A Manual Of Underground Surveying Surveing
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BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME FROM THE SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND THE GIFT OF 1891 ^..a^:^.:'2L.s..a. iclVstLii 1357 Cornell University Library TA 624.T87 A manual of underground surveying. 3 1924 004 585 588 Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924004585588 A MANUAL OF UNDERGROUND SURVEYING Publidhed by the McGraw-Hill Book. Company Ne-w York. iSuccC'SAons to tKe BookPepartments of the McGraw Publishing Company FVilsliahers Elec trical Worl d The Engineering Record Electric Railway Journal Hill Publishing Comjiany of fiooks for The Engineering and Mining Journal Power and The Engineer American Machinist €^t^a\ma\A\t\S\ttAt\t>t\t\t\t\t,t\£^M.£,*>s,£,A,t^t.A.A.t.£.A:M.M.t.*.A.i:2 Tfirirfirirfffffmrmriririfi FIG. 1.— ILLUMINATING THE CROSS WIRES. A MANUAL OF UNDERGROUND SURVEYING BY LOYAL WINGATE TRUMBULL, Consulting Mining Engineer E.M. formerly Professor of Mining, University of Wyoming; formerly United States Deputy Mineral Surveyor for Colorado ; WITH ILLUSTRATIONS FIRST EDITION — SECOND IMPRESSION, CORRECTED McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY 339 WEST 39TH STREET, NEW YORK 6 BOUVEEIE StEEET, LONDON, 1910 E. C. CiOPYBIGHT, 1908, COPYBIGHT, 1910, BY THE HlLL PUBLISHING COMPANT BY THE McGeAW-HiLL BoOK COMPANY TO HIS THIS BOOK IS FATHER LOVINGLY DEDICATED BY THE AUTHOR PEEFACE The author has tried iii this work to meet the often expressed wish of students, teachers, and practicing surveyors for a book giving the best of American practice. As a teacher the author found it necessary to work up lectures upon mining surveying. These have formed the basis of this work. The author makes no pretense of presenting original material. This book is frankly a compilation from various sources. Articles printed in the various magazines and publications of the technical societies have been drawn upon freely, as have also the catalogues and literature of the different firms of instrument makers. The descriptions of surveys, or methods of work, given by the engineers who made them, are reprinted in full, as they were printed in the publications to which credit is given. They represent best surveying practice, and fulfill the purpose as an object lesson to the student better in their original form than would a review or synopsis. While much of the material given has appeared in print before, much of it is new; written for this particular purpose by engineers who are busy every day with the actual underground work. The engineers of many of the largest mines of this country have kindly furnished the author with detailed descriptions of the methods in use at their properties. To these engineers we extend our sincere thanks. Without their assistance this book could not have been written. Realizing fully that there are usually several equally good of doing a thing, the author has tried to give a description of ways the several most-used and best ways of doing each thing, without allowing his personal preference for any particular method to prejudice it. The author wishes to acknowledge his indebtedness to the various instrument makers who have furnished cuts to illustrate the instruments used in underground work. While unable to thank by mention each engineer who has aided, encouraged, and PREFACE Vi helped to write this book, the author wishes especially to thank E. S. Grierson, chief engineer of the Calumet & Hecla; R. H. Britt, manager of the Poorman; Mr. Howard Spangler, chief engineer of the Portland; Mr. August Christian, chief engineer of the Anaconda Copper Mining Co.; C. W. Goodale, chief engineer Boston and Montana; Mr. Howard Eavenson, chief engineer United States Coal and Coke Co. Mr. Lucien Eaton, superintendent of the Iron Belt Mine; Prof. Mark Ehle, Jr., of the South Dakota School of Mines; Mr. James Underhill of Denver, Colo., and Prof. L. E. Young, director of the Missouri School of Mines. Our thanks are extended also to the many authors and publishers who have given their permission to reprint articles which have been printed before. This book is expected to be used only with students Note. have an understanding of Plane Surveying. No attempt is who made in this volume to teach ordinary surveying methods or of the ; — theory. While the work has been cross referenced to a consider- able extent the reader Where a special is advised to method or make constant piece of apparatus use of the index. is explained by another author in a quotation or special article the subject matter been repeated in the general discussion such method or apparatus. The index has been made especially of such explanation has not of and complete so that every item in the book upon any subject be readily found. For this reason teachers will find it of advantage to teach by subjects, rather than by chapter or full may given number of pages. The bibliography of each topic will be found at the close of each chapter, and should be of use to both teacher and student. Loyal W. Trumbull. DoWNiEviLLE, Calif., March, 1908. — CONTENTS Chapter .... ... Instruments I. —Attachments—Special instruments — Bibliography. Transit: Historical— Adjustments —^Tapes—Repair of Chapter Meridian II. field 64 —Geographical solar observation Underground Practice III. . Chapter .... . —Marking—Numbering— Stations: kinds ing in dark ^Setting —Bibliography. up transit — — — 92 —Sight- Carrying the Meridian Underground IV. 3 transits ... —Solar attachment—Direct solution —Bibliography. Polaris Chapter PAGE . . 104 — Traverse One shaft Wires Weights Three-wire method Four-wire method Bent line -Vertical sights with ordinary transit Measure of depth Bibhography. — — — Chapter V. — Secondary Openings, Survey of . . 119 —Stopes narrow— Stope-books—String surveys—Estimate of values— Volumes—Mine sampling— Bibliography. Coal mines Record of the Survey Chapter VI. Field notes —Note-books— Side book of text-books. —List Chapter VII. . . — notes Office .... Uses of the Mine Maps — — 133 Laws regarding mine maps Uses of the topographical map logical maps and sections Old workings Assay maps. Chapter VIII. Paper — Making the Map —Scale—Platting of —Coordinates—-Bibliography. Chapter IX. — Map —Geo; angles . —Protractor—^Tangents—Chords Filing — — 153 160 — Models Erasures Ink and colors Blue-prints: Overexposed, to write upon, waterproofing of Solution ^Tracing from blue-print Vandyke prints Copying of drawings. — 126 —Calculation- books — vii — — CONTENTS Vlll PAGU Chapter X. Bobe-hole Surveys 169 —^BibUography. Photography Chapter XI. Methods op Various Engineers 175 —Iron mines of Wisconsin—Coal mine, Wyoming—Calumet & Hecla—Poorman—Copper Queen— Portland— Old Dominion—Anaconda— Boston & Montana—Coal mine of West Virginia—Homestake—Vertical shaft California — Detail description of procedure in Bent line survey Chapter XII. ^To locate shaft. United States Deputy Mineral Surveyor's Ex- amination 224 Problems. INDEX . 247 ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE PIG, 1. Illuminating the cross wires 2. Transit 3. Guard 4. 8. Mining transit with top telescope Mining transit with side telescope Double opposite verniers on vertical circle Interchangeable auxiliary used as side telescope Interchangeable auxiliary used as top telescope 9. Wye 5. 6. 7. Frontispiece 4 for vertical circle 6 . level 11. Plate levels not perpendicular to vertical axis Line of sight not perpendicular to horizontal axis 12. Effect of error in second adjustment 13. Effect of change of focus 10. .11 .... .... .... ... . . 16. The 17. 18. Telescope not parallel to level tube The vertical axis not truly vertical 19. Eccentricity of the telescope 20. Eccentricity of the circle 21. Eccentricity of the verniers . 13 15 22 23 24 26 . horizontal axis not perpendicular to the vertical axis Prismatic eyepiece 23. Mining transit 24. Top 25. Side telescope: isometric projection 26. Transit with duplex bearings 27. Lamp 28. . targets . .... 30. Brunton transit: reading horizontal angle Brunton transit: reading vertical angle Miners' compass 31. Little . . Giant tape splice 32. Tape 33. Polaris observation 34. Solar apparatus 35. Solar telescope attachment 36. Solar screen .28 . 29 31 33 .38 22. telescope: elevation . 13 ... 14-15. Horizontal axis not truly horizontal 29. 7 9 riveting tools 40 42 46 47 49 50 52 53 55 55 56 58 58 65 66 68 .69 . 37. Prismatic eyepiece and screen 70 38. Sun's image on cross-hairs 71 39. Star sphere 72 40. Spherical triangle 75 ix ILLUSTRATIONS PAOE 76 FIG. 41. Projection of star sphere 42. Observation for meridian Section of star sphere Logarithmic cross-section paper Logarithmic trigonometric paper 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 78 82 86 87 93 95 96 97 99 100 Underground stations Plumb-bob string adjuster Tunnel trivet 52. Instrument bracket Holding sight Butte backsights Tin-can backsight 53. Plummet lamp and plumb-bobs 102 54. Cross-wire reflector 102 55. 58. Cast metal plumb weight Plan of shaft station Bent line survey Double bent line 59. Striding level 60. Ordinary mine 61. Surface 49. 50. 51. 56. 57. 62-66. Level 101 107 , . . .110 113 114 115 144 map map 144 maps 144 144 150 170 179 67-73. Vertical sections 74-75. Assay maps 76. Map 77. Survey 78. Sheets from stope-book 79. Taking meridian from wires 80. 87. Stope-book sketches for vein with one bend Stope-book sketches for vein with two bends Office map compiled from stope-book sketches Specimen page of field notes Map of workings of coal mine Map of workings and proposed extensions Inclined shaft survey by bent line Horizontal plan of shafts and adit 88. Vertical section of shafts 89. Positions of wire 90. Map Map Map Map 81. 82. 83. 84. 85. 86. 91. 92. 93. 94. of proposed workings line to stope .... . and adit of placer location of lode claim government section of lode claim showing conflicting claims Problems of .... 195 198 199 202 204 205 207 209 214 219 220 222 224 230 231 232 239 A MANUAL OF UNDERGROUND SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS Surveying is the art of making measurements which determine Mine surveying is the relative position of two or more points. the art of surveying underground openings, i. e., finding the relative positions of points under the surface, or the position of points underground relative to points upon the surface. The angles and distances measured are usually drawn to scale upon various planes and mine maps thus produced. In mine surveying there are but few operations different from those of plane surveying. The application of the same principles to the different conditions, along with a greater degree of accuracy, insures success underground. 'Donahue, in 'Colliery Surveying,' says: 'Surveying is T. A. the art of taking such measurements and observations of an object as will enable a true proportionate representation to be drawn on a plane surface. The principles upon which it depends are all embodied in the science of geometry; so that surveying may be said to be a practical application of geometry.' Johnson, in his 'Theory and Practice of Surveying,' p. 431, This should be is an art, not an exact science.' kept constantly in mind, and in every case that method which says: 'Surveying promises the minimum result should be employed. deviation from the scientifically correct The Transit Theodolite The instrument now almost ment of angles is the transit universally used for the measuretheodolite, or more commonly, While other instruments are still used upon occasion 'transit.' the transit is the engineer's standby. In times past various more or less accurate, but now antiquated, instruments have served for underground work. As these are of historical interest only, a description of them will not be given. 3 A MANUAL OF UNDERGROUND SURVEYING 4 Other instruments which replace the transit for certain work, it, will be described later. Each engineer has his own preference when it comes to choosing or act as an auxiUary to FIG. 2. — TRANSIT. make and as to the attachments used. There number of reliable makers, each putting good transits on the market. Whatever the make there are certain constructions a transit, both as to are a INSTRUMENTS 5 which are generally admitted to be best for certain kinds of work. For underground work, especially in the metal mines in rough commonly known as a 'Mountain Transit,' is favorite. It should be mounted upon an extension tripod. Not only is this a necessity in work underground, but it is a wonderful convenience when traveling. The horizontal circle is about 6 inches in diameter and is country, a light transit, graduated to read from 0° to 360° in both directions. A full vertical circle, brazed to the horizontal axis and protected by an aluminum guard, is now commonly Both used. circles read to minutes. The telescope should magnify about twenty times, not more than twenty-four times, erect image, and should focus upon points at 4 feet distant. A prismatic eyepiece is a convenience but not a necessity. An auxiliary telescope or is, ing to the kind of work to be done. is not, a necessity accord- The transit should, however, upon it so that the auxiliary always have the connecting nipples may be obtained and used at any later time, if necessary. The telescope bubble should be long, for in most cases the elevations will be obtained by use of the transit, either ing them, as with the ordinary level, or by means by carry- of the vertical angles. Several of the are illustrated. makes of transits Some show an Each maker usually most used by mining engineers auxiliary telescope, others do not. any Each publishes a small catalogue and manual explaining his instruments. The user of a transit should certainly have a copy of the catalogue published by the makers of the instrument he uses, and the student can well afford to spend furnishes either top or side telescope and other attachments desired. many hours studying them. To show the variance in opinion regarding the best transit for use underground, the following quotation ing and Mining Journal of August 23, 1907, is from the Engineergiven: must be of high enough grade to allow of good triangulation work, and not too sensitive for rough usage; light enough to carry around the surface and on distant surveys in a mountainous country, and the horizontal circle graduated to 20 seconds of For average surface work, moderately high magnifying arc. powers are demanded; but the underground work will be at close 'It A MANUAL OF UNDERGROUND SURVEYING 6 range and in poor light where small magnification is better. Taking horizontal all things into consideration, probably a 4- to 4i-inch standards U-shaped circle reading to 20 seconds, full vertical circle, mountain transit will outline the best instrument for the' work. It should be procured from the best American manuSomething can be saved byfacturers, and will be expensive. The U-standards and small extras. omitting some of the usual This in the usual place. compass with a circle will do away habit, I befrom largely some, by disapproved omission will be the attachment to an compass, as the of fact, matter As a lieve. light FIG. transit, does — GUARD 3. not earn its salt, FOR VERTICAL CIRCLE. and is a distinct disadvantage in the correct construction of the instrument itself. The U-standard offers so many advantages that its use is to be always recommended. It will permit of lighter and at the same time more substantial construction. It presents a better appearance and is less apt to get decideclly valuable constructive ' out of order. Many would hesitate to use a 4-inch horizontal circle but the amount of such work is small, perextra care in repeating angles and of doing it on clear, in triangulation work, mitting of still days.' As the transit is strictly a product and as it is now used to the exclusion except in rare or unimportant work, short history of who its it of American engineering, of all other instruments, has seemed proper to give a To the student invention and introduction. wishes to study in more detail the history of engineering in- FIG. 4. — MINING TRANSIT WITH TOP TELESCOPE. A MANUAL OF UNDERGROUND SURVEYING 8 struments, we recommend the scholarly and detailed articles in the Transactions of the American Institute of Mining Engineers. The following short history catalogue of Young & of the transit Sons, for whose is taken from the permission to use it acknowledgment is gladly given: The first Invention and Introduction of Engineer's Transit. 1831. was It a long transit instrument was made during the year instruments; and that engineering it stride in the improvement of — ' should to-day retain value of ' its The found, almost identical its first form, proves the introduction and the good judgment of the inventor. same work, members of the English theodolite, capable of performing the if we are to credit the traditions of earlier little favor with the American engiand inconvenient. Few cared to workings were slow Its engineering profession, but neers. by reversing the theodolite and trusting to the vernier readings; and as few fancied the trouble of reversing telescope on its Y bearings, "end trust the prolongation of a straight line on its center, for end." Forgetfulness in fastening of clips resulted in telescope, while if fall of the were too tight there was the danger of clips shifting the instrument in fastening, or if too loose, the telescope Such were some of the discomforts attending use of the theodolite, an instrument well fitted for many purposes, and whose rattled. peculiar merits to still cause many of our English brethren to cling its use. ' From the theodolite the change was to the Magnetic Compass. made to read full independent of needle, was high in favor with many, especially those surveyors who, from their local knowledge (and some with naught besides), were selected to " run " the preliminary This, in its simplest form, or in its modified form, circle angles lines of railroads. By dint of labor, these surveyors mastered the intricacies of the vernier, but could never be brought to doubt the superior virtues of compass sights in seeing past a tree or other With the transit the tree had to come down; they would not undertake to say the staff on the other side of a tree was in line of the cross web, but were sure they could make it obstruction. "just right" with the line of sights. Nevertheless, though fre- quently doing close work, the needle would play pranks that produced much trouble and though to be commended for speed on the preliminary, was rather too uncertain for location. 'In the year 1831, the first transit was made by William J. ; INSTRUMENTS 9 Young. It was graduated to read by vernier to 3 minutes, it being in early days a favorite idea of inventors that graduations of 3 minutes could be easily read to one minute, and was less perplexing to use. The instrument had an out-keeper for tallying the outs of the chain, and a universal or round FIG. was about 5 5- — MINING level. The needle TRANSIT WITH SIDE TELESCOPE. inches, the telescope 9 inches, of low power. standards were of almost identical pattern The now used by some The center between plates was of fiat style, vernier on and the plates moved upon each other by rack and pinion. The plates and telescope detached from the makers. inside of the needle ring, A MANUAL OF UNDERG^UND SURVEYING 10 tripod fastened, we when believe, attached, by a snap dragon, as in later instruments. 'For whom the first transit was made, the records, as far as we can find them, do not positively show; as well as it can be gathered from them, and from other data, the first one was used on the State works of Pennsylvania, but whether on the Mountain Division or on the Inclined Plane of Columbia Railroad, is uncertain. The distinguished engineers of the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad ' and also claim the use of the first transit; we append belief, as illustrative of their the following extract from Railroad Journal of December, 1855: ' " The transit is now in common comparatively cheap instrument. in Europe. use in this country, and Such, however, In England, the old mode is still is any other course is a in vogue, to a great extent, of laying out curves with the use of ordinates; sure, indeed, that is not the case we are not not an exception. '"Some years since, Mr. Charles P. Manning, an accomplished American engineer now the efficient chief of the Alexandria, Loudoun & Hampshire Railroad went to Ireland, and on the Limerick & Waterford Railway, initiated the method, so common — — in this country, of laying out curves with the transit. " The first instrument of this name was made by Mr. William Young, the accomplished mathematical instrument maker, of Philadelphia, for the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad Company, the engineers of which made the first suggestions modifying the old theodolite. We have in times past used this instrument, which is much like those made at the present time by the same manufacturer, and is, if we are not mistaken, still in the field. '"Since then, transits have been little improved, but have been changed in the wrong direetion. They are generally much heavier than formerly, containing as much brass and mahogany ' J. as one man can well stand under. This great weight is not only but dangerous. Heavy instruments are much more liable than light ones to get out of adjustment on transportation, even useless, They are not a whit steadier in the wind; being generally made with clumsy tripods and large plates, they expose a greater area to the breeze. If the feet of the tripod be firmly planted, the instrument is rarely disturbed by the wind. Besides this, a heavy instrument is much more liable to danger from accident in a rough country." in the ordinary field service. IN.iTRUMENTS 'And the 11 following, fron"! same journal of January 5, 1856: The First Transit Compass. In our issue of the 15th of December, 1855, in noticing the field book of C. E. Cross, C.E., we took occasion to state some facts concerning the first transit compass, an instrument made by Young, of Philadelphia. We have since then received an interesting letter from Mr. Charles P. Manning, whom we mentioned as having initiated in Ireland the American method of laying out curves. Mr. Manning disclaims the honor in favor of Richard B. Osborne, Esq., an engineer who received his professional education in the service of the Reading — ' " FIG. 6. — DOUBLE OPPOSITE VERNIERS ON VERTICAL CIRCLE. Railroad Company, under Messrs. Moncure and Wirt Robinson (where he finally occupied the responsible position of chief of the engineer department, during the early struggles of that corporation, in its competition with its rival, the Schuylkill Navigation Company), and from which road he went to Ireland, and took charge of the location and construction of the Waterford & Limerick Railway in 1846. "Mr. Manning says further: 'I obtained from Mr. Young, and sent to Ireland, probably, the first transit compass ever known in that country or in England; and soon afterwards joined Mr. Osborne as his principal assistant, for the purpose of aiding him in the effectual introduction, at least upon that road, of the American system of location and construction.' ' " We were familiar with these facts when we made the statement which Mr. Manning desires corrected. But our object was not so ' A MANUAL OF UNDERGROUND SURVEYING 12 mention the party to whom the credit of introduction was due, as to state a few facts immediately connected with the Mr. Osborne introduced the instruhistory of the instrument. much ment to into Ireland, Mr. Manning initiated its use among the junior assistants. Osborne was the first to construct an iron bridge upon the plan of Howe's Patent Truss, several of which he put upon the Waterford & Limerick Railway; and, I believe, he also built and ' " Mr. placed upon the same road, the first eight- wheeled, double-truck passenger and freight cars (American plan) that were ever used in Great Britain. '"Mr. Manning gives us a very entertaining sketch of the first transit, made by Young, of which we remarked we had in times past made use. " Twenty and odd years ago when a mere boy I saw that history of that that ' — ' — instrument upon a lawyer's table, and afterwards in a court-room — a dumb witness in behalf of the patentee. Nineteen years ago, after considerable service in tracing the center line of the Wash- & Ohio Railroad, it was used in making surveys for the extension of the last-named road, westward from Harper's Ferry, and your humble servant carried and used it at that time in Washington County, Maryland, and in Ohio County, Virginia. ""In the last seven years the instrument accompanied me as a duplicate, and was occasionally used upon the location and construction of the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, through the wilderness, west of Cumberland, and now rests upon its laurels in the office of the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad Co., in Baltimore. ington branch of the Baltimore ""It was instrumental in setting the peg that was driven Ohio Railroad, west of Harper's Ferry; and it was "hard by," and able to do duty, when the last peg was set for completing the track of that road upon the banks of the Ohio River. for the extension of the Baltimore first & ""In all material points Mr. Young has never been able to improve upon this original work of his hand, but in some of its minor parts he has effected desirable changes such as the tangent screws connected with the clamp of the tripod, the substitution of a clamp and tangent screw for the old rack-and-pinion movement of the two compass plates, the subdivision of degrees into minutes, by an improved graduation of the vernier, etc., etc. INSTRUMENTS ""The original instrument 13 had an index for counting the number of deflections made at one sitting;' also a small bubble upon the exterior of the telescope, for the purpose of defining a hori- zontal line, without resorting to the aid of its companion, the ordinary level; but these superfluities were soon thrown aside; and one of its peculiar features was, and is, a vernier, graduated only to three minutes.' " 'Mr. Manning but expresses the facts all when he says that in The changes material points Uttle change has taken place. FIG. 7. — INTERCHANGEABLE AUX- FIG. 8. Used as Side Telescope. that have taken circumstances — INTERCHANGEABLE place have been those called for — modifications acteristics of the transit, AUX- ILIARY. Used as Top Telescope. ILIARY. by peculiar which, while retaining the char- have approached more nearly to the Transits in after years became peculiarities of the theodolite. divided into the two distinct classes. Flat Center, as first intro- duced, and Long Center, with centers as previously used on theodolite ; but for accurate exception. it was not for many years that the long center work the best construction now is the rule, and the It — became flat — other than the center the exception. A MANUAL OF UNDERGROUND SURVEYING 14 ' Engineers of the present day, unaware of the actual difference two styles, and unacquainted with the circumstances of in these early introduction of instrument, are apt to treat the flat center with a disrespect it is far from deserving. 'For the same strength, the flat centers are far the lightest. Said an experienced and competent engineer to us, within a few first requisite of a transit is lightness and portaJudged by these requisites, the flat center is the instrument of to-day. But he spoke for his own peculiar branch railways; and while we are by no means ready to indorse this opinion, we have no hesitation in saying that the circumstances existing at the time of. first use of the transit were such that had the instrument been constructed with the long center, its usefulness and general introduction would have been very much retarded. The great peculiarity of the first-made transits was their ability to stand hard usage, and non-liability to get out of order under ordinary usage. The center is a broad metal plate thick, which it is impossible to bend or injure in any manner, except by wear; the plates were thick, not easily bent, and the spring vernier, in case of bending of plates, followed their motions and allowed the days past, "The bility." — — made sufficiently accurate to continue work. The rack and pinion had nothing that could break, while the tangents, as then constructed, were equally simple. If the standards, by a readings to be were bent so that the telescope would not revolve in a vertical was such that with the ax as a screwdriver the standards could be loosened and a piece of paper inserted to correct them. fall, plane, the construction In fact, the opinion of the writer, with means of observation and the use of such an instrument, is, that a flat-centered transit, rack and pinion, and spring vernier, cannot he made totally useless by any accident short of absolute breakage of parts. Not so, however, with the long center. There the least injury ' ' to centers or plates ends the usefulness of the instrument for work, and it can stand comparatively its rough usage without little receiving this injury. 'Of the good judgment of the length of time that still doing duty as rodman, we — first form many of them have been is the best of evidence. of construction, the in use — for some are Twenty-five years ago, followed and worked with a flat-center transit that to us then looked old enough to retire upon its laurels. So con- INSTRUMENTS stant had been the edges of — — use that its corners of hard, hammered brass standards, and other parts, had then been rounded its its 15 in carrying against clothing. Ten years afterwards we followed on the location of one of our main lines across the mountains, where for a long time it had been the sole available instrument; and one year ago it was in the shop for repairs, the owner still believing that for railway work it had no superior. This instrument was light, weighing between 15 and 16 pounds; had behind it, FIG. 9. — WYE LEVEL. seen at least forty years' service, a large part of the time in the hands of assistants, and in rough, wooded country. We doubt the possibility of a long-centered instrument leading an equally long life. While in charge of some railway works, we kept in the office, where there were several assistants, both styles of instruments, ' and the 'It is assistant's choice, in all cases, was for the flat center. not our intention to argue any superiority in the first A MANUAL OF UNDERGROUND SURVEYING 16 not the equal, for accuracy and smoothness of motion, of the long center. Its day of universal application has passed and its field of usefulness narrowed; but it yet has its form of transit. It is and the engineer will do well in making selections to give it fair consideration. Our desire is simply to do it justice, and to offer for it a slight defense to our younger engineers, who, having never seen or used it, can know but little of its faults or merits. 'In the transit's early days, no express, on call, drove to the door, receipted for the boxes, and relieved all anxiety, no matter how many thousand miles away nor what obscure point was the destination. Instead of this they had in many cases to be consigned to the top of the stage, or to the Connestoga wagon, unless the destination was near the coast, when the sea became the best route. Thus we find the following extracts, looking at ranfield, dom ' into the books of shipment: " 1833. August 13th. Sent, per ship Chester, to F. Beaumont, Natchez, care of Florchell & Co., New " 1833. August Orleans. W. 'There is no 16th. Sent, per brig G. Neil, for Boston difficulty in transit that nothing much & Mohawk, to Boston, to Providence Railroad." understanding why the call was for a short of entire annihilation would render necessary to send back, over its slow, long, and uncertain journey, for repairs. 'The spread improvements in this country had, at commenced, and with it the demand for the new instrument increased rapidly. So great was this increase, and so much did it outgrow the facilities of manufacture, that the inventor was compelled to send to England an order to have the greater part of a limited number of transits made. This was in 1835, and these were the first transits, or parts of transits, made in England. About three dozen were thus obtained, the more particular parts being made here. They proved far from remunerative; some few were passable, others more troublesome, requiring alterations and repairs; while a fatal fault to a needle instrument (iron in the metal) was found to exist in nearly a dozen. 'Of the latter, most were broken up; several remained in the establishment in an unfinished condition until recently, one of this time, fairly of internal INSTRUMENTS the last being taken to adorn the monument 17 of a civil engineer, in Laurel Hill Cemetery, Philadelphia. manufacture of the transit instrument was, for with many difficulties. The art of graduation had as yet made but little progress, and the introduction of the transit called for nearer approach to perfection. The first graduating machines were extremely primitive, consisting simply of a circular plate of about 18 inches diameter, upon which degrees and half degrees were marked off, either by mechanical subdivisions or from a similar plate. The one in the establishment of W. J. Young bears the name of "Adams, Maker, London," and consists of such a plate as we have described. 'Such were the means of graduation in 1820. Mr. Young started, as soon as he commenced business, the construction of an engine of 24 inches diameter, worked by the endless screw and treadle and shortly after the introduction of the transit, commenced another of 26 inches diameter, for finer work, in which a new and important principle of construction for these engines was introduced. A few years afterwards, this same machine was rendered automatic, and is yet doing active duty. About the same time, Mr. Edmund Draper constructed a graduating engine which, among those acquainted with it, has a high reputation for 'The want earlier of conveniences, attended ; accuracy. As transits advanced to perfection, these advances in graduabecame necessary. That they were not made at once, but were the result of almost a life of thought, work, and patience, and source of expense, is evident from the fact that from 1821 to 1860, or but ten years before his death, W. J. Young was almost constantly engaged upon the making or perfection of these engines. 'Another serious difficulty arose from want of opticians of The first glasses used were imported principally from ability. England. With the slow communication across the ocean at that period, it was long before an order given could be received; and the purchase of all glasses to be found here of proper size and What was more focal length furnished but a short supply. differed in size and length that the next supply troublesome was instrument, inquiry for a larger or one of When an from the last. ' tion came, the question which determined the manufacture was the capability of making the different construction, practicability of its telescope. A MANUAL OF UNDERGROtJND SURVEYING 18 ' The been brought nearer perfew The decimal graduation of vernier W. Miffin, C.E., proved a great ad- transit instrument having thus fection in graduation more changes and optical performance, received but in construction. suggested at an early day by S. vantage in the turning off deflection angles for curves, and was adopted by many, notably by the engineers of Pennsylvania Railroad, all of whose instruments were graduated in that manner. 'The loose vernier and by the was an improvement over the much- arc, for vertical angles, applied writer about the year 1850, liable-to-be-injured full circle. 'The shifting staff-head, patented by W. J. Young, in 1858, was another of those little improvements which increase the value of the instrument much. 'The many varied uses to which, from progress of science in this country, the instrument has been called, has brought forth instruments of greater delicacy and different constructions, until to-day, the finest transit of the conscientious instrument maker is a splendid instrument, not surpassed in its performances by the production of any other country. 'Of later minor improvements, some beneficial, some the exploded humbugs of bygone days, we are not now to speak. The profession has other means of discovering them. Our desire is simply to keep from oblivion, the dates and circumstances of introduction of the instrument which has played so important a part in the ever memorable forty-five years of American railroad construction, and which might, perhaps, be lost in the whirl which has been crowding the railroad mind ever forward, leaving it no time to look back to the earlier laborers. Telescopes. Telescopes placed upon transit instruments within the past few years have a higher power than was formerly placed upon the generality of these instruments. 'The general demand is for a high power; and those unacquainted with the subject consider the higher power the better telescope. The power of a telescope depends upon proportion of focal lengths of object glass and eyepiece and while in theory any power may be given to any telescope, in practice the extent is limited by other points, such as effects of aberration, loss of light, and size of field view. With the same object glass every increase of power is followed by a decreased illumination, or a decrease of light and a smaller field. These results follow in obedience to ' — ; INSTRUMENTS 19 mathematical laws, and cannot be obviated. certain proportions between Science has given power and length of telescopes, and the best opticians of Europe, with their extended experience, invariably follow these proportions. 'The practice in this country of late has been to force the power beyond these bounds; the result is, that while under very favorable circumstances the center of somewhat better definition, it will field of view will give a only do so under favorable circumstances, such as clear atmosphere and strong illumination of the object; and that either the field must be much reduced or objects out of immediate center will not be in focus. In cloudy weather, in lesser light of morning and evening, in the tremulous condition of atmosphere arising from evaporation from the surface of the ground, especially cultivated ground, these high powers all suffer. 'There are purposes, where great definition is so much an all other telescopic requirements, in which object as to supersede these high powers are advisable; but the engineer should under- stand that in using them that he loses on the other points, and especially remember the exact focusing required of them; otherwise parallax produces a sensible error. exact focusing of high powers is For rapid working the a drawback, a change in telescope being required for almost every small change of distance. Com- parison of two telescopes differing widely in power will illustrate In the lower powers, in ranging a line, distances between 300 and 400 feet require little if any change, and the same of say 500 and 700, or 800 and 1200; but in higher powers every change of a few feet, until practically parallel rays are reached, requires separate focusing, and if not properly focused are liable to be less this. than the lower powers. loss of light, even in the best high powers, an impression of glass being "less distinct" on its distinct 'The though smaller objects are better defined by its first use is one of cloudiness. it, is what gives first use, for the impression on 'Fortunately the particular use of engineering instruments requiring definition on but one point at a time allows us to make other conditions of optically good glass subordinate to this one of power to a great extent. 'Inverting glasses are not more powerful, except that from the small space occupied by the eyepiece, they allow for the same A MANUAL OF UNDERGROUND SURVEYING 20 length of telescope a greater focal length of object glass, and thus increase the power. amount of light, or greater The prejudices of American illumination, and a much larger field. engineers are against them, but in Europe their merits are almost 'They, however, have a much greater universally acknowledged, and they are almost the only ones used.' The Adjustments of the Transit ^ While every elementary text-book on surveying gives a descripit is thought best to include it in this work, as the uses to which the transit is put underground are so varied and the accuracy required so great. The adjustments of an engineer's transit are of two kinds: (1) The maker's adjustments, or those which reliable makers give the instrument while it is in process of construction; and (2) the field adjustments, or those which occasionally have to be verified The latter are, as a matter of in the field use of the instrument. included in the former, since makers always find it necescourse, sary to verify all the adjustments, and deem it an essential requisite of a properly constructed and thoroughly tested instrument, to send it from their hands only when in every respect accurately adjusted for immediate use. The Maker's Adjustments. In order that the mathematical conditions of the practical problem of angular measurements in the field may be realized in the instrument itself, it is necessary that the following points of construction and adjustment be tion of the adjustments, — accurately attained: 1. The and lenses of the objective of the eyepiece telescope truly centered in their respective 2. The of the cells. optical axis of the system of lenses coinciding with the mechanical axis of the tube, in all the relative positions of the objective and eyepiece, the lenses remaining always at right angles to this axis. 3. The cross hairs, during each observation, in the focus of the object glass 4. The vertical common and eyepiece. cross hair (all other adjustments made) at right angles to the horizontal axis of the instrument. 5. The line of sight at right angles to the horizontal axis, or coinciding with the axis of collimation. 6. The axis of the telescope level lying in the ' Based upon " Engineers' Manual," Queen same plane & Co. as the INSTRUMENTS line of collimation, or 21 not 'crossed' with respect to the coUima- tion plane. The axis of the telescope level parallel with the line of sight. The horizontal axis of the instrument at right angles to the axis of the alidade, or to the axis of the upper plate; and 7. 8. hence (all other adjustments made) the line of sight always lying in the plane center of, which The form 9. is at right angles to, the horizontal graduated and passes through the circle. of the pivots of the horizontal axis the equivalent of true cylinders. 10. 11. The V's or bearings for The vertical graduated these pivots, of equal form. circle at right angles to the hori- zontal axis of the instrument. 12. The vertical graduated with respect to the horizontal 13. 14. The The circle and its verniers truly centered axis. alidade, or upper, plate at right angles to its axis. axis of the alidade, or upper, plate coinciding with the axis of the lower, or circle, plate. 15. The lower, or circle plate, at right angles to the axis of both alidade and common circle plates. The graduations of the horizontal circle and of its verniers, and concentric with the common axis of the alidade and 16. true circle plates. 17. The zeros of each set of verniers, or reading microscopes, accurately 180° apart, as measured at the respective centers of the graduated 18. The circles. axis of each of the alidade levels at right angles to the vertical axis of the instrument. 19. The pivot of the compass needle coincident with the vertical axis. 20. The zeros of the compass graduations in the same plane as the line of collimation. 21. 22. The magnetic needle perfectly straight. The magnetic axis of the needle coinciding with the axis of form. 23. The magnetic needle adjusted for the magnetic dip of the place of observation. 24. The axis of the suspended plumb bob coinciding with the vertical axis of the instrument. While it would be difficult and unnecessarily tedious to set A MANUAL OF UNDERGROUND SURVEYING 22 down every adjustment attended to by the maker, the foregoing may be taken as a Hst of the more prominent ones. Other adjustments peculiar to the accessories of the transit and to special forms referred to in treating of these elsewhere. be The following practical methods The Field Adjustments. errors of an engineer's transit are the for detecting and correcting given for use in the field. A full explanation of the nature of each of the transit will error is also may tion made — in order that the work of detection and correc- proceed intelligently. — To First Adjustment. make the axis of the plate levels perpendicular to the vertical axis of the instrument. — Detection of Error} Level the instrument carefully both ways, care being taken to make each bubble tube parallel to a pair of plate screws. Turn the telescope through 180° by measur- This measurement should be a direct ing on the vernier plate. angular measurement on the plate, and not a mere approximaIf the instrument is not adjustment the bubbles, tion. a-^ _--=3 —^^^''^^^Sfa-a" » in ~ after this revolution, will no longer remain in the centers of the tubes. This displacement of the bubbles is twice the true error of the instrument. a if a' (Fig. 10) For represent the projection on a parallel verti- — PLATE LEVELS NOT PERPENDicuLAR TO VERTICAL AXIS. FiG. 10. cal <, o' plane of the bubble tubes, the Vertical axis of the in- strument, the turning through 180° would bring a to a" and a' to a" ', the angles a" o' a and a" ' o' being respectively equal to ao' o and a' o' o. The line KL representing the angle a' o' proper position of the bubble tube, the a" will therefore be the double error, and cause twice the displacement of the bubbles due to the true error. Correction of the Error. way back — To correct, bring the bubbles half to the centers of the tubes by raising or lowering either end of the tubes, screws being placed there for that purpose. Then level accurately by means of the plate screws. This process should be repeated several times, as, without extreme accuracy in this adjustment, any attempt to perform the other adjustments is valueless. "Aftef the other adjustments have been used to check the plate levels made or, in fact, to set up the telescope level can be by. INSTRUMENTS 23 — Second Adjustment. To make the line of sight coincide with the Hne of collimation, or to make the line of sight perpendicular to the horizontal axis of the telescope. Detection of the Error. — The direction of the line of sight is determined by two points; the optical center of the object glass, and the intersection of the cross hairs. Of these the latter is movable and is the part whose position is to be corrected. Set up the instrument, level carefully, and sight (Fig. 11) to some well-defined point, A. Reverse the telescope (i.e., turn it over) and sight to B. A and B should be as far distant as possible from the instrument, since the apparent deviation and con- FIG. 11. — LINE OF SIGHT NOT PERPENDICULAR TO HORIZONTAL AXIS. sequently the accuracy of the subsequent correction increases H B should be taken equal to A H. If the be not perpendicular to the horizontal axis of the instrument EE', A and B will not be on the same straight line with H. To determine whether this is so or not, turn the teleas the distance. line of sight oo' scope around on its vertical axis of the instrument angle OHE' and axis now of the old position corresponding to and the angle OHE to OHE" '. over on horizontal axis) its line ; far to the left of the line Aoo' as at C. sight to A. The angle aHO' E"HE, since these ment from B to C The horizontal E" E" ', the occupies the position Now OHE" in the of sight will strike this it new, reverse the telescope (turn time as did before to the right, that is, represents the doubled error, so also does angles are equal. represents the But the sum total angular of these angles, and moveis con- sequently four times the true error. Correction of the Error. — To correct, with the telescope pointed at C, place a stake at D, the distance D C being made Move the cross-hair ring by means of equal to one fourth B C. the capstan-headed screws placed on the side of the telescope, This operauntil the intersection of the hairs cuts the point D. tion is accomplished by screwing both screws at the same time. A MANUAL OF UNDERGROUND SURVEYING 24 the one in and the other out. be remembered that an It should inverting or astronomical telescope does not invert the motion of the cross-hair ring, and hence the screws must be turned so as to move the ring in the same direction as that apparently required With the usual terrestrial or erecting to produce coincidence. must be turned so as to move the ring in the from that which the error apparently requires. If the line of sight Effect upon Reading of Horizontal Angles. not at right angles to the horizontal axis but makes any angle, say telescope the screws opposite direction is — 90°-c, the quantity, tion error. The horizontal angles c, is the error of the line of sight of the collima- effect of is such an error, r SS' FIG. In this — EFFECT 12. figure, axis, while OZ', adjusted sight is on measurement of MN z T" OP ERROR IN SECOND ADJUSTMENT. is the horizontal axis, OZ is the vertical OP, and OS' are three positions of the inaccurately axis or line of sight, which makes respectively the equal angles Z'OZ, that Z'PS' c, best seen from Fig. 12. FOR, S'OT, or c, with the plane a parallel to the great circle ZRT, so ZRT. Let the sight axis be directed to a point P, whose altitude is Then, if the sight axis were accurately collimated, P would be projected on the horizon at S. But with the error c PS=h. in collimation MTN, it is PR, projected at S'. very approximately equals c. as the arc of a parallel to For any altitude h, the error PR, projected on the horizon, is ST, or SS' is in excess of the effect of the same error on a horizontal pointing. For varying c, or INSTRUMENTS altitudes, therefore, the gi^'en error consists of 25 a constant part S'T and a variable part SS'. Denoting ST by Z, S'T by SS' by (c), we evidently have from the figure c, and (c)=Z-c and because PR may be assumed and is the arc of a parallel to ST. Z=c and inserting as approximately equal to c sec h this value in the previous equation, (c) =c sec h—c (1) we have (2) which allows the variable collimation error to be computed as a c and the altitude h. The following table, for various assumed altitudes and various assumed values of c, will give a practical idea of the effect of collimation error upon measurements of horizontal angles \\ith the line simple function of the assumed constant error of sight directed to the given altitude. TABLE SHOWING EFFECT OF AN ERROR c OF COLLIMATION ON MEASUREMENT OF HORIZONT.IL ANGLES A MANUAL OF UNDERGROUND SURVEYING 26 For, representing the collimation error due to two pointings of different altitude, hi and ^2, by Ac, or, what comes to the same, letting Ac = (c)i — (c)2, we have evidently from equation (2) Ac = c (sec hi—sech-i), which, for hi=h2, becomes zero. Third. The varying part, SS', of the projected collimation error is also, for pointings of different altitudes, eliminated when determined by the principle of reversion, or when the angle is first measured in one position of telescope and then the telescope turned over on its horizontal axis and round the vertical axis, the measurement again made, and the mean of the two measures taken. For if Ac is considered positive in one position of the telescope, the angle between the two points is Far Siglit "Near Sight FIG. it 13. — EFFECT OF CHANGE OF FOCUS. must be considered negative entering with different signs, of the measures for the Fourth. From likely to exist in the reverse position; it is eliminated two positions the table it is and hence by taking the mean of the telescope. evident that the collimation error low altitudes, negligible even in high-class A = 10° the table shows the error less than 10". The table also shows the necessity for painstaking collimation, or for proper methods of elimination of the error, when work. Even is, for for c = 10' and the pointings of the telescope are of any considerable altitude. Not in Line of Collimation. There is also a small error introduced when both sights are horizontal. Owing to the change _of focal distance when sighting on objects When Vertical Wire is — INSTRUMENTS far first on a and then near, the angle far object the objective is c is 27 When not constant. drawn far in and F is sighting short, say When sighting on a near object (modem mining transits can be sighted on an object only 4 feet distant) the objective is run clear out and F may be as much as, say, for instance 8 inches. 10 inches. be 10 minutes when sighting on a far become 10" X ^^ = 8 minutes when the object sighted is near and F, is 10 inches, or the real error now, the angle If, object, when F=8 c inches, then c will of the reading of the angle more measured is 10" — 8" = 2". This is shown, clearly in Fig. 13. = angular error for distant object. = angular error for near object. 2^ = focal distance for far object. c Ci i^i=focal distance for near object. c = ctg — ~ Ci= ctg — d d is constant; ii-i. d F varies inversely with distance of the object sighted, but an angle decreases as c its ctg increases, i.e., decreases with nearness of object sighted. — To make the of collimation revolve Error. — Set up the instrument, and level care- Third Adjustment. in a vertical plane. Detection of the line Sight to some high object. The top of a steeple is generally most convenient. Depress the telescope and note carefully where the intersection of the cross hairs cuts the ground. Turn the fulh'. instrument through 180° (this time only approximately) and, reversing the telescope, sight to the same high point, depress the tube again, and again note where the line of collimation strikes The the ground. (Fig. and 14). fault to be remedied BOA' or B'OA line drawn through them both. The motion of the P that the horizontal axis is inclines the axis as represented angles is not parallel to the plane of the plate bubbles Turning thi'ough 180° brings the support A to A' of the telescope by the dotted line A'B', the representing the doubled error, since the parallel to the bubble plane would bisect line of collimation is represented in Fig. 15, being the high point, K and L the two points on the ground, A MANUAL OF UNDERGROUND SURVEYING 28 M being the middle point which the cross hairs should cut instrument were in adjustment. AB by the — To correct, therefore, raise or lower Correction of the Error. one end of the axis if means of a screw placed in the standard for that purpose, until the line of sight revolves in the plane from P to M. The reflection in a basin of mercury of the high point K M L FIGS. 14 AND 15. — HORIZONTAL AXIS NOT TRULY HORIZONTAL. determine the point M, and the consequent error be determined without the reversal of the telescope. Instead of a very high terrestrial object a star may be advantagewill suffice to KM or ML ously used in this reflection method. Error Introduced. — If the horizontal axis of the telescope is not at right angles to the vertical axis of the instrument, but makes an angle 90° — i, i is the error of the horizontal axis. : INSTRUMENTS In Fig. 16 OZ 29 MN the represents the vertical axis, horizontal OZ, or in correct position, and M'N' the making an angle i with the correct position. The axis at right angles to horizontal axis line of sight will therefore move in the plane Z'PT instead of the z FIG. plane 16. — THE ZRT, and HORIZONTAL AXIS NOT PERPENDICULAR TO THE VERTICAL AXIS. if directed to P, the deviation the horizon will be ST. Let ZZ'=i, ST= = 90° — A., then from the figure we have: (l), PR projected on TR = h, and RZ Pi?=(i) cos/i; also or, PR = i cos (90° -h) PR = i sin h, and hence, or finally, (i) {i) cos h = i sin h, =i tan h, (3) from which formula the following table may be computed TABLE SHOWING EFFECT OF AN ERROR i OF HORIZONTAL AXIS ON MEASUREMENT OF HORIZONTAL ANGLES , A MANUAL OF UNDERGROUND SURVEYING 30 The Practical Deductions from this discussion are: The First. effect of the existence of or of the violation of the oondttion an instrumental error i, be eliminated by H^V, may the method of reversion observation, already explained in the practical deductions concerning the collimation error, The Second. effect of the error i is also eliminated c. by taking the difference of the readings for any two pointings of the same For, altitude. we if represent the effective errors for the two and A2 of an error i, by (i)i and we have evidently from equation (3) altitudes hi (i)2, A i=i (tan hi — tan (i)2, and A^ = (i)l — /12) which, for hi=h2, becomes zero. Third. This error, i, is of much more serious influence on horizontal angles than the collimation error. Fourth. In a thoroughly tested and carefully adjusted instrument, and with altitudes less than 5°, this error need not be feared, but with an instrument having any considerable error i, or with pointings of a considerable altitude, the resulting error on the horizontal angle is serious. Fifth. It is to be borne in mind that in observations like those, for example, required in making the third adjustment, the effective (i) error (i), varies as the tangent of the angle of depression as well as of elevation. — To make the axis of the telescope Error. — Drive two stakes several hundred Fourth Adjustment. level parallel to the line of collimation. Detection of the midway between them and, using the bring the long bubble to the center of its tube. Sight to a rod held on each stake. The difference of these readings will be the true difference of height between the points, feet apart. Set up exactly instrument as a level, no matter what the error of the instrument may be. For if eo, Fig. 17, represent the position of the telescope, the line of sight will cut the rod at A. while the spirit level the new D and B. D same horizontal reading, e'o' and will intersect at C. since iS is CD -^5 = true difference of height of EF represents the proper position For, since of the telescope, then and indicates the position of the line of sight will be the rod set over points Turning the telescope around horizontally W still FD-EB = tr\ie difference of height of points, midway between B and D, the angles which eo and. INSTRUMENTS 31 the two positions of the telescope, make with EF, being equal, must be subtended by equal distances on the rod, or EA=FC, hence adding to FD and EB, we have (FD + FC) -{EB + EA) = e'o', true difference of height of points (since this addition does not affect the as balance of the equation), or true difference we stated at firet. Now, clearly, having determined the of the points, the instrument this accurateh'. Correction of the Error. of the stakes, by true difference of height must be corrected so as to measure — Now set up the instrument over one measure the height the stake, either = CD — 4-B, of the cross hair above the top of direct reference to the horizontal set of screws A*^ ,j^j^777T777777777777777n77777^t T^7777777m777^i FIG. 17. — TELESCOPE of the cross-hair ring, or NOT PARALLEL TO LEVEL TUBE. by looking through the objective toward a graduated rod held at a distance of about a quarter of an inch from the eye end, and with a neat lead-pencil point marking on the rod the center of the small field of view. Set the target on the rod to this reading plus or minus the difference of height be- tween the points, according as the point set up over is higher Now sight to the rod thus adjusted or lower than the second. and beld on the second stake, and note if the cross hairs cut the target in the center, tube. when the long bubble is in the center of its by lowering or raising one end of the level If not, correct tube by means of nuts placed there for that purpose, until the still remaining in the desired intersection is-obtained, the bubble center of the tube. Here the height point over which the instrument is above the very approximately of the cross hairs set up is A MANUAL OF UNDERGROUND SURVEYING 32 independent of any accuracy of adjustment. The entire error of the instrument is therefore shown by its deviation from the true reading as indicated on the rod, by the distance of the cross-hair Now check up plate intersection from the center of the target. levels against telescope level. Fifth Adjustment. when — To Detection of the Error. By make the vertical circle read zero the bubble of the telescope level — This may is in the center of its tube. be done in two ways: (1) by reversion. Sight to some distinct point, note the reading By Reversion. on the vertical circle. Turn the instrument around horizontally simple inspection; — (2) half way, reverse the telescope, One and sight again to the same half the difference of the readings doubled by reversion. is the error, it point. having been — The Correction of the Error. either the vernier or circle correction is made by moving by loosening screws designed for the purpose of permitting circular motion. 'The index error' may, however, be simply noted, and each observation corrected by the required amount. Inspection is the readiest method by which to perform the above adjustment, but when the index error is small and difficult of detection, doubling it increases the accuracy of the correction. be small and the vertical circle have but one be corrected by first setting the circle so as to read zero altitude and bringing the bubble of the telescope level This error, vernier, may if it also and then, by the method of the fourth adjustment, moving the cross-hair ring up or down so as to bring the line to a zero reading, of sight parallel to the axis of the telescope level. — — To make the vertical cross hair truly when the instrument is leveled. Detection of the Error. Set up the instrument and level carefully. Suspend a plumb line from some convenient point. Bring Sixth Adjustment. vertical the vertical cross hair into coincidence with it, and note whether the line and hair correspond throughout their entire length. If they do not, the hair ment be properly is out of adjustment, because, leveled the plumb line will if the instru- be perpendicular to the plane of the bubble tubes. The same noting if error may be detected by plunging the telescope and some point sighted to, the vertical hair passes over throughout its entire length. Correction of the Error. — To correct the error the cross-hair INSTRUMENTS ring must be moved ciroularlj'. This is 33 accomplished by loosening the four screws of the cross-hair ring. These screws penetrate amount of play enlargement of the space through which the screw is inserted. When the screw is tightened the piece just below the head of the screw is clamped fast to the telescope tube. the ring a short distance, and are allowed a certain by reason sidewise of the When all four screws are loosened, however, it permits the ring to be turned through a distance limited by the edges of the hole through which the screw is inserted. The vertical hair alters its direction with the turning of the ring. Error of Deviation of the Vertical Axis of the Instrument from the Vertical. This is due either (1) to error in the condition L J_T', that is, inaccurate adjustment of the level axis with respect — FIG. 18. — THE VERTICAL AXIS NOT TRULY VERTICAL. to vertical axis; or, (2) to untrutlifulness and lack of sensitiveness of the levels; or, (3) to inaccuracy of use of the levels in setting up the instrument. OZ is the vertical, OZ' the vertical axis deviating an angle ZOZ', which we designate v. If the axis of sight is directed to P, this point will be projected to T instead of to S; and if we designate AS by u and -IT by «', their difference will be equal to the desired projection error, which we designate In Fig. 18 from (v); OZ by that is ?t — m' = (v). The plane of the circle at right angles to the vertical axis will therefore take the position stead of AMBN, equal to v. The so that the angle BOB' between A'M'B'N' the planes is line of sight being directed to P, the horizontal . A MANUAL OF UNDERGROUND SURVEYING 34 must take the position of M'N', at right angles to OT and approximately to OS, whence the inclination to the true horizontal We have now a triangle plane is MOM', which we designate i' LMM' right angled at M, whose side LM = AS, because AL and SM each equal 90°. But the arc AS is the azimuth of the projected point P as measured from the point of greatest inclination A, and this arc, or its equal LM, we designate u. In the right spherical triangle LMM', LM = %i, L = v, and MM' = i', and hence axis . i' But an error {i') inclination in i' =v sin u. of the horizontal axis measurement produced a projected of horizontal angles in which, according to the previous article (3), = i' tan h, = v sin u tan (d) = V sin u tan {i') and therefore or where («) represents the on the horizon. For the takes the form {i') effect of v, for and the table (4) any pointing, maximum value of {v)=v tan h, h, as projected sin u, or I, the formula h, of the preceding section gives the values of the effective error. The Practical Deductions from consideration of this error are: The error v made in adjusting and setting up the instrument cannot be eliminated by reversion observations. Second. If we suppose an angle measured between two points of the same altitude we can find the expression for the maximum value of the error A v. Let hi and ui be respectively the altitude and azimuth (as measured from point of greatest inclination of horizontal circle) of the first point, and /ig and ?<2, the same of second point, and the difference between the effective errors (vi) and (V2)be A v, that is, Av = (wi) — (^2) then from equation (4) we evidently have First. ; Av=v (tan hi sin ui This value attains, for hi=h2, — tan its /12 sin 112) maximum (5) in relation to mi and U2 when sin iti = — sin U2, or when Ui—U2= ± 180°. That is, the error becomes greatest for hi=h2''when the angle measured IXSTRUMEXTS Ml — 1*2 is 180°. 35 Under these conditions the above formula (5) becomes Maximum Av = Av or the greatest error v tan h, from the error v in verticahty of between two points of the same arising axis will, for a straight angle altitude, '2 be just double the values set down in the table as given. is evident that for altitudes less than 5°, and with Third. It good levels properly adjusted and care in setting up, no appreci- able error need be feared, even in high-class work. A be drawn from the foregoing disr, may be of practical use. First. If we measure horizontal angles with an engineer's transit whose coUimation error is c, error of horizontal axis i, and whose vertical axis has a deviation of v from the vertical, the few general infei-ences to cussion of the axial erroi-s three effective erroi-s (c), c, i, (i), and (v), may combine in a total (s), so that for a single pointing and if As represent the total error made in measuring an angle, or for two pointings, As= Ar+ Ai + At', or reproducing their values, As = c (sec /ii— sec + of v Iio) + i (tan /ii— tan Aa) (tan hi sin iti— tan /i2 sin 11-2) (6) Second. From this equation (6) it becomes e\-ident that it is importance to choose points nearly of the same altitude if we would by reversion eliminate all instrumental errors eliminable. Third. Only the collimation error c and the error of the horizontal axis i can be eliminated b}' revei"sion. Fourth. Since the error of verticality of axis v can become larger than any other of the erroi-s, and can also have a more serious result on the measurement of horizontal angles, it requires special attention. The error r, as already stated, depends not only on care in the use of the levels in setting up, but on their proper adjustment, and on their truthfulness and sensitiveness as ' well. The Effect of the Axial Errors on the Measurement of Angles A MANUAL OF UNDERGROUND SURVEYING 36 of Altitude. — Having devoted considerable space to the con- sideration of the effect of small errors of direction of the three principal axes upon the measurement of horizontal angles, we speak of their effect on measurement of angles This subject has been rather carefully investigated of altitude. by Dr. W. Jordan in his inimitable " Handbuch der Vermessungskunde," Vol. II, and we give here as a matter of considerable interest the general result of a cumbrous mathematical discussion. have now For a briefly to fairly adjusted altazimuth instrument, and for vertical angles not exceeding 45°, the effect of the usual small errors altogether inappreciable. 45°, For angles and when extreme accuracy is of is greater altitude than required, greater care than usual must be taken with the adjustments. It is to be noted, however, that iiow we speak only of extreme accuracy and of instruments reading vertical angles to seconds of arc. error of the axes of 10' the angle of 45° is sum total of effective error For a total on a vertical only 0.89", of 60° only 1.51", and for a total error of it is only 7.86", and for 60° only 13.60". 30' for vertical angle of 40° Therefore, even in the use of a fine geodetic instrument, the three axial errors do not, with reasonable precautions, produce any error in measuring angles of altitude less than 60°. Of course, in the use of the engineer's transit, axial errors produce an entirely inappreciable effect on measures of moderate angles of altitude, and are not in question. however, be an entire misconception to suppose that, do not have an appreciable influence in the measurement of vertical angles, no errors are, therefore, to be feared in such measurement. The constant errors, such as the errors of graduation and eccentricity of the circle, and particularly the index error and the error of the level lying in the same plane as the It would, since the axial errors are the ones requiring closest attention. Their elimination can be accomplished only by special methods of work and proper instrumental adjustment and design. circle, — — Relative Value of the Adjustments. For pure transit work by which we mean the running of straight lines, the measuring of horizontal angles, and the like the first three adjustments are the most important. The fourth and fifth refer to the instrument when used as an engineer's level, while the sixth, though classed with the first three, is by no means essential. Indeed, this adjustment should be seldom made, inasmuch as its performance — INSTRUMENTS is liable, by moving the 37 cross-hair intersection eccentrically, to dis- place the second and third, which have already been performed. hair, however, become necesand third must be tested again so as to insure their non-disturbance. The verticality of the hair, though not abso- Should an adjustment of the vertical sary, the second lutely necessary for accurate work, is exceptionally convenient for determining the true- perpendicular when only a small portion of a rod sighted to can be seen. Frequent tests of the vertical hair are useful, but its adjustment is unwise unless followed by a readjustment of the instrument in regard to the line of collimation. General Remarks on the Adjustments. It is well to note that — all of these adjustments, except the fourth, can be performed while the instrument still remains in one position. being entirely independent of the rest and indeed may be The fourth left until the last, sometimes entirely omitted, as the use of the transit as a level is comparatively rare, except in mine work where it almost always replaces the level. The great fault of young surveyors is to blame inaccuracies in is work upon a faulty construction of the instrument. For no excuse. Errors may arise from three causes: (1) Errors- in, or damages to, the parts of the instrument; (2) insufficient adjustment, and (3) carelessness in setting up or in sightThe last are by far the most probable causes of inaccuracies ing. in work, and, if the adjustment be unsatisfactory, the surveyor has no one to blame but himself, while errors in the instrument can always be detected by the refusal of the instrument to respond In the latter case, the to repeated tests while being adjusted. only remedy, beyond obtaining a new instrument, is to note carefully what species of errors are likely to occur, and so to handle the instrument as to avoid them as far as possible. A wide and nearly level stretch of country is by all means preferable for the performance of the adjustments. The sights taken, except those in the fifth and sixth adjustments, should be as long as possible, so that the ensuing apparent error may be their this there is greater. After the surveyor has used his instrument for some time, he be sufficiently competent to judge of its accuracy. Until may then the instrument should be tested at least once a week, if not more frequently. If he should find the instrument one of accuracy and great permanency of parts, less frequent adjustments A MANUAL OF UNDERGROUND SURVEYING 38 may be made. suffers a ment Adjustments should always be made fall, or if if the instru- the surveyor has reason to believe that a severe jar has happened. The foregoing methods, while essential to the proper testing and use of the transit, are intended only as instruction in practical field adjustments, and these do not take the place of the permanent adjustments given by makers, although they are to some extent a test of the latter. Having treated The Errors of Eccentricity and of Graduation. the axial errors, we still have to consider those errors which are due to: (1) the eccentricity of the telescope; (2) the eccentricity — of the circle; (3) the eccentricity of the verniers, and (4) the in- accuracies of graduation. FIG. 19. — ECCENTRICITY OF THE TELESCOPE. — Assuming, in the first of the Telescope. no eccentricity of the circle or of the vernier, be an eccentricity of the telescope on account of The Eccentricity place, that there there may still is the line of sight not being mounted directly over the center. Fig. 19 the eccentricity of the line of sight of the telescope represented by the In is radius of a circle conceived as described about the center, C, of the circle. All lines of sighting will be tangent to Pi and P2 are two points to which the eccentrically placed telescope is in turn directed, and between which it is intended to measure the angle. The angle a represents the true this circle. angle, while a' and a" represent the angles positions of the eccentric telescope. figure gives us the following relations: A measured with two simple inspection of the INSTRUMENTS A MANUAL OF UNDERGROUND SURVEYING 40 circle; (2) the error arising from the non-intersection of the center of rotation by the straight hne joining the zeros of the verniers or microscopes, or the error of eccentricity of the verniers or microscopes, due to their zeros not being exactly 180° apart, as measured at the center of the circle; (3) errorsdue to faulty graduation; due to inaccurate estimate The error of eccentricity of the circle follows: In the accompanying FIG. alidade, 2 AA' C that of (4) errors in reading the verniers or microscopes. Fig. 20, let may be investigated as C be the center of the — ECCENTRICITY OF THE CIRCLE. the circle, CC the eccentricity, 20. e, the effectible error, e of the eccentricity. and A' A" Let AB straight line joining the zeros of the verniers or microscopes; the reading of vernier A, B of B, or be a A A' the true reading of vernier A, B' the true reading of vernier B. Then assuming that by careful centering of the instrument e has been made very small, AA' may be regarded CD; E0° by E and 0°A', as already stated, by A', or the angle EC A' by {E-\-A'), and representing the radius C'A' by r and 206,265" by s we have, from the triangle the arc as equal to the perpendicular and, therefore, representing the arc CC'D, the following expression: AA' = — sin (E + A') r But since sin (E + yl') and we may write AA' = sin — es r sin (E + A) are sensibly the same (E + A) (1) : INSTRUMENTS If we now alidade will allow B to coincide with B' the vernier line of the B'A" and the in the direction lie 41 central angle, We s. effective error due A" A' = 2 ^A' = the to the eccentricity of the circle will be the arc have, therefore, finally the following ex- pression for the error due to eccentricity of the circle e — = sin + (£ A) (2) r This equation shows that for the direction EF, when sin {E + A)=0, the error e becomes zero, and that for {E + A) = ±90°, e =— ; which is the maximum r value for the error due * to the eccentricity of the circle. from (£; + il)=0° to (£ + A) = + 180° a positive series of £ results, and from 0° to —180° a negative Hence, if but ojie vernier is read in a given position series of s. of the telescope, the telescope then transited and directed to the same object, and the same vernier read, the mean of the two readings will eliminate the eccentricity. For it is clear that the It is also evident that each case make equal angles with the and hence e have the same value with In other words, since in equation (1) sin (£ + 4) line of the verniers will in line of zero eccentricity, opposite sign. will be positive, and sin EF , (£+4 + 180°) negative, values of opposite signs, and, therefore, in a s will mean have equal of values will disappear. We may also apply equation (1) to the readings A' and B' and write: ^'= A + -^sin (£; + A) (3) (E + B) (4) r 5' =S+ ^ sin r By we taking the mean of these two readings as thus expressed, get: } {A' + B') -\ {A + B)= ?^sin r (^ (A + 5) + E) cos \ {A-B), whence we see that the difference between the mean of the true readings and the mean of the vernier readings decreases as {A — B) approaches 180°; and when {A — B) exactly equals 180°. or when the verniers are rigorously 180° apart, this difference is nil. The mean of the readings of two verniers of microscopes which are ' A MANUAL OF UNDERGROUND SURVEYING 42 180° apart, therefore, completely eliminates the error of the eccentricity of the circle. In order to comprehend the effect of even a small displacement of let us from equation (2) take the maximum value of £ or the center, «T Maximum e = — 2 es r and assume e = 0.0003 Maximum in. . = and 2 r = 3.0 in. Then we have: X 0.0003 X 206265^ ^ 4^ 25" o If e had been as great as 0.003 in., the maximum would have been 6' 52.5". error of ec- centricity This fully illustrates the importance of three things: Correct designs of the axes or 'centers' of the instrument; (1) (2) E FIG. 21. — ECCENTRICITY OF THE VERNIERS. care in adjusting circle for eccentricity; (3) the reading of both verniers or microscopes in the higher classes of work. The error of eccentricity of circles, as here treated, is really made up of two mechanical errors, viz.: (1) inaccurate centering of the circle on its axis of center,' ' and (2) ellipticity of the centers ' Moreover, there arises in some designs of 'centers,' a wear of 'centers' which produces a serious eccentricity and themselves. which cannot be remedied mechanically except by furnishing the instrument with new 'centers.' The Error of Eccentricity of the Verniers. assumed that the zeros — We have hitherto of the verniers or microscopes are exactly INSTRUMENTS 180° apart. This- may what may be termed of the verniers is 43 not be the case; and if it is eccentricity of the verniers. we have not, The eccentricity the perpendicular distance between the center of the ahdade and the straight hne joining the zero of the verniers, and in Fig. 21 represented is duces is The by CV. effective error a constant one, represented by the angle error of eccentricity variable one. If, s, is, o. The it pro- effective on the other hand, as already shown, a then, the zeros of the verniers or microscopes are not accurately 180° apart, but make an angle of 180° + a so moment out of question, that, the eccentricity of the circle for the B' = A' + 180° + a; (4) for and we may then from equations find (3) and the entire difference of reading between the two verniers, or B-A-180° = 8. d = a + ?-^{smE + A). (5) r Considering the alidade turned from through the angles 90°, 180°, four respective values of A do- a its 0° position respectively and 270°, we would have the following values of d: + '^^^ r Bin E for these A MANUAL OF UNDERGROUND SURVEYING 44 The objection to the use of the last two formulas for determining s are that but two differences are employed, and hence errors of observation and of graduation may make the result uncertain. The only complete method for determining a and e, free from complication with errors of graduation and observation, is to determine a large number of d's for different direct and reversed a and positions of the ahdade, and" then treat the results of the observations according to the well-known method For of least squares. such treatment of the subject our readers are referred to standard treatises (11), and on practical astronomy and geodesy. (12), however, enable us for derive fairly reliable values of a and £ many Equations (10), practical purposes to by simply making four sets of observations, at intervals of 90°, of the differences of the vernier or microscope readings. The Errors of Graduation. — The errors of graduation, unless be investigated until the effect of and of the vernier has been ascertained. of the coarsest sort, cannot eccentricity of the circle After determining the value of the eccentricity of the circle and computing its effect on the division whose graduation error is to be found, the outstanding differences, allowing for the constant deviation of the verniers from the required 180°, are to be attributed to graduation and observation errors. The errors of graduation are divided into two classes: (1) Those which are of a periodic character, and (2) those which are of an accidental charac- The former depend upon slow changes ter. in the temperature of the engine during graduation, or in the condition of the cutting tool. The latter are not dependent on known conditions, and being as likely negative as positive, are classed as accidental. is It usually found in well-graduated circles that the major errors of graduation are of the first class and may be expressed as a peri- odic function of the varying angle. Instead of using the distance apart of the two vernier zeros may be used as a and read by means of as the standard angle, the length of the vernier test when successively applied round the the excess graduations of the vernier. circle, The effect of the eccentric- on computed and duly allowed for before errors of graduation as such can be noted. For a complete discussion of this subject we refer the reader to the " Vermessungskunde " of Jordan, and to the treatises on practical astronomy of Chauvenet, Brunnow, and Sawitsch. ity of the circle the length of the vernier must, in this case, be INSTRUMENTS 45 — The foregoing discussion of The Errors in Practical Work. the axial and circle errors, aside from its value in suggesting points of construction and adjustments of special importance to accuracy of work, should also afford The many a hint to the practical engineer. limited space does not permit us to state either the special fea- programmes of work which are and eliminate all the errors. this review of the errors than by tures of instruments or the special in the different cases required to avoid And we may not yet better close drawing attention to se\'eral points of caution to be exercised in the three most usual forms of work with the transit, the viz., measurement of vertical angles, the laying out of straight lines, and the measurement of horizontal angles. Vertical angles have their zero in the horizon, and this zero must be physically determined by a level lying in a plane parallel to the graduated circle on which the measurements are to be made. This level, whether it be a plate level, the telescope level, or a special level attached to the vernier arm, should not only (1) lie have a sensitiveness comparable to the fineness of the reading on the circle, and (3) should always, in an observation, be adjusted to zero position of bubble, or else be read for the small deviation of in a plane parallel to the measuring circle, but (2) should the bubble. If the telescope level used, the vertical angle is simply the difference of readings on the of the bubble and circle for is the zero position for the pointing. from the amount. Both the error of adjustment of the plate level and the index error can be eliminated by striking the mean of the measures of the angle taken with the telescope, both in the direct and in the reverse, or transited The error of vertical axis, or the deviation of this axis vertical, may affect the measurement position, provided the alidade revolved 180°. The erroi-s is of carefully releveled after being eccentricity reading both verniers or microscopes, and two to the whole if are and, For an must be relied on. eccentricity if may, for small angles, be considered constant; the 'fourth adjustment' has been accurately made, eliminated zero Transiting verniers, however, require a complete circle. arc of a circle with one vernier, the adjustments The and by eliminated there be two. by taking the for the pointing. nated by using an entire The method it is difference of the readings for bubble at The graduation circle, errors can only be elimi- capable of being shifted on of reiteration of the angle may its axis. then be employed. A MANUAL OF UNDERGROUND SURVEYING 46 Straight lines can be prolonged accurately only with good instruments and the most careful attention. Here the secret of the elimination of errors is so to arrange the programme of work as to distribute the errors symmetrically with respect to the proposed a circumpolar star If line. meridian it is is observed for the direction of the therefore important that the observations, both as to number and character, be arranged symmetrically with regard to the time of transit, or the time of elongation, as the case If the pointings for a line are all horizontal, and the be prolonged by transiting the telescope, or turning it may be. line is to over on its horizontal axis, the constant collimation error will enter with double its value. If one of the pointings is at an angle, as in the case of determining the direction of a circumpolar star, the errors and of collimation, of the horizontal axis, may vertical axis all enter the result. of verticality of the Particularly would the error of verticality, due to the level at right angles to the line, be and necessitate attention to the sensitiveness, adjustment, and reading of the level lying in that direction. serious, A by line may secting be prolonged so as to eliminate up over the forward setting rear point, transiting these errors, all point, leveling cross level, bi- telescope, locating the required and then revolving the alidade 180° and repeating the operation, and taking the mean position between the two located point, points as the true required point. Horizontal angles, including the horizontal straight angles most frequently measured in practical work, and the errors to which they are liable just referred to, are those have, therefore, been fully discussed. Auxiliary Telescopes. When the line of sight is highly inclined, the main telescope — of the transit becomes terference with the FIG. 22 —PRISMATIC used at all, be used if but ^^'^^I'^l different mount EYEPiECE. if owing to useless, plates in- the transit. of devices are used to sur- this obstacle. When the sight is downward, the main telescope cannot be the sight be upward, the main telescope can a prismatic eyepiece (Fig. 22) be inserted. This little attachment is made by every engineering-instrument company and is very handy for several purposes. By means of it the transit man looks along a line at right angles to the axis of the INSTRUMENTS 47 telescope instead of longitudinal to it. This device does not, however, furnish any aid for downward sights. For this purpose, an auxiliary telescope must be used. These are principally of two kinds; the top telescope attached above FIG. 23. — MINING TRANSIT. the main telescope, or the side telescope attached to the end of the horizontal axis of the main telescope outside the standard. The solar compass may be forced to do service as an auxiliary A MANUAL OF UNDERGROUND SURVEYING 48 telescope, but its use is possess one. The Top Telescope. objectionable and but few mine surveyors — The top telescope (Figs. 4, 8, 23) is by means of one or two bars fastened rigidly to the main telescope long enough to cause the line of sight of the top telescope to clear the horizontal plates when the main telescope is placed in a vertical These bars,' if two are used, are usually brazed to the position. shell by the manufacturer, and attached to the main by means of nipples and coupler nuts. The manufacturers make all light mountain transits with the nipples so that the top telescope may be used if desired, and old transits, if sent top telescope telescope to the manufacturer, The adjustments may have the attachments fitted to them. of the top telescope are manufacturer adjusts the top telescope during very simple. The making, so that its the axes of the two telescopes are parallel and in the same plane. The positions of the objective and eyepiece can be changed only by the manufacturer. The only adjustments user are those of the cross hairs. in the same plane as that of the for the transit First, the line of sight main must be telescope; second, the lines must be parallel, and third, the cross hairs must be truly and vertical. The first is accomplished by sighting upon a plumb-bob string with the main telescope and adjusting of sight horizontal it coincides with top telescope has a the vertical cross hair of the top telescope until the string. special The mounting of the single-stem arrangement for the adjustment to a vertical plane. secure parallelism of the lines of sight of the parallel horizontal strings are fastened up two telescopes, To two at a distance of 100 feet or more, so that the perpendicular distance between the strings is equal to the perpendicular between the axes of the two telescopes. The main telescope is sighted upon the lower zontal cross wire of the top telescope coincides with the upper string. The is string and the hori- raised or lowered until it cross hairs are brought into true vertical and horizontal positions during the previous adjust- ments by sighting on vertical and horizontal strings. When sighting on a point with the top telescope the horizontal angle is not affected, and is read direct from the horizontal circle, but the vertical angle must be corrected. In Fig. 24, R is the distance between the lines of sight, md is the measured distance, va is the vertical angle as read from the vertical circle and a is the amount by which it must be INSTRUMENTS 49 corrected to give the true vertical angle. This angle a is evidently the angle whose sine is iZ/rw d. Therefore the true vertical V A±R/m d. When angle equals the angle zontal, the correction is to be subtracted, FiG. added. This is 24. — TOP easily TELESCOPE: is below the hori- when above it must be ELEVATION. remembered, for the sign of the angle is also the sign of the correction. — The Side Telescope. The side telescope answers the same purpose as does the top telescope. It clears the plates when A MANUAL OF UNDERGROUND SURVEYING 50 pointed vertically. zontal axis of the Being screwed to an extension of the horitelescope, outside of the standard, it can main be attached only to instruments made for that purpose. The adjustments of the side telescope are practically identical with those of the top telescope. The maker fixes the position of PIG. 25. — SIDE TELESCOPE: ISOMETRIC PROJECTION. the auxiliary telescope so that the axes of the two are parallel and in the same horizontal plane. The field adjustments are those of the cross hairs only.i by sighting the telescopes ' This is The lines of sight are made parallel upon two plumb lines whose distance not true of some auxiliaries recently put upon the market. — INSTRUMENTS 51 apart equals the distance between the centers of the telescopes. in the same horizontal plane The horizontal wires are made to lie by sighting upon a horizontal line. When elevation sighting a point with the side telescope is read direct from the vertical circle, its angle of but the horizontal angle must be corrected. In Fig. 25, and is R is the distance between centers of the telescopes, is the horizontal distance, vd the the measured distance; hd vertical distance, va the vertical angle, and a the amount the angle, as read from the plates, must be corrected. = —— Sin a but hd = md cos va , hd Then sin a a Or, a md = sin" by which cos va R .1 md cos va = ^^— Now^ = sin-i-^ md cos va Substituting this value for 6 a As the sine and tangent the formula a is = sin-i = tg-i md , as before. cos va of small angles are — md may be ; approximately equal, used: and indeed, if, as cos va most commonly done, the distance measured be from point main sighted to the center of the end of the horizontal axis of the telescope, the formula is theoretically correct. be on the right side of the instrument, the correction must be added to the angle read from the plates to secure If the side telescope if on the left side of the must be subtracted. By sighting a point with, first, the telescope upon the right side, and then again with it upon the left side (by revolving and plunging) two angles are read which are evidently each in error by the amount a, or the difference between the two readings is 2 a. Halving this amount and adding it to one reading, or subtracting it from the other, gives the true bearing. The value of a can probably be obtained the true azimuth of the point sighted; instrument, it A MANUAL OF UNDERGROUND SURVEYING 52 with greater accuracy by this double reading than by the formula; and besides, the reversed reading eliminates any error which may be introduced by the nonadjustment of the instrument. FIG. 26. -TRANSIT WITH DUPLEX TELESCOPE BEARINGS. INSTRUMENTS 53 Besides the ordinary top and side telescopes, some of the instrument makers are putting an interchangeable auxiliary telescope on the market. This screws on to a single standard FIG. 27. — LAMP TARGETS. above the main telescope as a top telescope, or upon the end of the horizontal axis as a side telescope. Besides the type mechanism for auxiliary telescopes as ex- A MANUAL OF UNDERGROUND SURVEYING 54 many plained above, there are nearly as ments as there are makers Transit with Inclined Standards. transit is in the the engineer The line is variations and improve- of surveying instruments. arrangement — The novelty in this mining of the inclined standards by which enabled to range the telescope to a vertical line. without any additional telescope, while the of collimation remains on a line passing through the center of result is obtained measured horizontal angles have and no correction for offset is necessary, avoiding the inconvenience and liability of error of instrument; consequently all their vertices over a center point, double telescopes. By means ment of longer centers, a light counterpoise of details the overbalance of telescope Transit with Diiplex Telescope Bearings. is and arrange- entirely destroyed. — This transit answers all the purposes of the ordinary transit and in addition can be used to make highly inclined readings by setting the telescope into the bearings of an additipnal pair of inclined standards (Fig. 26). Mining Transits with Lamp Targets. Mining transits are — furnished, when so ordered, to be used with mining lamp targets, detachable above the leveling screws and interchangeable with the instrument, so that in sighting forward the target is placed in from tripod and moved into forlamp target is substituted on the one from which the instrument (Fig. 27) is removed. The target is the same height as the transit, measured from the parallel plate to the line of sight, and being provided with two spirit levels set at right angles and having both horizontal and vertical motion, it is quickly set. to the proper angle of the line of sight by means of the sight vane. The face of the target is made of milk-white glass (on which is painted a suitable figure) and illuminated from the back by a bull's-eye lantern, which can be thrown in and out of position as desired. It is essential that position, the instrument taken ward lard tripod, while oil be used with the lamp. The use of three tripods with interchangeable lamp targets and head became very common in English collieries, and has been used to some extent in the coal mines of this country. The system has not met with favor among American engineers, how- transit ever. — The Brunton Pocket Transit. This instrument has been meet the requirements of mining engineers, especially designed to INSTRUMENTS mine managers, and adapting the it geologists, its 55 and peculiar features and on size to preliminary surveys both underground surface, to taking topography, to geological field work, and, in short, to any purpose for which a light pocket instru- ment is desirable and where a moderate degree of accuracy will suffice. This neere little instrument and deservedly does not own so. one, and, ably in his pocket. if very popular among mining engi- is Hardly an engineer he is It weighs only 8 oz. to be met who Brunton is prob- is in the field, the and is 2| X 1 in. in dimensions. Fig. 28 shows operator's view of instrument when using as a compass for taking horizontal angles or courses. In the mirror can be seen the reflected degree circle, needle, and level. FIG. 28. — READING HORIZONTAL FIG. 29. — READING VERTICAL ANGLE. ANGLE. 29 shows the operator's view, of the instrument when taking vertical angles. In this operation, the lid is raised to an angle of approximately 45° with the case the sighting bar is straightened out until it is parallel with the face, its end being turned at right angles as shown; then the station is sighted through the hole in the end of the folding sight and the opening in the mirror, the vernier lever being turned until the bubble tube is level, which can be When the sight plainly seen in the reflected image in the mirror. instrument and the of lid the raise has been obtained, it is better to Fig. ; take the reading direct from the face than to attempt reading it in the mirror, where the reversal of the figures might sometimes cause an error. A MANUAL OF UNDERGROUND SURVEYING 56 Tapes The narrow ments, the less side tape wire foot tape hand a measure- all work requiring any degree of accuracy, the were common, but the narrow For most underground work the 100most convenient, but the surveyor should have at now is for all extended measure- for radiating stope used. is Formerly tapes flat now used is measurements or accurate linen or metallic tapes are sometimes allowable, but for steel tape steel For the ments. is I in., or wider, a favorite. 200-, a 300-, and, for surface work, a 500-foot tape. Besides need a small 5- or 10-foot vest-pocket tape for measurements falling between the 5-foot marks on the long tapes and for measuring the H. I., H. P., etc. The markings were formerly etched upon the steel ribbon. these, he will, of course, FIG. This practice has given or 10-foot mark. notch upon it is stamped into its The 30. way it is COMPASS. to a notched brass sleeve at each 5- is easily found, even in the dark, the permanent and readily found, and the number sleeve surface remains always legible. sleeve are beveled so that which — MINER'S it The ends of the does not catch upon things over drawn. In the coal mines of the East a tape 310 ft. long has been a The extra 10 ft. is at the zero end, and is graduated to feet and tenths. The tape itself is graduated to 10 ft. The head chainman holds the last 10-foot mark to the forward station, and favorite. INSTRUMENTS 57 the rear chainman then reads the additional feet and decimals from the 10-foot portion of the tape back of the zero point. In the metal mines, the tape is stretched between the two points and the fractional part of a 5-foot division is measured with the 5-foot pocket tape. To mark the point upon the tape op- posite the point to which" measurement being made, some engi- is upon the neers use a small clip which snaps securely simply mark the point with thumb and tape. Others finger. Where a long tape is being used, it is convenient to have a clip handle which can be fastened to the tape at any point. By using this the tape is easily pulled taut without the liability of kinking which is present when the tape itself is taken hold of directly. For much underground work, a reel is necessary. On the surface the reel is a nuisance, but underground it is often necessary The reel problem to keep a portion of the tape wound upon it. is a live one, and the manufacturers of surveyors' apparatus have The reel must failed to meet it as they have other problems. be strong, for it receives very rough usage, and it should be light. The crank for winding up the tape should be long to give a good leverage, and the handle upon the opposite side must be strong and so placed that the reel balances well when winding the tape it The space in. for the tape tape will not bind, and when the must be roomy enough, so that the it from unwinding a spring fitted to hold down. have the mine blacksmith make their reels, Many engineers When the tape larger than their tape. reel size and others use a a this reason size. For own of its reel into a will not fit is dirty, it it is reel is laid best to use a 500-foot reel for a 300-foot tape, etc. wiped and oiled each of course, be cleaned — The tape should, night after using it in a wet place. broken when handled carelessly, mend them in the field. A sleeve it As the steel tapes are easily often becomes necessary to of thin copper, cut and bent to around the tape, a bottle of acid to clean the ends of the It tape, a little solder and a torch, and the trick is easily done. requires practice, however, to make a neat job of it and have the tape measure up correctly over the mended spot. The engineer can well afford to carry a couple of patent tape These do away with the necessity of a soldered splices with him. entirely. splice till he is back in his office, or, in fact, do away with it fit closely The ends of the broken tape are inserted in a metallic sleeve A MANUAL OF UNDERGROUND SURVEYING 58 and held by small screws turned down upon them. These do not catch upon obstructions, and will withstand the pull necessary to stretch the tape. Fig. 32 shows a punch and set used for repair of steel tapes by use of rivets. (Fig. 31) of the right size, No the FIG. 31. — TAPE attention need be given to corrections for temperature The and sag on short tapes. stretch on even a 300-foot tape is SPLICE. only nine-hundredths of a foot 30° increase in temperature. for The temperature underground seldom is many degrees different from the temperature at which the tape is standard. The sag on an unsupported 500-foot tape may be upward of five-tenths of a foot, and for that reason the long tape should be supported. The effect of sag is offset by the stretch if the correct pull is known. On short tapes, neither is appreciable. Johnson's 'Theory and Practice of Surveying' says: 'For an accuracy of 1 in 5000, the tape may be used in all kinds of by hand, the horizontal position and estimated by the chainman. For an accuracy of mean temperature of the tape should be known weather, held and stretched amount of pull 1 in 50,000, the FIG. 32. — TAPE RIVETING TOOLS. to the nearest degree Fahr., the slope should be determined stretching over stakes or on ground the pull should be determined by whose slope is by determined, spring balance.' While the errors due to temperature, sag, and stretch are too small to be appreciable on 100-foot tapes, they must be calculated, and the corrections made, where long tapes are used on important work. INSTRUMENTS 59 Repairing Engineers' Field Instruments The writer has frequently noticed the lack part of ments. many engineers to one If instrument, is make minor of ability on the repairs to their field instru- so unfortunate as to fall while carrying an generally results in so damaging it ^ it as to render it At such times the man with and a few simple tools can make at least useless to the average assistant. some mechanical skill temporary repairs and thus save his employer considerable expense. In such an emergency an engineer who will not make an earnest attempt to repair the damage is not deserving of an Every engineer whose work takes him some him a few tools, such as a pair of flat pliers, a small file, large and small screw-drivers, a spool of soft brass or copper wire, a pocket knife, also an extra level vial, an ounce or two of plaster of Paris, and a bottle of honorable title. distance from a city should keep with liquid shellac. The young engineer should be familiar with the details of construction of the instruments he uses, and it is to be regretted not given on this important subject. The catalogues of most important makers give valuable informa- that more instruction tion regarding their is own of general application, instruments, and also which it many would be well to study suggestions carefully. Suppose a transit has a fall the standards are probably bent, and a level vial broken. Many men would start for town at once under such circumstances, and possibly lose several days' time in having repairs made, but remember that the successful engineer is the one who does things and never admits that he is stumped.' If you are of this kind, take the transit apart, lay the bent standard on a fiat block of wood, and with another block of wood and a hammer or mallet proceed to straighten it. This will not be an : ' easy task, but it ' ' can be done. The level tube should then be taken apart and cleaned out, the extra level vial inserted and blocked up with a leaf from a notebook, taking care to get the marked or convex side of the tube uppermost. If the level divisions are not cut on the glass, look for a small file scratch near one end of the vial; or if that is not apparent, put that side up which shows inside signs of grinding. ' Mix up a spoonful of the plaster of Paris Engineering News, January 25, 1906, A MANUAL OF UNDERGROUND SURVEYING 60 with water and place a portion around each end of the glass. In a few minutes this has hardened and the tube can be replaced. "Whittle out a new one Is one of the adjusting screws broken? from a piece of hard wood, fastening that end also, if necessary and possible, with a piece of copper wire. Broken tripod legs are easily replaced with a piece of wood and some string, or wire, held in place by shellac. You may not make a neat job of your repair work, but don't mind that if you are able to complete the work assigned you without loss of time. The writer has in mind a man of considerable skill in certain lines, who had 'accepted' an offer of a responsible position and had been placed at work. As a result of a moment's carelessness, an alidade ruler was slightly bent, and, without attempting to repair it, he rushed to the nearest telegraph office and sent a message to his chiel, reading: 'I have bent my alidade ruler. What shall I do? The answer which came back was Straighten This he easily did. At another time a levelman telegraphed: it.' : ' ' 'Cross wires broken; send another level,' although he knew that to answer he redo so would insert new wires, disband your can't cross was, 'If you ceived party,' and with the possibility of discharge as a stimulant he found that repairs were easily made. Still another levelman, who could not catch his chief by telegraph, stopped the work of his party and sent his Y-level nearly 1000 miles to an instrument maker in order that the eyepiece might be centered on the crosswires. He could have remedied that trouble in five minutes by No error would have the proper manipulation of a screw-driver. been introduced into his work, even if the cross wires were not in result in a delay of several days; the the center of the field of view, so long as the usual level adjust- man had not learned to distinguish between a blemish and a fatal defect. During the past year in certain instrumental work under the writer's charge, an expense of over fifty dollars was incurred in having new cross wires inserted by an instrument maker, not ment had been made. This including the loss of time Broken to replace by the various parties. cross wires are of frequent occurrence, if quiring his assistants to learn how and ; in order to aid prepared a description pf the process, which, as others, is and are easy one knows how; consequently the writer here given in full: it may is now re- them he has be of use to INSTRUMENTS A small bottle 61 of shellac dissolved in alcohol (preferably a thin dry quicker) and a cocoon of spider web are tools required are a pair of dividers, or a 6-inch solution, as that will needed. The only piece of soft iron, or copper, wire bent to a U, available, a forked stick will answer. and if neither is The dividers, wire or forked beeswax pressed around each should have a small piece of end to hold the web. A couple of small pointed sticks the size of matches are useful. The best cocoons for ordinary use are yellowish-brown, about long; they may usually be found in dead or hollow trees, or in. j under the bark of old stumps.- Good ones may often be found under rocks, or in old barns or greenhouses. Occasionally single webs, which may be used in an emergency, may be taken from stick, grass or bushes or limbs of trees; these are generally rough and but some of their defects may be removed by gently rubbing them with a small stick. If a very fine web is needed, it may be secured from a small white cocoon. A good cocoon will furnish enough webs to last for years, and each chief of,party should have one packed with the shellac in his instrument box. The best web obtainable can be secured by making a spider spin one as he falls from the end of a stick. A small spider will probably spin a fine web, and a large spider a coarser web such webs are always smooth and free from dust. If the spider is made to jump from the end of the dividers, or forked stick, the web can be wrapped around the ends and so be in position for immediate use. Take the instrument which needs the new cross wires to a place sheltered from wind and dust. Unscrew and remove the eyepiece slide without disturbing the object glass. Take out two opposite capstan-headed screws of the four which hold the crosswire ring in its cell, and loosen the other two. Using the latter as handles, revolve the ring 90° and insert one of the pointed sticks through the end of the telescope tube into a screw hole; and, while using it as a handle, remove the other screws and take out the ring. Clean the lines of the reticule ring from all old shellac or dirt and lay it on a board or table with the marked side up. Draw some of the web from the cocoon, either with the dirty, ; fingers, or with one of the moistened, pointed sticks. Keep and working the tangled mass until an inch or two of single web is drawn out. Attach the ends of the web to the dividers, or wire, by winding them around the wax and pressing them in with pulling A MANUAL OF UNDERGROUND SURVEYING 62 web around the forked stick, fastening Examine the web for defects by means of a pocket magnifier, or the eyepiece from the telescope. If the web is satisfactory in size and quality, moisten it by dipping it in water for a few seconds or by breathing gently on it a few times. As the wet web lengthens, take up the slack by opening the dividers, or by bending the wire or stick, but do not attempt to stretch the web more than about in., from its original dry length. Place the web (still on its holder) carefully over the reticule, allowing the holder to rest on the table, thus stretching the web the fingers; or wind the it with shellac. -j^g- and move it about until it falls exactly in the center of two opposite lines, using a magnifier to insure accuracy. Put a small portion of the liquid shellac over each side of the web, about -^ in. from the central opening of the reticule, and leave undisturbed for 3 or 4 minutes, or until the shellac hardens. While the shellac on one web is drying, another can be prepared. slightly, After all are set, replace the reticule in the telescope the method used in removing it. When by reversing in place the cross wires should be on the side of the rig toward the eyepiece. Instruments such as the prism level, dumpy levels, and transits, not pro-iaded with wyes or similar devices for adjusting the cross may be put in close adjustment by means of improvised wooden, or metal, rings in the following manner: For the prism level, the body of which has a close finish, remove the object-glass cap and run the eyepiece slide part way out as though focusing for a near-by object. Provide a Y of wood, or metal, large enough to fit over the object-glass end of the telescope where the cap usually fits. Take a second Y of a size wires, suitable to enclose the eyepiece slide near the main telescope tube. Fasten these Y's securely in an upright position and rest the telescope in them, sight a distant point which the cross wires cut, revolve the telescope in the wyes and adjust the cross wires in the usual way. A final adjustment must be made for such instru- ments as this by the usual methods. But prevention is always better than cure, and a great many instrument troubles may be prevented by care in handling the instruments, and by the frequent application of a little oil (a very little will answer) to spindles, leveling screws, tangent screws, and An occasional cleaning with an oily rag will work telescope slides. wonders. Never overstrain a screw; make it snug and no more. INSTRUMENTS 63 The workman who takes good care of his tools, who learns to do good work with the mean? available, is not the man who fills He knows it is results that are wanted, his report with excuses. not excuses. The atmosphere is, of a mine then, quite necessary that is generally all warm and moist. It the surveyor's instruments be warm room. Otherwise they will condense the moisture atmosphere when taken underground, and the glass become fogged and the metal parts rusted. kept in a of the Bibliography. — Surveyors' Instruments, Eng. and Min. Jour., Instruments, vol. ix, p. 8, 1906; Transit Tapes, p. 1, ibid., vol. iii, p. 95, ibid., 1891; Repair of Instruments, Eng. News, vol. Imperfections and Trans. A. I. M. Improvements of Surveyors' ibid., vol. vii, i, p. 25, 1906; Instruments, E., vol. vii, p. 308; Evolution of Instruments, ibid., vol.xxviii; Thornton's Miner's Dial, r6id.,xxxviii; ibid., vol. viii, p. iv, August 25, 1904; 175; Hanging Compass, Plummet Lamps, 39; Glass Stadia Rod, Jour. Franklin Inst., vol. 1868; Dialing Trouble and Treatment, Col. Guard, vol. i, 1898; Adjustment of Surveying Instruments, Proc. Inst. Surv. (Transvaal), vol. ii; p. 21, Mine Photographic Survey Instruments, Trans. Soc. of Engineering, p. 171, 1899; Dip Needle, Lake Superior Inst., August, 1904; Surveyors' Instruments, Mining Reporter, M. vol. ix, p. 29, Reporter, vol. 1904; Repairing Engineers' Instruments, Mining p. 8, 1906; Compass on Tripod, M. and Sci. P., ii, vol. X, p. 15, 1904. II MERIDIAN The lines of the survey of a property may be referred to the Hnes of other Surveys by various methods. One very often used is that of connecting by traverse with the survey lines of the adThe Government requires that this method joining properties. be used in connecting a claim survey with the public-land survey. Where the lines of the adjoining property may be assumed as correctly surveyed one can take the meridian directly from them. To observe the meridian instrumentally one has choice of three methods, namely, observation of the transit or elongation of some star, observation of the sun by means of a solar compass, or direct sun observation with the ordinary transit. To use the method one must have a star almanac; must have a solar attachment. first the second one to use PoLABis Observations sometimes convenient to be able to take the meridian from when one is without a star almanac to learn when It is Polaris at a time Polaris is at elongation or culmination. Observations are usually elongation, if made upon possible at both eastern Polaris when it is at and western elongation, and the difference of the two observations taken as true north. If one but remember that the Great Dipper and Polaris are on opposite sides of the true north, one can instantly tell by a glance at the heavens whether Polaris is near either elongation or culmina- will tion. Now the third star in the handle of the dipper, counting from the outer end, whose Polaris. It does, name however, is lie Alioth, a little is almost directly opposite more than 180° ahead of meridian below the true north just twentyfour and a half minutes of time before Polaris crosses it above. Polaris. It crosses the Also, of course, it is at one elongation just twenty-four 64 and a half MERIDIAN minutes before Polaris is at the other. 65 If, then, one sees both Alioth and Polaris under the vertical wire of his telescope, he knows that in twenty-four and a half minutes Polaris will be in the true meridian. is The same applies to the horizontal wire when Polaris at elongation (Fig. 33). Folaria /' FIG. 33. - Pole. — POLARIS OBSERVATION. Explanation of the Solar Attachment ^ ' In the engraving (Fig. 34) we have a graphic illustration of the shown being intended to represent solar apparatus, the circles drawn upon the concave those supposed to be surface of the heavens. 'When hour the telescope circle will is set horizontal by its spirit level, be in the plane of the horizon, the polar axis point to the zenith, and the ' zeros of the vertical arc From 'Gurley's Manual.' and its the will vernier 66 A MANUAL OF UNDEEGROUND SURVEYING will coincide. shown Now, of the zenith. we incline the telescope, directed north as descend from the direction The angle through which FIG. on the if in the cut, the polar axis will 34. — SOLAR it moves being APPARATUS. vertical arc, will be the colatitude of the place instrument supposed to be used, the latitude by subtracting this number from 90°. is laid off itself where the being found MERIDIAN When ' the sun passes above or below the equator, tion, or angular distance can be set 67 from it, upon the declination off its declina- as given in the arc, and its "Ephemeris," image brought into position as before. 'In order to do this, however, the latitude it is necessary not only that and declination be correctly upon their removed in azimuth set off spective arcs, but also that the instrument be until the polar axis points to the pole of the heavens, or, in other words, is placed in the plane of the meridian; and thus the position of the sun's image will indicate not only the latitude of the place, the declination of the sun for the given hour and the apparent time, but it will also determine the meridian, or true north and south line passing through the place where the observation is made. 'The interval between two equatorial lines, c c, as well as between the hour lines, b b, is just sufficient to include the circular image of the 'sun, as formed by the solar lens on the opposite end of the revolving arm. Allowance for Declination. Let us now suppose the observa- — ' made when the sun has passed the equinoctial point, and when its position is affected by declination. 'By referring to the "Ephemeris," and setting off on the arc the declination for the given day and hour, we are still able to determine its position with the same certainty as if it remained tion on the equator. 'When the sun's declination is south, that is, from the 22d of September to the 20th of March in each year, the arc is turned downward, or toward the plates of the transit, while during the remainder of the year the arc is turned from the plates. 'When the solar attachment is accurately adjusted and the transit plates made perfectly horizontal, the latitude of the place and the declination of the sun for the given day and hour being also set off on their respective arcs, and the instrument set approximately north by the magnetic needle, the image of the sun cannot be brought between the equatorial lines until the polar axis is placed in the plane of the meridian of the place, or in a position parallel with the axis of the earth. position will cause the The slightest deviation image to pass above or below the from this lines, and thus discover the error. 'From the position of the sun in the solar system, we thus obtain 68 A MANUAL OF UNDERGROUND SURVEYING a direction absolutely unchangeable, from which to run lines and .measure horizontal angles. 'This simple principle of solar instruments, FIG. 35. but is not only the basis of the construction the only cause of their superiority it is — SOLAR TELESCOPE ATTACHMENT. over instruments having the ordinary magnetic needle. For in an instrument having a magnetic needle, the accuracy of the horizontal angles indicated, and therefore of all the observations made depends upon the delicacy of the needle and the constancy with which it assumes a certain direction, called the magnetic meridian.' MERIDIAN 69 Direct Solar Observation ^ Of the applications of plane surveying to the survey of mineral no one is more representative, or has been more greatly perfected in the West, than the use of the sun to determine the bearing of a given line. For many years bearings were determined by the use of various solar attachments, but of late years the method known as the direct observation seems to have almost entirely taken their place. While with great care any one of the several solar attachments on the market will give fair or even good results, they are all relatively expensive, fragile, and, with one exception, easily thrown out of adjustment. With the method known as "the direct observation" no attachment is needed to the ' lands, ordinary transit provided with a vertical arc or circle, preferably the latter, and no adjustment has to be considered other than those necessary to use in every transit in mineral-land surveying. FIG. 36. — SOLAR SCREEN. 'As the exact determination of the bearings of lines is more important in mineral-land surveying than in probably any other branch of engineering, perhaps, disregarding of course geodetic work, it will be taken up in detail. 'To determine the beaTing of a line by direct observation, the transit line is set up as solidly as possible whose bearing is to be determined the upper plate set at 0° or, ; the upper plate corrected. ' If This article if carefully leveled. The may the bearing is be considered 0° and approximately known, may be set at the assumed bearing to be afterwards more convenient, the assumed bearing is reprinted, by of a line to Land Surveying,' by the Mining Reporter Publishing permission, from 'Mineral by. James Underhill, Ph.D., pubUshed Company. and A MANUAL OF UNDERGROUND SURVEYING 70 some prominent object may be taken, and the first course required on the survey deflected from this line. The upper plate is then loosened and the telescope pointed at the sun. The sun may be observed in various ways; for example, through a colored glass placed over the eyepiece to which may be added a prism when the FIG. sun is 37. very high. — PRISMATIC EYEPIECE AND SCREEN. This colored glass may be conveniently placed and is thus always ready for involves the method attachment of the colored glass, As this use. the sun is high some when personal discomfort as regards and also card, sheet of brown head, a paper, or better the the position of the the which latter does away with the glare on back of a notebook, this by used. On surface, preferably held may be white surface, in the sliding cover of the eyepiece . MERIDIAN 71 the assistant, the cross wires are first focused, and finally the sun is brought into the proper position by the aid of the tangent screws. 'A Davis screen is a piece of apparatus attached to the telescope same purpose as the card mentioned above, and its use leaves both hands free to manipulate the instrument. Otherwise it is of no great advantage (Figs. 36 and 37) to answer the ' are In regard to placing the sun with reference to cross wires, there many opinions. FIG. In most treatises we are instructed not to D c 38.— SUN'S IMAGE ON CROSS HAIRS. sun as in Fig. 38a, but to place it in one quadrant, as in can thus be observed more accurately. While this is perfectly true, especially with inverting instruments, a correction for semidiameter of the sun must be made, and the operabisect the Fig. 38b, as it be somewhat confusing to the beginner. The student is therefore advised at first to divide the sun into quadrants tion is liable to method of placing the As an error of one cross hairs tangent until proficiency is secured. an error of one causes minute in placing the vertical cross wire of one minute in error an minute in the resulting azimuth, while by the two cross hairs (Fig. 38a), leaving the A MANUAL OF UNDERGROUND SURVEYING 72 placing the horizontal wire causes an error of several minutes in the might be well to place the sun as in Fig. 38c. The reason be seen on examining the examples which follow. The sun in very accurate work is sometimes placed in a rectangle or other arrangement of cross wires, but in ordinary work these are unnecessary refinements. result, it for this will readily FIG. 39. — STAR SPHERE. Another very exact method of placing the sun in the direct tangent to the cross wires first in the northeast corner with the telescope normal, and then in the southwest corner with the telescope inverted. These are the best posi' observation is to place it tions in the morning. In the afternoon the other two quadrants had best be used in order that the sun may be moving in the same direction with reference to the cross wires. The average of MERIDIAN 73 the two vertical and two horizontal angles is the subsequent calculations and in this way the semidiameter of the sun At used in each case in all consideration of two sets of such no check. 'In an instrument provided with stadia wires care must be taken not to confuse these with the horizontal cross wire. It is also well not to assume that the stadia wires are each equally distant from the horizontal cross wire. If the stadia wires are correctly placed they should be 0° 34' 22" apart, and each 0° 17' 11" from the center horizontal wire. As the sun's semidiameter varies round 0° 16' the stadia wires may be used with advantage to place the sun with a very slight probable is avoided. observations must be made, otherwise there least is ' error (Fig. 38d). We will assume that the sun has been bisected. The vertical and horizontal circles are then read and noted, and an observation made with the telescope inverted, assuming that the first observation was made with the telescope normal. By averaging the two results all errors of adjustment or in leveling the instrument are obviated. As a check a number of observations may be made on the sun, and the writer finds that two each, with normal and inverted telescope, are sufficient. The observations should not be made within two hours on each side of noon, nor when the ' sun is too near the horizon, as the correction for refraction is then too great. 'The direct solar observation depends on the solution of a 39^) whose sides are all known, and whose angle between two planes is desired. These planes, as can spherical triangle (see Fig. be seen from the figure, are (one) observer, zenith, pole; and (the other) observer, zenith, sun. In our work we have first the from pole to horizon or from zenith to equator; and therefore the colatitude (90° latitude) for one side, or in other words we have from pole to zenith; we have the declination, distance of the sun above or below the equator and therefore the codeclination (90° declination), that is from pole to sun, and we finally get the altitude and thence the coaltitude (90° the altitude), by the solar observation with the transit as described above. In Fig. 39 the sun is shown by solid lines north of the equator and latitude, distance Redrawn from the Bulletin, Colorado School of Mines, January, 1901, 'Determination of the Meridian by the Direct Solar Observation,' Edward P. Arthur, Jr., E.M. ' A MANUAL OF UNDERGROUND SURVEYING 74 by dotted lines south of the equator, this also showing its posiThis triangle may be solved by any one bf the tion before noon. various formulas found in every treatise on spherical trigonometry. 'The best formula, however, for the direct observation is that derived by John G. McElroy, of Breckenridge, Colorado, and given in the Michigan Engineers' Annual ' which is cos Z= ± cos for 1889, p. 62, as follows: T ; / cos a tan I tan a, simply a modification of one of the fundamental equations of spherical trigonometry. 'Before illustrating the utility of the formula and the facility with which it may be logarithmically reduced, it will be proper, for the sake of completion, to give the argutnent on which it rests. To this end let P Z S, Fig. 40, be a spherical triangle, and k an arc of the great circle PS drawn from Z perpendicular to P S, or to produced. Then from the = cos s and from the cos p = s cos p x): (1) cos k cos X k, = cos we (z D cos (2) find — x) cos X But from S Z D, — S Z D, triangle Eliminating cos cos PZ triangle cos k cos (z = sm2tan S= (3) tan x cos p; = whence, tan x x cos cos S (4) p Placing this in (3) there results cos s cos or, cos s 'This is the = = , sin cos 2 H p cos p cos z above-mentioned + p sin z cos S; cos p sin p sin z cos fundamental S equation. (5) It asserts that the cosine of either side of a spherical triangle equals the product of the cosines of the other sides, plus the product of the sines of those sides into the cosine of their included angle. To apply to the derivation of our solar formula let us consider which represents the four astronomical triangles PZS, PZS', P'Z'S, and P'Z'S', projected on the plane of the meridian it Fig. 41, : MERIDIAN FIG. PNHZ. 40. — SPHERICAL 75 TRIANGLE. In A.M. observations, the azimuth angles at Z or Z' be estimated from the north to the right; in p.m. observations, will from the north to the left. We adopt the following notation ' PP' = axis of the celestial sphere. P = the celestial north pole. P' = the celestial south pole. EQ = th.e celestial equator. HO = the celestial horizon of which the poles are Z and N. Z and AT = zenith and nadir of an observer in north latitude. = zenith and nadir of an observer in south latitude.' Z' and £^2=1 = observer's latitude when at Z. -BZ'= 1 = observer's latitude when at Z'. A'^' jS'=the sun iS' = the when north of the equator. sun when south of the equator. yS=the sun's north polar distance when north. PBy James Underbill, Ph.D. MERIDIAN 85 serving the altitude of the sun with the transit, the azimuth usually obtained at the present time by the following formula: Z= ± cos ^ cos a cos in tan a tan is I, I which Z = azimuth required. d = declination. = latitude. I a = altitude of sun corrected 'The first term of the + — and the second term second member for refraction. is for north declinations, for south declinations, is — + for north latitudes, for south latitudes. 'As this formula can be transformed into cos Z= ± sin d sec a sec Z =F tan a tan Z, be seen at once that any method of solution providing for in the first term of the second member and one multiplicatiDrinker's 'Tunneling,' p. 919. 2 Mines and Minerals, vol. xxii, p. 248. A MANUAL OF UNDERGROUND SURVEYING 106 number 20 copper wire with a 7i-pound iron window weight is used. The Calumet & Hecla uses a number 22 steel piano wire with an 11-pound weight. The equal strength, but steel wire is smaller for is not so easily The copper wire is not so apt to the steel. A number 18 copper wire obtainable, as a general thing. remain bent or kinked as is will sustain a 12-pound weight to a depth of 1200 feet, but for a greater depth, or with a heavier weight, a larger copper wire, or a steel wire, must be used. Where a number 20 copper wire is not strong enough, it is probably better practice to use steel. To Lower Wires In shallow shafts, it is the end of a wire and lower in Vertical Shafts practicable to attach a light weight to directly off a reel. This is impossible, however, for anything but very shallow shafts, for the weight will it catch in the timbering. Where a cage is installed, it is convenient to attach the end to the top of the cage and run the wire When off the bottom a reel at the surface as the reached the end of the wire cage is may be attached to the side timbering and the cage hoisted clear if lowered. desired. It is best to have the reel at the surface where the hoisting engineer can see and the wire fails is it, for to run freely, if it is the reel is carried on the cage almost sure to be broken before man can be signaled to stop. Several hundred feet of down upon the top of the cage makes a most troublesome tangle. After such an accident, the wire must be the hoist loose wire dropping thrown away, Where may for the kinks in it will never come out. wires are to be lowered through very deep shafts, it be best to use a large wooden frame, pointed at each end and large in the middle, to pull the end down. Such a frame, 10 or 12 feet long and 4 feet in diameter at the middle, cannot catch on the timbering.! A simple shafts is, device which we find of great advantage in plumbing to have in the wires on the side toward the transit, three from an ordinary trace chain. Cut the wires about 4J feet above the end of the weight and fasten the three links between links these two ends. ' Mines and Minerals, vol. xxii, p. 247. CARRYING THE MERIDIAN UNDERGROUND 107 This allows the wires to twist and turn as they please, and one always be in such a position that you can sight through it to the wire beyond, and feel certain that your transit is on the proper line, and that you have seen both wires. of the links will A MANUAL OF UNDERGEOUND SURVEYING 108 lines tangent to an ellipse. The centre of the ellipse is the true Other methods are described in Colliery Engineer, September, 1895, p. 31 and in Engineering and Mining Journal, January 12, 1893, p. 81. position of the wire. ; Two-WiBE System Two wires are most generally used where to carry the meridian down a vertical shaft becomes necessary which has no underit ground connections with any other opening. The wires are, of course, hung as far apart as to secure the greatest length of base. They is possible in order are either hung in a predetermined plane by lining them in with the transit as they are placed, or after hanging them their plane is determined by setting it, or by triangulation methods. The same procedure is followed underground to take the meridian off the two wires. Where it is convenient to set the transit in the plane of the two wires, most engineers prefer to do so. Where the underground statio;ns will not permit of this, the triangulation method must be used. The distance between the two wires as measured at the bottom must check that as measured at the top. In case the measurements do not check, the probability is that some obstruction in the shaft causes one of the wires to hang out of plumb. In case, however, that a search fails to find any such obstruction, some the transit up in is necessary. If the plumb-weights used are of be that magnetic influences disturb them. Instances of this kind have been proved. If so, the substitution of lead other explanation iron, it may weights for the iron will cause the discrepancy in measurements to disappear. Sometimes, however, the wires fail to hang perpendicularly on account of air currents in the shaft. Air rushing in from levels on one side of the shaft may push one wire in toward the other. If it is pushed directly toward the other, the distance apart of the wires will be affected, but not their bearing. It is known that air rushing up a shaft has a tendency to assume a corkscrew motion instead of traveling in straight lines. Now phenomenon will cause one wire to diverge from the true plane in one direction and the other wire in the other direction. Their bearing, as determined from them at the bottom, will then evithis CARRYING THE MERIDIAN UNDERGROUND 109 dently be different from their bearing at the top. Their distance apart will also be affected, as each wire will tend to move from true position along the tangent to a circle whose centre lies in its the plane of the two wires. air, or splashing of drops of water, affects but be that the bearing of the bottom ends of the wires will be changed without affecting their distance apart. As this can be in no way known, it is evidently the chief objection If the rush of one wire, it may to the two-wire system of plumbing shafts. That the effect of air currents upon plumb-wires is considerwas shown by a survey ^ of the Tamarack Shaft No. 5, where the divergence at a depth of 4,000 feet was a tenth of a foot. able The Three- Wire System By system three wires instead of two are used. The three The position of each wire is found by triahgulation at the top, and the meridian is calculated at any point below from a triangulation to the wires. It is not necessary nor customary to set the instrument up in the plane of two of the wires when this method is used. It may be done, however. The advantages of the three-wire system are those affording a check upon work done. In the first place, if the three wires are in the same relative positions when measured at the bottom that they are at the top, it is unreasonable to suppose that air currents could have twisted them about so that the meridian taken off And, second, the three wires give three possible will be incorrect. With three triangles which may be solved for check results. wires it is always possible to set up the instrument so that two of them will be in position to give a triangle of good shape. Where the underground workings take off from the shaft in different directions, this is no small advantage. The objections to the system are: the extra wire to hang, the use of one more compartment of the shaft for the third wire, and the time required to make the extra observations. The advantages certainly outweigh the objections. The certainty that any two wires lie in a true plane, rather than a warped surface is advantage enough to warrant the hanging of the third wire, even if it is not used in the taking off of the meridian at all. this wires are not in the same plane. ' Mines and Minerals, vol. xxii, p. 247. A MANUAL OF UNDERGROUND SURVEYING 110 Four-Wire Method ^ We will suppose that in the shaft through which the meridian is to be carried, there are two hoistways, each 7X11 feet, with a 12inch bunting between, as shown in Fig. 56. Now the first thing ' to be known is, which side up the transit. The setting \ of the shaft is the best adapted for point to be marked in the mines will / CARRYING THE MERIDIAN UNDERGROUND course, not accurate, but will be the hangers. At the point 111 found to be quite a guide in setting a permanent station and carry A make the meridian thereto. ' The hangers to be used can be made from strap iron, ^ inch by 2 inches wide, and about 16 inches long or longer if thick necessary, but not shorter. In one end of the iron have a jaw with a ' fine cut at the apex, or a drill-hole just large enough to contain the fKire to be used for plumbing; in the 12 inches opposite the jaw-end have three countersunk drill-holes through which to fasten the hangers to the top of the shaft, by sheet-iron nails. 'In most shafts there and the is a space between the ends of the cage from 2 to 4 inches, so that examine the wires after they are hung, the holes in the jaw of the hanger should be set in such a position that the wire passing through it will hang about midway sides of the timbers, varying in order to lower or hoist the cage to in this space. On the north side of the shaft, fasten the hangers permanently over the chalk marks previously made, with the jaws pointing ' toward the point A. On the south side of the shaft, the outer end of the hanger can be fastened temporarily. 'Having carried the meridian to, and set the transit on, the station at A, take backsight, then foresight in the wire-hole of the hanger C, and set the wire-hole of the hanger B on the same Then, having recorded this course, foresight on the wireline. hole of the hanger E and set the wire-hole of the hanger D on the same line; record this course, and the meridian to be carried into the workings below is established. Now measure carefully and record the distances A to B, A to C, and B to C; then the distances A to D, A to E, and D to E, and finally the distances B The necessity of this is for a twofold purto D and C to E. pose; first, for establishing the point A at the bottom of the shaft, and, secondly, for theoretical calculations in the office to prove the work. The transit party can now descend to the bottom of the shaft, taking with them four buckets of oil, the weights or plumb-bobs to be attached to the wires, and all the surveying instruments, leaving a responsible party on the surface to handle the wires. Having arrived at the bottom of the shaft, the cage may be ' ' A MANUAL OF UNDERGROUND SURVEYING 112 hoisted about 3 feet above the landing, and several planks thrown across the timbers on which to set the buckets of oil. The man on the surface may be signaled to lower one wire and fasten securely on top, passing it through the wire-hole of the hanger; now the weight may be attached and the wire adjusted to such a length that when sustaining the full weight of the plumb-bob the latter is sure to be free from the bottom of the oil bucket. The weight may be then inserted in the oil, using care not to put all of it on the wire with a jerk, but letting it go down slowly so that the wire may receive the full strain gradually and not so suddenly that it will snap in two. The same method may be followed until the four wires are in proper position. 'After the wires have been hanging a few minutes with the weights attached, the latter Watch the buckets. may move this carefully to one side or the other of and keep moving the buckets hang perfectly free, then leave everything alone become perfectly steady. 'If the wires have been placed midway in the space between the ends of the cage and the sides of the shaft timbers, the cages can now be hoisted and lowered, to allow an examination of the until the weights until the wires wires, so as to be absolutely certain that there are to prevent them from hanging free and plumb. no projections Care should be taken, however, to notify the hoisting engineer not to allow either cage to approach either landing closer than 3 feet, or the cages will tear off the hangers on the surface landing and crush the weights and buckets on the bottom landing. 'When the wires have apparently settled one find the point of intersection. A, of the two may proceed to lines at the foot of the shaft. 'Stretch a string along the wires B C and D E, using care to prevent the string from touching any of the wires, and with a plumbline mark on the bottom of the gangway the intersection and com- pare with the same distances on the surface. If they compare closely, one can rest assured that they are settling nicely, and can proceed to carry the meridian from the wires to the desired point. 'Set the transit at the intersection just found, backsight on B C, foresight on the wires D E, compare the included angl^and the distances with the same angle and distances on the the wires surface. If not exactly the same, then move the transit in the . CARRYING THE MERIDIAN UNDERGROUND direction necessary to increase or decrease tances, as the case may the angle 113 or dis- be.' By Bent Line An interesting string a shallow vertical shaft method is for carrying the meridian Fig. 58 illustrates July, 1901, p. 559. FIG. 57. down described in Mines and Minerals of — BENT how the various lines, all LINE SURVEY. being in one plane, take the meridian from a comparatively long base at the surface, and also give a long base below from which the meridian is taken by setting a transit in line with the two This device does not, however, give position of a To get the position of a point, simply the direction of the line. plumb-lines. point from which to measure, a single plumb-line must be lowered from the horizontal string. The description of an interesting survey by means of bent lines, made by Prof, Mark Ehle, is given on page 212. A MANUAL OF UNDERGROUND SURVEYING 114 By Transit Sights Where a shallow shaft is the only opening by which the meridian it may be convenient to establish a line by can be carried below, direct transit sight. Either top or side telescope, inclined standard transit, ec- DJA, FIG. centrically used. mounted Ob, , 58. — DOUBLE BENT LINE. telescope or ordinary transit telescope may be In every case extreme care must be used in getting the instrument exactly level so that the vertical wire shall travel in a truly vertical plane. With the top telescope, the line is swung down and points, as marked. By turning the plates 90° the vertical wire marks another vertical plane. far apart as possible at the shaft bottom, are CARRYING THE MERIDIAN UNDERGROUND The two planes intersection of these is 115 the plumb through the centre of the instrument. With a side telescope, a plane parallel to, from, the true plane By is and equally distant established on each side of the vertical plane. swinging the plates 90° two more planes are established, which, together with the first two, make a square whose centre is the point directly under the centre of the instrument. The ordinary transit ^ when set up in a leaning position gives the line of a true vertical plane but not a plumb-point, except as an angle of 90° from the horizontal position can be read on the This vertical circle. however, not accurate enough for any- is, thing but the very crudest kind of work. Vertical Sights necessary to with Ordinary make a vertical sight FIG. hand, it may 59. — When it becomes and no auxiliary telescope is at Transit. — STRIDING LEVEL. be done by leaning the plates of the transit so that the line of sight, when vertical, will clear the plates. made down a shaft, the transit is set up with two legs shortened and resting close to the shaft edge. The third leg is extended and securely anchored. The instrument is If the sight is to be then leaned over the shaft so that the plumb-line will fall inside the shaft. When the plates are now tipped toward the shaft by means of swung the leveling-screws, the line of sight can be each side of vertical. In order to have the line of sight cut horizontal axis of the telescope First, a vertical plane, the must be made truly horizontal the inclined position of the instrument. in several ways. several degrees This and simplest, a striding level (Fig. 59) may till in may be accomplished be placed upon the horizontal axis and the plates swung the bubble is in the centre of its run. Second, the plates may ^Engineering and Mining Journal, May 16, 1903, p. 749. A MANUAL OF UNDERGROUND SURVEYING 116 be moved till the line of sight will follow a plumb-line through about 45° of vertical angle; or, third, three points in a vertical plane may be established with the instrument leveled, and the instrument then inclined and centred in the determined plane. In steeply inclined or crooked shafts By Traverse of Shaft. — it is often necessary to run a transit traverse. This is done exactly Extreme care and checks upon all work will give accurate results. The work is slow and tedious, however, and is to be avoided wherever any other method can be Platforms must be built across the shaft to support instruused. ment and men, and timbers must usually be securely placed to hold station points. As all these timbers must be removed from the as in surface work or slopes. shaft no stations are left to serve as a check at a later time. Work of this kind is dangerous, and special care is necessary The author will carry a scar, made by a candlestick dropped by an assistant from a temporary staging 60 feet above, to his grave. The transit man must also remember that a misstep may land transit or man in the sump, perhaps hundreds of feet below. At first he will probably be able to think in the selection of assistants. of little else, but familiarity always tends to make one careless. Measuring Depth of Shafts The depth is frequently measured to determine the the same principle, a weighted wire is low- hoisting rope of a shaft. On ered into the shaft and measured as agaiii, for a check, as it is it descends, also measured withdrawn. A tape is stretched parallel to the wire, or rope, at the top, and end-points marked on the wire. The wire is lowered the length of the tape and again marked, and so on till the first mark reaches its the lowest part of the shaft to be measured. It take the elevations off at the various levels by is usually best to means of instru- ments sighted at a mark on the wire as it is lowered. This method is good for shallow shafts, and a connection driven between levels on two deep shafts may meet accurately where the elevations have been determined by a measured wire in each case. It is, however, true that a hoisting rope, or a wire, is very elastic and stretches to a measurable extent. A wire 4000 feet long has been known to stretch 15 feet upon the addition of .40 pounds weight at the end, and to shorten 2 feet when this weight was suspended in oil. It is then quite evident that while concordant CAHRYlNG THE MERIDIAN UNDERGROUND results may be obtained by this method, the results are in error by equal amounts. For shallow the wire would give a negligible is 117 shafts, amount where the elasticity of of stretch, the method quick and good. By another method the shaft itself is measured. This is done by laying off successive lengths of the tape along the guide. One man must stand upon the cage, or bucket, and place a mark upon A second man works from a seat clamped to the hoisting rope at the length of the tape above the cage. He holds the upper end of the tape opposite the mark made by the man at the lower end. He must do the the guide opposite the zero end of the tape. signaling to the hoisting engineer. A 100-foot tape is most frequently used, but a longer tape, if checked for length while hanging vertically, can be used and will save time and chance of error, as the number of times it is laid off is reduced. To mark the end-points, the author has used the longThese can be pushed spined large glass-headed library tacks. wooden guide with the bare hand. The head of the tack is not set close up to the wood and the tape can slide under it, so that into a the markings of the tape rest directly against the spine of the tack. An may be driven and the exact endhead with a centre-punch. The man at the lower end should leave a candle-snuff burning near the endpoint to aid the upper man in finding it. When measuring an inclined shaft, the measurements are usually made along the line of sight of the transit from one station ordinary white carpet tack point marked upon the flat Where the driven upon a fixed angle, it is quicker and easier to stretch the tape directly upon the skip rail. to the next. shaft is Bibliography: Transferring Meridian Underground. ing Shafts on the Comstock, Eng. and Min. — Plumb- Jour., vol. Iv, p. 81; Plumbing Shafts in Montana, ihid., vol. Iv, p. 72; Plumbing Shafts South Africa, ihid., vol. Ixxiv, p. 478; Plumbing Shafts by in Leaning Transit, Mine, ihid., ihid., vol. Ixxv, p. 749; Plumb-lines at Tamarack April 26, 1902; Transferring Meridian Underground, ihid., vol. Iv, p. 179; Plumbing Shafts at Hoosac Tunnel, Colliery Eng., vol. xvi, p. 52; General vol. xvi, p. 31; Methods of Plumbing Shafts, Wires of Plumbing Shafts, Suspension of Wires, ibid., vol. xiv, p. 92; ibid., ihid., vol. xvi, p. 32; Shaft Surveying for Tunnels, Vose's "Manual of Railroad Engineering"; Shaft Sur- A MANUAL OP UNDERGROUND SURVEYING 118 veying at Przibram, Proc. Inst, of C. E. of Eng., vol. civ; Crooked Shaft by Plumb-line, School of Mines Quarterly, vol. xvi, p. 146; Severn Tunnel Survey, S. M. Q., vol. iii, p. 272; Mine Surveying, iii, p. 269; Wires for Shaft Surveys, ibid., vol. xi, p. 333; Prevention of Vibration of Wires, ibid., vol. iii, p. 271; Plumbing ibid., vol. Shafts of Croton Aqueduct, Trans. A. S. C. E., vol. xxiii, p. 22; Cincinnati Water-works Tunnel, Eng. Rec, vol. li, p. 234; Shaft Survey Iron Mines of Penn., Trans. A. I. M. E., vol. vii, p. 139; Sperry Method of Plumbing Shafts, ibid., vol. xxiv, p. 29; General Methods of Shaft Plumbing, ibid., vol. xxi, p. 292; Underground Connection, ibid., vol. xxiv, p. 25; Survey Measurements of Steep Drivages, Col. Guard., September 24, 1897; Measure of Depth by Wheel, ibid., April 20, 1898; Plumbing Shaft in Missouri, Mines and Minerals, July, 1901; Tamarack Shaft Survey, ibid., vol. xxii, 247; Inclined Shaft Survey, Survey, ibid., December, 1900; p. M. and Sci. Press, August ibid., April, A 25, 1906. 1900; Meridian of a Quick Vertical Shaft Survey, SURVEY OF ROOMS OR STOPES The main transit traverses in the survey of a mine are carried through the openings which are to be permanent; that is, the main haulage ways and headings, and the shafts and levels. Those openings which change in shape from time to time, and which are often filled up, or caved, after being worked out, are measured up by some method which is rapid, but not necessarily so accurate These secondary openings are, as are the main lines of the survey. of course, connected with the main survey, and all are mapped together. sometimes carried along the usually the rooms breast, are measured by taking a side-shot up every third or fourth room and simply measuring the intervening rooms by tape through the break-throughs nearest the face. See page 206 for instructions issued to surveyors by the United States Coal and Coke In coal mines, a transit especially in line is long wall work, but Company. In metal mines, it is sometimes necessary to measure, with considerable care, the openings from which ore has been removed. These measurements are frequently used as a basis upon which tonnage is estimated, and also as a basis upon which contract work is The paid. Institute of Mine Surveyors (Transvaal) discussed ways in which these measurements were best made on the Rand. These papers occupy some fifty or sixty pages of their Transactions (Vols. II and III), and are well worth study, but are too lengthy to be reprinted in this volume. Any engineer who has to measure up contract work each week or two, especially on ledges similar to those of South Africa, can well afford to secure copies of these volumes of the Transactions. In this country, those mines which have very large ore-bodies generally use the square-set method of timbering has method made of timbering. This regular possible the use of stope-books of 119 A MANUAL OF UNDERGROUND SURVEYING 120 cross-section paper, and the sketching of the sets thereon instead of the actual taping of the openings. Narrow Stopes is In narrow stopes where the square-set system of timbering it is customary to carry a transit-line up through a not used, chute or manway, and then get the outline of the stope-face radiating lines to points on the face. For this by work, a pocket compass is sufficiently accurate. The lengths of the and the vei-tical distance between stope-walls are measured transit or lines Where a stope is long, it may be best to carry up the chute or manway nearest to one then the whole length of the breast and down the last chute with pocket tape. an ordinary end, transit-line to close on the nearest station of the regular mine survey. If the surveyor is mapping the geology and the assay values, he must, of course, be careful to note all such during the stope- he is mapping the geology, he had best have the foreman go through the stopes with him to point out any changes in geology which have been noticed during the breaksurveying. If shift-boss or ing of the ore. The miners in each particular stope are usually able to bring things to the attention of the surveyor would which he of himself not notice. Method of Keeping Stope-Books ' ' For maintaining an accurate record of all work done in the mines of the Butte district, a survey is run out on every level, beginning at the shaft, to the face of each crosscut and drift as the work advances, and is brought up to date once a month. Notes and sketches are made showing the timbering, angles, sidesets, stations, manways, and these notes an accurate plan chutes, with their numbers. map is From plotted in the office stope- book, showing the level with the timbers as they actually stand in the mine. X 4i inches, and consists of some convenient scale, each sheet being divided into squares of 1 inch by heavier lines. A scale of 20 feet to the inch has been found to give good results, as it is large enough to admit of plenty of detail and not so large as to be cumThe field stope-book is about lOJ sheets of cross-section paper of ^ SURVEY OF ROOMS OR STOPES Each square represents a bersome. line of intersection is 121 square-set, while a dot at the used to indicate a post. With such a scale, the book, on being opened, will represent on a double page about 400 feet in length of the vein, and will be wide enough to permit of two floors being plotted on the same sheet one above the other. The sketch of the sill floor of each level is made in the field-book for the work of 'taking up stopes underground. Where the drift timbering is regular, that is, where each side conforms to the ' standard drift set for the mine, the posts of a set are simply sketched in by a dot at each corner of the square but where con; ditions are such that regular sets cannot be used, indicate just where and how each it is essential to irregularity occurs. The data give correct representations of all chutes and manways that have been run on all floors, in such a manner that their true position with regard to the level and the stope can be known at a glance. The field stope-book thus compiled furnishes a permanent record of the work in the mine, shows the manner in which the development work was prosecuted, the date at which it was done, and supplies the data for office maps and estimates of the amount of ore extracted, cost of the extraction, and the possible ore reserve. (See descriptions and illustrations, p. 203.) String Surveys Instead of using a transit or pocket transit, the surveys of secondary openings are frequently made by stretching strings between points and then reading their course by ordinary compass, and dip by clinometer, or by use of the hanging compass. Instead of using a compass, the strings triangles may ^ and the lengths be calculated. method is great. of the sides When The may be stretched in measured so that the angles carefully done, the accuracy of this triangles must not, however, contain any angles approaching 180°, or the point of intersection of the two strings cannot be determined accurately. • 2 Longdate Iron Mine, Engineering and Mining Journal, August 1, 1891. Trans. A. I. M. E., August, 1900; and Eng. and Min. Jour., January 27, 1900. A MANUAL OF UNDERGROUND SURVEYING 122 Estimating Values of Ore Deposits While a coal mine may number estimate of the be measured up, and an almost exact of tons of marketable coal which it will produce may be made, it is impossible to do the same in the case Coal producers must always take into account, of a metal mine. and make provision for, increase of wages, strikes, increased railroad charges, and varying prices of the coal produced. Besides all these, in metal mines, there is the uncertainty of continued and size of ore bodies with extended working. attempts have been made to invent a formula which shall give the net profit per ton of ore handled. These are all impractical. Each mine or ore deposit is a case by itself. But in almost every case, the framework upon which the examining engineer hangs his observations, notes, assays, and geologic ob- richness Many servations is a map The absolute of the mine survey. necessity for an accurate perhaps, only understood by the engineer examine a large property, the mine maps map of the who has been of mine is, called to which have not been at hand. Volumes For estimating the volumes of open-cut work, placer digging, various methods and formulas have been devised. S. Napier Bell 1 describes quick methods which he has used. By one he takes the profiles of cross-sections, making one transit setting in each section, and taking vertical angles to various points on the etc., section, measuring by tape or by stadia. adjoining sections give the volume. The mean area of two by the distance between them to This method is rapid and is accurate enough for is multiplied many purposes. By another method the topography of the surface level readings (or inclined side-shots) to points Each three is taken by on the surface. assumed to be the angles of a plane end of a vertical triangular prism. The other end is any assumed horizontal plane. By calculating these vertical prisms over the whole area, the total contents of the excavation prism are known at any time. The triangle. of these points are This triangle ' is called one M. and M., vol. xxvii, p. 42. ; SURVEY OF ROOMS OR STOPES 123 any two consecutive surveys is, removed during the intervening time. This method is more accurate than the former one, but takes considerably more time. difference between these totals; at of course, the cubic content of the material Mine Sampling While mine sampling is not a part of mine surveying, it so is one of the additional duties of the mine surveyor that it seems best to at least outline the work. The engineer has the assay maps of the mine to keep up to date, and usually marks the points from which systematic mine samples are to be taken, even if he does not oversee the work of breaking the samples, or even break them himself. The engineer who does not carefully study and map the geology, and also map the position of samples and resulting assay values, will usually have to step down and out. Of course, in large properties where mining geologists and special samplers are employed, the surveyor pays no attention to these things, but in all except the largest and most up-to-date properties, the surveyor must also be geologist, mine sampler, and frequently assayer as well. Theoretically, the sampling of a mine is a very simple operation representative fragments of the ore are broken from the different ore-bodies and assayed. The value per ton multiplied by the frequently number of tons evidently gives the gross value of the ore in place. Assuming certain costs for matter to figure the net But mining and reduction, it is a simple profit. work from simple, owing to the sample of any particular body of ore. The ore-body may be exposed on one, two, three, or four sides and, of course, the greater the proportion of exposed area to the cubic content of the body, the more nearly representative of the whole mass will be the average of the samples; but at best, only an approximation, be it ever so close, can be secured by means of sampling ore in place in the mine. Sample Interval. The mine sampler must first decide upon some particular sample interval, i.e., distance between points at which samples are to be taken. This is different for each particular mine; a coal vein need be sampled only at distances of perhaps several hundred feet, while a narrow, rich, pockety gold vein must practically the is far difficulty of securing a truly representative — ; A MANUAL OF UNDERGROUND SURVEYING 124 be sampled at intervals of perhaps only 24 inches. Each ore deposit is a law unto itself, and in order to best determine upon the sample interval, the engineer will probably have to study the geology of the deposit, have a few selected (commonly known as grab ') samples assayed, and perhaps begin his sampling at multiple intervals; i.e., instead of sampling at every 5 feet at first, he will sample at every 10 feet and later on sample at the alternate 5 points if the results from the assay of the 10-foot samples indi' cate the necessity of closer sampling. — The method of actually breakMethod of Breaking Samples. ing the sample varies with the physical shape and condition of the material to be sampled. Whatever its shape or condition, a groove must be cut clear across the exposed face so as to secure a proportionate part of each band of material. If the material be soft like clay, a scraper will cut the desired groove, and if brittle like coal, a small hand pick or prospector's hammer may be and hammer are satisfactory; for harder materials a gad, or moil For very hard material a moil struck by a best. heavy double-handled hammer may be necessary. To catch the fragments as they are broken away from the face, the most satisfactory method is to have a second man hold up a candle or powder box so that all fragments will fly into it. In case very large samples are to be broken, to use a canvas sheet spread method on the it may be better This floor of stope or drift. however, open to the objection that the sample is so by having fragments of high grade thrown into it, or accidentally by having the richer, fine is, easily salted, either intentionally, or brittle ore breaking from the back outside of the sample groove. — The size of a sample depends upon the width sampled and the condition of the material. If the face be of uniform structure so that the dimensions of the groove can be kept uniform, a 5-inch by J-inch channel is probably large enough but if the face be composed of alternating hard and soft bands, it may be necessary to increase the size of the channel to 10 or 12 Size of Sample. of the face inches by 3 inches in depth. Reducing — the Size of the Samples. Where the samples are being taken for the mine and can be sent direct to the mine-assay office, the samples are, of course, reduced in the office. Where the samples have to be sent to some distance to be assayed, they must be reduced upon the ground. The small hand crusher is the SURVEY OF ROOMS OR STOPES 125 most convenient and can usually be secured, but frequently the rock must be crushed by other means. A heavy casting (old anvil, or stamp die) laid upon a sheet of canvas serves as a convenient base upon which the ore band of iron is with a handle crushed by means of a hammer. A is convenient for holding the pieces while breaking them. After breaking to the required and forth size, the canvas is rolled back until the ore is fully mixed, the resulting pile of ore and then bucked down to say down, the sample may be sealed in canvas or paper sacks and later bucked down at the assay office. The samples should be numbered by means of paper, wood, or metal tag inside the sack, and an identification (not the assay number) marked upon the outside of the sack. This last is a safeguard against intelligent salting; if an occasional sack of barren rock is included and it shows a metal content upon assay, one at once suspects salting and governs himself accordingly. The sampler must be always upon his guard against salting; accidental, under all circumstances, and intentional, whenever there is anything for anyone to gain thereby. The tricks and schemes whereby salting is accomplished are very numerous. They vary all the way from throwing high-grade into the sample box as the sample is being broken, through the injection of gold chloride through the sample sacks, to the secreting of gold buttons in the sides of the crucibles which are used in assaying. The work of the sampler is hard and tedious. It must be carefully and intelligently done. While the sampler can, and should, have a miner to do the actual pounding of the moil, he must be present constantly to see that nothing detrimental to the securing of a true sample is done. quartered or halved 100 mesh. till of small bulk Instead of bucking it . — Bibliography : Secondary Openings. Stope Measurements, Eng. and Min. Jour., January 27, 1900; Measure of Stopes, Colo. Sci. Society, December 3, 1894; Stope Measurements, Proc. I. of Mine p. Surv., vol. ii; Cross Sections in Rock Cuts, A. S. C. E., 1890, 386; Examination of Mineral Properties, S. Volumes, Mines and Minerals, & Min. Soc, S. Africa, M. Q., vol. iii; Small Drifts and Stope measurements Jour. Chem. May, 1909. Stopes, ibid., vol. xxi, p. 344. Met. vol. xxvii, p. 42; VI RECORD OF THE SURVEY Field Notes It should be recognized that the purpose of helping the notes are not taken for field memory of the party making them. They should be complete, so that one entirely unacquainted with the workings surveyed can make a correct map from fact, it is generally the case that the notes are mapped by office men who have never them. In worked up and seen the workings. Besides the actual record of courses, distances, angles, etc., there should be noted the position and dimensions of every object affecting the mine in any way. system, drainage, power lines, This covers stables, ventilation haulage, rolls, faults, thickness of deposit and kind of rocks. If one surveyor is taking care of several mines, he should have a separate note-book for each mine. A careful and complete index The notes of the day should be looked will save time and trouble. over carefully each night to see that no apparent errors go uncor- rected. The notes should be taken with lead engineers never allow an erasure. If pencil, a mistake and many chief is made, a line should be drawn through the part in error and the note rewritten. Erasing and rewriting is a fruitful source of error. A moderately hard pencil should be used and the characters made small rather than large. Above all things, do not be stingy with space in your note-book. Use plenty of room, be extravagant even, rather than crowd your work. And remember that a neat note-book is to be desired. Many a young engineer owes his advance to a nicely kept notebook, and many another has failed of advance because his notebook did not recommend him. The notes of the survey should, of course, be headed by the name of the place in which the survey is made, together with the 126 RECORD OF THE SURVEY Often, too, the date. names name of many ways given, as also the There are 127 engaged in the work are of those the instrument used. of keeping the notes themselves, each engineer adopting a form which impresses him as the best. The mind is to record everything, and to do it in such a way that any other engineer who examines the notes will understand them readily. The notes cannot be made too plain. point to be kept in (For note forms, see pp. 191, 201.) The forms differ from the forms used in surface work principally in having columns for vertical angle and distance, and for height of point. Columns are usually ruled for the inserting of values, coordinates, etc., which have to be calculated. filled in at a later time These columns are by copying from the calculation-book or ledger. Note-Books The ordinary transit, or field-book surveyors' supplies. The pattern maker, but any one may be used. Some companies have note-books of the neat appearance and is by every a dealer in with each The right-hand page is best ruled into small squares where sketching and the headings sold is of ruling differs is little to be done. especially ruled for them, columns printed. This gives the book a a convenience, no doubt, for a new man working with any particular set of notes for a time, a person never looks to see the headings of the columns. He knows what each one is. on the surveying corps; but after As regards size, the larger book has the advantage, so long as small enough to slip into an ordinary pocket. On the other hand, if a small book will carry the number of columns required, and have each one wide enough to take its note without crowding, One miist always avoid there is no advantage in having it larger. it is crowding his notes. Each book should have blank pages enough left at the front for the complete indexing of all the notes in the book. Upon the outside should be the number of the book, the dates between which it has been used, and the mine at which it was used. When filled away, the number and mine name should be put upon the back edge so that when lying or standing among others it up and may be filed identified. ^The advantages of the loose-leaf 'Loose-leaf records system have been realized by —Lee Eraser, Eng. & Min. Jour., 12-25-09, A MANUAL OF UNDERGROUND SURVEYING 128 mining companies are now whether the matter has Indeed, using it. further than common carried and is being a fad not come to be has its advantages, howThat it permit. convenience sense and note-books will familiar with underground all one at ever, no punched to be double and are usually The loose leaves question. mine surveyors, and many it is held in covers Hodson 1 much like of the large to be questioned the ordinary surveyors' field-book. describes a system which is somewhat L. C. different. He says: ' I have, tried the following plan which seems to eliminate Cards of the difficulties. size of ordinary filing all cards are ruled columns for note-taking. Sheets of paper of the same size are same way. These are placed in an envelope of oiled paper, the front of the envelope being printed with the same form For note-taking, as the card, and bearing the same serial number. the outside of the envelope is used, but copies are preserved on the card and sheet by means of carbon paper. The clean card is filed in a card-index cabinet and is not to be removed from the office, while the sheet is kept in a loose-leaf note-book, which can be carried whenever it is needed. By good indexing and use of different-colored cards for each class of surveys, all notes become instantly accessible at all times, no matter what note-book happens to be out of the office.' in ruled in the Side Notes* Side notes are those notes of the survey which are needed in order to draw a correct map necessary in order to correctly These include the pluses to of the openings, but which are not map the traverse lines of the survey. all points to be noted, such as ore chutes, upraises, winzes, side openings to rooms, etc., distance to the sides of the opening at all and the points along the traverse line. The methods of recording these notes are, of course, varied. There are several different ways, first, in which the notes are taken, and the method of keeping the side notes will, of course, depend upon the method of taking them. The different ways of taking may be roughly classified as: (1) The side notes of each sight follow the transit notes of that sight, and on the same page (2) they ; ' '^ Iowa Engineer, May, 1907, p. 131. System used in Bisbee, Ariz. M. & M., Oct. 1909. RECORD OF THE SURVEY are entered in the 129 same book on the opposite page ; (3) the transit notes of the whole survey are followed by the side notes in the same book; (4) each set of notes has a separate book. The means of record are then classified as follows: (1) Sideshots recorded and no sketch made; (2) a sketch made as nearly to scale and direction as is possible; (3) the red centre line of the right-hand page is used to represent the transit line the lines to each side of it represent the walls of the opening, and the distances are written in between. The method without sketches is to be condemned except for unusual openings, such as long tunnels without side openings. A ; sketch made to scale and direction is usually a failure as far as being a true picture of the workings is concerned. its It will fre- The off the page, and has little to recommend it. method is, then, the most satisfactory and is probably the one most used at present. Sometimes the notes of the survey consist entirely of sketches quently run last (see p. 205). When carrying the transit notes on the left-hand page and the sketch on the right-hand, it becomes convenient to use the railroad surveyor's trick of beginning to record one's notes at the bottom of the page and working up rather than vice versa. Where this is not done, the average noteman must turn his book around in order to keep his sketch running forward. Office Books When the field-notes are brought to the into the ledger, or office note-book. office, they are copied This must show not only the notes taken in the field but also the calculated quantities. The heading of each survey must show the date of the field work and by whom done, the date of entry and by whom the calculations were made, also the index numbers to show where the field-notes and the calculation work are to be found. On page 130 is illustrated a double page of the ledger. Calculation-Book made in large books expressly for that The heading shows the date, date of survey, and All calculations are purpose. A MANUAL OF UNDERGROUND SURVEYING 130 eo o PL, m o o Q < W W O « 1-1 o PL| . ' RECORD OF THE SURVEY reference pages of the ledger men 131 field-book, also the names of the Some system must be adopted so and doing the calculations. that the exact part of the work wished may always be found in a done by means of logarithms and the calculation page shows a series of additions work is, any course is particular part of the page. and subtractions. The first calculation for All of course, the reduction of the slope The distance to horizontal and vertical distances. calculations for this are as follows: log slope dist. log sin V. A. log vertical dist. vertical dist. The next = = = = log cos V. A. log horiz. dist. horiz. dist. = = = = and latitude to be calculated are the departure local coordinates of the point sighted) of the course. (or This ap- pears as follows: log horiz. dist. log sin bearing A. log departure East (or West) These = = = = coordinates added local log cos bearing A. log latitude North (or South) (algebraically) = = = = to the total coordinates of the station of set-up, give the total coordinates of the station sighted. To ically) the elevation of the set-up station the H. I., Vert. Dist., mine of the is at, is added (again algebra- P., to give the elevation of Where the point the station sighted. system and H. of origin of the coordinate or above, the surface, the vertical co- ordinate of the stations grows larger as depth the signs of they are if H. L., is increased, and V. D., and H. P., are the opposite from what the stations are carried as elevations (Figs. 24 and 25) In making these calculations it saves time to have two men work together to check each other. If one man simply repeats his work for a check, he is very apt to make the same mistake the second time, and the error thus goes undetected. The office. ledger Any The mapping and calculation-book are never taken from the notes required outside are copied into field-books. is done directly from the ledger. 132 A MANUAL OF UNDERGROUND SURVEYING After entering the notes in the ledger and making the calculaindexed to show to what pages in the ledger tions, the field-book is and calculation-book the notes have been — transferred. Text-Boohs. Ihlsing's 'Manual of Mining'; Lock's 'Practical Gold Mining'; Underbill's 'Mineral Land Surveying'; 'Coal and Metal Miners' Pocketbook'; 'Theory and Practice of Surveying', Johnson; 'Principles and Practice of Surveying', Breed & Hosmer; 'Mine Surveying', Lupton; 'A Study of Mine Surveying', L. E. Young; Gillette's 'Earthwork and Its Cost'; 'Mine Surveying', Broughs; 'Ore and Stone Mining', Foster; 'Colliery Surveying', T. A. O'Donahue; 'Ore and Stone Mining', C. LeN. Foster. VII THE USES OF MINE MAPS 'A PLAN which requires the presence of the person or persons by whom it was prepared to explain it, or to supply information which ought to have been on the plan, has its utility diminished 'The value of correct and comin proportion to the omissions.' plete plans does not, in many cases at least, appear to be properly appreciated. It is no uncommon thing to see men blindly blundering about in mines, working deposits of complicated structure, without even a plan of the workings to guide them, much less a plan showing all the facts relative to geological structure, which the manager should have constantly before him.' The working plans are most important; others are secondary and taken from them. 'In fact, without a detailed knowledge of structure, it is as impossible for a manager to direct, with technical success, the operations of a mine in complicated ground, as it is for a doctor whose knowledge of anatomy is defective, to properly carry out some complicated operation upon the human body.' ^ The importance of mine maps is not too well underMaps. In no way can money be better spent than in making good stood. maps of a mining property of any size. The money so spent will be repaid many times over. A map showing all workings is of the greatest value, but in speaking of good maps we refer to maps showing much more. A mine map should be constructed on the same principle as a machine drawing, if the fullest benefit is to be derived from it. A machine drawing, of course, is so full and complete that any mechanic can construct that machine without any explanation, or knowledge of its use, or without ever having seen a similar machine. In order that a machine drawing should be as complete as this, one drawing is insufficient, even in plan and Detail drawings must be provided. The same principles section. must be applied to mine drawings or maps. It may be stated without any hesitation or fear of contradiction that a mine map — 1 Mining Reporter, vol. xlviii, p. 165. 133 134 A MANUAL OF UNDERGROUND SURVEYING should be a pictorial representation of the details of work done in a mine, not merely the drifts, shafts, winzes, upraises, Anyone who has had occasion how exceedingly small is to look up old and maps stopes. will know the practical information to be derived from them. Even the date of the map may not be shown. Now a mine map should show (1) The extent and contour of the working; (2) the shape and extent of the ore shoots, and the nature of the ore found in them; (3) the geological features, such as variations in the wall rocks, faults, etc. A complete .mine map must consist of several maps. These will be the main office maps, showing the workings pure and simple; the superintendent's working maps, on a scale sufficient for him to take them underground; assay maps, upon which are recorded the assays of all mine samples, thus showing the value and trend of all ore shoots; the geological maps, upon which are recorded the formations and their changes, the nature and details of faults, and any other geological facts deemed worthy of notice. Ask any superintendent or manager who is using such maps as to his opinion of their value, and not one would give other than a most emphatic testimonial as to the great importance of such maps to him in his daily work. : Now, many may demur to the practical value of such being so expensive to maintain, and value they must be up to date. all maps as recognize that to be of The answer is of course obvious. two are saved, then the dollar investment is a wise one. Practical examples are better than academic reasoning. Let us give two Pennsylvania and Great Britain. Both, a number of years ago, required all mines to keep their maps up to within a month. Mine owners vigorously protested. It was found, however, after a few years' trial that in the coal and iron mines the maps showed enormous losses of mineral. The maps not only showed where the losses occurred, but how they occurred. The remedies were therefore suggested by the maps themselves. The advantages were so great that the scope of the maps is frequently extended beyond the requirements of the law. If those laws were repealed to-morrow, the maps would continue to be made. Mining engineers know and appreciate the value of accurate mine surveys and maps, and most mines have maps which will answer all practical purposes, but there are mines without them. A full set of maps must embrace level maps, and vertical longitudiIf by spending a dollar — THE USES OF MINE MAPS 135 nal and vertical cross-sections of veins which have any consider- able dip (see Figs. 60 to 73). It is the practice to plot a general plan of the 'underlay' a single sheet, showing each level in the mine, with of development, winzes, indicated and by all its on details and stopes, each being The idea of projecting plan raises, cross-cuts, characteristic marking. on a single plane, as attempted occasionally, and is never done by those familiar with the principles of mine mapping. The scheme of mapping each level separately, each level map drawn to a certain datum, is an excellent one, and tracings of these several level maps may be made, which admits of binding them together permanently or temporarily. The lines showing the several levels may then be examined simultaneously by placing the sheets one above another, and the relative position of the workings on adjacent levels studied. ^ By plotting all the development work, and also the structural is vertical section unsatisfactory, geological features (such as changes in character of rocks through which the workings pass, the dip of the formation, all dikes inter- secting the workings, cross-veins, seams, faults, gether with their strike and dip) the , and gouges, maps may be made to- to serve The breaks in the vein, which occur on any particular level, may be referred to levels above and below, as may any other geological irregularities which may occur. The lack of just this sort of knowledge has sometimes resulted in their greatest usefulness. closing mines subsequently proved to be valuable. Never, perhaps, is an accurate mine map appreciated so greatly upon the reopening of a long abandoned property. Such mines are usually flooded, and when new work is undertaken, as connecting with works of an adjoining property, or sinking a new as shaft to be connected with the' old workings, the element of danger which attends such operations, owing to large volumes of water in the old works, is reduced to a minimum. The manager knows how far he is from the old levels or stopes, and can anticipate imminent danger and provide against it. Accurate maps are also of great service in searching for new by their use a comprehensive idea of the entire vein ore shoots, as be obtained, for a glance at the map places the development thousand feet, possibly, immediately under the eye, and the relations of the various portions of the mine become may of several apparent. » Survey in Practical Geology. Bui. A.J.M. E., Aug., 1909. A MANUAL OF UNDERGROUND SURVEYING 136 Laws Affecting Mine Surveys — The requirements of the law with reference maps vary somewhat in the different States, but those in Pennsylvania. to mine ^ the anthracite region of Pennsylvania are probably as rigid as anywhere, and are therefore given. 'Sec. 1. The owner, operator, or superintendent of every coal mine or colliery shall make, or cause to be made, an accurate map or plan of the workings or excavations of such coal mine or colliery on a scale of 100 feet to the inch, which map or plan shall exhibit the workings or excavations in each and every seam of coal, and, the tunnels and passages connecting with such workings or excavations. It shall state in degrees the general inclination of the strata with any material deflection therein in said workings or excavations, and shall also state the tidal elevations of the bottom of each and every shaft, slope, tunnel, and gangway, and of any other point in the mine or on the surface, where such elevation be deemed necessary by the inspector. The map or plan show the number of the last survey station and date of each survey on the gangways or the most advanced workings. It shall, also, accurately show the boundary lines of the lands of the said coal mine or colliery, and the proximity of the workings thereto, and in case any mine contains water dammed up in any part thereshall shall of, it shall be the duty of the owner, operator, or superintendent to cause the true location of the said on said map dam to be accurately marked or plan, together with the tidal elevation, inclination and area of said workings containing water and whenever any workings or excavations are approaching the workings, where of strata, such dam ; or water is contained, or situated, the owner, operator, or superintendent shall notify the inspector of the delay. same without A true copy of which map or plan the said owner, operator, or superintendent shall deposit with the inspector of mines for the district in which the said coal mine or colliery is situated, showing the workings of each seam, if by the inspector, on a One copy of the said map or so desired separate sheet of tracing muslin. plan shall be kept at the colliery. 'Sec. 2. The said owner, operator, or superintendent shall as often as once in every six months, place or cause to be placed, on 1 From 'Examination Questions', p. 30, International Text-book Co. ORDINARY MINE-SURVEY OR COMPOSITE MAP From the Transacliom vol. of the A.I. M. £,• xxxvi, pp. 508-540. FIG. 60. •CAUE 40 —t t^ M 9JA38 qAM 3TI8O1M00 aO Y3VHU8-akllM •oa .on YflAHiaflO .0t'S-80a .qq ,ivxj:ie .5«w SURFACE MAP SCALE 40 =1 t= 0> 3JA38 «IAM tOA^ftU^ 40 FT. LEVEL B LCfiCND J3V3J .T^ 0* OMadjj 120 FT. LEVEL jgv3J .T^asr 1 60 FJ. LEVEL J3V3J .n oar 200 FT: LEVEL J3V3J Tl OQS VERTICAL SECTION ON LINE 1 am?-; LCGFND foot-waLl ore HANGING-WAUL f amj i/io moiToas jAOiXfiav l'^^- ^s ^°' .V8 \aji\ .i\ 004 .Ol'i aM3D3J JJAIW-aMIOllAM 3P0 JJAW-TOOT VERTICAL SECTION ON LINE 200 ft 2 leve^^^ CST^ \ C%. C FIG. 68. V S ai^lJ klO --^^>., HOITaif JA0ITfl3 .fAl^'.'.^^^\^w\ o .80 .oil VERTICAL SECTION ON LINE 3 e 3HU no yioiToaa jAOiTnav — I S\3 Data furnished by gineer. and B. may be C. W. absolutely correct, the assistant now Goodale, manager, and Lee Hayes, chief en- A MANUAL OF UNDERGROUND SURVEYING 198 standing at C, and reads the angles, measures the distance, and checks the point on line at D. The two surveys must agree, or the work must be done over. While the transit takes the transit, still driven on the inside of the shaft at the same elevation as the telescope the distance is measured down from the known elevation of the station or tag at £ to a horizontal line stands at C, a nail is ; from the down carried From the nail in the shaft, by tape measurement. telescope. the elevations are the shaft >h^^M^^= FIG. The F is FE is transit is 79. — TAKING MERIDIAN FROM WIRES. E and the angle between C and assistant. The course from which can now be calculated the now moved to read, doubled, and checked the known course, course between the wires A by the B. • Meanwhile, on the level where the courses are sought, another surveyor and assistant are 'taking off' the line from the wires by exactly the same process as that described above. If only one surveyor and one assistant work, they can be lowered through the centre compartment. Two transits are, however, always used for no space for the transit at C, the compartment B is planked over and the wire suspended at G while the transit is set at B. This gives a distance of about 7 feet between the wires. Two wires in one compartment have not given good results and that method is not used. this work. In case there is 11897 L D*E) : 3rd Floor (jin D E 10-06 2nd Floor A. 843 11899 D 7r 1st Floor 11899 if — . \>-^ ) are mapped f ron survey and stopes Lre carried up abc ve FIG. 80. 9 X A.S28 Dr.E, A.828 Dr.W. Bill set u u them. — STOPE-BOOK wn Sill SKETCHES FOR VEIN WITH ONE BEND. : A MANUAL OF UNDERGROUND SURVEYING 200 18 copper wire is used with 11- or 12-pound iron These have been used through 1200 feet of depth. The stations are marked by brass tags (I, Fig. 46) attached to the timber or plug. The stations are numbered consecutively from 1 to 99,999 or more. Several hundred tags are stamped at once, then one 100 is used in one mine, another 100 in the next, etc. No duplicates are used. The tags are used by number in order of survey, but with no reference to position in the mine. The transit is set up under the plumb-bob. Angles are read to the Number weights. and doubled for check. Loose-leaf notes are used. Following is a sample on page 201. The heading shows the place of work, names, the surveyor and 'C. 10738 'gives page where the assistant, followed by the date. calculations were made; L. 5439' gives page where notes were copied in the ledger. In the ledger are found courses, coordinates and elevations, besides the written field notes. The notes are in order from the beginning to the end of each book, so that dates and station numbers are in order. Each place in which a survey is made is indexed in the front of the book as right, ' well as in the ledgers. shows the stope-book sketches for the level and three above the level of a vein with one bend. The notes for the survey lines on the sill floor are as follows Fig. 80 floors A 825 Dr. E. Line for Timbers. 8/9/06. Aber-Kane. Vert. H.I. Ang. R. Transit Courses Ang. Mag. and True ^ Slope and H. Hor. P •Sf^ Debcbiftion Dist. Dist. 8286 B. S. 8240 273° 24' 26.68 186° 48' S.32°68'E, 15.20 2.2 from To nail centre last cap. N. post. 9.50 2.3 from N. post. A 828 Drift 8240 108° 11' W. 11/14/06. S. N.42°W. 216° 22' N.20°2'W. timbers. Abbr & Julian To 10032 B. Round 29.50 10032 E. side centre cap. To nail centre E. side cap. Bend is 10032. at No. METHODS OF VARIOUS ENGINEERS ^ 201 116111 FIG. 81. — STOPE-BOOK 9686 SKETCHES OF VEIN WITH TWO BENDS. METHODS OF VARIOUS ENGINEERS Fig. 81 shows the field-book sketches of a vein 203 and stope with two bends. Fig. 82 shows the office maps as constructed from the above notes. Field stope-books are on a scale of 20, 30, 40, and 50 feet to 1 inch. The 30 or 40 is found best for most 4, 6, 8, and 10 spaces, or 16, 36, the heavy lines. divided into inside veins. 64, Inches are and 100 square Steel tapes of 25-, 100-, and 250-feet lengths are used for measurements. Maps are to the scale of 1 inch to 50 feet, drawn upon paper 18x46 inches. This size represents a double page in the large stope-books, in which all floors of all workings in the mines are mapped. Angles are platted by coordinates. The extensions of workings are tinted by water color; a different color for each year. United States Coal and Coke Cg.^ In ordinary flat work, the party consists of three men, but on steep work, of five. The Y-level and 5i-inch engineers' transit are the instruments used. The meridian is determined by observation on Polaris, and carried unde'rground through drift The by traverse. stations are spads (n. Fig. 46) driven into a coal or slate a bored hole. marked on and on rib marked by a circle, a point on curve by a triangle and a bench-mark by a square. The system of numbering is the same as that used in railroad roof, or in by white Stations are lead or Spanish whiting. lines, i.e., roof A transit-point is 48 -f 00.6. is made under the plumb-bob, and sight is made on plumb-bob string backed by a piece of white paper with lamp behind it. The method of continuous azimuth is used. Set-up ' Survey methods furnished by Mr. Howard N. Eavenson, chief engineer. 27 26 27 26 27 S) 39 4th Floor 3rd Floor 28 28 : METHODS OF VARIOUS ENGINEERS The company and specimen page issues a letter field-notes to its surveyoi-s. 205 This is given in -f full (Fig. 83) of as follows + + + i/A' If 'm - if CT •cA •n/i k1s.»»i |8S|o 2 1 [I (It H n •u/: >L_li. S ij* SI *I i| If SI yjjjjjjjj.i. ST II II u Ch O In ^iwjw. 5. !,/., ^11 All Booms 0] . No. ia=oo°oo'Kt. thle Butt except No. 18=73°19'lit. FIG. 83. — SPECIMEN = N. 42°ll'w. K. 59°22'W. PAGE OF FIELD-NOTES. 'United States Coal and Coke Company Method of Recording Mine Suevey Notes 'Gary, 'In room notes, draw a of each survey, as at A, B, etc., W. Va., August 19, 1903. each room for face at date and record survey letter for each line" across A MANUAL OF UNDERGROUND SURVEYING 206 The date of survey, with survey letter after it, must be written at top of page (as A, July 5, 1922). Consecutive letters, A, B, C, etc., are to be used for consecutive quarterly surveys, beginning in each mine when first rooms are turned. For intermediate surveys, use dates, and no letters. Note all Enough distances as being total from transit-point in heading. measurements must be taken to show clearly the shape of the excavation; they must be taken to side of heading at mouth of rooms, to end of necks of rooms, to first point where rooms reach full width, to near side of all cut-throughs, to faces of rooms at date of survey, and in general, to all points where directions of sides Allow sufficient space to show rooms and pillars of rooms change. room, as at A. clearly, so that figures, dates, etc., are In making draw-back ' hatching; thus: line, not obscured. use a broken line and widely spaced illlllllllllH the full regular surveys, as at mark ^.nd back from the centre of heading on room some date (or letter) for recording date of drawn distance pillar (see sketch) draw-back Use . line as for C 'In heading notes, draw a line for face of heading, and mark Measure and record distances right and left to the sides of headings and rooms at points not greater than 25 feet apart, and less where decided changes of width take place. date clearly at this line. 'These same notations, including lines for face, at date of marked across headings and rooms must be used on all survey, mine maps. The letters are to be at faces of rooms and are to correspond with date of last survey as marked on map, and placed January 4, 1923, A). Dates instead of letters are to be used for faces of headings. 'AH rooms are to be turned by angles from transit-line in after this date; thus: (date of last survey headings, to be recorded in notes (see Fig. 100). Records are to be made of both transit and ' room notes. 'Chief Engineer.' 1 Tapes of 100 to the scale of long as may 1 and 300 Maps are made upon paper 58 inches wide and as The main lines are platted by co- feet in length are used. inch to 100 feet, be necessary. ordinates and extensions by steel protractors reading to minutes. Blue-prints are taken quarterly. Figs. 84 and 85, show maps of workings and workings projected All headings, rooms, etc., are driven on line sights. in advance. ' Methods used in Rocky Mountain collieries. M. & M., Sept. 1909. ; . .ussy!:- >-T--^n .. -^ y.) No. 5 ^.. -. v \;\\ p . r Bum y,-x.^ \\ .-^m Headings \i ir~i-r FIG. 84. — MAP OF WORKINGS OF COAL MINE. A MANUAL OP UNDERGROUND SURVEYING 208 HOMESTAKE At the Homestake Mining Company's property, Lead, South Dakota, the underground party consists of the transit man and two helpers. The meridian is determined by Polaris or by direct sun observations. The side telescope is used, but for vertical The regulation plumbazimuth underground are employed. Number 20 or 22 copper or brass wire is used. The azimuth is taken off underground by setting the transit up in the plane of the two wires and then lining in the plumb-line notches in spadS. To hold the plumb wires steady, fifteen- or twenty-pound cast-iron weights are immersed in cans of water, usually five-gallon oil cans. Stations are plug and triangular-notched spads,and are not marked, the notes and sketch being sufficient to identify them. The underground stations are not numbered, but surface stations each carry a number. sighting on short base methods line it is not relied upon. for carrying The set-up is generally made over a point (nail) carried to the Where necessary, the instrument is set up under a plumb- floor. In low openings, the instrument bob. is sometimes used without tripod. Deflection angles are read and checked, and courses afterward referred to azimuth. Notes are kept on Upon blue. 4^x6 inch cards ruled 8 to an inch in light these, a sketch of the deflected angle and length Side notes are taken work done is made and the upon the sketch. of course written by radiating side-shots to points around are carried through the headers and to shaft-stations and bench-marks made. irregular openings. Levels principal Measurements are made with 100- or 400-foot steel tapes. are to the scale of 50 or 100 feet to 1 inch and upon paper Maps X 100 inches in size. The principal courses are platted by and departure, but unimportant side-shots by protractor. Extensions of the survey are shown upon the map by dotting new outlines and erasing the old lines of stope margin. Blue-prints of 60 latitude special sections are taken as required. Stopes are surveyed by counting square sets from some reference point. Regular cross-section paper, as near the scale of working is used to sketch the sets and outline of map as can be procured, each floor of the stope. FIG. 85. — MAP OF WORKINGS AND PROPOSED EXTENSIONS. A MANUAL OF UNDERGROUND SURVEYING 210 No record of samples or assays is made on a map. This record is kept by the Sampler in his record-book by name of stope or drift. The inclination of the drill-rods in bore-holes is taken and ' ' azimuth of bore found by plumbing points to the are measured for depth. A The rods floor. Quick Vertical Shaft Survey ' 'This article deals with the method I have used for fifteen years making quick and accurate surveys of various vertical shafts in Amador and other counties along the Mother Lode of California. 'The essential features of the method are the use of heavy plummet lines and "bobs" hanging free while being set, but in securely fastened while observations are being taken. illustrate the operation of this that of July 6, method by citing I can best an actual case, my survey of the Oneida vertical shaft in six hours on 1902. This main working shaft of the mine was sunk 1000 feet east of the outcrop and intersected the vein, which dips to the 1900 feet, below the surface. The vein was then being worked through six levels at 1200, 1500, 1700, 1800, 1900, and 2000 feet, vertically below the collar of the shaft. east, 'The adverse conditions under which this survey was made A very wet shaft, through which water literally poured in torrents; a shaft distorted and narrowed by swelling ground at the 1800-foot level, and a shaft with an excessive number of working levels into each of which the survey had to be tied from one hanging of the plumb-bobs and as quickly as was consistent with good work, so as to interfere as little as possible with the regular operation of the mine and the use of the shaft. 'To overcome these adverse conditions, two large-sized (numwere: ber 12 gauge) soft-drawn iron wires were suspended in the centre compartment of the shaft, with a 125-pound plumb-bob attached to each, less than one foot below the 2000-foot level, the wires from the surface with the bobs attached, through notches At the 2000-foot station, opposite each wire, a template, made from a piece of candle-box, was so placed and fastened with a wire nail at one end that the free end could be swung or moved to or from the wire in a horizontal direction practically in line with sliding in plank. ' Written by 1906. W. E. Downs, for the Mining and Scientific Press, August 25, METHODS OF VARIOUS ENGINEERS both wires. loosely By 211 the interposition of a small piece of upon each template, with its wood laid end projecting over, and in contact with, the advancing side of the oscillating wire, the latter was brought to rest after the retardation of a very few oscillations. The position of rest was then carefully marked on the template. As the oscillations diminished, the template was brought closer to the wire until finally, when the latter was at rest, the template was brought in contact with it and nailed in place. The wire was then fastened to the template from underneath, in the position of permanent rest. 'Seven settings with a transit were made, one at each station and one at the collar of the shaft, all in the same vertical plane. In each instance the instrument was set, by the "cut and try" method, as near the nearest wire as the minimum focal distance (about six feet) of the telescope would permit, with a lighted candle beyond the farther wire. When in this position, the be focused on either wire and accurately adjusted The to the exact plane of both; this was done in each instance. slightest sidewise tremor of either wire, which neither lasted long nor caused serious delay, was readily detected. From each setting wire nails wero accurately centred on line and driven into solidly placed track ties, plugs, timbers, or planks, and steel-tape measurements to the nearest hundredth of a foot made to locate all in the same vertical plane. them with reference to the wires Subsequently, from these nails, courses were extended by deflection throughout each level and to the previously established surface boundaries and all necessary measurements made, whereby the in range telescope may — position of each point, or instrument-station, in the whole sys- tem was determined with reference to every other point. these data the entire system From was accurately mapped and the field-notes tabulated for future reference, so that the survey could be extended and mapped as development work progressed. ' In this survey the horizontal distances between plummet-wire centres were respectively: 2.43 feet at the collar, 2.44 feet at the and 2.45 feet at the 2000-foot level. The divergence downward is due to but one cause, which is purely gravitational. The mass of rock that would have to be in place between the wires to have them hang parallel, or, more theoretically 1200-foot level, of these wires to converge toward the centre course the wires came to of the earth, rest, was absent, and of diverging slightly downward. : A MANUAL OF UNDERGROUND SURVEYING 212 Drafts and falling water in the shaft do not have any effect upon the sum total of this .divergence, although they do create tremors and also operate to check the same. In contrast with the hard-drawn piano-wire method of hanging ' bobs of necessarily light weight in molasses or some other viscous liquid, this method has no equal; it is quick and reliable, it has proved so to my entire satisfaction in numerous instances where I have made surveys for underground connections. A plummet line of large-sized soft-drawn wire has two decided advantages over one of small-sized hard-drawn wire; they are as ' follows 'First. In the process of hanging wire, strains are absolutely removed by all kinks and internal stretching, leaving the wire perfectly straight, a condition impossible with hard-drawn wire wherein kinks and strains are left, subjecting the wire to local wobbles nearly as great as the diameter of the wire itself. 'Second. As external disturbances, due to drafts and falling water, are of a magnitude proportionate to the exposed surface of the wire, and as the strength of a wire is proportional to the square and therefore to the square of its exposed suralthough a hard-drawn wire is stronger per unit of of its circumference face, it is plain, than a soft-drawn wire, that if the difference in enough, a large soft-drawn wire is better adapted to cross-sectional area size is great withstand said disturbances than a small hard-drawn wire. The so-called advantage of being able to bisect a small-sized wire with the vertical cross-hair of the instrument better than a large-sized wire is first advantage. in practice a myth, particularly when contrasted with our 'The bobs must be symmetrically made, preferably of solid shafting accurately turned in a lathe and centred with an eye at one end to receive the plummet wire. This wire must be a continuation, when suspended, of the axis of the bob, so that there will be no local wobbles in the wire when the bob revolves, which it will do to a small extent.' A Method ' for the Survey of a Some time ago old mine workings, Wet Mine-Shaft i the writer, while engaged in the survey of some had occasion to devise a method By Mark Ehle, Jr., in for the carry- The Aurum, March, 1906. METHODS OF VARIOUS ENGINEERS 213 two adjacent levels via a short length of same representing such features as to render ing of a line between inclined shaft, the ordinary methods' of procedure inapplicable. Reference to the accompanying figure will make clear the conditions. 'The incline in question was the only available opening connecting the levels, and therefore had to be utilized. It had a length of some eighty feet, between levels, and dipped at an angle of about seventy-five degrees for the upper sixty feet, changing to a somewhat flatter angle throughout the remaining distance. It comprised one ladder and two hoisting compartments. The ladderway, while available for travel between levels, offered by its arrangement, serious, work at hand. if not insurmountable, obstructions to the The adjacent hoisting compartment was half having been used as an ore bin. The outer hoisting compartment, though open, presented its difficulties in the form of full of rock, descending water, which, falling in large quantities from the hanging side, dropped to the other, and in rebounding, filled the lower portion of the compartment with a heavy shower of descending drops. 'The traverse having progressed to the station P (Fig. 86) in made under this station, and by means of an auxiliary top telescope, a sight on the point B was defined by a pin-thrust through a plumb-line suspended from station H; the pin being rendered visible by a background of illuminated oiled paper, stretched over one end of a tin can, a candle flame within, thus being protected from the falling water. In order to prevent vibration of the line, due to the heavy drops of water striking it, some strips of old tin roofing were placed as a protection throughthe upper level, a set-up was out the greater portion of A satisfactory its length. B having been obtained, the necessary measurements of azimuth, slope distance, vertical angle, HI, etc., were taken. Going below, a set-up was now made under station H, the transit being protected from the falling water by an improvised tin roof. Through an opening in this roof a backsight on the plumb-line suspended from station P was attempted, but failed ' utterly, as sight any opening on in the roof, large enough to permit of dis- covering the plumb-line, admitted such quantities of water, in the form of spray, that not only the objective was blurred, but the cross-hairs instrument. were endangered by water entering the tube To add of the to the difficulty, the din of the falling water FIG. 86. — INCLINED SHAFT SURVEY BY BENT LINE. METHODS OF VARIOUS ENGINEERS 215 vetoed all attempts at vocal communication up or down the shaft; but by rappings on the old air pipe, which extended up the laddery/ay, a crude system of signals was arranged and used. Having a backsight by this method, the foland successfully used: A strong, waterproof fishing line was suspended from station P in such a manner that it would in any event define a plane with the plumb-line suspended from the same station. This silken cord was then passed down the incline and carried out into the lower level, being tem' failed to obtain lowing was devised porarily fastened to the old air-pipe running along the opposite A twelve-pound plumb-bob having been suspended from the cord at the point M, the lengths of cord on either were kept taut, and in any position, the lines of these side of lengths defined a plane containing the point P above. This two plane was then shifted by moving the lower point of attachment of the cord along the pipe to a point F which brought the lower length of cord exactly under the plumb-line suspended from H. Another small bob was now hung from a point G in the lower The point of this bob was centred over the small cord drift. stretched below, which was then removed to one side. 'The setting of the plumb-line at G in the manner described, side of the drift. M ' insured of its being in the same vertical plane of the plumb-lines H H from and P, and at once rendered a set-up under unnecessary; for, having the azimuth of the course A B, the azimuth of such a course as C D becomes identical with it, and a set-up under station D gives stations ' By all other information regarding the relative positions of H and G. the use of so heavy a bob at M, all vibration of the small cord was absorbed, and no difficulty from this source was experienced.' A ' Mining Survey ^ A high degree of accuracy is often required in mine-surveying, mining work may not be misdirected. The underground connections by drifts or shafts located as the result of surveys presents a crucial test of correctness not usually involved in any other class of surveying. In view of these in order that expensive making = ing, of Reprint of article August, 1900). by J. F. Wilkinson, Trans. A. I. M. E. (Canadian Meet- A MANUAL OF UNDERGROUND SURVEYING 216 and description of a survey made San Francisco shaft of the New Almaden considerations, the present notes in June, 1890, for the quicksilver mines, who may be of interest to members of the Institute are surveyors. 'The purpose of this survey was to locate on the surface a 2-compartment shaft (3.5X7 feet), to connect with another vertical shaft, of practically the same size, which had been sunk a number of years before from an adit-level about 240 feet vertically below the surface, to a deeper, so-called 600-foot level. It will be seen, of course, that the most important matter was to secure an exact coincidence in vertical line, so that the resulting continuous vertical shaft from the surface should have no offset or irregularity at the point of junction between its two parts. The levels were of less importance; but, as the hoisting- works were to be placed in position and the new shaft permanently timbered from the start, its correct alignment was an essential requirement. The important 'features of the work, therefore, were the methods used in determining with certainty: (1) That the shaft was located in the right place in a general way; (2) that the ordinary inaccuracies of linear and angular measurements were so reduced as to vertical insure correctness of location within certain defined limits. ' Instruments. — The instruments used were : and allowable a Buff and Berger transit-theodolite, with a 6-inch horizontal plate, reading to 10 seconds; a Heller and Brightly Y-level; a Chesterman graduated in tenths and hundredths of a foot; and leveling-rods, graduated to thousandths of a foot. steel tape, New York The leveling-rods and. tape were compared with a standard measurement, and the correction for each was ascertained. In ' of the case of the tape, the conditions for the standard were, that the pull should be 16 pounds; that the tape should lie horizontally on the ground; and that the temperature should be 70° Fahr. (this being the average temperature in the adit underground). Three corrections were thus actually necessary for each tape-measure- ment, viz. to reduce to the standard to correct for the catenary curve and to correct for difference in temperature. 'While the graduations on the tape were made to hundredths, : ; ; measurements, it was possible to estimate thousandths of a foot, thus making these readings correspond in minuteness with those obtainable on the leveling-rods. yet, in careful — METHODS OF VARIOUS ENGINEERS 'Of course, to do this underground, very fine fish-cord for it 217 was necessary to use plumb-lines; and, on the surface, measure- ments were made between small headless wire nails in stakes by means of the transit. Here the hypotenuse was thus obtained, while the vertical component was obtained by leveling; and from these the horizontal component was calculated in the usual manner. Underground measurements were made on a practically horizontal plane, by means of marks on plumblines previously aligned by the transit, and leveled. 'To correct for the catenary curve, the weight of the tape per previously aligned was ascertained, and the correction was calculated by the For a tape weighing 0.00725 pound per foot, with a pull of 16 pounds (exerted in all measurements by means of foot usual formula. spring-balances), the correction to be applied in 100 feet foot, and is 0.00855 in 50 feet only 0.00107 foot. 'For temperature, the correction in 100 feet for a difference of is 0.00069 foot. Most of the measurements in the adit 1° Fahr. were made at a temperature not varying appreciably from the assumed standard. On the surface, however, the temperature in some instances varied from the standard as much as 20° Fahr. 'In making the angular measurements, the greatest care was taken; and, by the most approved methods repeating angles, reversing the telescope, reading both from right to left and from — to right, etc. left — possible instrumental errors, unavoidable all and pei-sonal errore of observation, were were read at least twice and in some cases as many as four readings of ten repetitions each were taken. The number of times each angle was read, and the number of repetitions in each case, are shown in column 4 of Table I. By the means thus employed, the angular measurements were made certainly correct errors of adjustment, eliminated. All angles within one second. ; — In the preliminarj- survey, the mean of tape-measurements was taken. For the surface line, besides the tape-measurements, two sets of levels were also run. As to the surface line (Monument M. to Monument S. F.) it may be observed that neither monument was visible from the other; 'Preliminary Survey. two sets of , so that, in order to define the line, several settings of the transit at intermediate points were necessary. The different measurements reduced, the calculations made, and the results obtained in this the first complete^survey, are shown in Table I; and, for their •3^^ ? ng 0 oob-coou^ioxccousioneco + Is pes NW00O>O>OiOiOawOiOaoaos owiooo-^cob-co-Hweot^eOi-H OOiOOOT-HU3b.'*OO^i-iI>.T(iOO^ Oi-Hr-nOtHT}iNU3W»0«(NiCMiO od^-ll-^ojx'H^cl6^-^r-l^o6^- + •^"^ __ OS i I v;* I W > P cc I I I I I I I I I 1 I rHOlOSiHlCMOCOOlf. -OtNlON OJOJNTliM rH 0> i-H T-H M N T-H O o»co CDNCO O H (NOMOCO to CO t^'-' CO lO !•h- --I cOf-"OJ'-iO> O i > < d O 00 O PO »0 CO O ^- CO D rH OJ Tt< o 0 « CD O tJi "i* o th OS r* T^ tH OCO»OCOOO ooooot-i>eo O H ! i o« S « a n OtOCOCDcOCOCOIMC^ 0 gs p a u 3S ^ ^ ^ rH Tjl-^-^-^-^NNrHrH Ph ^ V bo s.s 1-^ IS am o 00**'-<001C«0 lOeow-^McoN lO IC CD 'J' «*o ioioioeo«"3W BihSftooSoi ISCOiHtJICOIo o o o O O O O O I cOt^t^" cQ^oicQaitzilz; ^^aiasMcoai K3 CD » V Hi 0^ ^ h ^ P o w w o A MANUAL OF UNDERGROUND SURVEYING 222 position of the originally located corner, C Wire Cor. Cj (called This was possible without fear of the wire touching the sides of the shaft, for the reason that the shaft had been made several inches wider and longer than the collar-set of the aditin the notes). shaft. To prevent oscillation, the plumb-bob was immersed mixture +'' in a of molasses and water. Then, having ascertained that the wire hung without freely touching the sides any of the shaft, or other objeiBt, at any point, its' position was instrumentally observed both at the surface and the 08,200 4-W- adit-level. Soath The co- ordinates thus ob- tained are shown in the tabulated notes. ^ f076-Ftt The > difference be- tween the two sets of coordinations is the error of the survey, and is shown both the preliminary and the checkin survey. ' FIG. 89. -POSITIONS OF { = ^'^^er c,. It must be said that the conditions under which the survey was made were most favorable for the surveyor. The two assistants employed were reliable and experienced in that class of work; and, as no mining was being done in that part of the mine at that time, there was neither tramming, blasting, powder-smoke, nor changeable draughts to interfere with observations or distract attention. On the surface, the atmosphere was clear and the air steady; and, during the first part of the survey, there was very Natural Scale: 1 Foot 1 Foot. METHODS OF VARIOUS ENGINEERS little ing wind. was 'In A sufficient length of time 223 was allowed, so that nothundue haste. slighted or overlooked on account of summary The means taken review, the special features to be noted are: (1) to insure the location of the shaft in the right place (two independent surveys and check-calculations); (2) the methods used to reduce the ordinary inaccuracies of survey within allowable limits; and also the practical demonstration, here given, of the accurate results attainable by the use of the usual surveying instruments and measuring apparatus, as described, when the most approved methods of observation are carried to the extreme, and neither time nor care is spared to make the results as nearly perfect as possible. 'Fig. 89, drawn to natural scale, illustrates the final result of the surveys. 'In this figure, the circle numbered 1, and completely filled with black, shows the position of Corner Ci Wire, as coordinated from the adit-level by first survey ; the open circle, numbered 2, that of Corner Ci Wire, as coordinated from the surface by first survey; the half-black circle, numbered 3, that of Corner Ci Wire, as coordinated from the adit-level by second survey; and circle numbered 4 (open, with a heavy horizontal diameter), that of Corner Ci Wire, as coordinated from the surface by second survey. 'By the location-survey the shaft was 0.007 foot too far south; and 0.007 foot too far east; by the check-survey, it was absolutely correct north and south, and 0.047 foot too far east. 'By averaging the two surveys, giving to the location-survey twice the importance or "weight" of the check-survey (because all of its measurements were made twice, while in the checksurvey some were made only once), we have the average error of the survey; the shaft thus being 0.0047— feet too far south, and 0.0203-1- feet too far east. 'This applies to the other three corners, as well as to Corner C XII EXAMINATION FOR COMMISSION AS MINERAL SURVEYOR This examination in U. DEPUTY S. Colorado consists of problems in calcula- tion of closing line in a twelve- or thirteen-sided placer, together with calculation of area by Double Meridian Distance Method, calculation of lode line to fit an irregular claim, calculation of ties, and areas an actual approved survey together A problem on the subdivision of a section of the public survey is usually added. The applicant is also required to determine a correct meridian from solar observation, and must do this with his own transit. There are, of course, other problems but they in no way differ from those numerous examples that have been given and explained in the course of this work. .A few examples will, however, be given in detail to illustrate special cases. One favorite problem which is of considerable importance is the one first mentioned above and intersections in with writing up a complete set of field-notes. is as follows: Placer Calculations. 1 to 13 of — Given: The courses and lengths of lines a certain placer (Fig. 90). It is desired to amend the making Cors. Nos. 2 and 12 identical survey with the corners of the survey, original the courses of lines 1-2 and Cor. No.l C E 12-13 to remain the same, and the course of line 13-1 to be S. FIG. 90. — MAP. OF PLACER LOCATION. 33° 34' placer area of 35 acres. to E., the contain new an Required, the lengths of lines 12-13 and 1-2. In figuring the missing course and distance of line 13-1, reference should be made to the latitudes and departures of courses 224 EXAMINATION FOR A COMMISSION 1 to 13, included in 225 computing the area by Double Meridian Dis- tances. The sum sum is found to be 2235.61, and the found to be 1401.16, which latter of the north latitudes of the south latitudes is subtracted from the north latitudes leaves a north latitude of In like manner subtracting the sum of the east departures, 834.45. 2466.42, from the sum of the west departures, 2701.97, leaves a west departure of 235.55. log log 834 45 235 55 . . log cot 15° 46' = = = 2 9214003 log log cos 15° 46' = = 2 9214003 2 3720831 867 07 = 2 9380554 . . . 5493172 Missing course In the triangle given as S. 15° 46' . . . 9 9833449 . . E. 867.07 feet. ABC draw AC parallel to DE, whose course is Line AB we have found to be S. 15°'46' E. S. 33° 34' E. 867.07 feet. = log 834 45 226 A MANUAL OF UNDERGROUND SURVEYING EXAMINATION FOR A COMMISSION A= 70° 21' 33° 34' C= 33° 34' 87° 19' 227 228 log A MANUAL OF UNDERGROUND SURVEYING 984.092 =5.986070 EXAMINATION FOR A COMMISSION The square log root of 1,094,678.12 1094668.12 = is 229 found as follows: 1046.21 984.09 62.12 A MANUAL OF UNDERGROUND SURVEYING 230 Calculation of Lode Line N. 30°E. Given the boundaries of a 300' claim, calculate a lode line paral- the to lel side and the lines, points at which the lode line in- end lines. No point on the lode line to be in excess of 150 feet from either side line. Lode line to be 1500 feet tersects the long. The boundaries are as fol- lows: Beginning at Cor. No. thence E. 702 thence S. 58° E. 800 to Cor. ft. No. 3; thence S. 30° W. 300 to Cor. No. 4; thence N. 58° 800 ft. to Cor. No. 5; thence 702 ft. ft. to Cor. No. place of beginning. which shows 1, neces- conditions S. 30° FIG. 800 + — MAP W. 300' OF LODE CLAIM. a + 702 - c 1502 + a-c c — a = = = end drawn is The parallel to the lines in the triangle sides are a, b, and 1500 a sin 88° sin 60° - a = 2 o sin 60° = 2 sin 60° sin 60° a sin 88° ^ 2 sin 60° _ sin 88° sin 60° = 0.86603 log 2 73206 log 1 sin 88° sin 60° = = . 99939 0.86603 13336 . . whose c. 1500' 2 log the (See Fig. 91, sarily greatly exaggerated.) 91. ft. W. W. to Cor. No. 6; thence N. 30° E. 300 side b 1, to Cor. No. 2; ft. - 1.73206= . 60° sin 0.238698 = - 1 125025 12.99 = 1.113673 13336 . EXAMINATION FOR A COMMISSION 231 In the triangle whose side a we have found to be 12.99, the and c are found as follows: sides b sin 60°: 12.99 sin 60°: 12.99 log = = 12.99 log sin 32° colog sin 60° log sin 32°: ? sin 88°: ? = 1.113673 = 9.724210 = 0.062469 7.95=0.900352 60° = = = 1.113673 9.999735 0.062469 14.99 = 1.175877 12.99 log log sin 88° colog sin log == 1500 = lode line. 687.01 812.99 A MANUAL OF UNDERGROUND SURVEYING 232 Multiplying the side we LD (157.95) by the sine of the angle L, 60°, get the distance of the lode line from line 5-6, which is 136.80 feet. & FIG. 93. — MAP \, W. 300 — Give the boundaries of a section determine the boundaries of the S. E. \ of the N. W. Subdivision of Section. (Fig. 92) to 88 30 OF LODE CLAIM SHOWING CONFLICTING CLAIMS. the S. i of the N. E. \ and the N. E. \ of the S. E. J sections. S. 86° 17' E. 5735.7 3°33'30"W. 5439.2 N. 78° 43' 30" W. 2792.8 N. 89° 28' 30" W. 2759.46 N. feet. feet. feet. feet. S. 1° 19' E. 2812.1 feet. S. 0°58' E. 2817.4 feet. — General Figuring. In Fig. 93 we have an example of a problem given the writer in his examination for a commission as EXAMINATION FOR A COMMISSION 233 United States Deputy Mineral Surveyor. Given the data shown in the figure, calculate boundaries of St. Louis Lode (cutting off at intersection of end line with Sur. No. 8556 Denver Lode), section and conflicts in each case, improvements. Then write up the notes, giving imaginary bearings from corners and imaginary dimensions to improvements. Do not exclude Surs. Nos. 8733 and 8853, New York and Chicago lodes, and state why. Following is a partial list of questions asked South Dakota.^ in South Dakota: 1. I run 360 feet on a descent of 1 foot in 15 feet, thence 240 feet on an ascent of 11° from the horizontal, thence 400 feet on a tie directly, ties to conflicting claims, also ties to — ' 1 foot in 16 feet, thence 250 feet up an ascent of 35°. 'Required total horizontal distance, also difference of level of the initial and terminal points. State a full solution with sketch. '2. From initial point I run S. 12° E. 650 feet, and am inter- descent of From cepted by a pond. sufficient to- clear 650-foot point I run S. 82° E., a distance S. 28° W. 420 feet to flag on line in pond, thence advance of pond, then S. 12° E. 460 feet to terminal point. 'Required the length of line from initial to terminal point. State a full solution with sketch. '3. I run S. 38° E. and at 380 feet turn off a base N. 82° E. feet, from the eastern extremity of which a flag on line in advance of river bears S. 8° E. 'What is the distance of flag from initial point? State a full 520 solution of sketch. Course No. 2 of Delta mining claim is broken into by a rock To obtain the bearing unfavorable to accurate chainage. bluff, and length of this line, I run from one extremity on a random line '4. W. to a point which from the data so far obtained I find to be on my S. 28° E. 610 feet, thence N. 82° E. 260 feet, thence S. 12° random line; thence I continue the first random 340 and arrive at a point from which the other extremity No. 2 bears feet further of said course S. 62° W., 110 feet distant. the bearing and length of course No. 2? What angle from the course S. 12° W. in order to line in with the State a full solution with sketch. first random? 5. The two extremities of a straight line forming a portion of 'What do is I deflect ' These questions were kindly furnished by South Dakota. I Prof. Mark Ehle, Rapid City, : A MANUAL OF UNDERGROUND SURVEYING 234 the boundary of a mining claim are not conveniently accessible, but a convenient base can be had, from each extremity of which both extremities of said boundary can be seen. '1st. Illustrate this '2d. State the condition with sketch. measurements, both linear and angular, which are absolutely essential to a solution. and '3d. State briefly the trigonometric solution their respective purposes, with their respective formulae. '4th. Trace the process to a final resulting course and distance. A numerical ' 6. example is not asked. State a convenient formula applicable to what is known as a "broken base," using the number of minutes in the deflection angle of the second component. ' 7. Given the following consecutive courses of a mining claim From From From From From = S. 3, = N. 4, = N. 5, = ? 1, = N. Cor. No. 1 to Cor. No. 2, 28° 40' Cor. No. 2 to Cor. No. 70° 30' Cor. No. 3 to Cor. No. Cor. No. 4 to Cor. No. Cor. No. 5 to Cor. No. Required bearing '1st. of line W. 503 W. 476 9° 35' E. 79° 50' E. feet; feet; 485 feet; 343 feet; feet; ? 4-5 and length of line 5-1. '2d. If the line 5 by actual survey — 1 is of all the sides, N. 79° 55' E. 395 feet, state it is found that a traverse show- ing the closing errors; then '3d. Balance the survey on the assumption that the measurements have equal weights. 4th. Deduce the resulting courses and distances of the ' closing survey for record. '5th. method Compute the area of D. M. D. of the figure so enclosed State full by the solution with sketch. '8. An incline descends on a dip of 30°. It is determined to sink a shaft to intercept incline, the shaft, to be at a point 450 feet from mouth of incline; the descending at a rate of 1 'How deep will the shaft be? 9. What is azimuth? ' surface from foot in 75. mouth to shaft : EXAMINATION FOR A COMMISSION 235 Observe Polaris at greatest elongation at a place in Apparent of the star is 88° 44' 10". 'What is the star's azimuth? State the formula and whole process. 'What are the two hour angles corresponding to eastern and ' 10. latitude 45° 30' N. ' western elongations respectively, counting from culmination, round with the sun to 24 hours, and their equivalents in mean solar time? example the star is observed at eastern magnetic bearing at that instant is N. 13°"20' W. 'What is the magnetic declination? 'Is it to be called East or West? '11, If in the last elongation and ' its State process and reason therefor. Revised Statutes (2320) limit lode claims located after May 10, 1872, to 300 feet on each side of the middle of the vein at the surface; suppose you were called upon to make an official survey of such a location under order from this office, and found it to be 350 feet on each side of the middle of the vein at the surface, and you found nothing in the location certificate to dictate to the contrary, what would be your action in respect to such a Suppose such a location was 200 feet on one location? Why? side of the vein and 400 feet on the other, what would your action '12. S. Why? be? A lode claim located since May 10, 1872, shows a length 1529 feet along the centre of the vein at the surface. What ' of U. 13. would be your action in this case? Why? 14. The boundaries of a lode location have the following consecutive courses, namely: ' W. 800 W. 600 80°W. 90 62° W. 200 'S. 42° feet; 22° feet; 'S. 'N. 'S. feet; feet; 'N. 22° E. 600 feet; 'N. 42°E. 800 feet; 'N. 62° E. 190 feet; thence to place of beginning. 'What would your action be on this location if required to make an official survey? Why? '15. I run N. 89° 56' W. on a random line between Sees. 30 and 31, and at 73.20 chains intersect the west boundary of town- A MANUAL OF UNDERGROUND SURVEYING 236 ship at a point 22 links north of the corner of Sees. 25, 30, 31, and 36. ' 1st. What is the course of the return or true Hne? The position of the J section corner? '3d. State a short rule for obtaining the return course in '2d. these cases, applicable when the fallings are within limits, and- apply to the above case. ' 16. An order to officially survey a mineral claim is issued to you from this office under date March 12, 1900; said order is based upon a location certificate dated January 10, 1899. Upon proceeding with survey, you find the location as marked on the ground does not conform to the location as recorded, and upon informing your client to that effect, he provides you with a certified amended certificate of location dated March 30, 1900. 'What action would you take in the matter of survey? 17. Describe fully your instrument, stating its make, age and condition; also its capabilities as to power, illumination and graduation, and its attachments of convenience for safe and ' accurate work. 'What measure of length have you? your telescope has a level, state briefly in writing, how you would adjust it and the horizontal hair. ' 18. If '19. The usual method transit for collimation, may for adjusting the vertical hair in a or may not place that hair truly in the In a well-constructed instrument the disbe small; in such case what sensible effect has this centre of the telescope. placement will displacement upon observations, seeing that the motion of the slide will not project this hair truly along the axis of the telescope? '20. It is required that direct solar observation. you determine the true meridian by You will make the observation in the who will then furnish you with a copy of From the data then at hand you will presence of the examiner, the nautical almanac. make necessary calculations, handing in the same complete. In Latitude 30° N. the sun's decHnation 20° S. with hour all '21. angle 5 hours; the refraction in declination to is 8' 50". Assuming no index error, which would be the correct reading set off on the declination are, proper for the above date? '22. In latitude 44° N. the hour angle of the sun 6 hours, I ' : EXAMINATION FOR A COMMISSION start a line due north by solar; but find after running a mile in the course so started that I have set off 'What is the nature and 237 6' amount too much latitude. of error in course thus in- duced? ' above the hour angle If in the and amount is 3 hours, what is the nature of error? If the latitude is correctly set off, but instead of a declination of 10° S. I set off 10° 10' S., the hour angle of the sun being 3 ' hours, what then is the nature and amount of the error thus introduced? 'State, if you can, the cases.' differential formulae applicable to these — California.^ The customary manner of appointment in this and the adjoining states is as follows: The surveyor who wishes an appointment, makes application ' to the Surveyor-General, detailing his qualifications. This ap- with the recommendation from some Deputy Mineral Surveyor of good standing within that district, is then forwarded to the Surveyor-General's office, and in due time the appointment is made. The customary filing of the bonds completes the appointment of the U. S. Deputy. 'If the deputy desire an appointment in any other state or territory, I have found that a recommendation from the Surveyorplication, together General of the state in which the original appointment was made all that was necessary to obtain a commission in any addi- was Of course new and separate bonds must each state or territory in which commission is held.' Oregon.^ The examination in Oregon is about as follows tional state or territory. be filed for '1. rulings, — Fifteen or twenty questions covering the Land Office the proper markings for corners of government land surveys, the methods of taking latitude the maximum number and mill site, by the sun and Polaris, of acres allowed in quartz claim, placer, kind of corners which may be set in making patent surveys, and various details of procedure in executing such surveys. Given the notes of a quartz claim (metes, bounds, and and the location of the same, make out notes and preliminary This requires the same plat of same as if surveyed for patent. '2. ties) Kindness of Henry J. Jory, Los Angeles, California. G. Moulton, U. S. Deputy Mineral Surveyor, Grant's Pass, Oregon. - 2 From H. : A MANUAL OF UNDERGROUND SURVEYING 238 work to be done that a work his office Deputy would have making out to do in of such a survey. Given the plat of the locations of four claims forming one group, and overlapping each other, with a section corner located on one of the centre ones (this plat is furnished by the SurveyorGeneral), make out notes of a survey for U. S. patent of the group, with plat, calculations, etc. The claims are given on the plat furnished as longer than 1500 feet and wider than 600 feet, ' 3. so there limits is a test of ability in getting them within the required and at the same time not leave any An instrumental examination. fractions. Applicant is required to take a transit and determine latitude and meridian by sun and '4. upon an established meridian, and also to report number of points whose bearing Polaris, checking the courses from a given point to a is known. 'Parts 2 and 3 are severe tests of applicant's ability, and the examination as a whole aim is an exceedingly thorough one. It is the men of the state as way a fair one and free of the office to get the best available and the examination is in every from "catch" questions.' While this is all the information that the writer has been able to obtain on the subject of examinations for commission as U. S. Deputy Mineral Surveyor, it is safe to say that in no state is the examination more difficult than in Colorado or Oregon. If the applicant is able to pass the examination in either of these two states, the chances are that he will be able to pass in any state where an examination is held. deputies, Problems cal ^ The following are suggested in order to teach the student graphiand trigonometric methods for solving mine-surveying problems Problems involving descriptive geometry to determine the intersections of veins, the location of openings to cut intersections of veins In and to locate openings when veins are faulted. certain assumptions must be made: all c9,ses (a) Except in Problems 4 and be a horizontal plane. 'From L. E. Young's Engineer, May, 1904. "A Study of 8, the surface is assumed to Mine Surveying Methods,' in Iowa EXAMINATION FOR A COMMISSION 239 Veins are assumed to be planes of uniform dip. Interassumed to be straight lines. Except in (&) sections of veins are (6) Problem 3, thickness of veins is not considered. Shafts on veins will be straight but inclined. (d) Except where the grade is specified, tunnels are assumed of (c) horizontal, also drifts. Dimensions of shafts and tunnels should not be considis, openings are considered to be straight lines. (/) All inclined shafts to be the shortest possible except in Problem 8. (e) ered ; that Problem (a) veins. (Fig. 94) Locate vertical shaft on line 'a-6' to cut intersection of Find depths of shaft and distance on a-b from ' A '. ' FIG. (b) 1 At Find pitch 94. — PROBLEMS. 300' from 'A' on 'a-b' of inclined shaft ' is a vertical shaft 200' deep. and distance on incline from bottom of shaft to intersection of veins. Draw to scale 1" = 300'. Take ground line E. and W. Problem 2 (a) Locate vertical shaft to cut intersection of veins. Find depth of shaft and the distance and bearing point to sink, from o '. '0' vertical shaft is sunk to cut vein EF. From this (6) At ' ' A MANUAL OF UNDERGROUND SURVEYING 240 is sunk on EF to cut intersection of the three Find depth of vertical shaft, also bearing and length of point inclined shaft veins. incline, also the pitch of inclined shaft. Draw to scale 1" = 300'. Take Problem (a) ground strike of 'a-b' as line. 3 Locate by distance from 'o' point on 'a-b' to sink shaft. This shaft inclined and the shortest possible to cut intersection of veins. Find length, pitch, and bearing of shaft. (b) Call intersection 'r'. Part bounded by 'xor' is ore. Taking xor as mean section and 6' as average thickness, compute No. tons of ore. Heaviness = 170 pounds per cu. ft. Find length ' ' oi 'or' 'xr Draw '. to scale 1" = 300'. Take strike oi'cd' as G. Problem 4 (a) Horizontal distance from tunnel mouth to outcrop of vein (elevation 11745'.9), N. 30° E. and dips 63° to the NW. is Tunnel (elevation 9653'), 6000'. is Vein strikes driven N. 25° W. Find length of tunnel to cut vein. What depth on vein; will tunnel cut vein knowing that 1700' NE. from outcrop elevation is 12345'. 9 and taking hillside as plane of the three horizontal. points given. (b) Same as (a) tunnel on 2.5 per cent, grade. Draw to scale 1" = 2000'0.0. Take G E and W. Problem 5 (a) Locate vertical shaft on Royal to cut intersection of veins. Find depth of shaft and distance and bearing of point to sink from'O'. (b) Locate incline on Lotus. Find depth, etc. Same as (a). (c) Locate incline on Minnesota. Find depth, etc. Same as (a). Scale 1" = 300'. Take G EandW through 0. ' Problem 6 (a) On NW. from o an inclined shaft is sunk the bottom of shaft a drift extends on vein the Lotus 200' 300' in length. From ' ' ' EXAMINATION FOR A COMMISSION W. N. 75° 241 At what distance from shaft should a cross-cut be and Minnesota. This cross-cut started to cut intersection of Royal Find length of cross-cut. to be at right angles to drift. Draw to scale 1" = 300'. Take and through ' W GE Problem o. 7 Locate vertical shaft to cut intersection of veins. (a) bearing and distance from Vertical shaft (b) bottom ' o sunk at x' to depth of shaft in is run to cut the intersection is Find '. At (a). of shaft cross-cut of veins. Find bearing and length of cross-cut. (c) Incline started at x' to cut intersection of veins. (d) Locate inclines on: Gopher, Mt. Boy, and intersection from Find and bearing. length, pitch, Yuma, to cut Find lengths, distances, and bearings veins. of 'o'. Draw to scale 1" N. 30° x' is 300'. = 300'. Take W. from ' o GEandW through ' o. Point ' '. Problem 8 (a) From ' outcrop bears N. 10° E. and dip of vein is 45°. the point o has an elevation 300' higher than o '. o ' 800' lip the hill Find strike of vein. (b) From ' ' ' o ' shaft is ' sunk on From vein. on vein. Find point of intersection and ' o ' tunnel lengtlis of shaft is driven and tunnel. Shaft perpendicular to outcrop. Draw to scale 1" = 300'. Take G Problem E and W. 9 Find point to sink by bearing and distance from Find depth. Call point 'a;'. intersection of veins. (a) (6) At 'x', vertical drill-holes are 600', of 'o' 5100', S. 67° 45' due west o ' to cut 7850' from 'o' put down cutting a fault plane at 1000', It has been determined that portion 1000' respectively. above fault plane has W. ' moved perpendicular easterly direction along fault plane 500' to strike in a south- Find point to sink as in A MANUAL OF UNDERGROUND SURVEYING 242 (a).. Faulting took place, then country eroded to present level condition. Draw to scale 1" = 3000'. Take G Pboblem (a) E a.iidW through ' o '. 10 On intersection of Pilot and Mary inclined On intersection of Orphan No. 1 and Orphan shaft is down No. 2 inclined bad, we wish to 600'. is down 550'. As the air in both places is an inclined upraise from one shaft to connect with the other; this connection to be the shortest possible. Locate points in both Find length, shafts so work may be carried on at both ends. pitch, and bearing of the connection. Reverse traces on Orphan 1 and 2. Compare. Draw to scale 1" = 300'. Take G E &ndW through o shaft start ' Problem A vein dips 60°, an, entry five-per-cent. grade. What is is drift driven N. 40° whose on a three-per-cent. grade strike is N. 60° E. W. in the vein 12 is driven N. 40° E. in a vein 13 vein dips 45° to the west and strikes N. 12° 30' E. on the vein is on a Required, the dip of the vein. Problem A 11 the strike of the vein? Phoblem A '. driven N. 16° 30' E. A drift Required, the grade of the drift. Problem 14 A vein dips 54° to the east and strikes N. 18° 45' W. What the bearing of a drift on the vein driven on a 3-per-cent. grade? Problem The is 15 strike of a vein dipping to the SW. 75° is S. 45° 15' E. From a given point of outcrop, elevation 3629.4' the mouth of a tunnel bears S. 40° 10' W. and distant 3000' on a vertical angle of —21° 08'. The tunnel is driven straight, horizontal, and N. EXAMINATION FOR A COMMISSION 243 12° 15' E. (a) Required, the distance from the mouth of the tunnel to the point at which it intersects the vein, (b) Assume the tunnel on a 2-per-cent. grade, (c) "What is the shortest distance from the tunnel portal to the vein? Problem A vein A second vein (a.) to be level) vein is 16 dips 55° to the northwest and strikes N. 35° 10' E. N. 35° 10' E. and on the surface (assumed distant from the (a) vein 800'. How far from the (b) strikes should a vertical shaft be put down to pierce the intersection of the veins (1) if (6) dips 30° to the northwest; (2) if (a) (o) dips 75° to the southeast will and be the depth of shaft in all (6) 55° to the northwest. Problem , A What cases? 17 vein dips 43° to the northwest, strikes N. 33° 15', elevation At an elevation of 869.2' and distant from the of outcrop 914.6'. outcrop 1000', an inclined shaft dipping 75° and bearing N. 56° 45' is sunk to intersect the vein, (a) Required the depth to which W. the shaft must be sunk. (6) Assume the pitch of the shaft the same, but the bearing S. 89° 14' W.; what will be the depth of shaft? Problem The 18 surface has a uniform slope of 10° to the north. and west and dips 40° to the north. A vein strikes east (a) How far north of the outcrop must one go to sink a vertical shaft which shall cut the vein at a depth of 700'? (6) What will be the bearing of drifts on the vein driven from the bottom of the (c) How far can they be driven shaft on a 3-per-cent. up-grade? so as not to approach nearer than 100' to the surface? Problem 19 The vein described in Problem 18 is intersected at a depth of by a vertical shaft. From the bottom of the shaft a slope 1000' on the' vein extends due north 600'. per-cent. grade to- the southwest An entry from the bottom is driven on a 4- of the slope for a : . A MANUAL OF UNDERGROUND SURVEYING 244 distance of 4000'. Required the depth of vertical shaft necessary end of the entry with the surface? in order to connect the Problem 20 The horizontal distance between two vertical shafts is 1000', the difference in elevation of the collars of shafts is 291.4'. The depth of shaft sunk from the higher point is 647.2' from the bottom of this shaft a cross-cut (a) is driven towards the other shaft on a The second shaft is 350' deep. Required 1-per-cent. grade, 436'. the length and grade of cross-cut (b) from this shaft to meet the ; breast of (a). Pkoblem 21 Suppose that the lower shaft described in 20 bears S. 19° 40' W. and that the cross-cut (a) is driven S. 40° W. Required the direction, grade, and length of (6) of the other Phoblem 22 A vein dips 60° to the south and strikes N. 70° E. Consider 500' distant from the outcrop and at an elevation of 3601' a vertical shaft is sunk to the outcrop of the vein as 3650' elevation. intersect the vein. From this shaft the mouth of a cross-cut tunnel bears S. 60° E, 2000' on a vertical angle of -30°. The tunnel is driven N. 33° W. on a 2-per-cent. grade to intersect the vein. Required the length of slope on the vein necessary to connect the shaft and the tunnel. Problem 23 Using the top telescope (a) Elevation + V. A. M. D. -H. + H. I. = 876.42' = 52° 29' = 76.49' = 2.58' Pt.= = M. D = r 3.45' .301' Distance from axes of main telescope to point of sight. Required V. D., H. D., and elevation. EXAMINATION FOR A COMMISSION (b) 245 246 establis A MANUAL OP UNDERGROUND SURVEYING . . INDEX PAGE Accuracy of German mine sur- veys 140 of platting methods. . . of . . 156 survey for shaft. 215 Anaconda C. M. Co. of Butte 192 Air currents shown on maps. ... 138 effect of, upon . plumb wires Angles reading reading of, book Calculation at Old 109 178 appointment of sur- California, veyors in Calumet and Hecla . . map map Coal mine, 193 . . map Assays, record of, on maps Bent line 98 platting Conflicting claims Contours, underground 141 144 Copying 168 113 shaft survey 212 164 165 upon tracing from 166 to waterproof 165 Blue print solution, formula for cloth Blue printing, electric Boreholes, instrument for veying photograph of sur- 171 inte- rior of surveys 172 169 Boston and Montana Mines of Butte, practice at Brunton pocket transit 234 of drawings for top telescope readings for 48 side telescope readings 51 Cross wires, renewing of Direct solar observation 60 for meridian 69 168 Drawings, copying of 165 166 164 ; 157 148 surveys to write by 140 101 Blue prints, overexposed 163 162 144 Co-ordinates 100, 193 tin can 239 188 155 207 209 used on mine maps 208 Correction, Backsights, Butte workings proposed ex- maps Areas, mineral, on topographical Assay maps of applied to glass Homes take mines. of tensions Colors for . by Chords, platting ion mines 192 mines a survey of Calculations of placer claim Domin- Anaconda 129 232 184 226 of lode line 197 54 247 Eaton, Lucien, methods used by Erasures Errors, of first adjustment 175 162 22 of eccentricity of circle 40 of eccentricity of verniers 42 of second adjustment. ... 23 of third adjustment 27 of fourth adjustment. ... 30 . of fifth adjustment of sixth adjustment 32 32 .. .. INDEX 248 Errors, of platting PAGE 156 in azimuth 83 in 71 tions 45 work 226 ment Mineral Surveyors Field notes 126 Pile for geological 142 maps maps and sec- 141 tions Graphic solution of the direct observation •, -• • 84 methods used by 188 Grierson, E. S., Hangers plumb wires . 185 153 141 134, 136, 138 of abandoned mines 134, 137, 139 photographs of mine Map, uses Geological mine . mine Maps, mine, should show 74 for direct observation. Formula 160 in. geological sections, 159 maps Filing of 187 a system of Mapping, instruments used Maps, the making of mine filing, Maps and for U. S. Depart- Examination by Map making direct observa- in practical PAOB Manly, Frank A., methods used 174 of the topographical. . 140 133, 141 Maps, uses of mine Map of workings of a California 207 mine of proposed extensions of a 209 coal mine 175 Methods of various engineers Meridian, carried underground, for Ill Homestake mine 208 Illuminating the cross wires 101 Inclined shaft survey 212 Inks Instruments, mapping 163 at Butte carrying underground taking 59 62 175 care of Iron mines, methods used in ... of, under112 shafts.. . . by two wires by three wires by four wires by bent line 185 repair of field off ground through two 198 104 Polaris 113 observation 64 for Lamp affecting mine surveys. . . . 136 in Illinois 138 66 69 tion 136 in Permsylvania Mine map, ordinary 144 models 161 in England 140 Miner's compass in Germany 140 Mine sampling Models of mine workings 123 Note-books 127 143 130 Ledger Level sheets, geological Lining in timber line calculation 175 man's in shafts 56 161 142 rods for mine use Lights, for instrument Lode . 81 Latitude Laws by solar observation. by direct solar observa^ 54 targets 104 108 109 110 use. for taking geology. 102 in use in iron mine. inclined 182 232 Logarithmic cross-section paper 85 Loose-leaf note-books 127, 190 Notes side . 184 126 128 on cards at Homestake 208 form of, used at iron mine 178 . . INDEX 249 PAGE Notes, form of, used at Poorman Plumb-wires, size and weight. mine 189 used at Portland mine 191 used at Anaconda 193 used by Boston & Montana ... 201 used by U S. Coal & Coke Co 205 in form of sketches 188 . . more than one in 104 shaft to lower, in shaft affected by . . 106 air cur- 109 rents Plumbing PAGE 105 vertical shafts at iron mine shafts 181 by t wo-wir e system. . . 108 three- wire books Old Dominion C. M. Old workings Office & S. Co 129 system. 191 four-wire 147 system. . . . . 109 110 transit sights 114 Paper for maps Party, surveying, 186 Calumet and Hecla Homestake. . . Poorman 189 175 190 Iron Belt Copper Queen Portland o 188 208 f . . Photograph . . . . 192 203 methods of instruments by protractor by tangents by chords by co-ordinates 226 154 185 155 155 155 157 212 Plumb-bob, symmetrical used in Wisconsin iron mine 175 Plumb-line adjuster weights 190 and screen... 46 70 90 240 Property lines Problems given in examination in South Dakota. 235 Protractor, platting by 155 . . Record of the survey Rooms, survey of 126 119 Sampling of a mine 123 99 107 maps mine maps 142 Scale of geological 154 maps, at iron mine 187 in Pennsylvania. 136 in Illinois 138 Screen, in making direct sun obof 172 Placer calculations 64 . 197 Photography an aid to engineers. 173 Pillars, survey of boundary. ... 138 Platting, . 190 191 of interior of bore- holes Portland mine of Cripple Creek. Prismatic eyepiece . Cripple Creek Old Dominion. Anaconda. Boston & Montana... U. S. Coal & Coke Co. Polaris observation for meridian of servations 71 government 233 Sections, vertical and longituSection, 18 dinal Setting up under a Shaft, dangers of 98 station working in. . . . 116 . . 179 210 inclined survey, a quick vertical secondary plumbing of measuring depth 139 of 108 116 .. INDEX 250 PAGE Side notes & at Calumet Hecla. . Sighting in the dark Size and scale of maps 154 stope book map from mine 184 Solar compass frequency required ... 136 laws affecting mine 136 Surveyors, competency of foreign . mine U. S. Taking meridian telescope attachment screen 70 accuracy of direct observation 69 tags reel used in iron mines Tapping flooded workings Telescopes auxiliary duplex bearings eccentricity of Queen Anaconda. . . Montana 192 . . . 200 . . Iron Belt. . . side Timber, lining in, in shafts mine 203 Calumet & Hecla 188 Homestake. 208 . Tinting Title of Top survey of String surveys Subdivision of section Survey, a mining of railroad 191 iron 180 145 153 166 166 20 22 maps Tracing cloths Transit adjustments first second 23 27 30 32 32 third 203 120 119 fourth 121 relative fifth sixth 234 215 of a wet mine shaft .... 212 Surveying, definition of in from a blue print Stope books, method of keeping. 120 used at Anaconda. 196 used by Boston & Montana used mines Tracings, for level-sheets 176 Portland.... 190 Stopes, narrow maps telescope Old Dominion 38 48 49 182 164 154 top 190 Boston & value general Transit, 140 of. 36 re- marks 3 Surveying party. See Party. Surveys, accuracy of German surveys 56 58 57 57 57 57 176 147 18 46 54 splice Station numbers at Copper coal 155 handle for 235 93 92 94 95 98 95 marks numbering of setting up under 112, 198 by care of South Dakota, examination ques- Stations, kinds of wires off Tangents, platting Tapes, steel tions in 140 Deputy Mineral 226 66 68 Spads PAGE 169 Surveys, borehole 188 202 204 Sketches, only for notes in iron 128 188 99 upon Brunton with inclined standards setting up the 37 54 54 98 INDEX PAGE PAGE 175 Vandyke paper 167 Ventilation shown on maps .... 138 Transit, used-in Wisconsin iron mine history of compass, the requirements 8 11 first of, 251 for mine use 6 U-standard 6 Vertical sights with ordinary transit 115 Volumes 122 Washes 163 Waterproofing of maps and blue Transverse of two or more openings 102 of shaft 114 XJsesof mine maps. .133, 140, 141, 152 165 prints Weights, heavy, for plumb-lines 210 White lines upon blue prints .... 165 212 Wires, best, for plumbing shaft. . .
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