Concurrent_CPM 86_Programmers_Utilities_Mar83 Concurrent CPM 86 Programmers Utilities Mar83
Concurrent_CPM-86_Programmers_Utilities_Mar83 Concurrent_CPM-86_Programmers_Utilities_Mar83
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Concurrent CP /M-86™
Operating System
'
Programmer's Utilities Guide
[!ill
DIGITAL
RESfARCHTM
Concurrent CP /M-86 ™
Operating System
Programmer's Utilities Guide
COPYRIGHT
Copyright © 1983 by Digital Research. All rights reserved. No part of this publication
may be reproduced, transmitted, transcribed, stored in a retrieval system, or translated
into any language or computer language, in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, magnetic, optical, chemical, manual or otherwise, without the prior written
permission of Digital Research, Post Office Box 579, Pacific Grove, California, 93950.
DISCLAIMER
Digital Research makes no representations or warranties with respect to the contents
hereof and specifically disclaims any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for
any particular purpose. Further, Digital Research reserves the right to revise this publication and to make changes from time to time in the content hereof without obligation
of Digital Research to notify any person of such revision or changes.
TRADEMARKS
CP/M is a registered trademark of Digital Research. ASM-86, Concurrent CP/M-86,
DDT-86, and MAC are trademarks of Digital Research. Intel is a registered trademark
of Intel Corporation. MCS-86 is a trademark of Intel Corporation. Z80 is a registered
trademark of Zilog, Inc. IBM Personal Computer is a tradename of International
Business Machines.
The Concurrent CP/M-86 Programmer's Utilities Guide was prepared using the
Digital Research TEX Text Formatter and printed in the United States of America.
First Edition: March 1983
Foreword
The Concurrent CPIM-86™ Programmer's Utilities Guide documents the 8088 and
8086 assembly language instruction set, rules for use of the Digital Research ASM-86™
assembler, and rules for use of the Digital Research dynamic debugging tool, DDT-86 ™.
Section 1 contains an introduction to the Digital Research assembler, ASM-86, and
the various options that can be used with it. Through one of these options, ASM-86 can
generate 8086 machine code in either Intel ® or Digital Research format. Appendix A
describes these formats.
Section 2 discusses the elements of ASM-86 assembly language. It defines the ASM-86
character set, constants, variables, identifiers, operators, expressions, and statements.
Section 3 describes the ASM-86 housekeeping functions, such as conditional assembly, multiple source file inclusion, and control of the listing printout format.
Section 4 summarizes the 8086 instruction mnemonics accepted by ASM-86. These
mnemonics are the same as those used by the Intel assembler, except for four instructions:
the intrasegment short jump, intersegment jump, return, and call instructions. Appendix B
summarizes these differences.
Section 5 discusses the Code-macro facilities of ASM-86, including Code-macro
definition, specifiers, and modifiers, and nine special Code-macro directives. This information is also summarized in Appendix G.
Section 6 discusses DDT-86, the Dynamic Debugging Tool that allows the user to
test- and debug programs in the 8086 environment. The section includes a sample
debugging section.
iii
Concurrent CP/M-86 is supported and documented through four manuals:
• The Concurrent CPIM-86 User's Guide documents the user's interface to Concurrent CP/M-86, explaining the various features used to execute applications
programs and Digital Research utility programs.
• The Concurrent CPIM-86 Programmer's Reference Guide documents the applications programmer's interface to Concurrent CP/M-86, explaining the internal
file structure and system entry points, information essential to create applications
programs that run in the Concurrent CP/M-86 environment.
• The Concurrent CPIM-86 Programmer's Utilities Guide documents the Digital
Research utility programs programmers use to write, debug, and verify applications programs written for the Concurrent CP/M-86 environment.
• The Concurrent CPIM-86 System Guide documents the internal, hardwaredependent structures of Concurrent CP/M-86.
iv
T able of Contents
1 Introduction to ASM-S6
1.1 Assembler Operation . . . . .
1.2 Optional Run-time Parameters
1.3 Ending ASM -86 . . . . . . . . .
2
Elements of ASM-S6 Assembly Language
2.1 ASM-S6 Character Set
2.2 Tokens and Separators
2.3 Delimiters · .... · .
2.4 Constants
· .....
2.4.1 Numeric Constants
2.4.2 Character Strings
2.5 Identifiers
· ..... ..
2.5.1 Keywords .. · ..
2.5.2 Symbols and Their Attributes
2.6 Operators
· .... · .
2.6.1 Operator Examples
2.6.2 Operator Precedence
2.7 Expressions
.....
2.S Statements . · . ......
3
1-1
1-4
1-5
.....
......
.....
2-1
· . 2-1
· . 2-1
· 2-3
· . 2-3
· . 2-4
· 2-4
· . 2-5
· . 2-6
· . 2-8
2-12
2-14
2-16
2-16
Assembler Directives
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . .
3.2 Segment Start Directives .. .
3.2.1 The CSEG Directive
3.2.2 The DSEG Directive
3.2.3 The SSEG Directive
3.2.4 The ESEG Directive
3.3 The ORG Directive . . . . .
3.4 The IF and END IF Directives
3.5 The INCLUDE Directive
3.6 The END Directive
3.7 The EQU Directive
3.S The DB Directive
3.9 The DW Directive
3.10 The DD Directive
· .
·
·
· .
· .
·
· .
....
·
.......
· .
.......
v
3-1
3-1
3-2
3-2
3-3
3-3
3-4
3-4
3-5
3-5
3-5
3-6
3-7
3-S
Table of Contents
3.11
3.12
3.13
3.14
3.15
3.16
3.17
3.18
3.19
3.20
(continued)
The RS Directive
The RB Directive
The RW Directive
The TITLE Directive
The PAGESIZE Directive
The PAGEWIDTH Directive
The EJECT Directive . . . .
The SIMFORM Directive .. .
The NO LIST and LIST Directives
The IFLIST and NOIFLIST Directives
· 3-8
. . . 3-9
. . . . 3-9
· 3-9
3-10
. . . . . . 3-10
. . . . . 3-10
3-10
3-11
3-11
4 The ASM-86 Instruction Set
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Data Transfer Instructions . . . . . . . . .
Arithmetic, Logical, and Shift Instructions
String Instructions . . . . . . .
Control Transfer Instructions . . .
Processor Control Instructions
Mnemonic Differences . . . . .
. . . . 4-1
. . . 4-3
· . 4-5
4-10
4-12
. . . . . 4-16
4-18
5 Code-macro Facilities
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
Introduction to Code-macros
Specifiers
Modifiers . . . . . . . .
Range Specifiers . . . . .
Code-macro Directives
5.5.1 SEGFIX ..
5.5.2 NOSEGFIX . . .
5.5.3 MODRM . . . .
5.5.4 RELB and RELW
5.5.5 DB, DWand DD
5.5.6 DBIT . . . . . .
· 5-1
· . 5-2
· . 5-4
· . 5-4
5-5
· 5-5
· 5-5
· . 5-6
· 5-7
· 5-8
· . 5-8
vi
Table of Contents (continued)
6 DDT-86
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1
DDT-86 Operation . . . . . . . . . . .
6.1.1 Starting DDT-86 . . . . . . . .
· . . . .
. . 6-1
6.1.2 DDT-86 Command Conventions
· . 6-1
6.1.3 Specifying a 20-Bit Address .. .
· . 6-3
. . . . . 6-3
6.1.4 Terminating DDT-86 . . . . . .
6.1.5 DDT-86 Operation with Interrupts
· . . . . . . . . . 6-3
6.2 DDT-86 Commands . . . . . . . . . . .
· . 6-4
6.2.1 The A (Assemble) Command . . . .
· . 6-4
. . . 6-4
6.2.2 The B (Block Compare) Command
6.2.3 The D (Display) Command . . . .
· . 6-5
. 6-6
6.2.4 The E (Load for Execution) Command
6.2.5 The F (Fill) Command . . . . . . . . . .
. 6-6
. . . . . . . . . 6-7
6.2.6 The G (Go) Command . . . . . . . .
6.2.7 The H (Hexadecimal Math) Command
. . . 6-8
. . . . . 6-8
6.2.8 The I (Input Command Tail) Command
. . . . 6-8
6.2.9 The L (List) Command . . . . . . . .
6.2.10 The M (Move) Command . . . . . . . .
· . 6-9
6.2.11 The QI, QO (Query 110) Commands
· . . . . . . . . . 6-9
6.2.12 The R (Read) Command
6-10
6.2.13 The S (Set) Command . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11
6.2.14 The SR (Search) Command
6-12
6.2.15 The T (Trace) Command ..
6-12
6.2.16 The U (Untrace) Command
6-13
6.2.17 The V (Value) Command ..
6-13
6.2.18 The W (Write) Command ..
6-14
6.2.19 The X (Examine CPU State) Command
. . . . . 6-14
6-16
6.3 Default Segment Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6-18
6.4 Assembly Language Syntax for A and L Commands
6.5 DDT-86 Sample Session . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6-19
6.1
vii
Table of Contents (continued)
Appendixes
A Starting ASM-86 . • . . .
. . • . • . A-1
B
Mnemonic Differences from the Intel Assembler • • .
. .•.•• B-1
C
ASM-86 Hexadecimal Output Format . . . . • . . •
.•.•• C-1
D Reserved Words. . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . • . . • • . . • . .
. . • • D-1
E
ASM-86 Instruction Summary •.
. . • • E-1
F
Sample Program APPF.A86 . . . . . • . . . . • . . •
• . . • F-1
G Code-macro Definition Syntax • . • • . . . . • • • .
• • . . . . . • . • G-1
. • • . • • . . • • .
H ASM-86 Error Messages . . • . . . . . . . . • . . • . . . . . • . . • . • . H-1
I
DDT-86 Error Messages .. . . . • . . . • . • . . • . . . . . . . • . . • . 1-1
viii
Table of Contents (continued)
Tables
1-1.
1-2.
Run-time Parameter Summary
Run-time Parameter Examples
1-4
1-5
2-1. Separators and Delimiters
2-2. Radix Indicators for Constants
2-3. String' Constant Examples
2-4. Register Keywords . . . . . .
2-5. ASM-86 Operators . . . . . .
. ... .
2-6. Precedence of Operations in ASM-86 . . . . .
· 2-2
· 2-3
· . 2-4
· . 2-6
· 2-9
2-15
4-1.
4-2.
4-3.
4-4.
4-5.
4-6.
4-7.
4-8.
4-9.
4-10.
4-11.
Operand Type Symbols ..
Flag Register Symbols
Data Transfer Instructions
Effects of Arithmetic Instructions on Flags
..... .
Arithmetic Instructions . ..
Logical and Spift Instruct{ons
String Instructions . . . . . .
Prefix Instructions . . . . .
Control Transfer Instructions
Processor Control Instructions
Mnemonic Differences .. . . . . . . . . .
· . . . . 4-1
· . . . . 4-3
· 4-3
· . . . . 4-5
· . 4-6
· . 4-8
4-10
4-12
4-13
4-16
4-18
5-1.
5-2.
Code-macro Operand Specifiers
Code-macro Operand Modifiers
· . 5-3
· . . . . 5-2
6-1.
6-2.
6-3.
DDT-86 Command Summary
Flag Name Abbreviations
DDT-86 Default Segment Values
· . 6-2
6-15
6-17
ix
Table of Contents
(continued)
Tables
A-1.
A-2.
A-3.
A-4.
Parameter Types and Devices
Parameter Types ..
Device Types . . . .
Invocation Examples
B-1.
Mnemonic Differences
· . . . B-1
. C-1.
C-2.
C-3.
Hexadecimal Record Contents
Hexadecimal Record Formats
Segment Record Types . . . .
.. C-1
· C-2
· . . . C-3
D-1.
Keywords or Reserved Words
.. D-1
E-1.
ASM-86 Instruction Summary
· . . . E-1
H-1.
ASM-86 Diagnostic Error Messages
1-1.
DDT-86 Error Messages .
·
...
·
·
A-1
A-2
A-2
A-3
H-1
· 1-1
Figure
1-1. ASM-86 Source and Object Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1
Listing
F-1.
Sample Program APPF.A86
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F-1
x
Section 1
Introduction to ASM-86
1.1
Assembler Operation
ASM-86 processes an 8086 assembly language source file in three passes and produces
three output files, including an 8086 machine language file in hexadecimal format. This
object file can be in either Intel or Digital Research hex formats, which are described in
Appendix C. ASM-86 is shipped in two forms: an 8086 cross-assembler designed to run
under CP/M® on the Intel 8080 or the Zilog Z80® based system, and an 8086 assembler
designed to run under Concurrent CP/M-86 on an Intel 8086 or 8088 based system.
ASM-86 typically produces three output files from one input file as shown in Figure 1-1:
I SOURCE I •
ASM-86
... 1
- 1
LIST FILE
I
:I
HEX FILE
I
'" 1 SYMBOL FILE
- 1
I
filename.A86 - contains source
filename.LST - contains listing
filename.H86 - contains assembled program in
hexadecimal format
filename.sYM - contains all user-defined symbols
Figure 1-1. ASM-86 Source and Object Files
[QJ DIGITAL RESEARCH'" - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
1-1
1.1 Assember Operation
Concurrent CP/M-86 Utilities Guide
Figure 1-1 also lists ASM-S6 filetypes. ASM-S6 accepts a source file with any threeletter extension, but if the filetype is omitted from the starting command, ASM-86 looks
for the specified filename with the filetype .AS6 in the directory. If the file has a filetype
other than .AS6 or has no filetype at all, ASM-S6 returns an error message.
The other filetypes listed in Figure 1-1 identify ASM-S6 output files. The .LST file
contains the assembly language listing with any error messages. The .HS6 file contains
the machine language program in either Digital Research or Intel hexadecimal format.
The .SYM file lists any user-defined symbols.
Start ASM-S6 by entering a command of the following form:
ASMS 6 source filespec [ $ parameters ]
Section 1.2 explains the optional parameters. Specify the source file using the following form:
[d:] filename [.type]
where
[d:]
is an optional valid drive letter specifying the source file's location.
Not needed if source is on current drive.
filename
is a valid CP/M filename of 1 to S characters.
[.type]
is an optional valid filetype of 1 to 3 characters (usually .AS6).
Some examples of valid ASM-S6 commands are
A)ASHBS 6:610588
I OS88 A8S $F I AA H6 P6
A)ASH8S D:TE5T
A )ASH8S 6
f
S6
Note that if you try to assemble an empty source file, ASM-S6 generates empty list, hex,
and symbol files.
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - I ! Q J DIGITAL RESEARCH
1-2
TIl
Concurrent CP/M-86 Utilities Guide
1.1 Assember Operation
Once invoked, ASM-86 responds with the message:
CP/M 8086 ASSEMBLER VER X.x
where x.x is the ASM-86 version number. ASM-86 then attempts to open the source
file. If the file does not exist on the designated drive or does not have the correct filetype
as described above, the assembler displays the message:
NO FILE
If an invalid parameter is given in the optional parameter list, ASM-86 displays the
message:
PARAMETER ERROR
After opening the source, the assembler creates the output files. Usually these are
placed on the current disk drive, but they can be redirected by optional parameters or
by a drive specification in the source filename. In the latter case, ASM-86 directs the
output files to the drive specified in the source filename.
During assembly, ASM-86 halts if an error condition, such as disk full or symbol table
overflow, is detected. When ASM-86 detects an error in the source file, it places an
error-message line in the listing file in front of the line containing the error. Each error
message has a number and gives a brief explanation of the error. Appendix H lists
ASM-86 error messages. When the assembly is complete, ASM-86 displays the message:
END OF ASSEMBLY. NUMBER OF ERRORS: n
Ii]]
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1-3
1.2 Optional Run-time Parameters
Concurrent CP/M-86 Utilities Guide
1.2 Optional Run-time Parameters
The dollar-sign character, $, flags an optional string of run-time parameters. A parameter is a single letter followed by a single-letter device name specification. Table 1-1 lists
the parameters.
Table 1-1. Run-time Parameter Summary
Parameter
A
H
P
S
F
I
To Specify
source file device
hex output file device
list file device
symbol file device
format of hex output file
I
Valid Arguments
A,B,C, ... P
A ... P,X, Y,Z
A ... P,X, Y,Z
A ... P,X, Y,Z
I,D
All parameters are optional and can be entered in the command line in any order.
Enter the dollar sign only once at the beginning of the parameter string. Spaces can
separate parameters but are not required. No space is permitted, however, between a
parameter and its device name.
A device name must follow parameters A, H, P, and S. The devices are labeled
A, B, C, ... P or X, Y, Z
Device names A through P, respectively, specify disk drives A through P. X specifies
the user console (CON:), Y specifies the line printer (LST:), and Z suppresses output
(NUL:).
If output is directed to the console, it can be temporarily stopped at any time by
entering a CTRL-S. Restart the output by entering a second CTRL-S or any other
character.
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - I!ID DIGITALRESEARCHnI
1-4
1.2 Optional Run-time Parameters
Concurrent CP/M-86 Utilities Guide
The F parameter requires either an I or a D argument. When I is specified, ASM-86
produces an object file in Intel hex format. A D argument requests Digital Research hex
format. Appendix C details these formats. If the F parameter is not entered in the
command line, ASM-86 produces Digital Research hex format.
Table 1-2. Run-time Parameter Examples
Command Line
I
Result
ASM88 IO
Assemble file IO.A86, and produce IO.H86,
IO.LST, and IO.SYM, all on the default drive.
ASM88 IO. ASM $ AD SZ
Assemble file IO.ASM on device D, and produce
IO.LST and IO.H86. No symbol file.
ASM88 IO $ PY S}-{
Assemble file IO.A86, produce IO.H86, route
listing directly to printer, and output symbols on
console.
ASM88 IO $ FD
Produce Digital Research hex format.
ASM88 IO $ F I
Produce Intel hex format.
1.3
Ending ASM-86
You can halt ASM-86 execution at any time by pressing any key on the console
keyboard. When a key is pressed, ASM-86 responds with the question:
USER BREAK. OK(Y/N)?
A Y response stops the assembly and returns to the operating system. An N response
continues the assembly.
End of Section 1
i!IDDIGITAL RESEARCH'" - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
1-5
Section 2
Elements of ASM-86 Assembly Language
2.1
ASM-86 Character Set
ASM-86 recognizes a subset of the ASCII character set. The valid characters are the
alphanumerics, special characters, and nonprinting characters shown below:
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
abc d e f g h
j kim n 0 p q r s t u v w x y z
o 1 2 3 4 5 678 9
+-*/= ()[];'.!,_:@$
space, tab, carriage return, and line-feed
Lower-case letters are treated as upper-case, except within strings. Only
alphanumerics, special characters, and spaces can appear in a string.
2.2
Tokens and Separators
A token is the smallest meaningful unit of an ASM-86 source program, much as a
word is the smallest meaningful unit of an English composition. Adjacent tokens are
commonly separated by a blank character or space. Any sequence of spaces can appear
wherever a single space is allowed. ASM-86 recognizes horizontal tabs as separators and
interprets them as spaces. Tabs are expanded to spaces in the list file. The tab stops are
at each eighth column.
2.3
Delimiters
Delimiters mark the end of a token and add special meaning to the instruction, as
opposed to separators, which merely mark the end of a token. When a delimiter is
present, separators need not be used. However, using separators after delimiters makes
your program easier to read.
The following table, Table 2-1, describes ASM-86 separators and delimiters. Some
delimiters are also operators and are explained in greater detail in Section 2.6.
!!ill DIGITAL RESEARCH TW
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
2-1
2.3 Delimiters
Concurrent CP/M-86 Utilities Guide
Table 2-1.
Character
I
Separators and Delimiters
Name
20H
space
09H
tab
CR
carriage return
LF
line-feed
semicolon
Use
I
separator
legal in source files,
expanded in list files
terminate source lines
legal after CR if within
source lines, interpreted
as a space
starts comment field
colon
identifies a label,
used in segment override
specification
period
forms variables from
numbers ..
$
dollar sign
+
plus
arithmetic operator for
addition
minus
arithmetic operator for
subtraction
*
asterisk
arithmetic operator for
multiplication
/
slash
arithmetic operator for
division
@
"at" sign
legal in identifiers
underscore
legal in identifiers
exclamation
point
logically terminates a
statement, allowing
multiple statements on a
single source line
apostrophe
delimits string constants
notation for present value
oflocation pointer
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ! l I D DIGITAL RESEARCH'"
2-2
2.4 Constants
Concurrent CP/M-86 Utilities Guide
2.4
Constants
A constant is a value known at assembly time that does not change while the assembled
program is executed. A constant can be either' an integer or a character string.
2.4.1
Numeric Constants
A numeric constant is a 16-bit value in one of several bases. The base, called the radix
of the constant, is denoted by a trailing radix indicator. The radix indicators are shown
in Table 2-2:
Table 2-2.
Indicator
B
0
Q
D
H
Radix Indicators for Constants
I
Constant Type
binary
octal
octal
decimal
hexadecimal
I
Base
2
8
8
10
16
ASM-86 assumes that any numeric constant not terminated with a radix indicator is
a decimal constant. Radix indicators can be upper- or lower-case.
A constant is thus a sequence of digits followed by an optional radix indicator, where
the digits are in the range for the radix. Binary constants must be composed of Os and
ls. Octal digits range from 0 to 7; decimal digits range from 0 to 9. Hexadecimal
constants contain decimal digits and the hexadecimal digits A (10D), B (llD), C (12D),
D (13D), E (14D), and F (15D). Notethatthe leadingcharacterofa hexadecimal constant
must be a decimal digit, so that ASM-86 cannot confuse a hex constant with an identifier.
The following are valid numeric constants:
1234
1234H
33770
[!ID
12340
OFFEH
OFE3H
1100B
33770
1234d
1111000011110000B
13772Q
Offffh
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2-3
Concurrent CP/M-86 Utilities Guide
2.4 Constants
2.4.2
Character Strings
ASM-86 treats an ASCII character string delimited by apostrophes as a string constant.
All instructions accept only one- or two-character constants as valid arguments. Instructions treat a one-character string as a 8-bit number. A two-character string is treated as
a 16-bit number with the value of the second character in the low-order byte, and the
value of the first character in the high-order byte.
The numeric value of a character is its ASCII code. ASM-86 does not translate case
in character strings, so it accepts both upper- and lower-case letters. Note that only
alphanumerics, special characters, and spaces are allowed in strings.
A DB assembler directive is the only ASM-86 statement that can contain strings longer
than two characters. The string cannot exceed 255 bytes. Include any apostrophe you
want printed in the string by entering it twice. ASM-86 interprets the two keystrokes" as
a single apostrophe. Table 2-3 shows valid strings and how they appear after processing:
Table 2-3.
String Constant Examples
String in Source Text
I AfterProcessingbyASM-86
,a '
a
'Ab"Cd'
Ab'Cd
,,,,
'ONLYUPPERCASE'
ONLY UPPERCASE
'onlYJowercase'
only lower case
2.5 Identifiers
Identifiers are character sequences that have special symbolic meaning to the assembler. All identifiers in ASM-86 must obey the following rules:
1. The first character must be alphabetic (A, ... Z, a, ... z).
2. Any subsequent characters can be either alphabetic or a numeral (0,1, ..... 9).
ASM-86 ignores the special characters @ and _ but they are still legal. For
example, b,
otherwise 0
a, b = unsigned
number
a GE b
returns 0 FFFFH if a > = b
otherwise 0
a, b = unsigned
number
a NE b
returns OFFFFH if a < > b,
otherwise 0
a, b = unsigned
number
~DIGITAL~EARCH~-------------------------------------------------
2-9
2.6 Operators
Concurrent CP/M-86 Utilities Guide
Table 2-5.
Syntax
(continued)
Result
1
I
Validity
Arithmetic Operators
a+b
arithmetic sum of a and b
a = variable,
label or number
b = number
a-b
arithmetic difference of
aandb
a = variable,
label or number
b = number
a"'b
does unsigned multiplication
ofaandb
a,b = number
alb
does unsigned division of a
andb
a,b = number
a MOD b
returns remainder of a I b
a, b = number
a SHL b
returns the value which
results from shifting a to
left by an amount b
a,b = number
a SHR b
returns the value which
results from shifting a to
the right by an amount b
a,b = number
+a
gives a
a = number
-a
givesO-a
a = number
Segment Override
:
overrides assembler's choice
of segment register.
=
CS,DS,SS
orES
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2-10
DIGITAL RESEARCH'"
Concurrent CP/M-86 Utilities Guide
2.6 Operators
Table 2-5.
Syntax
I
(continued)
Result
I
Validity
Variable Manipulators, Creators
SEG a
creates a number whose value is the
segment value of the variable or
label a. The variable or label
must be declared in an absolute
segment (i.e. CSEG 1234H);
otherwise the SEG operator is
undefined.
a = label Ivariable
OFFSET a
creates a number whose value
is the offset value of the
variable or label a.
.a = label Ivariable
TYPE a
creates a number. Ifthevariableais of type BYTE, WORD
or DWORD, the value of the numberis 1,2, or4, respectively.
a = label Ivariable
LENGTH a
creates a number whose value
is the length attribute of the
variable a. The length attribute
is the number of bytes associated
with the variable.
a = label Ivariable
LAST a
if LENGTH a > 0, then LAST
a = LENGTH a-1;ifLENGTH
a = 0, then LAST a = 0.
a = label Ivariable
a PTR b
creates virtual variable or label with
type of a and attributes of b.
a = BYTE I
WORD, IDWORD
b =
.a
creates variable with an offset attribute of a; segment attribute is
current segment.
a = number
$
creates label with offset
equal to current value of
location counter; segment
attribute is current segment.
no argument
~DIGITAL~EARCH~--------------------------------------------------------------------------
2-11
2.6 Operators
2.6.1
Concurrent CP/M-86 Utilities Guide
Operator Examples
Logical operators accept only numbers as operands. They perform the Boolean logic
operations AND, OR, XOR, and NOT. For example,
OOFC
0080
0000 B180
0002 B003
MASK
SIGNBIT
EQU
EQU
MOV
MOl.'
OFCH
80H
CL ,MASK AND SIGNBIT
AL , NOT MASK
Relational operators treat all operands as unsigned numbers. The relational operators
are EQ (equal), LT (less than), LE (less than or equal), GT (greater than), GE (greater
than or equal), and NE (not equal). Each operator compares two operands and returns
all ones (OFFFFH) if the specified relation is true, and all zeros if it is not. For example,
000 A
0018
LIMIT1
LIMIT2
0004 B8FFFF
0007 B80000
EQU
EQU
10
25
MOV
MOl.'
A>{ ,LIMIT1 LT LIMIT2
A>{ ,LIMIT1 GT LIMIT2
Addition and subtraction operators compute the arithmetic sum and difference of two
operands. The first operand can be a variable, label, or number, but the second operand
must be a number. When a number is added to a variable or label, the result is a variable
or label, the offset of which is the numeric value of the second operand plus the offset
of the first operand. Subtraction from a variable or label returns a variable or label, the
offset of which is that of first operand decremented by the number specified in the second
operand. For example,
0002
0005
OOOA FF
0006 2EAOOBOO
OOOF 2E8AOEOFOO
0014 B303
COUNT
DISP1
FLAG
EQU
EQU
DB
2
5
MOV
MOV
MOV
AL,FLAG+1
CL,FLAG+DISPl
BL,DISP1-COUNT
OFFH
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - [j]]
2-12
DIGITAL RESEARCH'"
Concurrent CP/M-86 Utilities Guide
2.6 Operators
The multiplication and division operators *, /, MOD, SHL, and SHR accept only
numbers as operands. ,~ and / treat all operands as unsigned numbers. For example,
MOI.1
MOI.1
0018 6E5500
0019 6310
0050
016 68AOOO
6UFFER81ZE
MOI.1
81 t2S8/3
BLt8Ll/4
EQU
80
AXtBUFFER81ZE
*
2
Unary operators accept both signed and unsigned operators, as shown in the following
example:
.
CLt+35
ALt2--S
DLt-12
001E 6123
0020 6007
0022 62F4
When manipulating variables, the assembler decides which segment register to use.
You can override the assembler's choice by specifying a different register with the
segment override operator. The syntax for the override operator is
:
where the is CS, DS, SS, or ES. For example,
0024 3886472D
0028 28860E5600
AXt88:WORD6UFFER[BXJ
C)-{ tE8: ARRAY
A variable manipulator creates a number equal to one attribute of its variable operand.
SEG extracts the variable's segment value; OFFSET, its offset value; TYPE, its type value
(1, 2, or 4); and LENGTH, the number of bytes associated with the variable. LAST
compares the variable's LENGTH with 0 and, if greater, then decrements LENGTH by
one. If LENGTH equals 0, LAST leaves it unchanged. Variable manipulators accept
only variables as operators. For example,
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2-13
2.6 Operators
1234
002D 000000000000
0033 0102030405
0038
003B
003E
0041
0044
B80500
B80400
B80100
B80200
B83412
Concurrent CP/M-86 Utilities Guide
WORDBUFFER
BUFFER
Mol,1
MOl)
Mol,1
Mol,1
Mol,1
DSEG
DW
DB
A}-{
A}-{
A}-{
A}-{
A}-{
1234H
OtOtO
lt2t3t4t5
t LENGTH BUFFER
t LAST BUFFER
t TYPE BUFFER
t TYPE WORDBUFFER
t SEG BUFFER
The PTR operator creates a virtual variable or label that is valid only during the
execution of the instruction. It makes no changes to either of its operands. The temporary
symbol has the same Type attribute as the left operator and all other attributes of the
right operator as shown in the following example:
0044 C80705
0047 8A07
0048 FF04
BYTE PTR [BX] t 5
AL tBYTE PTR [B}-{]
WORD PTR [SI]
The period operator creates a variable in the current data segment. The new variable
has a segment attribute equal to the current data segment and an offset attribute equal
to its operand. The operand of the new variable must be a number. For example,
004B A10000
004E 288B1E0040
A}-{
t
.0
B}-{ t ES: .4000H
The dollar-sign operator, $, creates a label with an offset attribute equal to the current
value of the location counter. The label's segment value is the same as the current
segment. This operator takes no operand. For example,
0053 E8FDFF
0058 EBFE
0058 E8FD2F
JMP
JMPS
JMP
$
$
$+3000H
2.6.2 Operator Precedence
Expressions combine variables, labels, or numbers with operators. ASM-86 allows
several kinds of expressions. See Section 2.7. This section defines the order in which
operations are executed if more than one operator appears in an expression.
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Concurrent CP/M-86 Utilities Guide
2.6 Operators
ASM-86 evaluates expressions left to right, but operators with higher precedence are
evaluated before operators with lower precedence. When two operators have equal
precedence, the leftmost is evaluated first. Table 2-6 presents ASM-86 operators in order
of increasing precedence.
Parentheses can override rules of precedence. The part of an expression enclosed in
parentheses is evaluated first. If parentheses are nested, the innermost expressions are
evaluated first. Only five levels of nested parentheses are legal. For example,
15/3 + 18/8 = 5 + 2 = 7
15/ (3 + 18/8) = 15/ (3 + 2) = 15/5 = 3
Table 2-6.
Order
I
Precedence of Operations in ASM-86
Operator Type
I
Operators
1
Logical
XOR,OR
2
Logical
AND
3
Logical
NOT
4
Relational
EQ,LT,LE,GT,
GE,NE
5
Addition/subtraction
+,-
6
Multiplication/division
*, /, MOD, SHL,
SHR
[!Q)
7
Unary
+,-
8
Segment override
< segment override>:
9
Variable manipulators,
SEG, OFFSET, PTR,
creators
TYPE, LENGTH, LAST
10
Parentheses/brackets
(), []
11
Period and Dollar
.,$
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2-15
2.7 Expressions
2.7
Concurrent CP/M-86 Utilities Guide
Expressions
ASM-86 allows address, numeric, and bracketed expressions. An address expression
evaluates to a memory address and has three components:
• segment value
• offset value
• type
Both variables and labels are address expressions. An address expression is not a
number, hut its components are numbers. Numbers can be combined with operators
such as PTR to make an address expression.
A numeric expression evaluates to a number. It does not contain any variables or
labels, only numbers and operands.
Bracketed expressions specify base- and index-addressing modes. The base registers
are BX and BP, and the index registers are DI and SI. A bracketed expression can consist
of a base register, an index register, or both a base register and an index register. Use
the + operator between a base register and an index register to specify both base- and
index-register addressing. For example,
MOV
MOl.!
2.8
A}-{ , [B}-{+D I J
A}-{,[SIJ
Statements
Just as tokens in this assembly language correspond to words in English, statements
are analogous to sentences. A statement tells ASM-86 what action to perform. Statements
can be instructions or directives. Instructions are translated by the assembler into 8086
machine language instructions. Directives are not translated into machine code, but
instead direct the assembler to perform certain clerical functions.
Terminate each assembly language statement with a carriage return, CR, and line-feed,
LF, or with an exclamation point, !. ASM-86 treats these as an end-of-line. Multiple
assembly language statements can be written on the same physical line if separated by
exclamation points.
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Concurrent CP/M-86 Utilities Guide
2.8 Statements
The ASM-86 instruction set is defined in Section 4. The syntax for an instruction
statement is
[label:] [prefix] mnemonic [ operand(s)] [;comment]
where the fields are defined as
• label
A symbol followed by : defines a label at the current value of the
location counter in the current segment. This field is optional.
• prefix
Certain machine instructions such as LOCK and REP can prefix
other instructions. This field is optional.
• mnemonic
A symbol defined as a machine instruction, either by the assembler
or by an EQU directive. This field is optional unless preceded by
a prefix instruction. If it is omitted, no operands can be present,
although the other fields can appear. ASM-86 mnemonics are
defined in Section 4.
• operands
An instruction mnemonic can require other symbols to represent
operands to the instruction. Instructions can have zero, one, or
two operands.
• comment
Any semicolon appearing outside a character string begins a
comment. A comment ends with a carriage return. Comments
improve the readability of programs. This field is optional.
I ..
[j]
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2-17
2.8 Statements
Concurrent CP/M-86 Utilities Guide
ASM-86 directives are described in Section 3. The syntax for a directive statement is
[name] directive operand(s) [;comment]
where the fields are defined as
• name
• directive
• operands
• comment
Unlike the label field of an instruction, the name field of a directive
is never terminated with a colon. Directive names are legal only
for DB, DW, DD, RB, RS, RW, and EQU. For DB, DW, DD, and
RS, the name is optional; for EQU, it is required.
One of the directive keywords defined in Section 3.
Analogous to the operands for instruction mnemonics. Some
directives, such as DB, DW, and DD, allow any operand; others
have special requirements.
Exactly as defined for instruction statements.
End of Section 2
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2-18
Section 3
Assembler Directives
3.1
Introduction
Directive statements cause ASM-S6 to perform housekeeping functions, such as
assigning portions of code to logical segments, requesting conditional assembly, defining
data items, and specifying listing file format. General syntax for directive statements
appears in Section 2.S.
In the sections that follow, the specific syntax for each directive statement is given
under the heading and before the explanation. These syntax lines use special symbols
to represent possible arguments and other alternatives. Square brackets, [], enclose
optional arguments.
3.2
Segment Start Directives
At run-time, every SOS6 memory reference must have a 16-bit segment base value and
a 16-bit offset value. These are combined to produce the 20-bit effective address needed
by the CPU to physically address the location. The 16-bit segment base value or boundary
is contained in one of the segment registers CS, DS, SS, or ES. The offset value gives the
offset of the memory reference from the segment boundary. A 16-byte physical segment
is the smallest relocatable unit of memory.
ASM-S6 predefines four logical segments: the Code Segment, Data Segment, Stack
Segment, and Extra Segments, which are addressed respectively by the CS, DS, SS, and
ES registers. Future versions of ASM-S6 will support additional segments, such as
multiple data or code segments. All ASM-S6 statements must be assigned to one of the
four currently supported segments so that they can be referenced by the CPU. A segment
directive statement, CSEG, DSEG, SSEG, or ESEG, specifies that the statements following
it belong to a specific segment. The statements are then addressed by the corresponding
segment register. ASM-S6 assigns statements to the specified segment until it encounters
another segment directive.
I!ID
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3-1
3.2 Segment Start Directives
Concurrent CP/M-86 Utilities Guide
Instruction statements must be assigned to the Code Segment. Directive statements
can be assigned to any segment. ASM-86 uses these assignments to change from one
segment register to another. For example, when an instruction accesses a memory
variable, ASM-86 must know which segment contains the variable so it can generate a
segment-override prefix byte if necessary.
3.2.1 The CSEG Directive
Syntax:
CSEG
CSEG
CSEG
numeric expression
$
This directive tells the assembler that the following statements belong in the Code
Segment. All instruction statements must be assigned to the Code Segment. All directive
statements are legal in the Code Segment.
Use the first form when the location of the segment is known at assembly time; the
code generated is not relocatable. Use the second form when the segment location is not
known at assembly time; the code generated is relocatable. Use the third form to continue
the Code Segment after it has been interrupted by a DSEG, SSEG, or ESEG directive.
The continuing Code Segment starts with the same attributes, such as location and
instruction pointer, as the previous Code Segment.
3.2.2 The DSEG Directive
Syntax:
DSEG
DSEG
DSEG
numeric expression
$
This directive specifies that the following statements belong to the Data Segment. The
Data Segment contains the data allocation directives DB, DW, DD, and RS, but all other
directive statements are also legal. Instruction statements are illegal in the Data Segment.
Use the first form when the location of the segment is known at assembly time; the
code generated is not relocatable. Use the second form when the segment location is not
known at assembly time; the code generated is relocatable. Use the third form to continue
the Data Segment after it has been interrupted by a CSEG, SSEG, or ESEG directive.
The continuing Data Segment starts with the same attributes as the previous Data
Segment.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------~DIGITALRESEARCH~
3-2
Concurrent CP/M-86 Utilities Guide
3.2.3
3.2 Segment Start Directives
The SSEG Directive
Syntax:
SSEG
SSEG
SSEG
numeric expression
$
The SSEG directive indicates the beginning of source lines for the Stack Segment. Use
the Stack Segment for all stack operations. All directive statements are legal in the Stack
Segment, but instruction statements are illegal.
Use the first form when the location of the segment is known at assembly time; the
code generated is not relocatable. Use the second form when the segment location is not
known at assembly time; the code generated is relocatable. Use the third form to continue
the Stack Segment after it has been interrupted by a CSEG, DSEG, or ESEG directive.
The continuing Stack Segment starts with the same attributes as the previous Stack
Segment.
3.2.4 The ESEG Directive
Syntax:
ESEG
ESEG
ESEG
numeric expression
$
This directive initiates the Extra Segment. Instruction statements are not legal in this
segment, but all directive statements are legal.
Use the first form when the location of the segment is known at assembly time; the
code generated is not relocatable. Use the second form when the segment location is not
known at assembly time; the code generated is relocatable. Use the third form to continue
the Extra Segment after it has been interrupted by a DSEG, SSEG, or CSEG directive.
The continuing Extra Segment starts with the same attributes as the previous Extra
Segment.
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3-3
3.3 The ORG Directive
3.3
Concurrent CP/M-86 Utilities Guide
The ORG Directive
Syntax:
ORG
numeric expression
The ORG directive sets the offset of the location counter in the current segment to
the value specified in the numeric expression. Define all elements of the expression before
the ORG directive because forward references can be ambiguous.
In most segments, an ORG directive is unnecessary. If no ORG is included before the
first instruction or data byte in a segment, assembly begins at location zero relative to
the beginning of the segment. A segment can have any number of ORG directives.
3.4 The IF and ENDIF Directives
Syntax:
IF
numeric expression
source line 1
source line 2
source line n
END IF
The IF and ENDIF directives allow a group of source lines to be included or excluded
from the assembly. Use conditional directives to assemble several different versions of
a single source program.
When the assembler finds an IF directive, it evaluates the numeric expression following
the IF keyword. If the expression evaluates to a nonzero value, then source line 1 through
source line n are assembled. If the expression evaluates to zero, the lines are not
assembled, but are listed unless a NOIFLIST directive is active. All elements in the
numeric expression must be defined before they appear in the IF directive. IF directives
can be nested to a maximum depth of five levels.
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3-4
Concurrent CP/M-86 Utilities Guide
3.5
3.5 The INCLUDE Directive
The INCLUDE Directive
Syntax:
INCLUDE
filespec
This directive includes another ASM-86 file in the source text. For example,
INCLUDE
EQUALS.A86
Use INCLUDE when the source program resides in several different files. INCLUDE
directives cannot be nested; a source file called by an INCLUDE directive cannot contain
another INCLUDE statement. If filespec does not contain a filetype, the filetype is
assumed to be .A86. If the file specification does not include a drive specification, ASM-86
assumes that the file resides on the drive containing the source file.
3.6 The END Directive
Syntax:
END
An END directive marks the end of a source file. Any subsequent lines are ignored by
the assembler. END is optional. If not present, ASM-86 processes the source until it
finds an end-of-file character (lAH).
3.7 The EQU Directive
Syntax:
symbol
symbol
symbol
symbol
EQU
EQU
EQU
EQU
numeric expression
address expression
register
instruction mnemonic
The EQU, equate, directive assigns values and attributes to user-defined symbols. The
required symbol name cannot terminate with a colon. The symbol cannot be redefined
by a subsequent EQU or another directive. Any elements used in numeric or address
expressions must be defined before the EQU directive appears.
I!IDDIGITAL RESEARCH TN
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3-5
Concurrent CP/M-86 Utilities Guide
3.7 The EQU Directive
The first form assigns a numeric value to the symbol. The second assigns a memory
address. The third form assigns a new name to an 8086 register. The fourth form defines
a new instruction (sub )set. The following are examples of these four forms:
0005
0033
0001
005D 8BC3
FIt.JE
NEXT
COUNTER
MOI)I)I)
EQU
EQU
EQU
EQU
BUFFER
MOt.J
MOt.JI.Jt.J
3.8 The DB Directive
Syntax:
[symbol] DB numeric expression[,numeric expression ... ]
[symbol] DB string constant[,string constant... ]
The DB directive defines initialized storage areas in byte format. Numeric expressions
are evaluated to 8-bit values and sequentially placed in the hex output file. String
constants are placed in the output file according to the rules defined in Section 2.4.2.
A DB directive is the only ASM-86 statement that accepts a string constant longer than
two bytes. There is no translation from lower- to upper-case within strings. Multiple
expressions or constants, separated by commas, can be added to the definition, but
cannot exceed the physical line length.
Use an optional symbol to reference the defined data area throughout the program.
The symbol has four attributes: the segment and offset attributes determine the symbol's
memory reference, the type attribute specifies single bytes, and the length attribute tells
the number of bytes (allocation units) reserved.
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3-6
3.8 The DB Directive
Concurrent CP/M-86 Utilities Guide
The following statements show DB directives with symbols:
005F 43502F4D2073
79737485DOO
008B El
008C 0102030405
TE}{T
DB
'CP/M
AA
DB
DB
'a' + SOH
lt2t3tllt5
MOI,I
C}·{ tLENGTH TE}type sort.aBS
silTlPle sort pro!1ralTl
SO r t :
ITIO V
MOV
ITIOV
s i ,0
bx ,offset nlist
ITIOV
CMP
Jna
xch!1
ITIOV
MOV
al,[bx+siJ
al,Hbx+siJ
inci
al,Hbx+siJ
[bx+siJ,al
sw t1
i!1et b}'te froM list
;COITIPare with next byte
idon't switch if in order
;do fi rst part of switch
;do second part
iset switch fla!1
inc
CMP
Jnz
test
Jnz
si
si ,count
COMP
Sr...I ,1
sort
iincrelTlent index
iend of list?
;no, .'eep !1oin!1
;done - an}' sr...dtches?
i }'es, so rt SOllIe MO re
JMP
done
;!1et here when list ordered
dseq
or!1
100h
ileave space for base pa9'e
;initialize index
;bx = base of list
iclear switch fla!1
sw,O
C OITlP:
inci:
done:
nlist
count
db
equ
3,8,a,8 ,31,8,a t1
offset $ - offset
nlist
sw
db
end
o
Assemble program.
A>asmBS sort
CP/M 8088 ASSEMBLER VER 1.1
END OF PASS 1
END OF PASS 2
END OF ASSEMBL Y. NUMBER OF ERRORS:
0
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6-20
DIGITAL RESEARCH Tli
Concurrent CP/M-86 Utilities Guide
6.5 DDT-86 Sample Session
Type listing file generated by ASM-86.
A)type sort.1st
CP/M ASM88 1.1
SOURCE:
Sort.A88
PAGE 1
sitllPle sort pro!1ratrl
so r t :
trIO v
ITlOV
0008 C806080100
s i ,0
;initialize index
bx ,offsetibx = base of list
nlist
sw,O
iclear switch fla!1
0006
0000
0010
0012
0015
0017
al,[bx+siJ
al li[bx+siJ
inci
al ,1[bx+siJ
[bx+siJ,al
sw Ii
i!1et byte frotll list
icolTlPare with next byte
idon 't switch if in orde r
ida fi rst part of switch
ida second part
iset switch fla!1
si
si ,count
c OtllP
sw Ii
5 art
iincretllent index
iend of list?
ina, .~eep !1oin!1
idone - any switches?
iYes, sort Sotlle trlore
done
i!1et here when list ordered
0000 6EOOOO
0003 660001
001C
0010
0020
0022
0027
0029
ITlOV
COITlP:
8AOO
ITlOV
CMP
3A4001
jna
760A
xch!1
864001
8800
ITlOV
C606080101
til a v
in c i :
46
inc
83FE08
CtrlP
jnz
75E9
F606080101
test
jnz
7507
done:
jlrlP
E9FOFF
dse!1
or!1 100h
[iID
DIGITAL RESEARCH TW
Heave space for base pa!1e
-----------------------------
6-21
6.5 DDT-86 Sample Session
0100 030S040G1FOG
0401
OOOS
010S 00
Concurrent CP/M-86 Utilities Guide
nlist
db
count
offset $ - offset nlist
o
end
END OF ASSEMBL Y. NUMBER OF ERRORS:
0
Type symbol table file generated by ASM-86.
A>t>'pe sort.SYfI1
0000 l..'AR I ABLES
0100 NLIST
010S SW
0000 NUMBERS
OOOS COUNT
0000 LABELS
OOOB COMP
0028 DONE
001C INCI
0000 SORT
Type hex file generated by ASM-86.
A>type sort.hBB
:0400000300000000F8
:lBOOOOS1BEOOOOBB0001CGOGOS0100SA003A40017GOASG4001SS0OCGOGOS01GC
:11001BS1014GS3FEOS75E8FGOGOS010175D7E8FDFFEE
:080100S2030S040G1FOG04010035
:OOOOOOOlFF
Generate CMD file from .H86 file;
A>dencfI1d sort
BYTES READ
0038
RECORDS WRITTEN 04
Invoke DDT-86 and load SORT.CMD.
A>ddtBB sort
DDTSS 1.0
START
END
CS 047D:0000 047D:002F
DS 04S0:0000 04S0:010F
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - I!IDDIGITAL RESEARCkii
6-22
Concurrent CP/M-86 Utilities Guide
6.5 DDT-86 Sample Session
Display initial register values.
-x
A){
B)-(
C){
D){
8P
BP
81
DI
C8
D8
88
E8
IP
- - - - - - - - - 0000 0000 0000 0000 11SE 0000 0000 0000 OLl7D OLl80 OLiSl OLl80 0000
MDI,'
8 I ,0000
Disassemble the beginning of the code segment.
-J
OLl7D:0000
OLl7D:0003
OLl7D:000G
OLl7D:000B
OLl7D:000D
OLl7D:0010
OLl7D:0012
OLl7D:0015
OLl7D:0017
OLl70:001C
OLl7D:001D
OLl7D:0020
MDI,'
MDI)
MDI)
MOl,'
CMP
JBE
)-(CHG
MOV
MOV
INC
CMP
JNZ
81 ,0000
B)-(,0100
BYTE [0108] ,0(.
AL,[B)-(+8I]
AL,01[B)-(+8I]
001C
AL ,01 [B)-(+8I]
[B){+8I] ,AL
BYTE [0108] ,01
81
81,0008
OOOB
Display the start of the data segment.
-dJOO dOf
Oll80: 0100 03 08 OLi 08 IF 08 Oll 01 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 •••••••••••••••
I!ID DIGITAL RESEARCH'" - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
6-23
Concurrent CP/M-86 Utilities Guide
6.S DDT-86 Sample Session
Disassemble the rest of the code.
-1
047D:0022
047D:0027
047D:0028
047D:002C
047D:002E
047D:0030
047D:0031
047D:0033
047D:0034
047D:0035
047D:0037
047D:0038
TEST
JNZ
JMP
ADD
ADD
DAS
ADD
??=
POP
ADD
AD
??=
BYTE [0108] ,01
0000
0028
[B}'(+SI] ,AL
[B}(+SI],AL
[B}{+SI] ,AL
GC
ES
[B}(],CL
[B}{+SI] ,M(
GF
Execute program from IP (= 0) setting breakpoint at 29H
-!J,29
* 0 47 0 : 0028
Breakpoint encountered.
Display sorted list.
-d10Q,OOf
0480:0100 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
••••••••••••
Doesn't look good; reload file
eso rt
START
CS 047D: 0000
DS 0480: 0000
END
047D: 002F
0480: 0 1 OF
Trace 3 instructions.
- t3
AX
BX
C}(
DX
SP
BP
SI
DI
IP
- - - --Z - P- 0000 0100 0000 0000 118E 0000 0008 0000 0000 MoV
-----Z-P- 00000100 0000 0000 118E 0000 0000 00000003 MQl..J
-----Z-P- 0000 0100 0000 0000 118E 0000 0000 0000 OOOG MoV
*0470:000B
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - [i])
6-24
S I ,0000
BX ,0100
BYTE [0108J ,00
DIGITAL RESEARCH
TII
Concurrent CP/M-86 Utilities Guide
6.5 DDT-86 Sample Session
Trace some more.
-t3
AX
BX
CX
OX
SP
BP
SI
01
IP
-----Z-P- 0000 0100 0000 0000 118E 0000 0000 0000 OOOB MOV
-----Z-P- 0003 0100 0000 0000 118E 0000 0000 0000 0000 CMP
----S-A-C 0003 0100 0000 0000 118E 0000 0000 0000 0010 JBE
*0470:001C
ALtCBX+SI]
ALt01CBX+SI]
001C
Display unsorted list
-d100t10f
0480:0100 03 08 04 08 lF 08 04 01 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ••••••••••••
Display next instructions to be executed.
-1
0470:001C
0470:0010
0470:0020
0470:0022
0470:0027
0470:0028
0470:002C
0470:002E
0470:0030
0470:0031
0470:0033
0470:0034
INC
CMP
JNZ
TEST
JNZ
JMP
ADD
ADD
OAS
ADD
??=
POP
SI
SI tOO08
OOOB
BYTE C0108] tOl
0000
0028
CBX+SI] tAL
CBX+SI] tAL
CBX+SI] tAL
8C
ES
Trace some more
-t3
AX
BX
CX
OX
SP
BP
SI
01
IP
----S-A-C 0003 0100 0000 0000 118E 0000 0000 0000 001C INC
--------C 0003 0100 0000 0000 118E 0000 0001 0000 0010 CMP
- - - -S-APC 0003 0100 0000 0000 118E 0000 0001 0000 0020 JNZ
*0470:000B
SI
SI t0008
OOOB
I!IDDIGITAL RESEARCH'" - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
6-25
6.5 DDT-86 Sample Session
Concurrent CP/M-86 Utilities Guide
Display instructions from current IP.
-1
0470: OOOB
0470: 0000
0470:0010
0470:0012
0470:0015
0470:0017
0470:001C
0470:0010
0470: 0020
0470: 0022
0470: 0027
0470: 0028
MOV
CMP
JBE
XCHG
MOV
MOV
INC
CMP
JNZ
TEST
JNZ
JMP
AL.[BX+SI]
AL.Ol[BX+SI]
001C .AL.Ol[BX+SI]
[BX+SI] .AL
BYTE [0108] .01
SI
. SI .0003
OOOB
BYTE [0108] .01
0000
0028
-t3
AX
BX
CX
OX
SP
BP
SI
01
IP
----S-APC 0003 01000000 0000 118E 0000 0001 0000 OOOB MOV
----S-APC 0008 0100 0000 0000 118E 00000001 0000 0000 CMP
--------- 0008 0100 0000 0000 118E 00000001 00000010 JBE
*0470:0012
-1
0470:0012
0470:0015
0470:0017
0470:001C
0470:0010
0470:0020
0470:0022
0470:0027
0470:0028
0470:002C
0470:002E
0470:0030
XCHG
MOV
MOV
INC
CMP
JNZ
TEST
JNZ
JMP
ADD
ADO
OAS
AL.[BX+SI]
AL.Ol[BX+SIJ
001C
AL .OlC6X+SIJ
[BX+SI] .AL
BYTE [0108] .01
SI
SI .0008
0006
BYTE [0108] .01
0000
0028
[BX+SI] .AL
[BX+SI] .AL
Go until switch has been performed.
- !I,20
*0470:0020
Display list.
-d1 0011 Of
0480: 0100 03 04 08 08 1 F 08 04 01 01 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ••••••••••••••••
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - I!ID DIGITAL RESEARCH'"
6-26
Concurrent CP/M-86 Utilities Guide
6.5 DDT-86 Sample Session
Looks like 4 and 8 were switched okay. (And toggle is true.)
-to
AX
6X
CX
OX
SP
6P
SI
01
IP
- - - -S-APC 0004 0100 0000 0000 118E 0000 0002 0000 0020 JNZ 0006
*0470:0006
Display next instructions.
-1
OLl70: 0006
OLl70: 0000
OLl70:0010
OLl70:0012
OLl70:0015
OLl70:0017
OLl70:001C
OLl70:0010
OLl70: 0020
OLl70: 0022
OLl70: 0027
OLl70: 0028
AL,[6}{+SI]
AL,01[6X+Sl]
001C
AL ,01 [6){+SI]
[6X+Sl] ,AL
6YTE [0108] ,01
SI
SI,0008
0006
6YTE [0108] ,01
0000
0028
MOV
CMP
J6E
XCHG
MOV
MOV
INC
CMP
JNZ
TEST
JNZ
JMP
Since switch worked, let's reload and check boundary conditions.
-esort
START
END
CS OLl70: 0000 OLl70: 002F
OS 0480: 0000 0480: 01 OF
I!ID DIGITAL RESEARCH
TIoI
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
6-27
6.5 DDT-86 Sample Session
Concurrent CP/M-86 Utilities Guide
Make it quicker by setting list length to 3. (Could also have used s47d
to patch.)
= Ie
-ald
0470:0010
0470:0020
CITIP
si,3
Display unsorted list.
-dl00
0480: 0100 03 08 04 08 1 F 06 04 01 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ••••••••••••••••
0480: 0110 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ••••••••••••••••
0480: 0 120 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ')0 00 20 20 20 •••••••••••••
Set breakpoint when first 3 elements of list should be sorted.
-~/29
*0470:0029
See if list is sorted.
-dl00 d Of
0480: 0100 03 04 08 08 1 F 06 04 01 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ••••••••••••••••
Interesting, the fourth element seems to have been sorted in.
-esort
START
END
CS 01l70: 0000 01l70: 002F
OS 0480: 0000 0480: 01 OF
Let's try again with some tracing.
-ald
0470:001D
0470:0020
CITIP
si,3
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - I ! I D DIGITAL RESEARCH'"
6-28
Concurrent CP/M-86 Utilities Guide
6.5 DDT-86 Sample Session
-t9
AX
BX
- - - - - Z- P - 0008 0100
- - - - -Z- P - 0008 0100
- - - - -Z- P - 0008 0100
- - - - -Z- P - 0008 0100
-----Z-P- 00030100
----8-A-C 0003 0100
----8-A-C 00030100
--------C 0003 0100
- - - -8-A-C 0003 0100
*O£l70:000B
C}{
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
OX
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
8P
118E
118E
118E
118E
118E
118E
118E
118E
118E
BP
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
81
0003
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0001
0001
01
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
IP
0000
0003
0008
OOOB
0000
0010
001C
0010
0020
MOV
MOV
MOV
MOV
CMP
JBE
INC
CMP
JNZ
8 I ,0000
B}{,0100
BYTE [0108] ,00
AL,[BX+8I]
AL,01[BX+8I]
001C
81
81 ,0003
OOOB
-1
O£l70: OOOB
O£l70: 0000
O£l70:0010
O£l70: 00 12
O£l70:0015
O£l70: 0017
O£l70:001C
O£l70:0010
O£l70: 0020
O£l70: 0022
O£l70: 0027
O£l70: 0028
MOV
CMP
JBE
XCHG
MOV
MOV
INC
CMP
JNZ
TE8T
JNZ
JMP
AL ,[ B}{+8 I]
AL,01[BX+8I]
001C
AL ,01 [B}{+8I]
[B}(+8I] ,AL
BYTE [0108] ,01
81
81 ,0003
OOOB
BYTE [0108] ,01
0000
0028
-t3
AX
BX
CX
OX
8P
BP
81
01
IP
-.- - -8-A- C 0003 0100 0000 0000 118E 0000 0001 0000 OOOB MOV
----8-A-C 00080100 0000 0000 118E 0000 0001 00000000 CMP
--------- 00080100 0000 0000 118E 0000 0001 0000 0010 JBE
*0£170:0012
AL,[BX+8I]
AL ,01 [B}(+8I]
001C
-1
O£l70: 0012
O£l70:0015
O£l70: 0017
O£l70:001C
O£l70:0010
O£l70: 0020
O£l70: 0022
I!ID
XCHG
MOV
MOV
INC
CMP
JNZ
TE8T
AL ,01 [B}-(+8I]
[B}(+8I] ,AL
BYTE [0108] ,01
81
81 ,0003
OOOB
BYTE [0108] ,01
DIGITAL RESEARCHTW - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
6-29
6.5 DDT-86 Sample Session
Concurrent CP/M-86 Utilities Guide
-t3
AX
BX
CX
OX
8P
BP
81
01
IP
--------- 0008010000000000 119E 0000 0001 00000012 XCHG
--------- 0004 0100 0000 0000 119E 0000 0001 0000 0015 MoV
--------- 0004 010000000000 l19E 0000 0001 00000017 MoV
*0470:001C
-dl00tlOf
0480: 0100 03 04 08 06 1 F 06 04 01 01 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
t
t
t
t
AL ,01 [BX+8I]
[BX+8I] ,AL
BYTE [0108] ,01
t
t
t
t
t
t t
t
t
t
t
t
So far, so good.
-t3
AX
BH
C}(
OX
8P
BP
81
01
IP
--------- 0004 0100 0000 0000 119E 0000 0001 0000 001C INC
--------- 0004 0100 0000 0000 119E 0000 0002 0000 0010 CMP
- - - - - - - - - 0004 0100 0000 0000 119E 0000 0002 0000 0020 JNZ
*0470:000B
81
81 ,0003
OOOB
-1
0470: OOOB
0470 :0000
0470:0010
0470:0012
0470:0015
0470:0017
0470:001C
0470:0010
0470: 0020
0470:0022
0470: 0027
0470: 0029
MoV
CMP
JBE
}(CHG
MOl,!
MOl,!
INC
CMP
JNZ
TE8T
JNZ
JMP
AL, [B}(+8 I]
AL ,01 [B}(+8I]
001C
AL ,01 [B}(+8I]
[B'-(+8IJ ,AL
BYTE [0108] ,01
81
81,0003
OOOB
BYTE [0108] ,01
0000
0029
-t3
AH
B}(
CH
O}(
8P
BP
81
01
IP
----8-APC 0004 0100 0000 0000 119E 0000 00020000 OOOB MoV
----8-APC 0008 0100 0000 0000 119E 0000 00020000 0000 CMP
--------- 00080100 0000 0000 119E 0000 000200000010 JBE
*0470:0012
AL , [B}(+8 IJ
AL,Ol[BH+8I]
001C
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - [(IDDIGITAL RESEARCH"'
6-30
Concurrent CP/M-86 Utilities Guide
6.5 DDT-86 Sample Session
Sure enough, it's comparing the third and fourth elements of the list.
Reload program.
-esort
START
END
CS 0470: 0000 0470: 002F
OS 0480: 0000 0480: 01 OF
-1
0470: 0000
0470: 0003
0470: 0006
0470: OOOB
0470: 0000
0470:0010
0470: 0012
0470:0015
0470: 00 17
0470:001C
0470:0010
0470: 0020
MDV
MDV
MDV
MDV
CMP
JBE
HCHG
MDV
MDV
INC
CMP
JNZ
SI,OOOO
Bl<,0100
BYTE [0108J ,00
AL , [Bl<+S I J
AL,Ol[Bl<+SIJ
001C
AL,Ol[B}(+SIJ
[B}{+SIJ,AL
BYTE [0108J ,01
SI
SI,0008
OOOB
Patch length.
-ald
0470:0010
0470:0020
ChiP
si,7
Try it out.
-!l,28
*0470:0028
[ij]
DIGITAL RESEARCH'" - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
6-31
6.5 DDT-86 Sample Session
Concurrent CP/M-86 Utilities Guide
See if list is sorted.
-dl 00 t1 Of
0480:010001 030404060608 1F 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ••••••••••••••••
Looks better; let's install patch in disk file. To do this, we
must read CMD file including header, so we use R command.
-rsort.CIIICI
START
2000:0000
END
2000:01FF
First BOh bytes contain header, so code starts at BOh.
-180
2000:0080
2000:0083
2000:0086
2000:008B
2000:0080
2000:0080
2000:0082
2000:0085
2000:0087
2000:008C
2000:0080
2000:00AO
MOV
MOV
MOV
MOV
CMP
JBE
XCHG
MOV
MOV
INC
CMP
JNZ
5I,OOOO
BX,0100
BYTE [0108J ,00
AL,[BX+SIJ
AL,Ol[BX+5IJ
008C
AL,Ol[BX+5IJ
[BX+5IJ ,AL
BYTE [0108J ,01
5I
5I,0008
008B
Install patch.
-a8d
2000:0080
CMP
si,7
Write file back to disk. (Length of file assumed to be unchanged
since no length specified.)
-IJsort.cllld
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ! I I D DIGITALRESEARCH™
6-32
6.5 DDT-86 Sample Session
Concurrent CP/M-86 Utilities Guide
Reload file.
-esort
START
CS Oll7D:0000
DS Oll80:0000
END
Oll7D:002F
Oll80:010F
Verify that patch was installed.
Oll7D:0000
Oll7D:0003
Oll70:0006
Oll7D:000B
Oll70:000D
Oll7D:00I0
Oll70:0012
Oll7D:0015
Oll7D:0017
Oll7D:00IC
Oll7D:00ID
Oll7D:0020
MOV
MOV
MOV
MOV
CMP
JBE
XCHG
MOV
MOV
(NC
CMP
JNZ
SI,OOOO
BX,0100
BYTE [0108J ,00
AL,[BX=SIJ
AL,Ol(BX=SIJ
001C
AL,Ol[BX=SIJ
[BX=SIJ ,AL
BYTE [0108J ,01
51
SI,0007
OOOB
Run it.
-!l,28
Still looks good. Ship it!
-d100 dOr
0480:0100 0103 04 04 08 08 08 IF 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ••••• •••••••••••
-!l,28
*Oll7D:0028
-d100 dOF
Oll80:0100 03 08 Oll 06 IF 06 Oll 01 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ••••••••••••
_hC
A>
End of Section 6
[QJ
DIGITAL RESEARCHTl. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
6-33
Appendix A
Starting ASM-86
Command:
A >A5MBB
Syntax:
ASM86 filespec [ $ parameters]
where
filespec
is the 8086 assembly source file (drive and filetype are optional).
parameters
is a one-letter type followed by a one-letter device from the table below.
Default filetype:
.A86
Parameters:
$Td
where T
=
type and d
Table A-1.
=
device
Parameter Types and Devices
A
H
P
S
x
x
x
x
X
x
x
x
y
x
x
x
Z
x
x
x
TYPES:
F
DEV/CES:
A-P
x
D
x
[!ill
DIGITAL RESEARCH T•
=
d
valid, d
=
default
----------~-------------
A-I
A Starting ASM-86
Concurrent CP/M-86 Utilities Guide
Valid Parameters
Except for the F type, the default device is the current default drive.
Table A-2.
Type
I
Parameter Types
Function
A
H
P
S
F
controls location of ASSEMBLER source file.
controls location of HEX file.
controls location of PRINT file.
controls location of SYMBOL file.
controls type of hex output FORMAT.
Table A-3.
Name
A-P
X
Y
Z
I
D
I
Device Types
Meaning
DrivesA-P
console device
printer device
byte bucket
Intel hex format
Digital Research hex format
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - [l]]
A-2
DIGITAL RESEARCH'"
A Starting ASM-86
Concurrent CP/M-86 Utilities Guide
Table A-4.
I
Example
)
Invocation Examples
Result
ASMBG IO
Assembles' file IO.A86 and produces IO.H86
IO.LST and IO.SYM.
ASMBG IO. ASM $ AD SZ
Assembles file IO.ASM on device D and produces
IO.LST and IO.H86. No symbol file.
ASMBG IO $ PY S}-(
Assembles file IO.A86, produces IO.H86, routes
listing directly to printer, and outputs symbols on
console.
ASMBG IO $ FD
Produces Digital Research hex format.
ASMBG IO $FI
Produces Intel hex format.
End of Appendix A
)
i!IDDIGITAL RESEARCH
TlI
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
A-3
)
Appendix B
Mnemonic Differences from the
Intel Assembler
The CP/M 8086 assembler uses the same instruction mnemonics as the Intel 8086
assembler except for explicitly specifying far and short jumps, calls, and returns. The
following table shows the four differences.
Table B-l.
Mnemonic Differences
Mnemonic Function
J
CP/M
I
Intel
Intrasegment short jump:
JMPS
JMP
Intersegment jump:
JMPF
JMP
Intersegmentreturn:
RETF
RET
Intersegment call:
CALLF
CALL
End of Appendix B
)
I!IDDIGITAL RESEARCHTII - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
B-1
Appendix C
ASM-86 Hexadecimal Output Format
ASM-86 produces machine code in either Intel or Digital Research hexadecimal
format. The Intel format is identical to the format defined by Intel for the 8086. The
Digital Research format is nearly identical to the Intel format, but Digital adds segment
information to hexadecimal records. Output of either format can be input to the
GENCMD, but the Digital Research format automatically provides segment identification. A segment is the smallest unit of a program that can be relocated.
Table C-1 defines the sequence and contents of bytes in a hexadecimal record. Each
hexadecimal record has one of the four formats shown in Table C-2. An example of a
hexadecimal record is shown below:
Byte number = > 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 .............. n
Contents = > : 11 a a a a t t d d d ......... c c CR LF
Table C-1.
Byte
0
1-2
3-6
7-8
9-(n-1)
n-(n + 1)
n+2
n+3
I
Hexadecimal Record Contents
Contents
record mark
record length
load address
record type
data bytes
checksum
carriage return
line-feed
I
Symbol
11
aaaa
tt
dd ..... d
cc
CR
LF
~DIGITAL~EARCH~----------------------------------------~--------------------------------------------------------
C-l
C ASM-86 Output Format
Concurrent CP/M-86 Utilities Guide
Table C-2. Hexadecimal Record Formats
Type
I
Content
I
Format
00
Data record
: 11 aaaa DT cc
01
End-of-file
: 00000001 FF
02
Extended address
mark
: 020000 ST ssss cc
03
Start address
: 040000 03 ssss iiii cc
11
cc
aaaa
ssss
iiii
DT
ST
=>
=>
=>
=>
=>
=>
=>
record length - number of data bytes
checksum - sum of all record bytes
16-bit address
16-bit segment value
offset value of start address
data record type
segment address record type
It is in the definition of record type (DT and ST) that Digital Research hexadecimal
format differs from Intel. Intel defines one value each for the data record type and the
segment address type. Digital Research identifies each record with the segment that
contains it, as shown in Table C-3.
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - l!]JDlGITAL RESEARCH'"
C-2
Concurrent CP/M-86 Utilities Guide
C ASM-86 Output Format
Table C-3.
Symbol
Intel
Value
DT
00
ST
Digital
Value
Segment Record Types
Meaning
for data belonging to a1l8086 segments
81H
for data belonging to the CODE segment
82H
for data belonging to the DATA segment
83H
for data belonging to the STACK segment
84H
for data belonging to the EXTRA segment
02
for all segment address records
85H
for a CODE absolute segment address
86H
for a DATA segment address
87H
for a STACK segment address
88H
for a EXTRA segment address
End of Appendix C
i!ruDIGITAL RESEARCH
TW
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
C-3
Appendix D
Reserved Words
Table D-l.
Keywords or Reserved Words
Predefined Numbers
BYTE
WORD
DWORD
Operators
AND
EQ
GE
GT
LAST
LE
LENGTH
LT
MOD
NE
NOT
PTR
OFFSET
OR
SEG
SHL
SHR
TYPE
XOR
NO LIST
ORG
PAGESIZE
PAGEWIDTH
RS
RW
SIMFORM
SSEG
TITLE
Assembler Directives
CODEMACRO
CSEG
DB
DD
DSEG
DW
EJECT
END
ENDIF
ENDM
ESEG
EQ
IF
IFLIST
INCLUDE
LIST
NOIFLIST
RB
Code-macro Directives
DB
DBIT
DD
DW
MODRM
NOSEGFIX
SEGFIX
RELB
RELW
DI
DL
DS
DX
ES
SI
SP
SS
8086 Registers
AH
AL
AX
BH
BL
BP
BX
CH
CL
CS
CX
DH
Instruction Mnemonics - See Appendix E.
End of Appendix D
!lID DIGITAL RESEARCH'" - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
D-l
Appendix E
ASM-86 Instruction Summary
Table E-1.
Mnemonic
AAA
AAD
AAM
AAS
ADC
ADD
AND
CALL
CALLF
CBW
CLC
CLD
CLI
CMC
CMP
CMPS
CMPSB
CMPSW
CWD
DAA
DAS
DEC
DIV
ESC
HLT
IDIV
IMUL
IN
INC
INT
INTO
IRET
I
ASM-86 Instruction Summary
Description
ASCII adjust for Addition
ASCII adjust for Division
ASCII adjust for Multiplication
ASCII adjust for Subtraction
Add with Carry
Add
And
Call (intrasegment)
Call (intersegment)
Convert Byte to Word
Clear Carry
Clear Direction
Clear Interrupt
Complement Carry
Compare
Compare Byte or Word (of string)
Compare Byte of string
Compare Word of string
Convert Word to Double Word
Decimal Adjust for Addition
Decimal Adjust for Subtraction
Decrement
Divide
Escape
Halt
Integer Divide
Integer Multiply
Input Byte or Word
Increment
Interrupt
Interrupt on Overflow
Interrupt Return
I
Section
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.5
4.5
4.3
4.6
4.6
4.6
4.6
4.3
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.6
4.6
4.3
4.3
4.2
4.3
4.5
4.5
4.5
!!ill DIGITAL RESEARCH Tli
E-1
Concurrent CP/M-86 Utilities Guide
E Instruction Summary
Table E-1.
Mnemonic
JA
JAE
JB
JBE
JC
JCXZ
JE
JG
JGE
JL
JLE
JMP
JMPF
JMPS
JNA
JNAE
JNB
JNBE
JNC
JNE
JNG
JNGE
JNL
JNLE
JNO
JNP
JNS
JNZ
JO
JP
JPE
JPO
JS
JZ
LAHF
LDS
LEA
LES
I
(continued)
Description
Jump on Above
Jump on Above or Equal
Jump on Below
Jump on Below or Equal
Jump on Carry
Jump on CX Zero
Jump on Equal
Jump on Greater
Jump on Greater or Equal
Jump on Less
Jump on Less or Equal
Jump (intrasegment)
Jump (intersegment)
Jump (8-bit displacement)
Jump on Not Above
Jump on Not Above or Equal
Jump on Not Below
Jump on Not Below or Equal
Jump on Not Carry
Jump on Not Equal
Jump on Not Greater
Jump on Not Greater or Equal
Jump on Not Less
Jump on Not Less or Equal
Jump on Not Overflow
Jump on Not Parity
Jump on Not Sign
Jump on Not Zero
Jump on Overflow
Jump on Parity
Jump on Parity Even
Jump on Parity Odd
Jump on Sign
Jump on Zero
Load AH with Flags
Load Pointer into DS
Load Effective Address
Load Pointer into ES
I
Section
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.2
4.2
4.2
4.2
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - t!ID DIGITAL RESEARCH™
E-2
E Instruction Summary
Concurrent CP/M-86 Utilities Guide
Table E-l.
Mnemonic
LOCK
LODS
LODSB
LODSW
LOOP
LOOPE
LOOPNE
LOOPNZ
LOOPZ
MOV
MOVS
MOVSB
MOVSW
MUL
NEG
NOT
OR
OUT
POP
POPF
PUSH
PUSHF
RCL
RCR
REP
RET
RETF
ROL
ROR
SAHF
SAL
SAR
SBB
SCAS
SCASB
SCASW
SHL
SHR
[lID
I
(continued)
Description
Lock Bus
Load Byte or Word (of string)
Load Byte of string
Load Word of string
Loop
Loop While Equal
Loop While Not Equal
Loop While Not Zero
Loop While Zero
Move
Move Byte or Word (of string)
Move Byte of string
Move Word of string
Multiply
Negate
Not
Or
Output Byte or Word
Pop
Pop Flags
Push
Push Flags
Rotate through Carry Left
Rotate through Carry Right
Repeat
Return (intrasegment)
Return (intersegment)
Rotate Left
Rotate Right
Store AH into Flags
Shift Arithmetic Left
Shift Arithmetic Right
Subtract with Borrow
Scan Byte or Word (of string)
Scan Byte of string
Scan Word of string
Shift Left
Shift Right
I
Section
4.6
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.2
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.2
4.2
4.2
4.2
4.2
4.3
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.5
4.3
4.3
4.2
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.3
4.3
DIGITAL RESEARCH'"
E-3
Concurrent CP/M-86.Utilities Guide
E Instruction Summary
Table E-1.
Mnemonic
STC
STD
STI
STOS
STOSB
STOSW
SUB
TEST
WAIT
XCHG
XLAT
XOR
I
(continued)
Description
Set Carry
Set Direction
Set Interrupt
Store Byte or Word (of string)
Store Byte of string
Store Word of string
Subtract
Test
Wait
Exchange
Translate
Exclusive Or
I
Section
4.6
4.6
4.6
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.3
4.3
4.6
4.2
4.2
4.3
End of Appendix E
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - i!IDDIGITAL RESEARCH""
E-4
Appendix F
Sample Program APPF.A86
CP/M ASM86 1.08
SOURCE: APPF.A86
TerMinal Input/Output
PAGE
title 'TerMinal Input/Output'
pa!l'esize 50
pa!l'ewidth 78
siMforM
'****** TerMinal I/O subroutines ********
The followins subroutines
are included:
CONSTAT
CoNIN
CON OUT
console status
console input
console output
Each routine requires CONSOLE NUMBER
in the BL reSister.
*****************
*
JUMP table:
*
****************
SEG
; start of code seSMent
0000 E80600
0003 E81800
0006 E82BOO
constat
conin
con out
***********************
*
I/O port nUMbers
*
***********************
Listing F-1. Sample Program APPF.A86
I!IDDIGITAL RESEARCH™ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
F-l
F Sample Program
CP/M ASM86 1.08
Concurrent CP/M-86 Utilities Guide
Terminal Input/Output
SOURCE: APPF.A86
PAGE·
2
Terminal 1:
0010
0011
0011
0001
0002
instatl
indatal
outdatal
readYinmaskl
readyoutmaskl
equ
equ
equ
equ
equ
10h
llh
llh
01h
02h
input status port
input po rt
output port
input ready mask
output ready mask
12h
13h
13h
oah
08h
input status po rt
input po rt
output po rt
input ready mask
output ready mask
Te rminal 2:
0012
0013
0013
oooa
0008
instat2
indata2
outdata2
readYinmask2
readyoutmask2
equ
equ
equ
equ
equ
***********
*
CONSTAT
*
***********
EntrY: BL - relt
Exit: AL - relt
= terminal no
= 0 if not ready
Offh if ready
0009 53E83FOO
0000
OOOE
0010
0012
0013
0016
0018
52
B600
8A17
EC
22a706
7a02
BOFF
constat:
push bx ! call okterminal
constatl:
push dx
mov dh,O
read status port
mov dl tinstatustab [BX]
in
al,dx
and al,readyinmasktab [bx]
jz
constatout
mov al,Offh
Listing F-l.
(continued)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - l!ID DIGITAL RESEARCH TII
F-2
Concurrent CP/M-86 Utilities Guide
CP/M ASM86 1.09
001A 5A5BOACOC3
F Sample Program
SOURCE: APPF.A86
TerMinal Input/Output
constatout:
pop dx
POP bx
or al,al
PAGE
3
ret
*********
*
CONIN
*
*********
EntrY: BL Exit: AL 001F
0023
0026
0028
0029
002B
002E
002F
0031
53E82900
E8E7FF
74FB
52
6600
BA5702
EC
Z47F
5A5BC3
re~
re~
= terMinal no
= read character
onin: push bx ! call oKterMinal
conin1: call constat1
jz
conin1
push dx
MOV dh ,0
MOV dl tindatatab [BX]
al ,dx
in
and al,7th
pOP dx ! pOP bx
ret
test status
read character
strip parity bit
**********
*
CONOUT
*
**********
EntrY:
0034
0038
0039
003A
003C
53E81400
52
50
6600
BAl7
003E EC
onout: push
push
push
MOV
MOV
conout1:
in
BL AL -
re~
= terMinal no
= character to print
bx ! call oKterMinal
dx
ax
dh,O
dl tinstatustab [BX]
test status
al ,d x
Listing F-l.
I!ID
re~
(continued)
DIGITAL RESEARCH"" - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
F-3
F Sample Program
CP/M ASM86 1.09
003F
0042
0044
0045
0048
0049
Concurrent CP/M-86 Utilities Guide
TerMinal Input/Output
SOURCE: APPF.A86
and
jz
pop
MOV
out
pop
224708
74FA
58
8A5704
EE
5A5BC3
PAGE
4
al,readYoutMasKtab CBX]
conoutl
j wr it e byte
ax
dl,outdatatab CBX]
dx ,al
dx ! pOP bx ! ret
++++++++++++++
+ OKTERMINAL +
++++++++++++++
EntrY:
004C
004E
0050
0053
0055
0057
0059
OADB
740A
80FB03
7305
FECB
B700
C3
005A 5B5BC3
oKterMinal:
or
jz
CMP
jae
dec
MOV
ret
error:
BL -
re~
=
terMinal no
bl,bl
error
bl tlenHh instatustab + 1
error
bl
bh,O
pop bx ! pOP bx ! ret
j************** end of code
do
se~Ment
nothin~
***************
****************
*
Data
se~Ment
*
****************
dse~
**************************
*
Data for each terMinal
*
**************************
Listing F-l.
(continued)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - I I I D DIGITAL RESEARCH TN
F-4
F Sample Program
Concurrent CP/M-86 Utilities Guide
CP/M ASM88 1.09
0000 1012
0002 1113
oooa 1113
0008 010a
0008 0208
SOURCE: APPF.A86
instatustab
indatatab
outdatatab
readYinMasKtab
readyoutMasKtab
i***************
TerMinal Input/Output
db
db
db
db
db
PAGE
5
instat1 tinstat2
indata1 tindata2
outdata1,outdata2
readyinMasK1,readyinMasK2
readYoutMasK1,readYQutMasK2
end of file
**********************
end
END OF ASSEMBLY, NUMBER OF ERRORS:
0
Listing F-1. (continued)
End of Appendix F
~DIGITAL~EARCH~---------------------------------------------------------
F-S
Appendix G
Code-macro Definition Syntax
:: = CODEMACRO []
]
ENDM
:: = IDENTIFIER
:: = [{,}]
:: = :
[( :: = A I C I DIE I M I R I S I X
:: = b I wid I sb
:: = l
:: = REGISTER I NUMBERB
:: = NUMBERB,NUMBERB I NUMBERB,REGISTER I
REGISTER,NUMBERB I REGISTER, REGISTER
:: =
{}
:: = I I I < segfix > I
I I
I I
f!ID DIGITAL RESEARCH'" - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
G-l
G Code-macro Syntax
Concurrent CP/M-86 Utilities Guide
:: = DB NUMBERB I DB
:: = DW NUMBERW I DW
:: = DD
:: = SEGFIX
:: = NOSEGFIX
:: = MODRM NUMBER7, I
MODRM ,
:: = RELB
:: = RELW
:: = DBIT {,}
:: = NUMBER15 (NUMBERB) I
NUMBER15 ( ( NUMBERB ) )
:: = IDENTIFIER
NUMBERB is 8 bits
NUMBERW is 16 bits
NUMBER? are the values 0, 1, .. , ?
NUMBER15 are the values 0, 1, .. , 15
End of Appendix G
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - i ! I D DIGITAL RESEARCH'"
G-2
AppendixH
ASM-86 Error Messages
ASM-86 produces two types of error messages: fatal errors and diagnostics. Fatal
errors occur when ASM-86 is unable to continue assembling. Diagnostics messages
report problems with the syntax and semantics of the program being assembled. The
following messages indicate fatal errors ASM-86 encounters during assembly:
NO FILE
DISKETTE FULL
D I RECTORY FULL
DISKETTE READ ERROR
CANNOT CLOSE
SYMBOL TABLE Ot.'ERFLOW
PARAMETER ERROR
ASM-86 reports semantic and syntax errors by placing a numbered ASCII message in
front of the erroneous source line. If there is more than one error in the line, only the
first one is reported. Table H-l summarizes ASM-86 diagnostic error messages.
Table H-1.
Number
o
I
ASM-86 Diagnostic Error Messages
Meaning
ILLEGAL FIRST ITEM
1
MISSING PSEUDO INSTRUCTION
2
ILLEGAL PSEUDO INSTRUCTION
3
DOUBLE DEFINED VARIABLE
4
DOUBLE DEFINED LABEL
5
UNDEFINED INSTRUCTION
6
GARBAGEATENDOFLINE-IGNORED
7
OPERANDS MISMATCH INSTRUCTION
8
ILLEGAL INSTRUCTION OPERANDS
[!QJ DIGITAL RESEARCH TW
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
H-l
Concurrent CP/M-86 Utilities Guide
H ASM-86 Error Messages
Table H-1.
Number
I
(continued)
Meaning
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
MISSING INSTRUCTION
16
DOUBLE DEFINED SYMBOL - TREATED AS
UNDEFINED
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
INSTRUCTION NOT IN CODE SEGMENT
24
UNDEFINED ELEMENT OF EXPRESSION
ILLEGAL PSEUDO OPERAND
NESTED IF ILLEGAL - IF IGNORED
ILLEGAL IF OPERAND - IF IGNORED
NO MATCHING IF FOR ENDIF
SYMBOL ILLEGALLY FORWARD REFERENCEDNEGLECTED
FILE NAME SYNTAX ERROR
NESTED INCLUDE NOT ALLOWED
ILLEGAL EXPRESSION ELEMENT
MISSING TYPE INFORMATION IN OPERAND(S)
LABEL OUT OF RANGE
MISSING SEGMENT INFORMATION IN
OPERAND
ERROR IN CODEMACRO BUILDING
End of Appendix H
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - O C I D DIGITALRESEARCH TII
H-2
Appendix I
DDT-86 Error Messages
Table 1-1. DDT-86 Error Messages
J
Error Message
Meaning
AMBIGUOUS OPERAND
An attempt was made to assemble a command
with an ambiguous operand. Precede the operand
with the prefix BYTE or WORD.
CANNOT CLOSE
The disk file written by a W command cannot be
closed. This is a fatal error that terminates
DDT-86 execution. Take appropriate action after
checking to see if the correct disk is in the drive
and that the disk is not write-protected.
DISK READ ERROR
The disk file specified in an R command could not
be read properly. This is usually the result of an
unexpected end-of-file. Correct the problem by
regenerating the H86 file.
DISK WRITE ERROR
A disk write operation could not be successfully
performed during a W command, probably due
to a full disk. Erase files or obtain a disk with
greater capacity.
I NSUFF I C I ENT MEMORY
There is not enough memory to load the file
specified in an R or E command.
MEMORY REQUEST DEN I ED
A request for memory during an R command
could not be fulfilled. Up to eight blocks of
memory can be allocated at a given time.
!!ill DIGITAL RESEARCH
TW
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
1-1
I DDT-86 Error Messages
Concurrent CP/M-86 Utilities Guide
Table 1-1.
Error Message
(continued)
Meaning
I
NO FILE
The file specified in an R or E command could not
be found on the disk.
NO SPACE
There is no space in the directory for the file being
written by a W command.
VERIFY ERROR AT
5:0
The value placed in memory by a Fill, Set, Move,
or Assemble command could not be read back
correctly, indicating bad RAM or attempting to
write to ROM or nonexistent memory at the
indicated location.
End of Appendix I
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - r!ID DIGITAL RESEARCH TII
1-2
Index
"at" sign, 2-2
20-Bit Address
specification of in DDT-86, 6-3
8086 Registers, D-1
A
A (Assemble) Command (DDT-86),
6-4, 6-16, 6-18
AAA,4-6
AAD,4-6
AAM, 4-6
AAS,4-6
ADC, 4-6
ADD, 4-6
address conventions in ASM-86, 3-1
address expression, 2-16
allocating storage, 3-8
alphanumerics, 2-1
AND, 4-8
apostrophe, 2-2
arithmetic instructions, 4-5
arithmetic operators, 2-8, 2-10
ASCII character set, 2-1
ASM-86 character set, 2-1
ASM-86 error messages, 1-3, H-1
ASM-86 filetypes, 1-2
ASM-86 instruction set, 4-1, E-1
ASM-86 operators, 2-8
ASM-86 output files, 1-1
assembler directives, D-1
assembler operation, 1-1
assembly language source file, 1-1
assembly language statements, 2-16
assembly language syntax, 6-18
asterisk, 2-2
B
B (Block Compare) Command
(DDT-86), 6-4
BDOS interrupt instruction, 6-13
binary constant, 2-3
bracketed expressions, 2-16
BYTE, 2-5, 2-7, 6-18
c
CALL, 4-13
carriage return, 2-2
CBW, 4-6
character string, 2-3
CLC, 4-16
CLD, 4-16
CLI, 4-16
CMC, 4-16
CMP, 4-6
CMPS, 4-10
Code Segment, 2-7, 3-2, 6-16
code-macro directives, 5-1, 5-2,
5-5, D-1
CodeMacro directive, 5-2
colon, 2-2
conditional assembly, 3-4
console output, 1-4
constants, 2-3
control transfer instructions, 4-13
creation of output files, 1-3
CSEG directive, 3-2
CWD,4-6
!lID DIGITAL RESEARCH™ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Index-l
D
E
D (Display) Command (DDT-86),
6-5, 6-17
DAA,4-6
DAS, 4-6
data allocation directives
(ASM-86), 3-2
data segment, 2-7, 3-1, 3-2, 6-16
data transfer instructions, 4-3
DB directive (ASM-86), 2-7, 3-8
DB directive (code-macro), 5-8
DBIT directive, 5-8
DD directive (ASM-86), 2-7, 3-8
DD directive (code-macro), 5-8
DDT-86 command summary, 6-2
DDT-86 error messages, 1-1
DDT-86 operation, 6-1, 6-3
DDT-86
termination of, 6-3
DEC, 4-7
default segment values, 6-16, 6-17
delimiters, 2-1
device name, 1-4
device types (ASM-86), A-2
D I register, 4-10
diagnostic error messages, H-1
Digital Research hex format, 1-2, C-1
directive statement, 2-18, 3-1
directives (ASM-86), 2-16
DIV, 4-7
dollar-sign character $, 1-4, 2-2
dollar-sign operator, 2-14
DSEG Directive (ASM-86), 3-2
DW Directive (ASM-86), 2-7, 3-7
DW directive (Code-Macro), 5-8
DWORD, 2-5, 2-7
E (Load for Execution) Command
(DDT-86), 6-6, 6-16
effective address, 3-1
EJECT directive, 3-10
END directive, 3-5
end-of-line, 2-16
ENDIF directive, 3-4
Ending ASM-86, 1-5
EndM directive, 5-2
EQ,2-9
EQU directive (ASM-86), 2-7, 3-5
error condition, 1-3
ESC, 4-16
ESEG Directive (ASM-86), 3-3
exclamation point, 2-2
expressions, 2-16
extra segment (ES), 2-7, 3-1,
3-3, 4-10
F
F (Fill) Command (DDT-86),
6-6, 6-17
F parameter, 1-5
fatal error, H-1
file name extensions, 1-2
flag bits, 4-2, 4-5
Flag Name Abbreviations, 6-15
flag registers, 4-2
formal parameters, 5-1
G
G (Go) Command (DDT-86),
6-7, 6-17
GT,2-9
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - I!IDDIGITAL RESEARCH™
Index-2
H
H (Hexadecimal Math) Command
(DDT-86), 6-8
hexadecimal format, 1-1
HLT, 4-16
I
I (Input Command Tail) Command
(DDT-86), 6-8
identifiers, 2-4
IDIV, 4-7
IF Directive, (ASM-86), 3-4
IFLIST, 3-11
IMUL, 4-7
IN, 4-3
INC, 4-7
INCLUDE Directive, (ASM-86), 3-5
initialized storage, 3-6
instruction statement, 2-16, 2-17, 3-2
INT,4-13
Intel hex format, 1-5
INTO, 4-13
invalid parameter, 1-3
invocation examples (ASM-86), A-3
invoking ASM-86, 1-2
lRET, 4-13
J
JA,4-13
JB,4-13
JCXZ, 4-14
JE,4-14
JG,4-14
JL,4-14
JLE, 4-14
JMP, 4-14
[!ill
JNA, 4-14
JNB, 4-14
JNE, 4-15
JNG, 4-15
JNL, 4-15
JNO, 4-15
JNP, 4-15
JNS, 4-15
JNZ, 4-15
JO,4-15
JP,4-15
JS,4-15
JZ,4-15
K
keywords, 2-5, 2-6, D-1
L
L (List) Command (DDT-86), 6-8,
6-16, 6-18
labels, 2-7, 2-17
LAHF, 4-3
LDS, 4-3
LE,2-9
LEA, 4-3
LES, 4-3
line-feed, 2-2
LIST, 3-11 .
location counter, 3-4
LOCK, 4-17
LaDS, 4-10
logical instructions, 4-5
logical operators, 2-8, 2-9
logical segments, 3-1
LOOP, 4-15
LT,2-9
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Index-3
M
M (Move) Command (DDT-86),
6-9,6-17
MAC, 5-1
macros, 5 -1 .
minus, 2-2
mnemonic, 2-17
mnemonic differences, 4-18
mnemonic differences from the Intel
assembler, B-1
mnemonics, 4-1
mod field, 5-6
modifiers, 5-4
MODRM directive (code-macro), 5-6
MOV, 4-4
MOVS, 4-11
MUL, 4-7
N
name field, 2-18
NEG, 4-7
NOIFLIST, 3-11
NOLIST, 3·11
nonprinting characters, 2-1
NOT, 4-8
number symbols, 2-8
numbers, 2-8
numeric constants, 2-3
numeric expressions, 2-16
o
operator precedence, 2-14
operators, 2-8
optional run-time parameters,
1-3, 1-4
OR, 4-8
order of operations, 2-14
ORG Directive (ASM-86), 3-4
OUT, 4-4
output files, 1-1, 1-2
p
PAGESIZE directive (ASM-86), 3-10
PAGEWIDTH directive
(ASM-86), 3-10
parameter list, 1-3
parameter types (ASM-86), A-2
period, 2-2
period operator, 2-14
plus, 2-2
POP, 4-4
predefined numbers, 2-5
prefix, 2-17, 4-11
Prefix instructions, 2-17, 4-12
prefix mnemonics, 4-11
printer output, 1-5
PTR operator, 2-14
PUSH, 4-4
Q
QI and QO (Query 1/0) Commands
(DDT-86), 6-9
offset, 2-7
offset value, 3-1
operands, 4-1
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Index-4
R
R (Read) Command (DDT-86),
6-10, 6-16
radix indicators, 2-3
range specifiers (code-macro), 5-4
RB directive (ASM-86), 3-9
RCL, 4-8
RCR, 4-8
register memory field, 5-6
registers, 2-5
relational operators, 2-8, 2-10
RELB directive (code-macro), 5-7
RELW directive (code-macro), 5-7
REP, 4-12
reserved words, D-1
ROL, 4-8
ROR, 4-8
RS directive (ASM-86), 3-8
run-time options, 1-4
run-time parameters, 1-4
RW directive (ASM-86), 3-9
s
S (Set) Command (DDT-86),
6-11, 6-17
SAHF, 4-4
SAL, 4-8, 4-9
SAR, 4-9
SBB, 4-7
SCAS, 4-11
SEGFIX directive (code-macro), 5-5
segment, 2-7
segment base values, 3-1
segment directive statement, 3-1
segment override, 2-8, 2-10, 2-13
segment record types, C-3
segment start directives 3-1
[!QJ
semicolon, 2-2
separators, 2-1
shift instructions, 4-5
SHL, 4-9
SHR, 4-9
SI register, 4-1
SIMFORM directive (ASM-86), 3-10
slash, 2-2
space, 2-2
special characters, 2-1
specifiers, 5-3
SR (Search) Command
(DDT-86), 6-12
SSEG Directive, 3-3
stack segment, 2-7, 3-1, 3-3
starting ASM-86, 1-2, A-I
starting DDT-86, 6-1
statements, 2-16
STC, 4-17
STD, 4-17
STI, 4-17
STOS, 4-11
string constant, 2-4
string operations, 4-10
SUB, 4-7
symbol table, 5-1
symbols, 2-4, 2-6, 3-5
°
T
T (Trace) Command (DDT-86),
6-12, 6-16
tabs, 2-1
TEST, 4-9
TITLE directive (ASM-86), 3-9
tokens, 2-1
type, 2-7
type2 segment value, 6-16
DIGITAL RESEARCH™ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Index-S
u
U (Untrace) Command (DDT-86),
6-13, 6-16
unary operators, 2-13
underscore, 2-2
v
V (Value) Command (DDT-86), 6-13
variable manipulators, 2-8, 2-10, 2-13
variables, 2-7
w
W (Write) Command (DDT-86),
6-14, 6-16
WAIT, 4-17
WORD, 2-5, 2-7, 6-18
x
X (Examine CPU State) Command
(DDT-86), 6-14, 6-16
XCHG, 4-4
XLAT, 4-4
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Index-6
DIGITAL RESEARCH™
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Date _ _ _ _ _ First Edition: March 1983
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Concurrent CP / M-8(YM Operating System Programmer's Utilities Guide
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