waste). Capitalize both

parts of a hyphenated compound (Long-Term

Outlook, Project-Based Aid) unless it contains a

hyphenated prefix or suffix (Anti-inflationary).

capital services. A measure of the flow of services

available for production from the stock of

capital goods.

carbon 14. Like other names of isotopes, this

phrase should not be capitalized or hyphenated.

carbon dioxide emissions. Never hyphenated.

Do not use the phrase “carbon emissions” as a

shorthand for emissions of carbon dioxide

(CO2) or carbon monoxide (CO).

carryover (n. and adj.), carry over (v.)

caseload

cash flow. Always two words and never

hyphenated: a cash flow crisis.

CAUCASIAN • COAST GUARD

CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

Caucasian

CBO. Takes no article, even at the beginning of

a sentence: CBO assumed those responsibilities

under the amendments of 1982. When discussing

the agency’s analyses and conclusions, use

CBO and its rather than “we” or “our.” For

guidelines about when to spell out CBO and

when to use the abbreviation, see the box about

Abbreviations on page 2.

Census Bureau, census data, the census

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

(CDC). Takes a singular verb or pronoun.

Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services

(CMS). Takes a singular verb or pronoun.

(The ampersand follows CMS’s style for its

name.)

central bank. A government-established agency

responsible for conducting monetary policy and

overseeing credit conditions. The Federal

Reserve System fulfills those functions in the

United States.

Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). Note that

the Director of the Central Intelligence Agency

is different from the Director of National

Intelligence (formerly called the Director of

Central Intelligence).

cents. See dollars and cents.

century. Lowercase: the 21st century. References to

specific centuries are hyphenated as adjectives:

ninth-century artifacts, 18th-century thought.

ceteris paribus. See the box about Foreign

Phrases and Abbreviations on page 27.

Chairman. Uppercase when referring to the head

of a Congressional committee or other federal

government entity: Chairman of the Joint Chiefs

of Staff, Chairman of the Federal Reserve, the

Chairman. Lowercase in nonfederal references:

chairman of the board. Also see Congressional

correspondence and titles of office.

chapter. When referring to a chapter in a report,

follow the style for appendix. When referring

to a chapter of a public law, follow the style for

section.

chemical terms. Do not capitalize or hyphenate

names of elements or isotopes: carbon 14,

uranium 238.

child care. Always two words and never

hyphenated: child care centers.

Child Care and Development Fund

(CCDF). Also known as the Child Care

and Development Block Grant.

Children’s Health Insurance Program

(CHIP). Previously called the State Children’s

Health Insurance Program.

Child Support Enforcement (CSE) program

circum-. circumlocution, circumnavigate,

circumscribe, circumspect, circumstance,

circumvent. See prefixes.

Citizenship and Immigration Services

(USCIS). An agency in the Department of

Homeland Security that replaced elements

of the Immigration and Naturalization Service.

No need to add “U.S.” before the name when

introducing the abbreviation.

city. See state.

civilian unemployment rate. Unemployment as

a percentage of the civilian labor force—that is,

the labor force excluding military personnel.

Civil Service Retirement System (CSRS)

cleanup (n. and adj.), clean up (v.)

co-. coexist, coinsurance, collaborate,

cooperation, cooperative, coordinate, copartner,

copayment, cosine, coworker, but co-benefits,

co-op, co-opt, co-owner. See prefixes.

Coast Guard (USCG). No need to add “U.S.”

before the name when introducing the

abbreviation.

12 CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

COLD WAR • COMMUNIST

Cold War, post–Cold War era

collective nouns. Whether to use a singular or

plural verb with a collective noun depends on

the individual case. In general, if the focus of

the phrase is on a unit (that is, if a sense of

“oneness” predominates), use a singular verb:

A breathtaking collection of paintings is on display.

The family is standing by the beleaguered Senator.

If the focus is on the items in the unit (if a sense

of “more than oneness” predominates), use a

plural verb: A host of new laws restrict the chem-

ical industry. The couple are taking separate

vacations this year.

Nouns such as percent, majority, remainder, rest,

and variety are treated as singular or plural

depending on the nouns that follow them:

Seventy percent of the students support the change.

The rest of the building is unpainted. When such

nouns appear without an “of” clause, the

number of the verb depends on whether “of it”

(singular) or “of them” (plural) is implied: Last

year’s appropriation totaled $27 billion; the

majority was spent on highways. Twenty-seven of

the 33 legislators departed this morning; the rest

are leaving tomorrow.

Having determined whether a collective noun is

singular or plural, make sure that any posses-

sives or pronouns agree with it. “The corpora-

tion is going to notify their shareholders” is

incorrect.

colon. Use a colon after an independent clause to

signal that what follows is closely related to the

preceding clause. Those patterns differ for the

major commodities in U.S.-Mexican trade: grains,

oilseeds, and dry edible beans. The first word

after a colon should be capitalized if it begins a

complete sentence. The implications of the delay

soon became clear: They were not going to meet the

deadline.

In text, a colon should not separate a verb or a

preposition from its object, as in “The obstacles

we face are: lack of time, lack of money, and an

overworked staff ” or “The doctor said I am

allergic to: cats, dogs, smoke, mold, and

pollen.” In such cases, omit the colon.

Slightly different rules apply to colons in

displayed lists. See lists.

comma. Use commas to separate items in a series

of three or more: The candidate promised pros-

perity, jobs, and health care for all. Also use a

comma to separate independent clauses in a

compound sentence: The 3-month Treasury bill

rate is expected to be 5.6 percent, and the 10-year

Treasury note rate is projected to be 7.1 percent.

Do not use a comma to divide parts of a

compound predicate (two or more verbs that

have the same subject), as in Interest rates will

drop this year because of the recession but will rise

moderately in 2013, or to separate objects of the

same verb, as in The President will focus on crime

this month and on job creation next month. In

other words, do not put a comma before a

clause beginning with and, but, or or unless

the clause can stand as a complete sentence.

Commander in Chief

Committee. Uppercase when part of a formal

name (the House Committee on Transportation

and Infrastructure), in almost-formal references

(the Senate Budget Committee), and in testimony

when referring to the committee holding the

hearing (I wish to thank the Committee for

inviting me). Lowercase when committee is

used informally (The budget committee agreed to

take up the proposal).

Commodity Credit Corporation (CCC)

commonwealth. See state.

communism. Always lowercase.

communist. Lowercase in general references

(the communist system); uppercase when refer-

ring to a specific party (the Communist Party, he

is a lifelong Communist—that is, a member of

the party).

COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT BLOCK GRANT • CONSTANT DOLLARS

CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

Community Development Block Grant

(CDBG, not “CDBG grant”)

compare to/compare with. Compare to points

out or implies resemblances between things of

adifferent order: Life can be compared to a

dream. The economy can be compared to a boat.

Compare with is used to point out differences

between objects that are similar: The Congress

can be compared with the British Parliament. One

defense program can be compared with another.

Most of the comparisons that CBO makes

are of the latter type: Compared with last year’s

funding, this year’s budget request is much smaller.

compensation. All of the income due to an

employee for his or her work during a given

period. In addition to wages, salaries, bonuses,

and stock options, compensation includes

fringe benefits and the employer’s share of

payroll taxes for social insurance programs, such

as Social Security.

complement/compliment. Use the first to indi-

cate completing or supplementing, the second

to convey praise or flattery.

comprise/compose/constitute. Comprise

means “consist of” or “embrace.” The whole

comprises the parts: The Congress comprises the

Senate and the House. Comprise does not take

“of”; the phrase “is comprised of ” is incorrect.

Compose and constitute mean “to make up”

and are used when discussing the parts that

make up a whole: The Congress is composed of the

House and the Senate. The House and the Senate

constitute the Congress. Also see include.

concerning, regarding. A better choice is about,

which is shorter, easier to read, and means the

same thing. See the box about Plain English on

page 53.

Congress. Always uppercase, as are all variants:

Congressional, Congressman. Use the definite

article when referring to the Congress as a body

(the proposal now before the Congress) but not in

references to a Member of Congress or to an act

or session of Congress. The possessive is the

Congress’s.

Congressional Budget and Impoundment

Control Act of 1974. CBO’s mandating

legislation. Known informally and on second

reference as the Congressional Budget Act of

1974 or the Budget Act.

Congressional correspondence. CBO protocol

dictates that in letters to Members of Congress,

the term Honorable or The Honorable be used in

the inside address: The Honorable Scott Smith,

U.S. House of Representatives, Washington, DC

20515. In the salutation, use Dear Congressman

(male House Member), Dear Congresswoman

or Representative (whichever a female House

Member prefers), or Dear Senator. For Members

with special titles, use Dear Madam Speaker,

Dear Mr. Leader (Minority or Majority Leader),

or Dear Mr. Chairman (when addressing him in

that capacity). For female heads of committees,

contact their staff to find out their preferred

manner of address (Madam Chairman, Madam

Chair, and so on).

Congressman, Congresswoman. Uppercase

when referring to Members of the U.S. House

of Representatives: The Congressman voted for

the bill.

connote/denote. These words are often mistak-

enly used interchangeably, but their meanings

are distinct. Connote means “to imply” (as in

the noun connotation): The ambassador’s reply,

though civil, connotes great annoyance with the

prime minister’s words. Denote means “to indi-

cate” or “to mean”: the humid days and rainy

afternoons that denote summer in Washington.

consolidation loan. Lowercase.

consortium, consortia (pl.)

constant dollars/current dollars. Not hyphen-

ated after a noun: The figures are presented in

constant dollars. Hyphenated before a noun:

a current-dollar estimate.

14 CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

CONSTANT DOLLARS • COST CONTROL

Constant dollars measure spending or revenues

in a given year in real terms—that is, by

adjusting for differences in prices (such as

inflation) between that year and a base year.

The phrase “in constant 2009 dollars” is redun-

dant; in 2009 dollars will suffice. Current

dollars measure spending or revenues in a given

year in nominal terms—that is, in terms of the

prices that prevailed at that time (not adjusted

to remove the effects of inflation).

Constitution, constitutional. Uppercase as a

noun when referring to the U.S. Constitution;

lowercase as an adjective (constitutional

amendments).

consumer durable goods. Products that are

designed to be used by consumers and that have

an average life of at least three years. Examples

include automobiles and major household

appliances.

consumer price index (CPI). An index of the

cost of living, produced by the Bureau of Labor

Statistics, that is commonly used to measure

inflation. The CPI-U is an index of consumer

prices based on a typical market basket of goods

and services consumed by all urban consumers.

The CPI-W is an index of consumer prices

based on the typical market basket of goods and

services consumed by urban wage earners and

clerical workers.

consumption. In principle, the value of goods

and services purchased and used up during a

given period by households and governments.

In practice, the Bureau of Economic Analysis

counts purchases of many long-lasting goods

(such as cars and clothes) as consumption even

though the goods are not used up. Consump-

tion by households alone is also called personal

consumption expenditures or consumer spending.

continental United States (CONUS)

continually/continuously/constantly. All three

words suggest repetition but in different ways.

Continually refers to events that occur regularly

and often. The phone rang continually the day

CBO released its economic forecast. Continuously

describes something that occurs without inter-

ruption. During the filibuster, the Senator spoke

continuously for 14 hours. Constantly suggests

that something not only occurs regularly and

often but also has an immutable quality. The

tide constantly ebbs and flows.

contractions. Do not use contractions in CBO

writing unless they are part of a direct quotation

or in the title of a work being cited.

contrast. Takes the preposition “to” (something

opposite) or “with” (something different): The

day was hot, in contrast to the night, which was

cold. This study contrasts the Administration’s plan

with the Senate’s.

control, controlled, controlling

core inflation. A measure of the rate of inflation

that excludes changes in the prices of food and

energy.

corporate average fuel economy (CAFE)

standards

Corps. Uppercase when referring to the Marine

Corps or the Army Corps of Engineers: The

most important mission of the Corps is amphibious

assault. Lowercase when referring to a military

unit: The Army has four corps and 18 divisions.

Note that corps can be singular or plural. The

possessive is corps’ (as in Marine Corps’ ).

cost-benefit analysis. Synonymous with benefit-

cost analysis. Whichever term appears in a

CBO document should be used consistently

throughout the document.

cost-conscious. Always hyphenated.

cost containment. Never hyphenated: cost

containment provisions.

cost control. Never hyphenated: cost control

measures.

COST-EFFECTIVE • CURRENT-YEAR COST

CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

cost-effective, cost-effectiveness. Always

hyphenated.

cost of living. Not hyphenated as a noun: an

increase in the cost of living. Hyphenated as an

adjective: a cost-of-living increase.

cost-of-living adjustment (COLA). An annual

increase in payments (such as Social Security

benefits) to reflect inflation.

cost sharing. Not hyphenated as a noun: the

provisions for cost sharing. Hyphenated as an

adjective: cost-sharing arrangements. The same

rule applies to cost recovery.

counter-. counterargument, counterattack,

counterbalance, counterintelligence,

countermeasure, counteroffensive, counterpart,

counterproductive, counterproposal,

counterrevolution, countersign, countervailing.

See prefixes.

countercyclical. Acting to moderate the ups and

downs of the business cycle.

county. See state.

court cases. Names of court cases should be in

italics, with versus abbreviated and also in italics:

National Cable Television Association v. United

States. Mentions of court cases in text should

include the court that decided the case and the

year of the decision. For information about

citing court decisions in footnotes, see page 93

in the section about Footnotes and References.

courts. Capitalize the names of courts: Supreme

Court, U.S. Court of Appeals for the Second

Circuit, U.S. District Court, International Court

of Justice (the World Court). Also capitalize

Court when referring to the Supreme Court

or the World Court (the Court’s decision about

individual mandates). Lowercase court in

second references to other courts or in general

references (She is going to court).

cover-up (n.), cover up (v.)

CPI. See consumer price index.

credit crunch. A significant, temporary decline in

the normal supply of credit.

credit reform. A system of budgeting and

accounting for federal credit activities that

focuses on the cost of the subsidies conveyed in

federal loans and loan guarantees. The system

was established by the Federal Credit Reform

Act of 1990 and took effect at the beginning of

fiscal year 1992.

crisis, crises (pl.)

criterion, criteria (pl.)

cross-. cross-cultural, crosscutting, cross-price

elasticity, cross-purposes, cross-reference (n.

and v.), cross section (n.), cross-section (v.),

cross-subsidy, cross-tabulation.

current-account balance. A summary measure

of a country’s current transactions with the

rest of the world, including net exports, net

unilateral transfers, and net factor income

(primarily, the capital income from foreign

property received by residents of a country,

offset by the capital income from property in

that country flowing to residents of foreign

countries).

current dollars. See constant dollars/current

dollars.

current law. Not hyphenated after a noun: policies

under current law. Hyphenated before a noun:

current-law revenues.

current-period loan

Current Population Survey (CPS). A survey

conducted monthly by the Census Bureau. See

household survey.

current-services budget

current-year cost

16 CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

CUSTOMS AND BORDER PROTECTION • CYCLICALLY ADJUSTED DEFICIT OR SURPLUS

Customs and Border Protection (CBP).

An agency in the Department of Homeland

Security that replaced the Border Patrol and

elements of the Customs Service.

cyclical deficit or surplus. The part of the

federal budget deficit or surplus that results

from the business cycle. The cyclical compo-

nent reflects the way in which the deficit or

surplus automatically decreases or increases

during economic expansions or recessions.

cyclically adjusted deficit or surplus. The

federal budget deficit or surplus that would

occur under current law if the influence of the

business cycle was removed—that is, if the

economy operated at its potential gross

domestic product.

CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

dangling modifier. This mistake occurs when a

phrase (generally at the beginning of a sentence)

does not properly modify the noun that follows

it—for example, “One of the oldest in America,

this year was the most profitable in the com-

pany’s history” or “Because of its reputation for

impartiality, CBO’s name has become a byword

for quality.” In the first example, the year was

not one of the oldest, and in the second, CBO’s

name does not have a reputation. Rewrite

such sentences for clarity: One of the oldest in

America, the company enjoyed the most profitable

year in its history in 2010. Because of CBO’s repu-

tation for impartiality, its name has become a

byword for quality.

dashes. An em dash (—) or a pair of em dashes is

used to show a greater separation than is indi-

cated by a comma or to make a parenthetical

clause less separate than the use of parentheses

would imply: The annual costs to the U.S.

government are likely to be modest—several

million dollars at most. Carrying out periodic

inspections—perhaps two or three per site each

year—could significantly deter fraud. To p r e v en t

confusion, never use more than a single em dash

or a pair of em dashes in a sentence.

An en dash (–) should be used instead of a

hyphen for ranges of page numbers and dates:

pp. 645–688; the 2008–2018 period. See ranges.

An en dash is also used in compound adjectives

as a substitute for “to” (the Berlin–Baghdad

Railway) or if at least one element of the

compound is a multiword phrase, whether

hyphenated or not (the New Mexico–Arizona

border, a government–private-industry initiative).

Note that with em dashes and en dashes alike,

there is no space between the dash and the text

around it.

data (pl.), datum (sing.). The word data always

takes a plural verb at CBO: Better data are

available.

data-. database, but data set.

dates. When a report intersperses calendar and

fiscal years, specify in the text which is meant. If

there is little mixing, a note at the front of the

report usually suffices.

Years are always written out in full: 1979 (not

“79”), the 1990s (not “the ’90s”), the period from

2007 to 2015, the 2007–2015 period (not “the

2007–15 period”).

The correct CBO style for expressing a precise

date is October 1, 2011. A comma is needed

after the day and after the year if the sentence

continues: The memorandum dated October 1,

2011, will clarify the matter. No comma is

needed between a month and year written

together without a day: the October 2011

meeting. But a comma is needed afterward when

such a date is part of an introductory clause: In

January 2012, a pay increase will take effect.

Plural dates do not take an apostrophe: the

1980s, the 1800s.

day care. Always two words and never

hyphenated: day care center.

debt. In the case of the federal government, the

total value of outstanding bills, notes, bonds,

and other debt instruments issued by the

Treasury and other federal agencies. Debt held

by the public consists mainly of securities that

the Treasury issues to raise cash to fund the

operations and pay off the maturing liabilities

of the federal government that tax revenues

are insufficient to cover. Such debt is held by

outside investors, including the Federal Reserve

System. Other measures include debt held by

government accounts (debt issued for internal

18 CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

DEBT • DEPARTMENT OF HOUSING AND URBAN DEVELOPMENT

government transactions, to trust funds and

other federal accounts, and not traded in capital

markets), gross federal debt (the sum of debt held

by the public and debt held by government

accounts), and debt subject to limit (that is, debt

subject to a statutory ceiling that applies to

gross federal debt, except for a small portion of

the debt issued by the Treasury and the small

amount of debt issued by other federal agencies,

such as the Tennessee Valley Authority and the

Postal Service). Securities issued by Fannie Mae

and Freddie Mac are not included in any of

those measures of debt.

debt service. Payment of scheduled interest obli-

gations on outstanding debt. As used in some

CBO reports, debt service refers to a change in

interest payments resulting from a change in

estimates of the deficit or surplus. Hyphenated

as an adjective: debt-service costs.

decade. Usually given in numerals followed by s

(no apostrophe): the 1960s, the mid-1990s.

decimals. For numbers less than one, put a

zero before the decimal point (0.32 percent)

except for quantities that never exceed one

(.57 coefficient of correlation, a probability

of .95).

Numbers in text or tables are seldom carried

to more than two decimal places. Only if an

important subtlety would be lost in rounding

is the use of three or more places justified.

Whether a decimal point and a zero follow a

whole number (17.0 or 17) depends on the

significance. For example, a whole number in a

series that includes decimal fractions should be

followed by a decimal point and a zero if the

whole number and the decimal fraction denote

the same level of significance: Revenues are

projected to equal 18.8 percent of GDP in fiscal

year 2012, rising gradually to 20.0 percent in

2018.

decisionmaker, decisionmaking

de-emphasize

de facto. Not italicized. Also see the box about

Foreign Phrases and Abbreviations on page 27.

deficit. See budget deficit.

Deficit Control Act. See Balanced Budget and

Emergency Deficit Control Act of 1985.

deficit neutral. Not hyphenated after a noun: The

proposal would be deficit neutral. Hyphenated

before a noun: deficit-neutral proposal.

deficit reduction. Never hyphenated: deficit

reduction measures.

defined benefit plan, defined contribution

plan. Never hyphenated.

deflation. A persistent drop in prices that is so

broadly based that general indexes of prices,

such as the consumer price index, register

continuing declines. Deflation is usually caused

by a collapse in aggregate demand.

de minimis. See the box about Foreign Phrases

and Abbreviations on page 27.

denote. See connote/denote.

de novo. See the box about Foreign Phrases and

Abbreviations on page 27.

department. Uppercase when referring to a

specific department by name: the Department of

Education. Lowercase when referring to the

same body informally: projects funded by the

department.

Department of Agriculture (USDA). No

need to add “U.S.” before the name when

introducing the abbreviation.

Department of Defense (DoD). In capitalized

headings, the o in DoD is lowercase.

Department of Energy (DOE)

Department of Housing and Urban

Development (HUD)

DEPARTMENT OF VETERANS AFFAIRS • DISCRETIONARY SPENDING CAPS

CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

Department of Veterans Affairs. Note that

Veterans does not have an apostrophe. The

preferred form of the department’s abbreviation

is VA, not “the VA.” The department replaced

the Veterans Administration in 1988. The two

main components are the Veterans Benefits

Administration (VBA) and the Veterans Health

Administration (VHA).

deposit insurance. The guarantee by a federal

agency that an individual depositor at a partici-

pating depository institution will receive the

full amount of the deposit (currently up to

$250,000) if the institution becomes insolvent.

depository institutions. Financial intermedi-

aries that make loans to borrowers and obtain

funds from savers by accepting deposits. Depos-

itory institutions include commercial banks,

savings and loan institutions, mutual savings

banks, and credit unions.

depreciation. A decline in the value of a currency,

financial asset, or capital good. When applied to

a capital good, depreciation usually refers to loss

of value because of obsolescence, wear, or

destruction.

depression. Lowercase in general references: when

the economy is in a depression. Uppercase when

referring to the one that began in 1929: the

Depression, the Great Depression.

devaluation. The act of a government to lower

the fixed exchange rate of its currency.

diagnosis-related group (DRG)

different from/different than. The preferred

phrase is generally different from: The Senate’s

version of the bill is different from that of the

House. But in clauses that require the writer to

use “from that which” or even more elaborate

constructions, different than is preferable:

How different things appear in Washington than

in London.

Director. See titles of office.

direct spending. No hyphen as an adjective:

direct spending provision. Synonymous with

mandatory spending, direct spending is the

budget authority provided by laws other than

appropriation acts and the outlays that result

from that budget authority. See spending/

funding.

direct student loan. See William D. Ford

Federal Direct Loan Program.

dis-. disaggregate, disinterested, disintermediation,

dissimilar. See prefixes.

Disability Insurance (DI) Trust Fund, the

DI trust fund. One of the trust funds for

Social Security. The other is the Old-Age and

Survivors Insurance Trust Fund.

discount rate. The interest rate that the Federal

Reserve System charges on a loan it makes to a

bank through its so-called discount window.

Such loans, when allowed, enable a bank to

meet its reserve requirements without reducing

its lending. Alternatively, the discount rate is the

interest rate used to compute the present value

of future income or payments. See present

value.

discouraged workers. Jobless people who are

available for work but are not actively seeking

it because they think they have poor prospects

of finding a job. Discouraged workers are not

included in measures of the labor force or the

unemployment rate.

discretionary spending. Budget authority that is

provided and controlled by appropriation acts

and the outlays resulting from that budget

authority. When referring only to such budget

authority, it is better to say discretionary appro-

priations or discretionary funding than “discre-

tionary spending.” See spending/funding.

discretionary spending caps. Statutory limits on

the amount of budget authority or outlays

provided in appropriation acts in a fiscal year.

20 CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

DISPOSABLE PERSONAL INCOME • DUE TO

disposable personal income. Personal income—

the income that people receive, including

transfer payments—minus the taxes and fees

that people pay to governments.

disproportionate share adjustment,

disproportionate share hospital (DSH)

payment

dissaving. Using savings for current expenses.

do, did. In general, avoid the conversationally

emphatic use of this auxiliary verb, as in “Prices

did rise 3 percent in October.” Instead, create

the emphasis another way: In fact, prices rose

3percent in October.

doctor of philosophy (Ph.D.)

dollars and cents. An amount less than a dollar

can be written as a decimal fraction ($0.39) or

as cents (39 cents), depending on the context.

If all of the amounts in a section of the text are

less than a dollar, they should all be written as

cents: The price per bushel was 34 cents in 2007,

28 cents in 2008, and 39 cents in 2009. If some

amounts are dollars, however, the cents can be

written as decimal fractions for consistency: The

price per bushel was $1.00 in 2007, $0.89 in

2008, and $0.99 in 2009.

A lump sum of money, though the dollars

are decidedly plural, is treated as singular: At

least $1.21 billion goes toward housing or if

$800 million is authorized next year.

Dollar amounts always take a dollar sign ($)

when a specific value is expressed: a revenue

increase of $3 billion. Otherwise, the word is

written out: a revenue increase exceeding several

million dollars.

Specific amounts of money always use

numerals, even for numbers below 10:

$4 million, a 6 cent tax. Indefinite numbers

are spelled out: thousands of dollars.

domestic demand. Total purchases of final goods

and services, regardless of their origin, by U.S.

consumers, businesses, and governments during

a given period. Domestic demand equals gross

domestic product minus net exports.

double-. double check (n.), double-check (v.),

double-count (n. and v.), double-digit (adj.),

double-edged (adj.), double-space (v.),

double-spaced (adj.), double standard (n.).

Dow Jones Industrial Average, Dow Jones

average

down-. downgrade, download, downplay,

downsizing, downturn, but down payment.

See prefixes.

-down. drawdown (n.), draw down (v.), slowdown

(n.), slow down (v). See suffixes.

Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA).

An agency of the Department of Justice.

dual-eligible beneficiaries (not “dual eligibles”).

People who are eligible to receive benefits from

Medicare and Medicaid at the same time.

due to. Means “owed to” (One dollar is due to each

taxpayer); “arranged or timed to” (The session is

due to end next week); or “because of.” In the last

case, due to should be used only as an adjective

modifying a noun (the cancellation, due to rain,

of the CBO softball game). Using due to as an

adverb modifying a verb, as in “It was canceled

due to rain,” is incorrect.

CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

e-. e-book, e-commerce, but email. (The e stands

for electronic.)

E-2, E-3. Military pay grades (in this case

denoting enlisted ranks) are always hyphenated.

earned income tax credit (EITC)

Earth. Uppercase unless referring to soil, which is

earth.

east. Lowercase when referring to a direction or

general location: an east wind, eastward, eastern

Nigeria, eastern United States. Uppercase when

referring to a specific geographic or political

region: the East, Eastern culture, Easterner, East

Asia, Eastern Hemisphere, the Far East. Thus,

note the distinctions between eastern Europe

(the countries on the eastern side of Europe)

and Eastern Europe (the Cold War political

entity) and between east coast (the shoreline)

and East Coast (the region).

Economic Growth and Tax Relief

Reconciliation Act of 2001 (EGTRRA,

Public Law 107-16). A law that significantly

reduced tax liabilities between 2001 and

2010 by cutting individual income tax rates,

increasing the child tax credit, repealing estate

taxes, and making many other changes to the

tax code. Some of the law’s provisions were

made permanent, but most were scheduled to

expire by December 31, 2010, although they

have been modified or extended since then.

economic stimulus. Federal fiscal or monetary

policies that are aimed at promoting economic

activity and used primarily during recessions.

Such policies include reductions in taxes,

increases in federal spending, cuts in interest

rates, and other support for financial markets

and institutions.

economywide

effect. See affect/effect.

effective tax rate. The ratio of taxes paid to a

given tax base. For individual income taxes,

the effective tax rate is typically expressed as

the ratio of taxes paid to adjusted gross income.

For corporate income taxes, it is the ratio of

taxes paid to corporations’ domestic economic

profits. The effective tax rate is a useful measure

because the tax code’s various exemptions,

credits, deductions, and tax rates make actual

ratios of taxes paid to income different from

statutory tax rates. Compare with marginal tax

rate and statutory tax rate.

e.g. See the box about Foreign Phrases and

Abbreviations on page 27.

EGTRRA. See Economic Growth and Tax Relief

Reconciliation Act of 2001.

either . . . or, neither . . . nor. The nouns that

follow these words require a verb that agrees

with the noun closer to it: Neither John nor his

friends were able to finish the race. Either Mary or

James is coming over.

-elect. President-elect. See suffixes.

electro-. electrocardiogram, electromagnet, but

electro-optics. See prefixes.

eliminate. See obviate/eliminate.

ellipsis. An ellipsis is a punctuation mark that

indicates a gap in quoted material. Its place-

ment depends on the location of the material

being omitted.

Three dots indicate an omission within a sen-

tence: “Congress shall make no law . . . abridging

the freedom of speech.” Note that spaces separate

the dots from each other and from the sur-

rounding text. Punctuation from the original

may be used on either side of the ellipsis if it is

needed to preserve the sense of the original:

22 CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

ELLIPSIS • ESTABLISHMENT SURVEY

“We the People of the United States, in order to

form a more perfect Union, . . . do ordain and

establish this Constitution for the United States

of America.”

When what follows the ellipsis comes from a

different sentence or paragraph, the ending

punctuation (period, question mark, or excla-

mation point) of the previous sentence being

quoted is placed before the ellipsis: “Congress

shall make no law respecting an establishment of

religion. . . . The right of the people to be secure in

their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against

unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be

violated.”

In general writing (as opposed to legal or schol-

arly writing), do not use an ellipsis at the begin-

ning or end of a quoted passage unless there is a

compelling reason to indicate that something is

missing there.

In all cases, make sure that the dots of an ellipsis

remain on the same line.

email (n. and v.). Stands for electronic mail.

em dash. See dashes.

emergency unemployment benefits, Emer-

gency Unemployment Compensation

(EUC) program

employee’s or employer’s share of payroll

taxes

employee stock ownership plan (ESOP)

employment-based health insurance. This

term is more accurate than “employer-provided”

or “employer-sponsored” health insurance

because insurance is sometimes arranged by

entities such as labor unions, in which case it is

based on employment but not provided by an

employer. (The employer, however, may pay

some or all of the cost.)

employment cost index (ECI). An index pro-

duced by the Bureau of Labor Statistics that

measures the weighted-average cost of an

hour of labor, which comprises the cost to

an employer of wage and salary payments,

employee benefits, and payroll taxes for social

insurance programs, such as Social Security.

enact. See adopt/agree to/approve/enact/pass/

ratify.

en dash. See dashes.

end strength

energy efficient. Not hyphenated after a noun:

an appliance that is energy efficient. Hyphenated

before a noun: an energy-efficient mode of trans-

port. The same rule applies to energy efficiency.

England. See United Kingdom.

ensure. See assure/ensure/insure.

entitled. Means “having the right to do or have

something.” Do not use it to mean “titled,” as

in “a book entitled Vanity Fair.”

entitlement. A legal obligation of the federal gov-

ernment to make payments to a person, group

of people, business, unit of government, or

similar entity that meets the eligibility criteria

set in law and for which the budget authority

is not provided in advance in an appropriation

act. Spending for entitlement programs is con-

trolled through the programs’ eligibility criteria

and benefit or payment rules. The best-known

entitlements are the government’s major benefit

programs, such as Social Security and Medicare.

Environmental Protection Agency. The pre-

ferred form of the agency’s abbreviation is EPA,

not “the EPA.”

establishment survey. An informal name for the

Department of Labor’s Current Employment

Statistics Survey of employers, which measures

employment as the estimated number of non-

farm wage and salary jobs. Also referred to as

the payroll survey. Compare with household

survey.

ESTATE AND GIFT TAXES • EXTRA-

CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

estate and gift taxes. A linked set of federal taxes

on estates, gifts, and generation-skipping trans-

fers designed to tax the transfer of wealth from

one generation to the next and to limit the

extent to which wealth can be given away

during life to avoid taxation at death.

estimates. Remember that estimates is both a

noun and a verb and can easily be read the

wrong way. In the phrase “CBO estimates,” if

“estimates” is being used as a verb, insert “that”

after it to remove any doubt about which form

is meant (CBO estimates that the three options

would have similar effects); if “estimates” is a

noun, use the possessive (CBO’s estimates of the

three options).

et al. See the box about Foreign Phrases and

Abbreviations on page 27.

et cetera, etc. See the box about Foreign Phrases

and Abbreviations on page 27.

European Union (EU). Use the full name as a

noun (changes in the European Union); use the

abbreviation as an adjective (seven EU members).

The official currency of most member countries

of the European Union is the euro.

euro zone. The area comprising the member

states of the European Union that have adopted

the euro as the single currency and that are

subject to a single monetary policy conducted

under the responsibility of the European

Central Bank. Also known as the euro area.

(Several other countries use the euro but are not

members of the European Union. In addition,

some EU members are not part of the euro

zone.)

everybody, everyone. These nouns take singular

verbs and, in general, singular pronouns:

Everyone who enrolls in the auto club receives a

decal for his or her car window. Exceptions may

be made when “his or her” proves too awkward:

If everybody shows up at 3:00, they will not be

able to find parking. In such cases, however,

rewriting the entire sentence in the plural is

preferable: If all of the guests show up at 3:00,

they will not be able to find parking. The same

rules apply to anybody and anyone. See the box

about Pronouns on page 57.

ex-. ex-official, ex-President, but ex officio. See

prefixes.

ex ante. See the box about Foreign Phrases and

Abbreviations on page 27.

exchange rate. The number of units of a currency

that can be bought with one unit of another

currency—for example, the number of euros

that can be purchased with one dollar. Never

hyphenated: exchange rate system.

excise tax. A tax levied on the purchase of a

specific type of good or service, such as tobacco

products or air transportation services.

executive branch. Always lowercase.

executive order. Issued by the President or by a

state or local official, executive orders are lower-

case unless referred to by number: an executive

order about classified national security informa-

tion, Executive Order 12958.

expansion. A phase of the business cycle that

begins when gross domestic product exceeds its

previous peak and extends until gross domestic

product reaches its next peak.

expenditure account. An account established

within federal funds and trust funds to record

appropriations, obligations, and outlays (as

well as offsetting collections) that are usually

financed from an associated receipt account.

expenditures. A better choice is spending, which is

shorter, easier to read, and usually means the

same thing. See the box about Plain English on

page 53. Also see spending/funding.

Export-Import Bank (Ex-Im Bank), the bank

ex post facto. See the box about Foreign Phrases

and Abbreviations on page 27.

extra-. extracurricular, extrajudicial, extraordinary.

See prefixes.

24 CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

F-14 fighter, F-15, F-16, F-22

F/A-18 aircraft, F/A-18E/F

fairly, quite, rather, somewhat. These modifiers

are vague and detract from the clear prose CBO

aims for. Use them sparingly or, better yet, not

at all.

fair market rent (FMR)

fall. The season is lowercase even when used with a

year: fall 2011.

family day care home

family support program

Fannie Mae. The name commonly used by the

organization known formally as the Federal

National Mortgage Association. (Fannie Mae is

derived from the abbreviation FNMA.) Fannie

Mae is a government-sponsored enterprise that

was founded during the Great Depression and

federally chartered in 1968 as a shareholder-

owned corporation to provide a stable source

of funding for residential mortgages. Since

September 2008, Fannie Mae has been in

federal conservatorship.

Because Fannie Mae’s common name is much

better known than its formal one and is how the

organization refers to itself, the formal name

need not be mentioned in CBO documents.

farm price support, farm price support

program

farther/further. To prevent confusion, keep in

mind that farther conveys distance and further

indicates degree: Further effort was beyond him;

he could go no farther.

federal. Lowercase (federal aid, federal government)

unless part of a proper name (Federal Reserve

Board, Federal Highway Administration).

Federal-Aid Highway program, Federal-Aid

Highway Act of 1956, federal-aid

highways

Federal Credit Reform Act of 1990 (FCRA)

Federal Direct Loan Program. See William D.

Ford Federal Direct Loan Program.

Federal Emergency Management Agency

(FEMA)

Federal Employees’ Group Life Insurance

(FEGLI) program. Note that Employees has

an apostrophe.

Federal Employees Health Benefits (FEHB)

program. Note that Employees does not have

an apostrophe.

Federal Employees Retirement System

(FERS). Note that Employees does not have

an apostrophe.

Federal Financing Bank (FFB)

Federal Flexible Spending Account Program

(FSAFEDS)

federal funds. In the federal accounting structure,

all accounts through which collections of

money and expenditures are recorded, except

those classified by law as trust funds. Federal

funds include several types of funds, one of

which is the general fund.

federal funds rate. The interest rate that financial

institutions charge each other for overnight

loans of their monetary reserves. The Federal

Reserve uses the federal funds rate to conduct

monetary policy. A rise in that rate (compared

with other short-term interest rates) suggests a

tightening of monetary policy, whereas a fall

suggests an easing.

Federal Highway Administration (FHWA)

FEDERAL HOME LOAN BANK BOARD • FINANCIAL INTERMEDIARY

CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

Federal Home Loan Bank Board, the Bank

Board

Federal Home Loan Banks (FHLBanks),

Federal Home Loan Bank System, the

FHLBank system

Federal Housing Administration (FHA)

Federal Housing Finance Agency (FHFA). An

agency created in 2008 by merging the Office

of Federal Housing Enterprise Oversight, the

Federal Housing Finance Board, and a team

in the Department of Housing and Urban

Development that dealt with government-

sponsored enterprises. FHFA regulates Fannie

Mae, Freddie Mac, and the Federal Home Loan

Banks.

Federal Open Market Committee. The group

within the Federal Reserve System that deter-

mines the stance of monetary policy.

Federal Pell Grant Program (thereafter, infor-

mally, the Pell grant program), Pell grant

Federal Perkins Loan Program (thereafter,

informally, the Perkins loan program), Perkins

loan

federal poverty guidelines/federal poverty

thresholds. The federal government produces

two measures of the line between poverty and

nonpoverty. The poverty guidelines issued by

the Department of Health and Human Services

are used to determine eligibility for various

programs. They differ slightly from the poverty

thresholds issued by the Census Bureau, which

are used mainly for statistical purposes (such as

determining the number of people living in

poverty). Both measures vary for families of

different sizes, which is why guidelines and

thresholds are plural. It is important to use the

correct term for precision: Tax f i l er s wh o ha v e

income between 100 percent and 400 percent of

the federal poverty guidelines are eligible for the

tax credit. In 2007, some 37 million people lived

in families with income below the federal poverty

thresholds.

The poverty thresholds are sometimes referred

to as the “poverty line,” and the guidelines as

the “poverty level.” Those terms are imprecise,

however, and should be used only if they are

defined first: The rules apply to households with

income below 450 percent of the federal poverty

guidelines (commonly known as the federal poverty

level, or FPL).

Federal Reserve System, the system, the

Federal Reserve (not “the Fed”). As the central

bank of the United States, the Federal Reserve

System is responsible for setting the nation’s

monetary policy and overseeing credit

conditions.

federal-state program

fee-for-service plan

fewer/less. Fewer refers to individually distin-

guishable, countable units and is usually used

with plural nouns and pronouns: fewer hours,

fewer cost effects, 20 or fewer states. In contrast,

less refers to quantity—that is, to an amount

that cannot be counted incrementally—and

is ordinarily used with a singular noun or

pronoun: less time, less money, less of it.

figure. Uppercase when referring to a specific

figure in a document: see Figure 2-5. Lowercase

when referring to figures nonspecifically or

when there is only one: The figures in this report

are based on updated estimates or See the figure

below (usually used in a text box).

Financial Institutions Reform, Recovery, and

Enforcement Act of 1989 (FIRREA)

financial intermediary. An institution that

indirectly matches borrowers with lenders.

For example, depository institutions, such as

commercial banks or savings and loan institu-

tions, lend funds that they have accepted from

depositors. Life insurance companies or pension

26 CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

FINANCIAL INTERMEDIARY • FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENT

funds lend or invest funds that they hold in

reserve against future claims by policyholders

or participating retirees.

financial services market

financing account. A nonbudgetary account

required for a federal credit program that

reconciles subsidies calculated on an accrual

basis with the cash flows associated with credit

activities. The account tracks flows between the

Treasury, the program account, and the public.

The net cash flow in each financing account for

a fiscal year is shown in the federal budget as an

other means of financing.

first-come, first-served basis

first-person pronouns. See the box about

Pronouns on page 57.

first, second, and so on. Use instead of “firstly,”

“secondly,” and so on as introductory words.

fiscal policy. The government’s tax and spending

policies, which influence the amount and matu-

rity of government debt as well as the level,

composition, and distribution of national

output and income.

fiscal stimulus. A type of economic stimulus

consisting of changes in tax rates or government

spending intended to encourage economic

activity. Fiscal stimulus typically takes the form

of temporary or permanent cuts in tax rates, or

debt-financed increases in the government’s

transfer payments or purchases of goods and

services. Compare with monetary stimulus.

fiscal year. An annual accounting period. The

federal government’s fiscal year begins on

October 1 and ends on September 30. A fiscal

year is designated by the calendar year in which

it ends—for example, fiscal year 2013 began on

October 1, 2012, and ended on September 30,

2013.

Lowercase fiscal year when not part of a formal

title: outlays for fiscal year 2014. Fiscal year is

always spelled out, never abbreviated as “fiscal

2014” or “FY 2014.” It is never hyphenated.

fixed rate mortgage

fixed-weighted price index. An index that

measures the overall price level (compared with

a base period) without being influenced by

changes in the composition of output or

purchases.

flexible spending account

flight test (n.), flight-test (v. and adj.),

flight-tested (v. and adj.)

focus, foci (pl.)

focus, focused, focusing

-fold. Hyphenate compounds formed with the

suffix -fold if they contain a numeral over 10:

23-fold, 106-fold. Otherwise, do not hyphenate

them: eightfold, tenfold, hundredfold, manyfold,

millionfold. See suffixes.

follow-on (n. and adj.)

follow-up (n. and adj.), follow up (v.)

Food Stamp program. Now called the Supple-

mental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP).

footnotes. See the section about Footnotes and

References that begins on page 77.

fore-. forefather, forefront, forestall, forewarn. See

prefixes and forgo/forego.

forecast. Present and past tense (not “forecasted”):

Last year, CBO forecast that the deficit would

increase.

foreign direct investment. Financial investment

by which a person or entity acquires an active

ownership share of a foreign business. As

measured by the Bureau of Economic Analysis,

foreign direct investment consists only of

investments that result in an ownership share

greater than 10 percent of the value of a

business.

FOREIGN EXCHANGE VALUE • FREDDIE MAC

CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

foreign exchange value

Foreign Military Sales (FMS) program, the

FMS trust fund, foreign military sales

foreign-source income

forgo/forego. Forgo is a verb that means “to let

pass or abstain from”: The committee decided to

forgo debate. Forego is a verb that means “to go

before” and is rarely used in that form.

Forgoing and forgone are the present and past

participles, respectively, of forgo: The Congress is

forgoing [has forgone] any new tax increases this

year. Foregoing is an adjective meaning “earlier”

or “preceding”: Of the foregoing list, six items

deserve note. Foregone is an adjective that means

“predetermined”: It was a foregone conclusion.

formula, formulas (pl.)

forum, forums (pl.)

forward-deployed units

forward funding. The provision of budget

authority that becomes available for obligation

in the last quarter of a fiscal year and remains

available during the following fiscal year.

fractions. CBO’s documents sometimes use frac-

tions (26½ percent) to indicate that percentages

have been rounded to a larger increment than

the nearest 0.1 percent, such as the nearest one-

quarter or one-half percent. When employing

fractions for that purpose, include a footnote

after the first fraction saying “This report uses

fractions to indicate numbers rounded to the

nearest quarter percent” (or whatever is appli-

cable). For consistency within a document, do

not mix fractions and numbers with decimal

points, if possible.

Hyphenate spelled-out fractions: one-half,

one-third, nine-tenths.

Freddie Mac. The name commonly used by the

organization known formally as the Federal

Home Loan Mortgage Corporation. Freddie

Mac is a government-sponsored enterprise that

was founded and federally chartered in 1970 as

a shareholder-owned corporation to provide a

stable source of funding for residential mort-

gages. Since September 2008, Freddie Mac has

been in federal conservatorship.

Because Freddie Mac’s common name is much

better known than its formal one and is how the

organization refers to itself, the formal name

need not be mentioned in CBO documents.

Foreign Phrases and Abbreviations

Some readers are unlikely to be familiar with Latinate

phrases or abbreviations (for instance, many people

confuse “e.g.” and “i.e.”). Thus, avoid the following

phrases in favor of English where possible:

For Use

ceteris paribus all else being equal

de minimis insignificant, minor

de novo over again, anew

e.g. for example, for instance

et al. and others

et cetera, etc. and so forth, and the like

ex ante beforehand, in advance,

expected

ex post facto after the fact, retroactive

i.e. that is

inter alia among others

per annum a year, per year, annually

per se in itself

vis-à-vis opposite, as compared with

Some foreign phrases, however, have no adequate

English equivalents: ad hoc, ad valorem, a priori,

de facto, sine qua non, and versus, for example. Use

them if necessary, but sparingly, and never italicize

them. Also see ibid.

28 CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

-FREE • FURTHER

-free. debt-free, interest-free, tax-free. See

suffixes.

free-market system

free-trade area

frequently. See often.

fuel efficient. Not hyphenated after a noun (a car

that is fuel efficient). Hyphenated before a noun

(a fuel-efficient vehicle). The same rule applies to

fuel efficiency.

full time. Not hyphenated after a noun (The job

could be full time) or after a verb (She works full

time). Hyphenated before a noun (a full-time

position).

full-time equivalents (FTEs), full-time-

equivalent positions

funding. See spending/funding.

Future Years Defense Program (FYDP)

further/farther. To prevent confusion, keep in

mind that further indicates degree and farther

conveys distance: Further effort was beyond him;

he could go no farther.

CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

G7, G8. See Group of Seven (G7) industrialized

countries or Group of Eight (G8) industrial-

ized countries.

GDI. See gross domestic income.

GDP. See gross domestic product.

GDP gap. The difference between actual and

potential gross domestic product, expressed as

a percentage of potential GDP.

GDP price index. A summary measure of the

prices of all goods and services that make up

gross domestic product. The change in the

GDP price index is used as a measure of

inflation in the overall economy.

gender/sex. Gender refers to grammatical (and

sometimes sociocultural) categories; sex refers to

biological categories. For example, male and

female are categories of sex, whereas masculine

and feminine are categories of gender. When

reporting on the type of data frequently used at

CBO, sex is usually the correct term, as in The

respondents were classified by age, sex, and family

income.

general-equilibrium growth model

general fund. One category of federal funds in

the government’s accounting structure. The

general fund records all revenues and offsetting

receipts not earmarked by law for a specific

purpose and all spending financed by those

revenues and receipts.

General Schedule (GS) workers

GI Bill. This term refers to a collection of

programs administered by the Department of

Veterans Affairs that provide education benefits

to former service members. The term GI Bill

should be used only in that general sense. When

talking specifically about the Montgomery GI

Bill (MGIB) program or the Post-9/11 GI Bill

(Chapter 33) program, use those names instead.

gigahertz (GHz)

Ginnie Mae. The name commonly used by the

organization known formally as the Govern-

ment National Mortgage Association. (Ginnie

Mae is derived from the abbreviation GNMA.)

Ginnie Mae is a government-owned corpora-

tion within the Department of Housing and

Urban Development. It guarantees the timely

payment of principal and interest on securities

that are backed by single-family and multi-

family residential mortgages insured by govern-

ment agencies, such as the Federal Housing

Administration and the Department of Veterans

Affairs.

On first mention in a CBO document, intro-

duce the organization as the Government

National Mortgage Association (Ginnie Mae) or

the Government National Mortgage Association

(GNMA), depending on the short name

preferred; then use that short name in later

references.

GNP. See gross national product.

goods. Tangible commodities, such as cars or

clothing, as opposed to such intangible

commodities as education or health care,

which are services.

government. Lowercase when referring infor-

mally to the governing body of a nation or state:

the U.S. government, the government of France.

Government Accountability Office (GAO).

Formerly the General Accounting Office.

government-sponsored enterprise (GSE).

A financial institution created by federal law,

generally through a federal charter, to carry out

activities such as increasing the availability of

30 CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

GOVERNMENT-SPONSORED ENTERPRISE • GULF COAST

credit to borrowers or enhancing liquidity in

certain sectors of the economy, notably agricul-

ture and housing. (Two of the housing GSEs,

Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac, were put into

federal conservatorship in September 2008.)

governmentwide

governor. See titles of office.

grant. A transfer payment from the federal govern-

ment to a state or local government or other

recipient to help fund projects or activities that

do not involve substantial federal participation.

grants-in-aid. Grants from the federal govern-

ment to state and local governments to help

provide for programs of assistance or service to

the public.

Great Britain. See United Kingdom.

Great Depression

Great Society

greenhouse gas. Never hyphenated: greenhouse

gas emissions.

gross domestic income (GDI). The sum of all

income earned in the domestic production of

goods and services. In theory, GDI should equal

gross domestic product, but measurement diffi-

culties leave a statistical discrepancy between

the two.

gross domestic product (GDP). The total

market value of goods and services produced

domestically during a given period. That value

of the nation’s output is conceptually equal to

gross domestic income, but measurement diffi-

culties result in a statistical discrepancy between

the two. The components of GDP are con-

sumption (household and government), gross

investment (private and government), and net

exports.

gross investment. A measure of additions to the

capital stock that does not subtract depreciation

of existing capital.

gross national product (GNP). The total market

value of goods and services produced in a given

period by labor and capital supplied by resi-

dents of a country, regardless of where the

labor and capital are located. That value is

conceptually equal to the total income accruing

to residents of the country during that period

(national income). GNP differs from gross

domestic product primarily by including

the capital income that residents earn from

investments abroad and excluding the capital

income that nonresidents earn from domestic

investment.

groundwater

group-model health maintenance

organization, group- and staff-model

HMOs

Group of Eight (G8) industrialized

countries. The G7 members plus Russia.

Group of Seven (G7) industrialized

countries. The current members are Canada,

France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the United

Kingdom, and the United States.

guarantee. Use instead of “guaranty,” except

in proper names (Pension Benefit Guaranty

Corporation) or when referring to certain

programs that use that term (VA’s home loan

guaranty program).

Guard. See National Guard.

Gulf Coast (the region), Gulf coast (the

shoreline)

CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

hard-line (adj.), hard-liners

hardrock mining

hard-target warhead

hazardous waste. Never hyphenated: hazardous

waste site.

H. Con. Res. Stands for House concurrent

resolution. Not spelled out when used with

anumber: H. Con. Res. 8.

he or she. See the box about Pronouns on

page 57.

Head Start

health care. Always two words and never

hyphenated: health care services.

Health Care and Education Reconciliation

Act of 2010 (Public Law 111-152). One

of two laws enacted in March 2010 that made

major changes to the U.S. health care and

health insurance systems. (The other was the

Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act,

P.L. 111-148.) See Affordable Care Act.

Health Insurance Portability and

Accountability Act of 1996 (HIPAA)

health maintenance organization (HMO)

hemisphere. Lowercase except when referring

to a particular part of the world: the Northern

Hemisphere.

high income. Not hyphenated after a noun: a

family with high income. Hyphenated before a

noun: a high-income family. The same treatment

applies to other phrases containing high, higher,

or highest. Exception: people in the highest

income category, in which “highest” is modifying

“income category” rather than just “income.”

Highway Trust Fund

his or her. See the box about Pronouns on

page 57.

Hispanic, Hispanic American. Never

hyphenated.

historic/historical. Historic means “contributing

to or making history” and suggests momentous-

ness, as in a historic expedition. Historical means

“pertaining to the past,” as in a historical

account. (Note that “a,” not “an,” is the correct

article to use with either word.) In most cases,

the simpler past will suffice for historical, as in

Past reports indicate that such measures can be

effective. Avoid the phrases “past history,” “past

experience,” or “historical experience”; they are

redundant.

HIV. Stands for human immunodeficiency virus.

HIV is well enough known by its acronym that

it does not need to be spelled out.

H.J. Res. Stands for House joint resolution.

Not spelled out when used with a number:

H.J. Res. 132.

Hobson’s choice. As the story goes, Thomas

Hobson was a 17th-century liveryman who

required every customer to take the horse

nearest the door or leave empty-handed. The

choice, then, is really no choice at all. It is an

ultimatum, not a dilemma.

-holder. bondholder, claim holder, debt holder,

equity holder, leaseholder, officeholder,

policyholder, shareholder, stockholder. See

suffixes.

home-. home-based care, homebound, home

builders, home-building industry, homebuyer,

home-equity loan, homeland, home mortgage

lending, homeowner, home ownership,

home page, home port (n.), homeport (v.),

homeschool (v.). See prefixes.

32 CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

HONORABLE • HYPOTHESIS

Honorable. See Congressional correspondence.

Hospital Insurance (HI) Trust Fund, the

HI trust fund. The fund used for Part A of

Medicare.

House. Uppercase in references to the House of

Representatives and in informal references such

as Both Houses of Congress have considered the

measure.

household survey. Informal name for the Census

Bureau’s Current Population Survey, which,

among other things, measures employment as

the estimated number of people employed

(rather than as the estimated number of jobs).

Compare with establishment survey.

however. When it means “contrary to expecta-

tion,” however should be placed in a sentence

so that it emphasizes the contrast with what

precedes it: Domestic use is up because of new

policies; exports, however, are down. However

should not appear so far along in a sentence that

it loses its impact. As an alternative, use but

judiciously for sharp emphasis, or start the

sentence with in contrast or by contrast. Though

can also be used instead of however to avoid

repetition.

H.R. 3102. The H.R. stands for House of Repre-

sentatives, and 3102 is the number of the bill.

Not spelled out.

H. Res. Stands for House resolution. Not spelled

out when used with a number: H. Res. 14.

human immunodeficiency virus. See HIV.

hundredweight (cwt)

hydro-. hydrocarbon, hydroelectric,

hydromagnetic, hydronuclear, hydropower.

See prefixes.

hyper-. hyperinflation, hyperresponsive,

hypertension. See prefixes.

hyphenation and compound words. See the

box on page 33.

hypothesis, hypotheses (pl.)

HYPHENATION

CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

Hyphenation and Compound Words

“If you take the hyphen seriously, you will surely go mad,” wrote the author of the stylebook of the Oxford University

Press. Many rules and exceptions exist for this pesky piece of punctuation, but they all serve a single purpose:

to prevent confusion by showing which words and ideas go together (for example, to show that in referring to

20-odd Senators, the writer does not mean 20 strange Senators). The dictionary (Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate

Dictionary, www.m-w.com) can answer many hyphenation questions, as can The Chicago Manual of Style. Some

general rules follow:

In most cases, hyphenate two or more words when they are combined to form a single idea that is used as a

compound adjective before the noun it modifies: across-the-board increase, cost-of-living adjustment, full-time

employee, private-sector initiative. That rule applies particularly to compounds in which one element is a

present or past participle: cost-sharing provisions, inflation-adjusted estimate. (However, compounds that have

become so familiar that they are unlikely to be misread are not hyphenated: day care center, health care costs,

income tax receipts. Such exceptions are listed separately and alphabetically in this guide.)

Do not hyphenate words used to form a single idea when they follow the noun they modify or are not used as

adjectives: an increase across the board, an adjustment in the cost of living, an employee working full time,

an initiative taken by the private sector, provisions for cost sharing. (Exceptions, such as cost-effective or

tax-exempt, are listed separately and alphabetically in this guide.)

Do not hyphenate adverbs ending in -ly combined with adjectives or participles, even if they immediately precede

the noun they modify: clearly preferable option, widely discussed alternatives.

Hyphenate number-and-noun compounds that form modifiers (unless they involve money or percentages or

include abbreviated units of measure): five-year projection, three-phase program, 11-year lag, 150-mile

pipeline, 230-page report. Also hyphenate fractions written out: one-third, two-fifths. Note the correct usage

when money, percentages, or abbreviations are involved: $3 million increase, 90 cent tax, 11 percent decline,

0.2 percentage-point increase (but better to write an increase of 0.2 percentage points), 16 kWh battery.

Do not hyphenate most compound adjectives used as verbs, even though the same words may merge when

they form an adjective or noun: phase out the program, the phaseout period; pass through the costs, the

pass-through costs; the plan to build up forces, the force buildup. An exception is short circuit, which is

not hyphenated as a noun but is hyphenated as a verb: a short circuit, to short-circuit a system.

In a series, the hyphens stand: low- and middle-income families; low- and lower-middle- as well as upper-

middle-income families (but after the noun: a family with low income). Similarly, pre- and postwar Iraq.

Hyphenate prefixes or suffixes only when specified by Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary

(www.m-w.com) or by the entries for particular prefixes and suffixes in this guide or when necessary to

prevent confusion or peculiar multiplication of letters: re-signed (signed again), resigned (quit), un-ionized,

anti-inflation, bell-like, semi-independent.

34 CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

I. See the box about Pronouns on page 57.

ibid. Use ibid. in footnotes to indicate that a work

is identical to the one cited in the preceding

footnote. Ibid. is an abbreviation of the Latin

word ibidem (“in the same place”) and thus is

followed by a period; it is not italicized.

i.e. See the box about Foreign Phrases and

Abbreviations on page 27.

if/whether. If introduces a conditional idea;

whether introduces an alternative or possibility

(sometimes in the form of an indirect question).

If it rains, the roads may flood, so I want to find

out whether a storm is coming. The distinction

between if and whether is important because

the two words can mean different things when

used in the same place. For instance, the group

needs to know if she can help with the project

means that the group needs to know only if the

answer is yes; the group needs to know whether she

can help with the project means that the group

needs to know either way. Also see whether or

not.

Immigration and Customs Enforcement

(ICE). An agency in the Department of

Homeland Security that replaced elements of

the Immigration and Naturalization Service

and the Customs Service.

impact. Do not use as a verb. A reduction in tax

revenues does not impact a town—it affects it,

influences it, or has an impact on it. The noun

impact means a “sudden strike or sharp blow”

or “a significant or major effect”; unless one of

those senses is meant, another noun is usually

preferable, such as effect, influence, or result. Also

see affect/effect.

Impact Aid

in-. inbound, indoor, inelastic, inorganic,

inpatient, insider, invaluable, but in-depth,

in-house, in-law, in situ. See prefixes.

include. Use to introduce items that do not

constitute a complete list. For example, the

statement labor income includes cash wages and

salaries implies that those two things are not the

only components of labor income. If they are,

write labor income consists of cash wages and

salaries or labor income comprises cash wages and

salaries. Also see comprise/compose/constitute.

income. This word should generally be singular.

See the box about Possessives on page 54.

income replacement, income security, income

support. Never hyphenated: income replace-

ment benefits, income support programs.

income tax. Never hyphenated: income tax

brackets.

independent practice association (IPA)

index, indexes (pl.)

Indian. Use only as part of a proper noun, such as

the Indian Health Service. Otherwise use Native

American.

individual/person. Although these words are

synonymous, person is preferred in singular

uses: Each person who enrolls in the class will

receive a textbook. Individual is appropriate

when contrasting a person with a group or

organization: Individuals may have to forgo

some rights for the sake of the organization. (In

the plural, use people rather than “persons.”)

individual income tax rate

individual retirement account (IRA)

infinitive. See split infinitive.

INFLATION • IT IS

CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

inflation. Growth in a general measure of prices

(such as the consumer price index), usually

expressed as an annual rate of change. Because

inflation denotes a general increase in prices,

avoid using it to refer to a specific item; for

example, instead of “gasoline price inflation,”

say gasoline price increases.

infra-. infrared, infrastructure. See prefixes.

infrastructure. Government-owned capital goods

that provide services to the public, usually with

benefits to the community at large as well as to

the direct user. Examples include schools, roads,

bridges, dams, harbors, public buildings, and

water treatment systems.

Inland Waterways Trust Fund, the inland

waterway system

in-network pharmacy

insure. See assure/ensure/insure.

inter-. interaction, intercontinental,

international, interrelated, interstate, but

inter-American. See prefixes.

inter alia. See the box about Foreign Phrases and

Abbreviations on page 27.

intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM)

interest rate. Never hyphenated: interest rate

subsidy.

interest rate spread. The difference between two

interest rates.

Internal Revenue Code (IRC), the tax code

Internal Revenue Service (IRS)

International Bank for Reconstruction and

Development (IBRD). One of two entities

that make up the World Bank. (The other is the

International Development Association.) Refer

to the World Bank unless there is a reason to

refer to only one of the entities.

International Monetary Fund (IMF),

the fund

Internet. Always capitalized.

Interstate System. Familiar name for the

National System of Interstate and Defense

Highways. Interstate is uppercase when refer-

ring to roads that are officially part of the

system (Interstate highways); it is lowercase when

referring to other roads that cross state lines

(interstate highways).

intra-. intrabudgetary, intracoastal, intramural,

intranet, intraregional, intrastate. Hyphenate

intra- before a vowel unless the dictionary

specifies otherwise: intra-agency, intra-industry,

but intraocular. See prefixes.

in turn. See therefore.

inventories. Stocks of goods held by businesses

for further processing or for sale.

investment. Physical investment is the current

product set aside during a given period to be

used for future production; it represents an

addition to the capital stock. As measured by

the national income and product accounts,

private domestic investment consists of invest-

ment in residential and nonresidential struc-

tures, producers’ durable equipment and

software, and the change in business invento-

ries. Financial investment is the purchase of a

financial security, such as a stock, bond, or

mortgage. Investment in human capital is

spending on education, training, health ser-

vices, and other activities that increase the

productivity of the workforce. (Investment in

human capital is not treated as investment by

the national income and product accounts.)

it is, there is, there are. Avoid overuse of these

constructions to begin sentences; they can

sound dull and postpone the reader’s arrival at

the topic. In addition, a solitary “it” can raise

questions of reference. The constructions are

easy to avoid, however. For example, instead of

36 CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

IT IS • IT’S

writing “There are several ways to approach the

problem,” write Several ways exist to approach

the problem. And instead of writing “There is

little reason to assume that the savings from

adopting the plan would be significant,” write

No significant savings would be likely to result

from the plan.

it’s/its. It’s is the contraction of “it is” or “it has.”

Its is the possessive form of the neuter pronoun.

I always know when it’s time for the shop to have

its annual sale. Do not use it’s or other contrac-

tions in CBO writing unless they are part of a

direct quotation or in the title of a work being

cited.

J–K

CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

jargon. The dictionary defines jargon as “the tech-

nical terminology or characteristic idiom of a

special activity or group.” At CBO, some jargon

enjoys a special status. Many concepts related to

economics or government programs cannot be

discussed with precision if the writer does not

use some jargon. The term means-tested, for

example, not only has its own meaning but

also creates a distinction with income-tested.

Similarly, common speech offers no simple

alternatives to cross-subsidy, marginal tax bracket,

constant dollars, or many other examples.

A simple-sounding rule applies: Never use jar-

gon unless it is essential for precision. In other

words, avoid it whenever common, universally

understood words or phrases will serve. Even

jargon that is deemed essential must be defined

at its first mention.

Jobs and Growth Tax Relief Reconciliation

Act of 2003 (JGTRRA, Public Law

108-27). A law that reduced taxes by

advancing the effective date of several tax cuts

previously enacted in the Economic Growth

and Tax Relief Reconciliation Act of 2001 and

by making other temporary changes to the tax

code.

job-search assistance

Job Training Partnership Act (JTPA),

job-training program

joint-and-several liability

Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS). Not to be confused

with the Joint Staff, which is the staff of the

Chairman of the JCS.

Joint Committee on Taxation (JCT). On the

first reference in the text of a CBO document to

an estimate by this committee, specify the staff

of the Joint Committee on Taxation, which does

the actual estimating, as in CBO and the staff of

the Joint Committee on Taxation (JCT) estimate

that changing those provisions would have little

net effect on revenues. On further references in

the text, use the abbreviation JCT to refer to the

committee staff (rather than writing “the staff of

JCT”). In source lines for figures and tables,

which typically do not include abbreviations,

specify the staff of the Joint Committee on

Ta x a t i o n .

judgment (not “judgement”)

judicial branch. Always lowercase.

kilogram (kg)

kilohertz (kHz)

kilometer (km), square kilometer (km2)

kiloton (kt)

kilowatt-hour (kWh)

38 CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

labor force. Never hyphenated: labor force projec-

tions. Although Webster’s defines labor force as

synonymous with workforce as general terms,

labor force also has a distinct meaning: It refers

to the number of people age 16 or older in the

civilian noninstitutionalized population who

have jobs or who are available for work and are

actively seeking jobs. (The civilian noninstitu-

tionalized population excludes members of the

armed forces on active duty and people in penal

or mental institutions or in homes for the

elderly or infirm.) The labor force participation

rate is the labor force as a percentage of the

civilian noninstitutionalized population age

16 or older.

labor income. Income that is derived from

employment, such as wages and salaries.

Compare with capital income.

labor-intensive. Always hyphenated.

labor productivity. See productivity.

laid-off worker

last/latest/past. Last and latest are usually

interchangeable, but last can mean “final” and

latest can mean “most recent.” Do not use last

when past is meant: during the past month (the

previous 31 days), not “during the last month”;

but during the last month of 2012 (that is,

December 2012).

Latina, Latino

law. See act/bill/law/measure/resolution and

Public Law.

lawmaker, lawmaking

layoff (n.), lay off (v.)

Leaking Underground Storage Tank (LUST)

Trust Fund, the LUST trust fund

legal citations. See Public Law and the part of

the Footnotes and References section that

begins on page 90.

legislation. See act/bill/law/measure/resolution.

legislative branch. Always lowercase.

lend/loan. In general usage, lend is a verb and

loan is a noun: My parents are lending a hand

until I can get a loan. Will you lend me a pencil?

In references to money, however, loan is widely

accepted as a verb: The bank loaned me $10,000.

less. See fewer/less.

less developed country. Use developing country

instead.

less than/under, more than/over. Traditionally,

less than and more than have been used for

countable units: More than 40 governors

attended the conference. Under and over have

been used for cumulative quantities: She

completed the course in under a year. Those

distinctions are blurring, however, and the term

that sounds the best and is the most logical in

a given case is the one to use. That approach

applies particularly to money, which is treated

sometimes as countable units and sometimes as

cumulative quantities.

letters. See Congressional correspondence.

life-. lifeblood, life cycle (n.), life-cycle (adj.), life

insurance, lifelike, lifelong, lifesaving, life-size,

life span, lifestyle, lifetime, lifework. See

prefixes.

like-. likable, like-minded, likewise. See prefixes.

-like. bondlike, businesslike, lifelike. See suffixes.

like/as. Use like as a preposition to compare

nouns and pronouns: This year’s budget looks like

last year’s. Use as as a conjunction to link two

LIKE • LOAN-TO-VALUE

CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

clauses: The House leadership called a meeting

as the President requested. Also see because/

since/as.

likely. When used as an adverb, likely should be

preceded by very, quite, or most: The Congress

will most likely pass this bill. Without such a

modifier, likely is used incorrectly, as in “The

bill will likely be passed.” (In that case, use

probably instead.) As an adjective, likely needs

no modifier: The bill is likely to pass. It was a

likely story.

limit/limitation. These two words are similar in

meaning, but limit connotes a boundary or

ceiling, whereas limitation connotes a liability,

drawback, or defect. Her boss’s limitations drove

her to the limit of her patience. (An exception to

that distinction is obligation limitation, which is

a specific budgetary term. See obligation.)

line-item veto

liquidating account. A budgetary account associ-

ated with a federal credit program that records

all cash flows resulting from direct loan obliga-

tions and loan guarantee commitments made

under the program before October 1, 1991.

liquidity. With respect to an asset, liquidity is the

quality of being readily convertible into cash—

that is, the ease with which an asset can be

bought and sold in large quantities without

affecting its price. Treasury securities are among

the most liquid of assets. With respect to an

institution, liquidity is the ability to meet finan-

cial obligations by virtue of possessing assets

that can be readily converted into cash.

lists. Displayed lists are good for emphasizing

important information or for helping readers

through a long series of items. Use them spar-

ingly, however, to avoid blunting their impact.

No item in a displayed list should be longer

than about one-third of a page. A series of

longer items should be turned into paragraphs

with their own headings.

Bullets are the preferred format for displaying

items in a list. Bulleted items should be parallel

in structure—all phrases or all sentences—and

should flow naturally from the introductory

statement. If possible, the introduction should

be a complete sentence, followed by a colon or

a period. If it is a sentence fragment, follow it

with a colon.

Capitalize the first word of each bulleted item.

Use the same punctuation to end each item

except the last one, which always ends with a

period. If the items are complete sentences, end

each with a period. Otherwise, use commas or

semicolons (if one or more of the items have

internal commas). When bulleted items are

sentence fragments, “and” follows the second-

to-last one so that, together with the introduc-

tion, they form a complete sentence.

The plan designates the following types of projects

as “technically difficult”:

Monitoring very large land areas or highly

radioactive waste in tanks,

Cleaning up contaminated groundwater or

soil, and

Decontaminating and decommissioning

buildings that contain radioactive waste.

Use numbers instead of bullets in a list only

if the items are given in order of importance

or occurrence or will be referred to later by

number. Numbered lists within sentences—as

in “The projects included (1) monitoring large

areas, (2) cleaning up sites”—are generally

unnecessary; simply omit the numbers.

loan. See lend/loan.

loan-to-value (LTV) ratio. The relationship

between the amount of a loan (such as a mort-

gage) and the value of the underlying collateral.

The LTV ratio is one measure that lenders use

to assess the riskiness of a loan.

40 CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

LOCAL • LOW INCOME HOME ENERGY ASSISTANCE PROGRAM

local. Lowercase (local government) unless part

of a proper noun (Local 323 of the American

Federation of Musicians).

long run, long term. Not hyphenated after a

noun: an effect in the long run. Hyphenated

before a noun: a long-term effect.

long-term interest rate. An interest rate associ-

ated with a security that matures in 10 or more

years.

low income. Not hyphenated after a noun: a

family with low income. Hyphenated before a

noun: a low-income family. The same treatment

applies to other phrases containing low, lower, or

lowest. Exception: people in the lowest income

category, in which “lowest” is modifying

“income category” rather than just “income.”

Low Income Home Energy Assistance

Program (LIHEAP)

CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

macro-. macrobiotic, macroeconomic,

macroscopic. See prefixes.

mail-order pharmacy

maintenance-of-effort payment

Majority Leader. Always capitalized: Majority

Leader Harry Reid, the Majority Leader.

-maker, -making. automaker, decisionmaker,

decisionmaking, lawmaker, peacemaker,

policymaker, policymaking, rulemaking,

troublemaker. See suffixes.

mal-. maladjusted, malfunction, malpractice,

malware. See prefixes.

managed care. Never hyphenated: managed care

programs.

managed competition. Never hyphenated:

managed competition plan.

mandatory spending. Never hyphenated:

mandatory spending provision. Synonymous with

direct spending, mandatory spending is the

budget authority provided by laws other than

appropriation acts and the outlays that result

from that budget authority. (As used in many

CBO reports, mandatory spending refers only to

the outlays that result from budget authority

provided in laws other than appropriation acts.

See spending/funding.)

man-hours. Better to use hours, as in If the project

requires 100 hours of work, a 20-person team

should be able to finish it in 5 hours.

manpower. Better to use personnel, workers, or

labor force whenever possible.

marginal-cost pricing

marginal tax rate. The percentage of an addi-

tional dollar of income from labor or capital

that is paid in taxes. Compare with effective tax

rate and statutory tax rate.

Marine Corps. Always treated as a singular noun:

The Marine Corps staged its landing at night.

Capitalize Corps on second reference: The

Corps will buy six new helicopters. The Corps’

mission has changed over the years. Capitalize

Marines when referring to the service as a body

rather than to individuals: enlistment in the

Marines, a Marine operation. Lowercase it when

referring to individual service members: five

marines, a company of marines.

markdown, markup (n. and adj.); mark down,

mark up (v.)

market basket, market-basket index. See, for

example, consumer price index.

market interest rate

marketplace

market risk. Risk that investors cannot

protect themselves against by diversifying

their portfolios.

market-value accounting

master’s degree, master of arts (M.A.),

master of science (M.S.)

materiel. Equipment and supplies used by an

institution: The Army kept some of its materiel

in storage overseas.

may/might. In the present tense, may suggests a

real possibility; might suggests a less certain

possibility. When talking about hypothetical

CBO options, might is usually preferable.

Note that might also functions as the past tense

of may: I think I may go now. He thought he

might go today.

May and might also differ when they are fol-

lowed by have. May have implies that the writer

does not know whether something happened

or did not happen: The bill may have passed

42 CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

MAY • METHODOLOGY

already. Might have connotes that something

could have happened but in fact did not: If two

more Senators had been present, the bill might

have passed.

mayor. See titles of office.

MBS. See mortgage-backed securities.

M.D. (doctor of medicine). Refer to someone

who holds this degree as a doctor or physician,

not an M.D.

mean/median. A mean is an average; a median is

a number in the exact middle of a series of

numbers arranged in ascending or descending

order.

means of financing. Means by which a budget

deficit is financed or a surplus is used. The

primary means of financing is borrowing from

the public. In general, the cumulative amount

borrowed from the public (debt held by the

public) will increase if there is a deficit and

decrease if there is a surplus, but other factors

can affect the amount that the government

must borrow. Those factors, known as other

means of financing, include changes in the

government’s cash balances, seigniorage,

changes in outstanding checks, changes in

accrued interest costs included in the budget

but not yet paid, and cash flows reflected in the

financing accounts of federal credit programs.

Means of financing are not included in federal

budget totals.

means test (n.), means-test (v.), means-tested,

means-testing

means-tested program. A program that provides

cash or services to people who meet a test of

need on the basis of income and assets. Most

means-tested programs are entitlements—for

example, Medicaid, Supplemental Security

Income, family support programs, and veterans’

pensions. A few, however, such as housing

subsidies and various social services, are funded

through discretionary appropriations.

measure. For legislative measures, see act/bill/law/

measure/resolution; for units, see units of

measure.

Medical Insurance. The official name for Part B

of Medicare (the trust fund associated with

Part B is the Supplementary Medical Insurance

Tr u s t Fu n d ) .

Medicare. This federal health insurance program

for people age 65 or older has three parts:

Hospital Insurance (Part A), Medical Insurance

(Part B), and prescription drug coverage (Part

D). Part C of Medicare (known as Medicare

Advantage) specifies the rules under which

private health care plans can assume responsi-

bility for, and be compensated for, providing

benefits covered under Parts A, B, and D.

Medicare economic index (MEI)

Medicare fee schedule (MFS)

medigap insurance

megahertz (MHz)

Member. Uppercase when referring to a Member

of Congress: The Member agreed to sponsor the

bill. The Members of the Committee on Armed

Services met yesterday. Lowercase when referring

to any other member: an executive board

member.

memorandum, memorandums (pl.)

meter (m)

methodology/method. A methodology is the

approach or framework employed by a partic-

ular discipline, such as economics, or in a

particular analysis. A method is the steps or

procedures used in carrying out the analysis.

What most CBO analysts mean when

describing how they arrived at their results is

method. An appropriate subhead or reference,

therefore, is method used in the analysis or, more

simply, analytic method.

METROPOLITAN STATISTICAL AREA • MORTGAGE-BACKED SECURITIES

CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

metropolitan statistical area (MSA)

micro-. microeconomic, micromanage,

microscopic. See prefixes.

mid-. midafternoon, midair, midcourse, midday,

middecade, midgrade, midlife, midpoint,

midrange, midsize, midterm, midway,

midweek, midyear, but mid-1980s, mid-ocean,

mid-rise. See prefixes.

middle-aged

Middle Atlantic states, mid-Atlantic states

Middle East, Mideast, Middle Eastern

Midwest, Midwestern, Midwesterner

might. See may/might.

miles per gallon (mpg)

miles per hour (mph)

military construction (MILCON) account

Military Health System (MHS)

military personnel (MILPERS) account

military retirement system (MRS). A blanket

name for several retirement programs for service

members.

military treatment facility (MTF)

minimum, minimums (pl.)

minimum-wage worker

Minority Leader. Always capitalized: Minority

Leader Mitch McConnell, the Minority Leader.

Minuteman III (MM III) missile

missile defense system

mix-up (n.), mix up (v.)

model, modeled, modeling

monetary policy. The strategy of influencing the

availability and cost of money and credit to

affect output and inflation. An “easy” monetary

policy attempts to reduce interest rates to

increase aggregate demand, but it may lead to

higher inflation. A “tight” monetary policy

attempts to raise interest rates in the near term

to reduce inflationary pressure by lowering

aggregate demand. The Federal Reserve System

sets monetary policy in the United States.

monetary reserves. The amount of funds that

banks and other depository institutions hold

as cash or as deposits with the Federal Reserve

System.

monetary stimulus. A type of economic stimulus

consisting of an increase in the availability of

(and hence a lower cost for) money and credit

that is intended to encourage economic activity.

The Federal Reserve can lower short-term

interest rates (and, to a lesser extent, long-term

rates) by purchasing Treasury or other securities

through its open-market operations. To a more

limited extent, it can provide stimulus by

reducing the reserve ratio (the percentage of

assets that member banks are required to keep

on deposit at the Federal Reserve) or by

lowering the discount rate (the rate at which it

lends money to member banks). Compare with

fiscal stimulus.

money, moneys (pl.). See dollars and cents.

money market mutual fund

Montgomery GI Bill (MGIB). See GI Bill.

monthlong

more than/over. See less than/under.

mortgage-backed securities (MBSs). Financial

securities whose payments of interest and prin-

cipal are backed by the payments from a pool of

mortgages. MBSs are sometimes structured to

create multiple classes of claims (or tranches) of

different seniority and timing.

44 CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

MORTGAGE INTEREST DEDUCTION • MULTIPLE-PAYER SYSTEM

mortgage interest deduction

motor vehicle industry

MSG multicountry model (MSG model).

Originally the McKibbin-Sachs Global model,

this tool was renamed after its distributor, the

McKibbin Software Group. Later versions

include the MSG2 and MSG3 models.

multi-. multiagency, multibillion-dollar savings,

multicolored, multifold, multilateral,

multimode, multinational, multiowner,

multipayer, multirole, multiyear. See prefixes.

multiple-employer plan

multiple-payer system, multipayer system

CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

National Aeronautics and Space

Administration (NASA)

National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal

Year 2010, the 2010 defense authorization

act

National Guard, the Guard. The United States

has two National Guards: the Army National

Guard and the Air National Guard. Unless one

is specified, readers will assume both are meant.

See reserve.

national health expenditures. The preferred

abbreviation is NHE (rather than “NHEs”),

even though the term is plural. Medicare

spending increased as a percentage of NHE last

year. The same style applies to personal health

expenditures.

national income. Total income earned by U.S.

residents from all sources, including employees’

compensation (wages, salaries, benefits, and

employers’ share of payroll taxes for social insur-

ance programs), corporate profits, net interest,

rental income, and proprietors’ income.

national income and product accounts

(NIPAs), NIPA data. Official U.S. accounts

that track the amount and composition of gross

domestic product, the prices of its components,

and the way in which the costs of production

are distributed as income.

National Institutes of Health (NIH). Tak es a

singular verb or pronoun.

National Oceanic and Atmospheric

Administration (NOAA)

National Priorities List (NPL). Part of

Superfund.

national saving. Total saving by all sectors of the

economy: personal saving, business saving

(corporate after-tax profits not paid as divi-

dends), and government saving (budget sur-

pluses). National saving represents all income

not consumed, publicly or privately, during a

given period. As measured by the Bureau of

Economic Analysis, national saving does not

include unrealized capital gains or losses.

National Science Foundation (NSF)

nationwide

Native American

natural rate of unemployment. The rate of

unemployment that results from all sources

except fluctuations in aggregate demand. Those

sources are frictional unemployment, which is

associated with normal turnover of jobs, and

structural unemployment, which includes

unemployment caused by mismatches between

the skills of available workers and the skills

necessary to fill vacant positions and unemploy-

ment caused when wages exceed their market-

clearing levels because of institutional factors

(such as legal minimum wages, the presence of

unions, social conventions, or wage-setting

practices by employers that are intended to

increase workers’ morale and effort).

Naval Reserve. See reserve.

Navy. Uppercase when referring to the U.S. Navy.

Lowercase when referring to the services of

other countries: Japan’s navy.

near term. Not hyphenated after a noun: an effect

in the near term. Hyphenated before a noun: a

near-term effect.

net domestic product (NDP). Gross domestic

product minus depreciation of physical capital.

net exports. A country’s exports of goods and

services minus its imports of goods and services.

Also referred to as the trade balance.

46 CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

NET INTEREST • NOUN STACKS

net interest. In the federal budget, net interest

comprises the government’s interest payments

on debt held by the public (as recorded in

budget function 900), offset by interest income

that the government receives on loans and

cash balances and by earnings of the National

Railroad Retirement Investment Trust.

net national saving. National saving minus

depreciation of physical capital.

net operating loss (NOL)

net present value. Not hyphenated as a noun:

calculating the net present value. Hyphenated as

an adjective: on a net-present-value basis. See

present value.

net-receipt basis

network-model health maintenance

organization

New Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty

(New START). Signed by the United States

and Russia in April 2010.

NIPAs. See national income and product

accounts.

no-. no-fault, no-load, no-man’s-land,

no-nonsense, no-win. See prefixes.

nominal. A measure based on current-dollar

value. Nominal income and spending are

measured in current dollars. The nominal

interest rate on debt is the promised dollar

return, without an adjustment to remove the

effects of inflation. The nominal exchange rate is

the rate at which a unit of one currency trades

for a unit of another currency. Compare with

real. See constant dollars/current dollars.

non-. noncommissioned, noncompliance,

nonnuclear, nonpartisan, nonprofit,

nonproliferation, nonvoting, but non-active-

duty, non-means-tested, non-oil, non sequitur,

non-work-related. See prefixes.

none. In terms of subject-verb agreement, none

follows the same rule as collective nouns: If

what follows none is plural, use a plural verb

(None of the studies are ready to be published); if

what follows is singular, use a singular verb

(None of the money is available yet). Use a

singular verb with a plural object only to

emphasize the idea of “not a single one”: Of the

37 invited guests, none has bothered to reply.

north. Lowercase when referring to a direction

or general location: a north wind, northward,

northern Kentucky, northeastern Canada. Upper-

case when referring to a specific geographic or

political region: the Northeast, Northerner,

Northern Hemisphere, the Pacific Northwest,

North Africa, North Atlantic, North Pole. Thus,

note the distinction between North Shore (a

section of Chicago suburbs) and north shore

(a coastline).

North American Free Trade Agreement

(NAFTA), North American free-trade area

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)

not-for-profit

not only . . . but also. Many writers have trouble

with the proper placement of these correlative

conjunctions. The grammatical construction

that follows not only should parallel the con-

struction that follows but also. For example, the

sentence “He not only knew the Vice President

but also the President” is incorrect, because not

only is followed by a verb whereas but also is

followed by a noun. The sentence should be

He knew not only the Vice President but also the

President.

Also may be deleted if the words that follow but

intensify those that follow not only rather than

simply add to them: Her suggestion is not only

shortsighted but dangerous.

noun stacks. One of the plagues of bureaucratic

writing is strings of nouns used as modifiers

without a preposition in sight (as in a

NOUN STACKS • NUMBERS

CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

Department of Energy publication titled “Risk

Assessment Model Review Workshop Summary

Report”). Noun stacks are hard to read—thus

slowing down the reader—and they create con-

fusion about which word in the stack modifies

which other words.

Your ear should be your guide with noun stacks,

but as a general rule, use no more than two

nouns consecutively in a phrase, or three nouns

if two of them form a recognized compound.

For example, the phrase corporate tax rates is

easy to read, but “corporate tax rate changes” is

not (rewrite it as changes in corporate tax rates).

nouns as adjectives. Avoid the awkward use of

nouns as adjectives (“the Administration plan,”

“hospital financial performance,” “the govern-

ment share of financing”) by making the nouns

possessive (the Administration’s plan, hospitals’

financial performance, the government’s share of

financing).

Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), but

nonproliferation

numbers. See the box on page 48.

48 CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

NUMBERS

Numbers

Words or Numerals? In general, write out numbers from zero through nine in text and use numerals for numbers

greater than nine. That rule applies to cardinal and ordinal numbers: two proposals, 10 years, the seventh month,

the 21st century (note that the st is not superscript).

Exceptions to that rule include the following:

Beginning of a sentence. Write out any number that begins a sentence: Twenty-five agencies cooperated on the

program. Rewrite, however, to avoid starting a sentence with a large number. For example, instead of “1989 was a

very good year for the automobile industry,” write For the automobile industry, 1989 was a very good year.

Parallelism between single-digit and larger numbers. When a pair or a series of similar items in the same

sentence or paragraph contains at least one number greater than nine, all of the numbers in that series should be

expressed as numerals for the sake of consistency: The agency plans to award 7 grants in 2015 and a total of

47 grants between 2015 and 2020. CBO estimates the budgetary effects of such options over the next 2, 5, or

10 years. The use of numerals for parallelism applies only to items in the same category; items in other categories

in the same sentence or paragraph should follow the general rule for numbers: Interest rates on 3-month

Treasury bills and 10-year Treasury notes are expected to rise over the next four years.

Money and percentages. Use numerals: a 3 cent surcharge, $5 billion, 8 percent, an increase of 1 percentage

point. (Exceptions: one-half of one percentage point, one dollar, and indefinite numbers, such as thousands of

dollars.)

Ratios. Use numerals: 4 to 1; 4:1.

Ages. Use numerals for a person’s age: a 3-year-old boy, children ages 7 to 11, people age 65 or older. (Follow

the general rule for ages of things: three-year fight, a city that is more than 200 years old.)

Time. Express hours of the day as numerals: 2 p.m. (Follow the general rule for other references to time:

six hours, two days, 15 weeks.)

Weights and measures. Use numerals with units of weight or measure, whether the unit is spelled out or abbre-

viated: 3 kilometers, 3 km; 5 miles per gallon, 5 mpg. (Hyphenate compounds when the unit is spelled out but not

when it is abbreviated: 200-meter race, 16 kWh battery.) See units of measure.

Large Numbers. Numbers from 1,000 to 999,999 have commas, unless they refer to page numbers or years:

6,280 voters, a $500,000 loan, pp. 1123–1246, in 2010. Numbers larger than 999,999 are expressed as numeral-

and-word combinations: $3 trillion budget, 6 million people.

Avoid expressing billions as “thousands of millions” except in a series that consists primarily of numbers below

1 billion: $130 million, $546 million, $868 million, and $1,072 million. (Note that million is repeated for

clarity.)

Rounded Numbers. When numerical data are rounded, include the following note (ordinarily on the “Notes” page

at the front of the document rather than on each table): Numbers in the text, tables, and figures may not add up

to totals because of rounding.

Zero. In text, spell out zero. Place a zero before the decimal point for quantities less than one (0.05 percent)

unless the quantity is always less than one (p < .05, a probability of .05). In tables, use 0, not “0.0” or “0.00”;

never use “-0” or “0 percent.” If a number in a table rounds to zero, replace it with an asterisk and add a note to the

table such as * = between -$500 million and $500 million or * = between zero and 0.5 percent.

CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

O-3, O-4. Military pay grades (in this case

denoting officer ranks) are always hyphenated.

obligate/oblige. Obligate means “to bind under

an obligation” (generally a legal one): I am

obligated by the terms of the will to pay you $100.

Oblige means “to be bound by circumstance,

to be in debt for a favor or service, or to do a

favor”: I am obliged to go to New York tomorrow.

Will you oblige me by coming to the airport?

obligation. A legally binding commitment by the

federal government that will result in outlays,

immediately or in the future. An obligation

delay is legislation that precludes the obligation

of an amount of budget authority provided in

another law until some time after the date on

which the budget authority would normally

become available. An obligation limitation is a

provision (typically in an appropriation act)

that restricts or reduces the availability of

budget authority that would have become

available under another law.

obviate/eliminate. Obviate means “to anticipate

and prevent something” (By resigning, Rick

obviated his dismissal) or “to make something

unnecessary” (The bypass obviates having to drive

through the city). Eliminate means “to remove or

get rid of something” (He eliminated the problem

of how to get to the party by deciding not to go).

The phrase “obviate the need for” is redundant;

use eliminate the need for or rewrite the

sentence.

of course. See therefore.

off-. off-base, off-key, off-limits, off-line, off-peak,

off-ramp, off-season, off-site, but offhand,

offset, offshore. See prefixes.

-off. As nouns, blastoff, cutoff, drop-off, layoff,

payoff, runoff, send-off, sign-off, spin-off,

standoff, takeoff, trade-off, write-off. (As verbs,

those compounds are all two separate words.)

See suffixes.

off-budget. Always hyphenated. A program is off-

budget if its spending or revenues are excluded

from the budget totals by law. For instance, the

outlays and revenues of the two Social Security

trust funds (the Old-Age and Survivors Insur-

ance Trust Fund and the Disability Insurance

Trust Fund) and the transactions of the Postal

Service are off-budget (although they are

included in the total budget).

Office of Management and Budget (OMB)

offsetting collections, offsetting receipts.

Funds collected by government agencies from

other government accounts or from the public

in businesslike or market-oriented transactions

that are credited to an expenditure account (in

the case of offsetting collections) or a receipt

account (in the case of offsetting receipts). Both

types of collections are treated for budgetary

purposes as negative budget authority and

outlays. Collections that result from the govern-

ment’s exercise of its sovereign or governmental

powers are ordinarily classified as revenues, but

they are classified as offsetting collections or

offsetting receipts when a law requires it.

often. A good substitute for frequently, as in

The missile misfired often before it was finally

launched. Often should be used only to indicate

repetition in time, however. Do not write

“Localities often reported noncompliance with

the regulation” if what you mean is Localities

generally reported noncompliance with the regula-

tion or Many localities reported noncompliance

with the regulation.

oil field, oil-field equipment

Okun’s law. A rule of thumb, named after econo-

mist Arthur Okun, that generalizes that an

increase of 1 percentage point in the unemploy-

ment rate is accompanied by a loss of roughly

2.5 percent in gross domestic product.

50 CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

OLD-AGE AND SURVIVORS INSURANCE • OVERSEAS PRIVATE INVESTMENT CORPORATION

Old-Age and Survivors Insurance (OASI)

Trust Fund, the OASI trust fund. One of

the trust funds for Social Security. The other is

the Disability Insurance Trust Fund.

Old-Age, Survivors, and Disability Insurance

(OASDI). A collective name for Social

Security.

on. Synonymous with “upon” but almost always

preferable: The poverty level depends on family

size. See the box about Plain English on

page 53.

on-. on-base, onboard, on-budget, ongoing,

online, on-ramp, onset, onshore, on-site. See

prefixes.

-on. As nouns or adjectives, carry-on, run-on,

slip-on. (As verbs, those compounds are all two

separate words.) See suffixes.

only. Place only before the word it modifies to

ensure the correct meaning: Only the three of us

are going to the store (no one else is going). The

three of us are only going to the store (we are not

doing anything else).

open-enrollment period

operation and maintenance (O&M)

operation and support (O&S)

optimal/optimum. Optimal means “the most

desirable or satisfactory.” Optimum means “the

best possible for a given end or under a given set

of conditions.”

option. Lowercase unless used with a number

(under this option, Options 1 and 4).

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and

Development (OECD)

Organization of Petroleum Exporting

Countries (OPEC)

out-. outdoor, outmaneuver, outnumber,

outpatient, outperform, output, outweigh,

but out-year. See prefixes.

-out. As nouns, closeout, dropout, fallout,

hideout, payout, phaseout, pullout, walkout,

but fade-out. (As verbs, those compounds are all

two separate words.) See suffixes.

Outer Continental Shelf (OCS)

outlays. Spending to pay a federal obligation.

Outlays may pay for obligations incurred in a

prior fiscal year or in the current year; hence,

they flow partly from unexpended balances of

prior-year budget authority and partly from

budget authority provided for the current year.

Also see spending/funding.

out of pocket. Not hyphenated after a noun

or a verb (The expenses were paid out of pocket).

Hyphenated before a noun (out-of-pocket

expenses). The same treatment applies to out of

network.

out-year. Always hyphenated. An out-year is a

fiscal year beyond the budget year (the fiscal

year for which the budget is being considered).

Out-years is jargon, so if it cannot be replaced

by a more familiar phrase—such as succeeding

years—it should be defined on first use in a

document.

over-. overabundant, overall, overproduce,

overreach, override, oversee. See prefixes.

-over. As nouns or adjectives, carryover,

changeover, leftover, spillover, takeover,

turnover. (As verbs, those compounds are all

two separate words.) See suffixes.

over/more than. See less than/under.

Overseas Private Investment Corporation

(OPIC)

CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

Pacific Islanders. People born or living in any

of the Pacific islands that make up the regions

of Polynesia, Micronesia, and Melanesia—

including Hawaii, Tahiti, Samoa, Fiji, Guam,

and New Guinea.

Pacific Rim countries. The nations that border

the Pacific Ocean, particularly those in Asia.

Panel of Economic Advisers, Panel of Health

Advisers. Capitalized when referring to CBO’s

advisory groups.

participating provider agreement

part time. Not hyphenated after a noun (The job

is part time) or after a verb (He works part time).

Hyphenated before a noun (a part-time job).

pass. See adopt/agree to/approve/enact/pass/

ratify.

passive voice. See the box about Active and

Passive Voice on page 3.

pass-through (n. and adj.), pass through (v.)

past. See last/latest/past.

Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act

(Public Law 111-148). One of two laws

enacted in March 2010 that made major

changes to the U.S. health care and health

insurance systems. (The other was the Health

Care and Education Reconciliation Act of

2010, P.L. 111-152.) See Affordable Care Act.

pay-as-you-go (PAYGO). Procedures estab-

lished in law or in House and Senate rules

that are intended to ensure that laws affecting

mandatory spending or revenues are deficit

neutral over some period of time. When the

term is used in headings or titles, all four words

are capitalized: Pay-As-You-Go Scorecard.

pay grade. Military pay grades are expressed as

E-2, O-5, and so on and are always hyphenated.

payload

pay raise. Always two words and never

hyphenated.

PCE price index. See price index for personal

consumption expenditures.

PDF. Stands for portable document format; no need

to spell it out.

peacetime

Pell grant. See Federal Pell Grant Program.

Pension Benefit Guaranty Corporation

(PBGC)

people. Preferable to “persons,” which sounds

stilted, and to “individuals,” except when

differentiating between individuals and groups

of people (such as families). Also see individual/

person.

per. per capita (never hyphenated), per-case

payment, per-person cost, cost per person.

Because per is a preposition of fewer than four

letters, it is not capitalized in titles or headings.

per annum. See the box about Foreign Phrases

and Abbreviations on page 27.

percent. One word (not “per cent”); generally

spelled out in text and tables. Percent takes

a singular or plural verb depending on whether

the “of” construction that follows it (whether

explicitly or implicitly) is singular or plural:

Nearly 40 percent of the spending is for non-

essential items. Almost 35 percent of the workers

are on vacation; another 28 percent are out sick.

percent/percentage. Although similar in

meaning (Webster’s gives percentage as a

synonym for percent), the two words are not

interchangeable at CBO. Percent is used to

denote a definite proportion and appears only

after a number: 23 percent of expenditures,

52 CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

PERCENT • PLURALS

37 percent of agency personnel. Percentage is used

for an unspecified portion or share of a whole:

defense spending rose as a percentage of GDP.

Percentage is also the adjective form: percentage

change.

Always express percentages in numerals:

0.01 percent, 6 percent, 98 percent. In a range

or series, percent is repeated for clarity: between

8 percent and 11 percent (not “8 and 11 per-

cent”); an increase of 4 percent, 6 percent, or

9percent. If a percentage is less than one, put a

zero before the decimal point: 0.3 percent. See

decimals and fractions.

percentage points. The difference between two

percentages is expressed in percentage points:

The President’s approval rating rose by 7 per-

centage points, from 41 percent to 48 percent.

Percentage points are expressed as numerals and

are generally plural, to conform with spoken

language, even if the number is less than one:

0.2 percentage points. Exceptions: 1percentage

point, 0.1 percentage point. The adjective form is

hyphenated: a 9 percentage-point reduction (but

better to write a reduction of 9 percentage points).

Be careful to distinguish between an increase

of X percent and an increase of X percentage

points. If revenues rise relative to GDP from

18 percent to 21 percent, that is an increase of

3 percentage points, or almost 17 percent (not

3percent).

Perkins loan. See Federal Perkins Loan Program.

permit, permitted, permitting

per se. See the box about Foreign Phrases and

Abbreviations on page 27.

Persian Gulf, Persian Gulf states, Persian

Gulf War, the Gulf (region), the gulf (body

of water)

person. See individual/person and people.

personal health expenditures. The preferred

abbreviation is PHE (rather than “PHEs”), even

though the term is plural. Spending on hospital

care increased as a percentage of PHE last year.

The same style applies to national health

expenditures.

personal income. The income that people

receive, including transfer payments, such as

Social Security benefits.

personal saving. Saving by households. Personal

saving equals disposable personal income minus

spending for consumption, interest payments,

and transfer payments. The personal saving rate

is personal saving as a percentage of disposable

personal income.

phase-in (n. and adj.), phase in (v.)

phaseout (n. and adj.), phase out (v.)

Ph.D. (doctor of philosophy). The plural is

Ph.D.s.

phenomenon, phenomena (pl.)

physicians’ services. Not “physician services.”

See nouns as adjectives.

pickup (n. and adj.), pick up (v.)

P. L . See Public Law.

play or pay, the play-or-pay plan

plurals. Although the plural of most English

nouns is formed by adding s (banks, dollars)—

or es if the noun ends in ch, s, sh, j, x, or z

(lunches, taxes)—many exceptions and special

cases exist. Unless shown otherwise in this style

guide, CBO follows the first choice shown in an

entry in Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary

(www.m-w.com).

PLUS LOANS • POTENTIAL LABOR FORCE

CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

PLUS loans. Although originally called Parent

Loans for Undergraduate Students, these loans

are now available to graduate students as well as

to parents of undergraduates and are known

simply as PLUS loans.

p.m. Stands for post meridiem. Never use with

“afternoon” or “evening”: 4 p.m., at 7:30 in the

evening.

point-of-service (POS) plan

policy-. policyholder, policymaker, policymaking.

See prefixes.

possessives. See the box about Possessives on

page 54.

post-. postgraduate, postoperative, postsecondary,

postwar, but post–Cold War era, post–World

War II period. See prefixes.

Postal Service (USPS). No need to add “U.S.”

before the name when introducing the

abbreviation.

Post-9/11 GI Bill (Chapter 33). After its first

use in a document, refer to the Post-9/11 GI

Bill as the Chapter 33 program, which pays

Chapter 33 benefits. See GI Bill.

postwar. When using this term, be sure to specify

which war you mean.

potential gross domestic product. The

maximum sustainable level of gross domestic

product. That level corresponds to a high rate of

use of labor and capital. See potential output.

potential labor force. The labor force adjusted

for movements in the business cycle. Specifi-

cally, it is the labor force that exists when the

unemployment rate equals the natural rate

of unemployment (the rate that results from

all sources except fluctuations in aggregate

demand). The number of hours worked by the

potential labor force is referred to as potential

hours worked.

Plain English

Strunk and White’s maxim “Omit needless words”

should be a guiding principle for every CBO writer.

Using wordy phrases in an effort to sound more

formal or serious is tempting, but it adds to the length

and complexity of writing and forces readers to work

harder. When reviewing their writing, authors should

keep simplicity in mind and try to avoid ponderous

phrases such as these:

Wordy Simple

as a means of to

at the present time now

due to the fact that because

during the course of during, while

during the period during, while

for a period of for

for the purpose of for, to

in a timely manner on time, promptly

in close proximity to near

in order that so

in regard to about

in the amount of for

in the event that if

in the near future soon, shortly

in the process of (omit)

point in time point, time

successfully complete complete, pass

under the provisions of under

until such time as until

with the exception of except for

Writers should also keep an eye out for long or

multisyllabic words where shorter ones will do. If

sentences are long or material is complex, one way

to make writing easier to read is to substitute about

for “concerning” or “regarding,” end for “termi-

nate,” help for “facilitate,” later for “subsequent,”

spending for “expenditures,” total for “aggregate,”

use for “utilize,” and so forth.

54 CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

POTENTIAL OUTPUT • PREFIXES

potential output. The maximum sustainable

level of production. That level corresponds to a

high rate of use of labor and capital. Potential

output for the national economy is also referred

to as potential gross domestic product.

pounds per square inch (psi)

poverty level/poverty line. See federal poverty

guidelines/federal poverty thresholds.

power marketing administration (PMA)

pre-. preadmission, preadolescent, prearrange,

predetermine, preemptive, preexisting, prepay,

preregister, preretirement, pretax, prewar, but

pre-engineered. See prefixes.

preferred provider organization (PPO)

prefixes. To determine whether a prefix forms a

hyphenated or a closed compound, refer to the

entries for specific prefixes in this style guide

or to Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary

(www.m-w.com), not online spell-check pro-

grams. Most words formed with prefixes are not

hyphenated. Exceptions include compounds

that contain a capitalized word or a number

(sub-Saharan, mid-2007), multiword com-

pounds (non-means-tested), and potentially con-

fusing compounds (recover, to regain, re-cover, to

cover again). Other exceptions are compounds

formed with all-, ex-, no-, or self-, which are

usually hyphenated, and those formed with

Possessives

Possessives of Nouns. The possessive case of a singular noun is formed by adding apostrophe s: the project’s

budget, the committee’s request.

Plural nouns ending in s take an apostrophe only: the policies’ effects, the Joneses’ dog, but women’s rights

(plural not ending in s).

Proper nouns, abbreviations, and most nouns ending in sibilants (s, x, z, sh, ch) take apostrophe s: the Congress’s

deliberations, Senator Jones’s bill, the MX’s guidance system, Alcatraz’s inmates. Exceptions: the United States’

obligations, the United Nations’ budget, the Marine Corps’ policy. (For further treatment of possessives and some

exceptions to the rules, see The Chicago Manual of Style.)

Singular Noun With a Plural Possessive. In most cases, a plural possessive should be followed by a singular

noun when only one of the things possessed belongs to each individual: The passengers held their breath as the

plane began to shake. Most workers earn more now than they did in their previous job.

In CBO writing, this issue arises most often with the word income: People participating in the Medicare program

are also eligible for Medicaid benefits if their income is low enough. Housing costs are considered affordable

to renters whose income is above a certain threshold. Similarly, use a singular noun when a plural possessive is

implied: people with low income.

Possessives With Gerunds. The possessive case is sometimes necessary before a gerund (a verb ending in -ing

that acts as a noun) to show that the gerund is “owned” by the noun or pronoun preceding it: All of us worry about

Sally’s smoking. Lee objected to our eating the whole cheesecake. Failure to use the possessive when needed can

change the meaning of a sentence. For instance, My brother loves that woman singing suggests that the brother

loves the woman; My brother loves that woman’s singing suggests that he loves the singing.

If using the possessive with a gerund sounds awkward (frequently the case in long or complex sentences), revise the

sentence. Correct but awkward: Spending decreased because of several large pharmaceutical firms’ changing

their behavior. A better alternative: Spending decreased because several large pharmaceutical firms changed

their behavior.

PREFIXES • PRINCIPLE

CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

in-, off-, or on-, which are about equally likely to

be hyphenated or not hyphenated.

If a hyphenated word with a prefix appears in a

heading or title, only the prefix should be capi-

talized (History of Anti-inflationary Policies).

prepositions. Avoid imprecise prepositions when

precise ones exist. Write information about the

policy, details of the plan (rather than “informa-

tion on” or “details on”) and concerns about

inflation, dissatisfaction with the change (rather

than “concerns over” or “dissatisfaction over”).

In certain contexts, ending a sentence with a

preposition is acceptable. He received the award

he had hoped for is stronger than “He received

the award for which he had hoped.” Another

acceptable example: After the Congress passes this

bill, no further action will be called for.

In headings or titles, do not capitalize preposi-

tions unless they contain at least four letters (in,

for, With, Through) or are an inseparable part of

a verb (Five Steps to Clean Up Hazardous Waste).

presently. Can mean either “before long” (An aide

assures me that the mayor will arrive presently) or

“at the present time” (The board is turning its

attention to personnel spending, presently the

fastest-growing part of the budget). To av oid

confusion about which meaning is intended,

consider using soon or now instead.

present value (n.), present-value (adj.). A single

number that expresses a flow of current and

future income (or payments) in terms of an

equivalent lump sum received (or paid) today.

The present value depends on the rate of

interest (known as the discount rate) that is

used to translate future cash flows into current

dollars. For example, if $100 is invested on

January 1 at an annual interest rate of 5 percent,

it will grow to $105 by January 1 of the next

year. Hence, at an annual 5 percent interest rate,

the present value of $105 payable a year from

today is $100.

President, Presidential. Uppercase when refer-

ring to the President of the United States: The

President asserted or by Presidential directive.

Any other president takes a lowercase p unless

the word is used before the person’s name: the

president of Harvard, President Faust of Harvard,

the presidents of 12 nations.

President-elect

pretax. See before-tax income.

preventive (not “preventative”)

price-conscious. Always hyphenated.

price index for personal consumption

expenditures (PCE price index). A

summary measure of the prices of all goods and

services that make up personal consumption

expenditures. The Federal Reserve uses

measures based on the PCE price index as its

primary measures of inflation in conducting

monetary policy because those measures better

represent consumers’ current spending patterns

than the consumer price index does. The PCE

price index is also known as the chained price

index for personal consumption expenditures.

price support. Never hyphenated: price support

programs.

primary care. Never hyphenated: primary care

physician.

primary deficit or surplus. The total budget

deficit or surplus excluding net interest.

primary insurance amount (PIA)

principle/principal. A principle is a law,

doctrine, assumption, or code of conduct. A

principal is one who is in charge, has authority,

or is in a leading position; principal also refers

to a sum of capital earning interest or due as a

debt. As an adjective, principal means “first in

importance, rank, or degree.” The principal sus-

pended the principal troublemakers on principle.

56 CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

PRIOR TO • PUBLIC LAW

prior to. A stilted phrase; use before instead.

prior-year outlays

private saving. Saving by households and busi-

nesses. Private saving equals personal saving

plus after-tax corporate profits minus dividends

paid.

private sector (n.), private-sector (adj.)

problem, problematic

producer price index (PPI). A measure of

average changes in the prices received in all

stages of processing by producers in various

sectors of the economy (such as manufacturing,

agriculture, forestry, fishing, mining, gas and

electricity, and public utilities). The PPI is

published by the Bureau of Labor Statistics.

producers’ durable equipment (PDE).

Primarily nonresidential capital equipment

(such as computers, machines, and transporta-

tion equipment) owned by businesses.

productivity. Average real (inflation-adjusted)

output per unit of input. Labor productivity is

average real output per hour of labor. The

growth of labor productivity is defined as

the growth of real output that is not explained

by the growth of labor input alone. Total factor

productivity is average real output per unit of

combined labor and capital services. The

growth of total factor productivity is defined as

the growth of real output that is not explained

by the growth of labor and capital. Labor

productivity and total factor productivity differ

in that increases in capital per worker raise labor

productivity but not total factor productivity.

profit sharing (n.), profit-sharing (adj.)

program (n.). Lowercase unless the word is

officially part of the program’s name. A handy

rule of thumb is to capitalize program if it is

included in the program’s abbreviation:

Troubled Asset Relief Program (TARP), Child

Support Enforcement (CSE) program.

program (v.), programmed, programming,

programmable, programmatic

program account. A budgetary account associ-

ated with a federal credit program that receives

an appropriation of the subsidy cost of that

program’s loan obligations or commitments as

well as (in some cases) the program’s administra-

tive expenses. From the program account, the

subsidy cost is disbursed to the applicable

financing account.

pronouns. See the box about Pronouns on

page 57.

pro rata share, prorated

prospective payment system (PPS)

proved/proven. Proved is the past tense and the

preferred past participle of the verb “to prove”:

The lawyer has proved the defendant’s innocence.

Proven is used at CBO only as an adjective: a

proven formula.

pseudo-. pseudonym, pseudoscience. See prefixes.

Public Health Service (PHS)

public housing agency (PHA)

Public Law (P.L.). Uppercase when referring to

a specific law (Public Law 102-378), otherwise

lowercase (it is a matter of public law). Spell out

Public Law on first use in a section of a report

(main text, stand-alone summary, appendix, or

box); use the abbreviation P. L . in that section

thereafter.

In a passing reference to a law—when the law is

mentioned only once or twice in a document

and specific provisions are not highlighted—

it is not necessary to include the public law

number. An exception is made in The Budget

and Economic Outlook and similar “reference

documents,” where P.L. numbers should be

included for all laws enacted in the current or

previous Congress and for any other laws for

which a P.L. number may be useful for research

PUBLIC LAW • PURCHASING-POWER PARITY

CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

purposes. In addition, if the P.L. number would

be helpful to distinguish a law from others with

similar names (especially names that do not

contain a year), it may be included even in a

passing reference.

When discussing a law in depth or highlighting

a specific provision, use a more complete legal

citation in a footnote, following the guidelines

in the Footnotes and References section that

begin on page 90. When in doubt about a legal

citation, consult the General Counsel’s office.

public-private partnership

public sector (n.), public-sector (adj.)

punctuation. See colon, comma, dashes, ellipsis,

hyphenation and compound words, quotation

marks, and semicolon. For more information

about punctuation, see The Chicago Manual of

Style, Words Into Type, or The New York Public

Library Writer’s Guide to Style and Usage.

purchasing-power parity

Pronouns

The pronoun problem at CBO is confined to two areas: the first person (to whom does “we” apply?) and sexism and

how to avoid it in the third-person singular.

First-Person Pronouns. Avoid using we and other first-person pronouns—I, me, us, our—in CBO reports. They

can raise too many questions in a reader’s mind about the people being referred to. We, the authors of this study?

We, CBO? We, the United States? Or we, the human race?

When voicing the analysis and conclusions of the agency, use CBO rather than “we.” When referring to the Congress,

the federal government, the population of the United States, or some other subject, state that explicitly. For example,

instead of saying “We have made enormous progress in eradicating tuberculosis,” say Medical science has made

enormous progress in eradicating tuberculosis.

Exceptions may be made in testimony, letters, cost estimates, blog entries, or working papers when it is clear that

I refers to the testifier or writer and we refers to CBO.

Sexism in Pronouns. The English language, abundantly rich in many respects, lacks a third-person singular

pronoun that does not indicate gender. Some writers try to work around that problem by alternating the use of he

and she in general statements, but such an approach can seem artificial or cause confusion.

One rule is clear, however: When a single person is referred to—say, a legislator, a taxpayer, or a program

beneficiary—a singular pronoun is required. The plural they (as in “ask the next customer if they want coffee”)

is ungrammatical.

When referring to an unidentified person, use he or she and his or her: When can a recipient collect his or her

benefit payment? If a taxpayer earns less than a certain amount, he or she may participate in the program. If

that construction becomes too clumsy, write around the problem. One simple way is to make the unidentified parties

consistently plural: When can recipients collect their benefits?

The he or she construction should be used when referring to a general category of people who might be of either

sex. Thus, when discussing an officeholder, but not a specific person, proper reference should take this form: The

Secretary of Transportation, under authority granted to him or her by statute, may determine compliance

with the rule. That construction could, however, be circumvented this way: By statute, the Secretary of Transpor-

tation has authority to determine compliance with the rule. When the reference is to a specific officeholder, the

problem disappears: Justice Kagan made the point in her dissenting opinion.

58 CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

quasi-. quasi-governmental, quasi-judicial,

quasiperiodic, quasi-public. See prefixes.

quite. This modifier is vague and detracts from the

clear prose CBO aims for. Use it sparingly.

quotation marks. With anything other than a

direct quotation, use quotation marks sparingly

for emphasis or to highlight slang or jargon, but

only on first reference. In the case of jargon,

rewriting is a better choice; see jargon.

The rules for using quotation marks with other

punctuation vary. Periods and commas always

go inside quotation marks, whether the marks

surround an entire sentence or just a word:

Then he said, “I think the sky is falling.” In the

case of “ghost beneficiaries,” the Congress could

take several actions.

Colons, semicolons, and dashes go outside

quotation marks: EPA must meet the standards

deemed “relevant and appropriate”; who will

define those criteria, however, is unclear. “I never

met a dog I didn’t like”—that was what the mail

carrier said, anyway.

Exclamation points and question marks go

inside quotation marks only if they are part of

the quoted material: Thompson yelled, “Stop that

immediately!” Did the Senator really call her

opponent a “wolf in sheep’s clothing”?

CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

racial and ethnic designations. Capitalization

in racial, ethnic, and cultural designations

follows the rules applying to the proper and

common nouns from which those designations

derive. Here is a list of correct forms: African

American, Asian American, black, Caucasian,

Hispanic, Hispanic American, Indian (in the

context of federal programs; otherwise, Native

American), Latina, Latino, nonwhite (to be

defined whenever used), Pacific Islander, white.

Railroad Retirement benefits

RAND Corporation (thereafter just RAND).

A think tank headquartered in Santa Monica,

California, with offices in Arlington, Virginia,

and elsewhere.

ranges. Express numerical ranges according to

the following examples: the 1984–1989 period

(with an en dash); the period from 1965 to 1975

(without an en dash); beneficiaries in the

$1,000–$1,250 annual income bracket; retirees

in the age range between 61 and 66 years; a

revenue loss in the $3.7 billion–$4.2 billion range

(repeat “billion”); estimates ranging between

7 percent and 11 percent (repeat “percent”).

Ranking Member, Ranking Minority

Member. Use the term that the Member in

question favors (as indicated on the Member’s

or committee’s stationery or website). Always

capitalized.

rather. This modifier is vague and detracts from

the clear prose CBO aims for. Use it sparingly.

ratify. See adopt/agree to/approve/enact/pass/

ratify.

ratios and comparisons. Use numerals to express

ratios: The unemployment rate among young

black men compared with the rate among young

white men is almost 2 to 1. That 2-to-1 ratio

has persisted for years. Use hyphens to express

comparisons in text that involve words rather

than numerals: the debt-to-asset ratio, but the

ratio of debts to assets.

re-. reappear, reauction, recover (to regain),

re-cover (to cover again), recreate (to take

recreation), re-create (to create anew), reelect,

reemploy, reenter, reexport, refund, reignite,

remake, reopen. See prefixes.

real. Adjusted to remove the effects of inflation.

Compare with nominal. See constant dollars/

current dollars.

real estate agent (someone who sells real estate),

Realtor (a real estate agent who is a member of

the National Association of Realtors)

receipt account. An account established within

federal funds and trust funds to record off-

setting receipts or revenues credited to that

fund. The receipt account typically finances

the obligations and outlays from an associated

expenditure account.

receipts. See revenues.

recession. A significant decline in economic

activity that is spread across the economy; lasts

more than a few months; and normally is visible

in production, employment, real income, and

other indicators. A recession begins just after

the economy reaches a peak of activity and ends

when the economy reaches its trough.

recision. See rescission.

reconciliation. A special Congressional procedure

used to implement the revenue and spending

targets established in a budget resolution.

Reconciliation affects revenues, mandatory

spending, and offsetting receipts but usually not

discretionary spending.

reconnaissance

60 CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

RECORDKEEPING • REVENUES

recordkeeping

recovery. A significant, broad-based increase in

economic activity that begins just after the

economy reaches a trough of activity and ends

when the economy reaches the level of its

previous peak.

reduction in force (RIF), reductions in force

(RIFs)

referendum, referendums (pl.)

regarding. A better choice is about, which is

shorter, easier to read, and means the same

thing. See the box about Plain English on

page 53.

regime/regimen. Although these words are often

used interchangeably, careful writers observe the

following distinction: A regime is a form of

government or a government in power; a

regimen is a prescribed routine, a regular course

of action, or a systematic plan.

Representative. Used as a title for Members of

the U.S. House of Representatives who prefer it

to Congressman or Congresswoman. (Check

with the Member’s office to determine such

preferences.) In those cases, Representative is

uppercase: During the hearing, Representative

Susan Smith presented several charts. In contexts

not related to the U.S. Congress, representative

is lowercase: Several conferees, representatives of

interest groups, argued for the policy change.

rescission. Means “the act of rescinding.” In

budgetary terms, rescission refers to the with-

drawal of authority to incur financial obliga-

tions that was previously provided by law and

has not yet expired. (The related word recision,

which means “cancellation,” is a general,

nonlegal term and should not be used in

budgetary references.)

research and development (R&D)

research, development, test, and evaluation

(RDT&E)

reserve. Lowercase when referring collectively to

the non-active-duty part of the military (the

Army, Navy, Air Force, and Marine Corps

Reserves; the Army and Air National Guards;

and others): the reserve component or the reserves

numbered fewer than 1 million members by 1996.

Uppercase when referring to a specific Reserve:

The active Marine Corps took part in this

operation, but the Reserve did not. See Guard.

resolution. Lowercase when referring informally

or generally to a piece of legislation: The resolu-

tion was brought to the floor or when the second

concurrent resolution was agreed to. Uppercase

when part of an official title: the Second Con-

current Resolution on the Budget for Fiscal Year

1983. Also see act/bill/law/measure/resolution.

Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of

1976 (RCRA)

retro-. retroactive, retrofit, retrograde, retrospect.

See prefixes.

return. To avoid confusion, talk about returns to a

person or place and on or from an investment:

With interest rates so low, the return to depositors

on savings is small.

revenues. Funds collected from the public that

arise from the government’s exercise of its sover-

eign or governmental powers. Federal revenues

come from a variety of sources, including indi-

vidual and corporate income taxes, excise taxes,

customs duties, estate and gift taxes, fees and

fines, and payroll taxes for social insurance

programs. Also known as governmental receipts.

In many cases, revenues and receipts can be used

as synonyms: income tax revenues, income tax

receipts. Note, however, that whereas all federal

revenues are receipts, not all federal receipts are

revenues. For example, oil companies’ payments

REVENUES • RURAL UTILITIES SERVICE

CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

to the federal government for the right to drill

on the Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) are

counted in the budget as offsetting receipts

rather than as revenues; thus, they are referred

to as OCS receipts, not “OCS revenues.”

Revenues is preferable to revenue, except as an

adjective (revenue laws) or when modified by

much or less (How much revenue would the

proposal raise? Less revenue than last year).

risk taking. Not hyphenated as a noun: her

approach to risk taking. Hyphenated as an adjec-

tive: risk-taking behavior. The same style applies

to risk adjustment, risk management, risk

selection, risk sorting, and risk spreading.

risk-weighted asset

river. Lowercase in general references: emptying

into smaller rivers. Uppercase when referring to

specific rivers: the Delaware River, the Potomac

and Patapsco Rivers.

rulemaking (n. and adj.)

rural statistical area (RSA)

Rural Utilities Service (RUS)

62 CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

S. 273. The S stands for Senate, and 273 is the

number of the bill. No need to spell it out.

sale, salable (not “saleable”)

saving/savings. Saving is a process or activity, and

savings are what result. Savings is commonly

used as a modifier, as in savings account or

savings bond. But the national total used in

CBO reports is the saving rate. Treat savings as

a plural noun: The savings are limited to three

programs.

savings and loan associations (S&Ls). They

are associations or institutions, not banks.

S. Con. Res. Stands for Senate concurrent resolu-

tion. No need to spell it out when used with a

number: S. Con. Res. 10.

S corporation (or Subchapter S corporation).

A domestically owned corporation with no

more than 100 owners who have elected to

pay taxes under subchapter S of the Internal

Revenue Code. An S corporation is taxed like a

partnership: It is exempt from corporate income

taxes, but its owners pay individual income

taxes on all of the business’s profits, even if some

of those profits are retained by the company.

sea-launched cruise missile (SLCM)

search-and-destroy mission

seasons. Lowercase: summer, fall, autumn, winter,

spring.

Secretary. See titles of office.

section. Lowercase when referring to part of a

piece of legislation or a legal code: section 212

of the act. Uppercase when referring to a

program: Section 8 housing.

Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC)

securitization. A financial process that involves

aggregating a number of assets into a pool (in

many cases, by selling them to an entity specifi-

cally created for that purpose) and then issuing

a new set of securities backed by the assets and

the flows of income they generate. The aggrega-

tion of assets is intended to redistribute (and

thus dilute) the risk that any of the assets will

fail to generate the expected income flows.

seigniorage. The gain to the government from the

difference between the face value of currency

and coins put into circulation and the cost of

producing them. Seigniorage is considered a

means of financing and is not included in

federal budget totals.

select/selected. As a verb, select means “choose.”

As an adjective, select means “superior” or

“choice” and selected means “chosen.” Do not

write “data from select jurisdictions” when what

you mean is data from selected jurisdictions or

data from a sample of jurisdictions.

self-. self-explanatory, self-government,

self-respect. See prefixes.

-self. herself, himself, oneself. See suffixes.

SEMATECH. A consortium of international

companies formed to research and develop

semiconductor technology.

semi-. semiannual, semicircular, semicolon,

semifinal, semitrailer, semiweekly, but

semi-independent, semi-industrialized. See

prefixes and bi-/semi-.

semicolon. Use a semicolon when you want to

link related independent clauses that would

otherwise be separated by a period: The ramifi-

cations of systemic changes to the health care system

are uncertain; even the outcomes of incremental

changes are hard to predict. In such usage,

SEMICOLON • SKILLED NURSING FACILITY

CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

semicolons sometimes suggest a cause-and-

effect relationship: The attempt to filibuster the

bill failed; not enough Senators showed up.

When independent clauses are divided by words

such as however, thus, therefore, indeed, besides,

furthermore, or otherwise, the proper punctua-

tion between the clauses is a semicolon, not a

period or a comma: Carol planned to go; how-

ever, she was delayed at the last minute. The ad

promised free tickets; otherwise, we would not

be here.

Semicolons should also separate items in a

series that has internal commas: The average

growth rate since the oil shock of 1973 has been

about 0.75 percent; since World War II, about

1.5 percent; and since 1900, about 1.25 percent.

Senate, Senator. Uppercase in all references to

the U.S. Senate or a U.S. Senator, whether

specific or general: As Senator Kennedy proposed,

the Senators debated the amendment. The Senate

vote was delayed. Lowercase in other references:

Williams was elected a state senator. Also see

Congressional correspondence.

sequester. A verb; the noun is sequestration.

sequestration. An enforcement mechanism by

which the President orders the cancellation of

budgetary resources in amounts sufficient to

eliminate the following: a debit on the statutory

pay-as-you-go scorecards created by the Statu-

tory Pay-As-You-Go Act of 2010, a breach of

discretionary spending caps under the Balanced

Budget and Emergency Deficit Control Act of

1985, or a deficit as calculated under the

Budget Control Act of 2011.

services. Intangible commodities, such as educa-

tion or health care, as opposed to such tangible

commodities as cars or clothing, which are

goods.

session of Congress

set-aside (n. and adj.), set aside (v.)

sex. See gender/sex.

shipbuilding

ships. Names of individual naval vessels are capi-

talized and italicized (U.S.S. Arleigh Burke);

names of specific classes of Navy ships are

capitalized but not italicized (Arleigh Burke

class destroyer, Wasp class amphibious assault

ship). Names of general types of ships are

neither capitalized nor italicized (dock landing

ship, littoral combat ship).

Every Navy ship has a unique letter-and-

number identifier; for example, the U.S.S.

Arleigh Burke is DDG-51. When a ship is the

first (or lead) ship in a class, the class can also

be referred to by that ship’s identifier: Beginning

in 2016, new DDG-51s will have an upgraded

design.

short circuit (n.), short-circuit (v.)

short run, short term. Not hyphenated after a

noun: an effect in the short run. Hyphenated

before a noun: a short-term effect.

short-term interest rate. The interest rate earned

by a debt instrument (such as a Treasury bill)

that will mature within one year.

shutdown (n. and adj.), shut down (v.)

simple words and phrases. See the box about

Plain English on page 53.

since. See because/since/as.

sine qua non. Means “something absolutely

essential.” Not italicized. Also see the box about

Foreign Phrases and Abbreviations on page 27.

single-payer system

sizable (not “sizeable”)

S.J. Res. Stands for Senate joint resolution. No

need to spell it out when used with a number:

S.J. Res. 43.

skilled nursing facility (SNF)

64 CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

SMALL BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION • SPENDING

Small Business Administration (SBA)

Social Security. A federal program for retired

workers, people with disabilities, and their

families. Social Security has two parts: Old-Age

and Survivors Insurance (OASI) and Disability

Insurance (DI). The program is sometimes

referred to as Old-Age, Survivors, and Disability

Insurance (OASDI). Capitalize Social Security

unless referring to general social security

programs in other countries: The social security

programs in Chile and Sweden use different rules

for eligibility.

Social Security Administration (SSA)

Social Services Block Grant (SSBG)

program. Also known as the Title XX Social

Services Block Grant program because it was

created by title XX of the Social Security Act.

socio-. socioeconomic, sociopolitical. See prefixes.

sole community hospital (SCH)

some. See those.

south. Lowercase when referring to a direction or

general location: a south wind, southward, south

of the border, southern Montana, southern United

States. Uppercase when referring to a specific

geographic or political region: the South, the

Southwest, Southerner, Southern Hemisphere,

Southeast Asia, South Sudan, South Pole. Thus,

note the distinction between South Side (a sec-

tion of Chicago) and south side (the southern

part of something).

space-. spacecraft, spaceflight, space shuttle,

space station. See prefixes.

spare parts (not “spares”)

Speaker of the House, the Speaker. See

Congressional correspondence and titles of

office.

Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for

Women, Infants, and Children (WIC)

spelling. Because spelling can vary and may be

arbitrary, consult Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate

Dictionary (www.m-w.com). If an entry gives

alternative spellings, use the first one unless

otherwise indicated in this style guide.

For the names and abbreviations of organiza-

tions, CBO generally follows the style that an

organization uses for its name in print—

Federal Home Loan Banks (FHLBanks),

PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC)—unless that

style is so strange that no other publications

use it.

Troublesome words, especially hyphenated

and compound words, are listed separately and

alphabetically in this style guide. Words formed

with prefixes or suffixes are found under sepa-

rate alphabetical listings for the prefix or suffix.

For general guidelines about various aspects of

spelling and word formation, see the boxes

about Hyphenation and Compound Words on

page 33 and Possessives on page 54.

spending/funding. In the context of the federal

government, spending generally refers to cash

flows recorded for disbursement from the

Treasury; it is synonymous with outlays or

expenditures. Funding refers to the authority to

enter into obligations on behalf of the govern-

ment that result in spending; it is synonymous

with budget authority or (for discretionary

programs) appropriations.

Budget laws, and thus CBO, sometimes use

spending in a broader sense to encompass both

budget authority and outlays. That broader

usage generally occurs in references to manda-

tory spending, direct spending, or discretionary

spending as general categories or in specific

budgetary terms such as discretionary spending

caps. When a CBO document is referring

specifically to amounts appropriated, however,

discretionary appropriations or discretionary

funding is preferable to “discretionary

spending.”

SPLIT INFINITIVE • STRAIGHT-

CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

split infinitive. A split infinitive occurs when one

or more adverbs come between “to” and a verb.

Avoiding split infinitives is fairly easy. Instead of

writing “The next step is to slowly and carefully

lift the weight,” write The next step is slowly and

carefully to lift the weight or The next step is to lift

the weight slowly and carefully. Split infinitives

are permissible, however, when moving an

adverb elsewhere in a sentence would sound

awkward or would make it unclear which verb

the adverb was modifying. The President

declined to flatly rule out invading North Korea.

spring. The season is lowercase even when used

with a year: spring 2011.

S. Res. Stands for Senate resolution. No need to

spell it out when used with a number: S. Res 57.

staff-model health maintenance organization

Standard & Poor’s (S&P)

state. Lowercase when referring geographically to a

particular state (the state of Washington) or to an

unnamed state in the United States or another

country, whether as a noun or an adjective (four

states are involved or delegated to the state level).

State is uppercase when it is part of a title (the

Seal of the State of Illinois), when it follows a

state’s name (Washington State), or when it refers

to a state government (the State of California

plans to draft new regulations or employees of the

State of Michigan, but state employees). The same

rules apply to city, commonwealth, county,

town, and so forth.

When referring to a city and state, use the state’s

full name: The demonstration took place in Fall

River, Massachusetts. If a city is well known,

however, the state can be omitted: The associa-

tion held its annual meeting in Chicago. When

only the state is mentioned, spell it out as well:

The New England states include Vermont, New

Hampshire, and Massachusetts.

When a state’s name must be abbreviated, as in

a crowded table, use the standard abbreviation

(Mass., Pa., Nev.). Use the two-letter abbrevia-

tion (MA, PA, NV) only when an address and

zip code are given.

State Children’s Health Insurance Program.

Now called the Children’s Health Insurance

Program (CHIP).

State of the Union address

stationary-source emissions

Statutes at Large. The United States Statutes at

Large is a chronological compilation of the laws

enacted during each session of Congress. Cita-

tions to it take this form: 88 Stat. 297, 302,

in which the first number is the volume, the

second number is the first page of the law, and

the last number is the first page of the provision

being cited. For information about when to cite

Statutes at Large, see the part of the Footnotes

and References section that begins on page 90.

Statutory Pay-As-You-Go Act of 2010,

statutory PAYGO procedures

statutory tax rate. A tax rate specified by law. In

some cases, such as with individual and corpo-

rate income taxes, the statutory tax rate varies

with the amount of taxable income. In other

cases, such as with the federal excise tax on gaso-

line, the statutory tax rate is uniform. Compare

with effective tax rate and marginal tax rate.

steady state. Not hyphenated after a noun: The

economy is in a steady state. Hyphenated before a

noun: steady-state costs.

stealth. Lowercase when referring to design

characteristics that help an object, such as an

aircraft, avoid detection by radar: stealth bomber,

stealth fighter. Also refer to such aircraft by their

numerical designation (B-2, F-22) to prevent

confusion.

straight-. straightaway (n. and adv.),

straightforward (adj.), straight-line (adj.).

See prefixes.

66 CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

STRATEGIC ARMS LIMITATION TREATY • SUMMER

Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT), the

second Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty

(SALT II)

Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START),

the second Strategic Arms Reduction

Treaty (START II), the New Strategic

Arms Reduction Treaty (New START)

Strategic Petroleum Reserve (SPR)

student loans. See William D. Ford Federal

Direct Loan Program.

sub-. subcategory, subcommittee, subcontractor,

subheading, subnormal, subzero, but

sub-Saharan. See prefixes.

subchapter. Lowercase when referring to part of a

piece of legislation or a legal code: subchapter S

of chapter 1 of the tax code. The exception is a

Subchapter S corporation.

Subcommittee. Uppercase when part of a formal

name (the Subcommittee on Agriculture of the

House Committee on Appropriations) or in testi-

mony when referring to the subcommittee

holding the hearing (I wish to thank the Sub-

committee for inviting me). Lowercase when

used informally (The agriculture appropriations

subcommittee agreed to take up the proposal).

subjunctive. Although the subjunctive mood is

becoming less common, in formal writing it is

still used to express the following ideas:

Demands—The law requires that new

spending be (not “is” or “will be”) offset by

cuts elsewhere.

Requests—We ask that he proceed (not

“proceeds”) here immediately.

Conditions contrary to fact—I wouldn’t go

there if I were (not “was”) you. If she were the

Queen of England, she could spend all of her

time at the beach.

Wishes (which are, by definition, contrary

to fact)—I wish I were home now.

Traditionally, the subjunctive was also used in

conditional sentences that expressed uncertain

or hypothetical situations, but modern gram-

marians concur that this usage is becoming

extinct. One reason is that an “if” clause is

usually enough to convey some uncertainty

without the addition of the subjunctive: If the

funding for subsidies is insufficient, the govern-

ment can reduce the size of the subsidy.

The real value of the subjunctive today lies in

distinguishing between factual conditions and

those contrary to fact and giving extra punch to

the latter: If this jury were to sit for the next six

years, it still would not reach a decision.

submarine-launched ballistic missile (SLBM)

subsequent to. A stilted phrase; use after instead.

substance abuse. Not hyphenated as an adjective:

substance abuse treatment.

suffixes. To determine whether a suffix forms a

hyphenated, a closed, or an open compound,

refer to the entries for specific suffixes in this

style guide or to Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate

Dictionary (www.m-w.com), not online spell-

check programs. Most words formed with

suffixes are not hyphenated. Exceptions include

compounds formed with a number (23-fold);

with -elect, -free, or -on, which are usually

hyphenated; or with -off or -up, which are

about equally likely to be hyphenated or not

hyphenated.

If a hyphenated word with a suffix appears

in a heading or title, the suffix should not be

capitalized.

summer. Lowercase even when used with a year:

summer 2011.

SUNSET PROVISION • SYMPOSIUM

CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

sunset provision. A provision in law that is

due to expire on a specified date—the sunset

date. “Sunset” is not a verb and should not be

used as one; say expire or end instead.

super-. superabundant, supercarrier,

supercomputer, superhighway, supersede (not

“supercede”), supertanker. See prefixes.

Superfund (no article). Familiar name of the

Comprehensive Environmental Response,

Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980,

which established a trust fund for cleaning up

hazardous waste sites.

Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program

(SNAP). Formerly the Food Stamp program.

Supplemental Security Income (SSI)

Supplementary Medical Insurance (SMI)

Trust Fund, the SMI trust fund. The fund

used for Parts B and D of the Medicare program

(Medical Insurance and prescription drug

coverage, respectively).

supply-side (adj.)

supra-. supragovernmental, supranational. See

prefixes.

Supreme Court. See courts.

surface-to-air missile (SAM)

surplus. See budget surplus.

sustainable growth rate (SGR). The formula

that determines updates to payment rates for

physicians under the Medicare program.

symposium, symposiums (pl.)

68 CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

table. Uppercase when referring to a specific table

in a document: see Table 12. Lowercase when

referring to tables nonspecifically or when

there is only one: Numbers in the text and tables

of this report may not add up to totals because of

rounding or see the table below (usually used in a

text box).

take-home pay

take-up (n. and adj.), take up (v.)

tanks. Use Arabic numerals in designations: M1,

M1A1, T-84.

TARP. See Troubled Asset Relief Program.

tax-. The terms tax-deductible, tax-deferred,

tax-exempt, tax-free, and tax-sheltered are always

hyphenated: a tax-exempt loan, the gift will be

tax-deductible.

taxpayer

Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA)

that/which. The distinction between these two

words is subtle but important. In correct U.S.

usage (British usage is different), that intro-

duces a restrictive clause and which introduces a

nonrestrictive one. In other words, that intro-

duces information that is essential in a sentence;

which introduces information that could be

removed without changing the sentence’s

meaning. The Senator is visiting the new shipyard

that builds submarines implies that there are

several new shipyards and the that clause is

needed to identify which one. The Senator is

visiting the new shipyard, which builds sub-

marines implies that there is only one new ship-

yard and the information in the which clause is

incidental.

A simple rule of thumb: As relative pronouns,

which requires a comma in front of it; that

does not.

the. In text, do not capitalize the as part of the

name of an organization or periodical (such as

a newspaper or journal): the World Bank, the

Urban Institute, the New York Times, the

Journal of Taxation. Make an exception only

when the is an integral part of the name: The

Emergency Food Assistance Program (abbreviated

TEFAP). In footnote citations, omit the for

organizations, publishers, and periodicals.

then. Used to designate a person’s or thing’s

former status: then President Harry Truman,

then Secretary Rumsfeld, but then-operating

provisions, then-current laws.

therefore. At the beginning of a sentence,

therefore is followed by a comma. When

incorporated within a sentence, therefore may

or may not need to be set off by commas. The

test is whether, if the reader was reading the text

aloud, he or she would pause for emphasis at

therefore: It therefore behooves us to act. It

behooves us, therefore, to act.

The same rules apply to thus, of course, and in

turn.

there is, there are. See it is, there is, there are.

these. See this/that.

thesis, theses (pl.)

third world. A pejorative term that has become

irrelevant given the disintegration of the second

world (the former East bloc). Use developing

countries instead.

this/that. This and that are used primarily to

distinguish between something present (in

space or in thought) and something at a

distance, as in When the committee finishes

marking up this bill, it will tackle that one.

Strictly speaking, when the words are used indi-

vidually, this refers to something that is about

THIS • TRADE-WEIGHTED VALUE OF THE DOLLAR

CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

to be mentioned. This is the problem: Funding

will run out in just two weeks. That refers to

something that has already been mentioned.

Funding is due to run out soon; when that

happens, the program will end. This, therefore,

should not be used to refer back to an idea

expressed in a previous sentence. Raising the

saving rate can boost GDP and lower the deficit.

That (not “this”) is a good idea.

The same rule applies to these and those.

those. When used as a pronoun, those needs

something to refer back to. A phrase such as

“those without health insurance” can leave the

reader guessing. (Those what? People under age

65? Employees of small businesses? U.S. resi-

dents in general?) If the previous sentence

contains a plural noun, the reader may wrongly

assume those refers to it. Even when those is

meant to be general, replace it with a general

noun that will not make the reader guess: people

without health insurance.

The same argument applies to some. When the

antecedent is not clear, some should be followed

by a noun: some critics, some economists, some

people.

though. See although/though and however.

thrift institutions. Savings and loan institutions

and mutual savings banks.

Thrift Savings Plan (TSP)

thus. See therefore.

Tier I benefits. Part of the Railroad Retirement

program.

time-. time-consuming (adj.), time frame,

timekeeping, time line, time-out, time series

(n.), time-series (adj.), time sheet, timetable,

time zone. See prefixes.

TIPS. See Tr e a s u r y .

title. Lowercase when referring to part of a piece

of legislation or a legal code: title 212 of the law.

Uppercase when referring to a program: Title I

grants.

titles of office. In general, titles are lowercase

unless they are used immediately before a

person’s name: Governor Patrick, the governor

of Massachusetts. Some titles of federal offices,

however, are always uppercase at CBO:

Administrator, Chairman (of the Joint Chiefs

of Staff, of a Congressional committee),

Congressman, Congresswoman, Director, Majority

Leader, Member (of Congress), Minority Leader,

President, Ranking Member (of a Congressional

committee), Representative, Secretary (of a

department), Senator, Speaker (of the House

of Representatives), Vice President. Those titles

are lowercase when they refer to nonfederal

offices: Jim Brown, the state senator.

ton-mile

total, totaled, totaling

total factor productivity (TFP). See

productivity.

toward (not “towards”)

town. See state.

trade balance. See net exports.

trade-off. Hyphenated as a noun: the trade-off

between increased revenues and efficiency losses.

Two words as a verb: Participants would be forced

to trade off efficiency losses for revenue gains. In

most such cases, however, trade is sufficient by

itself.

trade-weighted value of the dollar. The value

of the U.S. dollar relative to the currencies of

U.S. trading partners, with the weight of each

country’s currency equal to that country’s share

of U.S. trade.

70 CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

TRANS- • TRUST FUND

trans-. transatlantic, transcontinental,

transoceanic, transpacific, transship. See

prefixes.

transfer payments. Payments made to a person

or organization for which no current or future

goods or services are required in return. Federal

transfer payments include Social Security and

unemployment benefits.

Transportation Security Administration

(TSA)

travel, traveled, traveling

Tre a s u r y. Takes a capital T and a definite article:

the Treasury. Securities issued by the Treasury

have different names depending on their char-

acteristics. A Treasury b ill has an original matu-

rity of no more than one year; interest on a

Treasury bill is the difference between the pur-

chase price and the value paid at redemption.

ATreasur y note is an interest-bearing security

with a fixed rate and an original maturity of

more than a year but not more than 10 years.

ATreasur y bond is an interest-bearing security

with a fixed rate and an original maturity of

more than 10 years. A Treasur y i nf l a t i on-

protected security (TIPS) is a security designed

to protect investors from inflation by offering

a fixed real rate of interest. The principal of a

TIPS is linked to the consumer price index and

is thus adjusted to reflect the change in that

index; at maturity, the security pays the greater

of the original or the adjusted principal.

Holders of TIPS receive semiannual interest

payments that are based on a fixed rate of

interest and the adjusted principal amount.

tri-. triangular, tricentennial, trilateral, tristate.

See prefixes.

TRICARE. A health care program for military

personnel, military retirees, and their depen-

dents. The program is run by the TRICARE

Management Activity, which is part of the

Military Health System. TRICARE contains

various health care plans, including TRICARE

for Life, TRICARE Prime, TRICARE Reserve

Select, and TRICARE Standard.

trickle-down theory

Trident II missile

triple-A rating, triple-A-rated bond.

Triple-A ratings are designated Aaa or AAA

depending on the rating agency.

Troubled Asset Relief Program (TARP).

A program established by the Emergency

Economic Stabilization Act of 2008 that per-

mits the Secretary of the Treasury to purchase or

insure troubled financial assets. The program’s

activities have included the purchase of pre-

ferred stock from financial institutions, support

for automakers and related businesses, a pro-

gram to avert housing foreclosures, and

partnerships with the private sector.

trust fund. Uppercase when part of a formal

title: Hospital Insurance Trust Fund, Disability

Insurance Trust Fund. Lowercase in informal

references (the provisions of the trust fund) and

when used with an abbreviation (HI trust fund,

DI trust fund). Not hyphenated as an adjective:

trust fund revenues.

In the federal accounting structure, an account

designated by law as a trust fund records the

revenues, offsetting receipts, or offsetting collec-

tions earmarked for the purpose of the fund, as

well as budget authority and outlays of the fund

that are financed by those revenues or receipts.

CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

ultra-. ultrahigh, ultranationalistic, ultrasonic,

ultrasound, ultraviolet. See prefixes.

un-. unaffected, unbiased, undo, unnecessary,

unself-conscious, unused, but un-American.

See prefixes.

under-. undercapitalized, underconsumption,

underdeveloped, underdog, underestimate,

underfunded, undergraduate, underground,

underlying, underwrite, but under secretary

(as a title), under way (see below). See prefixes.

under/less than. See less than/under.

under way/underway. Two words after a noun

(the project is under way); one word before a

noun (underway replenishment ship, underway

refueling).

unemployment insurance, unemployment

compensation, unemployment benefits.

Those terms may be used interchangeably when

discussing the Federal-State Unemployment

Insurance Program. They should always be

lowercase.

unemployment rate. A measure of the number

of jobless people who are available for work

and are actively seeking jobs, expressed as a

percentage of the labor force. See natural rate of

unemployment.

Unfunded Mandates Reform Act of 1995

(UMRA)

uni-. unidimensional, unilateral. See prefixes.

Uniformed Services University of the Health

Sciences (USU)

United Kingdom (U.K.). Comprises Great

Britain (England, Scotland, Wales) and

Northern Ireland. Use only in contexts that

clearly include Northern Ireland (for example,

membership in the United Nations or the

European Union); otherwise, use Great Britain

or Britain.

In references to people from or cities in Eng-

land, Scotland, Wales, or Northern Ireland, cite

the specific entity: Cambridge, England; a young

Scotsman; three Welsh playwrights.

United Nations. Use the full name as a noun (the

United Nations met); use the abbreviation U.N.

as a adjective (a U.N. committee, the U.N.

Charter). The possessive is United Nations’.

United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF)

United Nations Development Programme

(UNDP)

United Nations Educational, Scientific, and

Cultural Organization (UNESCO)

United Nations Environment Programme

(UNEP)

United Nations High Commissioner for

Refugees (UNHCR)

United States. Use the full name as a noun

(cars manufactured in the United States); use the

abbreviation U.S. as an adjective (U.S. troops).

The possessive is United States’.

units of measure. In general, spell out units of

measure. But when a unit is long or compli-

cated or appears repeatedly, use the full name

with the abbreviation in parentheses according

to the rules for abbreviations: miles per gallon

(mpg), hundredweight (cwt), barrels per day

(bbl/day), kilowatt-hour (kWh). Always use

numerals with units of measure: 2kilograms,

12 kg. Compounds that consist of a numeral

and a unit of measure are hyphenated unless the

unit is abbreviated: 100-kilohertz chips, an

856 kHz signal.

72 CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

UNOBLIGATED BALANCES • UTILIZE

unobligated balances. The portion of budget

authority that has not yet been obligated.

Depending on the original terms of the budget

authority, unobligated balances either expire at

the end of the current fiscal year or are carried

forward to future years.

up-. upcoming, update, upgrade, upload,

upswing, uptick, upturn, but up close (adv.

or adj.), up front (adv.), up-front (adj.). See

prefixes.

-up. As nouns or adjectives, backup, breakup,

buildup, call-up, checkup, cleanup, close-up,

cover-up, crack-up, follow-up, grown-up,

holdup, letup, lineup, makeup, markup,

mix-up, mock-up, mop-up, pent-up, pickup,

pileup, push-up, roundup, runner-up, run-up,

setup, shake-up, sign-up, speedup, start-up,

tie-up, walk-up, windup. (As verbs, those

compounds are all two separate words.) See

suffixes.

upon. In general, on, which is simpler and means

the same thing, is preferable: The poverty level

depends on family size. See the box about Plain

English on page 53.

upward (not “upwards”)

U.S. Code (U.S.C.). The United States Code is

the official code of federal laws. Citations to it

take this form: 31 U.S.C. §1301, in which the

first number is the title and the second number

is the section. For information about when to

cite the U.S. Code, see the part of the Footnotes

and References section that begins on page 90.

user fee. Money that the federal government

charges for services, or for the sale or use of

federal goods or resources, that generally

provide benefits to the recipients beyond those

that may accrue to the general public. In the

federal budget, user fees can be classified as

offsetting collections, offsetting receipts, or

revenues.

utilize, utilization. A better choice is use, which

is shorter, easier to read, and usually means the

same thing. See the box about Plain English on

page 53.

CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

value-added tax (VAT)

variable rate mortgage

versus. Spell out, but do not italicize, in text and

titles. (In titles, versus should be capitalized.)

Use the abbreviation v. only when citing court

cases. Also see court cases and the box about

Foreign Phrases and Abbreviations on page 27.

very. Compound words that are hyphenated as

adjectives (a well-known man) lose their

hyphens when modified by very or similar

words (a very low income family, a rather well

known man). In many cases, rewriting the

phrase is preferable (a family with very low

income).

Veterans Administration. See Department of

Veterans Aff airs.

veterans’ compensation. Not an official program

name; it refers to a series of programs run by the

Compensation and Pension Service in VA’s

Veterans Benefits Administration.

Vice President. See titles of office.

Vietnam War

vis-à-vis. See the box about Foreign Phrases and

Abbreviations on page 27.

vitamin C

volatile organic compounds (VOCs)

voluntary separation incentive (VSI)

payments

74 CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

wage earner

wage-replacement benefits

wartime

wastewater treatment

we. See the box about Pronouns on page 57.

weapon. Singular as an adjective modifying

“system”: the design of this weapon system. Plural

as an adjective in most other uses: weapons

inventory, weapons production.

web page, website, the web

weeklong

well-being. Always hyphenated.

well off. Not hyphenated after a noun: taxpayers

who are well off. Hyphenated before a noun:

well-off families.

west. Lowercase when referring to a direction or

general location: a west wind, westward, western

Thailand, northwestern United States. Uppercase

when referring to a specific geographic or polit-

ical region: the West, Western culture, Westerner,

Western Hemisphere, the West Side. Thus, note

the distinctions between western Europe (the

countries on the western side of Europe) and

Western Europe (the Cold War political entity)

and between west coast (the shoreline) and

West Coast (the region).

where. In formal writing, where should apply

only to places (the factories where the layoffs will

occur), not to circumstances (companies may face

situations in which [not “where”] layoffs are

unavoidable).

whether. See if/whether.

whether or not. Whether implies “or not,” so in

most cases saying “whether or not” is redun-

dant. Let me know whether you can go to the

movies. Adding “or not” is necessary, however,

when whether introduces a noun clause that

acts as an adverb: Whether or not you agree with

my decision, you must go along with it. Also see

if/whether.

which. See that/which.

while. Means “happening at the same time” or

“as long as”: I will stay here while you go to the

store. While is not a good choice for making a

contrast or contradiction. In those cases, use

but, and, although, or whereas. Instead of writing

“Spending has increased only slightly, while the

deficit continues to soar,” write Spending has

increased only slightly, but the deficit continues to

soar or Although spending has increased only

slightly, the deficit continues to soar or, for a

sharper contrast, Spending has increased only

slightly, whereas the deficit continues to soar.

white. Lowercase as a racial designation.

white-collar. Always hyphenated.

who/whom. Who is a subject (Who will attend

the party?) and whom is an object (You spoke to

whom?). In complicated sentences, the best way

to determine which word is needed is to recast

the sentence in your mind substituting he/him

for who/whom. If him is called for, whom is

correct (easy to remember because they both

end in m). For example: the Senator who spoke

last week (he spoke last week); the Senator whom

we saw last week (we saw him last week).

whose. Refers both to people and to inanimate

objects: the hockey player whose team is in the

play-offs, the stadium whose locker room needs

some renovations.

WIC • WRITE-OFF

CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

WIC. The standard abbreviation for the Special

Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women,

Infants, and Children.

wide-. wide-angle, wide-open, wide-ranging, but

widespread. See prefixes.

-wide. agencywide, citywide, economywide,

governmentwide, industrywide, nationwide,

statewide, worldwide. See suffixes.

will/would. In the present tense, would is the

conditional form of the verb will. In CBO

documents, discuss the effects of bills, pro-

posals, or options that are not law using the

conditional would (and related verb forms

could and might). The bill would preserve ser-

vices through January 1, 2017, but could limit

them afterward.

A common error is to mix conditional and

indicative verbs improperly. When using would,

make sure that other verbs in the sentence

(especially verbs in an “if” clause) are in the past

tense to maintain the correct sequence of tenses:

By CBO’s estimate, if current policy did not

change, spending would total $47 billion in 2015

and might increase thereafter. Likewise, when

using will, put other verbs in the present tense

to match: If current policy does not change,

spending will total $47 billion in 2015 and may

increase thereafter.

Also see may/might.

William D. Ford Federal Direct Loan

Program (FDLP). Can be referred to infor-

mally thereafter as the direct loan program. This

program comprises direct subsidized loans,

direct unsubsidized loans, direct PLUS loans

(originally Parent Loans for Undergraduate

Students), and direct consolidation loans. Use

the program’s name only when referring to all of

the above, not just one part.

winter. Lowercase even when used with a year:

winter 2011.

work-. workday, workforce, workload, workout,

workplace, workstation, workweek, but

work-study. See prefixes.

workers’ compensation. Not an official program

name; it refers to four programs run by the

Department of Labor’s Office of Workers’

Compensation Programs.

workforce. See labor force.

World Bank. In text, lowercase “the” before

World Bank; in footnote citations, omit it. Also

see International Bank for Reconstruction and

Development.

World Trade Organization (W TO)

World War II, the Second World War, the

war, the two world wars

worse off. Not hyphenated after a noun: The

family is worse off than before. Hyphenated

before a noun: worse-off families.

would. See will/would.

wraparound benefits

write-off (n.), write off (v.)

X–Z

76 CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

Xerox. A trademark, not a verb. Use photocopy.

X-ray. Use as a noun, verb, and adjective. Do not

capitalize the r in headings or titles.

year-. year-end, year-round, but yearlong. See

prefixes.

yield. The average annual rate of return promised

on an investment. For a fixed-income security,

such as a bond, the yield is determined by

several factors, such as the security’s interest

rate, face value, purchase price, and assumed

holding period. The yield to maturity is the

effective interest rate earned on a fixed-income

security if it is held until the date on which it

comes due for payment.

yield curve. The relationship formed by plotting

the yields of otherwise comparable fixed-

income securities (such as Treasury securities)

against their terms to maturity. Typically, yields

increase as maturities lengthen, and the rate of

increase determines the “steepness” or “flatness”

of the yield curve.

zero, zeros. Write the word out in text. In tables,

use a single 0, not 0.0 or 0.00. (If a number

rounds to zero, use an asterisk instead and add a

note to the table such as * = between zero and

0.5 percent.) Likewise, never use -0 or 0 percent.

Place a zero before the decimal point for quanti-

ties less than one (0.05 percent) unless the quan-

tity is always less than one (p < .05, a probability

of .05).

zero-based budgeting

zero-coupon bond

zero rate (n.), zero-rate (v.), zero-rating,

zero-rated goods

CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

Footnotes and References

Footnotes serve two main purposes: to cite an authority or to expand an explanation. Any

direct quotation should have a footnote citing the source of the quotation, as should any

mention of a specific study or any controversial assertion made by another author. State-

ments of fact—such as the years that encompass the baby boom or total outlays for Social

Security in 2011—need not be footnoted, unless they are likely to surprise the reader

because the truth is contrary to common belief. In general, footnotes are distractions to

a busy reader, so they should be kept to a minimum.

Footnotes that provide explanatory or supplementary information, in particular, should

be brief and few in number. When considering whether to include an explanatory foot-

note, think about whether the footnote answers a question that most readers are likely to

have. If so, include that information in the text. If, however, the explanation is likely to

interest only a few readers but is important technical information about the Congressional

Budget Office’s (CBO’s) analysis, an explanatory footnote is appropriate. Other uses of

explanatory footnotes should be limited.

In text, footnotes appear at the bottom of the page on which they are cited. They are

numbered consecutively throughout the main text of a document. If a report has a stand-

alone summary and is divided into chapters, footnotes begin anew in the summary and

each chapter. A new set of footnotes also begins in each box and appendix. In figures and

tables, footnotes are indicated with lowercase letters rather than numbers, and they appear

below the figure or table source and any other notes.

In rare cases in which having a large number of footnotes is unavoidable, it may be prefer-

able to put them at the end of a document as endnotes. If a report discusses many other

studies, a system of author-and-date citations in the text (with an alphabetical list of

citations at the end of the report) may be preferable. In either case, consult the Managing

Editor before submitting the manuscript.

A footnote number should appear at the end of a sentence, not in the middle, and should

follow the closing punctuation (including a closing parenthesis). Do not use more

than one footnote number per sentence; instead, combine multiple notes into a single

footnote. Very long footnotes may be divided into paragraphs, if necessary.

FOOTNOTES AND REFERENCES

78 CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

Footnote references should be accurate and complete enough for a reader to find the

source without difficulty. Responsibility for the accuracy and completeness of references

rests with authors. Responsibility for the technical aspects of reference style is shared by

authors and editors.

CBO’s style for footnote references differs from some styles used elsewhere. General

guidelines for CBO’s reference style are outlined below; specific examples begin on

page 81.

What to Put in References

When a source is mentioned, give the full reference, according to the rules explained

below. In most cases, CBO no longer uses shortened references when a source is cited

more than once in a report or a chapter; such references are not helpful to readers, who

must backtrack to find the original, complete reference. (An exception may be made if

a source is cited repeatedly throughout a document or several times in a short span of

pages.)

If a footnote contains multiple references, separate them with semicolons and put “and”

before the last one. List the references in reverse chronological order, unless some other

arrangement is more appropriate in a particular footnote. If several references in a foot-

note have the same author or set of authors, include the authors only once and separate

those references with commas rather than semicolons. All footnotes end with a period.

A reference generally contains the following parts:

Author. Give the author’s first and last names (in that order) as they appear on the

title page, including any middle initials shown. If a publication’s style is to use an

initial in place of an author’s first name, substitute the full first name, if it can be

found easily. Do not include an author’s title, degree, or affiliation (except when

citing testimony or personal communications, as shown in the examples). For an

edited work, put a comma and the abbreviation “ed.” (or the plural “eds.”) after the

editor’s name. List multiple authors in the order shown on the title page. If a work

has more than three authors, give the first author’s name followed by “and others”

(not “et al.”) with no intervening punctuation.

If the cover or title page lists an organization or agency rather than a person as an

author—as is the case with CBO publications—treat the organization as the author.

For a government agency or office, it is not necessary to include the name of the

department first, unless the agency or office could be confused with other govern-

ment entities that have similar names. (For example, the Energy Information

Administration or the Bureau of Labor Statistics would not require further

identification, but an Office of Policy Development and Research would need a

department name first for clarity.)

FOOTNOTES AND REFERENCES

CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

Title. Give the complete title (and any subtitle) of a book or report as shown on the title

page, if there is one, rather than on the cover. (Note that subtitles may appear on the

title page in a different font or type size than the main title. In the reference, the subtitle

should follow the main title after a colon or em dash.) Titles of books, reports, testi-

monies, journals, and blogs should be in italics; titles of journal articles, book chapters,

web pages, and most other sources should be in roman type with quotation marks.

Capitalization and punctuation of a title may be edited to conform to CBO style, but

spelling may not.

Additional Information. After the title, list any other useful information from the

cover or title page of a report, such as a publication number, a volume number in

a series, the name of the series, or an edition number. For journal articles, cite the

volume and issue numbers before the publication date. (Newspapers and magazines

are identified by date only, not by volume and issue.)

Publisher. For books and reports from nongovernment sources, include the com-

pany or organization that published the work. (For federal government publica-

tions, it is not necessary to cite the Government Printing Office as the publisher.)

CBO no longer requires the publisher’s location to be included in references to

books and reports. However, for works that are not for general public distribution

(draft reports, dissertations, letters) or that are essentially oral in nature, even if

written copies exist (briefings, personal communications, presentations at confer-

ences), include the place of presentation or the author’s location in parentheses after

the title. Omit “the” before the name of a publisher or organization and “Inc.,”

“Co.,” “Ltd.,” or “S.A.” after the name. If an organization is both the author and

the publisher, its name can be abbreviated as the publisher.

Date of Publication. For published works, list the publication date as it appears on

the title page or copyright page; put the date in parentheses. If publication is

imminent, use “forthcoming.” Before citing a CBO publication as forthcoming,

however, check with the editors. The term should mean “within the next few

weeks.” Otherwise, refer in general terms to “a future CBO publication” and do not

include the title, which could change during the review and editing process. For

unpublished works, the date of publication should be the date of completion (as

with an unpublished dissertation) or the date of presentation (as with a conference

paper). For web pages, use the date posted on the page; if none is shown, include

the date on which the author looked at the page (with “accessed”).

Page Numbers. When citing the source of a quotation or specific piece of infor-

mation, include the appropriate page number (or table or figure number) in the

reference. When referring generally to an article in a journal or a chapter or essay in

a book, include the complete range of pages for the article or chapter. Page numbers

FOOTNOTES AND REFERENCES

80 CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

appear after the publication date, preceded by a comma and the abbreviation “p.” or

“pp.” (plural). When citing a range of pages, give the first and last page numbers in

full, separated by an en dash: 223–229, not 223–9. Do not use a comma for page

numbers in thousands: 1123–1268.

Web Address. Whenever possible, include a web address at the end of a reference

for a publication that exists online as well as, or instead of, in print (such as a book,

report, journal article, or CBO document). For journal articles, use a digital object

identifier (DOI), if one is available. For other sources, use a uniform resource

locator (URL).

Ideally, the web address should go to a summary page that gives readers a choice

of formats or access to supplemental information—for example, www.cbo.gov/

publication/43428 instead of www.cbo.gov/sites/default/files/cbofiles/attachments/

07-11-12-FYDP_forPosting_0.pdf and www.eia.gov/forecasts/aeo/index.cfm

instead of www.eia.gov/forecasts/aeo/pdf/0383%282012%29.pdf. When the only

available link for a source goes to a PDF, include the file size in parentheses after the

URL so readers do not inadvertently open a long document that could tie up their

computer or be difficult to read on certain devices. For brevity, delete “http://” from

the beginning of any web address that also includes “www.” If an address is long or

contains many symbols and punctuation marks, the editors may convert it to a

shorter one by using a redirect service.

For books, a URL should point to the publisher’s page for the book rather than to

an outside retailer, such as Amazon.com. For online documents that are available

only by paid subscription (such as some journal articles or data tables), include a

DOI or URL for a summary page that describes the document and is accessible

to nonsubscribers, if possible (for example, http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1475

-5890.2002.tb00053.x). For online documents that are not readily available to the

public (such as reports by the Congressional Research Service), do not include a

web address.

Because URLs often change, a reference should never consist solely of a web

address. When citing a web page, include the author’s or organization’s name, the

name of the page (in quotation marks), and the date posted on the page (or, if there

is none, the “accessed” date) as well as the URL. That additional information may

help readers locate the page if the URL changes later.

Authors are responsible for providing accurate and complete links to their sources

and for keeping abreast of any updates to those sources. Reviewers and editors

should not add web addresses to references without checking with the author to

make sure that the address points to the same version of a source that the author

consulted.

FOOTNOTES AND REFERENCES

CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

Examples of References

The following examples cover the types of sources most commonly cited in footnotes at

CBO: the agency’s own publications, books and reports by government and nongovern-

ment authors, articles in journals and newsletters, federal legislation, websites, and a vari-

ety of unpublished material. If a particular source does not fall into any of the categories

below, consult the editors.

These examples show how references should look when a document is submitted for

review or editing. In some cases, references may look different in their final published

form. (For example, an editor might use a redirect service to shorten a long or unwieldy

web address.)

CBO Publications

Most CBO documents are attributed to the organization rather than to individual

authors. Exceptions are testimony, presentations, and working papers (as well as their

predecessors, technical papers). Publication dates (either month-year or month-day-year)

should follow the style shown on the cover or first page of the document.

Authors should include a URL in a reference to a CBO document just as they do for other

sources. Whenever possible, the URL should point to the summary page for the

document rather than to the document itself.

Before February 2012, some CBO publications were designated on their covers or title

pages as studies, reports, issue briefs, or background papers. Those separate categories are

no longer maintained, and references to older CBO publications of those types should not

include such designations.

Report

This category consists of CBO publications not listed separately below (including

mandated reports; chart books; and documents formerly labeled studies, papers,

memorandums, or issue briefs).

Congressional Budget Office, Energy Security in the United States (May

2012), p. 21, www.cbo.gov/publication/43012.

Congressional Budget Office, A Review of CBO’s Activities in 2010 Under the

Unfunded Mandates Reform Act (March 2011), Table 1, www.cbo.gov/

publication/22075.

Cost Estimate

Congressional Budget Office, cost estimate for S. 2389, a bill to deem the

submission of certain claims to an Indian Health Service contracting officer

as timely (August 6, 2012), www.cbo.gov/publication/43519.

FOOTNOTES AND REFERENCES

82 CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

Congressional Budget Office, cost estimate for S. 3001, the National

Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2009 (June 13, 2008),

www.cbo.gov/publication/19886.

Testimony

Testimony of Douglas W. Elmendorf, Director, Congressional Budget

Office, before the Subcommittee on Legislative Branch of the Senate

Committee on Appropriations, CBO’s Appropriation Request for Fiscal Year

2013 (March 15, 2012), www.cbo.gov/publication/43081.

Letter

CBO publications that take the form of a letter (or, in the case of some older documents,

an attachment to a letter) are cited as follows. In the first style, the description of the

letter’s subject should mirror as closely as possible the wording on CBO’s website. The

second style is used when a letter attachment is posted on CBO’s website with the letter at

the beginning of the PDF. (If the letter is not included in the PDF, cite the document as a

regular CBO report.)

Letter only: Congressional Budget Office, letter to the Honorable John

Boehner providing an estimate for H.R. 6079, the Repeal of Obamacare Act

(July 24, 2012), www.cbo.gov/publication/43471.

Letter with attached, titled document: Congressional Budget Office,

Analysis of Federal Civilian and Military Compensation (attachment to a letter

to the Honorable Steny H. Hoyer, January 20, 2011), www.cbo.gov/

publication/22002.

CBO Blog Entry

Congressional Budget Office, “Federal Debt and Interest Costs,” CBO Blog

(December 14, 2010), www.cbo.gov/publication/25127.

Presentation

Robert A. Sunshine, Deputy Director, Congressional Budget Office,

“Economic Growth and Employment in the Short Term” (presentation

to the National Lieutenant Governors Association, Washington, D.C.,

March 17, 2010), www.cbo.gov/publication/21325.

Infographic

Congressional Budget Office, “The U.S. Federal Budget” (infographic,

December 2011), www.cbo.gov/publication/42636.

FOOTNOTES AND REFERENCES

CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

Supplemental Data or Technical Information

Congressional Budget Office, “Methods for Analysis of the Financing and

Use of Long-Term Services and Supports” (supplemental material for Rising

Demand for Long-Term Services and Supports for Elderly People, June 2013),

www.cbo.gov/publication/44370.

Baseline Table or Other Miscellaneous Document

Congressional Budget Office, “Pension Benefit Guaranty Corporation—

May 2013 Baseline” (May 2013), www.cbo.gov/publication/44210.

Working Paper or Technical Paper

Tim Dowd, Robert McClelland, and Athiphat Muthitacharoen, New

Evidence on the Tax Elasticity of Capital Gains, Working Paper 2012-09

(Congressional Budget Office, June 2012, updated August 2012),

www.cbo.gov/publication/43334.

Julie Topoleski, Uncertainty About Projections of Medicare Cost Growth,

Technical Paper 2004-13 (Congressional Budget Office, August 2004),

www.cbo.gov/publication/15942.

Books, Reports, and Working Papers From Nongovernment Sources

Titles of books and published stand-alone reports (as opposed to articles) appear in italics,

followed by the publisher’s name and the publication date in parentheses. Publication

dates for books are traditionally the year of copyright; publication dates for reports and

working papers should match the date on the cover or title page. Include publication

numbers, editions, and web addresses whenever possible (see the guidelines for web

addresses on page 80). Reports by government agencies other than CBO follow a slightly

different style (see the section on “Government Publications,” which begins on page 87).

One to Three Authors

Philip G. Joyce, The Congressional Budget Office: Honest Numbers, Power, and

Policymaking (Georgetown University Press, 2011), p. 58, http://

press.georgetown.edu/book/georgetown/congressional-budget-office.

Nisha Mistry and Joan Byron, The Federal Role in Supporting Urban

Manufacturing (Urban Institute, April 2011), pp. 21–24, www.urban.org/

publications/1001536.html.

Jeanne M. Jarvaise, Jeffrey A. Drezner, and Daniel M. Norton, The Defense

System Cost Performance Database: Cost Growth Analysis Using Selected

Acquisition Reports, MR-625-OSD (RAND Corporation, 1996),

www.rand.org/pubs/monograph_reports/MR625.html.

FOOTNOTES AND REFERENCES

84 CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

More Than Three Authors

Howard C. Kunreuther and others, At War With the Weather: Managing

Large-Scale Risks in a New Era of Catastrophes (MIT Press, 2009), pp. 256–

261, http://mitpress.mit.edu/catalog/item/default.asp?ttype=2&tid=11795.

Editor

Jonathan H. Adler, ed., Rebuilding the Ark: New Perspectives on Endangered

Species Act Reform (AEI Press, 2011), www.aei.org/book/energy-and-the

-environment/natural-resources/rebuilding-the-ark/.

Hualou Liang, Joseph D. Bronzino, and Donald R. Peterson, eds., Biosignal

Processing: Principles and Practices (CRC Press, 2012), www.crcpress.com/

product/isbn/9781439871430.

Organization as Author

Institute of Medicine, Ethical and Scientific Issues in Studying the Safety of

Approved Drugs (National Academies Press, 2012), www.iom.edu/Reports/

2012/Ethical-and-Scientific-Issues-in-Studying-the-Safety-of-Approved

-Drugs.aspx.

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Greening

Household Behaviour: The Role of Public Policy (OECD, 2011),

www.oecd.org/australia/greening-household-behaviour-2011.htm.

Chapter or Essay in a Book

Author different from editor: Tiffany Shih and Brian Wright, “Agricultural

Innovation,” in Rebecca Henderson and Richard G. Newell, eds.,

Accelerating Energy Innovation: Insights From Multiple Sectors (University of

Chicago Press, 2011), pp. 49–85, www.nber.org/books/hend09-1.

Author and editor the same: Cheng Li, “Chinese Scholarship on the Middle

Class: From Social Stratification to Political Potential,” in Li, ed., China’s

Emerging Middle Class: Beyond Economic Transformation (Brookings

Institution Press, 2010), p. 77, www.brookings.edu/research/books/2010/

chinasemergingmiddleclass.

Preface, Foreword, or Introduction to a Book

Harold Meyerson, foreword to Amy B. Dean and David B. Reynolds, A New

New Deal: How Regional Activism Will Reshape the American Labor Movement

(Cornell University Press, 2010), pp. ix–xi, www.cornellpress.cornell.edu/

book/?GCOI=80140100697040.

FOOTNOTES AND REFERENCES

CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

Volume in a Series

To emphasize volume title: Carol Alexander, Value-at-Risk Models, vol. 4 of

Market Risk Analysis (Wiley, 2009), p. 113, www.wiley.com/WileyCDA/

WileyTitle/productCd-0470997885.html.

To emphasize series title: H. Peter Gray, ed., Research in International

Business and Finance, vol. 5, Uncle Sam as Host (Jai Press, 1986).

Subsequent Edition

Steven J. Isakowitz, Joshua B. Hopkins, and Joseph P. Hopkins Jr.,

International Reference Guide to Space Launch Systems, 4th ed. (American

Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 2004), www.aiaa.org/

PubDetail.aspx?id=2052.

Working Paper or Other Series

Robert J. Gordon, Did Economics Cause World War II? Working Paper 14560

(National Bureau of Economic Research, December 2008), www.nber.org/

papers/w14560.

John M. Roberts, Using Structural Shocks to Identify Models of Investment,

Finance and Economics Discussion Series Paper 2005-69 (Board of

Governors of the Federal Reserve System, October 2005),

www.federalreserve.gov/pubs/feds/2005/200569/200569abs.html.

Forthcoming Publication

Sam Harris, The Moral Landscape: How Science Can Determine Human

Values (Free Press, forthcoming).

Proceedings Volume

Raymond Robertson, “Globalization and Mexican Labor Markets,” in

James F. Hollifield, Pia M. Orrenius, and Thomas Osang, eds., Migration,

Trade, and Development: Proceedings of the 2006 Conference on Migration,

Trade, and Development (Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas, December 2007),

www.dallasfed.org/research/pubs/migration/index.cfm.

Note: For conference papers that are not part of a published proceedings, see the section

on “Other Sources,” which begins on page 94.

Articles in Periodicals

The examples in this section apply to articles in professional and academic journals,

general-interest magazines, newsletters, or newspapers, whether printed or online. For

journal articles, include any volume and issue numbers in addition to the journal’s

publication date (in parentheses). Volume and issue numbers are not necessary for

FOOTNOTES AND REFERENCES

86 CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

magazine, newsletter, and newspaper articles. If an article has no authors listed, cite it

by its title. Include the full range of page numbers for an article, if possible, unless citing

specific pages.

Include a web address with a DOI number, if one is available (append the number to

“http://dx.doi.org/”); if not, include a URL to a page on the periodical’s website that

contains the full article or that links to it. (If the web address goes to a PDF, include the

file size in parentheses at the end.) If the article is available online only by paid subscrip-

tion, include a web address for a summary page that describes the article and is accessible

to nonsubscribers, if possible. (A DOI address will generally point to such a page.)

Journal

Kenneth A. Couch and Dana W. Placzek, “Earnings Losses of Displaced

Workers Revisited,” American Economic Review, vol. 100, no. 1 (March

2010), pp. 572–589, http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/aer.100.1.572.

Daron Acemoglu and others, “When Does Policy Reform Work? The Case

of Central Bank Independence,” Brookings Papers on Economic Activity

(Spring 2008), p. 355, www.brookings.edu/about/projects/bpea/past

-editions.

Carrie H. Colla and others, “Spending Differences Associated With the

Medicare Physician Group Practice Demonstration,” Journal of the American

Medical Association, vol. 308, no. 10 (September 2012), pp. 1015–1023,

http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/2012.jama.10812.

John D. Colombo, “The NCAA, Tax Exemption, and College Athletics,”

University of Illinois Law Review (forthcoming).

Magazine, Newsletter, or Online News Service

“American Banks: Where’s the Growth?” Economist (April 20, 2011),

www.economist.com/node/18586826.

Dave Ahern, “Allied Nations Interested in Buying THAAD Ballistic Missile

Defense Systems,” Defense Daily (April 22, 2008), www.defensedaily.com/

publications/dd/2428.html.

Peter Behr, “Renewable Energy: States and Regions Block Federal

‘Superhighway’ for Solar and Wind Power,” ClimateWire (December 15,

2009), www.eenews.net/climatewire/2009/12/15/5.

Newspaper

Ashley Halsey III, “High-Speed Rail Funding Chugs Ahead,” Washington

Post (May 9, 2011), p. A13.

FOOTNOTES AND REFERENCES

CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

Periodical Requiring Additional Information for Identification

If a periodical has a title similar to that of others (as with Federal Reserve publications) or

is likely to be unfamiliar to readers, include the organization that publishes it.

Daniel Carroll, “Consumption Taking Longer to Respond to Downturns in

GDP,” Economic Trends, Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland (January 2012),

pp. 17–19, www.clevelandfed.org/research/trends/2012/0112/

ET_jan12.pdf (3 MB).

Felix K. Chang and Jonathan Goldman, “Meddling in the Markets: Foreign

Manipulation,” Parameters, U.S. Army War College, vol. 38 (Spring 2008),

pp. 43–59, www.carlisle.army.mil/usawc/Parameters/Articles/08spring/

chang.pdf (237 KB).

Government Publications

References to government publications follow the guidelines given above for their particu-

lar type of publication, except that the publisher’s name is not necessary (unless the author

is an individual rather than an agency). If a report has a publication number, include it to

help readers trying to locate the document. Also include a URL, if possible. If a publica-

tion exists online only as a PDF, include a URL for a web page that has an easily identified

link to the publication or include a URL for the PDF with the file size in parentheses

afterward.

When citing a federal agency or office that is part of a larger department, include the

name of the department only if necessary to distinguish the agency or office from

other government entities with similar names. For example, the Energy Information

Administration or the Office of Tax Analysis would not need further identification,

but an Office of Budget or Office of Policy Development and Research would need a

department or agency name first for clarity.

Footnote citations for the United States Statutes at Large, the U.S. Code, the Federal

Laws, Regulations, and Court Cases,” which begins on page 90.

General Government Report

Organization as author: Energy Information Administration, Federal

Financial Interventions and Subsidies in Energy Markets 2007, SR/CNEAF/

2008-01(April 2008), Chapter 2, pp. 36–38, www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/

servicerpt/subsidy2.

Department of the Navy, Office of Budget, Highlights of the Department of

the Navy FY 2012 Budget (February 2011), p. 4-3, www.finance.hq.navy.mil/

FMB/12pres/BOOKS.htm.

FOOTNOTES AND REFERENCES

88 CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

Federal Emergency Management Agency, Insurance, Finance, and Regulation

Primer for Terrorism Risk Management in Buildings, FEMA 429 (December

2003), www.fema.gov/library/viewRecord.do?id=1562.

Person as author: Janet G. McCubbin, Optimal Tax Enforcement: A Review

of the Literature and Practical Implications, Working Paper 90 (Office of Tax

Analysis, December 2004), www.treasury.gov/resource-center/tax-policy/

Pages/otapaper_2000-present.aspx.

Rose M. Kreider and Diana B. Elliott, America’s Families and Living

Arrangements: 2007, Current Population Reports P20-561 (Census Bureau,

September 2009), www.census.gov/prod/www/abs/p20.html.

Report Prepared by a Contractor

Department of Housing and Urban Development, Office of Policy

Development and Research, Report to Congress on the Root Causes of the

Foreclosure Crisis (prepared by Abt Associates, January 2010), p. xv,

www.huduser.org/portal/publications/hsgfin/foreclosure_09.html.

Karen Needels and Annalisa Mastri, Predesign Study for the Evaluation of

Recovery Act Green Jobs, Health Care, and Other High-Growth Competitive

Grants (submitted by Mathematica Policy Research to the Department of

Labor, April 6, 2010).

Report of a Government Commission

National Commission on Fiscal Responsibility and Reform, The Moment of

Truth: Report of the National Commission on Fiscal Responsibility and Reform

(December 2010), www.fiscalcommission.gov/news/moment-truth-report

-national-commission-fiscal-responsibility-and-reform.

President’s Commission on Budget Concepts, Report of the President’s

Commission on Budget Concepts (October 1967), p. 65.

Federal Budget and Other OMB Publications

Office of Management and Budget, Budget of the U.S. Government, Fiscal

Year 2012: Analytical Perspectives (February 2011), p. 201, www.gpo.gov/

fdsys/browse/collectionGPO.action?collectionCode=BUDGET.

Office of Management and Budget, Budget of the U.S. Government, Fiscal

Year 2011: Mid-Session Review (July 2010), p. 25, www.gpo.gov/fdsys/

browse/collectionGPO.action?collectionCode=BUDGET.

FOOTNOTES AND REFERENCES

CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

Office of Management and Budget, Budget of the U.S. Government: Appendix

(various years), “Detailed Budget Estimates by Agency: Department of the

Interior.”

Office of Management and Budget, Preparation, Submission, and Execution of

the Budget, Circular A-11 (August 2012), www.whitehouse.gov/omb/

circulars_index-budget/.

Economic Report of the President

Council of Economic Advisers, Economic Report of the President (February

2010), pp. 243–246, www.whitehouse.gov/administration/eop/cea/

economic-report-of-the-President/2010.

Government Accountability Office

Before July 2004, GAO was called the General Accounting Office. If citing a report from

that period, use the office’s name at the time of publication, followed by the current name

in parentheses. For the publication date, use the date on the cover or first page of the

document.

Report: Government Accountability Office, Superfund: Information on the

Nature and Costs of Cleanup Activities at Three Landfills in the Gulf Coast

Region, GAO-11-287R (February 18, 2011), www.gao.gov/products/

GAO-11-287R.

General Accounting Office (now the Government Accountability Office),

Transportation Security: Federal Action Needed to Help Address Security

Challenges, GAO-03-843 (June 2003), www.gao.gov/products/

GAO-03-843.

Te st im o n y : Testimony of Jim Wells, Director, Natural Resources and

Environment, Government Accountability Office, before the Subcommittee

on Energy and Water Development of the House Committee on

Appropriations, Advanced Energy Technologies: Key Challenges to Their

Development and Deployment, GAO-07-550T (February 28, 2007), p. 2,

www.gao.gov/products/GAO-07-550T.

Congressional Research Service

Publications of the Congressional Research Service are not generally available to the

public, so references to them do not include URLs.

Suzanne M. Kirchhoff, The Construction Sector in the U.S. Economy, Report

for Congress R41806 (Congressional Research Service, May 3, 2011),

pp. 2–5.

FOOTNOTES AND REFERENCES

90 CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

James V. Saturno, Amendments in Disagreement, Report for Congress 98-813

(Congressional Research Service, November 3, 2004).

Report by a Congressional Committee or House of Congress

Joint Committee on Taxation, Estimated Budget Effects of the Revenue Provi-

sions Contained in the President’s Fiscal Year 2012 Budget Proposal, JCX-19-11

(March 17, 2011), www.jct.gov/publications.html?func=select&id=50.

Senate Committee on the Budget, Concurrent Resolution on the Budget,

FY 2011: Committee Print to Accompany S. Con. Res. 60, Together With

Additional Views and Minority Views, S. Prt. 111-45 (April 2010),

www.gpo.gov/fdsys/granule/CPRT-111SPRT56024/

CPRT-111SPRT56024/content-detail.html.

U.S. House of Representatives, National Defense Authorization Act for

Fiscal Year 2008: Conference Report to Accompany H.R. 1585, House Report

110-477 (December 6, 2007), pp. 881–882, www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/

CRPT-110hrpt477/html/CRPT-110hrpt477.htm.

Testimony Before the Congress

With testimony title: Testimony of Melissa M. Favreault, Senior Research

Associate, Urban Institute, before the Senate Special Committee on Aging,

Revitalizing Social Security: Effectively Targeting Benefit Enhancements for Low

Lifetime Earners and the Oldest Old (June 17, 2009), http://aging.senate.gov/

events/hr211mf.pdf (90 KB).

Without testimony title: Testimony of Ronald A. Rosenfeld, Chairman,

Federal Housing Finance Board, before the Subcommittee on Capital

Markets, Insurance, and Government Sponsored Enterprises of the

House Committee on Financial Services (March 9, 2005), http://

archives.financialservices.house.gov/media/pdf/030905rr.pdf (89 KB).

Congressional Record

Daily digest: Congressional Record—Senate (May 4, 2011), p. D446.

Complete version: Congressional Record—House of Representatives, vol. 157,

no. 41, 112th Cong., 1st Sess. (March 17, 2011), pp. H1910–H1912.

Legislation, Laws, Regulations, and Court Cases

This section describes citation styles for legislative materials (such as bills and resolutions),

statutes (public laws), regulations, and court cases. These styles are used in footnotes

when citing the source of a direct quotation, when referring readers to a specific provision,

or when such sources are discussed in depth in the text. (For information about how to

FOOTNOTES AND REFERENCES

CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

refer to legislation, public laws, and court cases more generally in the text of CBO

documents, see the entries for those terms in the alphabetical section of the style guide.)

Refer to a bill or statute by its short title or popular name. If no short title exists, consult

the Office of the General Counsel. A short title need not be repeated in a footnote if it is

mentioned in the text being footnoted.

Use commas to separate the elements of a citation; use semicolons to separate multiple

citations. (Semicolons may be used instead of commas within an individual citation if

necessary to prevent confusion.)

These styles are general guidelines, to which exceptions invariably exist. When in doubt,

check with the Office of the General Counsel.

Unenacted Legislation

Footnote citations for legislation that has not been enacted (whether from the current or

a previous Congress) consist of the legislation’s short title (if any), the bill or resolution

number, the number of the Congress, and the year that the legislation was published

(unless that year is part of the short title).

Health Security Act, H.R. 3600, 103rd Cong. (1993).

If referring to specific language in unenacted legislation, give the section number first.

Sec. 213(a) of the American Clean Energy and Security Act of 2009, H.R.

2454, 111st Cong.

Adopted Resolutions

Adopted simple or concurrent resolutions are cited with a brief description, the resolution

number, the number of the Congress, and the year of adoption, followed by “(adopted).”

Budget resolution for fiscal year 2008, S. Con. Res. 21, 110th Cong. (2007)

(adopted).

Public Laws

Enacted bills and joint resolutions are first published as “slip laws,” then compiled chron-

ologically in the United States Statutes at Large, and later codified by subject matter in the

U.S. Code. The format of a footnote citation for a law depends on how recently the law

was enacted, whether it is an appropriation act, and whether the author is referring to a

specific provision of the law.

Recently enacted laws and all appropriation acts: Cite recent laws and all appropriation

acts (whether recent or not) by giving the short title as enacted (if any); the public law

(P.L.) number; the Statutes at Large citation (which consists of the Statutes volume

number, the abbreviation “Stat.,” and the number of the page on which the law begins);

FOOTNOTES AND REFERENCES

92 CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

and the year of enactment (if not part of the short title or if different from the year in the

short title, as sometimes happens).

America’s Cup Act of 2011, P.L. 112-61, 125 Stat. 753.

Department of Defense, Emergency Supplemental Appropriations to

Address Hurricanes in the Gulf of Mexico, and Pandemic Influenza Act,

2006, P.L. 109-148, 119 Stat. 2680 (2005).

When referring to a specific provision in the law, give the section number first and, in the

Statutes at Large citation, include the page number on which the provision begins (after

the first page number, separated by a comma).

Sec. 6 of the America’s Cup Act of 2011, P.L. 112-61, 125 Stat. 753, 754.

Laws not recently enacted (other than appropriation acts): Cite older laws that are not

appropriation acts by giving the short title as enacted (if any) and the U.S. Code citation

(which consists of the title number of the code, the abbreviation “U.S.C.,” the section

symbol §, the section number, and the code edition). The main edition of the U.S. Code

is published roughly every six years—most recently in 2006—with annual supplements

thereafter. For laws that were enacted in 2006 or earlier, use “(2006)”; for laws that were

enacted after 2006, or that were enacted earlier and amended after 2006, use “(2006 &

Supp.).” (Those years will change when the next main edition of the U.S. Code is

published.)

If a statute is codified over 10 or fewer consecutive sections of the U.S. Code, give the first

and last section numbers, connected by an en dash. (Use §§ to denote more than one

section.)

Newspaper Preservation Act, 15 U.S.C. §§1801–1804 (2006).

If a statute is codified over more than 10 consecutive sections of the U.S. Code, give the

first section (with a single §), followed by “et seq.”

National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, 42 U.S.C. §4321 et seq.

(2006).

When referring to a specific provision, give the section number of the law first and

include the public law number.

Sec. 102(d)(3) of the Americans With Disabilities Act of 1990, P.L. 101-336

(codified at 42 U.S.C. §12112(d)(3) (2006)).

Sec. 101 of the Heroes Earnings Assistance and Relief Tax Act of 2008,

P.L. 110-245 (codified at 42 U.S.C. §6428 (2006 & Supp.)).

FOOTNOTES AND REFERENCES

CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

If a footnote that includes a U.S. Code citation is for a law that amended the Internal

Revenue Code, it should cite volume 26 of the U.S. Code. For instance, the footnote

reference for the Internal Revenue Code’s definition of charitable contributions would

be as follows:

26 U.S.C. §170(c) (2006).

If an older statute is too widely scattered throughout the U.S. Code to be cited easily,

use the format described above for recently enacted laws (which includes the public law

number and the Statutes at Large citation).

Tax Reduction Act of 1975, P.L. 94-12, 89 Stat. 26.

Regulations and Administrative Actions

In most cases, cite a federal regulation by giving its commonly used name (if one exists)

and a citation to the Code of Federal Regulations (which consists of the title number of the

code, the abbreviation “C.F.R.,” the section symbol §, the section or part number, and

the code edition).

FTC Credit Practices Rule, 16 C.F.R. §444 (1995).

If a regulation has not been codified in the Code of Federal Regulations, cite its location in

the Federal Register (“Fed. Reg.”), including the volume number, the page on which the

regulation begins, and the full date of publication. When referring to a specific provision

in the regulation, include the page on which the provision appears (following the first

page number, separated by a comma).

Setting and Adjusting Patent Fees, 78 Fed. Reg. 4212 (January 18, 2013).

For all other agency actions and executive materials that appear in the Federal Register, cite

the title of the document, the volume number, the page on which the document begins,

and the full date of publication.

Locomotive Safety Standards, 76 Fed. Reg. 2200, 2230 (proposed

January 12, 2011).

Court Cases

Footnote citations for court cases follow the style set forth in the Harvard Law Review

Association’s Bluebook; they consist of the name of the case, the volume number and

abbreviation of the reporter (the official recording publication) in which the case is

printed, the page on which the case begins, and the court and year of decision. Consult

the Office of the General Counsel for more information.

John McGann v. H&H Music Company, 946 F.2d 401 (5th Cir. 1991).

FOOTNOTES AND REFERENCES

94 CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

When referring to a specific page of a case, include that page number after the number of

the page on which the case begins.

Sullivan v. Zebley, 493 U.S. 521, 541 (1990).

Websites

The examples below cover sources that are available only online—not in printed form,

such as a PDF—and that do not fall into one of the document categories shown elsewhere

(such as a journal, news service, press release, or fact sheet).

Web Page

References to material that appears only on a web page should include the author’s or

organization’s name; the name of the page (in quotation marks); the date shown on the

page, such as the “last updated” date (or the author’s “accessed” date if there is no date on

the page); and the URL. Providing all of that information may help readers locate the

page if the URL changes later.

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Atlantic Oceanographic

and Meteorological Laboratory, “Frequently Asked Questions About the

Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation (AMO)” (January 13, 2006),

www.aoml.noaa.gov/phod/d2m_shift/amo_faq.php.

Congressional Budget Office, “Our Processes” (accessed October 25, 2012),

www.cbo.gov/about/our-processes.

Blog Entry

Titles of blog posts should appear in quotation marks, as titles of articles do. If the blog

has a name, it should appear in italics, as names of periodicals do. (If the name contains

the word “blog,” as in CBO Blog, there is no need to include “blog entry” in the

reference.)

Donald Marron, “The Economics of Al-Qaeda in Iraq” (blog entry,

December 21, 2010), http://dmarron.com/2010/12/21/.

Susan Woodward and Robert Hall, “What to Do About Fannie Mae and

Freddie Mac?” Financial Crisis and Recession (blog entry, January 28, 2009),

woodwardhall.wordpress.com/2009/01/28/what-to-do-about-fannie-mae

-and-freddie-mac.

Other Sources

This category covers material that in pre-Internet days was considered unpublished, such

as draft reports, dissertations, papers presented at conferences, press releases, fact sheets,

briefings, and information provided through personal communications. Titles of such

FOOTNOTES AND REFERENCES

CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

sources should appear in quotation marks, not italics. Those sources can be difficult for

readers to locate, so include a URL whenever possible, even if it goes to a large PDF.

Unpublished Draft

A paper is considered an unpublished draft if it was written by someone affiliated with an

organization but was not officially released by that organization or published by a journal.

(If the paper was presented at a conference, use the format for conference papers below.)

Christopher Mayer and R. Glenn Hubbard, “House Prices, Interest Rates,

and the Mortgage Market Meltdown” (draft, Columbia Business School,

October 2008), www4.gsb.columbia.edu/null?&exclusive=filemgr.download

&file_id=3549.

Dissertation

Lisa Kimmel, “The Effect of Tort Reform on Economic Growth” (Ph.D.

dissertation, Department of Economics, University of California, Berkeley,

2001), http://sunzi.lib.hku.hk/ER/detail/hkul/2762138.

Conference Paper or Lecture

Lance Sherry, Guillermo Calderon-Meza, and Ashwin Samant, “Trends in

Airline Passenger Trip Delays, 2007–2009” (paper presented at the 2010

Integrated Communications Navigation and Surveillance Conference,

Herndon, Va., May 11–13, 2010), http://catsr.ite.gmu.edu/pubs/

2010-ICNS-PaxTripDelay[1].pdf (462 KB).

Randall S. Kroszner, “Improving the Infrastructure for Non-Agency

Mortgage-Backed Securities” (speech given at the Federal Reserve System

Conference on Housing and Mortgage Markets, Washington, D.C.,

December 4, 2008), www.federalreserve.gov/newsevents/speech/

kroszner20081204a.htm.

Alfred A. DelliBovi, “Subprime: Where Is the Security?” (Frank M. Engle

lecture, American College of Financial Services, Bryn Mawr, Pa., October 3,

2007), www.theamericancollege.edu/lecture-series/frank-m-engle.

Note: A conference paper published in a proceedings volume is treated as a chapter in a

book. A conference paper published in a journal is treated as a journal article.

Press Release

Federal Housing Finance Agency, “FHFA Sends GSE Housing Goals to

Federal Register: Proposed Rule Adjusts Certain Goals for Market Condi-

tions; Provides Credit for Loan Modifications” (press release, April 28,

2009), www.fhfa.gov/webfiles/2139/HousingGoalsFedReg42809Final.pdf

(141 KB).

FOOTNOTES AND REFERENCES

96 CBO’S GUIDE TO STYLE AND USAGE, 2013

Fact Sheet, Table, or Other Miscellaneous Document

Office of the Secretary of the Air Force, Directorate of Public Affairs,

“RQ-170 Sentinel” (December 2, 2010), www.af.mil/information/

factsheets/factsheet.asp?ID=16001.

Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services, “National Health Expenditure

Projections 2009–2019” (accessed January 13, 2013), Table 1,

www.cms.hhs.gov/nationalhealthexpenddata/downloads/proj2009.pdf

(414 KB).

Energy Information Administration, “2016 Levelized Cost of New

Generation Resources From the Annual Energy Outlook 2010” (accessed

November 11, 2012), www.eia.gov/oiaf/aeo/pdf/2016levelized

_costs_aeo2010.pdf (18 KB).

Titled Briefing

Terry Little, “Kinetic Energy Interceptors Overview” (briefing by the Missile

Defense Agency to CBO staff, November 13, 2003).

Jeffrey S. Passel, “Unauthorized Migrants: Numbers and Characteristics”

(briefing prepared for the Independent Task Force on Immigration and

America’s Future by the Pew Hispanic Center, June 14, 2005), http://

pewhispanic.org/files/reports/46.pdf (767 KB).

Untitled Briefing or Personal Communication

Staff of Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, briefing to CBO staff

(November 3, 2003).

John Doe, Association of State Floodplain Managers, personal

communication (October 24, 2007).

Letter or Memorandum

Thomas J. McGuire, Moody’s Investors Service, letter to the Honorable

Henry B. Gonzalez, Chairman, House Committee on Banking, Finance,

and Urban Affairs (August 30, 1990).

Minutes of a Meeting

Meeting minutes, Federal Open Market Committee, Board of Governors of

the Federal Reserve System (December 11, 2007), www.federalreserve.gov/

monetarypolicy/fomcminutes20071211.htm.

A Guide To Style And Usage

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