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Cover Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Contents at a Glance
Contents

by Michael Miller

Second Edition

A member of Penguin Group (USA) Inc.

Music Theory

This book is dedicated to Beth Ogren, who has been a good friend for more years than

I remember. She’s been waiting a long time for me to write a book about a topic she’s

interested in—so here it is, Beth

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Note: This publication contains the opinions and ideas of its author. It is intended to provide helpful and

informative material on the subject matter covered. It is sold with the understanding that the author and

publisher are not engaged in rendering professional services in the book. If the reader requires personal

assistance or advice, a competent professional should be consulted.

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Contents at a Glance

Part 1: Tones 1

1 Pitches and Clefs 3

Sing high, sing low—and learn how to describe all those different

pitches you can sing.

2 Intervals 17

What’s the shortest distance between two tones? It’s called an interval!

3 Scales 27

Do, a deer, a female deer … which happens to be as good a way as

any to describe a scale.

4 Major and Minor Keys 45

We’re not talking car keys here; nope, this chapter is all about

major and minor keys, as well as some seven-note modes that date

all the way back to the ancient Greeks.

Part 2: Rhythms 55

5 Note Values and Basic Notation 57

If you can count to four, you can figure out most rhythms—and

write them down, on paper.

6 Time Signatures 67

It looks like a fraction, but it’s not a fraction—it’s a time signature!

7 Tempo, Dynamics, and Navigation 77

How do you describe how fast and how loud a song should be

played? Read here to find out!

Part 3: Tunes 89

8 Melodies 91

When you put tones together with rhythms, what do you get?

(Hint: You can sing it!)

9 Chords 111

Major, minor, diminished, augmented—whatever you call ’em,

chords are just three notes played together.

10 Chord Progressions 127

Did you know that most folk, rock, and country music can be played

with just three chords? Now that’s a popular chord progression!

11 Phrases and Form 145

ABAC isn’t an acronym—it’s a way to describe in what order you

play all the different sections of a song.

Part 4: Accompanying 153

12 Transcribing What You Hear 155

The music goes in one ear, bounces around your brain, and ends up

written down on paper—if you do it right.

13 Accompanying Melodies 167

Time to sit down at the piano (or guitar) and play a few chords!

14 Transposing to Other Keys 177

When one key isn’t good enough, you have to move the notes to

another key.

Part 5: Embellishing 185

15 Harmony and Counterpoint 187

Or, where you find out background vocals are more than just ooohs

and aaahs and acting like a Pip or a Supreme.

16 Chord Substitutions and Turnarounds 203

If you don’t like the chords as written—change ’em!

17 Special Notation 215

All sorts of fancy notation that didn’t fit anywhere else in this book.

Part 6: Arranging 223

18 Composing and Arranging for Voices and Instruments 225

Learn how to write for specific voices and instruments—the proper

ranges, and whether and how they need to be transposed.

19 Lead Sheets and Scores 241

Turn here to see some examples of lead sheets, chord sheets, vocal

scores, big band scores, and full-blown orchestral scores.

20 Performing Your Music 257

Up, down, left, right—how to set the tempo and start conducting!

Appendixes

A The Complete Idiot’s Music Glossary 265

B The Complete Idiot’s Chord Reference 275

C Answers to Chapter Exercises 279

DThe Complete Idiot’s Guide to Music Theory, Second Edition, Ear

Training Course CD 293

Index 305

Contents

Part 1: Tones 1

1 Pitches and Clefs 3

Understanding Musical Tones ............................................................4

Tones Have Value ..............................................................................5

What’s the Frequency, Kenneth? ........................................................5

Play by Numbers ..............................................................................6

Do Re Mi ..........................................................................................7

Tones Have Names ............................................................................8

Learning the ABCs ..........................................................................8

Notes on a Piano Keyboard ................................................................9

Notes on a Staff ................................................................................9

Above—and Below—the Staff ........................................................11

Different Clefs ..................................................................................11

The Treble Clef ..............................................................................11

The Bass Clef ..................................................................................12

The Grand Staff ............................................................................12

Specialty Clefs ................................................................................13

The Percussion Clef ........................................................................14

2 Intervals 17

Be Sharp—or Be Flat ........................................................................17

Steppin’ Out … ................................................................................18

A Matter of Degrees ........................................................................19

First Things First ............................................................................19

Major and Minor Intervals ............................................................21

Perfect Intervals ..............................................................................21

Augmented and Diminished Intervals ..............................................22

Beyond the Octave ..........................................................................23

Intervals and Half Steps ..................................................................23

3 Scales 27

Eight Notes Equal One Scale ..........................................................27

Major Scales ......................................................................................28

Minor Scales ......................................................................................31

Natural Minor ................................................................................31

Harmonic Minor ............................................................................34

Melodic Minor ................................................................................35

In the Mode ......................................................................................38

Ionian ............................................................................................38

Dorian ............................................................................................39

Phrygian ........................................................................................40

Lydian ............................................................................................40

Mixolydian ......................................................................................41

The Complete Idiot’s Guide to Music Theory, Second Edition

Aeolian ..........................................................................................41

Locrian ..........................................................................................42

4 Major and Minor Keys 45

Keys to Success ................................................................................45

Using Key Signatures ......................................................................46

Major Keys ......................................................................................46

Minor Keys ....................................................................................48

The Circle of Fifths ..........................................................................50

Accidents Will Happen ....................................................................51

Changing Keys ..................................................................................52

Part 2: Rhythms 55

5 Note Values and Basic Notation 57

Taking the Measure of Things ........................................................58

Taking Note—of Notes ....................................................................58

Whole Notes ....................................................................................59

Half Notes ......................................................................................59

Quarter Notes ................................................................................60

Eighth Notes ..................................................................................61

Sixteenth Notes ..............................................................................61

Taking Count ....................................................................................62

Taking a Rest ....................................................................................62

Taking a Note—and Dotting It ........................................................63

Taking Two Notes—and Tying Them Together ............................64

Taking the Beat and Dividing by Three ..........................................64

6 Time Signatures 67

Measuring the Beats ..........................................................................67

Quarter-Note Time ........................................................................68

Eighth-Note Time ..........................................................................69

Half Time ......................................................................................71

Changing the Time ..........................................................................72

Grouping the Beats ..........................................................................72

7 Tempo, Dynamics, and Navigation 77

Taking the Pulse ................................................................................77

Beats per Minute ............................................................................78

Italian Tempo Terms ........................................................................78

Speeding Up—and Slowing Down ..................................................80

Hold That Note! ..............................................................................80

Getting Loud—and Getting Soft ....................................................81

Dynamic Markings ........................................................................81

Changing Dynamics ........................................................................81

Play It Harder ................................................................................82

More Dynamics ..............................................................................83

Contents

Finding Your Way ............................................................................83

Repeating Sections ..........................................................................84

Repeating Measures ........................................................................85

Repeating Notes ..............................................................................85

Repeating Rests ................................................................................86

Part 3: Tunes 89

8 Melodies 91

Combining Tones and Rhythms ......................................................91

Common Melodic Techniques ........................................................92

Dvorˇák’s New World Symphony ..................................................92

Bach’s Minuet in G ........................................................................93

Michael, Row the Boat Ashore ........................................................94

Pachelbel’s Canon in D ..................................................................95

Composing Your First Melody ........................................................95

What Makes a Melody Memorable? ................................................97

Center on a Pitch ............................................................................97

Make Sure You End Up at Home ....................................................98

Stay Within the Scale ......................................................................98

Use the Big Five ..............................................................................99

Find the Hook ................................................................................99

Create Variations ..........................................................................100

Write in Four—or Eight, or Sixteen ............................................100

Make It Move ..............................................................................101

Take Small Steps ..........................................................................101

Stay in Range ..............................................................................102

Avoid Unsingable Intervals ............................................................102

Keep the Rhythm Simple ..............................................................103

Stay in Time ................................................................................104

Set Up—and Resolve—Tension ......................................................104

Set Up a Call and Response ..........................................................105

Establish Symmetry ......................................................................105

Balance Repetition and Variety ......................................................106

Follow the Chord Progressions ........................................................106

Follow the Form ............................................................................107

Follow the Words ..........................................................................107

Write for a Specific Instrument or Voice ........................................108

Be Unique ....................................................................................108

Learn More About Composing ......................................................108

9 Chords 111

Forming a Chord ............................................................................112

Different Types of Chords ..............................................................112

Major Chords ................................................................................113

Minor Chords ................................................................................114

Diminished Chords ........................................................................114

vii

The Complete Idiot’s Guide to Music Theory, Second Edition

viii

Augmented Chords ........................................................................115

Chord Extensions ............................................................................116

Sevenths ........................................................................................116

Other Extensions ..........................................................................119

Altered, Suspended, and Power Chords ........................................120

Altered Chords ..............................................................................120

Suspended Chords ..........................................................................121

Power Chords ................................................................................122

Inverting the Order ........................................................................122

Adding Chords to Your Music ........................................................123

The Complete Idiot’s Chord Reference ........................................125

10 Chord Progressions 127

Chords for Each Note in the Scale ................................................127

Creating a Progression ..................................................................130

It’s All About Getting Home ..........................................................130

One Good Chord Leads to Another ..............................................131

Ending a Phrase ..............................................................................133

Perfect Cadence ............................................................................133

Plagal Cadence ..............................................................................133

Imperfect Cadence ..........................................................................133

Interrupted Cadence ......................................................................134

Common Chord Progressions ........................................................134

I-IV ..............................................................................................134

I-V ..............................................................................................134

I-IV-V ..........................................................................................135

I-IV-V-IV ....................................................................................135

I-V-vi-IV ......................................................................................135

I-ii-IV-V ......................................................................................136

I-ii-IV ..........................................................................................136

I-vi-ii-V ......................................................................................136

I-vi-IV-V ......................................................................................136

I-vi-ii-V7-ii ..................................................................................136

IV-I-IV-V ....................................................................................137

ii-V-I ............................................................................................137

Circle of Fifths Progression ............................................................137

Singing the Blues ............................................................................138

Chords and Melodies ......................................................................138

Fitting Chords to a Melody ............................................................138

Writing a Melody to a Chord Progression ......................................142

11 Phrases and Form 145

Parts of a Song ................................................................................146

Introduction ..................................................................................146

Verse ............................................................................................146

Chorus ..........................................................................................146

Bridge ..........................................................................................147

Contents ix

Instrumental Solo ..........................................................................147

Ending ..........................................................................................147

Putting It All Together ..................................................................147

Head Cases ......................................................................................148

Classical Music Forms ....................................................................149

Part 4: Accompanying 153

12 Transcribing What You Hear 155

Training Your Ear ..........................................................................155

Listening—Actively ........................................................................157

Developing Superhearing ..............................................................158

Hearing Pitch ..............................................................................158

Hearing Intervals ..........................................................................159

Hearing Rhythms ..........................................................................162

Hearing Melodies ..........................................................................162

Hearing Keys ................................................................................163

Hearing Chords and Chord Progressions ........................................163

Writing It All Down ......................................................................164

13 Accompanying Melodies 167

What’s the Score? ..........................................................................167

Working from a Lead Sheet ..........................................................168

Working from a Chord Sheet ........................................................168

Working from a Melody ................................................................169

Working from Nothing ..................................................................170

Working the Form ..........................................................................170

Playing the Part ..............................................................................170

Block Chord Accompaniment ..........................................................171

Rhythmic Accompaniment ..............................................................171

Arpeggiated Accompaniment ..........................................................173

Moving Bass ..................................................................................174

One Good Strum Deserves Another ..............................................174

14 Transposing to Other Keys 177

Move Your Notes Around ..............................................................177

Why You Need to Transpose ........................................................178

Four Ways to Transpose ................................................................179

Step-Wise Transposition ................................................................179

Degree-Wise Transposition ............................................................180

Interval-Based Transposition ..........................................................181

Software-Based Transposition ........................................................182

Part 5: Embellishing 185

15 Harmony and Counterpoint 187

Two Ways to Enhance a Melody ....................................................188

Living in Harmony ........................................................................189

Voicing and Inversions ..................................................................189

The Complete Idiot’s Guide to Music Theory, Second Edition

Making Harmony Parts More Melodic ..........................................192

Voice Leading ................................................................................192

Making a Point—with Counterpoint ............................................194

Creating Your First Counterpoint ..................................................195

What to Avoid ................................................................................198

Avoid Extended Parallel Movement ..............................................198

Avoid Big Leaps ............................................................................198

Avoid Dissonant Intervals—Unless They Resolve ............................199

16 Chord Substitutions and Turnarounds 203

Extending a Good Thing ..............................................................203

Altering the Bass ............................................................................205

Two Chords Are Better Than One ................................................205

One Good Chord Can Replace Another ......................................206

Diatonic Substitution ....................................................................206

Major Chord Substitutions ............................................................207

Minor Chord Substitutions ............................................................207

Dominant Seventh Substitutions ....................................................208

Functional Substitutions ................................................................209

Turnarounds ....................................................................................210

17 Special Notation 215

Throwing a Curve ..........................................................................215

Ties ..............................................................................................215

Slurs ............................................................................................216

Phrases ..........................................................................................216

The Long and the Short of It ........................................................217

Tenuto ..........................................................................................217

Staccato ........................................................................................217

When Is a Note More Than a Note? ............................................217

Grace Notes ..................................................................................217

Turns ............................................................................................218

Trills ............................................................................................218

Glissandos ....................................................................................219

Arpeggiated Chords ......................................................................219

Getting Into the Swing of Things ................................................219

Getting the Word ..........................................................................220

Part 6: Arranging 223

18 Composing and Arranging for Voices and Instruments 225

Vocal Arranging ..............................................................................225

Voice Characteristics ......................................................................226

Vocal Ranges ..................................................................................226

Instrumental Arranging ..................................................................227

Instrument Characteristics ............................................................227

Transposition ................................................................................230

Contents

Good Keys and Bad Keys ................................................................232

Instrumental Ranges ....................................................................232

19 Lead Sheets and Scores 241

Follow the Rules ............................................................................241

Take the Lead ..................................................................................242

Make It Simple ................................................................................243

Chord Sheets ................................................................................243

The Nashville Number System ......................................................243

Sing It Loud ....................................................................................243

Jazz It Up for Big Bands ................................................................247

Strike Up the (Concert) Band ........................................................248

Make the Big Score—for the Symphonic Orchestra ....................252

Use the Computer ..........................................................................252

20 Performing Your Music 257

Preparing the Parts ........................................................................257

Rehearsal Routines ..........................................................................258

How to Conduct Yourself ..............................................................258

Conducting in Four ......................................................................259

Conducting in Two ........................................................................260

Conducting in Three ......................................................................260

Finding the Beat ..........................................................................261

Practicing in the Real World ..........................................................261

Coda ................................................................................................262

Appendixes

A The Complete Idiot’s Music Glossary 265

B The Complete Idiot’s Chord Reference 275

C Answers to Chapter Exercises 279

DThe Complete Idiot’s Guide to Music Theory, Second Edition,

Ear Training Course CD 293

Index 305

Forewords

This is the book I wished I had in high school.

Then, along with choir and concert band, my primary outlet for music was a

rock band, and each of us would gather nightly in my garage, rehearsing, scheming,

and dreaming, trying to knock out our own music, but without a solid grasp of the

language and technical know-how. This book would have been such a big help

back then. It’s still a big help now! Music is a communicative art, and the first

persons the composer, arranger, or players must communicate with are other

musicians. To a beginner, or to the uninitiated, written music may seem like an

American trying to read Mandarin! If you wish to read and write music, this

book could be more than your first primer—it could be your Rosetta Stone.

In my own teaching, I often use The Complete Idiot’s Guide to Music Theory as a

means to jump-start the learning process for my students. Too often young

musicians and teachers alike approach music theory as a Very Hard Subject

That Must Be Learned, instead of a set of liberating tools that makes one’s

music-making easier and better. However, this book makes learning theory fun!

Michael’s diagrams, language, and wit will often contain the bit of information

that enables the student to finally grasp the material at hand, oftentimes with an

accompanying smile at the author’s language and antics. Consequently, I’ve

often found that theory teachers at all levels will employ it for its numerous

strategies, often at a time when nothing else has conveyed the concept.

Beginning with the basic terminology and concepts, Michael invites the reader to

work through a course that eventually leads them to a point where they can use

the elements and concepts of music theory to improvise or compose whatever

kind of music they’ve heard in their heads, and then present it to the rest of us,

so we can perform it, too. Each chapter contains several individual nuggets of

information: clear explanations about notation, rhythm, melody, and harmony,

along with further chapters on counterpoint, form, score layout, and even re-

hearsal technique. Each chapter is filled with tips, often with just the right kind of

language or explanation to simply illuminate the trickiest of concepts. Each bit of

technical language that is presented is done so in a logical and straightforward

fashion, often humorously, helping the reader remember the concept more easily.

This edition has added more aural skills/ear training materials—probably the single

most important skill musicians learn and continue to hone their entire lives.

Indeed, the chart that provides examples of all of the melodic intervals, based on a

number of famous melodies, is superb—invaluable to any musician! Additionally,

the accompanying compact disc provides a number of exercises: pitch recogni-

tion (often incorporating your instrument!), interval and chord identification,

rhythmic and melodic dictation, as well as some others. All these skills are valu-

able assets, and Michael ably sets you on the road to acquire them.

Making music seems to be a drive that’s inherent in all of us. We must have all of the

tools and knowledge of their use to musically reach out and express ourselves. The

Complete Idiot’s Guide to Music Theory, Second Edition, is one of the first and best tools

in your musical toolbox. And you know what the song says: “If I had a hammer … ”

—Frank Felice, Ph.D, Associate Professor of Music Theory, Composition

and Electronic Music, Butler University (www.frank-felice.com)

During the summer of 2001, I taught a class at the University of Indianapolis

for our School for Adult Learning. The class was Introduction to Music Theory

for Nonmusicians. The students would be 24 years old or older and have no

experience with music or performance other than their pleasure in listening. As

time for the class to begin neared, I felt uneasy about how I would approach

teaching and selecting a text. When the class began, I tried to cover the basics

of pitch and rhythm. But I soon realized that what I really needed to do was

start where the students were and with music with which they were familiar.

I also realized that everyone has music inside himself or herself. Music is in

time. It is regular. It occurred to me that humans all walk in time. We all speak

in time. Our bodies have a natural rhythm. We only need to find out how to

take advantage of these abilities we all share.

We have all had the experience of playing something back on our internal tape

recorder. Everyone has a memory of some piece of music. I can close my eyes

and internally hear “Take Five,” the song that Michael mentions in Chapter 6.

I first listened to it as a youngster. I still have it locked in my head. Everyone

can hear “Happy Birthday” internally. Mike will show how this trait will help

you to understand the theory of music.

Music theory is part of the written language of music. It is the written word of

this aural art, music. It is not something only intended for music students. We

don’t have to use it only to analyze a Bach fugue. It is a living part of all music.

I wish Michael’s book had been available for my class.

Music is a language. It has its own vocabulary. I teach several classes in jazz the-

ory each year. One point I like to make to my students is that they need to have

the ability to communicate with the rest of the free world. This means using

the same nomenclature all musicians use. Michael has done an outstanding job

of teaching you to speak music as musicians speak it. He also has used several

styles of music to teach the language. This stuff is not just for academe.

I was excited to read Chapter 12, “Transcribing What You Hear.” Musicians would

agree that listening and practice are of equal importance. Step by step, Michael

leads you through all the basics you need to realize the music inside you. It

doesn’t matter if you like classical, jazz, rock, or any other genre of music. This

book will allow you to understand the principles by which music is organized.

This book is not just another music theory text. This is a book about the nuts and

bolts of the music language. The presentation of material in “learnable” chunks

allows you to understand everything about the language. He is right on with the

“Least You Need to Know” section of each chapter. The exercises at the end of

each chapter serve as meaningful and helpful ways to understanding by doing.

I am convinced this book will lead you to new abilities, understanding, and

enjoyment of music.

—Harry Miedema, Assistant Professor, Director, Jazz Studies, University

of Indianapolis

Introduction

Or, Why You Need to Know a Little Theory

Back when I was in high school and college (a long time ago, and getting longer

every day), many, if not most, of my fellow students regarded music theory as

only slightly more fun than listening to paint dry. I didn’t share that opinion,

and still don’t; I think music theory is interesting and fun and an essential part

of any serious music education.

Still, if all you live for is to play your instrument (or to sing) 24 hours a day, tak-

ing time out from practicing to move a bunch of notes around on paper might

not be tremendously appealing. In fact, I believe introductory-level music the-

ory classes are the second most-skipped classes in college music schools, with

only music history classes being less well received. (Some enterprising soul is

bound to combine the two classes into a “Theory of Music History”—or “History

of Music Theory”—course, thus creating new levels of student apathy.)

I’m not sure why so many budding musicians are so down on theory. Maybe it’s

because of the way it’s presented. (Let’s face it: Some instructors can be fairly

boring when they present this material, and most music textbooks are stultify-

ingly dull.) Maybe it’s because of the way music theory resembles sentence dia-

gramming and other dreary grammar-related stuff. I don’t know; maybe to

some people, it just seems like a lot of work.

But the fact remains: Every musician needs to know some music theory.

That’s a bold statement, and one that you might take issue with. After all,

you’ve gotten this far in your music studies without knowing theory—why do

you need to start studying theory now?

Or perhaps you know of a famous musician who doesn’t know the least little bit

of music theory—and might not even know how to read music. If this person

became rich and famous without knowing the theory behind the music, why

should you have to learn that theory?

Music Theory Is Important

Famous musicians who don’t know how to read a note of music are the excep-

tion rather than the rule. Most musicians, if they want to communicate with

other musicians—to play in a band, or to teach them their songs—have to know

at least the basics about how music works. These basics—notes, chords, and so

on—are what we call music theory.

Notes and chords are the building blocks of the language of music. Music the-

ory defines the many different ways you can arrange those blocks into songs

and compositions. Without the theory, all you have is noise; applying music

theory, you can create great works of art.

Musicians apply music theory every time they sit down to play or sing—

whether they know it or not. When you read a piece of music, you’re using

The Complete Idiot’s Guide to Music Theory, Second Edition

music theory. When you write down a series of notes, you’re using music the-

ory. When you play a chord, you’re using music theory. When you sing a har-

mony line, you’re using music theory.

Even those musicians who don’t have any formal training use music theory.

When they put their hands on the piano, they might not know that they’re

playing a major ninth chord with the fourth in the bass; they do know that those

notes fit together well, even if they can’t tell you the strict chord construction.

Now, if they did have formal training, they could go beyond just playing the

notes to sharing those notes with others. Instead of pointing at their fingers and

saying “play this,” they could actually write their notes and chords down on

paper, in a format universally understood by musicians the world over. After all,

it’s a lot easier to tell someone to play a CM9/F chord than it is to say “put your

first finger here, and your second finger here,” and so on.

The knowledge of how different notes work together also helps you expand on

the simple melodies you’re currently playing. When you know theory, you

know how to accompany a melody with chords and how to voice those chords

so that they sound good to your ears. You also can learn how to turn that simple

melody into a full-blown arrangement for groups of voices and instruments, and

how to create your own melodies and compositions.

Without a knowledge of basic music theory, you won’t be able to fully express

your musical ideas; nor will you be able to share those ideas with others.

Music Theory Is Useful

Of course, it isn’t just professional musicians who need to know theory. Even if

you’re just doing it for your own personal enjoyment, a knowledge of theory

will help you better appreciate the music you play or sing.

Here’s a good example: Let’s say you’re helping out at your daughter’s school

and someone, knowing that you’re a musician, asks you to work up an arrange-

ment of “Mary Had a Little Lamb” for the upcoming school pageant. There

are two girls and one boy in the class who sing pretty well, and another boy

who knows how to play trumpet. You’ll accompany them on guitar.

This doesn’t sound like a tall order, but it’s one that requires a lot of theory to

complete. First of all, you need to know how to read and write music—which

includes the knowledge of clefs and keys and time signatures. Then you need to

know about chords and chord progressions, and how to create harmonies and

counterpoint. You also need to know how to arrange music for different voices

and instruments, and even how to transpose music from one key to another.

(That’s because the trumpet reads music in a different key from everybody else.)

You see the problem. If you don’t know your theory, you won’t be able to com-

plete this rather simple assignment. It’s as simple as that.

When you know the theory behind the music, playing and singing gets a lot more

interesting. With a little grounding in theory, it’s easier to understand why some

melodies are more appealing than others, and why certain chord progressions

work better with certain melodies. You’ll see how harmony works, which will

xvi

Introduction

really help if you’re singing background or accompanying someone on piano or

guitar. You’ll even be able to arrange music for your choir or band, or to create

your own compositions.

And here’s the neat part: Music theory isn’t hard. Once you learn the basic notes

and scales, the rest falls together fairly easily. After all, a chord is just three

notes put together. That’s all—just three notes. And a song is nothing more

than a few chords strung together in a series, along with a melody—which is

just a series of notes all in a row. Figuring out what goes where (and which

notes sound good together) is what theory is all about.

Music Theory Is for Nonmusicians

Music theory isn’t just for musicians, either. There are a lot of listeners out

there who are curious about how music is created. Just what makes a particular

song so special? Why does some music sound uplifting, and other music sound

sad? And just what are your musician friends talking about when they say things

like “cool changes” or “take this up a third”?

You don’t have to be a music student to be interested in how music works—just

as you don’t have to have a literature degree to be interested in how words and

sentences fit together. Basic music theory is for anyone who is interested in music;

the more you know, the more you can appreciate the music that you listen to.

Music Theory and Me

There are many different ways to learn music theory. Your school might have

music theory classes you can take. Your music teacher also might teach a little

theory, or know a private teacher you can study with. Or you can learn theory

the way I did: by yourself, from a book.

I taught myself music theory back when I was in eighth grade. My junior high

school had the usual general music classes, as well as choir and band, but didn’t

have any theory classes. So, because I wanted to arrange some tunes for a band

I was in, I had to teach myself the theory behind the arranging.

My theory education came from a lot of trial and error, and from two books:

Dick Grove’s Arranging Concepts: A Guide to Writing Arrangements for Stage Band

Ensembles (1972) and David Baker’s Arranging & Composing for the Small Ensemble

(1970). Both of these books are still in print today, and still as valuable as they

were back then. I recommend you check them out.

Now, if you look at the titles of those books, you’ll see that they really don’t

have anything to do with basic music theory. There’s theory in the books, of

course, but you really have to read between the lines (so to speak) to pull it out.

I would have given my right arm back then for a book that focused on beginning-

level theory, written at a level that I could comprehend.

Well, 30 years later, I wrote that book.

It’s interesting. I was a fairly serious musician throughout my junior high and

high school years, and went on to attend the prestigious Indiana University

xvii

The Complete Idiot’s Guide to Music Theory, Second Edition

School of Music, in its even more prestigious jazz studies program. But some-

thing shifted along the way, and I ended up graduating IU with a business degree,

and found myself some years later working in the book publishing industry.

After serving my time in the corporate world, I became a full-time writer, writ-

ing books about all manner of topics, from computers to business management

to home theater systems.

Then, in 2000, I wrote a music book—The Complete Idiot’s Guide to Playing Drums

(available at a bookstore near you). Things had finally come full circle, and I

was writing about the music that I loved, and lived, so many years ago.

That book led to my writing other music books, chief of which is the one you

hold in your hands—The Complete Idiot’s Guide to Music Theory. The first edition

of this book, published in 2002, became an overnight success—one of the best-

selling music theory books of all time. I’m still amazed at how well this book

has been received, and am grateful to the tens of thousands of readers who

helped to make it so successful. I’m glad to have had the opportunity to intro-

duce a new audience to the joys of music—in, I hope, a manner that is easy to

follow, reasonably comprehensive, and somewhat practical. And I’m pleased to

present this updated second edition of the book, made even more useful by the

inclusion of The Complete Idiot’s Guide to Music Theory, Second Edition, Ear

Training Course on the accompanying CD.

As to the book itself, The Complete Idiot’s Guide to Music Theory, Second Edition, is

designed to be a self-teaching tool for anyone wishing to learn music theory. The

book starts with basic notes and rhythms; advances through scales, melodies,

chords, and harmony; and ends with valuable information about accompanying,

arranging, and conducting your music. In short, it presents pretty much every-

thing you’ll need to know about music theory—for musicians of any level.

Of course, I always recommend studying with a good teacher. Even if you’re

reading this book, you can learn even more by supplementing the material in

these pages with the hands-on instruction you can get from a real human being.

To me, that’s really the best of both worlds; self-paced study accompanied by

interaction with a good music theory instructor.

What You’ll Find in This Book

However you decide to learn, I hope you find the information in this book use-

ful. I’ve arranged the material in such a way that even if you know nothing

about music or music theory, you can start on page one and progress through

the book, moving from the basics to more advanced concepts. If you do know

some theory, you can skip those chapters that you already know and go right to

the new material you want to learn. And, once you’ve learned what you need

to know, you can still use this book as a reference, to look up those scales or

chords that you never can seem to remember.

The Complete Idiot’s Guide to Music Theory, Second Edition, is composed of 20

chapters, each of which presents a different aspect of music theory. The chap-

ters are organized into six general parts, as follows:

xviii

Introduction

Part 1, “Tones,” gets you started with reading music. You’ll learn about the

notes on a piano, the intervals between different notes, and how those notes

combine into different scales. You’ll also learn about clefs and keys—both major

and minor.

Part 2, “Rhythms,” shows you how to arrange your notes sequentially in

space. You’ll learn how to count and how to notate your music, using whole

notes, half notes, quarter notes, and more. You’ll also learn about different time

signatures, and about tempo, dynamics, accents, and other musical effects.

Part 3, “Tunes,” helps you combine tones and rhythms to create your own

melodies. You’ll learn how melodies and chords are constructed; you’ll also

learn about chord progressions and different song forms.

Part 4, “Accompanying,” shows you how to make more out of your basic

melodies. You’ll learn how to write down the songs you hear on the radio, how

to accompany simple melodies on piano or guitar, and how to add harmony and

counterpoint to your songs.

Part 5, “Embellishing,” goes beyond basic theory to present advanced music

notation and show you how to transpose music to other keys. You’ll also learn

how to spice up your music by substituting more sophisticated chords in your

arrangements.

Part 6, “Arranging,” presents real-world advice for taking your music public.

You’ll learn how to create lead sheets and scores, use music notation software

to create sophisticated arrangements, arrange for groups of instruments and

voices, and get your music performed. You’ll even learn the right way to wave

the baton when you conduct a choir or orchestra!

In addition, you get four appendixes and a bonus audio CD. The appendixes

include a glossary of musical terms, a chord reference, the answers to this

book’s exercises (found at the end of each chapter), and a guide to the shiny lit-

tle compact disc that accompanies this book.

What’s on the CD

The CD that comes with this book is a fun bit of business all by itself.

Pop it into your CD player and you’ll find that it contains The Complete

Idiot’s Guide to Music Theory, Second Edition, Ear Training Course, a self-

paced audio guide to improving your musical hearing. Work through the exam-

ples and exercises on the CD to learn how to recognize scales, intervals, chords,

and rhythms. It’s a great way to learn how to understand and transcribe the music

you hear. (And you can check your answers against those supplied in Appendix D.)

While you don’t need to listen to the CD to learn from the book, I’ve tried to

tie the ear training lessons in with the content presented throughout the book.

For example, when you read Chapter 2, “Intervals,” you can listen to Lesson

Two on the CD (track #11), which lets you hear what all those intervals actually

sound like. Look for the Ear Training CD icon, like the one here, at the begin-

ning of a chapter to discover which track of the CD corresponds to the infor-

mation being presented.

xix

The Complete Idiot’s Guide to Music Theory, Second Edition

What You Need to Use This Book

Any practicing or aspiring musician can learn basic music theory from The

Complete Idiot’s Guide to Music Theory, Second Edition. You don’t need any initial

knowledge to get started; you can use this book even if you don’t know how to

read music or play an instrument.

However, it will help if you have access to some sort of keyboard instrument.

That can be a piano or organ, or some sort of inexpensive synthesizer or

consumer-grade music keyboard. It doesn’t have to be a great keyboard or a big

one; you’ll use it mainly to perform some of the examples and exercises in the

book. (You can use this book without having a keyboard, but then you’ll have to

envision some of the examples in your head.)

Most of the examples and exercises can be performed on any instrument—

piano, guitar, trumpet, or whatever. If you don’t play an instrument, you can

sing most of the exercises. If you can’t play or sing, I suggest you go the cheap

keyboard route, so that you have some way of hearing the theory presented.

It will also help if you have some blank music paper at your disposal. And, of

course, a CD player—so you can listen to The Complete Idiot’s Guide to Music

Thoery, Second Edition, Ear Training Course on the accompanying audio CD.

How to Get the Most out of This Book

To get the most out of this book, you should know how it is designed. I’ve tried

to put things together in such a way to make learning music theory both reward-

ing and fun.

Each chapter presents a basic concept of music theory, and progresses through

that concept using a combination of text and musical examples. In some chap-

ters you’ll find pages of reference material—scale listings, chord charts, and the

like—that you can turn back to whenever necessary.

At the end of each chapter are exercises based on the theory presented in that

chapter. Work through these exercises to test your newfound knowledge—and

find out what areas you need to work on a little more!

(In case you’re wondering, the answers to these exercises are in the back of the

book, in Appendix C.)

Throughout the entire book you’ll see a number of little boxes (what we in the

publishing profession call margin notes) that present additional advice and infor-

mation. These elements enhance your knowledge or point out important pit-

falls to avoid. Here are the types of boxes you’ll see scattered throughout the

book:

Introduction

Let Me Know What You Think

I always love to hear from my readers—especially when the readers are fel-

low musicians! If you want to contact me, feel free to e-mail me at

theory@molehillgroup.com. I can’t promise that I’ll answer every e-mail,

but I will promise that I’ll read each one!

I also recommend that you check out my personal website at

www.molehillgroup.com. That’s where you’ll find any corrections to this book,

as well as learn about all the new books I’ve written. (Who knows—you might

find another book you want to read!)

It’s Time to Start—in Theory, at Least!

I hope I’ve convinced you of the many benefits of learning music theory. Now it’s

time to stop talking and start doing—so turn the page and get ready to learn!

Acknowledgments

I had assistance from dozens of individuals in the creation of this book and

would like to thank the following for their help:

Thanks to the usual suspects at Alpha Books, including but not limited to Marie

Butler-Knight, Renee Wilmeth, Kathy Bidwell, and Joan Paterson, for helping

to turn my manuscript into a printed book. For the second edition of this book,

I’d also like to thank Jennifer Moore, Janette Lynn, and Cari Luna for their

additional work.

Thanks to my junior high school music teacher and lifelong friend, Phyllis

Fulford, for suggesting some important changes to the book’s outline, and for

encouraging my talents way back when.

xxi

These boxes con-

tain definitions of words or

terms pertaining to a spe-

cific aspect of music theory.

Definition

These boxes con-

tain warnings and cau-

tions about what to avoid

when you’re reading and

writing music.

Warning

These boxes contain addi-

tional information about

the topic at hand.

Note

These boxes con-

tain advice about

how best to use the

theory presented in

the main text.

Tip

The Complete Idiot’s Guide to Music Theory, Second Edition

Thanks, as well, to another old friend, Orson Mason, who helped me arrange

contact with Harry Miedema, and who also deserves many thanks for turning

me on to a lot of good jazz at the Jazz Kitchen—and great jambalaya at the

Cajun joint next door!

Thanks also to Harry Miedema for agreeing to write the original foreword for

this book.

Special thanks go to Allen Winold, professor emeritus in the Department of

Music Theory at Indiana University, for graciously taking time out of his busy

schedule (and his vacation!) to review the manuscript of the first edition of this

book. Allen jumped into this project with a very welcome enthusiasm, and his

comments and suggestions helped to make this a better book than it otherwise

would have been.

Even more thanks go to Dr. Frank Felice, composer, educator, and all-around

good guy, for providing a thorough review of this book’s audio ear training

course and for writing a new foreword for this second edition. He helped to

ensure the accuracy of the CD and accompanying text, and offered many valu-

able comments on content and approach—and helped to make the second edi-

tion of this book even better than the first.

Finally, I’d like to thank all the readers of this book’s first edition, for their kind

comments and useful suggestions. It’s you folks who made this book such a

resounding success, and I’m extremely grateful for your support.

Trademarks

All terms mentioned in this book that are known to be or are suspected of being

trademarks or service marks have been appropriately capitalized. Alpha Books

and Penguin Group (USA) Inc. cannot attest to the accuracy of this informa-

tion. Use of a term in this book should not be regarded as affecting the validity

of any trademark or service mark.

xxii

Discover the building blocks of all music: the pitches you play or sing. You’ll

learn about the notes of a scale, the different types of clefs and staves, the inter-

vals between notes, major and minor scales, and all sorts of different keys and

key signatures. (That’s a lot for just four chapters!)

Part

Tones

Pitches and Clefs

In This Chapter

◆

Understanding musical tones

◆

Assigning names to specific pitches

◆

Putting notes on a staff

◆

Using the treble, bass, and other clefs

Lesson 1, Track 2

As you can tell from the title, this is a book about music theory. But what

exactly is music theory? And, even more basic than that, what is music?

There are lots of different definitions of the word “music,” some more poetic

than practical. For example, William Shakespeare called music the “food of

love,” George Bernard Shaw called music the “brandy of the damned,” and

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz called music “sounding mathematics.”

Interesting definitions all, but not really what we’re looking for here.

Let’s try another definition:

Music is the art, the craft, and the science of organizing sound and silence

in the framework of time.

Now that’s a little more helpful, but it’s still fairly broad. This definition could

describe a tremendous range of activities—a mother singing a lullaby to her

child, an orchestra playing a Mozart symphony, a rock group performing their

latest hit, a group of Native Americans playing ceremonial drum beats, Louis

Armstrong playing trumpet in a jazz quartet, a group of sailors chanting “yo

heave ho,” or a nightingale warbling a serenade. You probably didn’t buy this

book to learn about all these things, although all of them have been called

“music,” at one time or another.

So we’ll use a slightly different definition of music in this book. This definition

is a lot more specific:

Music is a succession of tones arranged in a specific rhythm.

Chapter

Part 1: Tones

Better? This definition doesn’t cover everything that’s ever been called “music,”

but it probably covers those types of music that you’re familiar with—primarily,

twentieth-century popular music, from ragtime to reggae to rock, and every-

thing in between.

Now to the word “theory.” In scientific circles, this word is used as the formula-

tion of a hypothesis, such as Einstein’s theory of relativity. While academic

music theorists sometimes do formulate hypotheses in this scientific fashion,

that’s not what this book is about.

In our context, we’ll use the word “theory” to mean a study of the rudiments of

music—the basic things that performers and listeners need to know to produce

and enjoy this marvelous art. This goes back to the root meaning of the word,

which means “a way of looking.” If we broaden this definition to include not

just looking, but also listening and performing, then we’re set.

Now that we’ve defined our terms, it’s time to get started—and learn the theory

behind the music. To do this, we have to go back to our definition of music,

which says that music is a succession of tones, arranged in a specific rhythm. To

study music, then, we have to learn about notes, and about arranging them.

We’ll get to the “arranging in a specific rhythm” bit starting with Chapter 5.

That lets us focus our attention, for the time being, on tones.

Understanding Musical Tones

So what’s a tone? The definition is simple: a tone is a sound that is played or

sung at a specific pitch.

When you hum (go ahead …), you’re humming a tone. When you whistle, you’re

whistling a tone. When you go “aaaahhhh,” you’re sounding a tone. If you put

two or more hums, whistles, or “aaaahhhhs” together, you have music.

You can hum lots of different tones, high or low. The higher tones are referred

to as higher pitched; lower tones are called lower pitched.

Here’s an exercise: Hum a tone. Now hum a tone higher than the first tone.

What you’ve just hummed are two separate tones, at two separate pitches. The

second tone was higher pitched than the first tone.

Different voices, and different instruments, produce different ranges of tones.

For example, women tend to have higher voices than men; the tones most

women sing are higher-pitched than the tones most men sing. (There are

exceptions to this rule, of course; listen to some of the doo-wop singers of the

1950s and you’ll hear some fairly high male voices!)

In the world of musical instruments, physically larger instruments tend to pro-

duce lower-pitched tones, whereas smaller instruments tend to produce higher-

pitched tones. This is because bigger instruments move more air than smaller

ones do, and more air means a lower pitch. This is why the small cylinder of a

flute produces higher notes than the big brass tubing of a tuba, and why the

thin strings on a guitar are higher-pitched than the thick strings.

Pitch describes the

specific frequency or tun-

ing of a tone. (Frequency

is a measurement of how

fast air molecules are

vibrating.)

Definition

Some instruments produce

tones that aren’t at specific

pitches. These instruments—

such as drums and

cymbals—are called un-

pitched or nonpitched

instruments. The tones they

produce can be high or

low, but typically don’t

correspond to specific

note pitches.

Note

Chapter 1: Pitches and Clefs

Some instruments produce a broader range of tones than other instruments. In

particular, the piano has a very broad range. From the lowest tone (the key on

the far left of the keyboard) to the highest (the key on the far right), the piano

reproduces more tones than just about any other instrument—and certainly a

lot more than the human voice!

Time for another exercise: Hum the lowest tone you can hum; then gradually

raise the pitch until you’re humming the highest tone you can hum. You just

hummed a whole lot of different tones. How, then, do you describe a specific

tone so that someone else can hum the same tone?

You’ll find lots of musical terms in this book, but you need to know that musicians

tend to use a lot of these terms interchangeably. A conductor who says, “That

note was wrong,” might mean that the pitch was wrong, or that the note value

(rhythm) was wrong. That’s because the word “note” can be used in place of

either more specific definition.

Don’t get hung up on the differences between “tones” and “pitches” and “notes.”

While there are specific definitions for each word, it’s acceptable to be a little

loose on the usage. I might even substitute one word for another in this book.

You’ll understand what I mean from the context.

Note

Tones Have Value

When it comes to describing a tone, it helps to know that every tone you can

sing or play has a specific value. You can measure that value scientifically, and

use that value to describe the tone—or, more precisely, its pitch. If that’s too

complicated, you also can assign an arbitrary name to each tone. (Go ahead:

Hum a note called “Bob.”)

What’s the Frequency, Kenneth?

If you plug a microphone into an oscilloscope, and then hum a tone into the

microphone, the oscilloscope will measure the frequency of the tone. This is

actually a measurement of how fast the molecules of air are vibrating; the faster

the vibrations, the higher the pitch.

These vibrations are measured in cycles per second, and there are a lot of them.

(Cycles per second are often called hertz; abbreviated Hz.) If you hum the pitch

we call middle C (the white key in the exact center of a piano keyboard, or the

third fret on the A string of a guitar), the oscilloscope will measure 256Hz—that

is, the air is cycling back and forth 256 times per second.

So one way to identify specific pitches is by their frequency. Unfortunately,

writing out even a simple melody in terms of frequency gets a tad unwieldy.

For example, here’s the first half of “Mary Had a Little Lamb” (“Mary had a lit-

tle lamb, little lamb, little lamb”) notated by frequency:

Actually, the “standard”

pitch today is the A above

middle C, which equals

440Hz; all the other notes

are pitched in relation to

this note. In earlier times

and cultures, this note had

other values—as low as

376Hz in early eighteenth-

century France, and as

high as 560Hz in early

seventeenth-century Ger-

many (referred to as North

German church pitch).

Note

Part 1: Tones

659Hz, 587Hz, 523Hz, 587Hz, 659Hz, 659Hz, 659Hz,

587Hz, 587Hz, 587Hz,

659Hz, 783Hz, 783Hz

The specific frequencies of “Mary Had a Little Lamb.”

Not easy to read, is it?

Which is why we don’t use the frequency method to write music.

One good way to determine a specific pitch is with a tuning fork, which is a fork-

shaped piece of metal that resonates at a specific frequency when struck. Most

tuning forks resonate at 440Hz, which is the pitch A. Some people have what is

called perfect pitch, in that they can hear absolute pitches in their heads. How-

ever, most people need the guidance of a tuning fork, pitch pipe, piano, or other

musical instrument to fix a specific pitch.

Note

Play by Numbers

An easier way to designate tones is to number each individual pitch. But before

we start numbering, it helps to know a little bit about how different pitches

relate to each other.

When you hum a pitch, you can “slide” that pitch from lower to higher and

back again, which might make you think that there are an infinite number of

pitches available. (You can certainly see this when you look at frequencies; you

have one tone at 256Hz, another at 257Hz, another at 258Hz, and so on.)

Although that might be true in theory, in practice some pitches are too close

together to clearly distinguish them. For example, if you hum a 256Hz tone and

a 257Hz tone, they sound almost identical in pitch because there isn’t a big

enough interval between the tones.

We need to place a reasonable interval between tones, enough for our ears to

notice, and then assign values to those main pitches that result. What you end

up with is a series of pitches called a scale. (You’ll learn more about scales in

Chapter 2.) Each scale starts on a specific tone, and ends on a higher-pitched

version of that same tone.

In the Western world, we divide our scales into seven main notes—eight if you

count the first note, which is repeated at the end of the scale. Because there are

seven notes, it’s easy to number them—one through seven. Using this number-

ing system, here’s what the first half of “Mary Had a Little Lamb” looks like:

3 2 1 2 3 3 3

2 2 2

3 5 5

“Mary Had a Little Lamb” by the numbers.

Chapter 1: Pitches and Clefs

If you’re reading ahead and want to see how the numbering system applies to tra-

ditional music notation, here’s what the C Major scale looks like, by the numbers:

Numbering the notes in the C Major scale.

Now, not to be confusing here, but there are actually notes between some of these

main notes—enough of them that we really have twelve pitches before they start

repeating. These in-between pitches are equally spaced in what we call half steps,

where the major pitches (A, B, C, etc.) have either one or two half steps between

them, depending on the note. (I know, it’s getting confusing already …)

For the time being, we’re going to focus on the seven main notes of a scale,

since that’s easiest to understand. We’ll leave the half steps for Chapter 2. Feel

free to read ahead if you’re interested.

Do Re Mi

Another way to remember each tone is by assigning a simple syllable to each

tone. Remember the song from The Sound of Music that goes “Do, a deer, a

female deer”? That’s what we’re talking about here.

In this particular method, called Solfeggio or Solfège (pronounced sol-FEZH) ,

each of the seven notes of a scale has its own name. The following table shows

the words to use.

The Solfeggio Method

Tone Solfeggio name Pronunciation

1 Do Doh

2 Re Ray

3Mi Mee

4 Fa Fah

5 So (Sol) So

6 La Lah

7Ti Tee

8 Do Doh

Here’s what the first half of “Mary Had a Little Lamb” looks like using the

Solfeggio method:

Mi Re Do Re Mi Mi Mi

Re Re Re

Mi So So

“Mary Had a Little Lamb” in Solfeggio.

Solfeggio is a

method of naming

musical tones using

a set of syllables—

do, re, mi, and so on.

These syllables come from

the initial syllables of the

first six words to the Hymn

to St. John; the seventh syl-

lable (Ti) is derived from

the name St. John, in Latin.

Tip

Part 1: Tones

If you’re reading ahead and want to know how the Solfeggio names apply to

traditional music notation, here’s what the C Major scale looks like:

The Do Re Mis of the C Major scale.

Tones Have Names

It’s important to know that both the numbering and the Solfeggio methods are

relative ways of naming musical tones. That is, the first note in a scale is always

number one, and is always called Do. The second tone is always number two,

and is always called Re. It doesn’t matter what actual tone you start with, these

names always apply.

The problem with using relative naming is that it doesn’t tell you what precise

pitch to start with. You might start your Do Re Mi on a low pitch, and your

neighbor might start hers on a higher pitch, and your duet will end up sound-

ing like two water buffaloes in heat.

And that’s not good. (Unless you’re a water buffalo, of course.)

No, what we need is a way to designate specific pitches—without resorting to

the cumbersome frequency method.

Learning the ABCs

The accepted way of naming specific musical pitches uses the first seven letters

of the alphabet—A, B, C, D, E, F, and G. While the numbering method is rela-

tive (the number 1 can be assigned to any pitch), the letter method is absolute.

This means that A always refers to a specific frequency. When you tell someone

to sing or play an A, they’ll always sing or play the same pitch.

The only problem with this method is that you can sing or play more than one A.

Try this exercise: Sing A B C D E F G A (think “Do Re Mi Fa So La Ti Do”).

The first A and the second A should be the same tone, with the second A an

octave higher than the first A. (You’ll learn about octaves a little later in this

chapter—suffice to say it’s a way of presenting a lower or higher version of the

same note.)

You can play an A with a low pitch, and an A with a higher pitch—and other As

both below and above those. Now, all the As will have the same tone; they’re

just higher or lower versions of the basic pitch.

How, then, do you tell which A to play or sing?

Chapter 1: Pitches and Clefs

Notes on a Piano Keyboard

A good way to visualize the seven basic notes (A through G) is to look at a

piano keyboard. Each white key on the keyboard corresponds to one of these

seven main notes, as shown in the following figure. (And ignore the black keys,

for the time being.)

The white keys on a piano keyboard.

As you can see, the black and white keys on a piano form a certain pattern. If

you start in the right place, you’ll see that the black keys are arranged in groups

of threes and twos. The first white key to the left of a group of three black notes

is always assigned to the tone of F. The first white key to the left of a group of

two black notes is always assigned to C. Once you know where F and C are, you

can figure out the location of the other tones.

To figure out which A (or F or C) to play, know that the C located in the very

middle of the piano keyboard—directly underneath the manufacturer’s logo

or pull-down door handle—is called middle C. (It’s the C in the middle of the

keyboard—easy to remember.) All other notes can be described relative to mid-

dle C—as in “the F above middle C” or “the D below middle C.”

Notes on a Staff

Now that you know the seven basic notes and where they lie on a piano key-

board, how do you go about communicating those notes to others? You could

just spell out a song; if you used this method, the first half of “Mary Had a

Little Lamb” would look like this:

E D C D E E E

D D D

E G G

The notes of “Mary Had a Little Lamb.”

Now, that’s more specific than using numbers or Solfeggio, but it’s still some-

what difficult to read. A better way to notate pitches is to do so visually, using a

graphic that in some ways resembles a basic piano keyboard. This graphic is

called a staff.

Some musicians

identify the specific

pitch by placing a

number after the note

name. Using this method

(which is sometimes called

scientific pitch notation),

the lowest C on a grand

piano is notated C1. The

next C up from that is C2;

then C3, C4, and so on—

and the same for all the

other notes. (In this nota-

tion, middle C is C4.)

Tip

Part 1: Tones

The basic music staff is composed of lines and spaces, like this:

A blank staff.

As you can see, the staff has precisely five lines and four spaces. Each line or

space represents a specific pitch. The pitches are determined by the clef at the

beginning of the staff; the staff we’re looking at here uses what is called the tre-

ble clef. (There are several different types of clefs, which we’ll discuss later in

this chapter.)

The notes of a staff (treble clef).

This treble clef staff pictures the notes in the exact middle of a piano keyboard—

just above middle C. (The bottom line of the staff represents the E above mid-

dle C.) The following figure shows how the notes of the staff relate to specific

piano keys.

The notes on a staff and where they appear on a piano keyboard.

Back to “Mary Had a Little Lamb”; here’s what the first part of that song looks

like on a music staff:

The notes of “Mary Had a Little Lamb” on a music staff.

Chapter 1: Pitches and Clefs

Above—and Below—the Staff

The basic staff describes nine basic notes—five on the lines, four in the spaces.

But what about all those notes either above or below these nine notes—like that

last note in “Mary Had a Little Lamb”?

Notes higher than the F at the top of the staff are written in the lines and

spaces above the staff. For example, the first space above the staff is the first

note after F: G. The first line above the staff is the first note after G: A. You

can keep adding spaces and lines above the staff to describe higher and higher

notes, as shown in the following figure.

Notes above the staff.

Just as you can add lines and spaces above the staff, you can also add lines and

spaces below the staff to describe lower notes. For example, the first space

below the staff is the first note before E: D. The first line below the staff is

the first note before D: C. The following figure shows the first few notes below

the standard staff. By the way, the first line below the staff is middle C.

The lines you add

above or below a staff

are called ledger lines.

Definition

Notes below the staff.

Different Clefs

Up till now, we’ve been looking at a staff that represents the notes just above

middle C on the piano keyboard. The notes of this staff are determined by the

type of clef that appears at the beginning of the staff—and there are several dif-

ferent types of clefs.

The Treble Clef

The clef we’ve been working with so far is called the treble clef; it looks like this:

The treble clef.

Part 1: Tones

As you’ve already learned, in real-world terms the treble clef is positioned just

above middle C. The bottom line of the treble clef staff is an E; the top line is

an F.

The treble clef, like all clefs, fixes the position of a single pitch—from which

you can figure out where all the rest of the notes go. In the case of the treble

clef, the pitch it fixes is G, which is the second line on the staff. (If you look

closely at the treble clef itself, you see that the big round part of the clef circles

around the second line of the staff.) For this reason, the treble clef is sometimes

called the G clef—and the clef itself looks a little like a capital G.

If you ever have trouble remembering which note goes with which line or space

on a staff, here’s an easy way to remember them. The lines of the treble clef staff

are assigned, bottom to top, to the notes E, G, B, D, and F. You can remember

the lines by recalling the first letters in the phrase “Every Good Boy Does Fine.”

The spaces of the treble clef staff are assigned, bottom to top, to the notes F, A,

C, and E. You can remember the spaces by remembering the word “FACE.”

Most higher-pitched instruments and voices use the treble clef. This includes

trumpets, flutes, clarinets, and guitars, as well as singers singing the soprano,

alto, and tenor parts.

The Bass Clef

When you need to write music below the treble clef, you can use a different

clef, called the bass clef. The bass clef is positioned just below middle C, and is

sometimes called the F clef. (That’s because the two dots on the clef surround

the fourth line, which is F.)

Here’s what the bass clef looks like, with the notes of a bass clef staff:

Aclef is a graphi-

cal symbol, placed at the

beginning of a staff or

piece of music, that estab-

lishes the pitch of a spe-

cific line or space on the

staff; thus it determines the

pitch of all the other notes

on the staff.

Definition

The word bass,

as in “bass clef,” is pro-

nounced base—like the

bottom of things, not like

the fish.

Definition

The bass clef.

Most lower-pitched instruments and voices use the bass clef. This includes

trombones, tubas, bass guitars, and singers singing the bass part.

An easy way to remember the lines of the bass clef is with the phrase “Good

Boys Do Fine Always.” (The first letter of each word describes each line of the

staff, from bottom to top.) To remember the spaces of the bass clef, remember

the first letters in the phrase “All Cows Eat Grass.”

The Grand Staff

If you play or write for piano, there’s another staff you need to know. This staff,

called the grand staff, links together a treble clef staff and a bass clef staff.

(That’s because you play the piano with two hands; each staff roughly corre-

sponds to each hand.)

Chapter 1: Pitches and Clefs

The grand staff looks like this:

The grand staff.

When you use a grand staff, it’s important to note that the two staffs neatly

flow into each other. The A at the top of the bass clef extends above that staff

to a B and a C. The C is then linked to the treble clef, goes on up to a D, and

then the E on the bottom line of the treble clef.

The neat thing is that the C—which just happens to be middle C—is halfway

between each staff. So when you write a middle C on a grand staff, it might

extend down from the treble clef staff or extend up from the bass clef staff,

depending on where the surrounding notes are placed.

Specialty Clefs

There are a handful of specialty clefs you must learn, although you probably

won’t use them much. These clefs are designed for instruments whose range

doesn’t fit comfortably within the traditional treble or bass clefs.

One of the most common specialty clefs is the alto clef, shown here:

The alto clef.

The alto clef is used primarily by the viola, which is a slightly bigger version of

a violin. The pointer on this clef points at middle C, which is the third line, in

the exact middle of the staff.

The tenor clef looks a lot like the alto clef, except the pointer points at a differ-

ent line. (It still points to middle C, but middle C is positioned at a different

point on the staff.) The tenor clef looks like this, and is sometimes used by bas-

soons, bass violins, and tenor trombones.

The tenor clef.

Part 1: Tones

Although there are several other specialty clefs (including the baritone, subbass,

and French violin clefs), you probably won’t run into them too often; they’re

not widely used. However, you might run into what is called an octave clef,

which looks like a normal treble or bass clef with the number 8 either above or

below the clef. When you see this type of clef, you’re supposed to transpose the

normal treble clef notes either up (if the 8 is above the clef) or down (if the 8 is

below the clef ) an octave.

Octave clefs.

The Percussion Clef

There’s one more clef you should know, and it’s really the easiest of them all. This

clef is used when you’re writing for drums and other percussion instruments—

those that don’t play a fixed pitch. It’s called either the percussion clef or the

indefinite pitch clef, and it can be written one of two ways:

The percussion clef—version one and version two.

The neat thing about this clef is that the lines and spaces don’t correspond to

any specific pitches. Instead, you assign different instruments to different parts

of the staff.

For example, if you’re writing for drum set, you might assign the bass drum to

the bottom space, the snare drum to the third space, and two tom-toms to the

second and fourth spaces; you can put the ride cymbal on the top line of the staff.

The Least You Need to Know

◆

Music is a succession of tones arranged in a specific pattern; a tone is a

sound that is played or sung at a specific pitch.

◆

There are many different ways to describe a specific pitch. You can

describe a pitch by its vibration frequency, by where it lies numerically

compared to other pitches, or by using the Do Re Mi (Solfeggio) method.

◆

Established music notation assigns letters to the seven basic pitches, A

through G. The letters repeat as you generate higher pitches.

◆

Pitches are assigned to specific keys on a piano keyboard, and to specific

lines and spaces on a musical staff.

◆

The clef placed at the start of a staff determines which notes appear where

on the staff. The most used clef is the treble clef; the bass clef is used for

lower-pitched instruments and voices.

There really aren’t

any rules for how

to assign instru-

ments to a percus-

sion clef, so you’re pretty

much on your own. It’s

probably a good idea to

consult a few drummers or

look at a few percussion

parts to get a better idea

of how to use the percus-

sion clef.

Tip

Chapter 1: Pitches and Clefs

Exercises

Exercise 1-1

Write the name of each note below the note.

Exercise 1-2

Write the name of each note below the note.

Exercise 1-3

Write each note on the staff.

Exercise 1-4

Write each note on the staff.

Exercise 1-5

Draw the indicated clefs on the staff.

Part 1: Tones

Exercise 1-6

Write the following notes above the staff.

Exercise 1-7

Write the following notes below the staff.

Exercise 1-8

Identify the following notes on the piano keyboard.

Intervals

In This Chapter

◆

Changing pitches with sharps and flats

◆

Understanding half steps and whole steps

◆

Counting the intervals between notes

◆

Using major, minor, perfect, diminished, and augmented intervals

Lesson 2, Track 11

In the previous chapter you learned all about musical pitches: how they’re

named and how they’re presented on a staff. In this chapter we’ll go beyond

that by looking at how pitches can be raised and lowered, and how you can

describe the differences between pitches in terms of intervals.

To make things as simple as possible, we’ll discuss these pitches and intervals in

terms of the C Major scale—that is, the notes between one C on the piano key-

board and the next C above that. The basic concepts can be applied to any

scale, as you’ll see; it’s just that sticking to a single scale makes it all a little eas-

ier to grasp. (And, at least on the piano, the C Major scale is the easiest scale to

work with—it’s all white keys!)

Be Sharp—or Be Flat

As you learned in Chapter 1, the lines and spaces on a music staff correspond

exactly to the white keys on a piano. But what about those black keys? Where

are they on the staff?

When we say there are 7 main pitches in a Western musical scale (A through

G), that’s a bit of an oversimplification: There actually are 12 possible notes in

an octave, with some of them falling between the 7 main pitches.

Just count the keys between middle C and next C on the piano—including the

black keys, but without counting the second C. If you counted correctly, you

counted 12 keys, which represent 12 pitches; each pitch/key is the same interval

away from the previous pitch/key.

Chapter

Part 1: Tones

These black keys are called sharps and flats. Sharps and flats are halfway between

the pitches represented by the white keys on a piano; a sharp is above a specific

key and a flat is below a specific key.

Put another way, a sharp raises the natural note; a flat lowers the note.

Take the black key above the middle C key, for example. You can refer to this key

as C-sharp, because it raises the pitch of C. It also can be called D-flat, because

it lowers the next white key up, D. It may be a little confusing, but it’s true—

C-sharp is the same note as D-flat. And whenever you have two notes that

describe the same pitch—like C-sharp and D-flat—the notes are enharmonic.

Here are the dual names you can use for a piano’s black keys:

An interval is the

space between two pitches.

The smallest interval in

Western music is a half

step; intervals are typically

measured in the number of

half steps between the two

notes.

Definition

Two notes that

sound the same but can

be spelled differently are

called enharmonic notes.

Definition

The black keys on a piano keyboard.

On a music staff, sharps and flats are designated by special characters placed

before the affected note. These characters, called accidentals, look like this:

Any modification

to a natural note is called

an accidental. Sharps and

flats are accidentals; the

natural sign (used to return

a sharped or flatted note

to its natural state) is also

an accidental.

Definition

A sharp, a flat, and a natural sign.

That third character is called a natural. When you see a natural sign on a piece

of music, it means to return the specific note to its natural state, without any

sharps or flats.

It’s important to know that you can add sharps and flats to any note—even those

keys on a piano that don’t have black notes between them. So, for example, if

you add a flat to the C note, you lower it to the next note on the keyboard—

which happens to be B natural. (This means B natural is the same pitch as C-flat.)

Steppin’ Out …

The smallest interval in Western music is the half step. On the piano keyboard,

half steps appear between the white keys B and C and between E and F. In all

other cases they appear between a white key and a black key—for example, D

to D-sharp, or F-sharp to G.

Chapter 2: Intervals

Two half steps equal one whole step. The interval between F and G is a whole

step; the interval between B and C-sharp is also a whole step.

Now that you know about steps, it’s a little easier to understand how sharps

and flats work. When you sharpen a note, you move the pitch up a half step.

When you flatten a note, you move the pitch down a half step.

Take the note C, for example: When you add a flat to C, you take it down a half

step. Because the first key (white or black) to the left of C is the white key B,

this means C-flat equals B. When you add a sharp to C, you take it up a half

step. The first key to the right of C is the black key we call C-sharp. (This black

key is also the first key to the left of D, which means C-sharp is the same as

D-flat.)

In some musical

circles, a half step is called

asemitone, and a whole

step is called a tone.

Definition

On a guitar, a half step is

the distance of a single

fret. A whole step is the

distance of two frets.

Note

While the half step is the smallest interval in Western music, music from

other parts of the world often contains intervals smaller than a half step.

Some Indian music, for example, divides an octave into 22 steps, each

about half as large as a Western half step.

Tip

You can use the step method to describe the intervals between two notes—

although once you get more than a few steps away, the counting becomes a tad

difficult. When you’re trying to figure out which note is seven half steps above

middle C (it’s G, in case you’re counting), it’s time to use another method to

describe your intervals.

A Matter of Degrees

A more accepted way of describing intervals is to go back to the seven main

notes of a scale—and revisit the relative numbering method. You can use the

numbers of the scale to denote the basic intervals between notes, and thus apply

this numbering to any scale.

First Things First

As you learned in the previous chapter, you can use numbers to describe the

seven main notes in any scale. The first note is numbered one, the second note

is numbered two, and so on. This method of numbering actually describes the

seven degrees of a musical scale.

There also are fancy musical names you can use in place of the numbers, which

you might run into in some more formal situations. The following table pre-

sents these formal degree names.

Part 1: Tones

Degrees of the Scale

Degree Name

First (Root) Tonic

Second Supertonic

Third Mediant

Fourth Subdominant

Fifth Dominant

Sixth Submediant

Seventh Leading Note

Eighth (Octave) Tonic

There are a few more terms you need to know before we proceed. When two

notes of the exact same pitch are played by two different instruments or voices,

they’re played in unison. Two identical notes with the same name, played eight

degrees apart, form an octave. (The word octave comes from the Latin word

octo, for “eight”—because an octave is eight notes above the beginning note.)

For example, if you go from middle C to the next C up the keyboard, that’s an

octave; F to F is another octave … and so on.

These musical degrees come in handy when you’re describing intervals between

notes. Instead of counting half steps and whole steps, you can simply describe

an interval by using these relative numbers.

For example, let’s say you want to describe the interval between C and D. If you

count C as number one (the first degree), D is number two and the interval

between them is called a second. The interval between C and E (the first and

third degrees) is a third; the interval between C and F (the first and fourth

degrees) is a fourth … and so on.

Pretty easy, once you get used to it!

The following figure shows the basic intervals, starting with a unison and end-

ing with an octave, with C as the root.

All this dominant and sub-

dominant stuff will become

more important when you

learn about chord progres-

sions in Chapter 10.

Note

The lowest note of

an interval, chord, or

scale, is called the root.

Definition

The basic intervals, starting on C.

Interestingly, when you examine the frequencies of two notes, as discussed in the

previous chapter, you find that the second note in an octave is an exact multiple

of the first note. For example, the A above middle C has a frequency of 440Hz;

the A an octave above that has a frequency twice that, 880Hz. For this reason

two notes with the same name have the same sound, even if they’re pitched an

octave or more higher or lower.

Note

Chapter 2: Intervals 21

Major and Minor Intervals

When you describe intervals by degree, you still have to deal with those pitches

that fall above or below the basic notes—the sharps and flats, or the black keys

on a keyboard.

When measuring by degrees, you see that the second, third, sixth, and seventh

notes can be easily flattened. When you flatten one of these notes, you create

what is called a minor interval. The natural state of these intervals (in a major

scale) is called a major interval.

Here’s what these four intervals look like, with C as the root, in both major and

minor forms.

Major and minor intervals, starting on C.

Perfect Intervals

Certain intervals don’t have separate major or minor states (although they can

still be flattened or sharpened). These intervals—fourths, fifths, and octaves—

exist in one form only, called a perfect interval. You can’t lower these intervals to

make them minor or raise them to make them major; there’s no such thing as a

minor fifth or a major octave. The intervals, because of their acoustical proper-

ties, are perfect as-is.

Remember, in this chapter

we’re dealing with inter-

vals within a major scale.

Minor scales (described in

Chapter 3) have different

“natural” intervals between

degrees of the scale.

Note

Why is a perfect interval so perfect? It all has to do with frequencies, and with

ratios between frequencies. In a nutshell, perfect intervals sound so closely related

because their frequencies are closely related.

For example, a perfect octave has a ratio of 2:1 between the two frequencies—

the octave is twice the frequency of the starting pitch (which is called the funda-

mental). If the fundamental is 440Hz, the octave above is twice that frequency,

or 880Hz. Similarly, a perfect fifth has a ratio of 3:2, and a perfect fourth has a

ratio of 4:3. Other intervals have more complex ratios, which makes them less

perfect. For example, a perfect third has a ratio of 5:4, not quite as simple—or

as perfect.

Put into a series, each increasingly complex interval ratio forms what is called a

harmonic series, and the intervals (in order) are called harmonics. But don’t get

hung up on all the math; what’s important is that you know what the perfect inter-

vals are, not the math behind them.

Note

Part 1: Tones

Here are the three perfect intervals, with C as the root.

Three perfect intervals, starting on C.

Augmented and Diminished Intervals

Okay, now you know that perfect intervals can’t be major or minor. That doesn’t

mean that they can’t be altered, however. You can raise and lower fourths and

fifths—however, the result is not called major or minor. When you raise a per-

fect interval a half step, it’s called an augmented interval. When you lower a per-

fect interval a half step, it’s called a diminished interval. So don’t call the new

intervals major or minor—call them augmented or diminished.

For example, if you use C as the root, F is a perfect fourth away from the root.

If you sharpen the F, the resulting note (F-sharp) is an augmented fourth above

the root.

Along the same lines, G is a perfect fifth above C. When you flatten the G, the

resulting note (G-flat) is a diminished fifth above the root.

Here are the key augmented and diminished intervals, with C as the root.

An augmented fourth and

a diminished fifth are

enharmonically the same

note.

Note

Augmented and diminished intervals, starting on C.

Now, just to confuse things, other types of intervals can also be called dimin-

ished and augmented—and these intervals have nothing to do with the perfect

intervals.

To start, you can also create a diminished interval by lowering a minor interval

by another half step. For example, F to D-flat is a minor sixth; if you flatten the

D-flat (yes, there’s such a thing as a double flat), the resulting interval is called a

diminished sixth.

You can also create an augmented interval by raising a major interval by another

half step. For example, F to A is a major third; if you sharpen the A (to A-

sharp), the resulting interval is an augmented third.

Fortunately, you don’t have to deal with either type of diminished or augmented

interval that often. But you still need to know what they are, just in case!

Chapter 2: Intervals

Beyond the Octave

You don’t have to stop counting intervals when you get to the octave. Above the

octave are even more intervals—ninths, tenths, elevenths, and so on.

Intervals that span more than an octave are called compound intervals because

they combine an octave with a smaller interval to create the larger interval. For

example, a ninth is nothing more than an octave and a second; an eleventh is an

octave and a fourth … and so on.

The following table describes the first six intervals above the octave.

Compound Intervals

Interval Combines

Ninth Octave plus second

Tenth Octave plus third

Eleventh Octave plus fourth

Twelfth Octave plus fifth

Thirteenth Octave plus sixth

Fourteenth Octave plus seventh

Compound intervals can have all the qualities of smaller intervals, which means

a compound interval can be (depending on the interval) major, minor, perfect,

augmented, or diminished.

Intervals and Half Steps

It might be easier for you to think of all these intervals in terms of half steps. To

that end, the following table shows how many half steps are between these

major and minor intervals.

Half Steps Between Intervals

Interval Number of Half Steps

Perfect unison 0

Minor second 1

Major second 2

Minor third 3

Major third 4

Perfect fourth 5

Augmented fourth 6

Diminished fifth 6

Perfect fifth 7

Minor sixth 8

Major sixth 9

continues

Part 1: Tones

Half Steps Between Intervals (continued)

Interval Number of Half Steps

Minor seventh 10

Major seventh 11

Octave 12

Minor ninth 13

Major ninth 14

Minor tenth 15

Major tenth 16

Perfect eleventh 17

Augmented eleventh 18

Diminished twelfth 18

Perfect twelfth 19

Minor thirteenth 20

Major thirteenth 21

Minor fourteenth 22

Major fourteenth 23

What you’ve learned so far is traditional Western music notation—but it’s not the

only way to notate musical pitches. Some educators today use what is called the

Mod-12 system to teach notes and intervals. In this system, the intervals between

the 12 half steps in an octave are numbered, from 0 to 11. (If you count the

zero, that adds up to 12 intervals.)

For example, the interval we call unison has zero half steps between notes, and

is called “interval 0.” The interval we call a minor third has three half steps, and

is called “interval 3.”

The nice thing about using this system is that you don’t have to worry about

enharmonics. A diminished fifth and an augmented fourth both have six half

steps, and are both called “interval 6.”

You can also use the Mod-12 system to describe individual notes—based on their

interval from tonic. Tonic, of course, is note 0. The minor second degree is note 1,

and the major second degree is note 2. If you wanted to describe the tonic, the

major third degree, and the perfect fifth degree, you’d use the numbers 0, 4, and 7.

While many people like to use the Mod-12 system to teach intervals, I prefer the

old-fashioned method presented here in this chapter—for the sole reason that this

is what you’ll run into in the real world. When you’re playing in a concert band

or a jazz trio, you won’t hear other musicians say “play 4, 7, 11.” You will hear

them say “play the major third, fifth, and major seventh.”

Still, if Mod-12 works for you, use it. It’s a perfectly acceptable way to learn the

12 tones we use in Western music—and it makes it a lot easier to deal with

enharmonic notes.

Note

Chapter 2: Intervals

And take special note of those intervals that are enharmonically identical—such

as the augmented fourth and the diminished fifth. What you call that particular

interval depends on which direction you’re heading, and which notation is the

easiest to read in a given piece of music.

The Least You Need to Know

◆

The smallest interval between any two notes is called a half step. Two half

steps equal one whole step.

◆

A sharp raises the value of a note by a half step. A flat lowers the value of a

note by a half step.

◆

The intervals between any two notes are described in terms of degree. For

example, the interval between the first and third notes is called a third.

◆

In a major scale, seconds, thirds, sixths, and sevenths are called major

intervals. You can create a minor interval by flattening these notes.

◆

In a major scale, fourths, fifths, and octaves are called perfect intervals.

When you flatten a perfect interval, you create a diminished interval;

when you sharpen a perfect interval, you create an augmented interval.

Exercises

Exercise 2-1

Add sharps before each of these notes.

Exercise 2-2

Add flats before each of these notes.

Exercise 2-3

Enter a new note an octave above each of the following notes.

Part 1: Tones

Exercise 2-4

Enter a new note a specified number of half steps from the previous note.

Exercise 2-5

Name each of the following intervals.

Exercise 2-6

Using the first note as the root, enter a second note to create the specified interval.

Exercise 2-7

Using sharps, flats, and naturals, change the following major intervals to minor.

Exercise 2-8

Using sharps, flats, and naturals, change the following minor intervals to major.

Scales

In This Chapter

◆

Putting eight notes together to form a scale

◆

Creating major and minor scales

◆

Discovering the different modes within a major scale

Lesson 3, Track 24

In the first two chapters we discussed the seven key notes (A through G), and

how they relate to each other. We also tossed around the word “scale” to

describe all seven of those notes together.

In this chapter we further examine the concept of the musical scale, which (no

surprise) is seven notes all in a row, in alphabetical order. (If you count the first

note, repeated an octave higher at the top of the scale, it’s eight notes.)

What might be surprising is that there are so many different types of scales.

You can have a major scale, a minor scale (three different types of minor scales,

actually), or any number of different modes within a scale. It sounds confusing,

but it’s really fairly simple once you understand how scales are constructed,

using different intervals between the various notes.

(What’s a mode, you ask? You’ll have to read this entire chapter to find out!)

Scales are important because you use them to create melodies, which you’ll

learn about in Chapter 8. In fact, you can create a nice-sounding melody just by

picking notes from a single major scale. For example, use the C Major scale

(the white notes on a piano) and pick and choose notes that sound good when

played together. Make sure you start and end your melody on the C note itself,

and you’ve just written a simple song.

Eight Notes Equal One Scale

A scale is, quite simply, eight successive pitches within a one-octave range. All

scales start on one note and end on that same note one octave higher.

Chapter

Part 1: Tones

For example, every C scale starts on C and ends on C; an F scale starts on F

and ends on F; and they all have six more notes in between.

The eight notes of a scale; C Major, in this instance.

The first note of a scale is called the tonic, or first degree, of the scale. Not

surprisingly, the second note is called the second degree, the third note is called

the third degree, and so on—until you get to the eighth note, which is the

tonic again.

The major exception to the eight-note scale rule is the scale that includes all

the notes within an octave, including all the sharps and flats. This type of scale

is called a chromatic scale, and (when you start with C) looks something like this:

The C chromatic scale; the top staff shows the scale using sharps, the bottom staff shows the scale

using flats.

Now, any given scale has specific relationships between the different degrees of

the scale. That’s how you can describe different types of scales: A major scale

has different intervals between specific notes from those you’ll find in a similar

minor scale. These different intervals give each type of scale its unique sound.

The most common scale is called the major scale. Major scales are happy scales;

they have pleasant and expected intervals at every turn. (Just sing “Do Re Mi Fa

So La Ti Do” and you’ll hear this pleasant quality.)

The mirror image of the major scale is the minor scale. Minor scales are sad

scales; the intervals between the notes sound a little depressing.

Both major and minor scales can start on any note—from A-flat to G-sharp. No

matter which note you start with, each scale has its own specific combination of

intervals between notes.

The following sections go into more detail about both major and minor scales.

Major Scales

What makes a major scale major are the specific intervals between the notes of

the scale. Every major scale uses the same intervals, as shown in the following

table.

Most musicians

don’t capitalize the word

“minor,” or any of its

abbreviations. Major chord

notation is (almost) always

capitalized, and minor

chord notation is (almost)

always lowercase.

Warning

Chapter 3: Scales

The Intervals of the Major Scale

Note Half Steps to Next Note

Tonic 2

Second 2

Third 1

Fourth 2

Fifth 2

Sixth 2

Seventh 1

Put another way, the intervals in a major scale go like this: whole, whole, half,

whole, whole, whole, half.

If you start your major scale on C (the C Major scale), you end up playing all

white keys on the piano. C Major is the only major scale that uses only the

white keys; all the other scales have black keys in them.

To make things easier for you, the following table shows all the notes in the 15

major scales:

The 15 Major Scales

Scale Notes

C Major

C-sharp Major

D-flat Major

D Major

E-flat Major

E Major

continues

Part 1: Tones

The 15 Major Scales (continued)

Scale Notes

F Major

F-sharp Major

G-flat Major

G Major

A-flat Major

A Major

B-flat Major

B Major

C-flat Major

Note that several of these scales are enharmonic. (Remember that word from

Chapter 1? It means two notes that are identical, but spelled differently.) So

C-sharp Major and D-flat Major are just different ways of describing the same

notes, as are F-sharp Major and G-flat Major, and B Major and C-flat Major.

Chapter 3: Scales 31

Minor Scales

Minor scales sound a little less “up” than major scales. This is partly because

the third note of the minor scale is a minor interval, whereas the third note of

the major scale is a major interval. That little half step between a minor third

and a major third makes all the difference in the world!

Not to confuse you; however, whereas there was a single type of major scale,

there actually are three types of minor scales: natural, harmonic, and melodic.

We’ll look at each scale separately.

Natural Minor

The easiest minor scale to construct is the natural minor scale. You can think of

the natural minor in terms of its corresponding major scale. When you start

and end a major scale on the sixth note, instead of the tonic, you get a natural

minor scale.

Here’s an example: Play a C Major scale (C D E F G A B C). Now move up to

the sixth note—or just move down two notes. (It’s the same thing—up six or down

two—both put you on the A.) Now play an eight-note scale, but using the notes

in C Major. What you get—A B C D E F G A—is the A minor (natural) scale.

As you can see, each natural minor scale shares the same tones as a specific

major scale. The following table shows you which minor scales match up with

which major scales.

Relative Major and Minor Scales

Major Scale Related Natural Minor Scale

C Major A minor

C-sharp Major A-sharp minor

D-flat Major B-flat minor

D Major B minor

E-flat Major C minor

E Major D-flat (C-sharp) minor

When you’re playing a piece of music, you typically stay within the

notes of the designated scale. Any notes you play outside the scale are

called chromatic notes; notes within the scale are said to be diatonic.

For example, in the C Major scale, the note C is diatonic; the note

C-sharp would be chromatic.

Even though chromatic notes might sound “different” than the normal scale notes,

they can add color to a piece of music. (That’s where the term comes from, by

the way; chroma means “color.”)

Tip

If you start your natural

minor scale on A (the A

minor scale), you will play

all white keys on the piano.

The A natural minor scale

is the only minor scale that

uses only the white keys;

all the other scales have

black keys in them.

Note

continues

Part 1: Tones

Relative Major and Minor Scales (continued)

Major Scale Related Natural Minor Scale

F Major D minor

F-sharp Major D-sharp minor

G-flat Major E-flat minor

G Major E minor

A-flat Major F minor

A Major F-sharp (G-flat) minor

B-flat Major G minor

B Major G-sharp minor

C-flat Major A-flat minor

Every natural minor scale uses the same intervals, as shown in the following

table.

The Intervals of the Natural Minor Scale

Note Half Steps to Next Note

Tonic 2

Second 1

Third 2

Fourth 2

Fifth 1

Sixth 2

Seventh 2

Put another way, the intervals in a natural minor scale go like this: whole, half,

whole, whole, half, whole, whole.

To make things easier for you, the following table shows all the notes in the 15

natural minor scales.

The 15 Natural Minor Scales

Scale Notes

C minor ***INSERT FIGURE 03FIG18

C-sharp minor

Chapter 3: Scales

Scale Notes

D minor

D-sharp minor

E-flat minor

E minor

F minor

F-sharp minor

G minor

G-sharp minor

A-flat minor

A minor

A-sharp minor

B-flat minor

B minor

Part 1: Tones

Harmonic Minor

The harmonic minor scale is similar to the natural minor scale, except the sev-

enth note is raised a half step. Some musicians prefer this type of minor scale

because the seventh note better leads up to the tonic of the scale.

The following table details the intervals between the notes in the harmonic

minor scale.

The Intervals of the Harmonic Minor Scale

Note Half Steps to Next Note

Tonic 2

Second 1

Third 2

Fourth 2

Fifth 1

Sixth 3

Seventh 1

Put another way, the intervals in a harmonic minor scale go like this: whole,

half, whole, whole, half, whole and a half, half.

To make things easier for you, the following table shows all the notes in the 15

harmonic minor scales.

The 15 Harmonic Minor Scales

Scale Notes

C minor

C-sharp minor

D minor

D-sharp minor

E-flat minor

The seventh note of any

scale is sometimes called

the leading note because

it leads up to the tonic of

the scale.

Note

Chapter 3: Scales

Scale Notes

E minor

F minor

F-sharp minor

G minor

G-sharp minor

A-flat minor

A minor

A-sharp minor

B-flat minor

B minor

Note: The “x” you see before several of the notes in the previous table is a dou-

ble sharp. It means you raise the base note two half steps.

Melodic Minor

The only problem with the harmonic minor scale is that the interval between

the sixth and seventh notes is three half steps—and you seldom have an interval

in a scale wider than two half steps. (It’s just too awkward to sing.) So the

Part 1: Tones

melodic minor scale raises both the sixth and seventh notes of the natural minor

scale by a half step each, resulting in the following intervals:

The Intervals of the Melodic Minor Scale

Note Half Steps to Next Note

Tonic 2

Second 1

Third 2

Fourth 2

Fifth 2

Sixth 2

Seventh 1

Put another way, the intervals in the melodic minor scale go like this: whole,

half, whole, whole, whole, whole, half.

To make things easier for you, the following table shows all the notes in the 15

melodic minor scales.

The 15 Melodic Minor Scales

Scale Notes

C minor

C-sharp minor

D minor

D-sharp minor

E-flat minor

E minor

Chapter 3: Scales

Scale Notes

F minor

F-sharp minor

G minor

G-sharp minor

A-flat minor

A minor

A-sharp minor

B-flat minor

B minor

As if three minor scales weren’t enough to deal with, some music theorists use

this melodic minor scale only when you’re going “up” the scale. (They call this

the ascending melodic minor scale.) Going back down (the descending melodic minor

scale), they use the notes in the natural minor scale. So the sixth and the seventh

degrees are raised on the way up, but not on the way down. Theorists are split

on this issue, however; some use the melodic minor scale both ascending and

descending, and others use the two different scales. It’s okay to use a single scale,

as presented here, as long as you’re aware of the alternate way of doing things.

Part 1: Tones

In the Mode

If a scale is a combination of eight successive notes (in alphabetical order, of

course), do any eight notes make a scale?

Not necessarily.

Once you get past the major and minor scales, all the other eight-note combi-

nations aren’t technically called scales; they’re called modes.

Modes date all the way back to the ancient Greeks, and the findings of Pythagoras

and Aristotle. In fact, it was Aristotle’s student, Aristoxenus, who formalized the

Greek scheme of modes, which included the Dorian, Ionian, Lydian, and Phrygian.

The name of each mode was based on the final note of the mode.

The number and use of modes were expanded in the era of the medieval church,

where they were called church modes and used in the form of plainsong called

Gregorian chant. The last discovered mode, Locrian, is actually a theoretical

mode; it was never used in the same context as the other church modes.

Chronologically, modes were around long before scales. The major and minor

scales we use today came after the introduction of the various modes, and were,

in fact, based on the Ionian and Aeolian modes, respectively.

Note

There are seven essential modes, each of which can be thought of as starting on

a different degree of the major scale. You stay within the relative major scale;

you just start on different notes.

For example, the Dorian mode starts on the second degree of the major scale.

In relation to the C Major scale, the Dorian mode starts on D, and continues

upward (D, E, F, G, A, B, C, D). The same holds true for the Phrygian mode,

which starts on the third degree of the related major scale—in C Major: E, F,

G, A, B, C, D, E.

Modes are important when you’re constructing melodies. When you create a

melody based on a specific mode, you get to create a different sound or feel while

staying within the notes of a traditional major scale. You just start and stop in

different places. (Melodies based around specific modes are called modal melodies.)

Ionian

If you’re a musician, you play the Ionian mode all the time without really

knowing it. That’s because the Ionian mode starts on the tonic of the related

major scale—and contains the exact same notes as the major scale.

The following table details the half steps between the notes of the Ionian mode.

While it’s convenient to

think of modes in relation

to a specific major scale,

modes are arrangements

of intervals in and of them-

selves. In practice, any

mode can start on any

note.

Note

Chapter 3: Scales

The Intervals of the Ionian

Note Half Steps to Next Note

Tonic 2

Second 2

Third 1

Fourth 2

Fifth 2

Sixth 2

Seventh 1

The C Ionian mode consists of the following notes:

The C Ionian mode—just like the C Major scale.

Dorian

The Dorian mode can be thought of as starting on the second note of a major

scale. It sounds a little like a natural minor scale, but with a raised sixth. (To get

an idea what Dorian mode sounds like, listen to the Simon & Garfunkel song

“Scarborough Fair”; it’s composed entirely in Dorian mode.)

The intervals between notes in the Dorian mode are as follows.

The Intervals of Dorian Mode

Note Half Steps to Next Note

Tonic 2

Second 1

Third 2

Fourth 2

Fifth 2

Sixth 1

Seventh 2

D Dorian is relative to the key of C, and consists of the following notes:

D Dorian mode, relative to the key of C.

Part 1: Tones

Phrygian

The Phrygian mode can be thought of as starting on the third note of the

related major scale. Like the Dorian mode, it sounds like a natural minor

scale—but with a lowered second degree.

The intervals between notes in the Phrygian mode are as follows.

The Intervals of the Phrygian Mode

Note Half Steps to Next Note

Tonic 1

Second 2

Third 2

Fourth 2

Fifth 1

Sixth 2

Seventh 2

E Phrygian is relative to the key of C, and consists of the following notes:

E Phrygian mode, relative to the key of C.

Lydian

The Lydian mode can be thought of as starting on the fourth note of a major

scale. It’s an almost-major scale, but with a raised fourth.

The intervals between notes in the Lydian mode are as follows.

The Intervals of the Lydian Mode

Note Half Steps to Next Note

Tonic 2

Second 2

Third 2

Fourth 1

Fifth 2

Sixth 2

Seventh 1

Chapter 3: Scales

F Lydian mode is relative to the key of C, and consists of the following notes:

F Lydian mode, relative to the key of C.

Mixolydian

The Mixolydian mode can be thought of as starting on the fifth note of the

related major scale. Like the Lydian mode, it’s sort of major sounding, but in

this case with a lowered seventh.

The intervals between notes in the Mixolydian mode are as shown in the fol-

lowing table.

The Intervals of the Mixolydian

Note Half Steps to Next Note

Tonic 2

Second 2

Third 1

Fourth 2

Fifth 2

Sixth 1

Seventh 2

In the key of C, the Mixolydian mode consists of the following notes:

The Mixolydian mode in the key of C.

Aeolian

The Aeolian mode contains the exact same notes as the natural minor scale. It

can be thought of as starting on the sixth note of the related major scale.

The intervals between notes in the Aeolian mode are as follows.

Part 1: Tones

The Intervals of the Aeolian Mode

Note Half Steps to Next Note

Tonic 2

Second 1

Third 2

Fourth 2

Fifth 1

Sixth 2

Seventh 2

You use the Aeolian mode a lot when you play blues and jazz tunes. A Aeolian is

relative to the key of C, and consists of the following notes:

A Aeolian mode, relative to the key of C.

Locrian

The Locrian mode can be thought of as starting on the seventh note of the

related major scale. It’s probably the weirdest sounding of all the modes,

because all the leading notes are in all the wrong places.

Back in olden times, Locrian was a mode that existed in theory only; it wasn’t

used in actual music. Today, however, the Locrian mode is used in some jazz

music, and in some new music compositions.

The intervals between notes in the Locrian mode are as follows.

The Intervals of the Locrian Mode

Note Half Steps to Next Note

Tonic 1

Second 2

Third 2

Fourth 1

Fifth 2

Sixth 2

Seventh 2

Chapter 3: Scales

B Locrian is relative to the key of C, and consists of the following notes:

B Locrian mode, relative to the key of C.

The Least You Need to Know

◆

A scale consists of eight notes whose letter names are in successive alpha-

betical order.

◆

Scales can be either major or minor. (And there are three different types of

minor scales!)

◆

All major scales have the same intervals between different notes, no matter

what note they start on.

◆

A mode, like a scale, consists of eight notes in a row—but aren’t limited to

just major and minor. Modes are derived from the ancient Greeks and

(later) the medieval church, and can be thought of as starting on different

degrees of the related major scale.

Exercises

Exercise 3-1

Name the following major scales.

Exercise 3-2

Name the following minor scales.

Part 1: Tones

Exercise 3-3

Enter the notes for the following major scales.

Exercise 3-4

Enter the notes for the following minor scales.

Exercise 3-5

Name the natural minor scales related to the following major scales, and enter the notes for those scales.

Exercise 3-6

Enter the notes for the following modes, within the C Major scale.

Major and Minor Keys

In This Chapter

◆

Understanding major and minor keys

◆

Determining key by using key signatures

◆

Using the circle of fifths

◆

Applying accidentals and changing keys

If you’re writing music within the C Major scale, you have it easy. All the notes

fall in the lines and spaces of the treble and bass clefs; no sharps or flats are nec-

essary. (And, if you’re playing the piano, you don’t have to use those tricky black

keys!)

However, if you’re writing music using another scale, you have to use acciden-

tals to raise and lower notes beyond the white keys on the piano keyboard. For

example, if you’re using the F Major scale, you have a pesky B-flat to deal with.

Now, you could put a flat sign in front of every B-flat in your music. However,

you’ll end up writing a lot of flats—which is a major pain in the butt.

Fortunately, there’s an easy way to designate consistent flats and sharps throughout

an entire piece of music, without noting each and every instance. This approach

requires the knowledge of musical keys—which just happen to correspond to the

musical scales we discussed in the previous chapter.

Keys to Success

When a piece of music is based on a particular musical scale, we say that music

is in the “key” of that scale. For example, a song based around the C Major

scale is in the key of C Major. A song based around the B-flat Major scale is in

the key of B-flat Major.

When you assign a key to a piece of music (or to a section within a larger piece),

it’s assumed that most of the notes in that music will stay within the correspond-

ing scale. So if a piece is written in A Major, most of the notes in the melody

and chords should be within the A Major scale. (There are exceptions to this, of

course; they’re called accidentals; they’re discussed later in this chapter.)

Chapter

Part 1: Tones

Using Key Signatures

One of the convenient things about assigning a particular key to a piece of

music is that it enables you to designate the appropriate sharps and flats up

front, without having to repeat them every time they occur in the music.

Here’s how it works.

You designate a key by inserting a key signature at the very start of the music,

next to the first clef on the first staff. This key signature indicates the sharps

and flats used in that particular key. Then, when you play through the entire

piece, you automatically sharpen and flatten the appropriate notes.

For example, let’s say you write a song around the F Major scale. The F Major

scale, if you recall, has one flatted note: B-flat. So next to the first clef on the

first staff, you put a flat sign on the B line. Now, when you play that song,

every time you see a B, you actually play B-flat.

The key signature for the key of F—note the flat sign on the B line, indicating the automatic

B-flat.

The same would apply if you were playing in the key of G, which has one sharp:

F-sharp. You put a sharp sign on the top F line on the first staff; then every

time you see an F, you play an F-sharp.

Major Keys

Just as there are 15 major scales (including three enharmonics), there are 15

major keys; each with its own key signature. The following table shows what

each key of these key signatures looks like, along with its corresponding scale.

The 15 Major Keys

Key Key Signature and Scale

C Major

C-sharp Major

D-flat Major

Chapter 4: Major and Minor Keys

Key Key Signature and Scale

D Major

E-flat Major

E Major

F Major

F-sharp Major

G-flat Major

G Major

A-flat Major

A Major

B-flat Major

B Major

C-flat Major

Part 1: Tones

Minor Keys

The key signatures used to indicate major keys also can represent natural minor

keys. As you remember from Chapter 3, a natural minor scale is based on the

same notes as a major scale, but starts on the sixth note of the scale. This same

method applies to keys, so that (for example) the key of A minor uses the same

notes—and the same key signature—as C major.

The following table shows the 15 minor keys, with their corresponding key sig-

natures and scales.

The 15 Minor Keys

Same as This

Scale Notes Major Key

A minor C Major

A-sharp minor C-sharp Major

B-flat minor D-flat Major

How can you quickly determine which key signature you’re looking at?

It depends on whether the key signature contains sharps or flats.

If the key signature includes flats, the key (no pun intended) is to look at

the next-to-last flat—the one that’s next to the farthest one on the right.

This note determines the key signature.

For example, if a key signature has two flats, you look at the next-to-last flat and

determine that the key is B-flat, which it is. If the key signature has three flats, you

look at the next-to-last flat, and determine that the key is E-flat. It’s pretty easy.

But what do you do if there’s only one flat? There’s no next-to-last flat! For the key

signature with a single flat, the key is F. You’ll have to memorize that one, as you

will the key with no flats or sharps—which is the key of C.

If the key signature includes sharps, the method is different. What you want to

remember here is that the last sharp in the key signature represents the seventh

degree of that particular scale, so that the tonic of the scale is the next note up.

In other words, look at the last sharp and the next note up is the key.

Take, for example, the key signature with one sharp. That sharp is on the note F-

sharp, so the next note up tells you that the key is G. If the key signature has two

sharps, the last one is on the note C-sharp, and the next note up is D—which is

your key. And so on for all the other sharp key signatures.

Tip

Chapter 4: Major and Minor Keys 49

Same as This

Scale Notes Major Key

B minor D Major

C minor E-flat Major

C-sharp minor E Major

D minor F Major

D-sharp minor F-sharp Major

E-flat minor G-flat Major

E minor G Major

F minor A-flat Major

F-sharp minor A Major

G minor B-flat Major

G-sharp minor B Major

A-flat minor C-flat Major

Part 1: Tones

The Circle of Fifths

There’s a quick way to remember how many sharps or flats to include with each

key signature. This method is called the circle of fifths; it works like this.

Starting with the key of C, for every perfect fifth you move up, you add a sharp.

So the key of G (a perfect fifth up from C) has one sharp. The key of D (a per-

fect fifth up from G) has two sharps … and so on.

The circle of fifths works in the other direction for flats. For every perfect fifth

you move down from C, you add a flat. So the key of F (a perfect fifth down

from C) has one flat. The key of B-flat (a perfect fifth down from F) has two

flats … and so on.

The following drawing shows how all the major keys relate in the circle of

fifths. When you move clockwise around the circle, you’re moving up through

the fifths (and the sharp keys); when you move counterclockwise, you’re mov-

ing down through the fifths (and the flat keys).

All the major keys are a fifth apart in the circle of fifths.

The next figure shows the circle of fifths for the 15 minor keys. It works just the

same as the major-key circle; move clockwise for the sharp keys, and counter-

clockwise for the flat keys.

The circle of fifths works for minor keys, too.

Chapter 4: Major and Minor Keys

Accidents Will Happen

When you assign a key signature to a piece of music, it’s assumed that all the

following notes will correspond to that particular key. How, then, do you indi-

cate notes that fall outside that key?

First, it should be noted that you can play outside a key. For example, it’s okay

to play the occasional B natural when you’re in the key of F, which normally has

a B-flat. No one will arrest you for it—in fact, certain types of music regularly

employ nonscale notes.

When you decide to write a note that isn’t within the current key, you have to

manually indicate the change in the music—by using sharp, flat, or natural

signs. When musicians see the inserted sharp, flat, or natural, they know to play

the note as written, rather than as indicated by the music’s key signature.

These “outside the key” notes are called accidentals or chromatic notes; they’re

quite common.

For example, let’s say a piece of music is in the key of F, which has only one flat

(B-flat). You want your melody to include an E-flat, which isn’t in the key. So

when you get to that note, you insert a flat sign before the E to indicate an

E-flat. It’s as simple as that.

Jazz and blues music often

add flatted thirds and sev-

enths within the desig-

nated major key, which

give these styles their

unique sound.

Note

Use accidentals to indicate notes outside the current key signature.

The same theory would apply if you want to include a B natural in the same

piece, instead of the expected B-flat. If you simply insert a natural sign before

the B, you’ve accomplished your mission.

When you change a note with an accidental, that accidental applies until the

end of the current measure. At the start of the next measure, it’s assumed that all

notes revert to what they should be, given the current key. So if you flat an E in

measure one of an F Major melody, the first E you write in measure two will be

assumed to be natural; not flatted.

The one exception to this rule occurs when you tie a note from the end of one

measure to the beginning of the next. The accidental carries over—thanks to the

tie—to that first note in the second measure, as you can see in the following exam-

ple. (Ties are explained in Chapter 5.) Note that the accidental doesn’t apply to

any subsequent notes in the second measure; it applies only to the tied note.

An accidental

applies only from that

point in the measure to the

end of the measure. It

doesn’t affect those notes

in the measure before the

accidental appears.

Warning

Accidentals apply to all notes tied over a measure.

Part 1: Tones

If you think other musicians might be confused about whether a note has

reverted back to normal, it’s okay to use a courtesy sharp, flat, or natural sign.

(This is a sign placed within parentheses.) This reminds the reader that the note

has reverted back to its normal state. You don’t have to use courtesy signs like

this, but when the music is complicated, it can be quite helpful.

A courtesy accidental reminds musicians that a changed note has reverted back to normal.

Changing Keys

Some long pieces of music don’t always use the same key throughout the entire

piece. In fact, some short pop songs change keys midway through. It’s allowed.

When you change keys in the middle of a song, it’s called modulating to another

key. You can modulate to any key, although the most common modulations are

up a half step (from E Major to F Major, for example), or up a fourth or fifth

(from E Major to either A Major or B Major, for example).

When you want to change keys, you indicate this by inserting a new key signa-

ture in the first measure of the new key. It’s as simple as that, as you can see in

the following figure. (Note that some composers and arrangers also insert a

double bar whenever there’s a key change.)

The half-step modula-

tion is most common

in twentieth-century

popular music, and

can add a “lift” to the end

of a pop song. The fourth

or fifth modulation is more

common in classical music

of the seventeenth through

the nineteenth centuries.

Tip

To change keys, insert a new key signature.

The only complicated key change is when you’re changing to the key of C—

which has no sharps or flats. You indicate this by using natural signs to cancel

out the previous sharps or flats, like this:

If you want, you can alert musicians to a key change by placing the

appropriate sharps and flats at the very end of the last staff of the old

key—as well as with a new key signature in the following measure. This

approach is entirely optional; it’s perfectly acceptable to signal the key

change with a single key signature in the first measure of the new key.

Tip

Chapter 4: Major and Minor Keys

How to change to the key of C.

The Least You Need to Know

◆

You use key signatures to indicate what scale your music is based on.

◆

The sharps and flats in a key signature are automatically applied through-

out the entire song.

◆

To indicate notes outside the current key, use accidentals—sharps, flats,

and natural signs.

◆

To change the key in the middle of a piece of music, insert a new key sig-

nature.

Exercises

Exercise 4-1

Label the following major key signatures.

Exercise 4-2

Label the following minor key signatures.

Exercise 4-3

Create the indicated major key signatures.

Part 1: Tones

Exercise 4-4

Create the indicated minor key signatures.

Exercise 4-5

Using the initial key signature as a guide, label each note in the following example.

Exercise 4-6

Determine what key signature you could use to write this melody without accidentals, and enter that key sig-

nature at the beginning of the staff.

Exercise 4-7

Determine what key signature you could use to write this melody without accidentals, and enter that key sig-

nature at the beginning of the staff.

Exercise 4-8

Following the circle of fifths, add the appropriate number of flats to each successive major key signature, and

then label each key signature.

You don’t have to be a drummer to feel the beat. This section shows you how to

notate any type of rhythm, from simple whole notes to sixteenth note syncopa-

tions. You’ll also learn all about time signatures, tempo, and dynamics—as well

as how to navigate your way through a piece of music.

Part

Rhythms

Note Values and

Basic Notation

In This Chapter

◆

Grouping beats into measures

◆

Understanding whole, half, quarter, eighth, and sixteenth notes and rests

◆

Using dotted notes and ties

◆

Dividing beats into triplets

Lesson 4, Track 27

Part 1 of this book covered how to work with pitch—but that’s only half of the

music theory that you need to know. In this chapter we’ll deal with the other

half of the equation, which is how you work with time—which, in music, is

called rhythm.

Rhythm is what drives the music forward and gives it its beat. To learn rhythm,

you have to learn about note values. This type of music notation isn’t that hard,

really. All you need to learn is a little basic math and how to count—up to four.

Before we start, however, let’s lay down some ground rules for this chapter.

While a lot of songs are written with four beats to a measure—one, two, three,

four—that isn’t a universal. Some very popular songs only have three beats to a

measure. (Think “My Favorite Things,” from The Sound of Music.) And other

tunes, especially in the jazz and classical genres, have more than four beats per

measure.

To make it easier to learn the basics, in this chapter we’re only going to address

four-beat measures—what we call 4/4 time. All the other types of beats—three,

five, seven, whatever—will be covered in Chapter 6.

And that’s why I said you only have to know how to count to four!

Chapter

Part 2: Rhythms

Taking the Measure of Things

Rhythm is about counting. Listen to your favorite pop song, and feel the beat.

(Go ahead, tap your foot—it’s okay!) You’ll likely feel the beats fall into groups

of four—one, two, three, four; one, two, three, four …. It’s easy to hear because

it’s very natural.

Let’s use a specific example—“Mary Had a Little Lamb.” The notes of the

song fall into groups of four; just replace the words “Ma-ry had a” with “one

two three four” and you see how it works.

In this song, and other songs based around groups of four, each group of four

beats is called a measure, a container that holds a specific number of beats. In

standard 4/4 time, a measure holds the equivalent of four quarter notes. The

beginning and end of a measure are signified by bar lines, like this:

The first beat in a measure is counted as one. The second beat is counted as

two. The third beat is counted as three, and the last beat is counted as four.

There is no five; if you count out five you’ve counted too far! Whenever you hit

four, the next beat is always one.

Every time four beats go by—one, two, three, four—another measure is com-

pleted. If you put enough measures together—one, two, three, four; one, two,

three, four—you have a song.

Taking Note—of Notes

Every time you sing or play a tone, you’re also singing or playing a note value.

There are different types of note values, with each note value signifying a spe-

cific length of time—as measured by parts of a measure.

To better explain, we have to get into a little math. (Don’t worry—there won’t

be any story problems!) You see, each note value lasts a specific duration, and

each duration reflects a ratio to duration. As you can see from the following fig-

ure, each shorter note is precisely half the duration of the previous note. So if

you can divide and multiply by two, this should be fairly easy for you.

A group of measures on a staff; each measure is separated by left and right bar lines.

Chapter 5: Note Values and Basic Notation

The most common rhythmic notes—each smaller note is exactly half the previous note.

Whole Notes

The most basic note is called the whole note, which is called a whole note

because, in 4/4 time (we’ll get to this soon—I promise!), it lasts a whole meas-

ure. Because 4/4 time has four beats in a measure, this means a whole note lasts

four beats. A whole note looks like a big empty oval, nice and whole.

Whole notes, at different places on the staff.

When you put a whole note in a measure of 4/4 time, that’s the only note that

goes in that measure; no other notes will fit. When you play a whole note, you

play your instrument once at the very beginning of the measure (on beat one),

and then you hold that tone through the entire measure. In other words, one

whole note should last a whole measure.

Half Notes

Because the whole note is the largest note, let’s go down one size and look at the

next smallest note. Remember that I said each shorter note is exactly half the

previous note? Let’s apply a little math and divide a whole note by two to see

what we get.

The next smallest note is called a half note. (It’s half of a whole note—pretty

simple, eh?) Because a whole note lasts a whole measure (in 4/4, anyway), a half

note lasts a half measure. This means a half note lasts two beats, which is half of

Part 2: Rhythms

the four-beat duration of a whole note. Put another way, you can put two half

notes in a measure, because two half notes equal one whole note.

A half note looks like a whole note with a line next to it. The line is called a

stem; it can point up or down, depending on the pitch of the note. If the stem

points down, it sits to the left of the notehead. If the stem points up, it sits to

the right of the notehead.

Two half notes—one with the stem pointing up; the other with the stem pointing down.

If the notehead (the part of the note that isn’t the stem) is on or above

the third (middle) line of the staff, then the stem should point down from

the notehead. If the notehead is below the third line of the staff, then the

stem should point up from the notehead.

The only exception to this guideline is when you have a run of connected

notes—notes where all the stems are connected, like a run of eighth or sixteenth

notes. It’s okay to run two or more of these connected notes together with their

stems in the same direction, even if they move past that third line of the staff, to

make the music easier to read.

Tip

When you play a half note, make sure the tone lasts a full two beats. If you let

up after the first beat, you’re playing only half a half note—which is what we’ll

discuss next.

Quarter Notes

Let’s keep going. If a half note is half a whole note, what is half a half note?

Well, do your math, and when you divide 1⁄2by 2, you get 1⁄4. This means half a

half note is a quarter note.

Because a half note lasts two beats, a quarter note—which is half that duration—

lasts one beat. Put another way, you can fit four quarter notes in a measure; one

to a beat.

When you tap your foot to the beat of most popular songs, your foot is tapping

quarter notes. One, two, three, four—each of those counts is a quarter note.

A quarter note looks like a half note with the notehead filled in, as shown here:

Anotehead is the

big, oval part of a note.

The stem is always

attached to the notehead.

Definition

Two different quarter notes, pointing in both directions.

Chapter 5: Note Values and Basic Notation 61

Eighth Notes

Just like the scientists in Fantastic Voyage or that miniature DC Comics super-

hero called the Atom, notes just keep getting smaller. Again, we’re operating

on a 2-to-1 ratio, so let’s take a quarter note and divide it in half. Doing the

math, 1⁄4÷2 = 1⁄8—so the next-smallest note is the eighth note.

Just as there are four quarter notes in a measure of 4/4 time (4 ×1⁄4= 1), each

measure holds eight eighth notes (8 ×1⁄8= 1). Put another way, there are two

eighth notes for every quarter note (2 ×1⁄8= 1⁄4)—or two eighth notes for every

beat.

An eighth note looks like a quarter note with a flag on it. If you have two or

more eighth notes in a row, the flags can be replaced with horizontal stems at

the end of the normal horizontal stems. (The flags don’t have to be joined

together; sometimes it’s just easier to read that way.)

Aflag is the little

doohickey dangling off the

stem of eighth notes, six-

teenth notes, and all smaller

notes. (It actually looks like

a country’s flag flying off a

mast.) The flag is always

at the end of the stem, so

if the stem is pointing up,

the flag is above the note-

head; if the stem is point-

ing down, the flag is

below the notehead.

Definition

A variety of different eighth notes.

Sixteenth Notes

Okay, you know where this is going. Half an eighth note is (do the math!) a six-

teenth note (1⁄8÷2 = 1⁄16). There are 16 sixteenth notes in a measure (16 ×1⁄16 = 1),

or 4 sixteenth notes per one quarter-note beat (4 ×1⁄16 = 1⁄4).

A sixteenth note looks like a quarter note with two flags on it. As with the eighth

note, if 2 or more sixteenth notes are next to each other, the flags may (or may

not) be joined together.

A variety of different sixteenth notes.

Although we’ll end this discussion with sixteenth notes, there are lots of notes even

smaller than that. Each successive note is half the value of the previous note and

is indicated by an additional flag on the stem.

For example, the thirty-second note is the next-smallest note after the sixteenth note;

it has three flags on its stem. After that is the sixty-fourth note, with four flags. In

actuality, you won’t run into too many notes smaller than the sixteenth note.

Note

Part 2: Rhythms

Taking Count

It’s fairly easy to write down a series of notes—but how do you communicate

notes and values to other musicians verbally? Do you go all mathematical and

say things such as “the fourteenth sixteenth note” or “the eighth note after the

two sixteenth notes on beat four”—or is there an easier way to describe your

rhythms?

Just as you describe absolute pitches by using letters (A through G), you describe

absolute rhythms by using numbers—and you need only to be able to count to

four.

It starts fairly simple, in that each beat in a measure is counted as either one,

two, three, or four. So if you’re counting off four quarter notes, you count

them as one, two, three, four. If you want to talk about the fourth quarter note

in a measure, you call it “four,” as in “in the last measure, make sure you play a

B-flat on four.”

If the beat is always one, two, three, or four, what about the eighth notes that

lay between the beats? It’s simple: count them as “and” as in “one-and, two-

and, three-and, four-and,” all very even. You’d talk about an eighth note like

this: “Make sure you play a C-sharp on the and after three.”

This is pretty easy—but what about sixteenth notes? This gets a little tricky, but

it’ll seem natural once you get into it. Use the nonsense syllables “e” and “ah”

to represent the sixteenth notes between eighth notes. So if you’re counting a

group of straight sixteenth notes, you’d count “one-e-and-ah, two-e-and-ah,

three-e-and-ah, four-e-and-ah,” all nice and even. Still not sure about this?

Examine the following figure, which shows how to count various groupings of

notes.

How to count various types of notes.

Taking a Rest

If a note represents the duration of a pitch, what do you call it when you’re not

playing or singing? In music, when you’re not playing, you’re resting—so any

note you don’t play is called a rest.

When you see four quarter notes, you play or sing four tones—one per beat.

When you see four quarter note rests, you don’t play four tones; you rest over

four beats.

Each type of note—whole note, half note, and so on—has a corresponding rest

of the same duration. So you have a whole rest that lasts a whole measure, a half

rest that lasts a half measure, and so on. Rests are used to indicate the spaces in

between the notes and are just as important as the notes you play.

Chapter 5: Note Values and Basic Notation

The following table shows all the notes you’ve just learned and their correspond-

ing rests.

Notes and Rests

Duration Note Rest

Whole note

Half note

Quarter note

Eighth note

Sixteenth note

Taking a Note—and Dotting It

Sooner or later you’ll run into something a little different: a note or a rest with

a dot after it. When you run into one of these dotted notes, that note should have

a longer duration than the normal version of that note—one and a half times

longer, to be precise.

Here’s where your math skills come back into play. Let’s take a dotted quarter

note as an example. A regular quarter note is worth a single beat. If you multi-

ply 1 ×11⁄2, you get 11⁄2beats—so a dotted quarter note is worth 11⁄2beats. You

also could go about it by saying a quarter note equals four sixteenth notes, and

4 ×11⁄2= 6, and 6 sixteenth notes equal 11⁄2quarter notes. However you do the

math, it comes out the same.

So when you see a dotted note, hold that note 50 percent longer than you

would do normally, as shown in the following table.

Dotted Note Values

This Dotted Note … Equals This

You can also have dotted rests, which work the same as dotted notes. When you

see a dot after a rest, that rest should last one and a half times the value of the

main rest.

Part 2: Rhythms

Taking Two Notes—and Tying Them Together

Another way to make a note longer is to tie it to another note. A tie is a little

rounded connector placed between two notes; it essentially tells you to add the

second note to the first note.

A tie makes one note out of two.

When you see two or more notes tied together, you play them as if they’re a

single note; for example, two quarter notes tied together equal one half note.

What do you do if the tied notes are on different pitches? Well, this may look

like a tie, but it isn’t really a tie—it’s a slur. A slur is a way of indicating that two

(or more) notes are to be played in a smoothly connected fashion, rather than as

distinctly separate notes.

Another way to think

about a dotted note

is that it has a dura-

tion equal to three of

the next-smaller note value.

For example, a dotted half

note equals 3 quarter notes,

a dotted quarter note equals

3 eighth notes, and a dot-

ted eighth note equals 3 six-

teenth notes.

Tip

This isn’t really a tie; it’s a slur.

Taking the Beat and Dividing by Three

There’s another little oddity in rhythmic notation—and this one is very impor-

tant. Everything we’ve done up to now has divided notes and beats by two.

What happens, then, if you divide by something other than two?

The most common division other than two is dividing by three; this is called a

triplet. When you see the number three over a group of three notes (or three

rests—or any combination of three equal notes and rests), you know that those

three notes have to fit into a space that would normally hold just two notes.

The three notes of a triplet fit in the space of two regular notes.

Triplets have more of a rolling feel than straight notes and are counted as “trip-

ah-let.” You can have triplets of any note value, although quarter-note triplets

(where three of them are spaced over two beats), eighth-note triplets (three on

a single quarter-note beat), and sixteenth-note triplets (three in the space of a

single eighth note) are the most common.

Chapter 5: Note Values and Basic Notation

The Least You Need to Know

◆

Note values are named according to their duration. Whole notes last a

whole measure (in 4/4 time), half notes last a half measure, and so on.

◆

Each smaller note lasts half as long as the previous note. A quarter note,

for example, is half as long as a half note.

◆

Each note value has a corresponding rest of the same duration—which

indicates not to play or sing.

◆

A dot after a note or rest extends the value of that note by 50 percent.

◆

When you fit three notes into a space that normally holds only two, those

notes are called triplets.

Exercises

Exercise 5-1

Name the following notes and rests.

Triplets are the most common uneven rhythmic division, but not the only one. You

can divide a beat any way you like, which can lead to groups of five or seven

or any prime number. (If you divide a beat by a nonprime number, you’re actually

dividing by two or more groups of a prime number. For example, if you divide a

beat into six, you’re really dividing into two groups of three—or two triplets.)

Note

Exercise 5-2

Write the count (“one-e-and-ah”) below each of the notes in the following measures.

Exercise 5-3

Fill in the balance of these measures with eighth notes.

Part 2: Rhythms

Exercise 5-4

Write the corresponding rests for the following notes.

Exercise 5-5

Fill in the balance of these measures with eighth-note triplets.

Exercise 5-6

Tie each group of two notes (but not the rests!) together.

Exercise 5-7

Enter four whole notes, followed by four half notes, followed by four quarter notes, followed by four eighth

notes, followed by four sixteenth notes.

Exercise 5-8

Draw stems and flags on these notes to make them eighth notes; make sure to point the stems in the correct

direction.

Time Signatures

In This Chapter

◆

Understanding how time signatures determine meter

◆

Learning both usual and odd time signatures

◆

Changing time signatures

◆

Subdividing odd time signatures

In the previous chapter you learned about measures, those containers that hold

the beats of a piece of music. The start and end points of a measure are marked

by vertical bar lines, and multiple measures combine to create a complete song.

To simplify things, in Chapter 5 we limited our discussion to measures with

four beats apiece, with each of those beats equaling a quarter note. That covers

a lot of different songs, especially in popular music. Whatever type of music

you listen to—rock-and-roll, soul, jazz, country, hip hop, or even reggae—most

of the songs you hear are likely to adhere to this four-beat form.

However, not all music has four beats per measure, and not every beat is equal

to a quarter note. To understand all the different numbers and types of beats

per measure, you need only to apply a little math—in the form of fractions.

Measuring the Beats

Written music uses something called a time signature to signify how many beats

are in a measure and what kind of note is used for the basic beat. A time signa-

ture looks kind of like a fraction, with one number sitting on top of another

number. The top number indicates how many beats are in a measure; the bot-

tom number indicates the note value of the basic beat.

Time signatures show how beats are organized in a particular piece of music.

This organization is called meter, and time signatures are sometimes called

meter signatures.

Chapter

Part 2: Rhythms

Let’s take the four-quarter-notes-to-a-measure form we used in the previous

chapter. Because we have four beats in a measure, the top number in the time

signature is a four. Because the basic beat is a quarter note, the bottom number

is a four (as in the 4 in 1/4). So the standard form we’ve been using is called

“four four” time (because of the 4 on top of the 4), and looks like this:

The time signature for 4/4 meter.

Other time signatures follow this same form. For example, if our measures have

three beats instead of four, and still use a quarter note for the beat, we have a

3/4 time signature. If you have three beats per measure but the basic beat is an

eighth note instead of a quarter note, that time signature is “three eight,” or 3/8.

Read on to learn more about the different types of time signatures you’re likely

to encounter in the world of music.

Quarter-Note Time

The most common types of time signatures use a quarter note for the base beat.

However, you’re not limited to just four beats (quarter notes) per measure;

quarter-note time signatures can have as few as one beat per measure, or as

many as … well, as many as you like!

Although 4/4 is the most common quarter-note time signature, you’ll almost

definitely run into its close cousin, 3/4. In 3/4 time, you have three quarter

notes per measure; the measures are counted “one two three, one two three.” If

you’ve ever heard a waltz, you’ve heard 3/4 time.

Another common quarter-note time signature is 2/4 time. This time signature

is common in marches and other fast music, and is very easy to play. After all,

two measures of 2/4 add up to one measure of 4/4!

Less common are quarter-note time signatures with more than four beats per

measure. For example, 5/4 time feels a little awkward, especially if you’re used

to feeling the “backbeat” in a 4/4 pop song. But jazz musicians play a lot of

5/4—just listen to the Dave Brubeck Quartet’s famous recording of “Take Five”

if you want to hear a good example of playing in five.

The following table shows some of the more common quarter-note time signa-

tures.

Classical musicians tend

to refer to the organization

of beats as “meter,” while

jazz and pop musicians

tend to refer to it as “time,”

as in “4/4 meter” or

“4/4 time.”

Note

In most rock and pop

music, the second and

fourth beats of a measure

are accented, typically by

the drummer, like this: one

TWO three FOUR, one

TWO three FOUR. (When

you clap your hands to a

song, you’re probably clap-

ping on two and four.)

This heavy “backbeat” is

what gives rock-and-roll its

rolling rhythm; it is so com-

mon that it’s noticeable

when it is absent.

Note

Chapter 6: Time Signatures

Quarter-Note Time Signatures

Time Signature Beats per Measure

By the way, 4/4 time is sometimes called common time, and indicated by a large

“C” for the time signature, like this:

4/4 time is common time--indicated by a big “C.”

Eighth-Note Time

Not all music uses a quarter note for the beat. A lot of music—especially classi-

cal music—is based on an eighth-note beat.

Part 2: Rhythms

When you have an eighth-note time signature, such as 3/8 or 6/8, every time you

tap your foot you’re tapping an eighth note; not a quarter note. So for a measure

of 3/8, you’d tap three eighth notes; for a measure of 6/8, you’d tap six eighth notes.

When the eighth note is the beat, half a beat (the “and” after the beat, if you’re

counting) will be a sixteenth note. Also, if you see a quarter note in an eighth-

note time signature, that note takes up two beats.

It’s all about math, basically. When you play in an eighth-note time signature, all

your normal note values take up half as much space as they do in a quarter-note

time signature. It’s simple division.

The most common eighth-note time signatures are those divisible by three: 3/8,

6/8, 9/8, and so on. When you’re playing one of these time signatures and you’re

playing really fast, you might end up tapping your foot just once every three

beats, like this: ONE two three FOUR five six, ONE two three FOUR five six.

(In fact, many conductors will conduct 6/8 time with just two downbeats per

measure—the one and the four.) These time signatures sound a lot like 3/4, the

waltz time signature. The following table details the most common eighth-note

time signatures.

Eighth-Note Time Signatures

Time Signature Beats per Measure

Chapter 6: Time Signatures 71

Time Signature Beats per Measure

Half Time

If you move the other direction from the basic quarter-note time signature, you

get into time signatures based on a half-note beat. In a half-note time signature,

each half note gets one beat; quarter notes get half a beat, and eighth notes get

a quarter of a beat. Whole notes, on the other hand, get just two beats. (It’s not

really that confusing; it’s just more math to deal with.)

Half-note beats—2/2, 3/2, and the like—are typically used in classical music for

slower, more sweeping passages.

The following table presents the most common half-note beats.

Half-Note Time Signatures

Time Signature Beats per Measure

Don’t assume that an eighth-note time signature is automatically twice as

fast as a quarter-note time signature. Although this might be true (and almost

always is true when time signatures change in the middle of a song), the speed

of the beat (what musicians call tempo) is independent of the time signature.

Thus, a song in 3/8 time actually could be played slower than a song in 3/4.

(Learn more about tempo in Chapter 7.)

Warning

Part 2: Rhythms

Just as 4/4 is sometimes called common time, 2/2 is sometimes called cut time.

You can indicate 2/2 by either the normal time signature, or by a large C with a

line through it, like this:

2/2 time is cut-time—thus you cut a “C” in half.

Changing the Time

You always indicate the time signature at the very beginning of a piece of music.

However, you don’t have to keep the same time signature through the entire

song; you can change time anywhere you want in a piece of music; even for just

a measure or two!

If the meter changes in the middle of a song, you insert a new time signature at

the point of change. This new time signature remains in effect through the rest

of the song, or until another new time signature is introduced.

Here’s what a time change looks like in the middle of a piece of music:

In most music nota-

tion, the time signa-

ture is shown only

on the first line of

music (or when there’s a

time change)—unlike the

key signature, which is

typically shown at the start

of each line.

Tip

Changing time signatures in the middle of a song.

Grouping the Beats

If you see a piece of music in 9/8 and despair about counting that high (nine’s a

lot higher than four), there’s a way around the problem. You can do as many

musicians do: Chop up each measure into smaller groupings.

When you’re playing in odd time signatures—especially those with more than

four beats per measure—it’s common to subdivide the beats within a measure

into an easier-to-grasp pattern. Using smaller groupings not only makes each

measure easier to count; it also makes the music flow better. When you sub-

divide measures in this fashion, you create sub-rhythms behind the basic beat,

which makes the music easier to listen to.

For example, if you’re playing in 6/8 time, you could count all the beats evenly

(one, two, three, four, five, six)—or you could subdivide the beat. The most

common subdivision of 6/8 divides the measure into two equal parts, each con-

taining three beats, like this:

Chapter 6: Time Signatures

Subdividing a 6/8 measure into two groups of three.

So you count the measure “one two three; one two three,” or “one lah lay, two

lah lay.” Easier, isn’t it?

Of course, you could also divide 6/8 into three groups of two, or one group of

four and one group of two, or one group of one and one group of five, but the

two groups of three is the most common way to play this particular time signa-

ture.

For another example, let’s look at 5/4 time. In 5/4, measures are typically sub-

divided into one group of three and one group of two, like this:

Subdividing 5/4 time into one group of three and one group of two.

You count each measure “one, two, three; one, two.”

Of course, you could also reverse the groupings, and end up with two beats in the

first group and three beats in the second—“one, two; one, two, three.” It depends

on the feel and the flow of the music.

The more beats you have in a measure, the more possible groupings you can come

up with. To demonstrate, the following example shows three possible groupings of

7/4 time—4+3, 3+4, and 2+3+2.

Three different ways to group 7/4 time.

Just for fun, count all the way up to eleven, and see how many groupings you can

come up with for a measure of 11/4!

The Least You Need to Know

◆

You have to place a time signature at the beginning of a piece of music—or

anywhere you change the basic meter or time.

◆

The top number in a time signature indicates the number of beats per measure.

◆

The bottom number in a time signature indicates what note is used for the

basic beat.

◆

Odd time signatures are sometimes broken up into smaller groupings, to

make each measure easier to count.

Part 2: Rhythms

Exercises

Exercise 6-1

Write the following time signatures on the staff.

Exercise 6-2

Enter the appropriate number of quarter notes per measure for each time signature.

Exercise 6-3

Enter the appropriate number of eighth notes for each time signature.

Exercise 6-4

Enter the equivalent eighth-note time signature for each quarter-note time signature.

Exercise 6-5

Enter the equivalent quarter-note time signature for each half-note time signature.

Exercise 6-6

Enter bar lines to divide the following piece of music into four measures of 3/4 time.

Chapter 6: Time Signatures

Exercise 6-7

Enter bar lines to divide the following piece of music into four measures of 7/8 time.

Exercise 6-8

Group the beats in the following measures three different ways each.

Tempo, Dynamics, and

Navigation

In This Chapter

◆

Determining how fast to play

◆

Changing tempo

◆

Determining how loud to play

◆

Changing dynamics and accenting notes

◆

Repeating parts of a song

You might not have noticed, but the first six chapters of this book taught you

how to read and write music. That’s right—all those bits about staves, clefs,

notes, and rests comprise what we call the standard music notation, which is the

common language of all musicians.

Think of it this way: The staff, clef, and key signature determine where a note

is in terms of pitch. The time signature and note value determine where a note

is in terms of time, or rhythm. By placing a note in this two-dimensional space,

you tell a musician everything he or she needs to know to play that note—and

all the notes that follow.

The only thing you haven’t learned about music notation is how to signify the

speed (tempo) and loudness (dynamics) of a piece of music. That’s what we’ll

cover in this chapter, along with some simple navigational aids to help you get

from one point to another within a song.

Taking the Pulse

In Chapter 6 you learned how to figure out how many beats there are in a meas-

ure. The question remains, however, how fast those beats should be played.

The speed of a piece of music—how fast the beat goes by—is called the tempo.

A faster tempo means a faster beat; a slower tempo makes for a slower song.

Chapter

Part 2: Rhythms

You can indicate tempo in one of two ways: by indicating the precise number of

beats per minute or by using traditional Italian terms. We’ll discuss both meth-

ods next.

Beats per Minute

The most accurate way to indicate tempo is by specifying a certain number of

beats per minute, or bpm. This gives you a very precise speed for your song,

especially when you use a metronome or a click track on a computer.You set your

metronome or click to a specific bpm number, and it tick-tocks back and forth

at the proper speed. When you play along to the metronome or click track,

you’re playing at exactly the right tempo.

Setting the tempo—120 quarter-note beats per minute.

As you’ll soon see, many

notation markings (espe-

cially for classical music)

are in Italian. This speaks

to the importance of Italian

culture in the evolution of

Western music, but it also

means it wouldn’t be a

bad thing to know a little

Italian—and I don’t mean

a short guy named Mario!

Note

In classical music, the

abbreviation MM (for

Maelzel’s Metronome) is

used to represent beats

per minute.

Note

Ametronome is a device that precisely ticks off beat after beat at a

specified tempo. Metronomes can be either old-fashioned, pendulum-type

affairs or modern computerized devices that emit a type of electronic

beat. The metronome was invented by a man named Maelzel, who was a con-

temporary of Beethoven. In addition to inventing the metronome, Maelzel also

developed a hearing aid to help Beethoven deal with his advancing deafness.

When you’re playing professionally (especially in recording studios), you might

run into something called a click track, which is a type of electronic metronome.

The click track is typically played on a synthesized instrument, like an electronic

woodblock or cowbell. Click tracks can also be generated by computerized

sequencing and recording programs, for when you’re recording at home. (To

hear what a click track sounds like, listen to the rhythm and melody exercises on

the accompanying CD; I use a click to “count off” each of the exercises.)

Definition

Italian Tempo Terms

The second way to indicate tempo, typically found in orchestral music, is

through the use of traditional Italian musical terms. These terms correspond to

general tempo ranges, as indicated in the following table, which is arranged

from the very slowest to the very fastest tempo.

Chapter 7: Tempo, Dynamics, and Navigation

Italian Tempo Terms

Tempo Means …

Slow Tempos (40–75 bpm)

grave Very slow; solemn

largo Slow and dignified

larghetto A little faster than largo

lento Slow

adagio Moderately slow

adagietto A little faster than adagio

Moderate Tempos (70–115 bpm)

andante A “walking” tempo

andantino A little faster than andante

moderato Moderate pace

allegretto Not quite as fast as allegro

Fast Tempos (110–220 bpm)

allegro Fast, cheerful

vivace Lively

presto Very fast

prestissimo Very, very fast

These tempo markings are very approximate, and even the order is not 100 per-

cent observed. The important thing the Italian terms try to get across is the

“spirit” of the music. For example, the word allegro in Italian really means

“cheerful.” When these markings are used, the precise tempo is always left to

the discretion of the orchestra’s conductor.

So when you see a piece of music marked “Allegro,” such as Bach’s Brandenburg

Concerto No. 6, you know that it should be played fairly fast. If you see a piece

marked “Largo,” like the second movement of Dvor˘ák’s New World Symphony,

you know that the tempo should be fairly slow. This method isn’t terribly pre-

cise, but it will get you in the ballpark.

Sometimes you’ll

see these tempo

terms accompanied

by the word molto,

which means “very.” So if

you see molto vivace, you

know that the music should

be played “very lively.”

Tip

Specifying tempo using traditional Italian terms.

Part 2: Rhythms

Speeding Up—and Slowing Down

Some pieces of music retain the same tempo throughout the entire song (think

most popular music here). Other pieces of music speed up and slow down at

times; often for dramatic effect.

If a tempo change is immediate—that is, you go directly from one tempo to

another, with no gradual transition—you indicate the change by inserting a new

tempo marking of your choice. For example, if you’ve been playing at 120 bpm

and want to switch to a faster tempo—160 bpm, let’s say—all you have to do is

insert a new 160 bpm tempo mark. If you’re using Italian tempo markings, just

insert the new marking where you want the tempo to change.

If you’d rather gradually speed up or slow down the tempo, it’s time to learn a

new set of Italian markings. There are several you can use, but the most com-

mon are ritardando (to gradually slow down the tempo) and accelerando (to gradu-

ally speed up the tempo). The following table presents all the tempo-changing

markings you’re likely to encounter:

Indicating Tempo Changes

Indicator Means …

ritardando (rit., retard.) Gradually slow down

rallentando (rall.) Gradually slow down

ritenuto (riten.) Hold back the tempo

accelerando (accel.) Gradually speed up

doppio movimento Twice as fast

a tempo Return to the previous tempo

tempo primo Return to the tempo at the beginning of the piece

Decreasing the tempo using a ritardando marking.

Hold That Note!

Sometimes you don’t just want to slow down, you actually want to stop. When

you want to ignore the beat and hold a specific note, you use what’s called a fer-

mata, which looks like a little bird’s eye placed on top of a note (or a rest) and

indicates a pause in the music. This means you hold that note (or rest) indefi-

nitely or until the conductor cuts you off; then you start up with the next note

after the fermata, at normal tempo.

Chapter 7: Tempo, Dynamics, and Navigation 81

When you see a fermata, hold the note.

Getting Loud—and Getting Soft

You now know how to indicate how fast or how slow a song should be played.

How do you indicate how loud or how soft you should play it?

Dynamic Markings

A song’s dynamics indicate how loud or soft you should play. In the world of

music notation, there is a set range of volume levels, from very soft to very

loud, that you use to indicate the dynamic level of a piece of music. These

dynamic markings are shown in the following table:

Dynamic Markings

Marking Dynamic Means …

ppp pianississimo Very, very soft

pp pianissimo Very soft

ppiano Soft

mp mezzo piano Medium soft

mf mezzo forte Medium loud

fforte Loud

ff fortissimo Very loud

fff fortississimo Very, very loud

The dynamic marking, just like the tempo marking, typically appears at the

beginning of the song. If you don’t see a dynamic marking, that means the song

should be played at a medium volume.

Use dynamic markings to indicate how loud a song should be played.

Changing Dynamics

Dynamics can—and do—change throughout the course of a piece of music.

Part 2: Rhythms

To abruptly change the volume level at a specific point, insert a new dynamic

marking. It’s okay to indicate dramatic changes in volume; you can go from pp

in one measure to ff in the next, if you want.

To gradually change the volume of a song, you have to use what we call crescendo

and decrescendo marks. The crescendo mark (which looks like a giant hairpin,

closed at the left and widening to the right) indicates that you gradually increase

the volume from your current level to the new level indicated at the end of the

crescendo. The decrescendo mark (which looks like a hairpin open at the left

and closed at the right) indicates that you gradually decrease the volume from

your current level to the new level indicated at the end of the decrescendo.

Crescendos and decrescendos indicate gradual increases or decreases in volume.

Crescendos and decrescendos can be relatively short (just a beat or two) or

extend over multiple measures. Obviously, the longer the crescendo or

decrescendo, the more gradual is the change in volume.

Play It Harder

If you want a specific note to be played louder than the other notes around it,

you’ll want to place an accent mark (>) over that note. When a note is accented,

you simply play it louder than a normal note.

To indicate that a note is to be played very loud (or hit very hard, if you’re writ-

ing a percussion part), you place a marcato (ˆ ) over the note. This means you

play or hit that extra hard—with a good solid punch!

You can use three other markings to indicate a sudden accent. These markings,

like all Italian notation, are placed under the note in question, as detailed in the

following table.

Italian Accent Markings

Marking Means …

fz Sudden accent (forzando)

sf Forced (sforzando)

sfz Even more forced (sforzando)

The way you can

remember whether

the marking means

to get louder or

softer is that the wider the

“mouth” of the hairpin, the

louder the music. When

the mouth is at the left and

then narrows, that means

you start loud and get

softer. When the mouth is

at the right, that means you

start soft and get louder.

Tip

Technically, the marcato is

not an accent. The formal

definition means to play

the note “well marked,” or

distinct from the surround-

ing notes. In practice,

however, this translates

into a loud, long accent.

Note

Chapter 7: Tempo, Dynamics, and Navigation 83

Two accent marks and a marcato.

More Dynamics

There are even more musical markings you can use to indicate how loud or soft a

piece of music is to be played, although these are less frequently used than those

already presented. These additional markings are listed in the following table.

Additional Dynamic Markings

Marking Means …

calando Decreasing tone and speed

con sordino (sordini) Muted (for horn instruments: use a mute)

diminuendo (dim.) Gradually become less powerful; diminish in intensity

dolcissimo (dolciss.) Very gently; sweetly

incalzando Increasing tone and speed

leggiero Light, delicate

mancando Dying away

marcato (marc.) Marked or emphasized

martellato Hammered out

mezza voce In an undertone—literally, “half voice”

morendo Dying away

perdendosi Dying away

senza sordini Without mutes

smorzando Dying away

sotto voce In an undertone

strepitoso Boisterous

tacet Silent

tutta forza As loud as possible

una corda For pianists: use the soft pedal

Finding Your Way

Reading a long piece of music is a little like reading a roadmap. You’ll see various

indications in a score that provide direction, to repeat a section or to jump to

another section within the song.

Part 2: Rhythms

When you’re playing a long piece of music, various parts of the song might be

indicated by numbers or by letters. For example, you might see the letter A at

the beginning of the first verse, and the letter B at the beginning of the second

verse, and the letter C at the start of the chorus. This way other musicians can

tell you to start at a specific point in the song by saying, “Start at letter B.”

Alternatively, the measures of a song might be numbered. If this is the case,

you can say “Start at measure 16”; everyone will know what you mean.

In any case, you need some way to determine just where you are in a piece of

music; otherwise you’ll always have to start at the beginning—even if all you

need to practice is the very end!

Repeating Sections

There are various shorthand methods you can use when writing or arranging a

piece of music. Especially useful are various ways to indicate repeating sections,

which saves you the trouble of writing out the exact same music two (or more)

times.

When you have a section of music that should be repeated, you border that

section by a pair of repeat marks. One repeat mark indicates the start of the sec-

tion to be repeated; the other one indicates the end of that section. Unless

noted otherwise, you repeat a section only once (that is, you play it twice), and

then you move on to the next section.

A long piece of

music (especially in the

orchestral environment) is

often called a score. More

precisely, the score is the

piece of music the conduc-

tor uses, which contains all

the parts for all the instru-

ments and voices. The music

for each individual instru-

ment is not technically a

score, although sometimes

people refer to it as such.

Definition

Learn more about the vari-

ous sections of a song in

Chapter 11.

Note

Use repeat marks to indicate a range of measures to play twice.

Sometimes you’ll need to repeat a section but play a slightly different ending

the second time through. When you see this in the score—called a first ending

and a second ending—you play the first ending the first time through, and then

when you repeat the section you skip the first ending and play the second ending.

Use first and second endings to end a repeated section two different ways.

You also can repeat a section of a song by returning to a section designated with

a sign (called a Segno sign). For example, when you see the notation “D.S. al

Fine,” you jump back to the Segno sign and play through to the end of the

song.

Chapter 7: Tempo, Dynamics, and Navigation

Another navigation technique uses a separate section of music called the Coda.

When you insert a Coda sign in your music, that indicates that you should

jump to the section marked Coda. A common navigation technique is notated

“D.C. al Coda” or “D.C. al Fine,” where you jump to the beginning of the

song and then follow through to the Coda or the end (Fine). The following

table details these and other common Italian navigation markings.

Italian Navigation Markings

Marking Means …

D.C. al Fine Go back to the beginning and play through to the end.

D.C. al Coda Go back to the beginning and play to the Coda sign; then

skip to the Coda section.

D.S. al Fine Go back to the Segno sign and play through to the end.

D.S. al Coda Go back to the Segno sign and play to the Coda sign; then

skip to the Coda section.

“D.S.” is short for

Dal Segno, which means

“from the Segno” (or, in

English, “from the sign”).

“D.C.” is short for Dal

Capo, which means “from

the head” or “from the

start.” (Capo is Italian for

“head”—literally, the top

of the chart.)

Definition

Use the Segno (left) and Coda (right) signs to navigate a piece of music.

Repeating Measures

If you have only a single measure to repeat, you can use a measure repeat sign.

Just insert this sign between the bar lines after the measure you want to repeat;

musicians will know to repeat the previous measure.

Use the measure repeat sign to repeat the contents of the previous measure.

You can use the measure repeat sign in multiple measures. For example, if you

have three measures worth of repeat signs, you play the original measure four

times (the original time plus three repeats).

Repeating Notes

If you’re really lazy, you’ll like the fact that you don’t always have to write each

individual note in a piece of music. If you’re repeating notes of the same rhyth-

mic value and pitch, you can use note repeat notation to spare yourself the trou-

ble of writing down all those eighth or sixteenth notes in a row.

Part 2: Rhythms

Note repeats are indicated by drawing slash notes through the main note. One

slash mark means play two notes in a row; each equal to half the value of the

original note. For example, if you draw a single slash through a quarter note,

you play two eighth notes; a single slash through an eighth note means you play

two sixteenth notes.

Two slash marks means you play four notes in a row; each equal to one quarter

the value of the original note. For example, if you draw a double slash through

a quarter note, you play four sixteenth notes; a double slash through an eighth

note means you play four thirty-second notes. The following table indicates

some common note repeat values.

Note Repeat Markings

Marking Equals …

You can also use

note repeats on dot-

ted notes. When

you put a single

slash on a dotted note,

you play three notes of the

next-higher value; when

you put a double slash on

a dotted note, you play

six notes of the second-

higher value.

Tip

Repeating Rests

There’s one last bit of repeat notation you need to know—and it concerns rest-

ing; not playing. In much orchestral music, each individual instrument spends a

lot of time not playing. While the composer could indicate all this inactivity by

Chapter 7: Tempo, Dynamics, and Navigation

writing lots of individual measures full of whole rests, it is more common (and a

lot easier) to indicate the total number of measures the instrument will rest.

This is done by using a multiple-measure rest sign in a single measure, with a

number written above the rest. The number indicates how many measures of

rest there are. For example, a multiple-measure rest with the number 6 written

above indicates that that instrument is supposed to rest for six measures.

Use a multiple-measure rest sign to indicate multiple measures of rest; in this example, six measures.

The Least You Need to Know

◆

The tempo of a piece of music can be indicated by traditional Italian

markings or by a specific “beats per minute” instruction.

◆

You indicate changes in tempo by using Italian markings such as ritardano

(slow down) and accelerando (speed up).

◆

The volume level of a piece of music is typically indicated by the use of

traditional Italian dynamic markings, from pianissimo (pp) to fortissimo (ff).

◆

You indicate changes in dynamics by using crescendo (get louder) and

decrescendo (get softer) markings.

◆

When you want a single note played louder than normal, use an accent

mark.

◆

You navigate an entire piece of music using repeat signs and various Italian

markings. (For example, D.C. al Coda means to go back to the beginning,

play to the Coda sign; then jump to the Coda section.)

Exercises

Exercise 7-1

Play the following piece of music, paying strict attention to the tempo markings.

Part 2: Rhythms

Exercise 7-2

Play the following piece of music, paying strict attention to the dynamic markings.

Exercise 7-3

Play the following piece of music, paying strict attention to the repeat signs and navigation markings.

Discover how to put tones and rhythms together to create a melody; then learn

how to add chords to your tunes. You’ll also find out all about chord progres-

sions and song forms—everything you need to know to create your own songs

and pieces of music.

Part

Tunes

Melodies

In This Chapter

◆

Creating a melody from tones and rhythms

◆

Analyzing existing melodies

◆

Composing your first melody

◆

Discovering what makes a melody memorable

Lesson 5, Track 36

In the first part of this book (Chapters 1 through 4), you learned all about notes

and pitches. In the second part (Chapters 5 through 7), you learned all about

note values and rhythms. By themselves, pitches and rhythms don’t amount to

much. But when you combine them, they create something wonderful—a melody.

Melody is defined as a logical progression of tones and rhythms—a tune set to a

beat. But pay close attention to that word “logical.” A melody isn’t a random

conglomeration of notes; the notes have to relate to and follow from each other.

In other words, a melody has to make sense, or else it’s just a bunch of noise.

That textbook definition of melody, however precise, doesn’t go far enough for

my tastes. To me, a melody is the most memorable part of a piece of music. It’s

the song you sing, the notes you hum, the musical line that stays in your mind

long after the record is over or the band has stopped playing. The best melodies

pack an emotional punch; they make us jump with joy or weep with sadness.

When done right, melodies can tell a story without words, or reinforce the

meaning of a song’s lyrics.

If you want to compose or arrange music—or even improvise to an existing

song—you have to know how to create a memorable melody. That’s where this

chapter comes in—it’s all about the art of melody.

Combining Tones and Rhythms

If you think back to Chapter 1, you’ll remember how we discussed various ways

to describe the tones in the song “Mary Had a Little Lamb.” We finally settled

Chapter

Part 3: Tunes

on the traditional labeling of tones using the letters A through G. Each tone in

the song is assigned a letter corresponding to its precise pitch; anyone reading

the letters knows which tone to sing or play.

Assigning tones, of course, is only half the story. When you sing “Mary Had a

Little Lamb,” you give each tone a specific rhythmic value; each tone takes up

a specific place in time. The rhythm of the song is described by using different

note values, the half notes and quarter notes that we call music notation.

By combining the pitch values with the rhythmic values, we can now notate the

entire melody of “Mary Had a Little Lamb.” The notes on the staff tell us what

pitches to sing; the note values tell us how long to sing each pitch.

The result looks like this:

The complete melody for “Mary Had a Little Lamb.”

All melodies are described using similar notation. You set the key signature and

the time signature up front, and then fill in the notes of the melody from there.

Naturally, you have to arrange the notes within measures, with each measure

holding the appropriate number of beats. When you’re done writing down the

notes, you’ve written your melody.

Common Melodic Techniques

Every song—every piece of music—has a melody. Some longer pieces (such as

much orchestral music) have multiple melodies. Some melodies consist of mul-

tiple parts, with different parts repeated in different parts of the song. However

the music is constructed, the melody is the heart of the song—the part you should

be able to sing or hum or whistle all by itself, with no other instruments needed.

To get a feel for how melodies are constructed, let’s take a look at some melodies

from well-known pieces of music. You’ll see that although they all have their

distinct sound and feel, these melodies also have a lot of factors in common.

Dvorˇák’s New World Symphony

We’ll start with a tune from Antonin Dvorˇák’s Symphony #9 in E minor (“From

the New World”)—more popularly known as the New World Symphony. This is a

popular piece of orchestral music, and consists of several different sections; the

Chapter 8: Melodies

melody we’ll look at is just one of many used throughout the work, and it goes

like this:

One of the main melodies in Dvorˇák’s New World Symphony.

Let’s first get a feel for the mechanics of the melody. As you can see, the time

signature for this melody is 4/4, so there are four quarter-note beats in each

measure. The key signature is D, with five flats. When you listen to it, the

melody has a happy sound, which means it’s in a major key—DMajor, to be

precise. The piece of the melody we’re looking at is four measures long.

If you look at (or listen to) this melody carefully, you’ll see that it breaks into

two two-measure phrases. The first two measures end on a note (E) that doesn’t

feel like an ending note (it’s the second note in the scale); this sets up a kind of

tension that you want to hear resolved. The second two measures resolve the

tension by effectively repeating the first two measures, but ending on a more

satisfying tone—D, the tonic of the scale.

This is a common technique, setting up some sort of tension in the first part of

the melody that is then resolved in the second part. This helps to make a melody

interesting; if you think about it, it’s also a very logical, symmetrical, almost

mathematical construction. (If you look at it like a mathematical formula, the

first half of the melody “equals” the second half.)

Another technique used in this melody is the repetition of specific rhythms. Look

at the rhythmic pattern used throughout—dotted eighth note, sixteenth note, and

quarter note. This “dum de duh” pattern is played twice in the first measure,

and twice again in the third measure, establishing a kind of rhythmic signature

for the entire piece. This rhythmic repetition helps to establish a familiarity for

the listener; you hear the rhythm once, then you hear it again, and it feels

familiar; almost comfortable. In fact, a listener expects to hear some repetition; if

every measure of a melody is completely different from all the preceding meas-

ures, the melody will be difficult to remember.

Bach’s Minuet in G

Our next example is Johann Sebastian Bach’s Minuet in G—although you might

be familiar with it as the melody of the pop song “A Lover’s Concerto,” per-

formed by the Toys back in the mid-1960s.

This melody differs from Dvorˇák’s melody in a number of ways. First, it’s in 3/4

time; not 4/4. Second, it’s in the key of G, and is based on the G Major scale.

Beyond those differences, there are a lot of similar techniques in use. Note the

rhythmic repetition between measures 1-2 and 3-4, and the continued repeti-

tion of the first measure in measures 5 through 7. Also note the very slight ten-

sion created in measure 4 (the end of the first half of the melody—it sounds like

there’s more coming), which is then resolved in the second half of the melody.

Part 3: Tunes

There’s something else interesting about this particular melody. The first half of

the melody has an insistent upward motion; the second half uses a downward

motion to deposit you pretty much where you started. Even though not all the

notes go up (or down), the general flow of the melody moves in those direc-

tions, and thus propels the melody forward.

You need to have some sort of motion in a melody, or you’ll put the listener to

sleep. That motion can be in the tune, or in the rhythm, but it needs to be

there, to help the melody get from point a to point b.

Michael, Row the Boat Ashore

Next up is the traditional folk song “Michael, Row the Boat Ashore.” The

words to this tune, simple as they are, can actually help us see the melodic form.

When you read the words, you can clearly see that the song consists of two

near-identical halves—rhythmically, anyway.

The first time Michael rows his boat ashore (hallelujah!), the melody has a

slight upward motion, and ends with a slight bit of tension on the fifth note of

the scale (A). The second time Michael goes boating, the melody sways down-

ward slightly, and resolves itself by ending on the tonic of the key (D).

Symmetry, repetition, tension, and release—these techniques are used over and

over to create memorable melodies.

The melody for the folk song “Michael, Row the Boat Ashore.”

The two quarter notes

before measure one are

called pickup notes; that

little half measure is called

apickup measure. You

use pickup notes and

measures when the melody

actually starts up before

the first beat of the first

measure.

Note

The melody for Bach’s Minuet in G—also appropriated for the pop song “A Lover’s Concerto.”

Chapter 8: Melodies 95

Pachelbel’s Canon in D

Our final melody is a bit different from the ones we’ve examined so far. It’s dif-

ferent because rhythmically, it’s very simple—nothing but half notes.

You’ve probably heard this melody before—it’s Johann Pachelbel’s Canon in D

(sometimes just called “Pachelbel’s Canon”—like he only wrote this one!) and

it’s been used in a number of different movies and television shows. You might

have even heard it in the background of a commercial for GE light bulbs back

in the 1990s. (They bring good things to light.) In any case, it’s a compelling

melody, despite its rhythmic simplicity.

The very simple melody for Pachelbel’s Canon in D.

This melody also is different in that it doesn’t use a lot of symmetry or repeti-

tion. (Except for the repeated half notes, of course!) It’s actually the stepwise

intervals between the notes that propel this melody forward; each pitch leaning

forward to the next, one after another, almost in a giant spinning circle of

tones. And then the last note, C#, is the leading tone of the scale (D Major);

you jump back to F# (the third of the scale) and start all over again.

The point of examining this particular melody is that you don’t need fancy

rhythms to create a memorable melody. Pure tones, played slowly and simply,

can be quite lyrical—if you pick the right ones!

Composing Your First Melody

Now that you know some of the techniques you can use to create a melody, let’s

put those techniques to work.

As you learned with Pachelbel’s Canon, a melody doesn’t have to include com-

plex rhythms. The right notes on the right pitches are what you need to start

any new tune.

One of the primary rules of composing is to base your melody on a specific

scale. And, as you’ll learn in Chapter 9, there are three notes in a scale which,

when played together, create what we call a major triad. These three notes rep-

resent a good place to start for our first melody.

For simplicity’s sake, let’s start in the key of C, using the C Major scale. The

three notes we want to use are the tonic, the third, and the fifth—C, E, and G.

So let’s start our melody with two half notes and a whole note, starting with C

and progressing up to G on the whole note.

To be fair, the melody illus-

trated in Pachelbel’s Canon

in D is just the first four

measures of a much

longer melody. The musi-

cal form (canon) used in

this piece is like a round,

where the melody starts in

one part and then contin-

ues while other parts start

up with the same melody.

See Chapter 11 to learn

more about the canon

and other musical forms.

Note

Part 3: Tunes

This gives us the first two measures of the melody:

The first two measures of our first melody.

Let’s elaborate on these notes a bit. If you want to give the melody a little more

of a flow, you can fill in the blanks between these three notes by adding notes in

the step between each pitch. We’ll do this by turning the half notes into quarter

notes, and adding passing tones between the C and the E, and the E and G.

(That means we’ll go from C to D to E, and from E to F to G.)

The result looks like this:

Apassing tone is

a subsidiary tone you have

to pass through to move

from one important note to

another. The passing tone

is not part of the underly-

ing chord structure, but is

often situated between two

of the notes in a triad.

Definition

The first two measures, with passing tones added.

We’re still left with that single whole note sitting there. It’s okay to leave it like

that, but doing so makes this part of our melody sound like nothing more than a

simple major scale—which it actually is! Fortunately, we can choose to add a lit-

tle more interest by using another technique called a neighboring tone, in which

you land on the main note (in this case, the G), slide briefly to an adjacent note,

and then return to rest on the main note (G, again). The result sounds a little

like “doo-de-doo,” which is slightly more interesting than a plain “doo.”

You can place neighboring tones above or below the main tone; for our little

melody, we’ll use the neighboring tone above the G—which happens to be an A.

Keeping the rhythm simple, we’ll now start the second measure with a quarter

note on G; then follow it by a quarter note on A and a half note on G.

The result looks like this:

You create a

neighboring tone by start-

ing on a pitch, moving up

or down by a step (either

half or whole) and then

returning to the original

pitch; the neighboring tone

is the one that “neighbors”

the original note. Like a

passing tone, a neighbor-

ing tone typically is not

one of the three notes in

the underlying chord triad.

Definition

Embellishing the melody with a neighboring tone.

This is a nice little melody—but it’s really only half of a melody. Ending on the

fifth note of the scale, as it does, actually sets up some melodic tension. When

you hear this melody, you want to resolve the tension, and somehow get things

back to where they started—on C.

There’s an easy way to do this, of course. All you have to do is create a sort of mir-

ror image of the first two measures, but with a downward motion from G to C.

The first thing we’ll do is copy the first measure into a new third measure—

except we’ll copy it with the first note starting on G, and with the quarter notes

moving down in a G F E D progression. (Note that this progression puts two of

Chapter 8: Melodies 97

the C Major triad notes—G and E—on the primary beats of the measure: one and

three.) Then we’ll end the run with a whole note in the fourth measure, posi-

tioned on the tonic note: C.

Your completed melody looks like this:

Your completed melody—play it loud and proud!

That wasn’t so difficult, was it? Granted, this melody won’t win any Grammy

awards, but it is a legitimate melody, and it’s quite singable. (Trust me, I’ve heard

worse.) The key thing is that you’ve seen that creating a melody isn’t hard, as long

as you know the basic theory involved.

What Makes a Melody Memorable?

All of this brings us to the key question: How exactly can you create a memorable

melody?

It certainly helps to have a little soul and inspiration, of course, but you also can

employ some very reliable techniques to ensure that you create a melody that works,

and will stick in the listener’s memory after he or she hears it. We’ll go through a

number of these techniques next, with the caveat that these aren’t necessarily “rules”—

it’s possible to do just the opposite of what I recommend and still create a great-

sounding melody. (Which means there must be some art involved, doesn’t it?)

Center on a Pitch

You don’t want your melodies wandering around all over the place, like a dog looking

for a place to do his business. What you want is more of a hunting dog of a melody,

one that knows where home is and, at the end of the day, finds its way back there.

The “home” of your melody needs to be a specific pitch. When you pick a home

pitch, your melody can then revolve around the pitch. You can start on that pitch

(although you don’t have to), and you should end on that pitch. Equally important,

the other notes in the melody can play around that pitch—and even land on it,

occasionally.

Note that your home pitch doesn’t have to be the tonic of the scale. You can make

the third your home, or the fifth—but probably not the second or sixth or seventh,

because they’re less related to the tonic triad of 1-3-5.

For example, listen to the following melody. It’s in the key of G, but revolves

around the home pitch of B—the third of the scale.

Part 3: Tunes

A four-measure melody in the key of G, which hovers around the third of the scale (B).

What you want to avoid is having each measure of your melody center around

a different pitch. If your melody wanders around in this type of fashion, with

no central core, you won’t know how to end the melody—you won’t know

where home is.

Make Sure You End Up at Home

Many of the most memorable melodies use the home pitch to lend logic to the

melodic flow. In fact, it’s good if your audience can listen to part of your melody

and, based on the prominence of the home note, hum the end of the melody

before they ever hear it.

When you don’t end your melody on the expected note, you create an unre-

solved tension that can be unsettling to listeners. Although it’s okay to insert

that kind of tension in the middle of your melody, you don’t want to end with

that kind of tension. You want to resolve your melody so that there’s a feeling

of completion at the end.

What you want to avoid is a melody that wanders around aimlessly. Let your

ear be your guide. Play over the melody and see if it holds together. It’s a little

bit like writing a good paragraph or a good stanza of a poem; when you’re fin-

ished, the best thing to do is to read it aloud and see if it really works.

The wrong way to do it—you don’t want to end your melody with unresolved tension.

Stay Within the Scale

When you’re picking the specific notes for your melody, it’s good to pick a par-

ticular scale—and stay within the seven notes of that scale. For example, if you

decide to write in the key of F Major, your melody will include the notes F, G,

A, B, C, D, and E. Used properly, none of these notes will sound out of place.

A melody that uses the F Major scale.

Chapter 8: Melodies

Conversely, if you’re writing in F Major and throw a Dinto your melody, that

note will sound out of place. Although it’s possible to use these nonscale (chro-

matic) notes in a melody, it’s probably not something you, as a beginner, should

try. Composing a melody using chromatic notes requires a degree of harmonic

sophistication that seldom comes naturally—although it can be developed with

practice.

By the way, when you choose a scale for your melody, it doesn’t have to be a

major scale. Let’s say we’re still in the key of F, but you want to write a less lively,

more poignant-sounding melody. For this type of melody, you might choose to use

the D minor scale (which uses one flat, as with the key of F). When you write

this type of melody, you’ll probably center on the tonic triad of D minor (D, F,

and A) rather than the tonic triad of F Major (F, A, and C).

Use the Big Five

You can make things even simpler by sticking to five key notes within a given

major scale—the first, second, third, fifth, and sixth of the scale. (In C Major,

these notes are C, D, E, G, and A.)

These notes combine for what is called the pentatonic scale. (The word penta

means five; five tones equal a pentatonic scale.) By using only these five notes,

you avoid the two notes in the scale (the fourth and the seventh) that sometimes

create harmonic tension.

When you use the five notes in the pentatonic scale, it’s virtually impossible to

insert a “wrong” note into your melody. However, you can overuse these notes

and end up with a vaguely Oriental-sounding tune—or even something that

sounds a little bit like the theme to an old cowboy movie!

A melody based on the C pentatonic scale.

Find the Hook

For a melody to be truly memorable, there needs to be a piece of your melody

that really reaches out and grabs the listener’s attention. In pop music this is

called the hook, because it’s the part of the song that hooks the listener. In more

traditional music, this piece of the song is sometimes known as the motif (or

motive)—and is repeated throughout the entire piece of music.

A motif is typically fairly short—a few notes (think of the five whistling notes in

Sergio Leone’s theme from the movie The Good, the Bad and the Ugly) or, at

longest, one or two measures. When you hit on a good motif or hook, don’t be

afraid to use it—repeat it as often as you need, throughout your entire song.

Instead of basing

your melody on a

major or minor

scale, you can base

it on one of the modes—

Aeolian, Dorian, Lydian,

and so forth—discussed

back in Chapter 3.

Tip

On a piano, an

easy way to see

and play a penta-

tonic scale is to

play strictly on the black

keys. These five keys—

G, A, B, D, and E—

comprise the Gpentatonic

scale.

Tip

Part 3: Tunes

100

Create Variations

You can create additional melodies in your music by varying your motif slightly,

such as changing its rhythm or moving its tones up or down in the scale. You

should retain enough of the main motif so that listeners can tell where it came

from, but add enough variation so that you create a new—but related—melody.

How can you vary a motif ? You can reverse the rhythm, simplify the rhythm,

or make the rhythm more complex. You can reverse the notes (so that the

melody goes up instead of down, or down instead of up), or change the middle

notes in the motif, or shift the notes up or down a third or a fifth. In short, just

about any variation is fair game, as long as the initial motif isn’t completely

obliterated by the variations.

Take a look at the following example, in which the simple four-note motif from

the previous example is run through a number of variations—both rhythmically

and melodically.

A simple four-note motif, repeated throughout a longer melody.

The same four-note motif, with variations.

Remember that you want your variations to relate to the original motif. If you

get too far away from the original motif, it isn’t a variation anymore—it’s a

brand-new melody!

Write in Four—or Eight, or Sixteen

When you’re composing a melody, it helps to keep the lengths of the parts of

the melody (the motifs and phrases) relatively simple. In most Western music—

popular music, especially—most melodies can be divisible by two. That means

you probably want your melody to be two, four, eight, or sixteen measures long.

You probably don’t want to write a three- or five-measure melody; writing to an

odd number of measures may feel wrong to some of your listeners.

When you write a longer melody, you can divide it up into two- or four- or

eight-measure chunks. For example, the following sixteen-measure melody is

constructed from four four-measure parts.

One notable exception to

this 2/4/8/16 rule is the

genre we call the blues.

Most blues music uses a

twelve-measure form, with

twelve-measure melodies.

(To learn more about the

blues form, see Chapter

11.)

Note

Chapter 8: Melodies 101

A sixteen-measure melody, consisting of four four-measure phrases.

Make It Move

A good melody doesn’t just sit there; it goes someplace. You can propel a melody

rhythmically, or tonally, through the “motion” of the tones. In this sense, motion

refers to the progressive upward or downward direction of the pitches, or what

some call the contour of a line of music.

A good way to think about the upward or downward motion of a melody is to

look at the starting note and the ending note—while ignoring, for the time

being, all the notes in between. To create an upward-moving melody, make sure

the ending note is at least a third (and ideally a fifth or more) higher than the

starting note. Same thing with a downward-moving melody; force the last note

to be lower than the first one.

All the notes between the first and last notes help you move to that final note.

The notes don’t all have to go in the same direction, but they do have to gradu-

ally move up or down to where you want to end.

A melody with upward motion.

Note that it’s okay to have a melody that starts and ends on the same note.

What you can do is make the midpoint of the melody higher or lower than the

starting/ending pitch. If you choose a higher midpoint, the first half of the

melody will have upward movement, and the last half will use downward

movement to return to the home pitch.

Take Small Steps

The most singable melodies progress in small steps, which means each note is

only a step or two away from the previous note. The smaller the steps between

the notes in your melody, the more lyrical your melody will sound.

When you throw large jumps—of three or more steps—into your melody, it

starts sounding random, and becomes much more difficult to play or sing. It’s

much better to use a series of passing notes within your chosen scale to move

from one main note to another.

A melody that pro-

gresses in half or whole

steps uses what is called

step-wise or conjunct

motion. Melodies that

progress by leaps larger

than a whole step use

what is called skip-wise or

disjunct motion.

Definition

Part 3: Tunes

Obviously, this isn’t a hard-and-fast rule. (And every rule is meant to be broken,

anyway!) Think, for example, of “Somewhere Over the Rainbow,” or “Moon

River,” or “When You Wish Upon a Star.” All of these songs feature leaps of

anywhere from a fifth to an entire octave in their melodies. So it’s okay to leap,

if you know what you’re doing—although small steps are better suited for less-

experienced songwriters.

102

Small steps and large leaps in a melody—the small steps sound more lyrical and are easier to sing.

Stay in Range

You don’t want to cover too many notes in your melody. If the distance between

the lowest note and the highest note is too wide, singers will have trouble

singing all of your melody—and your melody will start to sound random and

disjointed, without a home.

Consider, for example, America’s national anthem, “The Star-Spangled

Banner.” Francis Scott Key put his words to one whopper of a tune—one that

had a rather wide melodic range. Think of how hard this song is to sing—and

how many well-trained vocalists have trouble hitting all the notes. The broad

range in this song doesn’t make it a bad song; it just makes it one of the more

difficult songs to sing or play.

Thus, if at all possible keep the lowest and highest notes in your melody within

an octave of each other. (Or, at most, within an octave and a third.) You should

also consider the absolute range of the voice or instrument you’re writing for,

and try to stay within that range. (To learn more about voice and instrument

ranges, turn to Chapter 19.)

Ironically, the melody of

“The Star-Spangled

Banner” comes from an

English drinking song

called “Anacreon in

Heaven.” Maybe the high

notes are easier to hit after

a few pints of British ale!

Note

A melody with too wide a range—really hard to sing!

Avoid Unsingable Intervals

While we’re on the topic of singability, certain intervals are easier to sing than

others. Half steps and whole steps are easy to sing, as are seconds, thirds, and

fifths. Some fourths, for some reason, are a little more difficult to sing, and

sixths and sevenths are particularly problematic.

Octaves aren’t by nature difficult—a C is a C is a C, whether it’s high or low—

although the shear distance between the notes adds a degree of difficulty for

singers. Along the same lines, any interval over an octave should probably be

avoided, just because it’s such a big jump.

Chapter 8: Melodies

Chromatic intervals—notes that aren’t in the underlying scale—are very diffi-

cult for most singers to sing. For example, if you’re in the key of C and your

melody jumps from an E to a G, a lot of singers won’t be able to hit that sec-

ond note. They’ll want to sing either an F or G, both of which are in the scale;

the Gtakes a lot of concentration to hit, out of the blue.

There’s another chromatic interval you should avoid at all costs, called a tritone;

it’s (depending on how you look at it) a raised (augmented) fourth or a flatted

(diminished) fifth. The tritone just plain sounds wrong; some early music theo-

rists considered this the “Devil’s interval,” and the musical equivalent of evil.

(Go ahead, play a tritone—F to B, for example—and see how difficult it is to

sing.)

103

As with all things

musical, the real test

is in the singing.

Whatever intervals

you use, try to sing them,

and then check what you

sing against the piano. If

you have trouble singing a

particular interval, so will

others—and the best melo-

dies are the easiest to sing.

Tip

Don’t put tritones in your melodies!

Keep the Rhythm Simple

At least when you’re starting out, it helps to keep the rhythm of your melody

relative simple. That means sticking to quarter notes and half notes, and using

sixteenth notes sparingly.

It also means avoiding, for the time being, what we call syncopation. Syncopation

makes for a jumpy melody, and is hard for some singers to sing.

Syncopation means there’s an emphasis in a place you’re not expecting

it—or when there isn’t an emphasis where you were expecting it. You

can create a syncopated rhythm by accenting something other than the

downbeat—or by putting a rest on the downbeat. This type of change-up creates

rhythmic patterns that might sound “off” to some listeners but often have kind of a

funky or jazzy feel.

Definition

Syncopated rhythms may be created by using a short rest on the downbeat or

other strong beats. If you find yourself writing a melody that sounds just a little

too “jerky,” consider simplifying the rhythm and using more straight eighth and

quarter notes—on the beat.

Part 3: Tunes

Simplifying a rhythmically complex melody.

Stay in Time

It’s also possible, especially when you’re first starting out, to create a melody that

doesn’t strictly follow the pattern of your chosen time signature. For example,

you could create a six-beat melody, which doesn’t fit well in a four-beat 4/4 world.

104

A melody that doesn’t follow the normal bar-line breaks.

You want to pace your melody so that it fits within your chosen time signature.

That means creating a melody that can easily be divided into measures, without

having extra beats left over. In fact, it’s a good exercise to write out your melody

without bar lines, and then make sure you can easily figure out where to draw

the bars to create your measures. If you can’t easily fit your melody into meas-

ures, think about rephrasing your rhythms, or changing the rest periods between

sections of your melody.

Along the same lines, make sure you can easily tell where the first beat of the

measure is throughout your melody—especially in the first and last measures.

You don’t want your melody to feel “offbeat,” in the strictest sense of the

phrase. You want your melody to end on a beat that feels right; otherwise your

listeners will find themselves stumbling in place when “one” isn’t where it’s sup-

posed to be.

Set Up—and Resolve—Tension

One of the most common melodic techniques is to divide your melody into two

parts, and set up a harmonic tension in the first part that is then resolved in the

second part. This gives your melody a distinct form, and its own internal logic;

it also helps to propel the melody from the first part to the second.

One way to create tension is to end the first part of your melody on something

other than the tonic of the scale. (When you’re factoring in the chord structure—

which you’ll learn in Chapter 10—you’ll find that tension is achieved by ending

the first part of the melody on a IV or V chord.) Practically, you can create ten-

sion by ending a phrase with the second, fifth, or seventh notes of the scale—

which correspond to the notes in the scale’s V chord, if you’re reading ahead.

More-experienced com-

posers are capable of

changing time signatures

within a melody, thus

accommodating lines that

don’t fit within a steady

time signature flow.

Note

Chapter 8: Melodies

The half note in measure two creates tension; the next two bars resolve the tension.

You then have to relieve this tension by manipulating the second part of your

melody back to the tonic of the scale—or to one of the notes in the tonic triad

(the I chord). The notes in the tonic triad are the tonic, third, and fifth of the

scale, although the tonic and the third probably work better for relieving ten-

sion. (That’s because the fifth is an ambiguous note, used both in the I chord

and the V chord; again, read ahead to Chapter 10 to learn all about chord pro-

gressions.)

In any case, you can hear the tension when you play a melody. Just look back to

Dvorˇák’s New World Symphony or “Michael, Row the Boat Ashore.” For that

matter, “Mary Had a Little Lamb” also has this type of internal tension, coming

right after “Mary had a little lamb, little lamb, little lamb,” and resolved with

“Mary had a little a lamb, whose fleece was white as snow.”

It’s a popular technique—because it works!

Set Up a Call and Response

Another effective technique to employ in your melodies is that of call and response.

This is where you set up a phrase in the first part of your melody, and then

“answer” that phrase in the second part. This is slightly different from the tech-

nique of tension and release, although the call does set up a certain tension that

demands a tension-relieving answer. The answering phrase serves as a “part

two” to the original phrase; the first phrase takes you in one direction, and the

second phrase brings you back home.

To create a call-and-response type of melody, it helps to think of a question—

and its answer. For example, you might think of the question, “Where is my

car?” and the answer, “It’s in the street.” When you put this call and response to

music, you might get something like this:

105

A simple call-and-response melody.

Establish Symmetry

A technique that is somewhat implied in both the tension-and-relief and call-

and-response techniques is that of symmetry. By this I mean that the second

part of your melody should be somewhat of a mirror image of the first part of

your melody.

Part 3: Tunes

You can achieve this symmetry by mirroring rhythms, or by mirroring tones.

Take Dvorˇák’s New World Symphony, for example. Measure 3 is identical to

measure 1, thus setting up the symmetry between the two parts of the tune.

“Michael, Row the Boat Ashore” has a rhythmic symmetry between the two

parts, even though the tones used change a bit. (Sometimes the tones have to

change, to relieve the harmonic tension or answer a melodic call.)

In any case, when you make the second part of your melody resemble the first

part, you establish a familiarity in the mind and ear of the listener, so they know

(pretty much) what to expect and feel comfortable when you deliver it to them.

106

The last two bars are a near-mirror image of the first two measures.

Balance Repetition and Variety

Repetition is part and parcel of symmetry—and of establishing motifs and hooks.

You find a melodic or rhythmic figure that you like, and you repeat it through-

out the course of the melody or song. This sort of repetition, such as that

shown in the following example, helps to unify your melody; it’s the melodic

equivalent of a steady drumbeat, and serves as an identifying factor for listeners.

However, too much of a good thing can get annoying. If you repeat your figure

too often, it will start to bore the listener. It’s hard to say how much repetition

is too much repetition, but chances are you’ll be able to tell—or your listeners

will tell you.

Songwriter Jimmy Webb, in his book Tunesmith: Inside the Art of Songwriting

(Hyperion, 1998), says that the key to writing interesting melody is “to lead the

ear on a path which is both pleasant and to some degree unexpected.” (Empha-

sis his.) I agree wholeheartedly. The best melodies sound familiar yet still manage

to surprise us somewhere along the line; they do a good job balancing repetition

and variety.

Note

When you find yourself using too much repetition, it’s time to trot out the

variations—or to add completely new melodic or rhythmic figures. Balancing

repetition and variety is an essential skill to learn, and marks a key difference

between a novice and an experienced composer.

Follow the Chord Progressions

I’ve mentioned chords and chord progressions a few times in this chapter,

because chords and progressions contribute significantly to the melodies you

compose. However, I haven’t presented chords yet, because I feel it’s important

Chapter 8: Melodies

to master a single melodic line before you start stacking multiple notes on top

of each other.

That said, after you’ve read Chapters 9 and 10, you’ll probably want to return

to this chapter and apply what you’ve learned. That’s because one very useful

approach to composing melodies is to come up with a chord progression first,

and then add a melody on top of that. Of course, you can’t do this until you

learn about chords.

After you’ve read Chapters 9 and 10, you’ll better understand how to create—

and resolve—harmonic tension in a melody, using certain chords. For example,

you’ll discover that the most common chord progression is I-IV-V, or some

variation of that. (In the key of C, the chords would be C Major, F Major, and

G Major.) The IV and V chords (the V chord, especially) are used to create ten-

sion; you often end the first part of your melody with the V chord. You resolve

tension by getting back to the I chord, which is the reason you almost always

end your tunes with the I chord. When your melodies follow these chords, you

establish the kind of tension and relief that makes for a memorable melody.

Your melody needs to fit within the chord structure of your song, as you’ll also

learn in Chapter 10. This means that, within a specific measure, the main notes

of your melody probably should fit within the three main notes of the underly-

ing chord. For example, if you have an A minor chord, the main notes of the

melody accompanying that chord should probably be A, C, or E—the three

notes in the chord.

Again, you’ll learn more about chords and progressions in the next two chap-

ters, so be patient—it will all be explained, in due course!

Follow the Form

Most songs follow some sort of established song form. That means that your

melodies should fit within that form, as well.

You’ll learn more about song forms in Chapter 11, but here’s a brief example: A

lot of popular songs are divided into verses and choruses. The verse is the first

melody, which is repeated throughout the song. The chorus is a second melody,

often the main melody (containing the hook), which is played between verses.

So a typical pop music song form might look like this: verse-verse-chorus-verse.

That means you’ll need to write two melodies for the song, which must be

related in some way.

After you read Chapter 11, you should return to this chapter to apply what

you’ve learned about form to your basic melodic skills.

Follow the Words

Another factor that can drive a melody is the presence of lyrics. If you’re writ-

ing an instrumental, of course, you don’t have to worry about following the

words. But if you’re writing a popular song, you have to deal with both music

and words—and how they fit together.

107

Part 3: Tunes

You want your music to fit with your words. In the simplest sense, this means

arranging the rhythm of the music so that it fits the natural rhythm of the words.

You don’t want your singers to be forced into awkward phrasing to fit all the

syllables into a given space. Most words and phrases have a natural pace, and

will suggest a rhythm to you. Make sure your music’s rhythm fits this lyric

rhythm—in particular, avoid putting an unaccented word or syllable on an

accented part of the measure, like the downbeat.

You also want the flow of your melody to match the flow of the words. For

example, if the words ask a question, you probably want the melody to flow

upward, to imitate the way a human voice ends a question on a higher pitch.

In addition, you want the feel of the music to match the feel of the lyrics. If the

lyrics are sad, you probably don’t want to set them to a happy-sounding melody.

There are exceptions to this rule, of course—mismatching words and lyrics can

create a sense of musical irony that is appropriate in some situations—but in

general, you want your melody to reflect the feel of the lyrics, even when

played without vocals.

Write for a Specific Instrument or Voice

The type of melody you compose might be dictated by the specific voices or

instruments you’re writing for. For example, if you’re writing for flutes, you

probably don’t want to create a booming, bombastic melody—they won’t be

able to play it. By the same token, too high a melody will be difficult for low

male voices to sing. You need to find not only the right range for a given voice

or instrument, but also the right feel. Match the requirements of your melody

with the right voices and instruments to avoid an unpleasant listening experience.

Be Unique

Finally, you should know that a melody doesn’t have to be harmonically or

rhythmically complex to be memorable; it doesn’t have to be long or short or any

certain length. It does, however, have to be distinctive. A memorable melody

might remind us of other melodies, but it can’t duplicate them. The best melodies

have something unique about them, some distinctive hook or motif or rhythmic

pattern that makes them stand out.

It’s difficult (if not impossible) to teach you how to be unique, so this is some-

thing you’ll have to address on your own. Does your melody stand on its own?

Does it sound a little like something else you’ve heard? Does it sound a lot like

something else you’ve heard? As with many aspects of composition, this is one

area in which you’ll have to trust your ears—and one that you definitely have to

listen for.

Learn More About Composing

Writing your own music is fun, but it requires mastery of many musical skills—

of which we’ve only covered a few in this chapter. Whether you want to write

songs or symphonies, the same techniques of composition apply. You have to

108

See Chapter 19 for more

information about instru-

mental and vocal ranges.

Note

Chapter 8: Melodies

start with a good grounding in music theory (which is why you’re reading this

book!), and then proceed from there to learn how to create memorable melodies,

interesting chord progressions, and sparkling orchestrations.

If you’re interested in learning more about writing music, check out my com-

panion book, The Complete Idiot’s Guide to Music Composition (Alpha Books, 2005).

Think of the composition book as “volume two” of the book you’re currently

reading; it’s a natural progression from music theory to composition, and one

you should explore if you’re interested.

The Least You Need to Know

◆

A melody consists of a logical progression of tones and rhythms.

◆

Melodies typically follow a two-, four-, eight-, or sixteen-measure form.

◆

Melodies typically conform to a specific scale or mode.

◆

The best melodies are often the simplest—in terms of both tune and

rhythm.

◆

Longer melodies can typically be divided into two parts, with the end of

the first part creating a tension that is resolved in the second part.

◆

You should make sure that your melodies are truly singable—and the only

way to do this is to see if you can sing them!

Exercises

Exercise 8-1

Complete the last two measures of this four-measure melody.

109

Exercise 8-2

Complete the last two measures of this four-measure melody.

Exercise 8-5

Compose an eight-measure melody in the key of G, using the G Major scale, in 4/4 time. Make this a

rhythmically lively melody at a relatively fast tempo, using half notes, quarter notes, eighth notes, and

sixteenth notes.

Exercise 8-4

Compose an eight-measure melody in the key of F, using the D minor scale, in 3/4 time. Use half notes,

quarter notes, and eighth notes; and begin and end your melody on the D note.

Part 3: Tunes

Exercise 8-3

Compose an eight-measure melody in the key of C, using the C Major scale, in 4/4 time. Use whole

notes, half notes, quarter notes, and eighth notes; and begin and end your melody on the C note.

110

Chords

In This Chapter

◆

Understanding major, minor, diminished, and augmented triads

◆

Extending chords to sevenths, ninths, and beyond

◆

Creating altered, suspended, and power chords

◆

Inverting the chord order

◆

Writing chords into your music

Lesson 6, Track 41

More often than not, music is more than a single melodic line. Music is a package

of tones, rhythms, and underlying harmonic structure. The melody fits within

this harmonic structure, is dependent on this harmonic structure, and in some

cases dictates the harmonic structure.

The harmonic structure of a piece of music is defined by a series of chords. A

chord is a group of notes played simultaneously, rather than sequentially (like a

melody). The relationships between the notes—the intervals within the chord—

define the type of chord; the placement of the chord within the underlying key

or scale defines the role of the chord.

This chapter is all about chords—and it’s a long one, because there are many,

many different types of chords. Don’t let all the various permutations scare you

off, however; at the core, a chord is nothing more than single notes (typically

separated by thirds) played together.

It’s as simple as that. If you can play three notes at the same time, you can play

a chord.

This chapter, then, shows you how to construct many different types of chords,

with a particular emphasis on the type of harmonic structure you find in popular

music. (This is important; the study of harmony in classical music is much more

involved, with a slightly different set of rules.) And, when you’re done reading this

chapter, you can find a “cheat sheet” to all the different chords in Appendix B.

This appendix is a quick yet comprehensive reference to every kind of chord

imaginable—in every key!

Chapter

Part 3: Tunes

112

Forming a Chord

Okay, here’s the formal definition: A chord is a combination of three or more

notes played together.

Let’s do a little exercise: Sit down at the nearest piano and put your right thumb

on one of the white keys. (It doesn’t matter which one.) Now skip a key and

put another finger on the third key. Skip another key and put a third finger on

the fifth key. You should now be pressing three keys, with an empty key between

each finger. Press down and listen to the music—you’re playing a chord!

Basic chords consist of just three notes, arranged in thirds, called a triad. The

most common triads are constructed from notes plucked from the underlying

scale, each note two steps above the previous note. So, for example, if you want

to base a chord on the tonic of a scale, you’d use the first, third, and fifth notes

of the scale. (Using the C Major scale, these notes would be C, E, and G.) If

you want to base a chord on the second degree of a scale, use the second,

fourth, and sixth notes of the scale. (Still using the C Major scale, these notes

would be D, F, and A.)

Building a three-note triad.

Within a specific chord, the first note is called the root—even if the chord isn’t

formed from the root of the scale. The other notes of the chord are named rel-

ative to the first note, typically being the third and the fifth above the chord’s

root. (For example, if C is the chord’s root, E is called the third and G is called

the fifth.) This is sometimes notated 1-3-5.

Different Types of Chords

Let’s go back to the piano. Putting your fingers on every other white note, form

a chord starting on middle C. (Your fingers should be on the keys C, E, and G.)

Nice sounding chord, isn’t it? Now move your fingers one key to the right, so

that you’re starting on D. (Your fingers should now be on the keys D, F, and A.)

This chord sounds different—kind of sad, compared to the happier C chord.

You’ve just demonstrated the difference between major and minor chords. The

first chord you played was a major chord: C Major. The second chord was a

minor chord—D minor. As with major and minor scales, major and minor

chords sound different to the listener, because the intervals in the chords are

slightly different.

The notes of a chord don’t

always have to be played

in unison. You can play

the notes one at a time,

starting (usually, but not

always) with the bottom

note. This is called arpeg-

giating the chord, and the

result is an arpeggio.

Note

You should always

spell a triad using every

other letter. So D-F-Ais a

correct spelling (for a D

Major chord), but the en-

harmonic spelling of C-F-A

is wrong

Warning

Chapter 9: Chords 113

In most cases, the type of chord is determined by the middle note—the third.

When the interval between the first note and the second note is a major third—

two whole steps—you have a major chord. When the interval between the first

note and the second note is a minor third—three half steps—you have a minor

chord.

It’s no more complex than that. If you change the middle note, you change the

chord from major to minor.

Read on to learn all about major and minor chords—as well as some other types

of chords that aren’t quite major and aren’t quite minor.

Major Chords

A major chord consists of a root, a major third, and a perfect fifth. For example,

the C Major chord includes the notes C, E, and G. The E is a major third

above the C; the G is a perfect fifth above the C.

Here’s a quick look at how to build major chords on every note of the scale:

Major triads.

There are many different ways to indicate a major chord in your music, as

shown in the following table:

Notation for Major Chords

Major Chord Notation Example

Major C Major

Maj C Maj

Ma C Ma

MCM

∆C∆

In addition, just printing the letter of the chord (using a capital letter) indicates

that the chord is major. (So if you see C in a score, you know to play a C Major

chord.)

Part 3: Tunes

Minor Chords

The main difference between a major chord and a minor chord is the third.

Although a major chord utilizes a major third, a minor chord flattens that inter-

val to create a minor third. The fifth is the same.

In other words, a minor chord consists of a root, a minor third, and a perfect

fifth. This is sometimes notated 1-3-5. For example, the C minor chord

includes the notes C, E, and G.

Here’s a quick look at how to build minor chords on every note of the scale:

114

Minor triads.

In this and other chord

charts in this book, the

accidentals apply only to

the specific chord; they

don’t carry across to suc-

cessive chords.

Note

When you play a

chord based on

the tonic note of a

major scale or key,

that chord is always a

major chord. For example,

in the key of C, the tonic

chord is C Major.

Tip

There are many different ways to indicate a minor chord, as shown in the fol-

lowing table:

Notation for Minor Chords

Minor Chord Notation Example

minor C minor

min C min

mi C mi

mCm

Diminished Chords

A diminished chord is like a minor chord with a lowered fifth. It has a kind of

eerie and ominous sound. You build a diminished chord with a root note, a minor

third, and a diminished (lowered) fifth. This is sometimes noted 1-3-5.

For example, the C diminished chord includes the notes C, E, and G.

Here’s a quick look at how to build diminished chords on every note of the

scale:

Note the double flat on

the fifth of the Edimin-

ished chord.

Note

Diminished triads.

Chapter 9: Chords 115

There are many different ways to indicate a diminished chord, as shown in the

following table:

Notation for Diminished Chords

Diminished Chord Notation Example

diminished C diminished

dimin C dimin

dim C dim

ºCº

Augmented Chords

An augmented chord is like a major chord with a raised fifth; thus an augmented

chord consists of a root, a major third, and an augmented (raised) fifth. This is

sometimes notated 1-3-5.

For example, the C augmented chord includes the notes C, E, and G.

Here’s a quick look at how to build augmented chords on every note of the

scale:

While it’s important to learn about diminished and augmented chords, you won’t

run into too many of them, especially in popular music. If you base the root of

your chord on the notes of a major scale, as you’ll learn in Chapter 10, only

the seventh degree triad forms a diminished chord. (Triads based on the other

degrees of the scale form major or minor chords.) There is no augmented chord

found on any degree of the major scale.

Note

Augmented triads.

There are many different ways to indicate an augmented chord, as shown in the

following table:

Notation for Augmented Chords

Augmented Chord Notation Example

augmented C augmented

aug C aug

+C+

Did you spot the double

sharp on the fifth of the B

augmented chord in the

illustration of augmented

chords?

Note

Part 3: Tunes

116

Chord Extensions

Chords can include more than three notes. When you get above the basic triad,

the other notes you add to a chord are called extensions.

Chord extensions are typically added in thirds; so the first type of extended chord

is called a seventh chord because the seventh is a third above the fifth. Next up

would be the ninth chord, which adds a third above the seventh … and so on.

Chord extensions are nice to know, but you can simplify most pieces of music

to work with just the basic triads. The extended notes add more color or flavor

to the sound, kind of like a musical seasoning. Like a good meal, what’s impor-

tant is what’s underneath—and you can always do without the seasoning.

So if you see a piece of music with lots of seventh and ninth chords, don’t panic—

you can probably play the music without the extensions and still have things

sound okay. Of course, for the full experience, you want to play the extended

chords as written. But remember, the basic harmonic structure comes from the

base triads; not from the extensions.

That said, it helps to have a full understanding of extended chords, just as a

good chef must have a full understanding of all the different seasonings at his or

her disposal. That means you need to know how to build extended chords—so

you can throw them into the mix when necessary.

Sevenths

The seventh chord is the most common chord extension—in fact, it’s so com-

mon that some music theorists categorize it as a basic chord type, not as an

extension. In any case, you need to be as familiar with seventh chords as you are

with triads. They’re that important.

Creating a seventh chord within a specific key or scale is normally as simple as

adding another third on top of the fifth of the base triad. This gives you a 1-3-

5-7 structure—the equivalent of playing every other note in the scale.

There are actually three basic types of seventh chords: major, minor, and domi-

nant. Major and minor seventh chords are kind of sweet sounding; the domi-

nant seventh chord has its own internal tension.

Dominant Sevenths

The dominant seventh chord—sometimes just called the “seventh” chord, with

no other designation—takes a major triad and adds a minor seventh on top. In

other words, it’s a major chord with a lowered seventh; the chord itself consists

of a root, major third, perfect fifth, and minor seventh. This is sometimes

notated 1-3-5-7.

For example, a C7 chord includes the notes C, E, G, and B.

The dominant seventh chord is an especially important—and frequently used—

extension, as this is what you get if you play a seventh chord based on the fifth

(dominant) tone of a major scale. As you’ll learn in Chapter 10, the dominant

Chapter 9: Chords 117

chord is frequently used to set up the tension leading back to the tonic chord;

when you add a seventh to the dominant triad (with its mix of major triad and

minor seventh), you introduce even more tension to the music. Here’s a quick

look at how to build dominant seventh chords on every note of the scale:

Dominant seventh chords.

There’s really only one way to notate a dominant seventh chord: by placing a sin-

gle 7 after the name of the chord. For example, you notate a C dominant seventh

chord like this: C7.

Major Sevenths

The major seventh chord takes a standard major chord and adds a major seventh

on top of the existing three notes. This gives you a chord consisting of a root,

major third, perfect fifth, and major seventh. For example, a C Major 7 chord

includes the notes C, E, G, and B.

Here’s a quick look at how to build major seventh chords on every note of the scale:

Major seventh chords.

There are several ways to indicate a major seventh chord, as shown in the follow-

ing table:

Notation for Major Seventh Chords

Major Seventh Chord Notation Example

Major 7 C Major 7

Maj7 C Maj7

M7 CM7

∆7C∆7

Minor Sevenths

The minor seventh chord takes a standard minor chord and adds a minor seventh

on top of the existing three notes. This gives you a chord consisting of a root, minor

third, perfect fifth, and minor seventh. (This is sometimes notated 1-3-5-7.)

Part 3: Tunes

118

For example, a C minor 7 chord includes the notes C, E, G, and B.

Here’s a quick look at how to build minor seventh chords on every note of the

scale:

Minor seventh chords.

There are several ways to indicate a minor seventh chord, as shown in the fol-

lowing table:

Notation for Minor Seventh Chords

Minor Seventh Chord Notation Example

minor 7 C minor 7

min7 C min7

m7 Cm7

Other Sevenths

When I said there were three basic types of seventh chords, I left the door open

for other types of less frequently used seventh chords. Indeed, you can stick

either a minor or a major seventh on top of any type of triad—major, minor,

augmented, or diminished—to create different types of seventh chords.

For example, a major seventh stuck on top of a minor triad creates a “minor

major seventh” chord. (That is, the base chord is minor, but the seventh is

major.) This is notated 1-3-5-7; a C minor Major 7 chord would include the

notes C, E, G, and B (natural).

Other types of seventh chords.

A minor seventh on top of a diminished triad creates a diminished seventh

chord, like this: 1-3-5-7. (This is the chord you get if you play a seventh

chord based on the seventh tone of a major key.) A minor seventh on top of an

augmented triad creates an augmented seventh chord, like this: 1-3-5-7. A

major seventh on top of an augmented triad creates a major seventh chord with

a raised fifth (5), like this: 1-3-5-7 … and so on.

Chapter 9: Chords

Other Extensions

While the seventh chord is almost as common as an unadorned triad, other

chord extensions are less widely used. That doesn’t mean you don’t need to

bother with them; when used properly, sixths and ninths and other extended

chords can add a lot to a piece of music.

Let’s look, then, at the other extensions you can use to spice up your basic chords.

Sixths

I said previously that all chords are based on notes a third apart from each other.

There’s an important exception to that rule: the sixth chord. With a sixth chord

(sometimes called an added sixth chord), you start with a basic triad; then add an

extra note a second above the fifth—or a sixth above the root. You can have

major sixth and minor sixth chords, as well as sixths above diminished and aug-

mented triads, as shown in the following figure:

119

Different types of sixth chords.

Later in this chapter you’ll learn about chord inversions, where the order of the

notes in a chord is changed. Interestingly, a sixth chord can be viewed as noth-

ing more than the first inversion of a seventh chord.

For example, the C Major 6 chord (C E G A) contains the same notes as the A

minor 7 chord (A C E G), just in a different order. For that reason, you sometimes

might see sixth chords notated as seventh chords with a separate note (the third)

in the bass. (C Major 6 could be notated like this: Am7/C.) This is a little

advanced—come back to this sidebar after you’ve read the section on inversions.

It’ll make sense then.

Note

Ninths

A ninth chord adds another third on top of the four notes in the seventh chord.

That makes for five individual notes; each a third apart. You can have ninth chords

based on both major and minor triads, with both major and minor sevenths.

Here’s just a smattering of the different types of ninth chords you can build:

When you get up to the

ninth chord, you assume

that the chord includes

both the underlying triad

and the seventh.

Note

Different types of ninth chords.

Part 3: Tunes

120

Seventh, ninth, and eleventh chords see frequent use in modern jazz music,

which often employs sophisticated harmonic concepts.

Elevenths … and Beyond

An eleventh chord adds another note a third above the ninth, for six notes total:

1-3-5-7-9-11. You can set an eleventh on top of any type of triad, along with all

sorts of seventh and ninth variations—although the most common eleventh

chord always uses the unchanged note from within the underlying key or scale.

As with the ninth chord, you have to make a few assumptions with the eleventh

chord. You have to assume the underlying triad, of course, but you also have to

assume the presence of both the seventh and the ninth.

Different types of eleventh chords.

Above the eleventh, it’s possible to construct both thirteenth and fifteenth

chords. Just keep adding more notes; each a third above the last.

By the way, the fifteenth chord is pretty much the highest you’ll find, because

the new note for the next chord up—the seventeenth chord—is exactly two

octaves up from the chord root. There’s no point in calling it a new chord when

all you’re doing is doubling the root note.

Altered, Suspended, and Power Chords

To ensure that you have a comprehensive background in chord theory, there are

three other chord types you need to know about. These are variations on the

basic chord types that crop up from time to time—and can help you notate

more complex musical sounds.

Altered Chords

When you get into seventh and ninth and eleventh chords, you run into the pos-

sibility of a lot of different variations. It’s math again; the more notes in a chord,

the more possible combinations of flats and sharps and such you can create.

This is why we have something called altered chords. Altered chords take stan-

dard, easy-to-understand chords and alter them. The alteration—a lowered

fifth, perhaps, or maybe an added ninth—is typically notated in parentheses,

after the main chord notation.

For example, let’s say you wanted to write a C Major seventh chord, but with a

lowered fifth. (I know … that’s a really weird-sounding combination.) To notate

this, you start with the basic chord—CM7—and add the alteration in parenthe-

ses, like this: CM7( 5). Anyone reading this chord knows to start with the basic

chord, then make the alteration shown within the parentheses.

Chapter 9: Chords 121

Another example: Let’s say you have a C minor chord and want to add the ninth

but without adding the seventh. Now, if you wanted to include the seventh,

you’d have a Cm9 chord, which is relatively standard. But to leave out the sev-

enth takes a bit more planning. Again, you start with the underlying triad—in

this case, Cm—and make the alteration within parentheses, like this: Cm(add9).

Anyone reading this chord knows to play a C minor triad and then add the

ninth—not to play a standard Cm9 chord.

The difference between a ninth chord and a triad with an added ninth.

There are an endless number of possibilities you can use when working with

altered chords. You can even include more than one variation per chord—all

you have to do is keep adding the variations onto the end of the chord notation.

Just remember to start with the base chord and make your alterations as clear as

possible. (And, if all else fails, you can write out the notes of the chord on a

staff—just to make sure everybody understands.)

Suspended Chords

We’re so used to hearing a chord as a 1-3-5 triad that any change to this

arrangement really stands out like a sore thumb to our ears. (Not that you

should put your thumbs in your ears, but you know what I mean …) This is

what makes a suspended chord so powerful, especially when used properly.

A suspended chord temporarily moves the normal major third of a major chord

up a half step to a perfect fourth. This suspension of the second note of the

triad is so wrong to our ears, we want to hear the suspension resolved by mov-

ing the second note down from the fourth to the third—as quickly as possible.

For example, a C suspended chord includes the notes C F G—instead of the C

E G of C Major. This sets up an incredible tension, as the fourth (F) sounds

really out of place; your ears want the F to move down to the E to create the

more soothing C Major triad.

In fact, most often you do resolve suspended chords—especially at the end of a

musical phrase. You can use the suspended chord to set up the desired end-of-

phrase tension, but then quickly resolve the suspended chord to the normal

major chord, like this:

Added notes can

be notated by the

word “add” plus

the number, or just

the number—within paren-

theses, of course.

Tip

Resolving a suspended chord—the F in the first chord drops down to the E in the final chord.

As you can see from the

example, you notate a

suspended chord with the

phrase “sus4”—or, more

simply, “sus.”

Note

Part 3: Tunes

122

The resolution from the perfect fourth to the major third is just a half-step

movement, but that little half step makes a world of difference; until you make

the move, you’re sitting on the edge of your seat waiting for that incredible

tension to resolve.

Power Chords

If you want a really simple chord, one with a lot of raw power, you can play just

the root and the fifth—leaving out the third. This type of chord is called a power

chord; it is noted by adding a “5” after the chord note. (For example, a G power

chord is notated G5, and includes only the notes G and D.) Power chords are

used a lot in certain types of popular music, in particular the hard rock and

heavy metal genres.

Here’s one bad thing about power chords: If you use a bunch of them in a row,

you create something called parallel fifths. As you’ll learn in Chapter 14, parallel

fifths are frowned upon, especially in classical music theory. So use power chords

sparingly and—if at all possible—not consecutively.

Power chords, up and down the scale.

Inverting the Order

Although it’s easiest to understand a chord when the root is on the bottom and

the fifth is on the top, you don’t have to play the notes in precisely this order.

Chords can be inverted so that the root isn’t the lowest note, which can give a

chord a slightly different sound. (It can also make a chord easier to play on a

piano, when you’re moving your fingers from chord to chord; inversions help

to group the notes from adjacent chords closer together.)

When you rearrange the notes of a chord so that the third is on the bottom

(3-5-1), you form what is called the first inversion. (Using a C Major chord as an

example, the first inversion is arranged E G C.) The second inversion is where you

put the fifth of the chord on the bottom, followed by the root and third (5-1-3).

(Again using C Major as an example, the second inversion is arranged G C E.)

The standard triad form, with the root on the bottom, is called the root inversion.

In classical music theory, a

power chord is called an

open fifth, and is techni-

cally an interval, not a

chord.

Note

The first and second inversions of a C Major chord.

Chapter 9: Chords

If you’re working with extended chords, there are more than two possible inver-

sions. For example, the third inversion of a seventh chord puts the seventh in

the bass; the fourth inversion of a ninth chord puts the ninth in the bass.

The particular order of a chord’s notes is also referred to as that chord’s voicing.

You can specify a voicing without writing all the notes by adding a bass note to

the standard chord notation. You do this by adding a slash after the chord nota-

tion, and then the name of the note that should be played on the bottom of the

chord.

For example, if you want to indicate a first inversion of a C Major chord (nor-

mally C E G, but E G C in the first inversion), you’d write this: C/E. This tells

the musician to play a C Major chord, but to put an E in the bass—which just

happens to be the first inversion of the chord. If you wanted to indicate a sec-

ond inversion (G C E), you’d write this: C/G. This tells the musician to play a

C Major chord with a G in the bass.

You can use this notation to indicate other, nonchord notes to be played in the

bass part. For example, Am7/D tells the musician to play an A minor seventh

chord, but to add a D in the bass—a note that doesn’t exist within the A minor

seventh chord proper.

123

Don’t confuse the

chord/bass notation with

the similar (like a

fraction with a horizontal

divider, as opposed to

the chord/bass diagonal

slash). The notation

tells a musician—typically

a pianist—to play one

chord over another. For

example, if you see ,

you should play a Cm

chord with your right hand,

and a Dm chord with your

left.

Warning

chord

An A minor seventh chord with a D in the bass—not your standard seventh chord.

Adding Chords to Your Music

When you want to indicate a chord in your written music, you add the chord

symbol above the staff, like this:

Write the chord symbol above the staff.

The chord applies in the music until you insert another chord. Then the new

chord applies—until the next chord change. For example, in the following piece

of music you’d play a C Major chord in measure 1, an F Major chord in meas-

ure 2, a C Major chord in the first half of measure 3, a G7 chord in the second

half of measure 3, and a C Major chord in measure 4.

Part 3: Tunes

Changing chords in your music.

124

If you’re writing a part for guitar, or for a rhythm section (bass, piano, and so

forth) in a pop or jazz band, you don’t have to write out specific notes on the

staff. A guitarist will know to strum the indicated chords, a piano player will

know to comp through the chord progressions, and the bass player will know to

play the root of the chord.

You write a comp part by using slashes in place of traditional notes on the staff.

Typically, you use one slash per beat, so a measure of 4/4 will have four slashes,

like this:

Comping is a

technique used by jazz

and pop musicians to play

an improvised accompani-

ment behind a particular

piece of music. A piano

player might comp by

playing block or arpeg-

giated chords; a guitarist

might comp by strumming

the indicated chords.

Definition

Writing chords for a rhythm section.

You can indicate specific rhythms that should be played by writing out the rhythm,

but with slashes instead of note heads. The result looks something like this:

Indicating a specific rhythm for the chord accompaniment.

If you’re writing specifically for guitar, you also have the option of including

guitar tablature. Tablature shows the guitarist how to fret the chord, and is very

useful for beginning-level players. More advanced players probably don’t need

this assistance, unless you’re indicating a particularly complex chord.

A guitar part with tabla-

ture is sometimes called a

guitar tab.

Note

A guitar part with tablature added.

Chapter 9: Chords

The Complete Idiot’s Chord Reference

If you flip back to Appendix B of this book, you’ll find “The Complete Idiot’s

Chord Reference.” This is a comprehensive reference to just about every kind of

chord you can think of—major chords, minor chords, extensions, you name it.

You’ll find out how to construct each chord, learn the guitar tablature, and dis-

cover alternate ways to describe the chord. Keep this appendix bookmarked—

you’ll get a lot of use out of it!

The Least You Need to Know

◆

A chord consists of three or more notes (called a triad) played simultaneously—

with each note typically a third above the previous note.

◆

A major chord includes the root note, a major third, and a perfect fifth.

◆

A minor chord includes the root note, a minor third, and a perfect fifth.

◆

Extensions above the basic triad are typically added in thirds, and can be

either major or minor.

◆

A minor seventh chord is a minor triad with a minor seventh; a major sev-

enth chord is a major triad with a major seventh; a dominant seventh chord

is a major triad with a minor seventh.

◆

When you play a chord with a note other than the root in the bass, you’re

playing a chord inversion.

◆

When you write for guitar, piano, or bass, you don’t have to write out all the

notes; all you have to do is specify the chord, along with rhythmic slashes on

the staff.

Exercises

Exercise 9-1

Name the following major chords.

125

Exercise 9-2

Name the following minor chords.

Part 3: Tunes

Exercise 9-3

Write the following major chords on the staff.

126

Exercise 9-4

Write the following minor chords on the staff.

Exercise 9-5

Name the following extended chords.

Exercise 9-6

Write the following extended chords on the staff.

Exercise 9-7

Write the first and second inversions of the following chords.

Exercise 9-8

Resolve the following suspended chords by lowering the suspended note (the middle note of the chord) to

the note a half step below.

Chord Progressions

In This Chapter

◆

Understanding scale-based chords

◆

Learning the rules of chord leading

◆

Figuring out how to end a progression

◆

Discovering the most common chord progressions

◆

Fitting chords to a melody—and a melody to a chord progression

In Chapter 9, you learned how to group notes together to form chords. Individual

chords alone are interesting, but they become really useful when you string them

together to form a succession of chords—what we call a chord progression. These

chord progressions provide the harmonic underpinning of a song, “fattening

out” the melody and propelling the music forward.

Of course, to create a chord progression that sounds natural, you can’t just

string a bunch of chords together willy-nilly. Certain chords naturally lead to

other chords; certain chords perform distinct functions within a song. You have

to use your chords properly, and arrange them in the right order, to create a

piece of music that sounds both natural and logical.

Chord progressions don’t have to be complex, either. The simplest progressions

include just two or three chords—which are easy enough for any beginning gui-

tarist to play. How many songs, after all, do you know that use only the G, C,

and D chords? (A lot, I bet.) Those three chords comprise one of the most

common chord progressions—which should show you how easy all this is.

Chords for Each Note in the Scale

To better understand the theory behind chord progressions, you need to under-

stand that you can create a three-note chord based on any of the seven notes of

a major key or scale. You start with the note of the scale (one through seven) as

the root of the chord; then build up from there in thirds—using only the notes

within the scale.

Chapter

Part 3: Tunes

128

Let’s use the key of C as an example, because it’s made up of only the white

keys on a piano. When you play a triad based on C (the tonic of the scale), you

play C E G—a C Major chord. Now move up one key, and play the next

triad—D F A, or D minor. Move up another key, and you play E G B, the E

minor chord. Move up yet another key, and you play F A C—F Major. Keep

moving up the scale and you play G Major, A minor, and B diminished. Then

you’re back on C, and ready to start all over again.

This type of chord building based on the notes of a scale is important, because

we use the position within a scale to describe the individual chords in our

chord progressions. In particular, we use Roman numerals (I through VII) to

describe where each chord falls in the underlying scale. Uppercase Roman

numerals are used for major chords; lowercase Roman numerals are used for

minor chords. To indicate a diminished chord, you use the lowercase Roman

numeral plus a small circle. To indicate an augmented chord, use the uppercase

Roman numeral plus a small plus sign.

Thus, within a major scale, the seven chords are notated as follows:

I ii iii IV V vi vii°

If you remember back to Chapter 2, each degree of the scale has a particular

name—tonic, dominant, and so on. We can assign these names to the different

chords, like this:

I ii iii IV V vi vii°

Tonic Supertonic Mediant Subdominant Dominant Submediant Leading Tone

Of these chords, the primary chords—the ones with the most weight—are the I, IV,

and V. These also are the only major chords in the major scale—and often the

only chords used within a song.

When describing chord progressions, we’ll refer to chords by either their

Roman numerals or their theoretical names (tonic, dominant, and so forth).

You can figure out which specific chords (C Major, D minor, and so forth) to

play, based on the designated key signature.

To make things easier, you can refer to the following table, which lists the

seven scale-based chords for each major key signature.

Scale-Based Chords

Key Signature Chords

C

Chapter 10: Chord Progressions 129

Key Signature Chords

D

E

F

G

A

B

continues

Part 3: Tunes

Key Signature Chords

B***INSERT FIGURE 10FIG14

C***INSERT FIGURE 10FIG15

Creating a Progression

Let’s see how you can use these Roman numerals to create a chord progression.

For the time being we won’t pay attention to the underlying harmonic theory;

we’ll just concentrate on the mechanics of creating a progression.

I mentioned earlier the popularity of the G, C, and D chords. In the key of G

Major, these chords happen to fall on the first (G), fourth (C), and fifth (d)

notes of the scale. This makes these the I, IV, and V chords—or, more techni-

cally, the tonic, subdominant, and dominant.

If you’ve ever played any folk songs, you know that one of the more common

chord progressions goes like this:

G / / / C / / / G / / / D / / /

(Naturally, the progression repeats—or ends with a final G chord.)

Because you know that the G = I, C = IV, and D = V, it’s easy to figure out the

Roman numeral notation. It looks like this:

IIVIV

There—you’ve just written your first chord progression!

The benefit of using this type of notation is you can apply the chord progres-

sion to other keys. Let’s say you want to play this I-IV-I-V progression in the

key of C. Referring back to the Scale-Based Chords table earlier in this chapter,

you can translate the progression to these specific chords:

C / / / F / / / C / / / G / / /

This definitely makes things simpler.

It’s All About Getting Home

The goal of most major chord progressions is to get back to the home chord—

the tonic chord, or I. All the other chords in the progression exist as part of a

roadmap to deliver you back to the I chord. The route can be simple (just a

chord or two) or complex (lots and lots of different chords), but ultimately you

want to end up back on I.

130

These examples use slash

notation, where each

slash (/) equals one beat.

Measures are separated

by spaces.

Note

continued

Chapter 10: Chord Progressions 131

If you’re playing in a minor key, you want to end up on the home of that key—

which is the vi chord of the relative major scale.

As you’ll learn in the next section, certain chords naturally lead to the I key. In

addition, you can employ multiple-chord progressions to get you back to I—

these are called cadences and are also discussed later in this chapter.

One Good Chord Leads to Another

Although you can write a song using any combination of chords that sounds

good to your ears—even chords from other keys—in most cases chord progres-

sions are based on a few simple rules. These rules come from a concept called

chord leading, which says that certain chords naturally lead to other chords.

You can hear chord leading for yourself by playing some chords on the piano.

To keep it simple, we’ll stay in the key of C—so you don’t have to play any of

the black keys.

Start by playing a C Major chord (C-E-G). This is the I chord, which doesn’t

necessarily lead anywhere because, based on chord leading rules, the I chord can

be followed by any chord in the scale.

Now play a G Major chord (G-B-D). This is the V chord in the scale, and it defi-

nitely wants to go somewhere. But where? You could follow it with an F Major

chord (F-A-C), but that isn’t fully satisfying. Neither is D minor (D-F-A) or E

minor (E-G-B) or even A minor (A-C-E). The only chord that sounds fully

satisfying—the chord that V naturally leads to—is the I chord, C Major.

The rule here is that the V chord naturally leads back to the I chord. Although you

can write another chord after a V, the best resolution is to follow the V with the I.

Other chords also have related chords that they naturally lead to. Some chords

can even lead to more than one chord. To learn which chords lead where, take a

look at the following table.

Chord Leading Reference

These Chords … Lead to These Chords …

I Any chord

ii IV, V, vii°

iii ii, IV, vi

IV I, iii, V, vii°

vi ii, IV, V, I

vii° I, iii

Although there are exceptions to these rules, you can create a pleasing chord

progression by following the order suggested by this chart. This means if you

have a iii chord, you follow it with either a ii, IV, or a vi chord. Or if you have a

vi chord, you follow it with either a ii, IV, V, or I chord … and so on.

Technically, the vi chord of

the major scale is actually

the i chord of the relative

natural minor scale—if you

recall the relationship

between major and minor

keys, presented back in

Chapter 4.

Note

Part 3: Tunes

132

Let’s put together some of these combinations. We’ll start, of course, with the I

chord. Because I leads to any chord, let’s go up one scale note and insert the ii

chord after the I. According to our chart, ii can lead to either IV, V, or vii°. We’ll

pick V. Then, because V always leads to I, the next chord is a return to the tonic.

The entire progression looks like this:

IiiVI

When you play this progression in the key of C, you get the following chords:

C / / / Dm / / / G / / / C / / /

Sounds good, doesn’t it?

Let’s try another example. Again, we’ll start with the tonic, but this time we’ll

use the vi chord as the second chord. According to the chart, vi can lead to

either ii, IV, V, or I; let’s pick IV. Then, because IV can lead to either I, iii, V, or

vii°, we’ll pick V as the next chord—which leads us back to I as our final chord.

The entire progression looks like this:

IviIVVI

When you play this progression in the key of C, you get the following chords:

C / / / Am / / / F / / / G / / / C / / /

You should recognize that progression as the chords that drove thousands of

doo-wop tunes in the 1950s and 1960s.

Let’s return to that progression, and make an alternate choice for the third

chord—ii instead of IV. Because ii also leads to V, we can leave the rest of the

progression intact, which creates the following alternate progression:

IviiiVI

This, when played in the key of C, results in these chords:

C / / / Am / / / Dm / / / G / / / C / / /

When you’re playing a chord progression, the number of beats or

measures allotted to each chord isn’t set in stone. For example, you

could play the I-IV-V progression with a single measure for each chord.

Or you could play two measures of I, and a measure each of IV and V.

Or you could play three measures of one, and then two beats each of IV and V.

It all depends on the needs of the song—and helps provide an almost infinite

variety of possible chord combinations.

Tip

You can also work backward from where you want to end up—your final chord.

Because in most cases you want the final chord to be the tonic (I), all you have

to do is work through the options that lead to that chord. Consulting the Chord

Leading Reference table, you find that four chords can lead to the I: IV, V, vi,

Chapter 10: Chord Progressions 133

and vii°. The obvious choice is the V chord, so that’s what we’ll use. Now we have

to pick a chord to lead to V; the choices are ii, IV, vi, and I. Let’s pick ii. Now we

pick a chord that leads to the ii; the choices are I, iii, IV, and vi. Let’s pick iii. Now

we pick a chord that leads to the iii; the choices are I, IV, and vii°. Let’s pick I,

which is also a good chord with which to start our phrase. When you put all these

chords together, you get the following progression:

I iii ii V I

Play this progression in the key of C, and you use these chords:

C / / / Em / / / Dm / / / G / / / C / / /

Pretty easy, isn’t it?

Ending a Phrase

When you come to the end of a musical phrase—which can be anywhere in your song,

even in the middle of your melody—you use chords to set up a tension, and then

relieve that tension. This feeling of a natural ending is called cadence, and there are

some accepted chord progressions you can use to provide this feeling of completion.

Perfect Cadence

The most common phrase-ending chord progression uses the V (dominant)

chord to set up the tension, which is relieved when you move on to the I (tonic)

chord. This progression is notated V-I, and in the key of C looks like this:

G / / / C / / /

You could probably see this cadence coming, from the chord leading shown in

the table named Chord Leading Reference earlier in this chapter. There’s no

better way to get back home (I) than through the dominant chord (V).

Plagal Cadence

A slightly weaker ending progression uses the IV (subdominant) chord in place of

the V chord. This IV-I progression is called a plagal cadence; in the key of C, it

looks like this:

F / / / C / / /

Although this is an effective cadence, it isn’t nearly as strong as the perfect V-I

cadence. For that reason, you might want to use a plagal cadence in the middle of

your song or melody, and save the stronger perfect cadence for the big ending.

Imperfect Cadence

Sometimes, especially in the middle of a melody, you might want to end on a chord

that isn’t the tonic. In these instances, you’re setting up an unresolved tension, typi-

cally by ending on the V (dominant) triad.

The V-I progression

can be enhanced

by using the domi-

nant seventh chord

(V7) instead of the straight

V. This progression is

notated V7-I.

Tip

Part 3: Tunes

134

This type of ending progression is called an imperfect cadence, and you can get to

the V chord any number of ways—I-V, ii-V, IV-V, and vi-V being the most

common. In the key of C, these progressions look like this:

I-V: C / / / G / / /

ii-V: Dm / / / G / / /

IV-V: F / / / G / / /

vi-V: Am / / / G / / /

Interrupted Cadence

Even less final than an imperfect cadence is an ending progression called an

interrupted cadence. In this progression, you use a V chord to trick the listener

into thinking a perfect cadence is on its way, but then move to any type of

chord except the tonic.

V-IV, V-vi, V-ii, and V-V7 progressions all are interrupted cadences—and, in

the key of C, look like this:

V-IV: G / / / F / / /

V-vi: G / / / Am / / /

V-ii: G / / / Dm / / /

V-V7: G / / / G7 / / /

Common Chord Progressions

Given everything you’ve learned about chord leading and cadences, you should

be able to create your own musically sound chord progressions. However, just

in case you get stuck, let’s take a look at some of the most popular chord pro-

gressions used in music today.

I-IV

It doesn’t get much simpler than this, just the tonic (I) and the subdominant

(IV) chords repeating back and forth, over and over. This is a cyclical progres-

sion, good for songs that don’t really have a final resolution point.

In the key of C, the progression looks like this:

C / / / F / / /

I-V

If you can cycle between the tonic and the subdominant (IV), why not the tonic

and the dominant (V)? Like the first progression, the simplicity of this one

makes it quite common in folk and some forms of popular music.

In the key of C, the progression looks like this:

C / / / G / / /

In classical music theory,

an interrupted cadence

is more often called a

deceptive cadence.

Note

Jazz musicians

sometimes refer to chord

progressions as chord

changes—as in, “Dig

those crazy changes, man!”

Definition

Chapter 10: Chord Progressions

Unlike the I-IV progression, this one has a bit more finality, thanks to the V-I

relationship. But since you keep going back to the V (and then the I, and then the

V again, and then the I again, and on and on …), it still is very cyclical sounding.

I-IV-V

You can’t get any more popular than the old I-IV-V progression. This is the

progression (in the key of G) you’re playing when you strum the chords G, C,

and D on your guitar.

There are many different variations on the I-IV-V progression. You can leave

out the IV, insert an extra I between the IV and the V, and even tack on another

I-V at the end to wrap things up with a perfect cadence. You also can vary the

number of beats and measures you devote to each chord.

One example of I-IV-V in a four-measure phrase might look like this, in the key

of C:

C / / / C / / / F / / / G / / /

You could also bunch up the IV and the V into a single measure, like this:

C / / / C / / / C / / / F / G /

The progression also could be used over longer phrases, as in this eight-measure

example:

C / / / C / / / C / / / C / / /

F / / / F / / / G / / / G / / /

The point is these three chords are used in a huge number of modern songs—

and make up the core of what many refer to as “three-chord rock-and-roll.”

They’re not limited to rock, of course; many folk, country, jazz, rap, and even

classical and show tunes are based on these three chords.

It’s an extremely versatile progression.

I-IV-V-IV

This progression is a variation on I-IV-V. The variation comes in the form of a

shift back to the subdominant (IV), which then forms a plagal cadence when it

repeats back to the tonic. In the key of C, the progression looks like this:

C / / / F / / / G / / / F / / /

It’s a nice, rolling progression—not too heavy—without a strong ending feeling to

it—which makes it nice for tunes that repeat the main melody line again and again.

I-V-vi-IV

This progression is another rolling one, good for repeating again and again.

(That’s because of the ending plagal cadence—the IV repeating back to I.)

In the key of C, it looks like this:

C / / / G / / / Am / / / F / / /

135

This progression is

often played with a

dominant seventh

chord on the fifth

(V7), which provides

increased tension before

you return to the tonic.

Tip

Part 3: Tunes

136

I-ii-IV-V

This progression has a constant upward movement, resolved with a perfect

cadence on the repeat back to I. In the key of C, it looks like this:

C / / / Dm / / / F / / / G / / /

I-ii-IV

This is a variation on the previous progression, with a soft plagal cadence at the end

(the IV going directly to the I, no V involved). In the key of C, it looks like this:

C / / / Dm / / / F / / /

As with all progressions that end with a plagal cadence (IV-I), this progression

has a rolling feel, and sounds as if it could go on and on and on, like a giant circle.

I-vi-ii-V

This was a very popular progression in the 1950s, the basis of a lot of doo-wop

and jazz songs. It’s also the chord progression behind the song “I’ve Got Rhythm,”

and sometimes is referred to (especially in jazz circles) as the “I’ve Got Rhythm”

progression.

In the key of C, it looks like this:

C / / / Am / / / Dm / / / G / / /

I-vi-IV-V

This is a variation on the “I’ve Got Rhythm” progression, with a stronger lead

to the V chord (IV instead of ii). It looks like this, in the key of C:

C / / / Am / / / F / / / G / / /

This progression was also popular in the doo-wop era and in the early days of

rock-and-roll. The defining factor of this progression is the descending bass line;

it drops in thirds until it moves up a step for the dominant chord, like this: C-A-

F-G. You’ve heard this progression (and that descending bass line) hundreds of

times; it’s a very serviceable progression.

I-vi-ii-V7-ii

This is another variation on the “I’ve Got Rhythm” progression, with an extra ii

chord squeezed in between the final V and the return to I, and with the V chord

played as a dominant seventh. In the key of C, it looks like this:

C / / / Am / / / Dm / / / G7 / Dm /

By adding the ii chord between the V7 and the I, almost in passing, it takes the

edge off the perfect cadence and makes the progression a little smoother.

Chapter 10: Chord Progressions 137

IV-I-IV-V

As this progression shows, you don’t have to start your chord progression on

the tonic. In the key of C, it looks like this:

F / / / C / / / F / / / G / / /

This progression has a bit of a rolling nature to it, but also a bit of an unre-

solved nature. You can keep repeating this progression (leading from the V back

to the IV), or end the song by leading the progression home to a I chord.

ii-V-I

This progression is quite popular in jazz, often played with seventh chords

throughout. So you might actually play a ii7-V7-I progression, like this (in the

key of C):

Dm7 / / / G7 / / / CM7 / / /

Sometimes jazz tunes cycle through this progression in a variety of keys, often

using the circle of fifths to modulate through the keys. (That’s the term you use

any time you change key.)

Circle of Fifths Progression

There’s one more chord progression that’s fairly common, and it’s based on the

circle of fifths you learned about back in Chapter 9. Put simply, it’s a progression

where each chord is a fifth above the next chord; each chord functions as the

dominant chord for the succeeding chord. The progression circles back around

on itself, always coming back to the tonic chord, like this: I-IV-vii°-iii-vi-ii-V-I.

The IV-I-IV-V progression is

also frequently played at

the end of a phrase in

many jazz tunes. Used in

this manner, it’s called a

turnaround. (See Chapter

16 to learn more.)

Note

The circle of fifths progression presented here is a simple one you can use without

getting into nonscale chords. But there’s also another, longer, circle of fifths pro-

gression, based on chromatic chords, that you might want to play around with.

It’s a little too complex to write out in Roman numeral notation, but it works by

having each chord function as the precise subdominant of the next chord—that is,

the chords move in perfect fifths around the chromatic scale. Even more fun, each

chord is turned into a dominant seventh chord, to make the dominant-tonic rela-

tionship more explicit. Here’s how it works, in the key of C:

C / / / C7 / / / F / / / F7 / / / B/ / / B7 / / /

E/ / / E7 / / / A/ / / A7 / / / D/ / / D7 / / /

G/ / / G7 / / / B / / / B7 / / / E / / / E7 / / /

A / / / A7 / / / D / / / D7 / / / G / / / G7 / / / C

You can jump on and off this progression at any point in the cycle. Kind of neat

how it circles around, isn’t it?

Note

Part 3: Tunes

138

Here’s what the progression looks like in the key of C:

C / / / F / / / Bdim / / / Em / / /

Am / / / D / / / G / / / C / / /

You can also play this progression backward, creating a circle of fourths, but that

isn’t nearly as common as the one detailed here.

Singing the Blues

There’s a unique chord progression associated with the genre of music we com-

monly call the blues. This blues form isn’t relegated solely to blues music, how-

ever; you’ll find this form used in many jazz and popular tunes, as well.

The blues progression is a 12-measure progression. (It’s sometimes called a “12-

bar blues.”) This 12-measure progression repeats again and again throughout

the melody and any instrumental solos.

The form is essentially a I-IV-I-V7-I progression, but spread over twelve meas-

ures, like this:

I / / / I / / / I / / / I / / /

IV / / / IV / / / I / / / I / / /

V7 / / / V7 / / / I / / / I / / /

In the key of C, the blues progression looks like this:

C / / / C / / / C / / / C / / /

F / / / F / / / C / / / C / / /

G7 / / / G7 / / / C / / / C / / /

Although these are the basic blues chords, you can use lots of variations to spice

up individual songs. (Turn to Chapter 16 to see some of these variations.)

Chords and Melodies

Although chords fill out a tune and provide its harmonic underpinning, you still

need a melody to make a song.

The relationship between chords and melody is complex—and works a little like

the proverbial chicken and the egg. You can start with one or the other, but in the

end you have to have both.

This means you can write a melody to a given chord progression, or you can start

with the melody and harmonize it with the appropriate chords. There’s no set place

to start; whether you start with the melody or the chords is entirely up to you.

Fitting Chords to a Melody

If you write your melody first, you then have to figure out which chords fit where.

In many cases, it’s a simple matter of applying one of the common chord pro-

gressions to your melody; more often than not, you’ll find one that’s a perfect fit.

The blues progression is

sometimes played with a

V7 chord in the final

measure.

Note

Chapter 10: Chord Progressions

To demonstrate, let’s look at the chords behind some of the melodies we first

examined back in Chapter 8.

Michael, Row the Boat Ashore

We’ll start with “Michael, Row the Boat Ashore,” which is a great example of a

progression that relies heavily on the I, IV, and V chords—but with a few twists.

Here’s the song, complete with chords:

139

The chords to “Michael, Row the Boat Ashore.”

The first twist in the chord progression comes in the fifth full measure (the start

of the second phrase), which uses the iii chord (Fm) instead of the expected I.

The second twist is the sixth measure, which moves down to the ii chord (Em).

From there the melody ends with a perfect cadence (I-V-I), just as you’d expect.

So, if you started your hunt for the perfect progression for this melody by apply-

ing a standard I-IV-V progression, you’d be in the right neighborhood.

Bach’s Minuet in G

Next, let’s examine Bach’s Minuet in G. Again, if you apply the standard I-IV-V

progression, you’ll be pretty much on the mark, as you can see here:

The chords to Bach’s Minuet in G.

Part 3: Tunes

140

Old Johann was able to wring the most out of a very simple chord progression;

in this case nothing more than I-IV-I-IV-I-V-I. Of course, this shows that you

don’t need a complex chord progression to create great music.

Dvorˇák’s New World Symphony

Dvorˇák’s New World Symphony uses another relatively simple chord progression,

as you can see here:

The chords to Dvorˇák’s New World Symphony.

The chord progression is basically I-V-I, with a neat little ii-V-I imperfect

cadence at the end. There’s also a very unique nonscale twist in the second half

of the third measure, where the I chord (D) suddenly gets a raised fifth and

goes augmented. (In the orchestral score, the fifth is in the bass in this measure,

for a very dramatic effect.) The use of the augmented tonic sets up an unex-

pected tension, without messing up the harmonic structure by throwing in

something like a IV or a V chord where it wouldn’t really belong.

Pachelbel’s Canon in D

Even more simple is the chord progression behind Pachelbel’s Canon in D, as

you can see here:

The chords to Pachelbel’s Canon in D.

Note how the chords flow, one into the next, based on established chord leading

rules—I-V-vi-iii-IV-I-IV-V—and then back to the I, again and again. You can

play this progression all night long and not get tired of it; that’s what makes it

such a classic.

Chapter 10: Chord Progressions

Mary Had a Little Lamb

Finally, let’s figure out the chords to “Mary Had a Little Lamb.” Just as the melody

is a simple one, so is the accompanying chord progression—nothing more than

I-V-I, repeated once. Sometimes the simplest progressions are the best!

141

The chords to “Mary Had a Little Lamb.”

Chord Writing Tips

When it comes to fitting a chord progression to an existing melody, here are

some tips to keep in mind:

◆

Try some common chord changes first. You’d be surprised how many

melodies fit with the I-IV-V progression!

◆

The main notes in the melody (typically the notes that fall on the first and

third beats of a measure) are the first, third, or fifth note of the underlying

chord.

◆

Try to simplify the melody by cutting out the passing and neighboring

tones (typically the shorter notes, or the notes not on major beats); the

main notes you have left often will suggest the underlying chord.

◆

Make sure you’re in the right key. In most cases, the “home” note in the

melody is the tonic note of the underlying key.

◆

Generally, the slower the tempo, the more frequent the chord changes.

(So if you have a long whole note, or a note held over several measures,

expect to find several different chords played behind that single note.)

◆

Work backward from the end of a melodic phrase, remembering that

melodies almost always end on the I chord. You then can figure out the

cadence leading to the I, and have half the song decoded fairly quickly.

◆

Chord changes generally fit within the measure structure, which means

you’re likely to see new chords introduced on either the first or third beat

of a measure.

Part 3: Tunes

Writing a Melody to a Chord Progression

You don’t have to start with a melody; you can base your tune on a specific

chord progression and compose a melody that best fits the chords.

If you prefer to work this way, it helps to get a good feel for the chord progres-

sion before you start writing the melody. Play the chords again and again on

either a piano or guitar. In many cases, you’ll find a melody forming in your

head; if this type of natural melody comes to you, you only have to figure the

notes and write them down.

If no natural melody occurs, it’s time to roll out the theory. While you don’t

want to work totally mechanically, there are some basic approaches you can use.

Take a look at these tips:

◆

Stay within the notes of the chords—at least for the main notes in the

melody. If you’re holding an A minor chord in a specific measure, work

with the notes A, C, and E for your melody.

142

A simple melody for the popular I-IV-V chord progression—note the heavy use of chord notes in the melody. ( The notes

indicated with a (p) are passing tones.)

◆

Try to find a logical line between the main notes in different measures.

For example, if your chord progression goes C-Am-F, realize that these

chords have one note in common—the C. So you can base your melody

around the C note. Conversely, if your chord progression goes C-F-G,

you might want to pick three notes (one from each chord) that flow

smoothly together—E to F to G, for example; or G to F to D.

◆

Use notes that emphasize the quality of the underlying chords. For exam-

ple, when you’re writing to a V7 chord, emphasize the tension by using

either the root or the seventh of the chord in the melody.

◆

Once you pick your main tones, fill in the gaps with passing tones.

◆

Come up with an interesting rhythmic motif, and repeat that rhythm

throughout the melody.

I wish there were a more complete set of rules for adding a melody to a chord

progression, but we’re getting into an area that is more art than science. The

best way to hone your skill is simply to work at it—play a lot of chord progres-

sions, and practice writing different types of melodies over the chords. (And

remember to read my companion book, The Complete Idiot’s Guide to Music

Composition, for lots more advice and instruction.)

Over time, you’ll figure out your own rules for writing melodies—and develop

your own melodic style.

In this example, the C in

measure 3, beat 4 is tech-

nically an anticipation, not

a passing tone. An antici-

pation is, in effect, an

“eager” note—a note from

the next chord that is

sounded just a little earlier

than the chord itself.

Note

Now that you know all

about chord progressions,

turn back to Chapter 8,

and repeat some of the

exercises with specific

chord progressions in

mind.

Note

Chapter 10: Chord Progressions

The Least You Need to Know

◆

Every note of the scale has an associated chord, notated by a Roman

numeral (uppercase for major; lowercase for minor).

◆

Chord progressions naturally lead back to the tonic, or I, chord of the

underlying scale.

◆

Every chord naturally leads to at least one other chord; for example, the V

chord naturally leads to the I.

◆

The final chords in a progression--the ones that ultimately lead back to

I—are called a cadence.

◆

The most common chord progressions include I-IV, I-V, I-IV-V, I-IV-V-

IV, I-V-vi-IV, I-ii-IV-V, I-ii-IV, I-vi-ii-V, I-vi-IV-V, I-vi-ii-V7-ii, IV-I-IV-

V, and ii-V-I.

Exercises

Exercise 10-1

Write the following chords in the key of F.

143

Exercise 10-2

Write the following chords in the key of D.

Exercise 10-3

Write the following chords in the key of E.

Exercise 10-4

Write the chords that lead from the following chords, in the key of C.

Part 3: Tunes

Exercise 10-5

Create the following types of cadences in the key of A.

144

Exercise 10-6

Figure out which chords go with the following melody. (Hint: There are two chords in every measure.)

Exercise 10-7

Write a melody to the following eight-measure chord progression.

Phrases and Form

In This Chapter

◆

Understanding the parts of a piece of music

◆

Analyzing song structure

◆

Discovering head tunes

◆

Learning longer musical forms

Now that you know all about melodies and chord progressions, it’s time to think

about the entire piece of music, from start to finish. A piece of music, after all,

is more than just an eight-measure melody (and accompanying chords) played

once. Most pieces repeat a melody several times, and often contain more than

one melody.

When you’re constructing a song (or a longer piece of music), you have to con-

sider the overall form of the piece. If you have a main melody, do you need to

repeat that melody—and if so, where, and how many times? Do you need to

add a second, contrasting melody? What about some sort of buffer or break

between the two melodies? And how do you work your way into the main

melody—and how do you wrap things up at the end?

All these questions pertain to what we call song form. Song form is the sum of all

the parts that make up your song, usually in some sort of logical order.

Think of song form as the grammar you use when writing music. Just as you

can analyze the pieces and parts of a sentence, you can also analyze the pieces

and parts of a song and, not surprisingly, there are some common parts you

probably want to use.

There are also some established forms you might want to use; especially if

you’re writing classical music—symphonies, cantatas, minuets, and the like.

We’ll discuss these classical forms in this chapter, too, for when you’re ready to

take on some serious composing tasks!

Chapter

Part 3: Tunes

146

Parts of a Song

When you’re writing popular music, there are accepted parts of a piece of

music that you have to work with. Not that you have to use each song part in

each and every song you write; these parts are more like building blocks you

can use (at your discretion) to construct your own individual piece of music.

In popular music, most any piece of music is typically called a song. In other

types of music, such as classical music, the word “song” has more specific conno-

tations regarding length and form and use of instruments and voices. To be more

universal, you could use the word composition, or (less formally) the words piece

or tune. Since this book, however, deals primarily with popular music, we’ll con-

tinue to use the word song—as long as you realize that we’re talking about any

formal musical composition, not just something played by four guys with guitars.

Note

Introduction

The introduction, or intro, to a piece is typically some sort of instrumental

lead-in. The introduction can be of any length, and doesn’t even need to exist—

a song can start cold on the first note of the first verse. The introduction may

include a theme based on the song’s main melody, played by one of the instru-

ments; or maybe just a chord progression from either the verse or the chorus.

In any case, the introduction is used to set up the first verse of the song, and

then is quickly forgotten.

Verse

The verse is the first main melody of the piece. It’s an important melody, and

often is repeated several times throughout the course of the song.

Harmonically, the melody might end on the tonic chord (I), or it might end on

the dominant (V), creating a tension that is resolved when you proceed to the

chorus.

If your song has words, each instance of the verse typically has a different set of

lyrics. The lyrics to the first verse are sometimes repeated in the final verse. In

all cases, the verse should relate to and lead into the song’s chorus.

Chorus

The chorus is the second main melody of the song, and the emotional high

point of the piece. The chorus should contain the main melodic theme, as well

as any hook you might include to grab the listener. The hook can be in the

melody, chords, rhythm, or lyric—something unique and memorable that sets

this song apart from all others. Choruses are often shorter than verses, often

lasting just four or eight measures.

Chapter 11: Phrases and Form 147

Bridge

The bridge is kind of a break in the middle of the piece. Most bridges sound

completely different from the verse and chorus, and are often based on a differ-

ent harmonic structure. For example, a bridge might be based around the IV

chord instead of the I chord.

Bridges typically are short—only about eight measures. (That’s why a bridge is

sometimes called the “middle eight” of a song.)

Instrumental Solo

If you’re writing a song with lyrics, you might want to give the singer (and the

audience) a break by inserting an instrumental section after the chorus or bridge.

This section should probably be based on the chords of the verse, or maybe the

verse and chorus combined. When the instrumentalist is done soloing, you

return to either the verse or the chorus and pick up the lyric where you left off.

This section is relevant only if you’re writing a song with lyrics; otherwise the

entire song is instrumental!

Ending

The ending isn’t necessarily a separate section of the song. Sometimes you end

the song after the last chorus; either by stopping on the I chord or (if you’re in

a recording studio) fading out the volume. More sophisticated songs have unique

ending sections tacked on to the end of the song, which typically use some sort

of cadence or turnaround (explained in Chapter 16). You might even want the

ending to mirror the song’s intro, or otherwise reflect the melodic or harmonic

nature of the piece.

Putting It All Together

Most popular and jazz music is based on eight-measure phrases. Your verse

might be one eight-measure phrase; your chorus, another. We keep track of the

different parts of a song by assigning them letters—which shouldn’t be confused

with the letters we used to label the notes in a scale. (These letters have nothing

to do with individual notes or pitches.)

The very first eight-measure phrase in your song—which is typically the first

verse—is labeled “A.” If the verse is repeated anywhere in the song, it retains its

“A” labeling.

The second eight-measure phrase—typically the chorus—is labeled “B.” If the

chorus repeats later in the song, the repeated chorus is still labeled “B.”

The third eight-measure phrase—the bridge, if you have one—is labeled “C.”

Additional phrases build on this lettering scheme.

An extended chorus played

during the fadeout of a

song is called the out

chorus.

Note

The eight-measure phrase

rule isn’t hard and fast,

although the concept of

being divisible by eight is

somewhat rigidly fol-

lowed. This means that, in

addition to the standard

eight-measure phrases, you

can also have 16- and

32-bar phrases, both of

which are divisible by 8.

(Although if a phrase gets

to be 32 bars long, it’s

probably more of a section

than a phrase, if you want

to be technical about it.)

Note

Part 3: Tunes

Let’s look at a song that has a verse, a chorus, a verse, and another chorus. The

form of this song would look like this:

ABAB

Note that when the verse repeats, we don’t give it a new letter; it keeps the “A”

designation—even if the lyrics change. Same thing with the chorus; the B sec-

tion is always B, no matter how many times it repeats.

Now let’s look at a song that has two verses, a chorus, and a final verse. The

form of this song looks like this:

AABA

Things get more interesting when you add a bridge to the mix. Consider a song

with two verses, a chorus, a bridge, and a final chorus:

AABCB

Or how about a song with two verses, a chorus, another verse, a bridge, a final

verse, and a final chorus:

AABACAB

It’s not really that hard to follow, once you know what letters stand for what.

Incidentally, some songs are all A. This is fairly common in folk music, where

you have one melodic phrase repeated over and over, each time with a different

set of lyrics. Think of “If I Had a Hammer,” or “Where Have All the Flowers

Gone?” as good examples. Neither song has a chorus, per se; they’re all verses,

and lots of them.

Head Cases

There’s a unique musical form associated with jazz music, and with some rock-

and-roll “jam” bands. This form, called the head arrangement, is ideally suited

for extended improvisation.

In this type of music you play the “head”—the main melody, or sometimes both

verse and chorus—relatively straight, and then repeat those chord progressions

for a series of instrumental solos. (Jazz musicians call this “soloing over the

changes.”) The head is then repeated, straight after the soloists blow themselves

out.

In terms of form, this type of tune might look like this:

A (head) A (solos) A (head repeat)

If a more complex song (complete with both verse and chorus) is used as the

head, the form might look something like this:

ABA (head) ABA (solos) ABA (head repeat)

148

When you have

variations of a sin-

gle section like this,

you can label each

instance of the section by

a number after the letter, as

in A1, A2, A3, and so on.

Tip

Chapter 11: Phrases and Form 149

Classical Music Forms

Within the genre that most of us know as “classical” music, several distinct

forms exist. If you plan to take a more traditional path in your musical career,

you’ll need to explore each of these forms in more depth:

◆

Anthem An anthem is a piece of choral music, generally with a religious

text. (The anthem is the Protestant church’s version of the Latin motet.)

Most anthems are for four voices, and some even include instrumental

parts; most often for string instruments.

◆

Aria An aria is a vocal piece (a song, operatic in nature) that can be

either standalone, or part of a larger work. Over time, arias have become

longer and more complex, serving as a type of showcase for the vocalist.

◆

Canon The canon is a musical form in which the melody is imitated by

various parts at regular intervals. Canons typically are instrumental in nature.

◆

Cantata A cantata is a type of chamber music, Baroque in style. It comes

primarily from Lutheran church music, and is written for either soloists

and instrumental accompaniment or soloists, chorus, and instrumental

accompaniment.

◆

Choral symphony A choral symphony is, quite simply, a symphony that

incorporates a choir. The most notable example of this form is Beethoven’s

Symphony No. 9 in D Minor, an adaptation of Schiller’s Ode to Joy.

◆

Chorale A chorale is a congregational hymn of the Lutheran church,

originally written in unison but later adapted for four vocal parts or organ.

◆

Concerto A concerto is a piece of ensemble music for voices and instru-

ments, typically with a solo instrument or voice in contrast with an orches-

tral ensemble.

◆

Fugue The term fugue describes a piece of music that incorporates imi-

tative counterpoint. (See Chapter 14 to learn more about counterpoint.)

Most fugues are instrumental in nature.

◆

Grand motet This musical form is a motet for large ensembles of voices

and instruments, contrasting solo voices with the larger chorus.

◆

Lieder The word lieder is the plural of lied—German for “song.” In pop-

ular usage, lieder is a non-operatic art song with lyrics based on a dramatic

poem; in performance, the vocal and the piano accompaniment are of

equal importance.

◆

Madrigal A madrigal is a piece of vocal music based on a fourteenth-

century Italian form. The typical madrigal is a polyphonic composition for

four to six voices, typically unaccompanied, based on a poem or other sec-

ular text.

◆

March A march is an instrumental piece, based on a regular and

repeated drum rhythm, originally developed for military bands.

Part 3: Tunes

150

◆

Mass A vocal work based on the Roman Catholic mass. The five pas-

sages of the mass that are frequently set for choir or for choir and vocal

soloists include the Kyrie (“Lord have mercy”), Gloria in excelsis Deo

(“Glory be to God on high”), Credo (“I believe”), Sanctus (“Holy, holy”),

and Agnus Dei (“O Lamb of God”).

◆

Minuet A minuet is a French dance in triple time (3/4, 3/8, 6/8, and so

forth).

◆

Motet The motet is a short unaccompanied choral work, popular from

the thirteenth through the sixteenth centuries. The early motet was exclu-

sively a sacred form, based on pre-existing melodies; other words and

melodies were added in counterpoint.

◆

Opera An opera is a long, complex dramatic work, incorporating both

voices and instruments. You can think of an opera as the classical equiva-

lent of today’s popular musicals, mixing music with a dramatic plot.

◆

Operetta Literally, a “little opera.” More commonly, a shorter or less

ambitious stage work than a full-blown opera, typically with just a single act.

◆

Oratorio A dramatic musical setting of a religious libretto, for solo

singers, choir, and orchestra. An oratorio is like a non-secular opera, but

without the scenery or costumes; oratorios are typically performed in con-

cert halls or churches.

◆

Plainsong Plainsong, also known as plainchant, is chant comprised of a

single line of vocal melody, typically unaccompanied and performed in the

free rhythm of the spoken word. The form matured during the sixth cen-

tury, at the request of Pope Gregory I, and was subsequently known as

Gregorian chant.

◆

Programme music Programme music is instrumental music that tells a

story, illustrates a literary idea, or evolves a pictorial scene.

◆

Sonata A sonata is a piece of instrumental music, performed in several

distinct sections (called movements). Sonatas typically are written for a

soloist and small ensemble.

◆

Song A song, in classical music, is a short and self-contained piece for

one or more voices; it can be accompanied or not, and either sacred or

secular in nature. In popular music, however, just about any musical com-

position (vocal or instrumental) is called a song.

◆

String quartet The string quartet is a particular form of chamber music

written for two violins, viola, and cello. In terms of importance, the string

quartet is to chamber music as the symphony is to orchestral music.

◆

Suite A suite is an ordered set of instrumental pieces meant to be per-

formed at a single sitting.

◆

Symphony A symphony is an extended work for orchestra, typically in

three or four distinct movements. The symphony is generally regarded as

the central form of orchestral composition—this is the big dog of classical

instrumental music.

Chapter 11: Phrases and Form 151

If you’re serious about continuing your music education, you’ll study each of these

forms in much more detail. For now, though, it’s probably enough to know the

names of these forms; you can learn more about each form when the time comes.

The Least You Need to Know

◆

Most popular songs consist of a short instrumental intro, one or more verses,

a chorus, a bridge, and an ending.

◆

Each part of the song is assigned a letter; the form of the song is notated by a

combination of letters. For example, a song with two verses, a chorus, and a

final verse is designated AABA.

◆

Jazz musicians and jam bands often play head arrangements, in which the

main melody (the head) is played straight; then used for a series of instrumen-

tal solos.

◆

There are several forms specific to classical music, including the opera, the

sonata, and the symphony.

Part 3: Tunes

152

Exercises

Exercise 11-1

Compose a 32-measure song in the ABCA form: verse, chorus, bridge, and verse. Use the key of G, in

4/4 time, and label each section of the piece.

Learn how to train your ears so you can write down the music you hear; then

discover how to create simple accompaniment parts on piano or guitar. Finally,

learn how to take a song in one key and transpose it to a totally different key—

no math required!

Part

Accompanying

Transcribing What You Hear

In This Chapter

◆

Understanding why ear training is important

◆

Discovering how to actively listen

◆

Developing your tonal memory

◆

Learning how to transcribe songs from CDs and tapes

Introduction, Track 1

In an ideal world, everything you need is served up to you on a silver platter. As

a musician, that means you’ll always get perfectly noted pieces of sheet music

from which to read, with all the chords and melodies and rhythms clearly writ-

ten out.

Unfortunately, we don’t live in an ideal world: You won’t always get sheet music

for the songs you have to play; sometimes you’ll be expected to “play by ear”

and figure out the music on your own.

How do you write down a piece of music, note for note, based on a few listens

to a CD? It’s a particular skill, that’s for sure; one that involves a technique called

ear training. That means you have to train your ears to recognize certain rhythms

and intervals, and be able to transfer what you hear to the written page.

Training Your Ear

Consider the following: You’re in a band that plays the latest hit songs, and the

band leader gives you a CD and asks you to learn a new tune—by tomorrow

night. No sheet music, no one to answer your questions, no one to practice

with you and help you figure it out—you’re completely on your own, just you

and your CD player.

Or you’re working with a songwriter who doesn’t read music. Your friend sings

a melody, and asks you to write it down so he can send it to a music publicist.

He doesn’t know what key the song is in, or what notes he’s singing; he leaves

those details up to you to figure out.

Chapter

Part 4: Accompanying

156

Maybe you’re playing organ in the church choir. The guest vocalist this week

approaches you just before Sunday’s service, and says she’ll be singing “Amazing

Grace,” in the key of G. She doesn’t have any sheet music for you—“You know

the song,” she says—and if you don’t, you’ll have to learn it, fast.

Perhaps you’re playing saxophone in a pickup band at your local bar. It’s open

mike night, and the next performer wants you to add some horn accompani-

ment to his tune. “It’s a 12-bar blues,” he says, “in the key of A. You have a solo

after the second chorus.” No music, no nothing—just you, onstage, winging it.

All of these situations require you to think on your feet—or, more properly, to

play by ear. You need to be able to hear a song and figure out what chords and

notes are being played, without benefit of any written music.

This might sound daunting to you, but it’s a skill you need to develop. You have

to be able to hear a melody or chord progression, and then transcribe what you

hear. With practice, you’ll be able to do this quickly and accurately; it can even

become second nature. All you have to do is train your ears.

Transcribing music involves three distinct steps:

1. Listen

2. Process

3. Document

You begin by listening to the music—not for passive enjoyment, but more actively,

so that you clearly hear every note. Then you process what you’ve heard, figur-

ing out what notes and chords and rhythms are being played. Finally, you docu-

ment the music you’ve processed, either by writing down the notes on paper, or

using the processed music as a basis for live playing or improvisation.

With practice, you’ll move through the listen-process-document system almost

subconsciously; the notes will come to you automatically when you hear them,

without a lot of work on your part. So warm up your ears—it’s time for the

training to begin!

Transcribing is the

art of writing down melo-

dies and chords by ear,

without the benefit of any

other written notation.

Definition

Ear training is a difficult skill to learn. Developing your listening skills takes time

and guidance, and for most people is best accomplished in a classroom setting,

or with an experienced teacher.

If you’re serious about training your ears, a good place to start is with the CD

that accompanies this book. The Complete Idiot’s Guide to Music Theory, Second

Edition, Ear Training Course presents a series of audio examples and exercises

that will help you learn to recognize scales, intervals, chords, and rhythms. And

you can check your progress against the answers provided in Appendix D.

If you want to continue in this self-paced fashion, pick up a copy of Ron Gorow’s

Hearing and Writing Music: Professional Training for Today’s Musician (Septem-

ber Publishing, 2000). Even better, head down to your local community college

or university and sign up for an ear-training class. The personal feedback and

guidance you’ll receive from the instructor will be worth the effort.

Note

Chapter 12: Transcribing What You Hear 157

Listening—Actively

Before we get into ear training proper, you need to learn how to actively listen

to music. This isn’t listening for enjoyment; it’s listening to remember, and to

analyze.

Start by isolating yourself from the hurly-burly of your day-to-day life. Turn off

the TV, close the windows, and block out all extraneous noises—the air condi-

tioner, the refrigerator, the hum of the air pump in your fish tank. Create an

environment in which you can focus on the music, without any distractions.

Prepare the music. This means setting up your audio system, with a good pair

of speakers, or even a quality set of headphones. Make sure the music source

can be easily accessed; you’ll be doing a lot of rewinding and fast forwarding.

Now get yourself comfortable. Find a comfy chair, or a couch, or even a place

on the floor, surrounded by pillows. Get comfortable, but don’t get relaxed;

instead, remain alert and ready for input. And don’t squirm. When you’re fully

prepared, it’s time to listen. Select a song, one of your favorites; then press the

play button … and listen.

Begin by listening to the overall form of the song. Determine where one phrase

ends and another begins. Figure out where the verses are, and the chorus, and

even the bridge, if there is one. Get a feel for how the song is constructed, for

its internal logic, for the way it flows from one point to another.

Now listen to the song again, but this time focus carefully on the melody line.

Listen hard, and listen critically. Note where the melody goes up, and where it

goes down. Note where the melody changes; where the verse ends and the cho-

rus begins; and where any variations occur. Listen to it as many times as you

need, until you’re sure you can sing it back, verbatim.

Return to the start of the song, and this time don’t listen to the melody. Instead,

listen to the bass line. Listen to the tones played, and to the rhythms. Note how

the bass notes relate to the melody, and to the other parts. Listen to the bass

part and memorize the bass part; then play the song back again and sing along

with the bass, from memory.

Again, return to the start of the song. This time listen to another part—the lead

guitar, or the piano, or the saxophone. It doesn’t matter; pick a part, and follow

it from start to finish. Listen critically, and hear how this part fits with the bass and

the melody and all the other parts. Listen until you have the part memorized.

Repeat this process until you know all the parts of the song. Get to the point

where you can sing back any given part, without prompting. Let that song get

inside your brain; become one with the music.

Finally, listen to the entire song again and try to figure out where the chord

changes are. There might be a new chord every 4 beats, or 8, or even 16.

Figure out the time signature (probably 4/4), and then try to lay a map of the

chord changes over the form of the song.

When you’re isolat-

ing the bass line,

you might want to

turn up the bass

(and turn down the treble)

on your audio system, to

better hear the low notes.

Tip

Part 4: Accompanying

This is how you actively listen to a song. You’re not listening for enjoyment

(you can do that separately); you’re listening to learn—and to remember. Once

you can recall a part exactly, from memory, you’re one step closer to figuring

out the notes behind the part, and transcribing it to paper.

Developing Superhearing

As part of your active listening, you have to be able to discern the component

parts of the music. You have to be able to hear discrete pitches and intervals,

hear different rhythms, and even hear the individual pitches within each chord.

Sound difficult? It is—which is why you need to practice.

Hearing Pitch

Lesson 1, Track 2

The first part of the music you need to hear is the pitch. You need to be able to

listen to a pitch, isolate it, and then replicate it. In plain English, that means you

need to be able to sing back any specific pitch you hear in a song. To do this,

you have to develop what is called tonal memory, or pitch memory. This is simply

the ability to recall a specific pitch, outside the context of the song or melody.

You can develop your tonal memory with this simple exercise. Take a half-full

glass of water and hit it (gently!) with the edge of a spoon. The glass will produce a

distinct pitch. Listen to the pitch, and fix it in your head. Wait until the glass

stops ringing, then wait a few seconds more, then sing or hum the note that you

heard. While you’re singing (or humming), hit the glass again; if your tonal

memory was on target, the second tone generated by the glass will be the same as

the tone you’re singing. If not, try it again—and pay more attention this time.

Repeat this exercise, adding more time between hitting the glass and singing the

note. The longer you can hold the note in your head, the better developed your

sense of tonal memory will be.

Next, try to find that pitch on your instrument. (Use whatever instrument you

like—piano, guitar, trumpet, whatever—it doesn’t matter.) Hit the glass, wait a

minute, sing the pitch, and then try to play that pitch on your instrument. Don’t

worry if you can’t find the pitch right off. You might need to poke around a few

related notes until you find the one that matches what you’re singing. That’s

natural. With practice, you’ll be able to more quickly identify individual tones.

Obviously, you want to verify the note you’re playing with the source—the

ringing glass. Play the note on your instrument while you hit the glass; if you

have the right note, they’ll be in unison.

You can extend this exercise by generating different notes with different objects.

(You can also fill the glass to different levels to produce different pitches.)

When you’re comfortable with your progress, put on a CD and pick a single

note from the melody. Repeat the exercise, this time trying to reproduce that

melody note. Restart the CD to replay the melody and check your accuracy.

158

When you hear notes or

melodies inside your head

(in your inner voice),

you’re internalizing the

music.

Note

Chapter 12: Transcribing What You Hear 159

Hearing Intervals

Lesson 2, Track 11

If you can hear and reproduce a single note, what about two of them?

That’s right: The next step is to develop your tonal memory to decipher and

reproduce pitch intervals.

Before you begin your exercises, you need to develop an internal database of rel-

ative interval relationships. That means internalizing all the different intervals

within a given object—remembering what each interval sounds like.

The best way to do this is to sit down at your instrument and play each interval

until it’s burned into your brain. Play a minor second, and a major second, and a

minor third, and a major third, and so on, until you have each interval committed

to memory. Can you sing a minor third? If not, you need to study some more.

Of course, there are shortcuts you can take. If you can remember specific

snatches of melody, you can associate those melodies with particular intervals.

The following table provides some melodic shortcuts for your interval training:

Intervals Found in Popular Melodies

Interval Song-Specific Phrase

ASCENDING

Minor second Theme from Jaws Dum-dum … (bass line)

“As Time Goes By” YOU MUST remember this …

(from Casablanca)

Major second “Frere Jacques” FRE-RE Jacques …

“Happy Birthday” Hap-PY BIRTH-day to you …

Minor third “To Dream the TO DREAM the impossible dream …

Impossible Dream”

Brahm’s Lullaby LULLA-BY and goodnight …

Interestingly, about 5 percent of musicians (just musicians—not the general popu-

lation) have something called absolute pitch or perfect pitch, which means they

can wake up in the morning and, with no prompting or assistance, correctly sing

or identify any given pitch in the scale. Some people claim to be able to help

you develop this skill, but in general it is virtually impossible for anyone over the

age of five or so to learn perfect pitch. (Not 100 percent impossible, but almost.)

In any case, you don’t really need this kind of long-term pitch memory to tran-

scribe music. You can get along fine with the short-term pitch memory that we all

possess, along with a good interval memory, which we’ll discuss next.

Note

continues

Part 4: Accompanying

160

Intervals Found in Popular Melodies (continued)

Interval Song-Specific Phrase

Major third “Have Yourself a Merry HAVE YOUR-self a merry little

Little Christmas” Christmas …

“Oh When the Saints OH WHEN the saints …

Come Marching In”

Perfect fourth “Here Comes the Bride” HERE COMES the bride …

“Amazing Grace” A-MAZ-ing grace …

“We Wish You a WE WISH you a merry Christmas …

Merry Christmas”

Tritone “Maria” (from MA-RI-a …

West Side Story)

Perfect fifth Theme from Goldfinger GOLD-FIN-ger …

“My Favorite Things” RAIN-DROPS on roses …

(from The Sound of Music)

“Twinkle Twinkle TWINKLE TWINKLE little star …

Little Star”

Chant of the Wicked YO-EE-oh …

Witch’s guardsmen in

The Wizard of Oz

Minor sixth “Sunrise, Sunset” (from IS THIS the little girl …

Fiddler on the Roof )

Major sixth “NBC” chime N-B-C (first two notes)

“Jingle Bells” DASH-ING through the snow …

“It Came Upon the IT CAME upon the midnight clear …

Midnight Clear”

Minor seventh “There’s a Place for Us” THERE’S A place for us …

(from West Side Story)

Theme from Star Trek Doo-doooo … (first two notes)

Major seventh “Cast Your Fate to (first two notes of the melody)

the Wind”

“Somewhere Over SOME-where O-ver the rainbow …

the Rainbow”

Octave “Somewhere Over SOME-WHERE over the rainbow …

the Rainbow”

“A Christmas Song” CHEST-NUTS roasting on an open

fire …

DESCENDING

Minor second “Joy to the World” JOY TO the world, the Lord is

(Christmas carol) come …

“Spinning Wheel” RIDE A painted pony …

(Blood, Sweat and Tears)

Chapter 12: Transcribing What You Hear 161

Interval Song-Specific Phrase

Major second “Three Blind Mice” THREE BLIND mice …

“Mary Had a Little MA-RY had a little lamb …

Lamb”

“Yesterday” (The Beatles) YES-TERDAY, all my troubles seemed

so far away …

Minor third “Jesus Loves Me” JE-SUS loves me this I know …

“Hey Jude” HEY JUDE …

(The Beatles)

Major third “Swing Low, Sweet SWING LOW, sweet chariot …

Chariot”

“Good Night Ladies” GOOD NIGHT ladies …

(from The Music Man)

“Summertime” (from SUM-MER-time, and the livin’ is easy …

Porgy and Bess)

Perfect fourth “Born Free” BORN FREE …

“My Girl” MY GIRL, talkin’ ’bout my girl …

(The Temptations)

Tritone European police siren

Perfect fifth Theme from FLINT-STONES, meet the

The Flintstones Flintstones …

“Feelings” FEEL-INGS, whoa, whoa, whoa,

feelings …

Minor sixth Theme from Love Story WHERE DO I begin …

Major sixth “Over There” O-VER there …

“Nobody Knows the NO-BOD-y knows …

Trouble I’ve Seen”

Minor seventh “Watermelon Man” Water-MEL-on MAN

Major seventh “Have Yourself a Merry So HAVE YOUR-self a merry little

Little Christmas” Christmas now …

Octave “Salt Peanuts” Salt PEA-NUTS, salt peanuts …

(Dizzy Gillespie)

Exercise your interval memory the same way you did your tonal memory. Start by

listening to a song and picking two adjacent notes in the melody—the first two

notes are often the best to work with. Wait a few seconds; then try to sing the two

notes. Verify your accuracy by playing the song again.

Once you can internalize the interval, try to determine what interval it is that

you’re singing. Is it a second? A third? Is it major or minor? Determine the inter-

val, and then try to reproduce the interval on your instrument. Once you can accu-

rately play the interval, you can verify the specific interval you guessed. (For

example, if you find yourself playing a G and then a B, you know you’re playing a

major third.)

Part 4: Accompanying

162

Hearing Rhythms

Lesson 4, Track 27

We’ll set aside pitches for a moment and instead focus on note durations—in

other words, your rhythm memory. Use the same technique as you did before,

but this time listen to the rhythm of a song’s melody. Start by figuring out the

time signature of the song and breaking the melody (in your head) into meas-

ures. Now pick the first few beats of the melody’s first measure. Stop the play-

back, fix that rhythm in your head, and then pound it out with your hand on a

table. Repeat this process until you can hold the rhythm in your head for half a

minute or longer.

Once you can repeat a short rhythmic phrase, it’s time to up the ante. Try re-

peating the rhythm for an entire measure; then two, then four, then for the

entire melody. Always check your accuracy by pounding the table in time to the

original song.

With the entire rhythm of the melody committed to memory, use the theory

you’ve learned and try to transcribe the rhythm. Start small, a beat or two at a

time. Make sure the rhythm you write is mathematically sound; for example, if

the song is in 4/4, all the notes have to add up to a full whole note. (That means

four quarters, or eight eights, or two quarters and four eights, or whatever.)

Once you’ve written down the entire rhythm, play back the song again, this

time reading the rhythm you’ve written. If you notice a discrepancy, correct it;

otherwise, repeat the exercise with another song; this time one that is more

rhythmically complex.

Hearing Melodies

Lesson 5, Track 36

Now that you can hear individual notes, intervals, and rhythms, you should be

able to hear and transcribe complete melodies. All you have to do is put together

everything you hear, in the right order, to develop your melodic memory.

Although you can piece together a melody one note or interval at a time, it’s

easier if you try to grasp the big picture first. That means figuring out how

When you first start listening to intervals, you should focus on the relative

distance between the two notes. Is it a wide span between the pitches?

If so, the interval is a larger one; maybe a fifth or a sixth or something

even larger. Is it a narrow span between the pitches? If so, the interval

is a smaller one; maybe some sort of second or third. Narrow the possibilities

down as much as possible before you determine the precise interval.

Tip

Chapter 12: Transcribing What You Hear

many measures long the melody is, and how it’s broken up into phrases. Once

you can dissemble a melody into its component parts, you should focus on each

part separately.

On what pitch does this part of the melody start? On what pitch does it end?

On what pitch does the middle of the phrase end? If you try to pinpoint indi-

vidual parts of the melody, it should be relatively easy to connect the dots and

fill in the empty spaces with the proper passing and neighboring tones.

Once you’ve written out the entire melody—including both pitches and rhyth-

mic notes—remember to verify your accuracy by playing back the melody

you’ve written. Compare the melody you play with the melody you first heard;

the better you get, the closer they’ll match up.

Hearing Keys

Once you can notate a melody, you should be able to determine what key the

song is in. For example, if your melody incorporates a B—but no other flat or

sharp notes—it’s a good guess that the song is written in the key of F. (As you

probably remember from Chapter 4, the key of F has a single flat.) If the

melody has an Fand a C, you’re probably in the key of D.

Another way to determine the key is to fix the home pitch of the melody. If the

melody keeps resolving to G, chances are you’re in the key of G. (Unless, that

is, the melody is minor—in which case, you could be in the key of G minor.)

Test your guess by using your instrument to play a major scale in the designated

key, while the original song is playing. If all the notes fit, you’ve guessed right.

If not, try a related key—a key one or two steps away on the circle of fifths.

Hearing Chords and Chord Progressions

Lesson 6, Track 41

The last piece of the puzzle concerns the underlying chord structure. You need

to hear when the chords change, and what they change to.

When determining chords, it helps to listen to the song’s bass line. If you listen

to the notes the bass is playing, 9 times out of 10 the main notes—all embellish-

ment aside—will be the root notes of the underlying chords. For example, if you

know the song is in the key of C and the bass player plays, in successive meas-

ures, C, A, F, and G, it’s a good guess that the chord progression is C-Am-F-G.

You should also listen carefully to determine whether you’re hearing a major or

a minor chord. Remember, major chords are happy sounding; minor chords are

a little sad.

Once you’ve figured out the chords in the song, you should test your chord

transcription against the melody you’ve previously transcribed. Make sure the

notes of the melody fit within the chord structure; if not, you probably need to

rethink a few chords.

163

If you’re having

trouble hearing the

chords, you can

always try to figure

out the chords from the

notes of the melody, which

you learned how to do

back in Chapter 10.

Tip

Part 4: Accompanying

The real test comes when you play your chords against the original recording.

Be especially careful to match where your chords change with where the chords

change in the original song. It’s not uncommon to accidentally skip a chord

change or two, so listen closely to make sure you picked up on all the changes.

Writing It All Down

If you’ve followed the exercises carefully, you’ve ended up with a complete tran-

scription of the melody and chords for a specific song. Congratulations! It’s a

lot of work, I know, but this newfound skill is one you’ll use again and again as

you progress in the music field.

You can further develop this skill by transcribing other parts of the song, not

just the melody. If the song has a horn section, try to figure out and transcribe

each individual horn part. If there’s an orchestral backing, work on transcribing

the string parts. If there’s a fancy rhythm section, isolate and transcribe the

rhythms played by each individual percussionist.

Further developing your transcribing skill is especially important if you choose

to pursue the fields of composing or arranging. You can certainly challenge

yourself by transcribing an entire big-band arrangement for your high school

jazz band, a full choral arrangement for your church choir, or a string quartet

for your community orchestra. There’s value in this skill—and a great sense of

accomplishment when you get it right.

The Least You Need to Know

◆

Ear training is necessary for those times when you don’t have written

music to work with—or when you want to figure out a song you’ve

recently heard.

◆

The key to transcribing a song is to listen, process what you’ve heard, and

then document what you’ve processed.

◆

To accurately analyze a piece of music, you have to learn how to actively

listen—to isolate and then remember the individual parts of the song.

◆

As part of the ear training process, you must develop your intrinsic tonal,

interval, and rhythmic memory, so that you can remember and replicate

the pitches, rhythms, and melodies you hear.

◆

Once you’ve transcribed the entire melody, you can more easily figure out

the song’s key signature and its underlying chord structure.

164

Chapter 12: Transcribing What You Hear

Exercises

Exercise 12-1

Play each of the following notes on your instrument, wait for thirty seconds,

and then sing them back.

165

Exercise 12-2

Sing each of the following ascending intervals, starting on any note you like.

◆

Major third

◆

Minor second

◆

Perfect fifth

◆

Minor third

◆

Perfect fourth

◆

Octave

◆

Major second

◆

Tritone

Exercise 12-3

Sing each of the following descending intervals, starting on any note you like.

◆

Minor third

◆

Perfect fourth

◆

Major second

◆

Major seventh

◆

Perfect fifth

◆

Major third

◆

Major sixth

◆

Minor sixth

Exercise 12-4

Sing all the notes of the following chords, one after another. (Start on any root note you like.)

◆

Major chord

◆

Major seventh chord

◆

Minor chord

◆

Minor seventh chord

◆

Diminished chord

◆

Dominant seventh chord

◆

Augmented chord

◆

Major ninth chord

Exercise 12-5

Transcribe the rhythm (only) of “I Got Rhythm.”

Part 4: Accompanying

Exercise 12-6

Transcribe the melody of “This Land Is Your Land.”

166

Exercise 12-7

Transcribe the melody and chords to your favorite popular song.

Exercise 12-8

Listen to and complete all the exercises on The Complete Idiot’s Guide to Music Theory, Second Edition,

Ear Training Course CD, and check your answers with those in Appendix D of this book.

Accompanying Melodies

In This Chapter

◆

Working with a lead sheet

◆

Figuring out what to play

◆

Understanding different types of accompaniment

◆

Adding a more interesting bass part

◆

Accompanying on guitar

If you play piano or guitar, at some point in time you will be asked to accom-

pany another musician or group of musicians. Maybe it’s playing behind a

singer at church, or backing up your children’s choir at school, or even vamping

behind a harmonica soloist in a blues band. Whatever the situation, you’ll be

expected to provide at least rudimentary backing to the primary musicians.

If, along with this request, you also are handed a page of detailed sheet music,

you’re set. All you have to do is read your part, play the notes, and take your bows.

However, if there’s no written music accompanying the request, you have your

work cut out for you. Depending on the gig, you might have to transcribe the

melody, figure out the chords, and compose your own part—all of which you

can do, if you have the proper grounding in music theory.

What’s the Score?

When you’re asked to accompany someone on piano (or guitar, for that matter),

you should first figure out how much homework you need to do. This is deter-

mined by the amount of written music you’re given.

The best of all possible situations is that you receive a complete musical score.

If this is the case, you don’t need to read any further in this chapter—you’re set!

However, it’s more likely that you’ll be provided with only sketchy written

information—or none at all. If this is the case, you need to apply the skills

you’ve learned in the previous chapters to figure out just what you need to play.

Chapter

Part 4: Accompanying

168

Working from a Lead Sheet

Here’s the 411: You’re given a sheet of music that includes the melody and the

chords—what musicians call a lead sheet. It will look something like this:

With this lead sheet in hand, what do you play?

The temptation for many novice musicians is to play the melody with your

right hand and form the chords with your left hand.

You should resist this temptation.

When you read a lead sheet, the melody (also known as the lead) is provided for

your reference only. Unless you’re playing solo piano in a cocktail bar, you’re

not expected to play the melody—except, maybe, during instrumental breaks.

No, what you’re expected to play are the chords—along with any kind of embel-

lishment or harmony you can create to play behind the melody.

But the main thing you need from this situation is to play the chords, which

you have—printed in big, bold letters on your lead sheet. Play the chords them-

selves with your right hand, while you play the root note of the chord (the bass

line) with your left hand.

That’s all you have to play, and it isn’t hard at all.

A typical lead sheet—melody and chord symbols.

Learn more about lead

sheets and other types of

arrangements in Chap-

ter 19.

Note

When you’re playing chords with your right hand, try to avoid playing

every chord in the standard 1-3-5 inversion. Try different inversions—

different voicings—to better group the notes from adjacent chords

together. (Turn back to Chapter 9 for more information on chord inver-

sions.) For example, if you’re alternating between the C and the F chord, you

might play the C chord C-E-G, but then play the F chord C-F-A (first inversion),

which lets you leave your thumb on the C note for both chords.

Tip

Working from a Chord Sheet

A chord sheet is like a lead sheet, but without the melody written out. Working

from a chord sheet is just like working from a lead sheet—play the chords with

your right hand and the root of the chord with your left. A typical chord sheet

looks like this:

Chapter 13: Accompanying Melodies 169

A chord sheet—no melody.

Working from a Melody

Sometimes you get the melody (in the form of a lead sheet) without chords. All

you have to go from is the melody—no chords, no bass line, no anything else.

A melody sheet—no chords.

What do you do now?

First, don’t panic. Second, remember back to Chapter 10, in which you learned

how to create a chord progression based on a melodic line. That is the skill

from which you need to draw now.

Take the melody you were given and go off by yourself for a half-hour or so.

Play the melody on the piano, and try to figure out what chords sound good

with that melody. If it’s a familiar song, the chords might come easily to you; if

you’ve never heard the song before, you have your work cut out for you. In any

case, apply the rules you learned back in Chapter 10, and write out your own

chord progression for this melody.

When you’re trying to figure out the chords behind a melody, there are

several different approaches you can take. The best approach, as you

learned in Chapter 10, is to try some common chord progressions. See

if I-IV-V fits the melody; if not, try I-ii-V, or I-vi-IV-V, or the “circle of fifths”

progression. Chances are, one of the common chord progressions will fit—or at

least come close.

Tip

The key thing here is that the chords you write are now your chords. Even if

they’re not quite the established chords for this melody, you can get away with

it by claiming that this is your unique harmonization. You’re at the piano, and

you’re in charge, so what you play must be right!

Now, if you’re playing along with other musicians—perhaps a bass player or a

guitarist—you don’t want to end up with three different sets of chords to this

single melody. If you’re playing in a group, put your heads together and work

out the chord progressions as a group. Heck, maybe one of you actually knows

Part 4: Accompanying

the chords already! In any case, three heads are better than one, and together you

should be able to come up with just the right chord progression for this song.

Working from Nothing

Now we visit the worst-case scenario. You’re asked to play piano accompaniment

and you’re given no music at all. All you have are your ears and your fingers,

and all the skills you’ve picked up from reading this book.

Now you can panic!

In this situation, it’s okay to ask for help. Ask the person in charge if he or she

has anything to give you—a lead sheet, a lyric sheet, an old trumpet part—any-

thing at all. (Anything is better than nothing in this scenario.) Ask what key the

song is in. Ask if there’s anyone who knows the chords and can either teach

them to you or write them down for you. Ask if anyone has a recording of the

song you can take home and listen to.

In short, ask for all the help you can get.

Whatever meager help you get, you’re now on your own. It’s time to fall back

on the ear-training skills you learned back in Chapter 12. You’ll need to figure

out the melody, figure out the key, and figure out the chords. In short, you have

to reconstruct the song from memory and hope you get it right.

Then, when you start to play and the vocalist says “Those aren’t the right

chords!” make sure you have something small but heavy nearby—because you’ll

want to throw it!

Working the Form

Once you get the chords written down, you’ll need to write down some sort of

“cheat sheet” to help you remember the form of the song. Do you play one or

two verses before the first chorus? How long is the introduction? Is there an

instrumental break in the middle—and for how many measures? Do you fade

out at the end, or stop cold?

You’ll need to figure all this out and write it down, so you’ll remember when to

start, when to stop, and what to do in between. Use the form notation (AABA,

ABCA, and so forth) you learned back in Chapter 11 to help you keep your place.

Playing the Part

Once you have the chords written down, you have to play the song. Because

there’s no formal piano part, you’re on your own in terms of figuring out what

type of part to play. Fortunately, you can employ some common accompani-

ment techniques; you don’t have to reinvent the wheel.

170

Chapter 13: Accompanying Melodies 171

Block Chord Accompaniment

The easiest type of accompaniment to play is the block chord accompaniment.

This approach is exactly as it sounds: Whenever there’s a chord change, you put

all your fingers on the keyboard (at the same time) and play the chord.

That’s it. You don’t play any special rhythms, you don’t arpeggiate the chord,

you don’t do anything except plunk! the notes of the chord all at once.

All you have to do is put the three (or more) notes of the chord in your right

hand and double the root of the chord with your left hand, like this:

Accompanying a melody with block chords.

The primary benefit of playing a block chord accompaniment is that it’s easy—

for you, anyway. The drawback is that it’s a rather sparse accompaniment; it

really doesn’t add anything to the music, except to provide only the most basic

harmonic underpinning to the melody.

Still, if block chords are all you can master, that’s what you should play. No one

will ever accuse you of getting in the way or covering up the melody!

Rhythmic Accompaniment

There’s another way to play chords that isn’t quite as boring as the block chord

approach. You play the block chords, but with a more interesting rhythmic pattern.

What kind of pattern am I talking about? There are several you can choose

from, including these:

Rhythmic accompaniment in quarter notes.

Part 4: Accompanying

172

You can even break up the rhythm slightly by playing your left hand (the bass) on

beats one and three, and your right hand (the chords) on two and four, like this:

Rhythmic accompaniment with a syncopated rhythm.

Rhythmic accompaniment with a syncopated dotted quarter note rhythm—kind of a Latin feel.

Playing the chords on the backbeat.

Or, if you want a more lively sound, play the bass on each beat and the chords

as eighth notes on each upbeat (plus the downbeat of one), like this:

Playing the chords on the upbeat.

Chapter 13: Accompanying Melodies 173

The benefit of this approach is that it provides a driving pulse for the song. The

drawback is that you have to pick the right kind of pulse, which requires you to

have some sense of rhythm.

If you don’t have any natural rhythm, you might want to stick to block chords.

Arpeggiated Accompaniment

If you’re playing a slower song, you might want to break up the chords and play

the individual notes in a sequence, like an arpeggio. You can create a simple

arpeggiated accompaniment by playing straight eighth notes over two beats, with

the root of the chord on beat one, the third of the chord on the first upbeat, the

fifth on beat two, and the third (again) on the second upbeat.

Written out, it looks something like this:

An arpeggiated

accompaniment also is

often called a broken

chord accompaniment

because you break the

chord apart and play

each note separately.

Definition

Playing an arpeggiated accompaniment.

You can vary this accompaniment by changing up the order of the chord tones,

varying the rhythm, or even adding passing notes, like this:

An arpeggiated accompaniment with passing tones in addition to the main chord tones.

If you make sure you play the root of the chord in the bass, you have a quick

and easy accompaniment for all types of music.

Part 4: Accompanying

174

Moving Bass

Once you get good at these simple types of accompaniment, you can spice

things up by playing a more complex bass part.

So far, all you have to do is play the root of the chord—in time!—with your left

hand. However, if you listen to just about any song from the pop era, starting

with the Beatles, you’ll hear a lot more in the bass than just the root. That’s

because bass guitarists in the ’60s upped the ante and started playing some

really interesting bass parts.

If you want to add more bass to your piano accompaniments, start by adding

passing tones between the root notes of consecutive chords, like this:

Paul McCartney was one

of the pioneers of this new

style of bass playing, as

was James Jamerson at

Motown. One of the most

influential bass parts ever

recorded was on the Four

Tops’ hit “Bernadette”—

which is James Jamerson

at the top of his form.

Note

Passing notes in the bass.

You’re not limited to the root in the bass, either. Many bass parts provide inter-

est by stopping on the third or the fifth of the chord, instead of on the root. If

you expand on this concept you end up with a walking bass line, such as that

found in a lot of jazz music. A walking bass line goes beyond simple passing

tones by “walking” up and down the scale, like this:

A walking bass line.

As you develop your accompanying skills, you can elaborate on the bass or the

chords in lots of different ways. Just remember to listen to the song and play a

part that’s appropriate.

One Good Strum Deserves Another

Pianos aren’t the only accompanying instruments, of course. If you play guitar,

you have to face many of the same challenges a piano player does when asked

to provide accompaniment to others.

Chief of these challenges, of course, is figuring out what chords to play—

which, you now know, is within your grasp. All you have to do is use the skills

you learned previously in this book.

Chapter 13: Accompanying Melodies

Once you’ve figured out the chords, you have to play them. In most instances,

you can get by with simple strumming. You can strum on the first beat of every

measure, you can strum on every beat, you can strum a backbeat on two and

four, or you can strum in a more complex rhythm. Depending on the song, you

can even break up the chords by playing one string at a time in an arpeggiated

pattern. The important thing is to use your ears and play what fits the music.

And make sure you keep up with the chord changes!

The Least You Need to Know

◆

If you’re given a lead sheet with chord notation, play the chords as written.

◆

If you’re given a melody sheet with no chords noted—or no music at all—

you have to figure out the chords before you play.

◆

When accompanying other musicians, play the chord with your right hand

and the root of the chord with your left.

◆

You can play many different types of accompaniment—block chords, sim-

ple rhythms, broken chords, and so on—depending on the mood and

tempo of the song itself.

◆

Before you play a new song, make sure you sketch out the form of the

song (verse, chorus, and so forth) so that you don’t get lost in the middle

of things.

Exercises

Exercise 13-1

Play a block chord accompaniment based on the following lead sheet.

175

Part 4: Accompanying

Exercise 13-2

Play a rhythmic accompaniment based on the following lead sheet.

176

Exercise 13-3

Play an arpeggiated accompaniment based on the following lead sheet.

Exercise 13-4

Play an accompaniment with a moving bass part, based on the following lead sheet.

Transposing to Other Keys

In This Chapter

◆

Understanding transposition

◆

Discovering when you need to transpose a song

◆

Learning different methods of transposition

◆

Using computerized music notation programs to transpose your songs

automatically

You’re sitting at your piano, on stage, ready to play the next tune, when the

female vocalist walks over to you.

“This song’s a little high for me in B,” she says. “Take it down to A.”

Huh?

Or maybe you’re just starting to play guitar, don’t know all the chords yet, and

just got the sheet music for one of your favorite songs. You blanch when you

discover that the song is in the key of G. G-flat! Who plays in G-flat? You

don’t know any chords in G-flat—not a one!

But you do know all your chords in G; maybe there’s a way to change the song

from Gto G.

Perhaps you’re arranging a Christmas carol for your church choir, which will be

accompanied by a solo trumpet. You hand the trumpet player his part and he

plays what you thought was supposed to be a C—but it comes out as a Bin-

stead, according to the notes on your piano.

What gives?

All three of these examples are situations in which you need to know how to

transpose a piece of music from one key to another—which is what this chapter

is all about.

Move Your Notes Around

Transposition is the art of translating a note or chord from one key to another.

It’s really a math exercise—this note in this key equals that note in that key.

Chapter

Part 4: Accompanying

178

When you transpose a note or a melody or a chord, you take it from one key,

and instead play the equivalent note, melody, or chord in another key.

For example, let’s say you’re playing the note C in the key of C—the key’s tonic

note. When you transpose that note to the key of F, you now play an F—which

is the tonic note for the key of F.

Sounds easy enough, doesn’t it?

Let’s look at a more complex example: Let’s say you’re in the key of C and you

play a melody that moves from C to D to E—the first three notes of the C

Major scale. When you transpose that melody to the key of F, the new notes

(the first three notes of the F Major scale) are F, G, A.

Getting the hang of it yet?

Here’s another example: Let’s say you’re in the key of C, and you’re playing the

I-vi-IV-V chord progression—C-Am-F-G. When you transpose that chord pro-

gression into the key of F, the new chords are F-Dm-B-C. It’s still I-vi-IV-V;

just in a different key.

You can transpose from any one key to any other key. That means you could

move the notes anywhere from a half step to a major seventh up or down from

where you started. (You also can move notes up or down by whole octaves—

what is called octave transposition—but you’re really not altering any notes;

you’re just changing octaves.)

Why You Need to Transpose

As you saw in the introduction to this chapter, there are many different reasons

you might need to transpose a song. Here are some of the most common:

◆

The song, as written, is out of the range of a vocalist or instrumentalist. If

a singer can’t hit the high notes in the key of C, maybe the key of B or B,

or even A might be friendlier.

◆

You or another musician don’t know how to play the song in the given

key. This is especially a problem with beginning guitarists who don’t

always know the chords in some of the more extreme flat or sharp keys—

but they do know the chords for G and A and C and F. If you can trans-

pose the song to one of these keys, everyone can play their parts. (You

have the same problem with any instrument that has to deal with a lot of

sharps and flats in the key signature; it’s easier to play in C, G, D, F, and

Bthan it is to play in the other, more complex, keys.)

◆

You’re writing or arranging for one of the many instruments that don’t

play in what we call concert key. For example, trumpets always sound one

whole note lower than what is written—so you have to transpose all trum-

pet players’ music up a step so they’ll be in the same key as the other

musicians. (So if the concert key is C, you write the trumpet part in D;

when a trumpet plays a D, it actually sounds as concert C.) These instru-

ments are called transposing instruments, because you have to transpose

their parts for them.

Concert key or

concert pitch is the under-

lying key of a piece of

music—that is, the actual

pitches that sound when

played. The piano is

always in concert key.

Definition

Chapter 14: Transposing to Other Keys 179

These scenarios are more common than you’d think—which means you better

learn how to transpose—and fast!

Four Ways to Transpose

When you have to transpose a song from one key to another, there are four

ways to go about it. You can …

◆

Put your math skills to work and manually move each note up or down the

required number of steps.

◆

Put your music theory skills to work and utilize degree-wise Roman

numeral notation.

◆

Use your music theory skills again and mechanically transpose each note

based on the interval from the previous note.

◆

Put technology to work and let a computerized music notation program

do the job for you.

Step-Wise Transposition

Step-wise transposition is the grunt work of the arranging and composing world.

In this method, you count the half steps between the first key and the second,

and then move each note and chord up or down the necessary number of steps.

For example, let’s say you have the following melody in the key of D:

Your original melody, in the key of D.

You need to transpose this melody to the key of F. When you do the counting,

you find that F is three half steps above D. So you have to move all the chords

and notes up three half steps like this:

1. Take the first note of the melody—an A. If you move this note up three

half steps, it becomes a C.

2. Move to the second note of the melody—a B. If you move this note up

three half steps, it becomes a D.

3. Move to the third note of the melody—a C. If you move this note up

three half steps, it becomes an E.

And so on, and so on. You do the same thing with the chords:

1. The first chord is D Major. If you move this chord up three half steps, it

becomes an F Major chord.

Many instruments

do not play in concert

key. See Chapter 18 to

learn which instruments

play in what keys.

Warning

Part 4: Accompanying

2. The second chord is a G Major. If you move this chord up three half steps,

it becomes a BMajor chord.

When you get done transposing all the notes and chords, you get this:

180

The same melody, transposed to the key of F.

It’s grunt work, that’s for sure—but it gets the job done.

Degree-Wise Transposition

If you’ve done a good job reading this book—and developing your music the-

ory skills accordingly—there’s another approach you can take to transposition.

This approach requires you to break all the chords and notes down to their

degrees of the underlying scale; you can then apply those degree representa-

tions to the new key.

The easiest way to understand this approach is to look at chords—in this case,

the chords from our previous key-of-D melody:

The original chord progression, in the key of D.

To get the ball rolling, we’ve noted the chord type above each chord—I, IV, V,

and so forth. For the next few minutes, we’re going to work strictly with this

degree notation and forget (for the time being) about the original chords.

The chord progression in Roman numerals only.

With the chord progression broken down by Roman numeral, you can write

out each of the chords in your new key—in this case, the key of F. When you

write out the new chords, you get this:

Chapter 14: Transposing to Other Keys 181

The chord progression transposed to the key of F.

Voilà! You’ve just transposed the entire chord progression—and you didn’t have

to count any half steps to do it.

You can apply this same technique to the notes in the melody. Work through

the original key-of-C melody and put the degree of the scale (1, 2, 3, and so

forth) under each note of the melody, like this:

If you’re not sure

which chords to use,

refer back to the

Scale-Based Chords

table in Chapter 10.

Tip

Marking up the original melody, write the degree of the scale under each note.

Now get a blank sheet of music paper and, in the key of F, write out the scale

degrees below the staff. If you fill in the actual notes for each scale degree, you

end up with the completed melody:

Your transposed melody, by the numbers.

This method is a little more work for melodies than it is for chords, but it defi-

nitely works.

Interval-Based Transposition

In interval-based transposition, you have to transpose the first note from one

key to another, but then you ignore the key change and work completely in the

new key. You do this by noting the intervals between each note in the melody,

and then using those intervals to “compose” the transposed melody on the fly.

Let’s turn again to our original melody, and note the intervals between each

note in the melody, like this:

Part 4: Accompanying

182

Now, you start composing your “new” melody in the new key. The first note in

the new key (which you have to manually figure out) is a C, and the interval

between that note and the second note is a major second—which makes the sec-

ond note a D. The next interval is another major second, which makes the next

note an E. The next interval is a major second down, which makes the next note

a D. And so on, until you’re done.

The original melody, marked up with intervals.

Transposing your melody one interval at a time.

This method doesn’t work as well when you’re transposing chords, because it

doesn’t tell you what type of chord comes next—major, minor, or other. I sup-

pose you could augment this interval-based approach by noting the chord type

from the original version, but that gets a tad complex; there are easier ways to

transpose chord progressions.

Software-Based Transposition

Thanks to modern computer technology, you may be able to avoid manual

transposition completely. Almost all computerized music notation programs,

such as Finale and Sibelius, let you enter your music in concert key; all you have

to do is click a button (or select a menu item) to automatically transpose one or

more staves to another key.

For example, the Finale program (from Coda Music Technology) has a drop-down

menu option that enables you to determine whether a given part is noted in

concert key or the instrument’s native key. Depending on the option you select,

your score can show all instruments in concert key, or the specific keys for each

instrument. The nice thing about this option is that you can do your original

composing in concert key and then automatically transpose the parts to their

own keys when you’re done writing—which is easier than trying to manually

transpose all the parts while you’re composing.

Finale also lets you transpose a part from any one key to any other key, just by

selecting a few options in a dialog box. When you want to change keys, you can

instruct the program to transpose the original notes up or down, as appropriate,

Chapter 14: Transposing to Other Keys 183

or hold to their original pitches. It’s a lot easier than trying to transpose each

part on your own!

Finale’s Key Signature dialog box; the Transposition Options section lets you choose between

transposing the notes when you change keys and holding the notes to their original pitches.

The Least You Need to Know

◆

Transposition is the art of moving notes and chords from one key to another.

◆

You need to learn transposition for those times when a singer requests a

song in a different key, you or other musicians can’t play in the original

key, or you’re composing or arranging for instruments that don’t play in

concert key.

◆

You can transpose a melody by counting the half steps from one key to

another, noting the scale degrees of the original melody and chords, or

using the intervals between the notes of the melody.

◆

Many computerized music notation programs will automatically transpose

your music for you with the click of a mouse.

Learn more about music

notation programs in

Chapter 19.

Note

Exercises

Exercise 14-1

Use the step-based method to transpose this melody from the key of F to the key of G. (Watch the

change from flats to sharps!)

Part 4: Accompanying

184

Exercise 14-2

Use the degree-based method to transpose this chord progression from the key of Ato the key of E.

Exercise 14-3

Use the interval-based method to transpose this melody from the key of Bto the key of A.

Exercise 14-4

Use whatever method you like to transpose the following chords and melody from the key of C to the key

of E.

Discover how to fill out your music with lush harmonies and interesting counter-

point, and how to jazz up a tune with fancy chord substitutions. Bonus chapter:

more fiddly notation marks!

Part

Embellishing

Harmony and Counterpoint

In This Chapter

◆

Understanding the differences—and similarities—between harmony and

counterpoint

◆

Creating pleasing background harmonies

◆

Using different chord voicings

◆

Composing interesting two-part counterpoint

◆

Learning effective voice leading technique

A song doesn’t have to be anything more than a melody and chords. Think of a

folk singer and her guitar, or a solo violinist accompanied by piano. Melody and

chords are all you need. However, when you turn on the radio you don’t hear a

lot of solo folk singers. What you typically hear is a full arrangement, complete

with keyboards and bass and drums, background vocals, and other types of

instrumental backing.

Of course, these background vocals and instruments are doing nothing more

than playing the notes in the song’s chord progression. But they also help to fill

out the sound and make the piece of music more interesting.

To fill out your songs, you need to add harmony parts. These harmony parts

can be either vocal or instrumental, and there can be any number of them.

What they do is simple: They follow separate lines within the underlying chord

progression, thus buttressing the harmonic structure of the song.

If you want to get really fancy, your backing parts can represent new and con-

trasting melodies when played against your original melody. When you create

this type of complex harmony, it’s called counterpoint; it’s widely used in many

forms of classical music.

Chapter

Part 5: Embellishing

188

Two Ways to Enhance a Melody

Two notes sounded together make a harmonic interval; three or more notes

sounded together make a chord; and two or more melodies sounded together

make counterpoint. Intervals and chords are used to construct harmony; coun-

terpoint exists as separate melodic lines.

Another way to think of it is that harmony is a vertical (up and down) combina-

tion of notes, whereas counterpoint operates horizontally (side to side).

Harmony is vertical.

In reality, harmony and counterpoint are related concepts; both involve “vertical”

combinations of notes and both involve a “horizontal” movement of individual

voices or instruments. Still, harmony is more about singing or playing parts of a

chord; counterpoint is more about creating a second (or third or fourth) mel-

ody line—albeit one that adheres to the underlying harmonic structure.

Counterpoint is horizontal.

Technically, the study of harmony includes chords and chord progressions—basically,

anything that combines two or more notes simultaneously. Because we already

covered this basic material in Chapters 9 and 10, in this chapter we’re covering

the use of multiple voices or instruments to enhance melodies, based on the

underlying harmonic structure (chord progression) of a piece of music.

Note

This chapter presents har-

mony and counterpoint

from a popular music per-

spective. Classical musi-

cians have a much

different—and more

formal—take on these

concepts.

Note

Chapter 15: Harmony and Counterpoint 189

Living in Harmony

Harmony is like playing chords behind a melody, only using other instruments

or voices. In fact, the art of adding chords to a melody is a harmonic exercise.

We add harmony parts to our music because harmony lends richness to a song.

It fills out a single melody line and reinforces the underlying chord structure.

A melody with backing harmonies is the difference between a solo vocalist and a

full chorus. It’s the difference between a folk singer with an acoustic guitar and

a pop singer with a group of backup vocalists. It’s the difference between a jazz

trio and a big band.

In other words, harmony makes music bigger.

You create harmony parts by using the notes in the underlying chord progres-

sion. If all you do is assign specific notes of a chord to specific instruments or

voices, you’ve created harmony.

It doesn’t have to be much harder than that. Harmony parts, whether vocal or

instrumental, are typically less rhythmically complex than the main melody. It’s

not uncommon to find harmony parts consisting of whole notes or half notes

while the melody maintains a more complex rhythm.

Harmony parts can also mirror the rhythm of the melody; in these instances,

the harmony resembles classical counterpoint—which you’ll learn about later in

this chapter. Harmony can also be used to punctuate the melody, fill in breaks

in the melody, and function as a kind of call-and-response mechanism. (Think

of the classic pop tune “Midnight Train to Georgia”; Gladys Knight is the call

and the Pips are the response—woo woo!)

In terms of harmonic complexity, you can have everything from a single accompa-

nying voice to choruses and string sections with two and three and more voices.

The more voices you have, the more challenging it is to create distinct harmony

parts without doubling or duplicating other parts. Of course, writing a single

harmony part is also challenging, but in a different way; that single part has to

include just the right notes, suggesting the underlying chord without distracting

from the main melody.

For the purposes of learning basic theory, we’re going to concentrate on simple

two- and three-part backing harmony, without a lot of rhythmic or melodic

complexity. Once you master this type of rudimental harmony, you can expand

to include more complex types of vocal and instrumental backing.

Voicing and Inversions

The order of the notes of a chord (top to bottom) is referred to as the chord

voicing. (It’s also called the chord inversion, as you learned in Chapter 9.) Voicing

is very important when you’re writing harmony parts, because you have to

employ different voicings to avoid parallel motion between parts.

Part 5: Embellishing

Let’s consider the harmony you play as piano accompaniment. If you recall, we

used the following chord progression as an example back in Chapter 13:

190

A common chord progression that needs harmonized.

As learned back in Chapter 13, a simple block chord piano accompaniment

(right hand only) to this chord progression looks something like this:

Simple block chord harmonies.

The triads you play as accompaniment represent three-voice harmony; you just

happen to play all three voices with one hand. All the chords are in the root

(noninverted) form of 1-3-5—which represents a problem. When you change

from chord to chord, all the harmony notes move in parallel to each other. In

terms of voice leading, this is often frowned upon.

It’s also boring.

You can prove this by isolating the top note of this chord accompaniment. Now

sing the succession of top notes as if you were singing backup vocals:

Isolating the top voice in the I-vi-IV-V chord progression.

Like I said: pretty boring—and not particularly melodic, either.

A better approach is to vary the voicings of the chords so that the harmony

parts don’t have to move in parallel.

For example, you might keep the C chord in its normal root position, but

change the Am to the first inversion (C-E-A), the F to the second inversion

(C-F-A), and the G to the first inversion (B-D-G), like this:

Inverting the chords to vary the internal voicings.

Chapter 15: Harmony and Counterpoint 191

Not only does this make the chord progression easier to play (all the notes are

closer together on the keyboard) it also makes any individual part easier to sing.

Take the top note part again: Instead of moving G-E-C-D as it did originally, it

now moves G-A-A-G, like this:

The new top voice harmony part, thanks to revoicing the chords.

The voice is fairly consistent, now; it doesn’t jump all over the place like it did

before. And if you check out the other voices, you find that they’re also a lot

more singable. (The middle voice moves E-E-F-D, and the bottom voice moves

C-C-C-B.)

When you write out each of these parts separately, you use three different

staves, like this:

The succession of root position, first inversion, second inversion is fairly

common—and one you can apply to any number of chord progressions.

(Also common is the succession of first inversion, second inversion, root

position.)

Tip

Three-voice harmony—on three different staves.

These principles apply when you’re playing piano accompaniment; they also

apply when you’re writing vocal or instrumental harmony parts. If you vary the

voicings, you open up a lot of possibilities as far as which voice goes where.

Part 5: Embellishing

192

Making Harmony Parts More Melodic

Of course, you’re not limited to having your voices follow the strict chord pat-

tern. What if we start swapping the top two notes of our harmony between two

different voices? There are lots of ways to do this, but one particularly good-

sounding one looks like this:

Swapping a few notes between the top two harmony parts.

See what we did here? We swapped the second and fourth notes between the

parts, so that the first part now goes G-E-A-D, and the second part goes E-A-

F-G. You’re still representing all the notes in the chord, but you’re making each

individual line more melodically interesting.

A good tip when you’re creating either vocal or instrumental harmony is to

physically sing each part yourself. If the part is boring or hard to sing, consider

different inversions or swapping notes between parts. The best harmony parts

sound great on their own!

Voice Leading

Voice leading is what you get when you follow one harmony part from start to

finish; the different intervals between the notes follow a set of conventions and

act to create a pseudo-melody out of the harmony line. You have to make sure

that one note properly leads to the next to avoid having the harmony line sound

like a bunch of totally unconnected tones.

It’s helpful to think

of a chord progres-

sion as nothing

more than a group

of simultaneous melodies.

This will help you create

singable harmony parts,

as opposed to parts that

correspond only to notes

within the underlying

chord structure.

Tip

If you follow these voice-leading conventions, you’ll create chord progres-

sions that sound good in both popular and classical music. When you’re

working in the popular and jazz styles, however, you’ll discover that you

can be a lot freer with your voice leading; let your ear guide you to

what works best.

Tip

Chapter 15: Harmony and Counterpoint 193

When you’re writing harmony, there are three key voice-leading conventions to

keep in mind. When you follow these conventions, the creation of harmony

parts becomes somewhat easy:

◆

In general, voices should move smoothly. That means moving each voice

the shortest distance possible, and retaining common tones between suc-

cessive chords in the same voice. How big of a leap is too much? Try to

avoid leaps larger than a fourth, except in the lowest (bass) voice, which

can accept larger leaps that move along with the chord progression.

◆

When at all possible, you should avoid moving all the voices in the same

direction. If some of the voices move up over the course of a line, at least

one voice should move down.

◆

Avoid moving voices in parallel “perfect” intervals—fourths, fifths, or

octaves. Voices can move in parallel thirds and sixths.

Here’s an example of bad voice leading. Notice how the two parts move in par-

allel, and how each voice has huge leaps from note to note?

… corrected.

The second example shows how to fix the voice leading problems, merely by

swapping a few notes from voice to voice or by picking other notes within the

chord. It isn’t that hard when you realize that any note can be assigned to any

voice; all you have to do is pick the right notes to create the best-sounding

musical lines.

Bad voice leading …

Part 5: Embellishing

194

Making a Point—with Counterpoint

Counterpoint is simply the art of combining two or more simultaneous musical

lines. Unlike the art of harmony, where the harmony parts are subsidiary to the

main melody, both melodic parts in counterpoint have equal weight.

The two voices in traditional counterpoint must not only sound melodic when

played separately; they also must fit together harmonically to suggest the chord

structure of the song. That means if you play the underlying chords against the

counterpoint, the melodic lines mustn’t sound dissonant; it also means you

should be able to deduce the underlying chord structure from the melodic lines

alone.

Sounds like a tall order, doesn’t it? Creating effective counterpoint is kind of

like working with a musical puzzle, creating two melodies that not only fit with

the song’s chord progression, but also sound good when played together. Mastery

of contrapuntal technique is definitely something that separates novices from

more experienced musicians.

Key to successful counterpoint is the interaction of the different voices. (And

when I say “voices,” I mean melodic lines; counterpoint can be used in both

vocal and instrumental music.) The two lines have to work together; not fight

with each other. The second line has to be the melodic equal of the first, and

neither line should dominate.

All of this is harder to do than you might think.

Classic two-part counterpoint, courtesy of Johann Sebastian Bach—notice the independence of the two melodic lines.

The word counter-

point comes from the Latin

punctus contra punctum,

which means “note against

note.” When a second

melodic part is added to

an existing one, the new

part is said to be “in coun-

terpoint” to the first part.

Definition

The dean of contrapuntal

writing was Johann

Sebastian Bach, although

many classical composers

utilized this particular musi-

cal form. Bach was

known for his three- and

four-part counterpoint, in

which any of the parts

could be the lead part.

Note

It’s also important that both lines be singable. That means either melody

should be able to stand on its own as a main melody against the underlying

chord progression. A melody in counterpoint should not be just a combination

of notes to fit the chords; it has to be melodic, it has to have its own internal

musical logic, and it has to fit with the other melody.

When composing melodies for counterpoint, call upon the skills you learned

back in Chapter 8. Make sure each melody has a shape and a destination, as

well as a coherent form. Also make sure each melody makes sense within the

song’s general chord structure, it fits within a comfortable vocal or instrumen-

tal range (generally no more than an octave range), and the intervals within the

melody are small and singable.

Chapter 15: Harmony and Counterpoint

When you put your two melodies together, you should make sure they both fit

within the notes of the underlying chord, and stay within the confines of the

underlying scale. The two melodies should also not duplicate each other; if you

have two identical melodies, you’re writing in unison; not in counterpoint. That

means each melody should have its own motion—which should complement,

but not interfere with, the motion of the other melody. The notes within each

melody also should not interfere or clash with the notes in the other melody;

avoid dissonant vertical intervals.

It’s okay for the two melodies to have their own rhythmic patterns. In fact, in

classical music it’s expected. (If your two melodies have identical rhythmic

structure you have what is called a 1:1 rhythmic ratio, which in some ways is

easier to work with than more rhythmically complex forms.)

Creating Your First Counterpoint

The best way to learn about counterpoint is to dive into the deep end—and

start composing!

For our first counterpoint, we’ll start by defining some parameters. These are

not necessarily hard-and-fast rules for the contrapuntal form, but they do make

it easier for beginners to create a working counterpoint.

Here are the parameters:

◆

Use a 1:1 rhythmic ratio; both melodies should use the same rhythmic

patterns.

◆

Only consonant harmonic intervals are allowed; no dissonant harmonies.

◆

The lower part must begin and end on the tonic of the key.

◆

The upper part must begin on either the first or the fifth of the key, and

end on the tonic—either in unison with the bass part or an octave above.

◆

Between the melodies, rely heavily on intervals of thirds and sixths. Avoid

octaves and unisons, except for the final note.

◆

Move each voice the shortest distance possible.

Now let’s get started.

Some composers like to write both melodic parts simultaneously; this enables

them to employ various advanced techniques, such as sharing a contrapuntal

melody between the two parts. However, for beginners it’s a lot easier to write

the first part first; then complete the puzzle by adding the second, counter-

point, melody.

Which is exactly what we’ll do.

We’ll start from the bottom up and create our first melody for the lower voice.

(This is the staff labeled “2,” in bass clef.) Our melody is in 3/4 time, in the key

of F Major. Because counterpoint works best when both parts have a lot of

rhythmic and melodic movement, the melody is fairly lively, with a lot of eighth

notes; it also starts and ends on the tonic note, F.

195

These general principles

are similar to the ones

established by Johann

Joseph Fux in his classic

counterpoint book Gradus

ad Parnassum (“steps to

perfection”), published in

1725. Many great com-

posers throughout history

have used this book to

learn counterpoint.

Note

Part 5: Embellishing

Now things get interesting. We need to come up with a second, higher, melody

that doesn’t clash with the lower melody—in fact, it should complement the first

melody. You can’t create this second melody in a vacuum; counterpoint is more

than just putting two unrelated melodies together. The two melodies have to fit

together logically, and have to work together to suggest the underlying chords.

So let’s start at the start. The lower part started on an F, which is the tonic of

the underlying key. According to our parameters, the upper melody can start

either on the tonic or the fifth. We don’t want to get too fancy with our first

counterpoint, so we’ll start the upper melody (the treble clef labeled “1”) on the

F two octaves higher.

In the first measure, the lower melody has a slight upward progression. To dis-

tinguish the upper melody from the lower part, we’ll give this second melody a

slight downward progression. Remember, we want the intervals between the

two voices to be pleasant-sounding, which means emphasizing the thirds and

sixths, and avoiding dissonant intervals. We also want to avoid parallel move-

ment, so we’ll leave the second note of the upper melody on F, which sounds

good against the D on the bottom. (It’s a nice minor third.)

For the third note, it’s time to introduce some motion—in this case, a down-

ward motion, to contrast with the upward motion in the lower melody. We’ll

move down from F to C, which is a nice singable fourth. It also forms a pleas-

ing minor sixth against the E in the lower melody.

The fourth and final note in the first measure also needs to show downward

movement, so we’ll continue down from C to A, an easily singable minor third.

The A also creates a pleasing major third against the F in the lower melody.

Now, if you look closely, you’ll see that not only did we introduce contrary

motion in the upper melody (down, in contrast to the upward-moving lower

melody), but we also used the upper melody to suggest the underlying chord (F

Major). The downward melody is actually an arpeggiated F Major chord, in its

first inversion (F to C to A).

196

The lower voice—the first of two parts in counterpoint.

Two melodies in

counterpoint that move in

opposite directions (one

up; the other down) are

said to have contrary

motion.

Definition

Chapter 15: Harmony and Counterpoint

What we have so far is shown here:

197

Starting to add counterpoint to the first voice.

As you can see, creating counterpoint requires a lot of logical thinking—it’s a lot

like thinking through the moves in a game of chess. The conventions are there and

it’s all very logical, but you have to work hard to make it all fit together as it should.

We’ll continue adding to the upper voice line, following the conventions note by

note. When we’re finished, we have two complete melodies, in counterpoint to

each other, like this:

Your first counterpoint!

Your first counterpoint is a good example of simple 1:1 rhythmic counterpoint. Of

course, classical counterpoint requires that the rhythms differ between the two

voices, so let’s continue to work with this example to create some rhythmic vari-

ations.

How do you introduce different rhythms into the top melody? In this example,

you can do it by essentially scooting all the notes to the left one beat. That is,

you put the eighth-note figure on beat one instead of beat two of each measure,

and extend the measure-ending quarter note into a half note.

Here’s what this looks like:

Your first counterpoint—but with different rhythms in the top melody.

Part 5: Embellishing

Note that this approach created eighth notes in the top part when the bottom

part is using quarter notes, and vice versa. This provides a simple rhythmic vari-

ation without going whole-hog on complex interrelated rhythms.

What to Avoid

Whether you’re writing harmony or counterpoint, there are certain combinations

of notes that you want to avoid. In most cases, you’ll avoid these combinations

because they don’t sound right; still, it’s good to know the conventions in advance

so you can keep from making rookie mistakes.

Avoid Extended Parallel Movement

Parallel movement is when two or more voices move in the same direction by

the exact same interval. Parallel movement is frowned upon in some types of

music—but perfectly acceptable in others. For example, in classical music you

want to avoid parallel movement in perfect fourths or fifths and octaves; in pop-

ular music, however, parallel fourths and fifths are permitted and even some-

what common—even if they do sound a little boring if carried on for too long.

In any case, if you try hard, you can generally come up with something that

sounds more interesting than extended parallel voices. Go ahead and use a little

parallel movement if you have to, but then vary things whenever possible to

keep from getting boring.

198

Avoid extended parallel movement.

Avoid Big Leaps

Whether you’re writing harmony or counterpoint, you should follow one of the

key conventions used when creating melodies—keep the intervals between

notes as small as possible. Avoid big leaps between notes; they not only sound

disconnected, they’re also hard to play and sing. As with standard voice-leading,

any interval larger than a fourth or fifth is probably too big a leap.

Chapter 15: Harmony and Counterpoint

Avoid big leaps.

Avoid Dissonant Intervals—Unless They Resolve

In this case we’re talking about the intervals between different voices—and this

is as much a practical consideration as anything else. If you’re fitting voices to

chords, you probably won’t have much in the way of dissonance to work with;

there’s nothing dissonant within an F Major chord, for example.

But what if you’re harmonizing an F Major seventh chord—in which two of the

notes are E and F, which are just a minor second apart? The voicing you want

to avoid is putting the two notes together on two close voices; for example, hav-

ing the first soprano sing the F and the second soprano sing the adjacent E. Not

only will this sound harsh; it will also be difficult for each voice to sing—the

notes are too close together. A better approach would be to put one of the notes

in a lower voice, so that there’s an octave or so space between the two notes.

199

Avoid unresolved dissonances.

The tritone is another interval to avoid in your harmony. This is simply the

hardest interval in the world to sing, or for instruments to hit. When you put a

tritone in your harmony, you’re just asking for trouble—specifically, for one of

the voices to miss the note!

Now, it’s okay to introduce this kind of dissonance, if you then resolve it. That

means you can include dissonance in passing tones, or even at the end of phrases,

but only if one of the voices then resolves to a more pleasing interval. For

example, in that F Major seventh chord, the voice with the E might quickly

resolve to either an F or a C. In the tritone example, you can move one of the

voices up or down a step to create either a perfect fifth or a third.

For some good

examples of close

harmony, listen to

some old Beach

Boys albums. Of particular

note is the classic Pet

Sounds album, which con-

tains some terrific close

harmony on songs like

“God Only Knows” and

“Wouldn’t It Be Nice.”

Tip

Exercises

Exercise 15-1

Find and correct the voice-leading errors in the following piece of harmony.

Part 5: Embellishing

Realize, however, that this is one rule that’s definitely meant to be broken. There

are so many instances of close harmony out there that it’s hard to argue against

the practice. The problem is that this type of close harmony is difficult to pull

off; especially for beginners. Wait until you’re more comfortable with your har-

mony and counterpoint before you try writing voices this close together.

The Least You Need to Know

◆

Harmony is a vertical combination of notes within the underlying chord

structure; counterpoint is an integrated series of horizontal melodies relat-

ing to the underlying chords.

◆

Harmony is facilitated when you vary chord voicings throughout a pro-

gression.

◆

Each harmony part must be singable on its own and follow established

voice leading conventions.

◆

Each melody within a counterpoint should be able to function as a stand-

alone melody, and at the same time complement the other melodies.

◆

Whether you’re creating harmony or counterpoint, you should generally

avoid extended movement in parallel fourths, fifths, or octaves—especially

in classical music. (Popular music typically has fewer—and looser—

conventions.)

200

Chapter 15: Harmony and Counterpoint 201

Exercise 15-2

Create two-voice harmony for the following melody, using half notes and quarter notes.

Exercise 15-3

Create a second melody part in counterpoint to the following melody.

Exercise 15-4

Based on the following chord progression, create a two-voice counterpoint.

Chord Substitutions and

Turnarounds

In This Chapter

◆

Learn how to spice up boring chord progressions with extensions

◆

Discover how to alter a chord’s bass note and play two chords simultaneously

◆

Master the art of chord substitution

This section of the book is all about embellishing your music. You can embellish

your melody with harmony and counterpoint (as you learned in the previous

chapter); embellish individual notes (as you’ll learn in the next chapter); and

embellish your chords and chord progressions.

Which is what this chapter is all about.

Even if you’re stuck with a boring I-IV-V progression, there is still a lot you

can do to put your own personal stamp on things. For example, you don’t have

to settle for precisely those chords; you can extend the chords, alter the bass

line, and even substitute other chords for the originals. You’ll still maintain the

song’s original harmonic structure—more or less—but you’ll really jazz up the

way things sound.

All this will impress your listeners and fellow musicians. A few key chord alter-

ations and substitutions will make folks think you have the right touch—and

that you really know your music theory!

Extending a Good Thing

The simplest way to spice up a boring chord progression is to use seventh chords,

or even add a few extensions beyond that. As you learned back in Chapter 9, the

basic chord is a triad consisting of the 1-3-5 notes. When you start adding notes

on top of the triad—sevenths, ninths, and elevenths—you’re extending the

chord upward.

Chapter

Part 5: Embellishing

204

Chord extensions can make a basic chord sound lush and exotic. There’s noth-

ing like a minor seventh or major ninth chord to create a really full, harmoni-

cally complex sound.

Seventh chords—especially dominant seventh chords—are common in all types

of music today. Sixths, ninths, and other extended chords are used frequently in

modern jazz music—and in movie and television soundtracks that go for a jazzy

feel. Pick up just about any jazz record from the 1950s on, and you’ll hear lots

of extended chords. There are even a lot of rock and pop musicians—Steely

Dan comes to mind—who embrace these jazz harmonies in their music.

So why not use this technique yourself?

Here’s an example of how extended chords can make a simple chord progres-

sion sound more harmonically complex. All you have to do is take the standard

I-vi-IV-V progression in the key of C (C-Am-F-G) and add diatonic sevenths

to each triad. That produces the following progression: CM7-Am7-FM7-G7—

two major sevenths, a minor seventh, and a dominant seventh. When you play

this progression—and invert some of the chords to create a few close voicings—

you get a completely different sound out of that old workhorse progression.

And it wasn’t hard to do at all!

Seventh chords have been part of the musical vocabulary from about the seven-

teenth century. There is a tendency to use the V7 and ii7 chords as much as or

more than the triads on those degrees of the scale—even for the simplest musical

genres, such as hymns and folk songs. In the blues, it is common to use seventh

chords on every scale degree—even the tonic.

Other extended chords (ninths, elevenths, and so forth) came into widespread use

in the nineteenth century, and are still used in many forms of music today. (Chopin is

often cited as one of the first composers to extensively use extended chords.) For

example, in many jazz compositions the ninth, eleventh, and thirteenth chords are

used more often than triads and seventh chords.

Note

The standard I-vi-IV-V progression (in C) embellished with seventh chords (and some close

voicings).

You can get the same effect by adding ninths and elevenths to your chords

while staying within the song’s underlying key. The more notes you add to your

chords, the more complex your harmonies—and the fuller the sound.

Chapter 16: Chord Substitutions and Turnarounds 205

Altering the Bass

Here’s another neat way to make old chords sound new—and all you have to do

is change the note on the bottom of the chord.

Back in Chapter 9 we touched briefly on the concept of slash chords, more prop-

erly called altered bass chords. With an altered bass chord, the top of the chord

stays the same; but the bass, as the name implies, is altered.

Some folks call these chords slash chords because the altered bass note is indi-

cated after a diagonal slash mark, like this: G/D. You read the chord as “G over

D,” and you play it as a G chord with a D in the bass.

Examples of slash chords.

You can use altered bass chords to achieve several different effects, including

the following:

◆

By putting one of the three main notes (but not the root) in the bass, you

dictate a particular chord inversion.

◆

By treating the bass note as a separate entity, you can create moving bass

lines with increased melodic interest.

◆

By adding a nonchord note in the bass, you create a different chord with a

different harmonic structure.

Slash chords are used a lot in jazz, and also in more sophisticated popular

music. Listen to Carole King’s Tapestry album and you’ll hear a lot of altered

bass (she’s a big fan of the minor seventh chord with the fourth in the bass); the

same thing with a lot of Beach Boys songs, especially those on the legendary Pet

Sounds album.

Two Chords Are Better Than One

An altered bass chord uses a diagonal slash mark to separate the chord from the

bass note. When you see a chord with a horizontal line between two different

notes, like a fraction, you’re dealing with a much different beast.

This type of notation indicates that two chords are to be played simultaneously.

The chord on top of the fraction is placed on top of the pile; the chord on the

bottom is played underneath. For example, when you see you know to play

a C Major chord on top of a full G Major chord.

Part 5: Embellishing

206

Examples of compound chords.

When you play two chords together like this, you have what’s called a compound

chord. You use compound chords to create extremely complex harmonies—

those that might otherwise be too complex to note using traditional extensions.

One Good Chord Can Replace Another

When you’re faced with a boring chord progression, you may have no alterna-

tive but to substitute the chords as written with something a little less boring.

The concept of chord substitution is one that is common in jazz (those jazz musi-

cians get bored easily!) and other modern music.

Chord substitution is a simple concept. You pull a chord out of the song, and

replace it with another chord. The substitute chord should have a few things in

common with the chord it replaces, not the least of which is its place in the

song’s underlying harmonic structure. So if you replace a dominant (V) chord,

you want to use a chord that also leads back to the tonic (I). If you replace a

major chord, you want to replace it with another major chord or a chord that

uses some of the same notes as the original chord.

The key thing is to substitute an ordinary chord or progression with one that

serves the same function, but in a more interesting manner.

Diatonic Substitution

The easiest form of chord substitution replaces a chord with a related chord

either a third above or a third below the original. This way you keep two of the

three notes of the original chord, which provides a strong harmonic basis for

the new chord.

This type of substitution is called diatonic substitution, because you’re not alter-

ing any of the notes of the underlying scale; you’re just using different notes

from within the scale for the new chord.

For example, the I chord in any scale can be replaced by the vi chord (the chord a

third below) or the iii chord (the chord a third above). In the key of C, this

means replacing the C Major chord (C-E-G) with either A minor (A-C-E) or E

minor (E-G-B). Both chords share two notes in common with the C chord, so

the replacement isn’t too jarring.

Chapter 16: Chord Substitutions and Turnarounds 207

Replacing the I chord (C Major) with the vi (A minor) and the iii (E minor)—lots of notes in

common.

You can replace extended chords in the same manner, and actually end up with

more notes in common. For example, you can replace CM7 with either Am7 or

Em7, both of which have three notes in common with the original chord.

Major Chord Substitutions

Diatonic substitution is the theory; you’d probably rather know some hard-and-

fast rules you can use for real-world chord substitution. Don’t worry; they exist,

based partially on diatonic substitution theory.

The following table presents four different substitutions you can make for a

standard major chord. Remember that the root of the substitute chord must

stay within the underlying scale, even if some of the chord notes occasionally

wander about a bit.

Major Chord Substitutions

Substitution Example (for the C Major chord)

Minor chord a third below 16FIG05

Minor 7 chord a third below

Minor chord a third above

The first substitution in the table is the standard “down a third” diatonic substi-

tution. The second substitution is the same thing, but uses an extended chord

(the minor seventh) for the substitution. The third substitution is the “up a

third” diatonic substitution, as discussed previously.

Minor Chord Substitutions

Substituting a major chord is relatively easy. So what about substituting a minor

chord?

Part 5: Embellishing

208

As you can see in the following table, some of the same substitution rules work

with minor as well as major; especially the “up a third” and “down a third” dia-

tonic substitutions.

Minor Chord Substitutions

Substitution Example (for the A minor Chord)

Major chord a third above

Major chord a third below

Major 7 chord a third below

Diminished chord with same root

The last substitution falls into the “more of a good thing” category. That is, if a

minor chord sounds good, let’s flat another note and it’ll sound even more minor.

Some folks like the use of a diminished chord in this fashion; others don’t. Let

your ears be the judge.

Dominant Seventh Substitutions

Okay, now you know how to substitute both major and minor chords; but what

about dominant seventh chords? They’re not really major and they’re not really

minor—what kind of chords can substitute for that?

The answer requires some harmonic creativity. You can do a diatonic substitution

(using the diminished chords a third above or below the dominant seventh), but

there are more interesting possibilities, as you can see in the following table:

Dominant Seventh Chord Substitutions

Substitution Example (for the G7 chord)

Major chord a second below

Diminished chord a third below

Chapter 16: Chord Substitutions and Turnarounds 209

Substitution Example (for the G7 chord)

Diminished chord a third above

Minor 7 chord a fourth below—

over the same root

The more interesting substitutions here are the first one and the last one. The

first substitution replaces the V7 chord with a IV chord; the use of the sub-

dominant (IV) chord results in a softer lead back to the I chord. The last

substitution uses an altered chord, so that you’re leading back to tonic with a

iim7/V—what I like to call a “Carole King chord.” (That’s because Ms. King

uses this type of harmonic structure a lot in her songwriting.) So if you’re in the

key of C, instead of ending a phrase with a G or G7 chord, you end with a

Dm7/G instead. It’s a very pleasing sound.

Functional Substitutions

Here’s something else to keep in mind. Within the harmonic context of a com-

position, different chords serve different functions. The three basic harmonic

functions are those of the tonic, subdominant, and dominant—typically served

by the I, IV, and V chords, respectively. But other chords in the scale can serve

these same functions, even if not as strongly as the I, IV, and V.

For example, the subdominant function can be served by either the ii, IV, or vi

chords. The dominant function can be served by either the V or vii° chords.

And the tonic function can be served by either the I, iii, or vi chords. All these

functions are shown in the following table:

Chord Function Chords

Tonic I, iii, vi

Subdominant ii, IV, vi

Dominant V, vii°

When you have a chord serving a specific function in a composition, you can

replace it with another chord of the same type. So if you have a IV chord, serv-

ing a subdominant function, you can substitute any of the other subdominant-

functioning chords—the ii or the vi. Along the same lines, if you have a ii

chord, you can replace it with either the IV or the vi.

The same thing goes with the other functions. If you have a V chord, serving a

dominant function, you can replace it with a vii° chord—or vice versa. And a I

chord, serving a tonic function, can be replaced by either a iii or a vi chord—

and also vice versa. It’s actually a fairly easy way to make some simple chord

substitutions.

Just in case you think you

found a mistake in the pre-

ceding table, the vi chord

can serve both the tonic

and subdominant func-

tions. It’s a very versatile

chord!

Note

Part 5: Embellishing

210

Turnarounds

Chapter 10 also presented a concept of the phrase-ending cadence. Well, in the

fields of jazz and popular music, you find a similar concept called a turnaround.

A turnaround typically is a two-bar phrase, with two chords per measure, that

functions much the same as a traditional cadence, “turning around” the music

to settle back on the I chord at the start of the next phrase.

There is a wide variety of chord combinations you can use to create an ear-

pleasing turnaround, some of which go outside the underlying key to circle

back around to the tonic.

Here are just a few you might want to try:

Common Chord Turnarounds

Turnaround Example (in C)

I-IV-iii-ii

I-vi-ii-V

iii-VI-ii-V

I-vi-vi-V

I-VII-iii-ii

IV-iii-ii-ii

I-vi-vi-II

I-VI-V-III

Some jazz musicians refer

to turnarounds as turnbacks.

Note

Chapter 16: Chord Substitutions and Turnarounds

Turnaround Example (in C)

I-III-VI-II

I-VII-III-II

Note that some of these outside-the-key chords take traditionally minor chords

and make them major, so pay close attention to the uppercase and lowercase

notation in the table. (For example, the III chord is an E Major chord in the

key of C; not the expected E minor.)

Also pay attention to flat signs before a chord; this indicates to play the chord a

half step lower than normal. For example, a vi chord in the key of C is a half

step lower than the standard A minor vi chord, which results in the Aminor

chord instead.

You can use these turnarounds in any of the songs you write or arrange. It’s an

easy way to add harmonic sophistication to your music, just by changing a few

chords at the end of a phrase!

The Least You Need to Know

◆

When you don’t want to play a boring old chord progression, you can use

one of several techniques to make the chord progression sound more har-

monically sophisticated.

◆

The easiest way to spice up a chord progression is to change triads to sev-

enth chords or extended chords (such as sixths, ninths, elevenths, or thir-

teenths), and add sevenths and other extensions to the basic chords.

◆

Another way to change the sound of a chord is to alter the bass note—to

either signal a different inversion, or to introduce a slightly different har-

monic structure.

◆

Substituting one chord for another also can make a chord progression

more interesting. The most common chord substitutions are diatonic, in

which you replace a chord with the diatonic chord either a third above or

below the original chord.

◆

You can also perform a chord substitution based on chord function. Any

chord fulfilling a tonic, subdominant, or dominant function can be re-

placed by any other chord fulfilling the same function.

◆

You can add interest to a chord progression by introducing a two-measure

turnaround at the end of the main phrase; these chords circle around and

lead back to the I chord at the start of the next phrase.

211

Part 5: Embellishing

Exercises

Exercise 16-1

Write out the notes for the following slash chords.

212

Exercise 16-2

Write out the notes for the following compound chords.

Exercise 16-3

Write two substitute chords for each chord shown.

Exercise 16-4

Rewrite the following chord progression (on the second staff), using extended chords.

Chapter 16: Chord Substitutions and Turnarounds 213

Exercise 16-6

Add a two-measure turnaround to the following chord progression.

Exercise 16-5

Rewrite the following chord progression (on the second staff), using various types of chord substitutions.

Special Notation

In This Chapter

◆

Discover how to notate phrasing with slur marks

◆

Find out how to write and play embellished notes, including turns, trills,

and grace notes

◆

Learn how to play music with a swing feel

◆

Figure out how to fit words to music

There are some aspects of music theory that don’t fit neatly within traditional

categories. Still, you need to know about them, so I have to include them some-

where in this book.

That somewhere is this chapter. It’s kind of a grab bag of more advanced tech-

niques, mainly relating to notation, that you need to have at your fingertips—

even if you won’t use them every day.

So settle back and read about some of the oddball aspects of music theory, and

that popular musical style we call swing.

Throwing a Curve

When you’re writing music, you sometimes need to connect two or more notes

together. You might literally connect them together to form a single, longer

note; or you might simply want them played together as a smooth phrase. In

any case, whenever you connect two or more notes together, you use a notation

effect that looks like a big curve—and is called, alternately, either a tie or a slur.

Ties

You learned about ties back in Chapter 5. When two notes of the same pitch

are tied together—either in the same measure, or across measures—the notes

are played as a single note.

Chapter

Part 5: Embellishing

216

A tie is made with a small curve, either above or below the note, like this:

Two identical notes tied together equal one long note.

Slurs

A slur looks like a tie between two notes of different pitches, but really indicates

that the notes are to be played together as a continuous group. Although you

can’t play two different tones as a continuous note, you can run them together

without a breath or a space in between. This is called “slurring” the notes

together; it looks like this:

Lots of notes grouped together are played as a smooth phrase.

Often, wind instruments (trumpets, clarinets, and so forth) base their breathing

on the song’s phrases. They’ll blow during the phrase and breathe between the

phrase marks.

Bowed instruments (violins, cellos, and so forth) use phrases to time their bowing.

They’ll use a single, continuous movement of the bow for the duration of the

phrase; at the end of the phrase mark, they’ll change the direction of their bowing.

Two different notes tied together are slurred together.

There’s a subtle difference between two notes that are slurred together and two

notes that aren’t. The notes without the slur should each have a separate attack,

which ends up sounding like a slight emphasis on each note. The second of the

two slurred notes doesn’t have a separate attack, so the sound is much smoother

as you play from note to note.

Phrases

When you see a curved line above several adjacent notes, it’s not a slur—it’s a

phrase. You use phrase marks to indicate separate ideas within a longer piece of

music. When one idea ends, you end the phrase mark; when a new idea begins,

you start a new phrase mark.

The curved line

used in a slur is called a

slur mark.

Definition

Technically, a phrase mark

indicates that a passage

of music is played

legato—which means to

play smoothly.

Note

Chapter 17: Special Notation 217

The Long and the Short of It

Back in Chapter 7, you learned about some of the embellishments you can make

to individual notes—accents, marcatos, and so on. There are a few more marks

you can add to your notes; they’re presented here.

Tenuto

A straight horizontal line over a note means to play the note for its full dura-

tion. In other words, stretch it out for as long as possible.

This mark is called a tenuto mark, and it looks like this:

The tenuto mark means to play a long note.

Staccato

The opposite of a long note is a short note; the opposite of tenuto is staccato. A

dot on top of a note means do not play it for its full duration; just give it a little

blip and get off it.

A staccato mark looks like this:

The staccato mark means to play a short note.

When Is a Note More Than a Note?

There are other marks you can add to your notes that indicate additional notes

to play. These notes are kind of musical shorthand you can use in place of writ-

ing out all those piddly smaller notes.

Grace Notes

A grace note is a short note you play in front of a main note. In mathematical

terms, a grace note might have the value of a sixteenth or a thirty-second note,

depending on the tempo of the music. Basically, you play the grace note just

ahead of the main note, at a slightly lower volume level. When you note a grace

note, write it as a smaller note just in front of the main note, like this:

Drummers call a grace

note a flam, because (on

a drum) that’s what it

sounds like—”fa-lam!”

Note

Part 5: Embellishing

218

A grace note is like a little preview note before the main note.

Grace notes are typically written as small eighth notes, with a line drawn through

the stem and flag. The grace note can be on the same tone as the main note, or

on an adjoining tone. (You play whatever note the grace note is on.)

Turns

A turn is an ornament used primarily in Baroque and classical music. In a turn

the neighboring notes turn to the main note, “turning it around.”

Let’s look at how a turn works: When you see the turn mark (which looks like a

line turned around on itself), you play the diatonic note above the main note,

then the main note, then the note a step below the main note, and then the

main note again. Here’s how it looks on paper, and how you play it in practice:

A turn “turns around” the main note.

When you’re playing a turn, you have a bit of latitude for how fast you actually

play it. You can play a turn as written in the example, as a pure mathematical

subset of the note’s noted duration; or you can whip through the turn really

quickly, landing back on the main pitch until the note is done. It’s all a matter

of interpretation.

Trills

A trill is a way to extend a single note by alternating between two neighboring

tones. In particular, you alternate between the main note and the note one step

above, like this:

If you’re unsure

how to play a turn

in a piece of

music, ask your

conductor for the proper

interpretation.

Tip

Play a trill with a whole bunch of neighboring notes.

As with turns, there are many different ways to play a trill. The most common

approach is to alternate between the two notes as rapidly as possible, although

technically a trill can have a preparation in which you play the main note straight

before you enter into the “shake.” (You can also terminate the trill—or just trill

right into the next note.)

Chapter 17: Special Notation 219

Glissandos

Whereas turns and trills alternate between two or three neighboring notes, a

glissando packs a lot more notes into a short space. To be precise, a glissando is

a mechanism for getting from one pitch to another, playing every single pitch

between the two notes as smoothly as possible.

Depending on the instrument, a glissando can be a continuous glide between

the two notes (think trombone) or a run of sequential chromatic notes (think

piano). Glissandi (not glissandos!) can move either up or down; typically, both

the starting and ending notes are specified, like this:

On the piano, you can

also “cheat” a glissando

by playing only the white

keys between the top and

bottom tones—which lets

you play a glissando with

a stroke of your hand.

Note

Glissando up—and down.

Arpeggiated Chords

When you want an instrument to play a chord as an arpeggio, but you don’t

want to write out all the notes, you can use the symbol called the role. The role

indicates that the instrument is to play an arpeggio—but a rather quick one.

This squiggly line tells the musician to play the written notes from bottom to

top, in succession, and to hold each note as it is played. The effect should be

something like a harp playing an arpeggiated chord, like this:

The quick and easy way to notate an arpeggiated accompaniment.

Getting Into the Swing of Things

The last bit of notation I want to discuss concerns a feel. If you’ve ever heard

jazz music, particularly big band music, you’ve heard this feel; it’s called swing.

Traditional popular music has a straight feel; eighth notes are played straight,

just as they’re written. Swing has a kind of triplet feel; it swings along, all

bouncy, percolating with three eighth notes on every beat.

What’s that, you’re saying—three eighth notes on every beat? How is that possible?

It’s possible because swing is based on triplets. Instead of having eight eighth

notes in a measure of 4/4, you have twelve eighth notes—four eighth-note

triplets. So instead of the basic beat being straight eighths, the first and third

beat of every triplet combine for a spang-a-lang-a-lang-a-lang kind of rhythm.

Part 5: Embellishing

220

What’s confusing is that instead of notating swing as it’s actually played (with

triplets), most swing music uses straight eighth notation—which you’re then

expected to translate into the triplet-based swing.

So if you’re presented a swing tune and you see a bunch of straight eighths, you

should play them with a triplet feel instead, like this:

In swing, straight eighths are played with a triplet feel.

Some arrangers try to approximate the swing feel within a straight rhythm by

using dotted eighth notes followed by sixteenth notes, like this:

In swing, dotted eights and sixteenths are played with a triplet feel.

Whatever you do, don’t play this precisely as written! Again, you have to trans-

late the notation and play the notes with a triplet feel.

The swing feel is an important one, and you find it all over the place. Swing is

used extensively in jazz music, in traditional blues music, in rock shuffles, and in

all manner of popular music old and new. Learning how to swing takes a bit of

effort; it’s normal to play the stiff dotted-eighth/sixteenth rhythm instead of the

rolling triplets when you’re first starting out. But that effort is worth it—a lot of

great music is based on that swinging feel.

Getting the Word

Before we end this chapter, let’s take a look at one other notation challenge:

how to add words to your music.

Notating lyrics is something that all songwriters have to do, and it isn’t that

hard—if you think logically. Naturally, you want to align specific words with

specific notes in the music. More precisely, you want to align specific syllables

with specific notes.

This sometimes requires a bit of creativity on your part. You might need to split

up words into awkward-looking syllables. You also might need to extend sylla-

bles within words where a note is held for an extended period of time. This

requires a lot of hyphens in the lyrics, as you can see in the following example:

Chapter 17: Special Notation 221

Notating lyrics; split words in syllables, and extended syllables.

Just remember to position your lyrics underneath the music staff. If you have

multiple verses, write each verse on a separate line; then break each word into

its component syllables and carefully match up each syllable with the proper

musical note.

The Least You Need to Know

◆

Curved marks are used to tie identical notes together, slur neighboring

notes together, and indicate complete musical phrases.

◆

A dot above a note means to play it short (staccato); a line above a note

means to play it long (tenuto).

◆

You play grace notes lightly and quickly before the main note.

◆

Turns and trills ornament a main note by the use of rapidly played neigh-

boring notes.

◆

A glissando indicates a smooth glide from one pitch to another.

◆

Swing music is played with a rolling triplet feel; not straight eighth notes.

◆

Lyrics must be broken down into syllables to fit precisely with notes in the

music.

Exercises

Exercise 17-1

Write out how you would play each of these marked-up notes.

Exercise 17-2

Add grace notes to every quarter note in this melody.

Part 5: Embellishing

222

Exercise 17-3

Add slurs to each pair of eighth notes in this melody.

Exercise 17-4

Use phrase marks to divide this melody into four natural phrases.

Exercise 17-5

Translate the following straight rhythm into a swing feel using triplet notation.

Exercise 17-6

Compose and play a four-measure melody with a swing feel, in the key of B.

Exercise 17-7

Write the following lyrics under the appropriate notes in the melody: “Tangerine elephants high in the

sky, crocodile tears in my beer.”

Learn how to write for specific voices and instruments, how to create good-

looking master scores and lead sheets, and how to conduct your music in front

of a choir, band, or orchestra.

Part

Arranging

Composing and Arranging

for Voices and Instruments

In This Chapter

◆

Learn about the different voices in the choir—and all the instruments in

the orchestra

◆

Discover the playable (and singable) ranges of each instrument and voice

◆

Uncover the best—and the worst—keys to write in

◆

Find out which instruments don’t sound in concert pitch—and how to

transpose their music

You know the theory; now it’s time to put that theory to practice.

The most common application of music theory comes when you compose or

arrange a piece of music for multiple voices or instruments. That could be a

simple presentation for your church choir, a new song for your rock band, a

sophisticated piece for your high school jazz band, or a multipart symphony for

a full orchestra.

Whatever size group you’re writing for, you have to deal with the same issues of

theory, and call on the same set of skills. You also have to know a little bit about

the ranges of each instrument or voice, and how each instrument will play the

notes you write.

This chapter deals with the particular skills necessary for vocal and instrumental

arranging. I recommend you bookmark this chapter; if you do a lot of arrang-

ing, you’ll find the information about ranges and transposition very useful!

Vocal Arranging

A vocal ensemble is probably the easiest type of group to arrange for. That’s

because all the voices reproduce exactly what you write, with absolutely no

transposition. (Well, except for the fact that the tenor voice sounds an octave

lower than written—but that’s an easy one to deal with.)

Chapter

Part 6: Arranging

226

Voice Characteristics

When you’re writing for a choir, you have to know the voices that are available

at your disposal. In general, you have two female voices and two male voices,

with an optional third male voice to work with.

◆

Soprano This is the highest female voice. The soprano typically sings

the lead part, as the highest voice naturally stands out from the rest. Some

sopranos can sing quite high, although you might want to avoid the very

upper reaches of the range; these high parts often sound shrill, especially

with younger or less-experienced singers.

◆

Alto The alto is the lower female voice, with a deep and resonant tone.

The alto range overlaps the soprano range, but know that an alto will

sound strained at the top of her range—just as a soprano will sound

strained at the bottom of hers.

◆

Tenor The tenor is the highest male voice; it overlaps significantly with

the range of the female alto. Tenor parts are written in treble clef, but

actually sound an octave lower than written.

◆

Baritone The baritone is an optional male part; most choruses don’t

have separate baritone lines. The baritone falls smack between the tenor

and the bass, but typically has more of a bass-like sound—without the very

low notes.

◆

Bass The bass is the lowest male voice. It’s natural to assign bass notes

to the bass voice, which works out okay most of the time. At the low end

of the bass range, the sound gets a tad rumbly.

Vocal Ranges

It’s important that you write vocal parts that can actually be sung. It’s no good

to write a bass part that sounds forced—if the poor fellow can hit the note at

all.

For that reason, pay close attention to the ranges listed in the following table

and stick within these ranges when writing your vocal parts.

Vocal Ranges

Voice Range (Concert Pitch) Write It …

Soprano Concert pitch

Alto Concert pitch

Chapter 18: Composing and Arranging for Voices and Instruments 227

Voice Range (Concert Pitch) Write It…

Tenor One octave above concert pitch

(unless sharing a staff with the

basses)

Baritone Concert pitch

Bass Concert pitch

Instrumental Arranging

When you move on to instrumental arranging, you have a lot of different

instruments at your disposal. You need to know a little bit about how each

instrument works; in particular the range of the instrument and whether it

sounds in concert pitch or is somehow transposed.

Instrument Characteristics

Instruments are typically organized into several major groups. For our purposes,

we’ll look at strings (both bowed and plucked), brass, woodwinds, keyboards,

and percussion.

Strings

When you think of stringed instruments, you typically think of the violin and its

close cousins: the viola, cello, and double bass (sometimes called the string bass

or upright bass). Each of these instruments works on the same principle, with

four strings stretched over a hollow body. Music is made when a bow is pushed

and pulled over the strings, or when the strings are plucked.

The highest string voice is the violin, followed (in descending order) by the

viola, cello, and double bass. The violin is written with the treble clef, cello and

double bass use the bass clef, and the viola—the oddball of the group—uses the

alto clef, as shown in the following figure. (Remember: The pointy part of the

alto clef points at C.)

On a symphonic

score (discussed in

Chapter 19), the

instruments are dis-

played in the following

top-to-bottom order: wood-

winds, brass, percussion,

special instruments (like

piano or harp), and,

finally, strings.

Tip

The alto clef; used primarily by the viola.

Part 6: Arranging

228

Guitars and Other Plucked Instruments

The guitar is technically part of the string family, although most folks differen-

tiate it from the violin-type instrument. That’s because the guitar is never

bowed; it’s always plucked or strummed. (The guitar also has six strings, com-

pared to the four strings of the violin instruments.)

There are several other instruments that fit within the guitar category. The

mandolin and ukulele are smaller and higher pitched than the guitar, whereas

the electric bass is more like a traditional double bass, but in a guitar-like con-

figuration with just four strings.

Guitars, of course, can be either acoustic or electric—and the electric ones can

have either solid or hollow bodies. The different configurations produce different

types of sound, although the notation is the same for all the different guitars.

Guitar parts can be notated with notes on staves or, if you just want a strummed

rhythm, by using chord notation. You can also spell out the fingering of each

chord by using guitar tablature, as shown in the following.

Guitar tabs can

be automatically

derived from tradi-

tional chord nota-

tion when you use a

computerized music nota-

tion program, such as those

discussed in Chapter 19.

Tip

Guitar tablature.

Oh, and while we’re talking about plucking strings, we can’t forget the harp.

The harp isn’t really a guitar (it’s kind of like a piano, but more vertical), but it

does work when you pluck its strings.

Woodwinds

Some woodwinds are made of brass; some are made of wood. But all (except the

flute) use a wooden reed to produce their sound; you put the reed in your mouth

and blow until it vibrates.

The flute produces sound when you blow across an open hole; kind of like blow-

ing across a soda bottle. But it’s still classified as part of the woodwind family,

probably because it has a similar valve structure and fingering for determining

individual notes.

There are lots of different woodwind instruments. You have flutes and piccolos;

at least four different types of saxophones; a variety of clarinets; those odd-

sounding oboes and bassoons; and even the not-so-common English horn

(which isn’t a horn and isn’t even English—it’s an alto version of the oboe).

Woodwind instruments primarily use the treble clef, although the bassoon and

contrabassoon both use the bass clef.

Chapter 18: Composing and Arranging for Voices and Instruments 229

Brass

Brass instruments typically are made of brass. However, so are saxophones and

cymbals and timpani, and they’re not part of the brass family; so that really isn’t

a good indicator, is it? Nope, what makes brass instruments unique is that length

of brass tubing wound up into a tight little package, the open mouthpiece you

blow into, and the three or four valves you use (in conjunction with changing

the shape of your lips) to create different tones.

The trumpet is the brash and annoying younger brother of the brass family,

the trombone is the more stable older brother, and the tuba is the not-always-

serious uncle. Also hanging around is the weird foreign relation, the French

horn; and a few other unusual relatives, such as the baritone. All in all, it’s a

rather loud and brassy bunch—pun intended.

Brass instruments use either the treble or bass clefs, depending on their predom-

inant pitch.

Keyboards

Depending on whom you ask, keyboard instruments are really string instruments

or percussion instruments. In reality, they’re a little of both. The sounds are

produced by internal strings, which are struck by tiny hammers—much like per-

cussion instruments are struck.

There are many different types of keyboards, and they all have fairly wide

ranges. The piano, of course, is the big dog, but you can’t forget about organs,

or harpsichords, or any number of electronic synthesizers. A full piano has 88

keys; some smaller instruments can have shorter keyboards. Without exception,

all modern keyboard instruments sound in concert pitch.

Percussion

When you talk percussion, you’re talking about a lot of different instruments.

Percussion instruments make noise when you hit them or shake them, so the

family includes everything from snare drums and cymbals to marimbas and tim-

pani. Most percussion instruments are of indefinite pitch—that is, although they

make a noise when you hit them (or shake them), that noise isn’t associated with

a specific pitch. Other percussion instruments, such as timpani and the mallet

family, do produce a definite pitch (or pitches).

When you’re writing for an indefinite pitch instrument, you don’t have to follow

standard staff notation. For example, when you write for drum set, you assign

different parts of the staff to different drums and cymbals in the set. In the fol-

lowing example, the bass drum is the bottom space on the staff; the snare drum

is the third space up. Cymbals are at the top, notated by X-shaped note heads.

Writing for drum set.

Part 6: Arranging

230

Of course, you can save yourself a lot of time and trouble by just telling the

drummer how many measures there are in each section of your song and letting

him (or her) make up his (or her) own part. That’s particularly common when

you’re arranging for a rock or jazz band.

Transposition

Many instruments read one note and play another—at least compared to con-

cert pitch (the actual notes as played on a piano). For example, a trumpet reads

a C but sounds a B. These so-called transposing instruments need to have their

music transposed to a different key to play in the same concert key as all the

other instruments.

Let’s take the trumpet again. Because the trumpet always sounds a major second

lower than written, you need to write the trumpet part a major second (two half

steps) higher than the pitch you actually want to hear. So if you want the trum-

pet to play a concert C, you have to write a D; the trumpet reads D, sounds C,

and everything is right with the world.

You learned about transposition back in Chapter 14, and you’ll need to apply

those skills here. That’s because there are a lot of instruments that don’t play in

concert key; all the following instruments need their parts transposed.

Most transposing instruments fall into three groups, and are named according

to how they relate to C:

◆

Binstruments, like the trumpet, sound a major second below their writ-

ten pitch. That is, they’re written a major second above the concert pitch.

So if one of these instruments plays a C, it comes out sounding as Bin

concert pitch.

◆

Einstruments, like the alto sax, sound a major sixth below (or a minor

third above) their written pitch. That is, they’re written a major sixth

above the concert pitch. So if one of these instruments plays a C, it comes

out sounding as Ein concert pitch.

◆

F instruments, such as the French horn, sound a perfect fifth below their

written pitch. That is, they’re written a perfect fifth above the concert

pitch. So if one of these instruments plays a C, it comes out sounding as F

in concert pitch.

The following table details which instruments fall into which group:

Transposing Instruments

Transposition Range Sounds Instruments

B-flat instruments Major second lower Bass clarinet (actually a

than written Major ninth lower)

Bass saxophone

Clarinet (B)

Chapter 18: Composing and Arranging for Voices and Instruments 231

Transposition Range Sounds Instruments

Cornet

Flugelhorn

Soprano saxophone

Tenor saxophone (actu-

ally a minor ninth lower)

Trumpet

E-flat instruments Major sixth lower Alto clarinet

than written Alto saxophone

Baritone saxophone

(actually a major thir-

teenth lower)

Eclarinet (actually a

minor third higher)

F instruments Perfect fifth lower English horn

than written French horn

With a few exceptions, instruments not listed here are nontransposing—that is,

what they play sounds exactly as written, in concert pitch. The best example of

a nontransposing instrument is the piano; you read middle C, you play middle

C, the piano sounds middle C—no transposing necessary.

What does all this mean in terms of actual transposition? The next table details

how each type of instrument transposes each of the possible concert keys. The

key listed for each instrument is the key that you write for that instrument in

order to sound the concert key. (For example, for the concert key of C, you

would write a Binstrument in the key of D, an Einstrument in the key of A,

and an F instrument in the key of G.)

Concert Key Transpositions

Concert Key BInstruments EInstruments F Instruments

CD A G

DEBA

DE B A

EFCB



(F)D

(C)B

FG D C

GAED

GA E D

ABFE



AB G

(F)E

BCGF

(C)A

G(F)

While the trumpet is tradi-

tionally a Binstrument,

many players today use

C trumpets that sound in

concert pitch.

Note

Part 6: Arranging

232

As you learned in Chapter 14, all of today’s music notation programs will auto-

matically perform this transposition for you, saving you the trouble of transpos-

ing all the instruments manually. With a program like Finale or Sibelius, you

can write the entire piece in concert pitch and then have the program create

individual output in the instruments’ transposed pitch. Easy!

Good Keys and Bad Keys

Because of the need to transpose the nonconcert key instruments, you can end

up with some instruments reading a whole bunch of sharps and flats, which of

course is problematic. For example, the concert key of A has three sharps, and is

relatively easy for nontransposing instruments to read. But for Binstruments,

such as trumpets, the transposed key is B, which has five sharps and is a bear to

read. For that reason, you probably want to avoid composing in the concert key

of A—unless you want to give your trumpet section a real workout!

In general, you want to arrange things so no instrument is reading more than

three sharps or flats. Taking this challenge into account, the following table

shows the best—and the worst—keys to compose in:

Good and Bad Concert Keys

Good Keys Acceptable Keys Bad Keys

ECD



FGD

BAE

GA

Instrumental Ranges

Just as with voices, each instrument has its own particular range. There are cer-

tain notes that a trumpet, for example, just can’t play.

For that reason, you need to know the playable range for each instrument in the

orchestra, which is where the following table comes in. For each instrument

There are actually many more transpositions than listed in this table, especially

among the instruments used in classical music. For example, trumpets in D were

very often used by Mozart, Haydn, and other composers of their time.

One of the reasons for these different transpositions is that early trumpets and

horns had no valves, so there were only a limited number of notes available on

them. A composer would then choose a transposition that gave him the best

selection of available notes for each instrument.

Note

The notation 8va means to

play the note an octave

above what’s written. The

notation 8vb means to

play the note an octave

below what’s written.

Note

Chapter 18: Composing and Arranging for Voices and Instruments

listed (they’re grouped by family and alphabetized), you’ll find the actual range

(in concert pitch), and how you have to transpose those notes when you’re writing

for that instrument. (Mark my words: You’d better bookmark this table now!)

Instrument Ranges

Instrument Range (Concert Pitch) Write It …

Strings (bowed)

Violin Concert pitch

Viola Concert pitch

Cello Concert pitch

Double bass One octave higher

than concert pitch

Strings ( plucked)

Guitar One octave higher

than concert pitch

Banjo Concert pitch

Mandolin Concert pitch

Electric bass One octave higher

than concert pitch

233

continues

Part 6: Arranging

Instrument Ranges (continued)

Instrument Range (Concert Pitch) Write It …

Harp Concert pitch

Woodwinds

Piccolo One octave lower

than concert pitch

Flute Concert pitch

Oboe Concert pitch

English horn Perfect fifth higher

than concert pitch

Clarinet (B) Major second higher

than concert pitch

Clarinet (E) Minor third lower

than concert pitch

Bass clarinet Major ninth higher

than concert pitch

(using the treble clef)

234

Chapter 18: Composing and Arranging for Voices and Instruments

Instrument Range (Concert Pitch) Write It …

Bassoon Concert pitch

Contrabassoon One octave higher

than concert pitch

Soprano saxophone Major second higher

than concert pitch

Alto saxophone Major sixth higher

than concert pitch

(on treble clef)

Tenor saxophone Major ninth higher

than concert pitch

(on treble clef)

Baritone saxophone Octave and a major

sixth higher than

concert pitch (on

treble clef)

Brass

French horn Perfect fifth higher

than concert pitch

(on treble clef)

Piccolo trumpet Major seventh lower

than concert pitch

235

continues

Part 6: Arranging

Instrument Ranges (continued)

Instrument Range (Concert Pitch) Write It …

Trumpet (B) Major second higher

than concert pitch

Cornet Major second higher

than concert pitch

Flugelhorn Major second higher

than concert pitch

Trombone Concert pitch

Bass trombone Concert pitch

Baritone horn Concert pitch

Tuba Concert pitch

Keyboards

Harpsichord Concert pitch

236

Chapter 18: Composing and Arranging for Voices and Instruments

Instrument Range (Concert Pitch) Write It …

Organ Concert pitch

Piano Concert pitch

Percussion (Mallets)

Chimes (tubular bells) Concert pitch

Glockenspiel Two octaves lower

than concert pitch

Xylophone One octave lower

than concert pitch

Marimba Concert pitch

Vibraphone (vibes) Concert pitch

Timpani Concert pitch

237

Part 6: Arranging

The Least You Need to Know

◆

In descending order, the four main voices in the choir are soprano, alto,

tenor, and bass (SATB).

◆

The main families of instruments are strings (both bowed and plucked),

woodwind, brass, keyboards, and percussion.

◆

Transposing instruments don’t sound in concert pitch; they sound a speci-

fied interval above or below the written note. Their parts must be trans-

posed so that the note they play is the proper note in concert pitch.

◆

Binstruments (trumpet, clarinet, and soprano and tenor saxes) sound a

major second lower than concert pitch; Einstruments (alto and baritone

saxes) sound a major sixth lower than concert pitch; and F instruments

(English horn and French horn) sound a perfect fifth lower than concert

pitch.

238

The topic of orchestration is a big one; if you’re serious about it, there’s a lot you

need to know about all the different instruments and voices. If you’re interested in

learning more, there are two very good books I can recommend.

Samuel Adler’s The Study of Orchestration (W.W. Norton & Company, 3rd

Edition 2002) is an extremely comprehensive guide to classical and modern

orchestration, one used by many college orchestration classes. And Henry

Mancini’s Sounds and Scores: A Practical Guide to Professional Orchestration

(Northridge Music Inc., 1973) is an easy-to-read, extremely practical guide to

jazz and popular music arranging, from the composer of the Pink Panther theme

and tons of other movie scores. Both these books will teach you a lot more about

orchestration than I can in this short chapter.

If you’re interested in arranging for big bands or jazz ensembles, there are two

other books that make my list—and happen to be the two books that I personally

learned from, back in the day. These books are David Baker’s Arranging and

Composing for the Small Ensemble (Alfred Publishing, 1970; revised edition 1988)

and Dick Grove’s Arranging Concepts Complete (Alfred Publishing, 1972; sec-

ond edition 1989). Both books are still in print, and still very useful.

Note

Chapter 18: Composing and Arranging for Voices and Instruments

Exercises

Exercise 18-1

Transpose the following melody for trumpet. (Remember to set the transposed key signature!)

239

Exercise 18-2

Transpose the following melody for alto sax. (Remember to set the transposed key signature!)

Exercise 18-3

Transpose the following melody for French horn. (Remember to set the transposed key signature!)

Part 6: Arranging

Exercise 18-4

Transpose the following trumpet melody back into concert pitch. (Remember to set the transposed key

signature—and watch those accidentals!)

240

Lead Sheets and Scores

In This Chapter

◆

Create clear and readable written music

◆

Understand the differences between lead sheets, chord sheets, and scores

◆

Learn how to create a full score for choir, big band, or orchestra

◆

Explore easy-to-use music notation software for your computer

Once you’ve written a piece of music, you need to present it in a way that other

musicians can easily read. There are many different approaches to creating

written music; which ones you use depends in part on the type of music you’ve

written and who will be playing it.

If you’ve written a song for a rock or country band, the music you write can be

fairly simple—chords and melody will generally suffice. If, on the other hand,

you’ve written a full-blown symphony (good for you!), you’ll need to create a

detailed score containing the individual parts for each and every instrument in

the orchestra.

Whatever type of written music you create, you need to keep it neat and make

it easily understandable. Musicians have to be able to read the music at first pass

(called sight reading), which means it helps to follow certain established parame-

ters. There’s no point in being unique if nobody can read your music!

Follow the Rules

Whatever type of music you prepare, you need to follow certain notation

rules—guidelines, actually, since they’re not set in stone. These guidelines

include the following:

◆

The first instance of each staff for each instrument or voice must have its

own clef sign, key signature, and time signature.

◆

Typically, the time signature is shown only in the very first measure—and

wherever a time change appears.

Chapter

Part 6: Arranging

242

◆

Each instrument should be clearly marked at the beginning of each staff.

(The first instance typically has the full instrument name spelled out; sub-

sequent staves can use abbreviations.)

◆

In band and orchestral scores, group like instruments together (all the

trumpets together, for example).

◆

For instruments that use the grand staff (both bass and treble clef), group

the two staves by using braces.

◆

Measure lines should be drawn through all the instruments belonging to

the same section—but not through all the instruments in the score.

◆

If you want, you can combine all like instruments on a single staff (all the

trumpet parts on one staff, for example).

◆

If an instrument or voice will be resting for an extended period of time,

you don’t have to include the staff for that instrument or voice during the

rest period.

◆

Use letter markings to notate individual sections of the music. (For ease of

reading, letter markings are typically enclosed in a box or circle.)

◆

Number your measures—or at least the first measure of every line.

(Alternately, you can insert a number mark every 5 or 10 measures.)

It goes without saying that the music you create should also be readable. If you’re

writing it all out by hand, make sure you produce clear and distinct notes, and

they’re easily distinguishable on the staff. If you have poor penmanship (like I

do!), consider taking a calligraphy course to improve your handwriting, or use a

computerized music notation program to create great-looking music on your

computer printer. (See the “Use the Computer” section later in this chapter.)

These rules apply to the score you compose and that the conductor uses. As for

the music that the musicians themselves read, you have to create individual

parts for each instrument. (This is not a requirement for vocal scores.) So if

you’ve written a piece for a big band, you have to create a separate first trumpet

part, and a separate second trumpet part, and a separate third trumpet part, and

so on. When you write out the individual parts, include only that instrument’s

part—the conductor is the only person who gets to see all the parts together on

the master score.

Take the Lead

The most common form of written music is the lead sheet. A lead sheet doesn’t

include any individual instrumental parts; all you get is the song’s melody,

chords, and lyrics.

As you can see in the example on page 244, a typical lead sheet consists of one

staff for the melody line, with lyrics under the staff and chords above it.

Lead sheets are simple to create, and they’re ideal for notating popular songs. If

you play in a rock or country band (or even a jazz trio or quartet), you can use

lead sheets to present much of the music you play.

The master piece

of music—the one that

contains all the individual

parts—is called the score.

Definition

A lead sheet is

not commercial sheet

music. Sheet music typi-

cally includes full piano

parts, whereas lead sheets

contain melody and

chords only. In addition,

lead sheets are not avail-

able commercially, unlike

sheet music.

Warning

Chapter 19: Lead Sheets and Scores 243

Make It Simple

Even simpler than the lead sheet is a piece of music that contains only chords;

no melody lines and no lyrics. There are two different approaches to this type

of music, and we’ll look at both.

Chord Sheets

The chord sheet is just what it sounds like: a sheet of music containing only the

chords of a song (see the example on page 245). The chords are presented

measure by measure, so that members of the rhythm section (piano, bass, and

guitar) can play through the song with minimal effort.

The Nashville Number System

In the field of country music, especially among studio musicians, a different

type of chord sheet is used. This method of writing chords is called the

Nashville Number System, and it uses numbers instead of letters.

In the Nashville Number System, everything revolves around the tonic chord of

a given key. That tonic chord is assigned the number 1. The chord based on the

ii of the key—a minor chord—is assigned the number 2m (The m tells the musi-

cian it’s a minor chord.) The chord based on the iii of the key—also a minor

chord—is assigned the number 3m. And so on up the scale, up to chord number 7.

As you can see, major chords are distinguished by number only; minor chords

have an m added. Extensions are added as superscripts to the right of the num-

ber, so that a dominant seventh chord based on the fifth of the scale is noted as 57.

A chord chart using the Nashville Number System looks something like the

example on page 246.

Because the Nashville Number System doesn’t use traditional notes, it is ideal

for musicians who don’t know how to read music. It also makes it very easy to

change key—just play the 1 or 2 or 3, or whatever chord in whatever key you

want; it’s as easy as that.

Sing It Loud

Arranging for choirs is a bit more complicated than sketching out chords for a

rock band. Choral music normally has four or five parts, and each part has to

have its own line in the score.

Let’s look at a typical four-part choral score (see the example on page 247). The

parts are arranged with the highest voice (soprano) at the top, and the lowest

voice (bass) at the bottom. The four vocal parts (soprano, alto, tenor, and bass)

are grouped together with braces, and a piano accompaniment is included below

the vocal parts. The top three parts use the treble clef; the bass line uses the

bass clef. Lyrics are included below each staff.

If you prepare a

chord sheet using a

music notation pro-

gram, you may

choose to include guitar

tablature in addition to the

standard chord symbols.

This is particularly useful if

you’re writing for beginning-

level guitarists.

Tip

The Nashville Number

System is very much like

the Roman numeral nota-

tion system, except it uses

regular numbers (1, 2, 3)

instead of Roman numer-

als (I, II, III).

Note

Part 6: Arranging

244

When you create a choral score—or any score with multiple parts, for that

matter—make sure a measure within one part aligns vertically with the same

measure in all the other parts. In fact, the notes within each measure also

should align between parts. If it helps, use a ruler to help keep the notes in

alignment when you’re writing the score.

Charts for choruses are

sometimes called SATB

scores, for the soprano,

alto, tenor, and bass parts.

Note

If there are addi-

tional backing

instruments, they

can also be

included in the score—

below the vocals, just like

the piano part.

Tip

A typical lead sheet.

Chapter 19: Lead Sheets and Scores 245

A typical chord sheet.

Part 6: Arranging

246

A song outlined using the Nashville Number System.

Chapter 19: Lead Sheets and Scores 247

A four-part choral arrangement.

Jazz It Up for Big Bands

Another popular ensemble—particularly among high school and college

musicians—is the big band, or jazz band. A typical jazz band includes a lot of

instruments, which results in a fairly large piece of music. For example, whereas

a choral score might get two groups of staves on a page, a jazz band score typi-

cally takes a whole page just to display all the different instruments.

Part 6: Arranging

248

What instruments are we talking about? The typical big band has some or all of

the following, listed from top to bottom on the score:

◆

Woodwinds: Flute (sometimes played by a sax player), soprano sax (some-

times played by an alto or tenor sax player), one to three alto saxes, one to

three tenor saxes, one or two baritone saxes

◆

Brass: Three to five trumpets, three to five trombones

◆

Rhythm section: Guitar, piano, bass, drums, other percussion (such as

congas or tambourine)

That’s a lot of instruments to put on a single page! But, as you can see in the

example on page 249, they all fit.

When you create a big band score, you have a choice of how you deal with

transposing instruments. You can create a concert key score, with all instru-

ments written in concert key; if you take this approach, you have to make sure

you transpose the individual parts when you create them. Alternately, you can

create a transposed score in which each instrument is written in its transposed

key; this type of score might be harder for the conductor to read, but it more

accurately represents what the musicians see on their individual parts.

Creating parts for the rhythm section is particularly interesting. In most cases you

can use slash notation and indicate the chord changes, but you don’t have to create

fully realized parts. The big exception to this is when you have important rhythms

that you want the rhythm section to reinforce; you can note these rhythms using

slash notes, as shown in the fifth measure of the example on page 250.

Strike Up the (Concert) Band

An even bigger band to write for is the concert band. Unlike a jazz band, a con-

cert band includes virtually all the brass and woodwind instruments, along with

a full percussion section—snare drums, bass drums, timpani, marimba, and so

forth. A concert band is almost like an orchestra, but without strings.

Concert bands evolved from traditional marching bands. Not only did the musi-

cians get to sit down, the instrumentation was also augmented from the slightly

more Spartan marching ensembles.

When you’re writing a concert band score, you include the following groups of

instruments, in top-to-bottom order:

◆

Woodwinds: Piccolo, flute, oboe, English horn, clarinet, alto clarinet, bass

clarinet, bassoon, alto saxophone, tenor saxophone, baritone saxophone

◆

Brass: Cornet, trumpet, French horn, trombone, bass trombone, baritone

horn, tuba

◆

Percussion: Timpani, percussion (with separate staves for snare drum,

bass drum, and so on)

The example on page 251 shows a typical concert band score. As with jazz band

scores, concert band scores can be in either concert key or transposed.

In all band and orchestral

scores, like instruments are

typically grouped together

in systems. In a system,

the individual staves are

joined together, to make it

easier to view the instru-

ments as a group.

Note

Chapter 19: Lead Sheets and Scores

A score for big band.

249

Amarching band has similar instrumentation to a concert band, minus the follow-

ing instruments: oboe, English horn, bassoon, alto clarinet, cornet, bass trom-

bone, and various concert percussion instruments. One popular variation of the

traditional marching band is the drum and bugle corps (sometimes just called

drum corps). This is typically a smaller ensemble emphasizing brass and percus-

sion instruments—and precision marching routines.

Note

Part 6: Arranging

A score for concert band.

250

Chapter 19: Lead Sheets and Scores

A score for full orchestra.

251

Part 6: Arranging

Make the Big Score—for the Symphonic

Orchestra

Now we’re in the big leagues. Creating a score for full orchestra is a major

undertaking, if for no other reason than there are many instruments to deal

with. Because of this, most orchestra scores are written on large sheets of

paper—11" x 17" or so. Because of the sheer size of the beast, you’ll probably

get only four to eight measures on each page, which means the typical orches-

tral score also is fairly long.

As you can see from the example on page 251, instrument families are grouped

together in the score in the following order:

◆

Woodwinds: Piccolo, flute (first and second), oboe (first and second),

English horn, Eclarinet, Bclarinet (first and second), bass clarinet, bas-

soon (first and second), contrabassoon, French horn (first, second, third,

and fourth)

◆

Brass: Trumpet (first, second, and third), trombone (first, second, and

third), tuba

◆

Percussion: Timpani, percussion (including snare drum, bass drum,

marimba, and so on)

◆

Harp

◆

Piano

◆

Strings: Violin (first and second), viola, cello, double bass

As with big band scores, you can create orchestral scores in either concert key

or transposed keys—whichever works better for you.

Because most orchestral pieces are fairly long, it’s important to include proper

road mapping in your scores. Number each measure, and designate each section

with a new letter. This way musicians (and the conductor!) can easily find their

places during the starting and stopping of the rehearsal process—or if they hap-

pen to fall asleep during a long rest in a live performance!

Use the Computer

In the old days, it was a real pain in the rear to create scores for large ensem-

bles. Every part had to be written separately, by hand, and transposed as neces-

sary. That was a lot of writing, and didn’t always result in the most readable

pieces of music—especially if your handwriting is as bad as mine!

252

You also can cre-

ate a condensed

score, in which

individual parts are

collapsed into single

staves. This type of score

is easier to read, even

though it doesn’t contain

the part detail necessary

for initial rehearsals.

Tip

You have the option

of cutting down the

number of staves in

the score during

long sections of music

where fewer instruments

are playing.

Tip

Chapter 19: Lead Sheets and Scores

Today, thanks to computer technology, a lot of this notation process can be auto-

mated. Music notation software, available for both Windows and Macintosh

operating systems, enables you to create a complete piece of music—including

full orchestral scores—from your computer keyboard. The result is a professional-

looking piece of music, complete with proper note spacing and notation marks.

All music notation programs let you enter notes on the page with either your

mouse or computer keyboard. All you have to do is click a position on the

staff, and a note appears.

Many of these programs also let you connect a MIDI keyboard and input

music directly from the keyboard to your computer. The notation program

translates the notes you play on the keyboard into corresponding notes on a

staff. You can then fine-tune the music onscreen as necessary.

There are all different types of music notation programs, although they all per-

form the same basic functions. Some programs let you include more parts than

others, though, and some include more professional notation features. So when

you’re shopping for a music notation program, here are some things to look for:

◆

The number of individual staves (instrumental and voice) you can create

for a piece of music.

◆

The quality of the printed music. (Look especially for proper note spac-

ing, full extension of note stems, and the automatic avoidance of note col-

lisions, in which a note or marking from one staff overlaps a similar note

or marking on another staff.)

◆

The capability to extract individual parts from a score.

◆

The capability to automatically transpose parts.

◆

The capability to include lyrics.

◆

The capability to include guitar tabs.

◆

The capability to write in standard percussion notation.

◆

The inclusion of advanced notation markings and the flexibility to place

them wherever you want in the score.

◆

The capability to create notation based on MIDI keyboard input.

The two most popular music notation programs today are Finale (www.codamusic.

com) and Sibelius (www.sibelius.com). Both programs work in similar fashion,

and both cost around $600 for the full package. Fortunately for cost-conscious

or outright starving musicians, both programs are also available in lower-priced

and/or student versions, so you can get similar (but not identical) functionality

at a bargain price. (Finale even offers a free version, called Finale Notepad, that

you can download from their website.)

253

MIDI stands for

musical instrument digital

interface, and is a com-

puter protocol for passing

audio information digitally

from one electronic device

to another.

Definition

Part 6: Arranging

Entering music with Finale.

254

Entering music with Sibelius.

Both Finale and Sibelius, as well as other music notation programs, are available

at most large music stores, some computer stores, and directly from the software

publishers. And if you’re a student, you may be able to get an educational dis-

count if you order through your school—it never hurts to ask!

Note

Chapter 19: Lead Sheets and Scores 255

The Least You Need to Know

◆

Lead sheets present melody, chords, and lyrics.

◆

Chord sheets are used to present chords only—and can use standard chord

notation or the simplified Nashville Number System of notation.

◆

Choral scores include individual parts for soprano, alto, tenor, and bass;

plus piano accompaniment.

◆

Band and orchestral scores include separate staves for each instrument—

and can be written in either concert or transposed keys.

◆

The chore of creating written music can be made easier by computerized

music notation programs, such as Finale or Sibelius.

Part 6: Arranging

Exercise

Exercise 19-1

Using the following blank score, create a simple four-measure chart for big band. Base your piece on the

chord progressions listed in the rhythm parts, and use the transposed keys for each instrument.

256

Performing Your Music

In This Chapter

◆

Preparing the parts for the individual musicians

◆

Ensuring an effective and efficient rehearsal

◆

Learning how to conduct a large ensemble

◆

Choosing the appropriate method to start a song

◆

A parting word—and advice for learning more

You’ve done it. You’ve learned enough theory to compose your own piece of

music, and you’ve arranged it for a vocal or instrumental ensemble. Now it’s

time to venture out into the real world, and get that music played.

Scary, isn’t it?

Having your music performed can be a nerve-wracking experience. Will all the

parts fit together? Did you write in the proper ranges? Did you transpose all

the parts properly? How will it sound?

Of course, to hear your music performed, you have to arrange for a group to do

the performing. If it’s a simple song, that might be as easy as gathering together

your local garage band for a quick read-through. If it’s a vocal arrangement, you

might be able to recruit your school or church choir for the job. If it’s a big

band piece, your high school or college jazz ensemble probably is the group to

ask. And if you’ve written a symphony or other orchestral work, it’s time to call

in some favors from your community orchestra.

Once you have the group lined up, the fun really starts—and you get to be a

conductor!

Preparing the Parts

As you learned back in Chapter 19, every musician must have his or her own

personal copy of the music. That doesn’t mean copying the conductor’s score a

few dozen times; it means writing out the specific part for that individual

instrument or voice.

Chapter

Part 6: Arranging

258

Most commercial music comes with all the individual parts you need for your

group. However, if you’re playing an original piece, it’s your responsibility to

create the individual parts for each instrument or voice, and to pass them out to

the musicians. Ideally this happens well in advance of the first rehearsal, so

they’ll have the opportunity to practice their parts on their own.

Remember to transpose the parts to the proper keys, to make the music as read-

able as possible, and to include proper signposts and road mapping throughout.

(That means numbering the measures, lettering individual sections, and includ-

ing cues of some sort when you’re coming off an extended section of rests.)

Rehearsal Routines

You’ve arranged the music, and arranged for the musicians. The big hand of the

clock is almost in the full-up position, and it’s time for your first rehearsal.

What do you do?

When you’re rehearsing a chorus, band, or orchestra, you need to warm up the

group before they start playing (or singing) full blast. Then you have to effec-

tively and efficiently rehearse the piece at hand—you have to get the musicians

up to speed as quickly as possible. (Time is money!)

Here’s a suggested routine you can use when you’re working with a large

ensemble of any type:

1. Setup If you’re dealing with professionals, they’ll know to be set up and

ready to play at the appointed time. If you’re dealing with younger or

amateur players, you need to allow them time to get settled in and ready

to play.

2. Tuneup You need to take a few minutes to get an instrumental group in

tune with itself.

3. Warmup It’s especially important for nonprofessional players—both

vocalists and instrumentalists—to “limber up,” musically before they

tackle the hard stuff. Have them play or sing some scales, or run through a

simple and familiar piece of music, to help them stretch their musical

muscles, so to speak.

4. Play-through Once everyone is set up, tuned up, warmed up, and ready

to go, you can start rehearsing your music. You might want to start by

playing the piece all the way through, to give everyone a feel for the piece.

Then you can go back and rehearse specific sections, focusing on those

parts of the music that are particularly tricky, or that seemed to give the

musicians problems on the first play-through. Remember to end the

rehearsal with a final play-through of the entire piece.

How to Conduct Yourself

If you’ve composed or arranged a piece of music, you’ll probably be expected to

lead the band or orchestra or choir when it’s time for that music to be played.

Your rehearsal time

will inevitably be limited—

and less than what you’d

ideally like to have. Plan

out your rehearsal routine

in advance to take best

advantage of the time you

have. Don’t spend so

much time on the begin-

ning of the piece that you

never get a chance to

rehearse the end!

Warning

Chapter 20: Performing Your Music 259

That means you need to know a little bit about conducting—at least enough to

get everybody started and stopped at the same time!

At its most basic, conducting is about setting the correct tempo, counting in the

musicians, and leading the way through any important changes in tempo or

dynamics throughout the music. Professional conductors also shape the flow of

the music, and can turn a generic orchestral or choral performance into a per-

sonal statement and a moving work of art.

However, when you’re first starting out you’ll have your hands full just finding

the downbeat. Fortunately, better musicians can soldier through, even if you’re

busy waving your arms around like a broken Dutch windmill.

The thing is, conducting is pretty simple. There are a few set patterns you need

to learn, then it all falls into place.

Conducting in Four

Most music is written in 4/4 time, so it’s very important to learn the pattern for

conducting in four.

You work through this pattern using your right hand—unless you’re left-

handed, of course. For the four-beat pattern, your hand has to move to four dif-

ferent positions. You don’t have to use huge movements, but your hand has to

move enough for the musicians to tell what the heck you’re doing. Try moving

your arm from the elbow, directly in front of your chest.

The four positions of this pattern describe a cross—up, down, left, right, like

this:

You can use a

baton (a short

wooden or plastic

stick) for conduct-

ing, but you don’t have to.

It’s perfectly acceptable to

conduct using nothing but

your bare hands.

Tip

The right hand is

typically used to

conduct the beat;

your left hand is

used to add emphasis or

point out specific parts. You

also can just stick your left

hand in your pocket, or mir-

ror your right-hand move-

ment with your left hand.

Tip

2 3

Conducting in four.

You start with the 4 position. This is the upward-most movement, and actually

serves as a kind of preparatory (or “get ready”) beat before the downbeat of one.

You move your arm up to a point, coinciding with the fourth beat of the meas-

ure (or the upbeat before the first measure of the song).

Part 6: Arranging

260

Now you bring your arm down, all the way to the bottommost position, exactly

on beat one. This is position 1, and it’s the most important movement in your

conducting. The musicians have to get a solid “one,” and that’s where your

downbeat comes in.

For the second beat in the measure, move your arm up slightly and to the left,

to position 2. Then, for the third beat, move your arm straight across, to the

right, to position 3.

Now we’re up to the fourth beat of the measure, and your upbeat. Swing your

arm back up to position 4 and get ready to start all over again for the next

measure.

Practice this movement—(up)-down-left-right-up—again and again, at different

tempos. Once you get this mastered, you’re conducting!

Conducting in Two

Conducting in 2/4 or 2/2 time is pretty similar to conducting in four. All you

have to do is leave out the left and right movements to positions 2 and 3.

That’s right: Conducting in two is a simple up-down, up-down movement; up

for the preparatory beat, down for one, up for two, down for one—again and

again and again.

Here’s what the pattern looks like:

Conducting in two.

Conducting in Three

Conducting in three is slightly more difficult than conducting in two or four.

It’s kind of like the four pattern, but without the left, or 2 position. In terms of

movement, you start with the preparatory beat (of course), then go down for

one, to the right for two, up for three, then back down for one again. Down,

right, up—like this:

Chapter 20: Performing Your Music 261

Conducting in three.

Finding the Beat

As I said earlier, one of the chief duties of the conductor is to set the tempo.

There are two ways you can do this:

◆

Timing the preparatory beat This approach, preferred by profession-

als, gets you right into the music. You don’t count anything out in ad-

vance, just start by swinging your arm up for the preparatory beat. The

time between the preparatory beat and the initial downbeat is the duration

of a single beat, and very quickly sets the tempo. (Of course, the drawback

to this approach is that it’s very difficult to master—and, for that reason,

isn’t recommended for beginners.)

◆

Counting the beat This approach leaves no ambiguity over the tempo

of the song. You simply count out the beat, in tempo, like this: “One, two,

three, four,” or “One, two, ready, go.” You count out one measure (or

more), which serves to count the band in—and everybody starts on the

same beat at the same tempo.

You can use whichever method you prefer, although when you’re first learning a

piece, it’s probably better to count off before you start. This way you can set the

tempo in your head, and the other musicians won’t be guessing about where the

one is.

Practicing in the Real World

The best way to practice conducting is to do a little conducting in the privacy

of your own home—to your favorite songs and pieces of music. You should

practice to a variety of different CDs, to get used to the different beat patterns

used in different types of music.

Setting the tempo with the

preparatory beat is the

norm in the world of clas-

sical music. In the pop

and jazz worlds, it’s more

common to count off the

tempo.

Note

Part 6: Arranging

262

But before you go out and face the world for your first honest-to-goodness con-

ducting session, you need to practice with other people. Gather a few of your

friends, and practice with the piece you’ll be conducting—even if it’s just a few

of the parts. Run through the piece a few times, and encourage your friends to

tell you what you could do to improve your conducting.

That first downbeat in front of a group of musicians can be daunting. Use your

friends to help you get over any shyness or fear, so that you appear confident

when you pick up the baton for real. (Remember—musicians, like wild dogs, can

smell fear.)

The Least You Need to Know

◆

Before your first rehearsal, make sure that every musician has his or her

own personal copy of the music.

◆

Make sure you warm up and tune up the musicians before you start rehearsal.

◆

To conduct a piece of music in 4/4, move your right hand from the up

position to the down position for the first beat, to the left for the second

beat, to the right for the third, and back to the up position for the fourth

beat. (That’s down, left, right, up—1, 2, 3, 4.)

◆

Although you can let your preparatory beat establish the music’s tempo, it’s

probably better to count off the first measure (“One, two, ready, go”) to

help everyone feel the right beat.

Exercise

Exercise 20-1

Put your favorite piece of music in your CD player, pick up a baton, and start

conducting!

Coda

Thus ends this book—and your first exposure to basic music theory. I hope

you’ve found the information in these pages helpful, and that I’ve passed on

some of my love and enthusiasm for how music gets created.

The key thing to remember (aside from all the notes and rhythms and such) is

that these musical building blocks exist for you to use—however you like. We

may say that there are rules and conventions, but when it comes to creating

music, all the rules are made to be broken. What ultimately matters is how a

piece of music sounds—to you, and to your listeners.

Theory is good, but it’s just a guideline for what happens out in the real world.

If you want to use parallel fifths in your harmony, go ahead. If you want to flat a

fifth or resolve a turnaround to the ii chord instead of the I, do it. Some of the

greatest pieces of music have broken all sorts of rules. As long as it sounds good,

it’s all okay.

Chapter 20: Performing Your Music 263

Just because you’re done with this book, however, doesn’t mean that your music

education has ended. In fact, if you choose to make music a part of your life,

your education never ends. Every song you listen to, every piece of music you

hear is an opportunity to learn more about the music you love. Keep your ears

open and your mind free, and you’ll continue to expand your knowledge and

skills for the rest of your musical life.

You can also further your music education with more reading. If you’re serious

about becoming a better musician, I recommend you check out the following

books:

◆

Arranging and Composing for the Small Ensemble (David Baker; Alfred

Publishing; 1970—revised edition 1988)

◆

Arranging Concepts Complete (Dick Grove; Alfred Publishing; 1972—

second edition 1989)

◆

Hearing and Writing Music: Professional Training for Today’s Musician (Ron

Gorow; September Publishing; 2000)

◆

Melody in Songwriting: Tools and Techniques for Writing Hit Songs (Jack

Perricone; Berklee Press; 2000)

◆

Sounds and Scores: A Practical Guide to Professional Orchestration (Henry

Mancini; Northridge Music Inc.; 1973)

◆

The Study of Orchestration (Samuel Adler; W.W. Norton & Company; third

edition 2002)

◆

Tunesmith: Inside the Art of Songwriting (Jimmy Webb; Hyperion; 1998)

◆

What to Listen for in Music (Aaron Copland; Mentor; 1939—softcover revi-

sion 1999)

I’d be remiss if I didn’t also mention some of the other music books that I have

written. Like this book, they’re all in Alpha Books’ Complete Idiot’s Guide series,

and (I hope) are as equally easy to read and follow. These books include:

◆

The Complete Idiot’s Guide to Music Composition (Michael Miller; Alpha

Books; 2005)

◆

The Complete Idiot’s Guide to Playing Drums (Michael Miller; Alpha Books;

2000—second edition 2004)

◆

The Complete Idiot’s Guide to Singing (Michael Miller and Phyllis Fulford;

Alpha Books; 2003)

◆

The Complete Idiot’s Guide to Solos and Improvisation (Michael Miller; Alpha

Books; 2004)

Of course, if you really want to learn about music, you need a good teacher.

Whether you study one-on-one with a professional educator, or attend music

classes at your favorite school or university, a teacher can provide the individual

instruction that’s necessary to develop your own unique musical skills.

There are also many music theory resources on the Internet. These tend to

change from year to year, so go to Google and do a search on “music theory”

Part 6: Arranging

264

and see what you find. Among my favorite sites (as of summer 2005) are Music

Notes Music Theory (library.thinkquest.org/15413/), Teoría Music Theory Web

(www.teoria.com), and Ricci Adams’s Musictheory.net (www.musictheory.net).

While you’re on the Internet, make sure you check out my personal website

(www.molehillgroup.com). There you’ll find information about my latest book

projects and (at www.molehillgroup.com/theory-corrections.htm) any updates or

corrections to the information in this book.

The Internet is also a good way to get in contact with me; my e-mail address is

theory@molehillgroup.com. I encourage and appreciate any comments you

might have about this book, or about music theory in general; it’s always good

to hear from fellow musicians.

If you love music, as I do, you’ll want to experience as much of it as possible.

The more you play, or sing, or just listen, the more you’ll learn about the theory

behind the music. So put down this book and put on your favorite CD—or pick

up your instrument and start playing. The music is waiting for you!

The Complete Idiot’s

Music Glossary

a cappella Vocal music, without instrumental accompaniment.

a tempo Return to the previous tempo.

accelerando Gradually speed up. (Abbreviated as accel.)

accent A note played louder or with more emphasis than regular notes.

accidental A marking used to raise and lower the indicated pitch. Sharps raise

the note a half step, flats lower the note a half step, and naturals return the note

to the original pitch.

adagietto Tempo marking for a moderately slow tempo, slightly faster than

adagio.

adagio Tempo marking for a moderately slow tempo.

adante Tempo marking for a moderate, walking tempo.

adantino Tempo marking for a moderate tempo, slightly faster than adante.

Aeolian mode A mode starting on the sixth degree of the corresponding major

scale, equivalent to the natural minor scale. See minor and mode.

allegretto Tempo marking for a moderately fast tempo, not quite as fast as

allegro.

allegro Tempo marking for a fast, cheerful tempo.

altered bass chord A chord with some note other than the root in the bass.

The altered bass note is typically notated after a slash, like this: Am7/D.

alto clef A clef, used primarily by the viola, that places middle C on the mid-

dle line of the staff.

alto voice The lowest female voice.

arpeggio A chord that is broken up and played one note at a time.

articulation The manner in which notes are struck, sustained, and released.

One indicates articulation by the use of markings such as legato, staccato,

tenuto, and so on.

Appendix

Appendix A

266

atonality Music that has no tonal center and no underlying key. In pure

atonal music, the notes of the chromatic scale are used impartially and inde-

pendently, with no home degree or tonic.

attack The beginning part of a sound.

augmented chord A chord with a major third and a raised fifth (1-3-#5).

backbeat In 4/4 time, beats two and four, typically played by the drummer on

the snare drum.

bar See measure.

bar line The vertical line placed on the staff between measures.

baritone voice A male voice pitched between the bass and tenor voices; not

always isolated in choral music.

Baroque Music associated with that period from 1600 to 1750, characterized

by flamboyant, heavily ornamented melodies. Notable Baroque composers

include Johann Sebastian Bach, George Frideric Handel, Henry Purcell, and

Antonio Vivaldi.

bass The lowest pitch of a chord (not necessarily the root).

bass clef A clef, used by lower-pitched voices and instruments, that places

middle C on the first ledger line above the staff.

bass voice The lowest male voice.

beat Any pulsing unit of musical time.

block chord An unbroken chord.

blues progression A 12-bar sequence of chords common in blues and jazz

music, as follows: I-I-I-I-IV-IV-I-I-V7-V7-I-I.

brass The family of instruments, typically made of brass, that produce sound

by blowing through a mouthpiece. The brass family includes the trumpet,

trombone, tuba, and French horn.

cadence A pause or stopping point, typically a short chord progression

inserted at the end of a phrase or piece of music.

chord Three or more notes played simultaneously.

chord progression A series of chords over a number of measures.

chord sheet A sheet of music containing only the chords of a song.

chromatic Pitches outside the underlying key or scale. The opposite of diatonic.

chromatic scale A scale containing 12 equal divisions of the octave—all the

white keys and black keys within an octave.

Classical music Music associated with that period from 1750 to 1820, char-

acterized by simple lyrical melodies, often expressed in majestic orchestral and

choral works. Notable Classical-era composers include Ludwig van Beethoven,

Franz Joseph Haydn, and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart.

clef A graphic symbol placed at the beginning of the staff to indicate the pitch

of the notes on the staff.

coda A short section at the end of a composition.

common time The 4/4 time signature.

The Complete Idiot’s Music Glossary 267

compound chord Two chords sounded together. Typically notated with a

vertical slash between the two chords.

concert pitch The actual (non-transposed) pitch of a piece of music;

some instruments (such as the trumpet) read their music transposed from

concert pitch.

consonance Harmonious combination of tones. The opposite of dissonance.

contralto A lower subset of the alto voice, even lower than the traditional

alto range; not used in all choral music.

contrapuntal See counterpoint.

contrary motion Where one voice moves in the opposite direction to

another.

counterpoint Two or more simultaneous, independent lines or voices.

Some music theorists apply strict rules to the creation of contrapuntal lines.

crescendo Gradually louder.

cut time The 2/2 time signature.

D.C. al Coda Navigation marking meaning to go back to the beginning

and play to the Coda sign; then skip to the Coda section.

D.C. al Fine Navigation marking meaning to go back to the beginning

and play through to the end.

D.S. al Coda Navigation marking meaning to go back to the Segno sign

and play to the Coda sign; then skip to the Coda section.

D.S. al Fine Navigation marking meaning to go back to the Segno sign

and play through to the end.

decrescendo Gradually softer.

diatonic Notes or chords that are in the underlying key or scale. For

example, in the key of C Major, the diatonic notes are C, D, E, F, G, A, and

B; all other notes are chromatic.

diminished chord A chord with a minor third and a diminished fifth

(1-3-5).

dissonance A combination of tones that sounds discordant and unstable,

in need of resolution to a more pleasing and stable harmony. The opposite

of consonance.

division Fractional parts of a beat.

dominant The fifth degree of a scale, a perfect fifth above the tonic; also

refers to the chord built on this fifth scale degree.

dominant seventh chord A major chord with a minor seventh added

(1-3-5-7); typically found on the fifth degree of the scale, and noted as V7.

doppio movimento Play twice as fast.

Dorian mode A mode starting on the second degree of the correspond-

ing major scale. See mode.

double bar Two vertical lines placed on the staff to indicate the end of a

section or a composition.

Appendix A

268

downbeat The major beats in a measure; in 4/4 time, the downbeats are

1, 2, 3, and 4. (Some theoreticians hold that there is only one downbeat per

measure—the very first beat.)

dynamics Varying degrees of loud and soft. For example, forte signifies a loud

dynamic, while piano signifies a soft dynamic.

eleventh chord A triad with three notes added, a seventh, ninth, and

eleventh above the root of the chord.

enharmonic Different notations of the same sound; for example, F# and G

are enharmonic notes.

extended chords Chords with additional notes (typically in thirds) added

above the basic triad. (Some theoreticians consider seventh chords extended

chords; others don’t.)

fermata Symbol used to indicate that a note should be held indefinitely;

sometimes called a “bird’s eye.”

flam A grace note (and subsequent main note) played on a drum.

flat The lowering of any pitch by a half step; signified by the sign.

forte Loud. (Abbreviated as f.)

fortissimo Very loud. (Abbreviated as ff.)

fortississimo Very, very loud. (Abbreviated as fff.)

frequency A scientific measurement of how fast the molecules of air are

vibrating; the faster the vibrations, the higher the pitch.

fugue A contrapuntal form that is built from a single subject.

gig A musician’s job.

glissando A mechanism for getting from one pitch to another, playing every

single pitch between the two notes as smoothly as possible.

grace note One or more notes, played lightly and quickly, that precede a

main note.

grave Tempo marking for a very slow or solemn pace.

half step The smallest distance between notes in a chromatic scale.

harmonic interval Two notes sounded simultaneously.

harmonization The choice of chords to accompany a melodic line.

harmony The sound of tones in combination; also used to refer to the

accompanying parts behind the main melody.

interval The distance between two pitches or notes.

inversion A chord in which the bass note is not the root of the chord.

Ionian mode A mode starting on the first degree of the corresponding major

scale, equivalent to the major scale. See mode.

jazz A style of music that incorporates and encourages improvisation.

Originally derived from American blues, gospel, and ragtime music, infused

with European harmony.

The Complete Idiot’s Music Glossary 269

key A combination of a tonic and a mode. For example, the key of F Major

has F as the tonic and major as the mode.

key signature The sharps or flats that are placed at the beginning of a staff to

indicate the key of the music.

larghetto Tempo marking for a slow tempo, slightly faster than largo.

largo Tempo marking for a slow and dignified tempo.

lead sheet A piece of sheet music that contains a single staff for the melody,

with the accompanying chords written above the staff.

leading tone The note that is a half step below the tonic; thus leads up to the

tonic.

lento Tempo marking for a slow tempo.

Locrian mode A (theoretical) mode starting on the seventh degree of the

corresponding major scale. See mode.

Lydian mode A mode starting on the fourth degree of the corresponding

major scale. See mode.

major The most common mode, consisting of the following intervals: whole-

whole-half-whole-whole-whole-half.

major chord A chord with a major third (1-3-5).

major seventh chord A major triad with a major seventh added (1-3-5-7).

measure A group of beats, indicated by the placement of bar lines on the

staff.

mediant The third degree of a scale, or a chord built on that degree (III).

melody The combination of tone and rhythm in a logical sequence.

meter The organization of beats and their divisions.

mezzo forte Medium loud. (Abbreviated as mf.)

mezzo piano Medium soft. (Abbreviated as mp.)

microtone An interval smaller than a semitone, prevalent in some non-

Western music and twentieth-century art music.

minor One of three modes, each with a flatted third of the scale. Natural minor

is identical to Aeolian mode, with the following intervals: whole-half-whole-whole-

half-whole-whole. Harmonic minor contains the following intervals: whole-

half-whole-whole-half-whole-half-half. Melodic minor is different ascending

and descending; ascending, the intervals are whole-half-whole-whole-whole-

whole-half, whereas descending it uses the same intervals as natural minor.

minor chord A chord with a minor third (1-3-5).

minor seventh chord A minor chord with a minor seventh added (1-3-5-7).

Mixolydian mode A mode starting on the fifth degree of the corresponding

major scale. See mode.

mode (1) A series of notes that indicate the structure of a major or minor

scale key or piece. (2) A set of scales, based on centuries-old music that pre-

ceded today’s major and minor scales; these include the Dorian, Phrygian,

Lydian, Mixolydian, Ionian, Locrian, and Aeolian modes.

Appendix A

270

moderato Tempo marking for a moderate pace.

modulation A change of key.

molto Modifier for tempo markings; means “very.”

motif (or motive) A brief melodic or rhythmic idea.

neighboring tone A tone one diatonic step away from (either above or below)

the main tone.

ninth chord A basic triad with two notes added, a seventh and a ninth above

the root of the chord.

notation The art of writing musical notes on paper.

note A symbol used to indicate the duration and pitch of a sound, as in whole

notes, half notes, and quarter notes.

octave Two pitches, with the same name, located 12 half steps apart.

odd time Any non-4/4 time signature, such as 3/4, 5/4, or 9/8.

orchestra A group of instruments organized for the performance of sym-

phonies and other instrumental works, or to accompany an opera or other

staged presentation.

orchestration The art of scoring music for an orchestra or band. Also called

arranging.

parallel motion Two or more voices that move in identical steps, simultane-

ously.

passing tone A pitch located (scale-wise) directly between two main pitches;

passing tones are typically used to connect notes in a melody.

pedal point A note sustained below changing harmonies.

pentatonic scale A five-note scale with the intervals of whole, whole, whole

and a half, whole, whole and a half; in relationship to a major scale, the scale

degrees (not counting the octave) are 1-2-3-5-6.

percussion The family of instruments that produce sound when you hit, beat,

crash, shake, roll, scratch, rub, twist, or rattle them. Included in this family are

various types of drums and cymbals, as well as mallet instruments (marimba,

xylophone, and so forth) and timpani.

perfect pitch The ability to hear absolute pitches in your head, without any

outside assistance.

phrase Within a piece of music, a segment that is unified by rhythms,

melodies, or harmonies and that comes to some sort of closure; typically com-

posed in groups of 2, 4, 8, 16, or 32 measures.

Phrygian mode A mode starting on the third degree of the corresponding

major scale. See mode.

pianissimo Very soft. (Abbreviated as pp.)

pianississimo Very, very soft. (Abbreviated as ppp.)

piano (1) Soft. (Abbreviated as p.) (2) An 88-key keyboard instrument, also

known as the pianoforte.

The Complete Idiot’s Music Glossary 271

pitch The highness or lowness of a tone. (In scientific terms, a specific fre-

quency.)

polyphony The mixing together of several simultaneous melodic lines.

polyrhythm Two or more rhythms played simultaneously, or against each other.

polytonality Employing more than one tonality simultaneously.

prestissimo Tempo marking for an extremely fast tempo, faster than presto.

presto Tempo marking for a very fast tempo.

primary chords The most important chords in a key: I, IV, V.

rallentando Gradually slow down. (Abbreviated as rall.)

relative keys Keys that share the same key signature, but not the same root.

For example, A minor and C Major are relative keys.

resolve The act of moving a suspended note down to a chord tone of the chord.

rest A symbol used to denote silence or not playing a particular note.

rhythm The organization of sound in time; the arrangement of beats and

accents in music.

ritardando Gradually slow down. (Abbreviated as rit. or ritard.)

ritenuto Hold back the tempo. (Abbreviated as riten.)

Romantic Music associated with the period from 1820 to 1900, characterized

by emotional musical expression and sophisticated harmonies, often employing

chromaticism and a moving away from traditional tonality. Notable Romantic

composers include Johannes Brahms, Antonin Dvorˇák, Franz Liszt, Felix

Mendelssohn, Richard Strauss, Pyotr Tchaikovsky, and Richard Wagner.

root The fundamental note in a chord.

SATB Shorthand for soprano, alto, tenor, and bass. (Choral scores are some-

times called SATB scores.)

scale A sequence of related pitches, arranged in ascending or descending

order.

score (1) The written depiction of all the individual parts played of each of

the instruments in an ensemble. (2) To orchestrate a composition.

semitone The interval of a half step.

seventh chord A triad with an added note a seventh above the root of the

chord.

sharp The raising of any pitch by a half step; signified by the sign.

shuffle A rhythmic feel based on triplets or a dotted eighth note/sixteenth

note pattern.

similar motion Two or more voices that move in the same direction, but not

with the same intervals.

sixth chord A triad with an added note a sixth above the root of the chord.

song form The structure of a short piece of music; usually diagramed as

A-A-B-A.

soprano voice The highest female voice.

Appendix A

272

staff An assemblage of horizontal lines and spaces that represent different

pitches.

string The family of instruments that produces sound by moving a bow across

a string. The string family includes the violin, viola, cello, and double bass.

subdominant The fourth degree of the scale, or the chord built on the fourth

degree (IV).

submediant The sixth degree of a scale, or the chord built on that degree (vi).

subtonic The seventh degree of a scale, or the chord built on that degree

(vii°). (In classical theory, the subtonic is the lowered seventh, while the normal

seventh is called the leading tone.)

supertonic The second degree of a scale, or the chord built on that degree (ii).

suspension A nonchord note used within a chord to create tension. The sus-

pended note is typically the fourth of the chord, which then resolves down to

the third.

syncopation An accent on an unexpected beat—or the lack of an accent on an

expected beat.

tempo The rate of speed at which beats are played in a song.

tempo primo Return to the tempo designated at the beginning of a piece.

tenor voice The highest male voice.

theme A recurring melodic or rhythmic pattern or idea; the main melodic

phrase in a composition.

third The interval between the first and third degree of a scale; can be either

minor (three half steps) or major (two whole steps).

thirteenth chord A triad with four notes added, a seventh, ninth, eleventh,

and thirteenth above the root of the chord.

tie A curved line over or under two or more notes that “ties” the two notes

together into one.

timbre Sound quality (as in “That trumpet player has a rich timbre”).

time signature A symbol with two numbers, one on top of the other (like a

fraction), that indicates the basic meter of a song. The upper number indicates

how many beats are in a measure; the bottom number indicates the type of note

that receives one beat.

tonality The organization of musical notes around a tonic, or home pitch,

based on a major or minor scale or mode.

tone A sound played or sung at a specific pitch. (The term is also used some-

times to indicate timbre, or sound quality.)

tonic The primary note in a scale or key; the first degree of a scale or a chord

built on that degree (I).

transpose See transposition.

transposing instruments Those instruments that are not notated at their true

pitch. For example, the trumpet is notated a full step higher than it sounds; when

a trumpet plays what it reads as a C, it actually sounds a Bin concert pitch.

The Complete Idiot’s Music Glossary

transposition Translating pitch.

treble clef A clef, used by higher-pitched voices and instruments, that places

middle C on the first ledger line below the staff.

triad Three notes, each a third apart from the previous. Most chords are built

on triads.

triplet A group of three notes performed in the space of two.

tritone An interval consisting of three whole steps; sometimes called “the

Devil’s interval.”

unison (1) Two notes of the same pitch. (2) Voices or instruments all singing

or playing the same pitch.

upbeat The eighth-note “and” after the downbeat.

vivace Tempo marking for a lively tempo.

voice Melodic or harmonic lines.

voice leading The motion of a single voice.

voicing The way the notes of a chord are arranged.

whole step An interval equal to two half steps.

woodwind The family of instruments that produce sound by vibrating a

wooden reed. The woodwind family includes the clarinet, saxophone, oboe, and

bassoon. Also included are the flute and the piccolo, which do not use reeds.

273

The Complete Idiot’s

Chord Reference

Here it is: everything you’ve ever wanted to know about creating chords, but

didn’t know where to ask (or something like that …). In any case, the next few

pages present, for each degree of the scale, the notes and guitar tabs for the fol-

lowing types of chords: major, minor, diminished, augmented, major seventh,

minor seventh, dominant seventh, major ninth, minor ninth, and dominant

ninth. Turn here when you want to write a chord but don’t know how!

Appendix

Appendix B

276

The Complete Idiot’s Chord Reference 277

Answers to Chapter Exercises

Here are the answers to those chapter exercises that weren’t open-ended in nature.

(The open-ended exercises—“write a melody to this chord progression,” and the

like—don’t have a single correct solution.) If you haven’t completed the exercises

yet, don’t cheat—go back and do the exercises before you peek at the answers!

Chapter 1

Exercise 1-1

Appendix

Exercise 1-2

Exercise 1-3

Exercise 1-4

Appendix C

280

Exercise 1-5

Exercise 1-6

Exercise 1-7

Exercise 1-8

Chapter 2

Exercise 2-1

Exercise 2-2

Answers to Chapter Exercises 281

Exercise 2-3

Exercise 2-4

Exercise 2-5

Exercise 2-6

Exercise 2-7

Exercise 2-8

Appendix C

282

Chapter 3

Exercise 3-1

A Major, D Major, B-flat Major, E-flat Major

Exercise 3-2

D minor, G minor, E minor, F minor

Exercise 3-3

Exercise 3-4

Exercise 3-5

Exercise 3-6

Answers to Chapter Exercises 283

Chapter 4

Exercise 4-1

G Major, A Major, F Major, E-flat Major, E Major, B-flat Major, A-flat Major, D-flat Major, D

Major, B Major

Exercise 4-2

A minor, C minor, E minor, D minor, G minor, E-flat minor, B minor, C-sharp minor, F-sharp

minor, F minor

Exercise 4-3

Exercise 4-4

Exercise 4-5

Exercise 4-6

Exercise 4-7

Appendix C

284

Exercise 4-8

Chapter 5

Exercise 5-1

Whole note, quarter note, sixteenth note, eighth note, half note, sixteenth notes, eighth notes,

half rest, quarter rest, sixteenth rest, eighth rest, whole rest

Exercise 5-2

Exercise 5-3

Exercise 5-4

Exercise 5-5

Exercise 5-6

Answers to Chapter Exercises 285

Exercise 5-7

Exercise 5-8

Chapter 6

Exercise 6-1

Exercise 6-2

Exercise 6-3

Exercise 6-4

Exercise 6-5

Appendix C

286

Exercise 6-6

Exercise 6-7

Chapter 9

Exercise 9-1

G Major, EMajor, D Major, BMajor, B Major, AMajor, F Major, D Major, C Major, GMajor

Exercise 9-2

D minor, G minor, C minor, Aminor, Bminor, E minor, Dminor, A minor, Eminor, B minor

Exercise 9-3

Exercise 9-4

Exercise 9-5

Dm7, G7, FM7, BM7, CM9, Cm7 (or Cm7/E), Gm7, B11, Cm7, A7

Exercise 9-6

Answers to Chapter Exercises

Exercise 9-7

Exercise 9-8

Chapter 10

Exercise 10-1

Exercise 10-2

Exercise 10-3

Exercise 10-4

287

Appendix C

288

Exercise 10-5

Exercise 10-6

Chapter 12

Exercise 12-5

Exercise 12-6

Chapter 14

Exercise 14-1

Answers to Chapter Exercises

Exercise 14-2

Exercise 14-3

Exercise 14-4

Chapter 15

Exercise 15-1

One possible solution is as follows:

Chapter 16

Exercise 16-1

289

Appendix C

Exercise 16-2

Chapter 17

Exercise 17-1

Exercise 17-2

Exercise 17-3

Exercise 17-4

Exercise 17-5

290

Answers to Chapter Exercises

Exercise 17-7

Chapter 18

Exercise 18-1

Exercise 18-2

Exercise 18-3

Exercise 18-4

291

The Complete Idiot’s Guide to

Music Theory, Second Edition,

Ear Training Course CD

The CD that accompanies this book contains The Complete Idiot’s Guide to Music

Theory, Second Edition, Ear Training Course. This audio course leads you step-by-step

through the essential concepts of music theory, including pitches, scales, intervals,

rhythms, chords, and melodies.

You can play this audio CD on any CD player or personal computer. To work

through The Complete Idiot’s Guide to Music Theory, Second Edition, Ear Training

Course, all you have to do is listen to the examples on the CD, and then test

yourself with the audio exercises. Listen to each exercise, pause the CD player,

and then write down your answer on a piece of blank staff paper. Feel free to

repeat each exercise as many times as necessary. You can then check your answers

against those in this appendix.

CD Track Listing

Track Contents

1. Introduction

2. Lesson One: Pitches

3. Pitch Exercises 1–5

4. Pitch Exercises 6–10

5. Pitch Exercises 11–15

6. Pitch Exercises 16–20

7. Pitch Exercises 21–25

8. Pitch Exercises 26–30

9. Pitch Exercises 31–35

10. Pitch Exercises 36–40

Appendix

Appendix D

294

11. Lesson Two: Intervals

12. Interval Exercises 1–5

13. Interval Exercises 6–10

14. Interval Exercises 11–15

15. Interval Exercises 16–20

16. Interval Exercises 21–25

17. Interval Exercises 26–30

18. Interval Exercises 31–35

19. Interval Exercises 36–40

20. Interval Exercises 41–45

21. Interval Exercises 46–50

22. Interval Exercises 51–55

23. Interval Exercises 56–60

24. Lesson Three: Scales

25. Scale Exercises 1–5

26. Scale Exercises 6–10

27. Lesson Four: Rhythms

28. Rhythm Exercises 1–5

29. Rhythm Exercises 6–10

30. Rhythm Exercises 11–15

31. Rhythm Exercises 16–20

32. Rhythm Exercises 21–25

33. Rhythm Exercises 26–30

34. Rhythm Exercises 31–35

35. Rhythm Exercises 36–40

36. Lesson Five: Melodies

37. Melody Exercises 1–5

38. Melody Exercises 6–10

39. Melody Exercises 11–15

40. Melody Exercises 16–20

41. Lesson Six: Chords

42. Chord Exercises 1–5

43. Chord Exercises 6–10

44. Chord Exercises 11–15

45. Chord Exercises 16–20

46. Coda

The Complete Idiot’s Guide to Music Theory, Second Edition, Ear Training Course CD 295

Answers to Audio Exercises

Compare your answers to the CD exercises with the correct answers listed

here. (Don’t cheat!)

Pitch Exercises (Tracks 3–10)

Identify the following pitches, using the treble clef, as played on the CD.

1. A

2. C

3. G

4. B(or A, enharmonically)

5. F(or G, enharmonically)

6. B

7. A(or G, enharmonically)

8. C(or D, enharmonically)

9. D

10. B

11. E(or D, enharmonically)

12. B(or A, enharmonically)

13. F

14. A(or G, enharmonically)

15. E

16. C

17. C(or D, enharmonically)

18. F(or G, enharmonically)

19. E

20. A

Identify the following lower pitches, using the bass clef, as played on the CD.

21. C

22. B(or A, enharmonically)

23. D

24. F

25. A(or G, enharmonically)

26. G

27. E

28. C(or D, enharmonically)

29. E(or D, enharmonically)

30. F(or G, enharmonically)

Appendix D

296

31. A

32. C

33. G

34. B

35. F(or G, enharmonically)

36. B(or A, enharmonically)

37. E

38. E(or D, enharmonically)

39. A

40. D

Interval Exercises (Tracks 12–23)

Identify the following ascending intervals, as played on the CD.

1. Perfect fifth

2. Octave

3. Perfect fourth

4. Major third

5. Minor third

6. Perfect fifth

7. Major sixth

8. Major seventh

9. Major second

10. Minor sixth

11. Perfect fourth

12. Minor second

13. Minor third

14. Perfect fifth

15. Tritone (or augmented fourth or diminished fifth, enharmonically)

16. Major third

17. Minor seventh

18. Octave

19. Major sixth

20. Major seventh

Identify the following descending intervals, as played on the CD.

21. Major third

22. Perfect fourth

23. Minor third

The Complete Idiot’s Guide to Music Theory, Second Edition, Ear Training Course CD 297

24. Octave

25. Perfect fifth

26. Perfect fifth

27. Major sixth

28. Major seventh

29. Major second

30. Minor sixth

31. Minor second

32. Minor third

33. Perfect fourth

34. Perfect fifth

35. Major third

36. Tritone (or augmented fourth or diminished fifth, enharmonically)

37. Minor seventh

38. Major sixth

39. Octave

40. Major seventh

Identify both the interval and the second note in each series, as played on the CD.

41. Minor third (A-C)

42. Perfect fifth (D-A)

43. Major seventh (G-F)

44. Minor third (B-D)

45. Perfect fourth (C-F)

46. Major sixth (A-F)

47. Octave (C-C)

48. Tritone (G-Cor G-D, enharmonically)

49. Major third (D-F)

50. Minor second (B-C)

51. Minor sixth (C-A)

52. Minor seventh (B-A)

53. Minor second (G-A)

54. Minor third (E-G)

55. Perfect fifth (F-C)

56. Major second (D-E)

57. Major third (E-G)

58. Major sixth (A-F)

59. Major seventh (G-F)

60. Octave (A-A)

Appendix D

298

Scale Exercises (Tracks 25–26)

Identify the following scale types and the starting note of each scale, as played

on the CD.

1. A Major

2. C Major

3. A natural minor

4. F Major

5. E natural minor

6. E harmonic minor

7. E melodic minor (ascending)

8. BMajor

9. D natural minor

10. G melodic minor (ascending)

Rhythm Exercises (Tracks 28–35)

Transcribe the following rhythms, as played on the CD.

The Complete Idiot’s Guide to Music Theory, Second Edition, Ear Training Course CD 299

Appendix D

300

Melody Exercises (Tracks 37–40)

Transcribe the following melodies, as played on the CD.

The Complete Idiot’s Guide to Music Theory, Second Edition, Ear Training Course CD 301

Appendix D

Chord Exercises (Tracks 42–45)

Identify the following chord types (major, minor, diminished, and augmented),

as played on the CD.

1. Major

2. Minor

3. Major

4. Major

5. Minor

6. Diminished

7. Major

8. Augmented

9. Minor

10. Diminished

Identify the following types of extended chords, as played on the CD.

11. Major seventh

12. Minor seventh

13. Dominant seventh

14. Major seventh

15. Dominant seventh

16. Major ninth

17. Dominant seventh

18. Minor ninth

19. Major seventh

20. Minor seventh

302

The Complete Idiot’s Guide to Music Theory, Second Edition, Ear Training Course CD

Repeat the previous exercises, this time writing out the actual chord names

(with the correct starting pitch) for each chord.

1. C Major

2. F minor

3. E Major

4. BMajor

5. G minor

6. B diminished

7. EMajor

8. Eaugmented

9. D minor

10. G diminished

11. F Major seventh

12. G minor seventh

13. Edominant seventh (E7)

14. D Major seventh

15. A dominant seventh (A7)

16. C Major ninth

17. F dominant seventh (F7)

18. D minor ninth

19. EMajor seventh

20. Fminor seventh

303

Symbols/Numbers

I chord, 130-131

I-ii-IV chord progression, 136

I-ii-IV-V chord progression, 136

I-IV chord progression, 134

I-IV-V chord progression, 135

I-IV-V-IV chord progression, 135

I-V chord progression, 134-135

I-V-vi-IV chord progression, 135

I-vi-ii-V chord progression, 136

I-vi-ii-V7-ii chord progression, 136

I-vi-IV-V chord progression, 136

ii-V-I chord progression, 137

V-I chord progression, 133

2/2 time, conducting, 260

2/4/8/16 rule (melody), 100-101

4/4 time, 68

conducting, 259-260

rhythms, 57

time signatures, 68

8va notation, 232

A Major scale, 30

A minor

harmonic minor scale, 35

melodic minor scale, 37

minor keys, 48

natural minor scale, 33

a tempo, 80

A-flat Major scale, 30

A-flat minor

harmonic minor scale, 35

melodic minor scale, 37

minor keys, 49

natural minor scale, 33

A-sharp minor

harmonic minor scale, 35

melodic minor scale, 37

minor keys, 48

natural minor scale, 33

absolute pitch, 159

accelerando, 80

accented notes, 82-83

accidental notes, 18, 51-52

accompaniment, 167

chord sheets, 168-169

comping technique, 124

exercises, 175

lead sheets, 168

melodies, 169-170

playing without music, 170

song form, 170

strumming, 174-175

techniques, 170-174

arpeggiated, 173

bass, 174

block chord, 171

rhythmic, 171-173

active listening skills, ear training,

157-158

adagietto tempo, 79

adagio tempo, 79

Aeolian mode, 41-42

allegretto tempo, 79

allegro tempo, 79

alphabet tone names, 8

altered bass chords, 205

altered chords, 120-121

altos, vocal arrangements, 226

alto clefs, 13

andante tempo, 79

andantino tempo, 79

anthems, 149

arias, 149

arpeggiated accompaniment, 173

arpeggiated chords, 112, 219

arrangements

instrumental

characteristics, 227-230

good and bad concert keys,

232

ranges, 232-236

transposing, 230-232

vocal arrangements, 225-227

ranges, 226-227

voice characteristics, 226

Arranging and Composing for the

Small Ensemble, 263

Arranging Concepts Complete, 263

augmented chords

notations, 115

triads, 115

augmented intervals, 22

B Major scale, 30

B minor

harmonic minor scale, 35

melodic minor scale, 37

minor keys, 49

natural minor scale, 33

B-flat instruments, transposing for,

230

B-flat Major scale, 30

B-flat minor

harmonic minor scale, 35

melodic minor scale, 37

minor keys, 48

natural minor scale, 33

Bach, Johann Sebastian, Minuet in G

chord progression, 139-140

melodic techniques, 93-94

baritones, vocal arrangements, 226

bass

accompaniment, 174

vocal arrangements, 226

walking bass lines, 174

bass clef, 12

beats

measures, 58

tempo, 77

bpm (beats per minute), 78

changing, 80

click tracks, 78

conducting, 261

fast tempos, 79

fermatas, 80-81

Italian musical terms, 78-79

metronome, 78

moderate tempos, 79

slow tempos, 79

time signatures, 67-73

changing, 72

eighth-notes, 69

grouping beats, 72-73

half-notes, 71-72

meters, 67

quarter-note, 68-69

beats per minute. See bpm

big band music, 247-248

Index

306 The Complete Idiot’s Guide to Music Theory, Second Edition

block chord accompaniment, 171

blues music, chord progressions,

138

books as resources, 263

bpm (beats per minute), 78

brass ranges, 235-236

brass instrument arrangements, 229

bridges in songs, 147

C Major

major keys, 46

major scale, 29

C minor

harmonic minor scale, 34

melodic minor scale, 36

minor keys, 49

natural minor scale, 32

C-flat Major scale, 30

C-sharp Major keys, 46

C-sharp minor

harmonic minor scale, 34

melodic minor scale, 36

minor keys, 49

natural minor scale, 32

cadences

imperfect, 133-134

interrupted, 134

plagal, 133

V-I progression, 133

calando (dynamic marking), 83

call-and-response melodies, 105

Canon in D

chord progressions, 140

melodic techniques, 95

canons, 149

cantatas, 149

changing

dynamics, 81-82

keys, 52-53

tempos, 80

time signatures, 72

choral music, 243, 247

choral symphonies, 149

chorales, 149

chords

adding to music, 123-124

altered bass, 205

altered chords, 120-121

arpeggiated, 112, 219

augmented, 115

block chord accompaniment,

171

compound, 205-206

diminished, 114

extensions, 203-204

eleventh chord, 120

ninth chord, 119-120

seventh chord, 116-118

sixth chord, 119

forming, 112

hearing, 163-164

inversions, 122-123, 189-191

first inversion, 122

root inversion, 122

second inversion, 122

major chords

notation, 113

triads, 113

minor chords

notation, 114

triads, 114

power, 122

progressions

blues, 138

chord leading, 131-133

chord substitutions, 206-209

common progressions,

134-137

creating, 130

exercises, 143

extensions, 203-204

hearing, 163-164

melodies, 106-107, 138-141

phrase-ending chord progres-

sion (cadence), 133-134

returning to the I chord,

130-131

scale-based chords, 127-130

writing tips, 141-142

seventh chords, 204

sheets, 168-169, 243

substitutions

diatonic, 206-207

dominant seventh, 208-209

functional, 209

major, 207

minor, 207-208

suspended, 121-122

tonic, 243

triads, 112

turnarounds, 210-211

voicing, 189-191

chorus

out chorus, 147

songs, 146

chromatic intervals, 103

chromatic notes, 31

chromatic scale, 28

circle of fifths

chord progression, 137

keys, 50

classical music forms, 149-151

clefs

bass, 12

grand staff, 12-13

specialty

alto, 13

octave 14

percussion, 14

tenor, 13

treble, 11-12

click track, 78

Coda sign, 85

comping technique, 124

Complete Idiot’s Guide to Music

Theory, Second Edition, Ear

Training Course, The, 156

Complete Idiot’s Guide to Music

Composition, The, 109, 263

Complete Idiot’s Guide to Playing

Drums, The, 263

Complete Idiot’s Guide to Singing,

The, 263

Complete Idiot’s Guide to Solos and

Improvisation, The, 263

composing. See also music, songs,

written music

arrangements

instrumental, 227-232

vocal, 225-227

counterpoint. See counterpoint

harmony. See harmony

melodies, 95-97

compound chords, 205-206

compound intervals, 23

con sordino (dynamic marking), 83

concert band music, 248-251

concert keys, 178

good and bad concert keys, 232

transpositions, 231

concertos, 149

conducting

2/2 time, 260

4/4 time, 259-260

in three pattern, 260-261

practicing, 261-262

Index 307

preparations, 257-258

rehearsal routines, 258

setting the tempo, 261

contour melodies, 101

counterpoint, 187

creating, 195-198

note combinations to avoid

big leaps, 198-199

dissonant intervals, 199

parallel movements, 198

overview, 194-195

crescendos, 82

cycles per second, frequency, 5

D Major scale, 29

D minor

harmonic minor scale, 34

melodic minor scale, 36

minor keys, 49

natural minor scale, 33

D-flat Major keys, 46

D-sharp minor

harmonic minor scale, 34

melodic minor scale, 36

minor keys, 49

natural minor scale, 33

decrescendo, 82

degree-wise transposition, 180-181

degrees of the scale, 19-25

augmented intervals, 22

compound intervals, 23

diminished intervals, 22

half steps, 23-25

major and minor intervals, 21

perfect intervals, 21

diatonic chord substitutions,

206-207

diatonic notes, 31

diminished chords

notations, 115

triads, 114

diminished intervals, 22

diminuendo (dynamic marking), 83

dissonant intervals, 199

dolcissimo (dynamic marking), 83

dominant seventh chord substitu-

tions, 208-209

dominant seventh chords, 116-117

doppio movimento, 80

Dorian mode, 39

dotted notes, 63

drums, 229

Dvorˇák, Antonin, New World

Symphony

chord progression, 140

melodic techniques, 92-93

E Major scale, 29

E minor

harmonic minor scale, 35

melodic minor scale, 36

minor keys, 49

natural minor scale, 33

E-flat instruments, transposing for,

231

E-flat Major scale, 29

E-flat minor

harmonic minor scale, 34

melodic minor scale, 36

minor keys, 49

natural minor scale, 33

ear training, 155-164

active listening skills, 157-158

developing hearing skills

chords and chord progres-

sions, 163-164

intervals, 159-160

keys, 163

melodies, 162-163

pitch, 158

rhythms, 162

resources, 156

transcribing music, 156, 164

eight-measure phrase rule, 147-148

eighth notes, 61, 69

eleventh chords, 120

endings

creating memorable melodies, 98

songs, 147

enharmonic notes, 18

exercises

accompaniment, 175

chord progressions, 143

intervals, 25

keys, 53

scales, 43

time signatures, 74-75

transpositions, 183

extensions (chords), 203-204

eleventh, 120

ninth, 119-120

seventh, 116-118

sixth, 119

F instruments, transposing for, 231

F Major scale, 30

F minor

harmonic minor scale, 35

melodic minor scale, 37

minor keys, 49

natural minor scale, 33

F-sharp Major scale, 30

F-sharp minor

harmonic minor scale, 35

melodic minor scale, 37

minor keys, 49

natural minor scale, 33

fast tempos, 79

fermata, 80-81

fifth modulation, 52

first inversions (chords), 122

flags, 61

flams, 217

flats

key signatures

circle of fifths, 50

overview, 48

pitch intervals, 17-18

sign, 18

flute, 228

forced accents, 82

forms

accompaniment, 170

classical music forms, 149-151

melodies, 107

forte (dynamic marking), 81

fortissimo (dynamic marking), 81

fortississimo (dynamic marking), 81

fourth modulation, 52

frequency (tone value)

cycles per second, 5

oscilloscopes, 5

fugues, 149

functional chord substitutions, 209

G Major scale, 30

G minor

harmonic minor scale, 35

melodic minor scale, 37

minor keys, 49

natural minor scale, 33

G-flat Major scale, 30

308 The Complete Idiot’s Guide to Music Theory, Second Edition

G-sharp minor

harmonic minor scale, 35

melodic minor scale, 37

minor keys, 49

natural minor scale, 33

glissandos, 219

grace notes, 217-218

grand motets, 149

grand staffs, 12-13

grave tempos, 79

Gregorian chants, 150

grouping beats, time signatures,

72-73

guitar tabs, 124

guitars

accompaniment, 174-175

instrumental arrangements, 228

half notes, 59-60, 71-72

half step intervals, 18-19, 23-25

half-step modulation, 52

harmonic minor scale, 34-35

harmonic tension (melody), 104-105

harmonics, 21

harmony

counterpoint, 187

note combinations to avoid

big leaps, 198-199

dissonant intervals, 199

parallel movements, 198

swapping notes, 192

voice leading, 192-193

voicing and inversions, 189-191

head arrangements, 148

Hearing and Writing Music:

Professional Training for Today’s

Musician, 156, 263

hearing skills (ear training)

chords and chord progressions,

163-164

intervals, 159-160

keys, 163

melodies, 162-163

pitch, 158

rhythms, 162

high-pitched tones, 4

holding notes (fermata), 80-81

home chords, returning to, 130-131

home pitch, memorable melodies,

97-98

hooks, memorable melodies, 99-100

imperfect cadences, 133-134

incalzando (dynamic marking), 83

indefinite pitch clefs, 14

instrumental arrangements

characteristics

brass, 229

guitars, 228

keyboards, 229

percussion, 229-230

strings, 227

woodwinds, 228

good and bad concert keys, 232

ranges, 232-236

solos, 147

transposing instruments, 230-232

instruments

melodies, 108

MIDI (musical instrument digi-

tal interface), 253

unpitched, 4

internalizing music, 158

interrupted cadences, 134

interval-based transpositions,

181-182

intervals

Aeolian mode, 42

chromatic, 103

degrees of the scale, 19-25

augmented, 22

compound, 23

half steps, 23-25

major and minor, 21

perfect, 21

dissonant, 199

Dorian Mode, 39

exercises, 25

half steps, 18-19

harmonic minor scale, 34

hearing, 159-160

Ionian mode, 39

Locrian mode, 42

Lydian mode, 40

major scales, 29

melodic minor scale, 36

melodies, 102-103

Mixolydian mode, 41

Mod-12 system, 24

natural minor scale, 32

Phrygian mode, 40

sharps and flats, 17-18

tones, 6

introductions, songs, 146

inversions, chords, 189-191

inverted chords, 122-123

first inversion, 122

root inversion, 122

second inversion, 122

Ionian mode, 38-39

Italian musical terms, 78-79

J–K

jazz band music, 247-248

keyboards

instrumental arrangements, 229

ranges, 236-237

keys, 45

changing, 52-53

circle of fifths, 50

concert, 178

good and bad concert keys, 232

transpositions, 231

exercises, 53

hearing, 163

key signatures

changing keys, 52-53

outside the key notes (acciden-

tal), 51-52

overview, 46

sharps and flats, 48-50

major keys, 46

minor keys, 48-49

outside the key notes (acciden-

tal), 51-52

transposition. See transposition

larghetto tempo, 79

largo tempo, 79

lead sheets, 168, 242

leading notes, 34

ledger lines (staff), 11

leggiero (dynamic marking), 83

lento tempo, 79

lieders, 149

listening (ear training), 155-164

active listening skills, 157-158

developing hearing skills, 158-164

resources, 156

transcribing music, 156, 164

Locrian mode, 42-43

low-pitched tones, 4

Index 309

Lydian mode, 40-41

lyrics

melodies, 107-108

notating, 220-221

madrigals, 149

Maelzel’s Metronome. See MM

major chords

notation, 113

substitutions, 207

triads, 113

major intervals, 21

major keys, 46

major scales

intervals, 29

overview, 28-30

major seventh chords, 117

mancando (dynamic marking), 83

marcato (dynamic marking), 83

marches, 149

markings

dynamics, 81-83

notes

staccato mark, 217

tenuto mark, 217

turn mark, 218

martellato (dynamic marking), 83

“Mary Had a Little Lamb,” chord

progressions, 141

masses, 150

measures

repeat signs, 85

rhythms, 58

time signatures

changing, 72

eighth-notes, 69

grouping beats, 72-73

half-notes, 71-72

meters, 67

quarter-notes, 68-69

melodic minor scales, 35-37

melodies

accompaniment. See accompani-

ment

chord progressions

Canon in D, 140

“Mary Had a Little Lamb,”

141

“Michael, Row the Boat

Ashore,” 139

Minuet in G, 139-140

New World Symphony, 140

writing tips, 141-142

combining tones and rhythms,

91-92

composing, 95-97

hearing, 162-163

melodic techniques

Canon in D, 95

“Michael, Row the Boat

Ashore,” 94

Minuet in G, 93-94

New World Symphony, 92-93

memorable melodies

2/4/8/16 rule, 100-101

call and response, 105

chord progressions, 106-107

contour, 101

endings, 98

form, 107

harmonic tension, 104-105

home pitch, 97-98

hooks, 99-100

instruments, 108

intervals, 102-103

lyrics, 107-108

pentatonic scale, 99

range, 102

repetition, 106

rhythm, 103-104

scales, 98-99

skip-wise motion, 101-102

step-wise motion, 101-102

symmetry, 105-106

time signatures, 104

uniqueness, 108

varying motifs, 100

vocals, 108

overview, 91

resources, 108-109

Melody in Songwriting: Tools and

Techniques for Writing Hit Songs, 263

memorable melodies. See melodies

memory

rhythmic, 162

tonal, 158

meters, time signatures, 67

metronome, 78

mezza voce (dynamic marking), 83

mezzo forte (dynamic marking), 81

mezzo piano (dynamic marking), 81

“Michael, Row the Boat Ashore”

chord progression, 139

melodic techniques, 94

MIDI (musical instrument digital

interface), 253

minor chords

notation, 114

substitutions, 207-208

triads, 114

minor intervals, 21

minor keys, 48-49

minor scales

harmonic, 34-35

melodic, 35-37

natural, 31-33

minor seventh chords, 117-118

Minuet in G

chord progression, 139-140

melodic techniques, 93-94

minuets, 150

Mixolydian mode, 41

MM (Maelzel’s Metronome), 78

Mod-12 system (intervals), 24

moderato tempo, 79

modes

Aeolian, 41-42

Dorian, 39

Ionian, 38-39

Locrian, 42-43

Lydian, 40-41

Mixolydian, 41

Phrygian, 40

modulating keys

fourth, 52

half-step, 52

Molehill Group website, 264

molto vivace tempo, 79

morendo (dynamic marking), 83

motets, 150

motifs, memorable melodies, 100

motion

contour melodies, 101

skip-wise, 101-102

step-wise, 101-102

multiple-measure rest sign, 86-87

music. See also composing, songs,

written music

adding chords, 123-124

classical music forms, 149-151

conducting, 258-262

defining characteristics, 3-4

head arrangements, 148

internalizing, 158

keys, 45-53

navigation techniques, 83-87

notating lyrics, 220-221

310 The Complete Idiot’s Guide to Music Theory, Second Edition

song parts, 146-147

tempo, 78-80

transcribing, 156, 164

music notation software, 252

Music Notes Music Theory web-

site, 264

Music Theory Web website, 264

musical instrument digital interface.

See MIDI, 253

Musictheory.net website, 264

names, tones

alphabet method, 8

piano keyboard, 9

staff, 9-11

Nashville Number System, 243

natural minor scale, 31-33

natural sign, 18

navigation techniques (songs), 83-87

Coda sign, 85

measure repeat sign, 85

multiple-measure rest sign, 86-87

note repeat, 85-86

repeating sections, 84

Segno sign, 84-85

neighboring tones, 96

New World Symphony

chord progression, 140

melodic techniques, 92-93

ninth chords, 119-120

notation techniques

arpeggiated chords, 219

augmented chords, 115

diminished chords, 115

glissandos, 219

grace notes, 217-218

lyrics, 220-221

major chords, 113

major seventh chords, 117

minor chords, 114

minor seventh chords, 118

music notation software, 252

phrases, 216

slurs, 216

staccato mark, 217

swing, 219-220

tenuto mark, 217

ties, 215-216

trills, 218

turns, 218

writing music, 241-242

noteheads, 60

notes

accented, 82-83

accidentals, 18

chords. See chords

combinations to avoid

big leaps, 198-199

dissonant intervals, 199

parallel movements, 198

counting, 62

eighth, 69

enharmonic, 18

flags, 61

half, 71-72

holding notes (fermata), 80-81

key. See key

natural signs, 18

notation techniques

8va notation, 232

arpeggiated chords, 219

glissandos, 219

grace notes, 217-218

phrases, 216

slurs, 216

staccato mark, 217

swings, 219-220

tenuto mark, 217

ties, 215-216

trills, 218

turns, 218

noteheads, 60

outside the key notes (acciden-

tals), 51-52

pentatonic scales, 99

piano keyboards, 9

quarter, 68-69

repeat notation, 85-86

rests, 62-63

scales

chromatic, 28

diatonic, 31

leading notes, 34

major, 28-30

minor, 31-37

modes, 38-43

overview, 27-28

staffs

clefs, 11-14

naming tones, 9-11

swapping (harmony), 192

transposing, 177-178

values, 58-63

dotted, 63

eighth, 61

half, 59-60

quarter, 60

sixteenth, 61

thirty-second, 61

tied, 64

triplets, 64

whole, 59

numbers

degrees of the scale, 19-25

augmented intervals, 22

compound intervals, 23

diminished intervals, 22

half steps, 23-25

major and minor intervals, 21

perfect intervals, 21

tones, 6-7

octave clefs, 14

online resources, 263

operas, 150

operettas, 150

oratorios, 150

orchestra scores, 252

orchestration, 238

oscilloscopes, 5

out chorus, 147

outside the key notes (accidentals),

51-52

Pachelbel, Johann, Canon in D

chord progression, 140

melodic techniques, 95

parallel movements, avoiding, 198

parts of a song

bridge, 147

chorus, 146

endings, 147

instrumental solos, 147

introductions, 146

verse, 146

pentatonic scales, 99

percussion

instrumental arrangements,

229-230

ranges, 237

percussion clefs, 14

perdendosi (dynamic marking), 83

perfect intervals, 21

perfect pitch, 6, 159

Index 311

performing music, conducting

2/2 time, 260

4/4 time, 259-260

in three, 260-261

practicing, 261-262

preparations, 257-258

rehearsal routines, 258

setting the tempo, 261

phrase-ending chord progression

(cadence)

imperfect cadences, 133-134

interrupted cadences, 134

plagal cadences, 133

V-I progression, 133

phrases, notation techniques, 216

Phrygian mode, 40

pianissimo (dynamic marking), 81

pianississimo (dynamic marking), 81

piano (dynamic marking), 81

pianos

accompaniment, 174-175

keyboards, naming tones, 9

pitch. See also tone

concert, 178

contour melodies, 101

defining characteristics, 4

fundamentals 21

harmonics, 21

hearing, 158

high-pitched tones, 4

home pitch, 97-98

intervals

degrees of the scale, 19-25

half steps, 18-19

Mod-12 system, 24

sharps and flats, 17-18

low-pitched tones, 4

naming tones, 8-11

numbering tones, 6-7

perfect pitch, 6, 159

pitch memory, 158

scales, 6

scientific pitch notation, 9

tuning forks, 6

unpitched instruments, 4

plagal cadences, 133

plainsongs, 150

play-through, rehearsal routine,

258

power chords, 122

prestissimo tempo, 79

presto tempo, 79

programme music, 150

progressions (chord progressions)

blues progression, 138

chord leading, 131-133

chord substitutions, 206-209

common progressions

circle of fifths, 137

I-ii-IV, 136

I-ii-IV-V, 136

I-IV, 134

I-IV-V, 135

I-IV-V-IV, 135

I-V, 134-135

I-V-vi-IV, 135

I-vi-ii-V, 136

I-vi-ii-V7-ii, 136

I-vi-IV-V, 136

ii-V-I, 137

IV-I-IV-V, 137

creating, 130

exercises, 143

extensions, 203-204

hearing, 163-164

melodies, 106-107, 138-141

Canon in D, 140

“Mary Had a Little Lamb,”

141

“Michael, Row the Boat

Ashore,” 139

Minuet in G, 139-140

New World Symphony, 140

phrase-ending chord progres-

sion (cadence)

imperfect cadence, 133-134

interrupted cadence, 134

plagal cadence, 133

V-I progression, 133

returning to the I chord,

130-131

scale-based chords, 127-130

writing tips, 141-142

Q–R

quarter notes, 60, 68-69

rallentando, 80

ranges

instrumental arrangements, 232,

236

melodies, 102

vocal arrangements, 226-227

rehearsal routine

play-through, 258

setup, 258

tuneup, 258

warmup, 258

repeat marks, 84

repetition

measures, 85

melodies, 106

notes, 85-86

sections, 84

resources

books, 263

ear training, 156

melodies, 108-109

online, 263

rests

multiple-measure rest sign,

86-87

resting notes, 62-63

rhythmic accompaniment, 171-173

rhythms

4/4 time, 57

counting notes, 62

hearing, 162

measures, 58

melodies, 91-92, 103-104

note values, 58-64

dotted, 63

eighth, 61

half, 59-60

quarter, 60

rest, 62-63

sixteenth, 61

thirty-second, 61

tied, 64

triplets, 64

whole, 59

rhythmic memory, 162

syncopated, 103

ritardando, 80

ritenuto, 80

root inversions, 122

scales (musical scale)

chromatic, 28

creating memorable melodies,

98-99

degrees of the scale, 19-25

augmented, 22

compound, 23

312 The Complete Idiot’s Guide to Music Theory, Second Edition

diminished, 22

half steps, 23, 25

major and minor, 21

perfect, 21

exercises, 43

diatonic notes, 31

keys, 45-53

changing, 52-53

circle of fifths, 50

key signatures, 46

major keys, 46

minor keys, 48-49

outside the key notes (acci-

dental), 51-52

major scales

intervals, 29

overview, 28-30

minor scales

harmonic minor, 34-35

melodic minor, 35-37

natural minor, 31-33

modes

Aeolian, 41-42

Dorian, 39

Ionian, 38-39

Locrian, 42-43

Lydian, 40-41

Mixolydian, 41

Phrygian, 40

overview, 27-28

pentatonic scale, 99

pitch, 6

scale-based chords, 127-130

scientific pitch notation, 9

scores. See also music, written music

choral music, 243, 247

concert band, 248-251

jazz band, 247-248

navigation techniques, 83-87

Coda sign, 85

measure repeat sign, 85

multiple-measure rest sign,

86-87

note repeat, 85-86

repeating sections, 84

Segno sign, 84-85

notation guidelines, 241-242

orchestra, 252

second inversions (chords), 122

Segno sign, 84-85

senza sordini (dynamic marking), 83

setup, rehearsal routine, 258

seventh chords, 204

dominant, 116-117

major, 117

minor, 117-118

sharps

key signatures

circle of fifths, 50

overview, 48

pitch intervals, 17-18

sign, 18

sixteenth notes, 61

sixth chords, 119

skip-wise motion (melody), 101-102

slash chords. See altered bass

chords

slow tempos, 79

slurs, notation techniques, 216

smorzando (dynamic marking), 83

software

music notation software, 252

software-based transposition, 182

Solfeggio method, tone values, 7-8

sonatas, 150

songs. See also music, written music

classical music, 150

counterpoint, 198-199

dynamics

accented notes, 82-83

changing, 81-82

markings, 81, 83

eight-measure phrase rule,

147-148

forms

classical, 149-151

head arrangements, 148

harmony

counterpoint, 187

note combinations to avoid,

198-199

swapping notes, 192

voice leading, 192-193

voicing and inversions,

189-191

melodies. See melodies

navigation techniques, 83-87

Coda sign, 85

measure repeat sign, 85

multiple-measure rest sign,

86-87

note repeat, 85-86

repeating sections, 84

Segno sign, 84-85

notating lyrics, 220-221

parts

bridge, 147

chorus, 146

endings, 147

instrumental solos, 147

introductions, 146

verse, 146

transposition

common uses, 178-179

degree-wise, 180-181

exercises, 183

interval-based, 181-182

overview, 177-178

software-based, 182

step-wise, 179-180

sopranos, vocal arrangements, 226

sotto voce (dynamic marking), 83

specialty clefs

alto, 13

octave, 14

percussion, 14

tenor, 13

staccato mark, 217

staff

clefs

bass, 12

grand, 12-13

specialty, 13-14

treble, 11-12

ledger lines, 11

naming tones, 9-11

step-wise motion (melody), 101-102

step-wise transposition, 179-180

strepitoso (dynamic marking), 83

strings

instrumental arrangements,

227-228

quartets, 150

ranges, 233

strumming, accompaniment,

174-175

Study of Orchestration, The, 263

substitution (chord substitution)

diatonic, 206-207

dominant seventh, 208-209

functional, 209

major, 207

minor, 207-208

sudden accents, 82

suites, 150

suspended chords, 121-122

swapping notes (harmony), 192

swing, notation techniques, 219-220

symmetry, melodies, 105-106

symphonies, 150

syncopated rhythms, 103

Index 313

tacet (dynamic marking), 83

tempo, 77

bpm (beats per minute), 78

changing, 80

click tracks, 78

conducting, 261

fast, 79

fermatas, 80-81

Italian musical terms, 78-79

metronome, 78

moderate, 79

primo, 80

slow, 79

tempo primo, 80

tenor clefs, 13

tenors, vocal arrangements, 226

tenuto mark, 217

thirty-second notes, 61

tied notes, 64

ties, notation techniques, 215-216

time signatures

changing, 72

eighth notes, 69

exercises, 74-75

grouping beats, 72-73

half notes, 71-72

melodies, 104

meters, 67

quarter notes, 68-69

tonal memory, 158

tones. See also pitch

high-pitched, 4

intervals, 6

low-pitched, 4

melodies, 91-92

names

alphabet method, 8

piano keyboard, 9

staff, 9-11

neighboring, 96

overview, 4

values

frequency, 5

numbering, 6-7

Solfeggio method, 7-8

tonic, 34

tonic chords, 243

training your ear. See ear training

transcribing music, 156, 164

transposition

common uses, 178-179

concert keys, 231

degree-wise, 180-181

exercises, 183

instruments, 230-232

interval-based, 181-182

overview, 177-178

software-based, 182

step-wise, 179-180

treble clefs, 11-12

triads (chords), 112-115

augmented, 115

diminished, 114

major, 113

minor, 114

trills, notation techniques, 218

triplet notes, 64

tritones, 103

trombones, instrumental arrange-

ments, 229

trumpets, instrumental arrange-

ments, 229

tubas, instrumental arrangements,

229

Tunesmith: Inside the Art of

Songwriting, 106, 263

tuneup, rehearsal routine, 258

tuning forks, 6

turnarounds

IV-I-IV-V chord progression,

137

common chords, 210-211

turns, notation techniques, 218

tutta forza (dynamic marking), 83

U–V

una corda (dynamic marking), 83

unpitched instruments, 4

values

notes, 58-64

dotted, 63

eighth, 61

half, 59-60

quarter, 60

sixteenth, 61

thirty-second, 61

tied, 64

triplets, 64

whole, 59

tones

frequency, 5

numbering, 6-7

Solfeggio method, 7-8

variations, memorable melodies, 100

verses, songs, 146

violins, 227

vivace tempo, 79

vocal arrangements, 225

characteristics

alto, 226

baritone, 226

bass, 226

soprano, 226

tenor, 226

melodies, 108

ranges, 226-227

voice leading, 192-193

voicing chords (harmony), 189-191

volume, dynamics

accented notes, 82-83

changing, 81-82

markings, 81-83

W–X–Y–Z

walking bass lines, 174

warmup, rehearsal routine, 258

websites

Molehill Group, 264

Music Notes Music Theory, 264

Music Theory Web, 264

Musictheory.net, 264

What to Listen for in Music, 263

whole notes, 59

woodwinds

instrumental arrangements, 228

ranges, 234-235

written music. See also composing,

music, songs

adding chords, 123-124

arrangements

instrumental arrangements,

227-236

vocal arrangements, 225-227

choral music, 243, 247

chord progressions, 141-142

chord sheets, 243

concert band, 248-251

jazz band, 247-248

lead sheets, 242

music notation software, 252

Nashville Number System, 243

notation techniques, 241-242

arpeggiated chords, 219

314 The Complete Idiot’s Guide to Music Theory, Second Edition

glissando, 219

grace notes, 217-218

lyrics, 220-221

phrases, 216

slurs, 216

staccato mark, 217

swings, 219-220

tenuto mark, 217

ties, 215-216

trills, 218

turns, 218

orchestras, 252

transcription tips, 164

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