Circular Questioining An Introductory Guide
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A.N.Z.J. Fam. Ther., 1997, Vol. 18, No. 2, pp 109–114
EDUCATION UPDATE:
Fundamentals of Theory and Practice Revisited
Circular Questioning: An Introductory Guide*
Jac Brown**
This paper presents a simplified model that has been found to be useful for those learning questioning
skills within the Milan systemic approach to family therapy as well as for those who simply wish to develop
some skills in circular interviewing. The model begins with the premise that clients frequently describe a
problem in terms that are either too broad or too narrow. The model has two categories of questions: those
that draw connections and thus broaden a client’s understanding of their context and those that draw
distinctions and thus narrow a client’s focus where generalisations predominate. The model is presented
within the context of other models of Milan systemic questioning and the contributions they have made.
connections or distinctions in the surrounding environ-
INTRODUCTION
ment. For example, if I state that she is happy, I am
The interviewing style of the Milan Associates has pro- stating this in relation to other people I have seen who
vided a unique contribution to the field of psycho- were less happy. Thus, the noted difference in happi-
therapy: the process of circular questioning. Circular ness has information value. The questioning is aimed at
questioning has since been adapted to many models of creating or maximising difference and then drawing
therapy. The development of circular questioning connections in order to provide information that frames
emerged from the Milan Associates’ application of Bate- problems in new ways. A number of writers have sub-
son’s ideas about circularity to their behaviour as thera- sequently devoted considerable effort to the task of deli-
pists. They state that their research was directed at ‘. . . neating uses for circular questioning, in the process of
the most correct and fruitful procedure for interviewing facilitating the release into the system of new infor-
the family’ (Selvini Palazzoli, Boscolo, Cecchin and mation about the problem and its context (Penn, 1982;
Prata, 1980: 3). Circular questioning draws connections Fleuridas, Nelson and Rosenthal, 1986; Tomm, 1987;
and distinctions between family members or people MacKinnon, 1988). This paper examines a two factor
within the larger client system. For example, the behav- model of questioning which aims to help therapists to
iour of one person is shown by implication to be con- broaden the family’s focus when it is too narrow, and
nected to the behaviour of another in a circular manner narrow the focus when it is too general. It is particularly
rather than in the usual lineal or causal way that has useful as a framework for family therapy students
been the basis of much of our thinking about human attempting to construct their own circular questions.
problems. Thus, instead of asking why someone is
depressed, a circular form of questioning would inquire
about when someone shows depression and what other
people do when this is happening.
THE DEVELOPMENT AND ELABORATION
This interviewing style stimulates the release of infor-
OF CIRCULAR QUESTIONING
mation into the system in a mannerthat encouragesnew
ways of viewing the problem. The premise behind circu- The Milan Associates do not say a great deal about actual
lar questioning is that information comes from differ- interviewing in their seminal 1980 paper (Selvini Palaz-
ence and that difference implies a relationship, through zoli, Boscolo, Cecchin and Prata, 1980). However, what
they do say is extremely significant and has stimulated
extensive thinking and subsequent delineation. Citing
* The author wishes to thank Kerrie James, Director of Clinical
Bateson, they work within the framework that infor-
Services at Relationships Australia (NSW) for her helpful com-
mation is a difference and that difference is a relation-
ments.
ship or a change in the relationship. They highlight the
** Jac Brown is Director, Australian Institute for Relationship
benefits of investigating a dyadic relationship by asking
Studies, which is affiliated with Relationships Australia (NSW),
135 New South Head Road, Edgecliff NSW 2027.
a third person for his or her perceptions on that other
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Brown
relationship, calling it a ‘triadic modality’. They argue the questioning technique that students had difficulty
grasping circular interviewing. So they developed athat this manner of questioning breaks a rule that they
believe operates in dysfunctional families: that family taxonomy specifically to facilitate their teaching,
presenting four types of questions: 1. Problem defi-members do not comment on the relationship of other
family members in their presence. nition, which is the beginning point for student inquiry
in the interview. 2. Sequence of interaction, the nextAnother contribution of the Milan Associates, drawing
on the work of Watzlawick, is an elaboration of the idea step in the interview once the problem definition is
obtained. This category, which together with the nextthat all behaviour is communication. One family mem-
ber is validly able to comment on the relationship (comparison/classification) includes questions that
focus on differences and changes over time, agreementbetween two other family members by observing their
interaction, rather than by inferring their internal states. and disagreement between family members and expla-
nations for the views expressed, is very similar toThey draw the distinction between the verb ‘to be’ and
the verb ‘to show’; instead of speaking about being questions delineated by Penn (1982). 3.
Comparison/Classification questions are the next sug-depressed, for example, the therapist speaks about
showing depression. gested focus in the interview for students. They include
comparisons and classifications of behaviour, beliefs,The Milan Associates further suggest that it is useful
to focus on behavioural sequences and each person’s values, thoughts, feelings and relationships. 4. Inter-
vention is the final category, where students ask ques-interpretation of behaviour, as a way of establishing cir-
cularity and new meaning. A further recommendation tions that, among other things, encourage clients to try
new behaviour that challenges family beliefs and rules.to help create difference is that family members be
asked to rank each other on specific behaviours, making These questions have embedded reframes to enable fa-
mily members to see their situation differently. Thediscrepancies in the views of various family members
more noticeable. They highlight the usefulness of ascer- above categories each develop questions related to time,
from past to future. Fleuridas et al. provided a guidetaining the differences in behaviour before and after sig-
nificant family events, and of asking hypothetically what for the interview with many examples of the types of
questions that could be used. Their classification wasdifferences might become apparent if other circum-
stances existed in the family. These ideas about ques- thus an extremely useful learning tool. The first two cat-
egories of problem definition and sequence of interac-tioning were revolutionary, as were the Milan Associ-
ates’ unorthodox ways of interviewing, resulting in tion are very prescriptive, providing an excellent frame-
work for students to follow when learning circularmany unpredicted changes in families. Their paper
sparked a number of other significant contributions questioning and conducting interviews early in the ther-
apy. However, with so many possible questions that canwhich elaborated and extended these ideas.
In her attempts to define a model for interviewing, be asked under the comparison/classification category,
the level of guidance changes significantly from that pro-Penn (1982) concentrated on designing questions that
create difference. She stated: vided with their first two categories.
Tomm (1984), in his elaboration of the Milan systemic
The aim of circular questioning is to fix the point in the
approach, focused on questions that highlight the spa-
history of the system when important coalitions underwent
tial (differences between people, relationships, ideas,
a shift and the subsequent adaptation of that shift became
problematic for the family. The information sought by cir-
values and perceptions) and temporal (differences over
cular questions is the differences in relationships the family
time). His ideas continued to develop through various
has experienced before and after the problem began.
other papers, culminating in his 1988 paper, where he
(Penn, 1982: 272)
presented a model of four major types, based on the
theoretical assumptions underlying the questions (linealThus, she presents a number of categories of circular
questions that highlight differences, including: 1. Differ- versus circular) and the intention of the therapist in ask-
ing them (influencing the client versus orienting theences between verbal and analogic information pro-
vided by the clients, 2. Differences between the prob- therapist). The question types are: 1. Lineal (e.g. prob-
lem explanation and problem definition): useful in pro-lem definition and explanations of the problem over
time, 3. Differences between closeness of various family viding basic information regarding the problem, but can
convey a judgmental attitude, stimulating defensivenessmembers over time, and 4. Differences created through
the classification and comparison of family relational and guilt in clients. They may also validate pre-existing
beliefs around the problem. 2. Circular questions (eg.patterns. These questions highlight the importance of
creating questions that mark difference and change over behavioural effect and difference questions) are less
judgmental and have liberating effects of families. 3.time as well as difference between the views of family
members, particularly around the presenting problem. Strategic questions (e.g. leading and confrontational),
while being corrective in nature, have the effect ofHer emphasis on ‘difference’ as an underlying concept
for all questions asked in the interview was an important imposing therapist views on families, with the possible
effect of creating shame and guilt. 4. Reflexive questionscontribution to circular interviewing.
Fleuridas et al. (1986) also focussed on differences (e.g. hypothetical future and observer perspective) are
seen as facilitative, providing indirect influence on cli-and change over time as a way of gaining information
for the therapist. However, they noted when teaching ents in that they encourage reflection on the impli-
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A.N.Z.J. Fam. Ther., 1997, Vol. 18, No. 2
cations of current behaviour and ideas, and a consider- conceptualise difference as a type of question (eg.
Tomm, 1988; Fleuridas et al., 1986). When the purposeation of new options.
Tomm’s notions about therapist intent and assump- of an interview is to provide information, and infor-
mation is difference, then having a category of differ-tions in questioning are very useful for experienced
clinicians, who are thus encouraged to monitor the ence questions is somewhat ambiguous, as all questions
should have the goal of providing information througheffect of their questions during the interview, and to ask
different questions if their intentions are not realised. the creation of difference. As Selvini Palazzoli et al. point
out, ‘1. Information is a difference. 2. Difference is aTomm also emphasises the idea of creating a balance
between questions and statements. If there are too many relationship (or a change in the relationship)’ (1980: 8).
Having a goal of creating difference in the informationquestions, clients may feel interrogated, while if there
are too few, therapists may experience restrictions in provided by clients through the subsequent questions
asked in a therapy session is thus fundamental to thethe information available. Tomm’s emphasis on the
statement/question balance is particularly useful when interviewing style. For example, clients often provide
non-specific information such as ‘The problem hastraining therapists who come from client centred ther-
apies that emphasise reflecting client statements, as always been present’ or ‘We all think the problem is
caused by bad genes’. When a therapist operates fromopposed to asking questions. However, as student thera-
pists grapple with learning circular questioning, the new the underlying principle of creating difference in the
session, he or she can watch for such comments andmodel presented by Tomm is often overwhelming.
MacKinnon (1988) focuses on the Milan questioning then turn them into more productive information, by
asking questions such as ‘Who most accepts the viewprocess as a way of exploring the ‘openings’ presented
during a session. Openings are indicated by key words that the problem has always been there?’ or ‘When has
the problem been better/worse?’; ‘Who most thinks thatand utterances that signify emotionally laden areas. The
therapist uses questioning to explore these areas and the problem is caused by bad genes?’ or ‘When did the
family begin to think that the problem was caused byfacilitate increased intensity and emotional openness.
Questioning is also used to explore and shift premises bad genes?’ Thus, if the therapist has an underlying goal
of creating difference and hence information, unhelpfulthat constrain family members’ relationships and ability
to resolve conflictual or painful issues. statements from clients can easily be turned into useful
information that uncovers subtle differences ignored by
the family, providing an alternative view to a dominant
THE TWO FACTOR MODEL: CREATING
one presented by clients in the interview.
As Tomm (1985) notes, difference can be created
DIFFERENCES AND CONNECTIONS
categorically (between people, relationships, percep-
Most of the other models of questioning focus on types tions and events) and temporally (between past, present
of questions as a way of teaching student therapists. and future). Differences across time, people and events
Such an approach requires students to learn a classi- are very useful categories to use for training therapists
fication system and the specific questions in each cate- because there is little overlap between them, which cre-
gory, in order to apply them when conducting therapy. ates less confusion than a more extensive list of specific
By contrast the two factor model emphasises a process difference question types might provide. When training
for asking questions, rather than relying on students to students, I have used some of Tomm’s categories,
memorise specific categories of questions. While both adding one of my own, and focusing on the following
approaches are valid, I would argue that learning how categories as the basic underlying principle for inter-
to construct questions may be more appropriate for the viewing in a way that maximises difference:
beginning therapist than memorising categories of ques-
tions. Following a period of constructing their own
questions, it may then be useful for new therapists to
1. Across time
reflect on the categories of questions that exist in vari- Difference over time highlights the changes that occur,
ous models. This approach encourages students to draw which clients often fail to notice, possibly due to their
questions from a range of models. subjective involvement, anxiety or beliefs about a prob-
lem. Contrasting past time with the present is a way of
creating difference. For example, when asked about
Creating Differences
these differences over time, a client may note that a
problem began at a particular point, or that a behaviour
When clients generalise a particular problem situation is more extreme during one week than another. Future
to their entire life, it is often helpful to deconstruct the time, which is always hypothetical, can also be used as
generalisation by asking questions that create difference. a way of pointing to new possibilities and the creation
The concept of difference is crucial in all of the models of hope, as is well documented elsewhere (Penn, 1985).
of circular questioning discussed and in this model, is For example, when asked about differences in thebest introduced as the first factor for emphasis when future, a client may think that a problem will beteaching circular questioning. Penn’s (1982) model is resolved at some future date or that other changes willan example of one that has difference as a fundamental
principle underlying all question types. Other models occur that will alter the nature of the problem.
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Examples: •Thinking of your head and your heart, which part
wants to stay in the relationship and which part
wants to leave?•When did the problem begin? •How much of you is angry and how much of you is•When is the problem most difficult? sad about your grandmother’s death?
•When is the problem least evident? •Do you think he is ruled more by his feelings or by
•When might the problem be solved? his thoughts when he stays out late? What do you
•Will the problem be solved more quickly by itself or think those thoughts are?
more quickly if you have some assistance? •When you feel angry with her, what part of you taps
•How long will it take for this problem to go away? into your current feelings about the situation and
•How might the problem change in the future? what part taps into feelings from the past?
2. Between people
•When you argue with each other, whichside is more
Differences between people highlight unique behav- likely to take over, your rational side or your
iours, attitudes or beliefs that clients may fail to notice emotional side?
when wanting to create a greater sense of unity or
cohesion. For example, clients may state that all family
4. Between situations
members are sad about the death of a grandparent, but Differences between situations highlight differences in
fail to acknowledge, until questioned on this difference, client behaviour, attitudes and beliefs, depending on the
that one family member is having a much stronger reac- context. Client flexibility and control over behaviour,
tion to the death. On the other hand, using questions attitudes or beliefs are emphasised when questioning
that rate family members on particular behaviours, atti- reveals these differences between the same person’s
tudes or beliefs and thus creating difference, may draw behaviour in different contexts.
out similarities that have been ignored by clients. For Examples:
example, family members may see one person as being
argumentative until asked to rank all members on their •Is he more likely to be violent in public or private?
argumentativeness; then they realise that it is a common Why do you think that is the case?
behaviour in the family. •Do you think her behaviour is better at home or at
Examples: school?
•Do you think her attitude about you being the bread-
•Who is the most argumentative in the family? Who winner is more evident when you are with friends
next? or when you are with your family?
•Who most believes that parents should make all the •In what situation is the problem most noticeable?
rules in the family? Who next? •Where are your religious beliefs most obvious to
•Who misses John the most when he is away at board- others?
ing school? •Where do you think you are most yourself, at work
•Who between the two of you most thinks that or at home?
women should have the major responsibility for
the housework? These four categories provide a helpful framework for
•Who is most committed to the relationship? How do understanding how news of difference can be created
they show it? in an interview, as a way of increasing the information
•Who most shows their concern about the problem? value of the interview for therapist as well as client.
•If the problem stays around for a long time, who will Student therapists are able to practise asking questions
be most concerned about it? that highlight difference on the above dimensions in
response to client statements that normally mask any
3. Between parts of a person
notion of difference. The skill in creating difference is
Differences within a person highlight the multidimen- an important task for students in the process of learning
sional nature of behaviour, attitudes and beliefs and the circular questioning.
absurdity of categorising a person with a particular
label. When a person is seen to have a particularly
Drawing Connections
strong behaviour, attitude or belief, it is useful to dis-
tinguish between the part of him or her that thinks or When clients are overwhelmed by a problem, they often
behaves one way and the part that thinks or behaves see it as isolated from the context in which it exists.
another way. This recognises the complexity of human Their focus may be narrowed by the gravity of the situ-
nature, and the potential for tapping into the ambi- ation. Explanations of the problem are frequently linear,
valence that may be there. with the problem being seen in a simplistic black and
Examples: white way. Ruesch and Bateson note that ‘. . . all know-
ledge of external events is derived from the relation-
ships between them . . .’ (1968: 173). Seeing the ‘pat-•Is your dad’s tender side or his gruff side easier for
you to see? Where do you think the tender side is tern that connects’ that Bateson writes about puts the
problem in a much broader context, changing its linearhidden?
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A.N.Z.J. Fam. Ther., 1997, Vol. 18, No. 2
focus to one that is systemic. This more complete pic- personal feelings. This is particularly important early on
in the therapeutic process, while later on, questions sug-ture of client problems is helpful for the therapist and
client in creating understanding and facilitating change. gesting a greater control of feelings by the client may
be more therapeutic. Feeling questions can be linked toIn teaching students to draw connections, I find it
useful to use content categories in the first instance. The behaviour, beliefs, meaning and relationships. Note the
difference between these questions, which imply lesscontent categories selected have been delineated else-
where (Brown, 1997), but will be discussed here briefly. control over feelings, and the more confronting ‘how do
you feel?’ questions often asked by beginning therapists.The categories of content selected provide a trigger for
students to stimulate questions within the broad cate- Examples:
gory to use for drawing connections or links. •What feelings come up for you when she calls you
incompetent?
1. Behaviour
•When he tells you that he doesn’t love you any more,
Questions focusing on behaviour are useful in getting a what emotions emerge?
good understanding of exactly what is happening with •When she feels sad, what feelings do you have?
clients. Often a vagueness in client report of problems •How do you feel, knowing that he believes women
can be clarified through emphasising specific behav- should stay at home and raise the children?
iours. Behaviours can be linked to other behaviours, to •What sense do you make of his anger that you will
feelings, to beliefs, to meaning and to relationships. not have sex with him?
Questions focusing on behaviour are alsouseful as a way •When you spend long periods of feeling angry with
of maintaining neutrality, as value laden categories are each other, how do you think that affects your
frequently avoided when the focus is on behaviour. For relationship?
example ‘Why do you spend the day in bed?’ is more
neutral than ‘Why are you so lazy?’.
Examples:
3. Beliefs
Questions about beliefs are asked to help understand
•What happened after you asked him to go to his some of the underlying ideas that clients have which
room? What happened then? . . . How did it all end? influence the way they act, think and feel. Beliefs tend
•When she stays out late without telling you where to emerge from past experience in situations with sig-
she is, what feelings come up for you? nificant people such as family, friends and former lovers.
•How does hitting your son relate to your beliefs They frequently result in clients accepting a certain way
about child rearing? of acting, thinking and feeling as the unquestioned
•How do the ways you fight relate to the ideas about norm. Beliefs also may arise out of painful past experi-
how couples resolve arguments that you brought ence and thus operate as a way of protecting the self.
from your family? Beliefs are often attributed to participation in groups
•How do you make sense of the difference between such as family of origin, culture, social class, gender,
his behaviour at home and at school? sexual orientation and religion. Beliefs can be linked
•When the family argue, does it bring you all closer with behaviour, feelings, meaning and relationships.
together or further apart? Examples:
•When he is reluctant to help out with the house-
2. Feelings
work, what do you think he believes about the role
Questions about feelings are asked as a way of high- of women?
lighting the emotional experience of family members, •When she is sad about not having had a child, do
where there is often a tendency to focus on behaviour you think it is more because she wants a child or
and meaning. While these questions are useful in because her family wants a grandchild?
increasing therapeutic understanding of the meaning •When you believe that conflict should be out in the
and motivations of behaviour, they are also a way of open in any relationship, does he agree more or less
increasing client self understanding, as well as stimulat- with you?
ing increased empathy and understanding by other fa- •How do you make sense of her saying on the one
mily members. The way that feeling questions are asked hand that she believes men should be responsible
may unintentionally imply that clients have too little or for their own feelings and yet on the other hand con-
too much control over their feelings. For example the tinuing to seek out your deeper emotions?
well-known question ‘How does that make you feel?’ •When you believe that there is a danger in express-
implies that a client has no control over how he or she ing your anger at home, do you think that unites or
feels. The question ‘When did you decide to become separates the family?
depressed?’ may imply so much control that the client
feels misunderstood. Thus, feeling questions need to
carefully weave a path between these two extremes, by
4. Meaning
Meaning questions tapinto the way that clients interpretmaintaining therapeutic connection with the client
while not inferring that she or he has no control over their world through their interaction with others. These
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Brown
interpretations are useful in helping to understand their ing principle of circular questioning is a process of
creating distinctions and connections can be a usefulbehaviour in its interpersonal context. They are useful
for understanding self as well as other family members. simplification of the process, allowing students to
experiment. In this way, the usefulness of various ques-When they are linked to behaviour, feelings, beliefs and
relationships, questions about meaning are powerful in tions will become apparent very quickly to students and
they will thus become self motivating. Furthermore,creating change in family systems.
Examples: linking questioning style to aspects of neutrality and
hypothesising then creates a more complete context for
conducting an interview in a circular style. As experi-
•How do you understand it when he says that he ence builds up at this level, it is possible for students
loves you and he neglects to help you when you ask to focus on some of the more complex models of ques-
for assistance? tioning and integrate these into their repertoire.
•When he is feeling sad, what do you think his sad-
ness is about?
•When she thinks that your anger relates to unre-
References
solved issues with your mother rather than her, how
Brown, J., 1997. The Question Cube: a Model for Developing Question
Repertoire in Training Couple and Family Therapists, Journal of
do you think that she gets that idea?
Marital and Family Therapy, 23, 1: 27–40.
•When you say that his behaviour shows he doesn’t
Fleuridas, C., Nelson, T. and Rosenthal, D., 1986. The Evolution of
want to live at home any more, how do you think
Circular Questions: Training Family Therapists, Journal of Marital
he sees that statement?
and Family Therapy, 12, 2: 113–127.
•When she says that she feels you do not love her
MacKinnon, L., 1988. Openings: Using Questions Therapeutically,
Dulwich Centre Newsletter, Winter, 15–18.
any more, how do you think that affects your
Penn, P., 1982. Circular Questioning, Family Process, 21, 3, 267–280.
relationship?
Penn, P., 1985. Feed-forward: Future Questions, Future Maps. Family
Process, 24, 3: 299–310.
Ruesch, J. and Bateson, G., 1968. Communication: The Social Matrix
of Psychiatry, New York, Norton.
5. Relationship
Selvini Palazzoli, M., Boscolo, L., Cecchin, G. and Prata, G., 1980.
Relationship questions are used to allow family mem-
Hypothesising—Circularity—Neutrality: Three Guidelines for the
bers to comment on the nature of their relationships
Conductor of the Session, Family Process, 19, 1: 3–12.
with each other, as they experience them through their
Tomm, K., 1984. One Perspective on the Milan Systemic Approach:
Part II. Description of Session Format, Interviewing Style and Inter-
every day interaction. These comments are rarely made
ventions. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 10, 3: 253–271.
outside the therapy room. However, assumptions about
Tomm, K., 1985. Chapter Four: Circular Interviewing: A Multifaceted
the nature of relationships are frequently made and
Clinical Tool. In D. Campbell and R. Draper (Eds), Applications of
acted upon in the context of the family. Making these
Systemic Family Therapy, New York, Grune and Stratton.
assumptions explicit through relationship questions that
Tomm, K., 1987. Interventive Interviewing: Part II. Reflexive Ques-
tioning as a Means to Enable Self-healing, Family Process, 26:
draw connections between relationships and behaviour,
167–183.
feelings, beliefs and meaning can create significant new
Tomm, K., 1988. Interventive Interviewing: Part III. Intending to Ask
understanding, and thus provide the impetus for change
Lineal, Circular, Strategic or Reflexive Questions, Family Process,
in the family.
27, 1: 1–15.
Examples:
•When she says that she is coming home right after
school is finished and does not do so, how do you
I had written him a letter which I had,
think that affects the nature of your relationship?
for want of better
•When he is angry and expresses that to you, does
Knowledge, sent to where I met him
that make you feel closer together or further apart?
down the Lachlan, years ago,
•When you believe that relationships should not have
any conflict and conflict continues, what does that
He was shearing when I knew him, so I
say about your relationship?
sent the letter to him,
•When she is pessimistic about your willingness to be
Just ‘on spec’, addressed as follows,
more involved in the family, how do you think that
‘Clancy, of the Overflow’
affects your relationship?
•When he feels that the family is working together
Clancy was lucky. He received his letter.
well, are you more likely to feel closer to the family
or more distant?
Mails were better then, perhaps. You may
not be as lucky, unless you advise
Blackwells of your address changes.
CONCLUSION READ INSIDE FRONT COVER FOR
While a number of models exist for teaching circular
questioning, they are frquently difficult to understand
DETAILS.
for new therapists. Understanding that the major guid-
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