TIPS ON Continental Engine Care

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TIPS ON
ENGINE
CARE

Teledyne Continental Motors
Aircraft Products Division

FORM X30548

FOREWARD
We wish to acknowledge, with thanks, the contributions of Teledyne
Continental Motors Training Manager, Ken Gardner, and also the editors of the
aviation magazines noted below for making this publication available.
AOPA PILOT MAGAZINE
NATINAL PILOTS ASSOCIATION
SPORT FLYING MAGAZINE
AIRPORT SERVICES MAGAZINE
FLYING MAGAZINE
THE AIRCRAFT POWER REPORTER

DON’T BABY YOUR ENGINE
“Reprinted from AOPA Pilot Magazine”
Some pilots do and the results are often quite discouraging.
“Engine babyers” mean well by their engines, in fact they
have been lead to believe that by not using all of the available
power for take-off and cruising with low power settings, they
are conserving their engine. Usually this type of thinking is
the result of experience with the stock automobile engine. In
reality the aircraft engine has very little in common with the
stock automobile engine in terms of operating procedures.
The aircraft engine is the athlete of its species and it was
designed for high power output. If this be the case, then you
are not going to do it any disservice by using full power for
take-off and 65 to 75% power for cruise. Even in view of
these statements, many pilots are still reluctant to fly their
engines at high power settings simply because they are still
not convinced that such operation won’t hurt the engine. If
you are one of those pilots “not quite convinced” perhaps it
would help if you knew what your engine had to do to prove
itself before the FAA would grant a type certificate for its
production.
Let’s say that you are flying an airplane powered by a
Teledyne Continental Motors Model O-470-R engine. This
engine, like any other, began on the drawing boards. From the
drawing boards it became actual hardware and then it entered
the developmental stage. Now a period of considerable testing
and refinement follows until an engine ready for production
finally emerges. However, before actual production and
subsequent sale of this engine can begin, it must pass an FAA
type test. The first type test engine and here is what a type test
involves.
The type test engine is mounted in a cell and given a
standard production acceptance test. After completion of this
series of runs, the engine is ready to begin its type test (also
called an endurance run). The engine will now be operated at
full power (maximum rated manifold pressure and maximum
rated RPM) for a period of 50 hours. During this period, the
engine’s CHT and OT (cylinder head temperature and oil
temperature) will be held at normal range (first 2/3 of the
green arc on your airplane gauges).
Upon completion of the first 50 hours, the engine is
checked and made ready for the second 50-hour period.
During the next 50 hours, the engine will continue at full
power—only this 50 hours will be at red line CHT and OT.
Imagine that! – fifty hours at “full bore” with red line
temperatures.
The last 50-hour phase will be alternating sequences of 65
to 75% power and at red line CHT and OT. Often I am asked
how we are able to control temperature with the engine
running, especially at full power. Cooling shrouds are placed
over the engine in the test cell and actual cooling air is
supplied from an outside blower. The minimum number of

hours required by your FAA is 150 and in the sequence just
described. Engine manufacturers often exceed this figure by
as much as two or three times simply for their own
satisfaction that all is well and the engine is trouble free.
After all type test running is completed, the engine is
removed from the test stand, completely disassembled and
every part carefully examined. Each moving part is checked
with measuring instruments to determine if any appreciable
wear has taken place. Each part must be able to pass the
blueprint specifications for new parts. Now let’s sum all of
this testing up in terms of pilot or owner benefits.
The type test engine operated for 100 hours at full power,
50 hours of this time at red line temperature and still another
50 hours at red line temperature during the 65 to 75% power
run. A minimum of 150 hours total, often more and during all
of that demanding operation , no parts failed and during all of
that demanding operation, no parts failed and actual wear of
moving parts was for all practical purposes, negligible. You
would have to fly your engine six minutes every hour at full
power and for 1000 hours just to equal that portion of the test.
A type test is quite an achievement in the eyes of most pilots
but isn’t to the engine manufacturer. The type test is simply
proof that the engine is able to do the job for which it was
designed, and that the materials from which it is constructed
are equally capable.
Now let’s talk about all the other production engines that
will follow the type test engine. Each new production engine
is given a standard production acceptance test. The last part of
this test is the oil consumption run and is conducted at full
throttle. The purpose of this test is initial seating of the piston
rings to the cylinder walls. The run is conducted at full power
because that is where greatest B.M.E.P. (Brake Mean
Effective Pressure) occurs and a high B.M.E.P. is necessary
for good piston ring break-in. The test house at the factory
determines initial piston ring seating by the amount of oil
consumed by the engine during this run. Only a few hours are
involved in the acceptance test and the new engine is by no
means completely “broken in”. The finishing up break-in
rests with the pilot who will be flying the engine during the
first 100 hours of its life.
The cylinder walls of a new engine are not mirror smooth
as one might imagine. A special hone is used to put a
diamond like pattern of “scratches” over the entire area of the
cylinder wall. Figure 1 shows a magnified view of these
“scratches” (technically defined as cross hatch). The cross
hatch treatment of the cylinder walls plays an important role
in proper break-in of piston rings to cylinder walls. Earlier I
mentioned that B.M.E.P. was necessary to the “break-in”
process. Here is how it works.

Figure 1. Above is a highly magnified view of the cross hatch pattern honed
into the cylinder’s surface.

Figure 2 illustrates a cutaway of piston, ring and cylinder
wall as these components would actually appear during
normal operation in a new engine of very little time.

Figure 2. Notice the “saw teeth” like surface of the cylinder wall and piston
ring face. In this illustration the piston ring is being held away from the
cylinder wall by a film of lubricating oil. This drawing is considerably
exaggerated in the interest of better understanding.

The illustration is considerably exaggerated for effect, in
reality the “saw teeth” effect would not be that pronounced.
Notice that a film of lubricating oil holds the piston ring away
from the cylinder wall. Proper break-in of piston ring to
cylinder wall requires that the ring rupture or break through
this oil film and make contact with the cylinder wall. During

such “metal-to-metal” contact, the little peaks on the ring face
and cylinder wall become white hot and rub off. This
condition will continue to occur until the ring face and
cylinder wall have established a smooth compatible surface
between each other. At this point, break-in is said to be
relatively complete and very little metal-to-metal contact will
occur hereafter. In fact, as the break-in process progresses,
the degree of metal-to-metal contact will regress.
There is one little “sticky wicky” in this process, that film
of lubricating oil is there to prevent metal-to-metal contact.
That’s exactly what it will do and really that’s what we want
it to do. However, during the break-in process, we must have
some minute metal-to-metal contact as previously explained.
Therefore, rupture of the oil film is necessary. Two factors
under the pilot’s control can retard this necessary
rupture…low power and improper lubricating oils during the
break-in period. Engine lubricating oils can be divided into
two basic categories, compounded (detergent and ashless
dispersant) and non-compounded. The compounded oils are
superior lubricants with a greater film strength than noncompounded oils. Consequently, only non-compounded oils
should be used during the break-in period. Some owners
insist on using additives or super lubricants along with the
regular engine oil during the break-in period. They believe
that such practice will aid the engine during its breaking in.
With all due respect to such good intentions, this practice is
wrong and actually causes harm.
Figure 3 is an exaggerated illustration of oil film rupture
during the normal break-in process. Note that the points or
ridges of the honed-in scratches have partially worn away.
During the actual oil film rupture, only the ridges on the
piston rings and cylinder walls contact each other. The little
“valleys” between the ridges retain a film of oil and thereby
prevent a total dry condition between piston ring and cylinder
wall. Notice in Figure 3 how B.M.E.P. or combustion
pressure forces the ring against the cylinder wall. This is the
“key” to the break-in process. You can see then that low
power (low B.M.E.P.) won’t provide the same results and the
break-in process will require a longer period of time.
However, time in this instance will have a detrimental affect
on your engine because any prolonged, low power break-in
procedure usually leads to “glazed” cylinder walls.
During each power stroke, the cylinder walls are subjected
to very high temperatures, often 4000 degrees F. or higher.
This period is very brief but nevertheless, long enough to
cause oxidation of minute quantities of some of the
lubricating oil on the cylinder walls. Some of this oxidation
will settle into the “valleys” of the honed cylinder wall
“scratches”. Eventually this situation will fill the “valleys” of
the cylinder walls creating a smooth, flat surface. This is also
a normal situation; however the ring break-in process
practically ceases when these valleys become filled or
“glazed” over. If this “glazed” over process occurs before
break-in is complete, in modern day language, “you have had
it”. Excessive oil consumption resulting from incomplete ring
seating will present itself and the only certain remedy is
rehoning the cylinder walls. This is both expensive and
unnecessary.

Figure 3. This is an exaggerated illustration of oil film rupture and
subsequent ring to cylinder wall contact. Notice the BMEP arrows pushing
the ring down on its ring land and pushing between ring groove wall and the
back of the piston ring. This is how oil film rupture occurs. Notice how the
“point” of the honing scratches have become flat on top. This is how the
mating of piston ring to cylinder wall occurs.

Well now you know the whole story, so let’s examine the
few simple steps necessary for proper break-in of any new,
remanufactured, major or top overhauled engine.
Pick a good quality, non-compounded aircraft engine
lubricating oil and stay with it throughout the break-in period.
Duration of the break-in period is usually defined as the first
50 hours or until oil consumption stabilizes.
Do drain and replace engine oil as often as recommended
by your owner’s manual. If operating conditions are
unusually dusty or dirty, more frequent draining may be

necessary. Remember, no one ever wore out an engine by
changing oil too often. Oil changes are more critical during
the break-in period than at any other time in the engine’s life.
Do use full rated power and RPM for every take-off and
maintain these settings until at least 400 feet of altitude above
the departing runway is attained. At this point, reduce power
to 75% and continue the climb to your cruising altitude.
Do maintain 65 to 75% power for al cruise operation during
the break-in period. Avoid high altitude operation with nonsupercharged engines during the break-in period. Altitudes in
excess of 8000 feet density will not permit sufficient cruise
power development with non-supercharged engines. Interrupt
cruise power every 30 minutes or so with a smooth advance
to full available manifold pressure and RPM for 30 seconds
then return to original cruise settings (non-supercharged
engines only). This procedure helps to hasten a good break-in.
The procedures suggested in this paragraph apply primarily to
the break-in period and are not necessary thereafter.
Avoid long power-off let downs especially during break-in
period. Carry enough power during let down to keep cylinder
head temperatures at least in the bottom of the green.
Keep ground running time to absolute minimums especially
during warm weather. During the break-in period, it will be
better to delay departure than to sit at the end of the runway
for 15 minutes or more running in high ambient temperatures.
Be especially generous with mixture controls and cooling
air during break-in. All take-offs should be with a full rich
mixture except from altitudes in excess of 5000 feet and then
take care to lean only enough to restore power lost from
overly rich mixtures. Make your climbs just a little flatter in
hot weather to assure adequate cooling air.
Follow these simple recommendations during break-in and
your engine will reward you with a healthy service life. And
above all “Don’t Baby Your Engine During Its Break-In
Period”.

HOT STARTS
“Contributed by the National Pilots Association”
“Hot Starts” Remember that phrase? It used to be quite
common and to most mechanics and pilots it was, or perhaps
still is, synonymous with the gas turbine engine. In recent
years it has spilled over into some of the reciprocating power
plants which power the general aviation fleet. However, the
meaning is quite different when applied to modern
reciprocating and implies difficulty in starting the power
plant when it is hot or heat soaked from recent use.
This condition is primarily associated with fuel injection
engines and usually occurs only during hot summer weather.
This situation is further aggravated by the fact that the pilot-

owner of today does not know as much about his airplane
and engine as his predecessor once did. There are many
valid reasons why he is not as knowledgeable, but the fact
remains, and this new bred of pilot-owner and the machines
he flies are steadily increasing in number with each new day.
So let’s get acquainted with ”hot starts” as applied to fuel
injection engines.
Maybe you already own an aircraft powered with a fuel
injected engine and if so, you are aware of the simplicity of
its starting procedures. As a matter of fact, there isn’t much
difference in starting procedures between fuel injection and

carburetor engines and both are quite simple under all
normal conditions – although there are times during hot
summer temperatures and under certain conditions when a
fuel injected engine may not start as easily as its carburetorfed cousins. While this is no major difficulty, it can be
annoying.
There is a sound reason for this little annoyance and once
you understand what provokes it and how your airplane is
equipped to handle it, you’ll know exactly how to avoid it.
The engine in a modern airplane is closely cowled to
reduce airframe drag and subsequently increase the overall
efficiency. Consequently, there is very little space inside the
cowling and it is void of any unnecessary openings. Figure 1
is typical of such an installation.

rise results from the fact that the air trapped inside the
cowling is heated by residual engine heat.
This condition can occur in nearly all modern airplanes,
twins and single engine alike, and especially so on those
airplanes having no upper cowl openings. On a hot summer
day it will take approximately two or three hours for this
trapped heat to dissipate appreciably. And here’s where “hot
starts” get started.
What actually happens? Within ten to fifteen minutes after
shutdown in hot weather, the heated air inside the cowling
heats the fuel in all of the lines and fuel metering
components located inside the cowling and forward of the
firewall.
Under these conditions the liquid fuel begins to expand
and vaporize. If the fuel selector valve is left on (and
normally it should be) the pressure from the expanding fuel
begins pushing the liquid fuel remaining in the lines back to
the fuel tank from which it came. Figure 3 illustrates this
condition.

Figure 1. Typical example of a tightly cowled engine in a well designed
airframe.

Close Cowling Traps Heat
Cooling of the engine depends on air being forced into the
cowling by the propeller during operation and the “ram”
effect during flight. Figure 2 illustrates airflow during
inflight conditions on a typical installation. Of course when
the airplane is on the ground and the engine is at rest, no
cooling is necessary. But! – things do get a bit warm inside
the cowling immediately after shut-down. This temperature

Figure 3. A simplified, though typical diagram of the fuel supply system
and its components forward of the firewall. Notice how the heated air rises
to the top of the cowling. All fuel lines are shown in X-ray fashion to show
what happens inside. Notice the puffs of vapor separating the liquid fuel and
that expansion has begun to force the fuel back to the full tank.

Very quickly most of the fuel in the lines and components
inside the cowling will have turned into vapor. If the fuel
selector valve was turned off after engine shutdown, the
expanding vapors then force the liquid fuel and vapors
through the fuel metering equipment and into the engine’s
induction manifold, eventually to escape into the
atmosphere.
Since we prefer to keep the fuel for turning the propeller
rather than permeating the atmosphere, it’s better to leave
the fuel selector on – this way the vaporizing fuel pushes its
way back to the tank from which it came.
PUMPS AND METERS – HOW THEY WORK

Figure 2. Notice how air entering the cowling opening in the front is forced
around the cylinders by means of baffles and moves into the lower cowling
where it passes overboard through the cowl flap openings. Cooling air also
enters the accessory section via strategically located vents.

All airplanes equipped with fuel injection have at least two
fuel pumps, one engine-driven injector pump and one
electric “auxiliary” or “booster” pump. The injector pump
can deliver fuel only when the engine is running or being
cranked. The electric auxiliary fuel pump can be operated
anytime, whether the engine is running or not.

As its name implies, the auxpump serves a variety of
purposes, including the complete elimination of “hot start”
situations.
The engine-driven injector pump differs considerably
from the pump used for carbureted engines. On carburetor
type engines the fuel pump usually serves one basic purpose:
supplying fuel to the carburetor from the storage tanks in the
airplane. On an injection system the engine-driven pump
provides several functions. In addition to supplying fuel, the
injector pump also contains some of the metering equipment
and therefore provides some of the initial metering.
All engine-driven fuel pumps must have the capacity to
provide more fuel than the engine can use, even at full
throttle. The automotive (diaphram) type pump simply
recirculates this excess delivery within its chambers. Since
the injector pump operates at higher pressures and delivery,
it is provided with a return line system. The injector pump
also supplies more fuel to the metering equipment than is
needed. This excess fuel returns through the return system to
the tank from which it came (see Figure 4).

plays a very important role in preventing “hot start”
difficulties.
The Auxiliary Pump
When you turn on the auxiliary pump, it draws fuel from
the storage tank and delivers this fuel under pressure to the
engine driven injector pump. If the engine is at rest, fuel
from the auxiliary pump will pass through the injector pump
bypass valve and into the metering section of the injector
pump. The partially metered fuel leaves the injector pump
and flows on to the metering control.
If the mixture control is open, the fuel arriving from the
injector pump will continue on to the distributor valve and
nozzles. However, if the mixture control is placed in cut-off
or full lean position, the fuel leaving the injector pump will
arrive at the mixture control in the metering unit and then
enter the return line system. Once in the return line system,
the fuel returns to the tank from which it came.
To “Fix” a Hot Engine

Figure 4. This illustration shows normal fuel flow when the engine is
running. Note the return of excess fuel from the injector pump and metering
unit. This excess fuel returns to the tank from which it came.

All injector pumps are fitted with a bypass valve which
allows the auxiliary pump to bypass the vane portion of the
pump and yet utilize the metering section of the injector
pump when the injector pump is inoperative. During normal
operation the injector pump draws fuel from the tanks,
meters it to some degree, to the metering unit or control.
The metering unit contains the fuel metering valve, which
is mechanically linked to the air throttle. On some engines
the metering unit also contains the mixture control, while
other installations have the mixture control built into the
injector pump. In either case, fuel passes through the mixture
control valve prior to reaching the fuel control metering
valve.
Whenever the pilot moves the throttle, the fuel metering
control will move in direct or related proportion. The
metering unit is also provided with a return line for returning
excess fuel which isn’t delivered to the cylinders for
combustion. The return line from the metering control
connects to the return line on the injector pump and from
here the return system goes back to the storage tanks or (in
some installations) to a small hopper tank located
somewhere along the main fuel line. This return system

Ready? Let’s start a typical fuel-injected engine that’s
been shutdown for approximately twenty minutes when the
ambient temperature on the ramp is 90°F.
Procedures for a routine, warm engine start on this fuel
injection engine would consist of:
1. Mixture control – Full Rich,
2. Throttle – “Cracked” or slightly open,
3. Magneto switches – On (if separate from starter switch)
4. Starter – Engage.
Usually a small amount of liquid fuel will remain in the
injection lines leading to the nozzles. As the engine begins
cranking, this retaining fuel is injected into the intake valve
ports (Figure 5) and drawn into the cylinders. Upon ignition,

Figure 5. Fuel enters the intake valve port by way of the injector nozzle
located in the cylinder head, and then passes into the cylinder through the
open intake valve in the usual manner.

the fuel ignites and the engine bursts into life; then, just as
suddenly as it started, it dies. A false start and the prima
facie indication that a “hot start” situation exists.

Since the fuel lines inside the cowling are full of vapor
rather than liquid fuel, the engine driven pump will not
pump or “move” the vaporized fuel in sufficient quantity to
support combustion. Therefore, the engine’s refusal to
continue running after the initial start up is simply due to
fuel starvation.
“Words” Won’t Help
Such false starts will usually be followed by difficulty in restarting. The unknowing pilot will continue cranking the
engine while resorting to some favorite procedure, selfdesigned, to accommodate the situation. If this doesn’t bring
forth immediate results, more cranking and different
procedures are tried, sometimes accompanied with “words”
expressed in a manner designed to encourage the engine to
be more cooperative. At last (usually) the engine starts but
only because the excessive cranking has pumped away the
vapor, permitting liquid fuel to fill the lines and returning
things to normal.
There has to be a better way – and here it is, in three easy
steps:
1. Mixture control – Full Lean or Cut-off.
2. Throttle – Full open
3. Electric auxiliary fuel pump – On high.
Relax for approximately twenty seconds and while you are
waiting, here is how the solution is working for you.
The electric fuel pump is taking liquid fuel from the tank
selected and pumping it through the heat-soaked lines under
the cowling. In its cut-off position, the mixture control
prevents this fuel from reaching the cylinders. This is
exactly what is needed at this moment: Now the fuel takes
the alternate path and returns to the tank or header from
which it came.

Just remember:
1. The mixture control must be full lean – to prevent
flooding and to force the circulating fuel to flow back
through the return system.
2. The throttle must be full open – because some single
engine fuel injected aircraft incorporate switches in their
throttle linkage to prevent the auxiliary pump from operating
in the high position when the throttle is retarded.
3. The auxiliary pump must operate in the high position for
approximately twenty seconds – to provide sufficient time to
adequately cool the fuel lines and components inside the
cowling.
Three to Remember
Finally, let’s summarize the three important facts that you
should remember about “hot start” difficulties:
1. The cause of this possible difficulty is simply heat
soaking of the fuel lines inside the engine cowling or nacelle
after engine shutdown in hot weather.
2. The actual condition is temporary fuel starvation due to
vaporization of fuel in the lines inside the engine cowling.
3. The solution for preventing the difficulty is the auxiliary
fuel pump which simply purges the vapors and hot fuel from
the lines prior to starting.
It’s just that simple.

Fuel Flow Purges Lines
During this process, the continual flow of fuel will purge
the lines forward of the firewall of all vapors. Also this
continued flow will reduce the wall temperature of the lines
through which it passes. After approximately twenty seconds
the fuel lines will have cooled sufficiently to retain the fuel
in a liquid state after the pump is turned off. Figure 6
illustrates the purging process.
After twenty seconds, turn off the electric pump and make
a normal start as follows:
1. Mixture control – Full rich.
2. Throttle – Cracked or partially open.
3. Starter – Engage.
No priming will be necessary because a small amount of
fuel will make its way past the closed mixture control and
into the nozzles during the purging operations. If this “three
step” purging operation is conducted exactly as outlined, the
engine will respond to a normal warm start procedure every
time, and with no difficulty.

Figure 6. The electric pump is operating and you can begin to see the
results. The supply line from the electric pump to the injector pump is
almost free of vapors. Notice the vapors being returned through the return
line system and that no fuel is passing the mixture control to the nozzles.

GROUND RUN-UP
“Reprinted from Aviation Mechanics Bulletin”

The reciprocating, air cooled aviation engine is not new to
many of us. In fact it’s been with us even prior to World
War I and that’s a long time anyway you choose to measure
it. But the air cooled engine of today is considerably
different from its predecessors. One of the important
differences is the cooling requirements of the modern air
cooled engines.
The early engines were velocity cooled. Figure 1 is a
typical example of this type of cooling. These engines had
little if any baffling and cooling was entirely dependent on
the velocity of air flowing over the cylinders. Cooling on the
ground was accomplished by the propeller and in flight,
forward motion provided the necessary air flow.

the cylinder. This is typical of velocity cooling. However
this type of cooling was satisfactory for these early engines.
The compression ratios were often little more than 5 to 1 and
the maximum “revs” were seldom more than 2000.
Consequently, the amount of excess heat dissipated from the
cylinder barrels and heads could be safely removed by
velocity cooling.
As the fledgling aircraft industry grew, so did the
performance demands placed on the engine manufacturers.
These demands are chiefly: more horsepower, higher
efficiency and greater reliability. However these demands
cannot always be met by simply increasing the size of the
engines.
So the compression ratios went up, but so did the amount
of dissipated heat that had top be removed from the engine.
The RPM’s increased and this too brought increased cooling
requirements. The point was reached where aircraft engines
could no longer be adequately cooled by the velocity
method. Cowlings were placed around the engines and
baffles were installed between the cylinders. Now the
cooling air could be directed around the entire area of the
cylinder. Thus pressure cooling was born and the results
were superior as well as uniform engine cooling. Figure 3
illustrates an early pressure cooled, static radial engine.

Figure 1. Velocity cooling.

Velocity cooling left something to be desired in that it did
not provide uniform air flow around the entire cylinder
assembly. This deficiency is illustrated in Figure 2. Notice
the turbulence and lack of air flow contact on the rear side of

Figure 3. Early form of pressure cooling incorporating an NACA cowling.

Figure 2. Airflow pattern around engine cylinder with velocity cooling.

Most of the early 4 cylinder, horizontally opposed engines
were velocity cooled like their radial cousins. However as
these engines increased in size, they too had to be pressure
cooled. As the aircraft industry grew, the state of the art

improved and engine cowlings became streamlined as
illustrated in Figure 4. Consequently the space inside the
cowling decreased. The proper cooling of engines in such
aircraft now became an exacting science.

Where does this pressure come from? Well there are two
sources we depend on and you already know what they are;
ram air from forward movement or flight, and the propeller
during ground operation. Since our subject is primarily
ground run up, let’s examine the propeller’s capability in
providing this pressure.
One look at the cooling air inlet openings on a modern
airplane will quickly convince you that they are small by
comparison to earlier installations. Figure 6 illustrates a
typical installation. Now look at the shape of the propeller
blade where it passes the cooling air opening in the cowling
as illustrated in Figure 6. Not much airfoil section present in

Figure 4. Typical streamlined installation of a pressure cooled power plant.

The baffling installed on the engines of today is the result
of considerable study. Special wrap around baffles now
guide the cooling air completely around the cylinder heads
and barrels. Other baffles channel cooling air into oil
radiators and cooling ducts for various accessories. Rubber
seals are provided along the cowling edges of the baffling.
These seals are very important since they provide the
necessary air tight seal between the baffling and the cowling.
Therefore every baffle and its seal must be in its proper
position and in good working condition, or satisfactory
cooling will not result.
Figure 5 illustrates a typical air flow pattern around a
modern engine installation. Notice how the cooling air “piles
Figure 6. Cooling air openings in a typical well designed installation.

Figure 5. Cooling airflow pattern around a typical modern engine
installation.

up" inside the cowling and then is channeled around the
cylinders. Cooling air is also entering the accessory section
to provide the necessary cooling for engine driven
accessories. The air in the top side of the cowling is actually
under pressure and it is this pressure that forces it to take the
desired routes provided by the baffling. One doesn’t have to
be an engineer to realize that in such an installation, cooling
air simply wouldn’t take the desired routes if it were not for
this pressure we keep emphasizing.

this area of the propeller is there? The airfoil section of the
propeller usually starts about halfway across this cooling air
inlet opening in the cowling. However the design is good
and if plain common sense is exercised in ground run up,
adequately pressure for cooling will be supplied by the
propeller.
The rules of ground run up are the same today as they
were for velocity cooled engines and they are now more
important than ever. Yet it is not uncommon to walk across
an airport ramp and see these rules profaned by both pilots
and mechanics. Why does this happen? Well perhaps
because we get a little careless in our daily routine or maybe
because it doesn’t appear to cause any harm to the engine.
The latter of these two excuses is probably the most
commonly accepted and it is also the biggest progenitor of
future troubles.
Excessive ground run-up, especially in the area of high
power can cause damage to pressure cooled engines. The
worst thing about such abuse is that it produces an
accumulative type of damage. The damage is seldom great
enough to show up right at that moment of abuse. Instead it
goes by undetected, but it accumulates with more abuse and
finally it shows up “way down the road” in the form of
broken piston rings, scored pistons or cylinders or perhaps a

premature overhaul. This delay in development is the worst
part of this situation. Because of it the pilot and or mechanic
seldom connect the results with the cause. Consequently the
shop manager is “hard put” to explain to the owner how this
could have happened. In the end it is the engine’s reputation
that usually suffers and for something that shouldn’t have
happened. So let’s review those rules of ground run-up:
1. Always face the engine into the wind when running up, it
helps.
2. Avoid prolonged or unnecessary run-up.
3. Avoid high power run-up except when absolutely
necessary for maintenance checks and then only as long as
necessary.
4. When high power run-ups are necessary, be certain you
idle the engine at 600 to 800 RPM for a few minutes prior to
shutdown. This will remove the excess heat developed
during the high power running.
5. Some of the modern turbo-charged engines are ground
boosted as well. Such an engine will quickly overheat from
excessive, high power run-up. Remember this when you run
these engines at high power on the ground.
6. Remember that the turbo-charger is also located inside
the cowling. The turbine gets “red hot” during normal high
power operation. This heat is constantly dissipated
overboard in flight, but it’s a different story on the ground.
So allow ample cooling down at fast idle (600 to 800 RPM)
prior to shutdown.
7. Don’t run-up without the induction air filter or with
carburetor heat on. Both of these abuses permit dirt to enter
the engine.
8. Don’t run the engine up with the propeller in steep pitch
except for the momentary propeller pitch check.
9. Don’t start or attempt to run-up an engine on the ground
with the propeller feathered. If the propeller is not equipped
with an auxiliary unfeathering system, use blade beams to
unfeather it prior to start up.
10.Always open all cowl flaps and cooling devices during
run-up, even during cold weather.
11.Never but never attempt to “burn out” a magneto drop his
“time honored” procedure succeeds only at the expense of
the engine’s mechanical health.
12.Don’t ever run an engine up under high power with the
cowling removed.
Rule number 12 is one of the most important and yet most
often profaned. Running the engine at idle speed while
making an idle mixture adjustment is not so bad. This only
takes a minute or two at the most and the engine isn’t
developing any appreciable amount of power. Under these
circumstances the amount of dissipated heat is not so great.
The only trouble is that it doesn’t stop here.
Figure 5 illustrates proper air flow around the engine’s
cylinders and as stated earlier this is possible only when the
upper cowling is pressurized. Now look at the same
illustration in Figure 7 only with the cowling removed.
Notice that air is flowing over and around the engine but not
around the cylinders where it is needed most. While this is
an illustration, it is no exaggeration. Running a pressure
cooled engine without its cowling simply will not provide
adequate cooling. What do you suppose happens to those

round cylinders under such distorted cooling conditions?
Distortion is correct and imagine what conditions that
imposes on the moving parts inside those cylinders.
You are also correct when you say that a considerable
amount of time and effort would have to be expended in
removing and replacing the cowling during routine
maintenance run-up procedures. However this is not
justification for improper operation and the subsequent
damage it could cause. There is a simple and easy solution.

Figure 7. Airflow pattern over uncowled pressure cooled engine.

Any A & P mechanic can easily construct a simple sheet
metal scoop similar to the type we use in the test house.
Such a scoop can be quickly installed or removed. Those
designed in the field are usually held in place with powerful
bungee cords. Installation of a cooling air scoop provides the
necessary volume of air and subsequent pressure to give
adequate cooling. In most cases, the cooling scoop will not
even interfere with the maintenance adjustments.
Consequently, it can be left in place until you have
completed your run-up requirements. Figure 8 illustrates a
typical cooling air scoop installation. Notice that cooling air
is flowing around the cylinders to provide adequate cooling
and yet the accessory section is completely open.
Well now that you have had a chance to think about it,
why not build a cooling air scoop? It won’t cost much and it
won’t take a great deal of time either. The reciprocating
aircraft engine of today is truly the athlete of the species. It’s
efficiency and reliability exceed any other period in its
history. But remember it is not immune to abuse.

Figure 8. Sheet metal cooling air scoop installed over uncowled engine.
Note bungee cords and hooks for holding scoop in place.

ENGINES NEED REGULAR EXERCISE
“Reprinted from Sport Flying Magazine”
My engine needs exercise! Why that’s ridiculous, engines
don’t have muscles! Your reaction is quite normal and in
fact you’re partly correct. Engines do not have muscles.
However your engine does need regular exercise and here’s
why.
For this particular subject airplane owners can be divided
into two basic categories. Those who fly their airplanes
regularly and those who don’t. It’s those who don’t that
should keep reading.
No doubt you have heard that time-honored cliché, “You
never get something for nothing.” Well, it’s just as true as it
ever was and your aircraft engine is an excellent example.
The outstanding performance and reliability of the modern
aircraft engine is possible only because of its high quality.
This old cliché is also influential in the realm of design.
Rarely ever will the design engineer find a panacea solution
to a design problem. He usually must settle for some
compromises in order to get the feature he wants most. This
same situation applies to the available materials from which
his designs will be constructed. Consequently, the design of
your engine and the materials used in its construction are by
nature of its mission the best possible solutions.
Finally, the mission of your engine is active service and
not an idle potential sitting around for months or years on
end. Keep these facts in mind as we examine what can
happen to an engine during long periods of inactivity.
A considerable amount of lubrication goes on inside an
engine during normal operation. Naturally you want this oil
retained within the engine and not “squirting” out of every
seam and joint. This simple but important requirement is
handled by the use of numerous gaskets and oil seals.
These seals are fabricated from many different materials
depending on the conditions under which they must serve.
Some types of seals depend on oil wetting to keep them live
and in proper condition. Long periods of inactivity can cause
these seals to dry out. Consequently, they will allow minor
but annoying leaks when service is resumed until they
become oil wetted once more.
Rubber seals are also affected by long periods of
inactivity. Most rubber seals, such as the ‘O’ ring seal, are
installed in a fashion that will provide some initial
deformation. It is this deformation or “slight squashing” of
the ‘O’ ring that provides the static or “at rest” seal. Under
long periods of inactivity, these seals have a tendency to lose
their natural resiliency and accept some permanent
deformation. Regular normal engine operation tends to
retard this condition.

However the most detrimental effects of engine inactivity
are “rust” and corrosion damage. There are several factors
that contribute to this condition so let’s take one at a time.
You don’t need a degree in chemistry to know that bare
metal surfaces are subject to damage from rust and corrosion
whenever they are unprotected. The reciprocating aircraft
engine contains a considerable number of close tolerance,
machined parts. These parts, such as cylinder walls,
crankshaft journals, etc. are bare metal and depend upon the
protection provided by the lubricating oil.
During normal operation lubricating oil is well distributed
throughout the engine, therefore, ample protection will be
provided for quite some time after engine shutdown.
However, the lubricating oil is a liquid, consequently, it will
eventually drain to the lowest point of the area it covered
originally. Lubricating oil, like most other liquids, is subject
to evaporation.
Consider that after engine shutdown oil distribution
throughout the engine ceases. The cylinder walls for
example are now protected by the film of oil remaining from
distribution prior to shutdown. However this film of oil will
thin as the oil drains down to the lower side of the cylinder
walls. As this film becomes thinner, the effects of
evaporation become greater simply because there is less oil
to evaporate. Once the walls become dry they are subject to
rust damage from the moisture that is always present in the
atmosphere and inside your engine.
Perhaps your are wondering how moisture can get inside
your engine when it is all sealed up. It really isn’t al sealed
up. In fact it is deliberately vented to the atmosphere because
the interior or crankcase of your engine must be able to
breathe. As the temperature rises during the day, it causes
the air to expand. Therefore, the air inside the crankcase will
also expand and breathe outward through the crankcase
breather. The reverse will be true as the ambient temperature
falls in the evening. Consequently the crankcase will now
breathe in. Each time this breathing happens additional
moisture and oxygen are drawn into the crankcase. Moisture
and oxygen produce rust and corrosion on unprotected, bare
metal surfaces.
No attempt should be made to plug or seal this crankcase
vent on your engine unless the engine has been properly
“pickled” for long term storage. Plugging the crankcase vent
on an unpickled engine will only aggravate the moisture
problem. By the way, “pickling” is a special and extensive
preservation process applied to engines that are to be stored
for considerable time.
Another and much greater source of moisture occurs
inside your engine each time you start it up and shut it down.

Immediately after start up, moisture will condense on the
cold metal parts inside your engine due to the rapid
temperature change that is taking place. A good example of
this condition is the moisture that forms on the outside of a
drinking glass when a cold liquid such as ice tea or beer is
poured into it. The same situation can be observed when
placing a glass of hot liquid inside a cold refrigerator and
this is the same condition that occurs when you shut your
engine down. So you see, moisture forms inside your engine
during start up and again at shutdown.
Remember too, that the more humid the atmosphere, the
more pronounced the moisture situation. Consequently this
condition is at its worst along the sea coasts where the
humidity is always high and during the summer months for
inland areas.
Moisture and oxygen are not the only culprits that cause
damage during excessive inactivity. There are also acids and
corrosive lead salts produced in the combustion chamber
during normal engine operation. Some of these contaminates
get into the crankcase by way of “blow by” past the piston
rings. Admission of these agents into the crankcase is
especially high during starting and ground operation due to
low engine temperatures and subsequently greater clearances
between pistons and cylinder walls.
If I have made you so nervous that you’re ready to rush
out and sell your “bird” to the first buyer, relax, because you
can easily prevent all of these “catastrophic” culprits from
“eating” up your engine. To begin with the conditions
described do not take place overnight, but rather over an
extended period of time. You are probably wondering when
I will get around to telling you just how long your engine
can remain safely inactive. I cannot tell you that and I doubt
that anyone else can unless they could know exactly the
extenuating circumstances involved in each case. For
example day to day humidity, time on the lubricating oil,
condition of the engine, inside or outside storage, etc.
The simplest and most economical solution requires only
two acts on your part. They are one: fly the airplane
frequently; two: use the correct grade of a quality brand of
lubricating oil and drain it according to the
recommendations in your owners manual. I realize that the
word “frequently” with regard to flying your airplane sounds
like “weazel” wording. However I must remind you of the
atmospheric and climatic variables that are always involved.
Therefore the suggestions that follow are selected on a basis
that will remove doubt and speculation with regard to
protection for your engine.
Airplanes based in coastal regions, both seaboard and
inland should be flown for at least thirty minutes at cruise
once every seven days. This rule will also apply to airplanes
based in the deep south during the summer months when the
humidity is quite high.
Thirty minutes at cruise power every two weeks should be
sufficient for airplanes based inland or where the humidity is
less than 70%. In desert regions, you could extend this
period even more but then you invite the usual scuffing
damage associated with “dry starts”. If you really want to do

right by your engine, avoid leaving it stand idle for more
than seven days regardless of where it is based.
A “time honored” practice among pilots that care about
their engines is weekly run up during periods of inactivity.
Although engine manufacturers appreciate this concern for
their engine, this practice is more detrimental than doing
nothing at all. Each time the engine is run up and shutdown
more water is formed inside the engine. Ground run up never
gets the engine hot enough to dry out the oil. Consequently
the water contamination continuously increases. Besides the
practice constitutes excessive ground operation which is
equally undesirable. Ground operation of an aircraft engine
should always be held to the absolute minimum if long
service life is to be realized.
The lubricating oil in your engine is also employed as a
cooling medium. For example, the under side of the pistons
get well above the boiling point of water during normal
cruise flight. Lubricating oil is thrown or sprayed on the
underside of the pistons to keep temperatures within
desirable limits. Under these circumstances water will
quickly turn to steam and once it becomes a vapor, it will be
expelled through the crankcase breather. Usually thirty
minutes at cruise power is sufficient to completely dry out
the lubricating oil. You cannot determine that the oil
temperature you read on the gauge is taken as the oil leaves
the sump or after it has passed through the cooling radiator.
In summation, normal ground run-up is not sufficient to
dry out the lubricating oil and no attempt should ever be
made to get your engine hot enough on the ground.
Equally undesirable is the practice of “doping” the
lubricating oil with various additives in the interest of
protecting the engine during long periods of inactivity Only
approved corrosion preventive compounds will perform
satisfactorily and even then only if the engine is properly
“pickled”.
Name brand lubricating oils already contain sufficient
additives for normal operation. “Doping” the oil with
additional additives is about as practical for your engine as it
would be for you to prescribe your own medicine.
Another practice consists of pulling the propeller through
for several revolutions every week or so. This practice redistributes the small amount of oil that tends to remain
between the pistons and cylinder walls. There is no
guarantee however that this procedure will re-oil all of the
exposed metal surfaces in your engine and in time the redistributed oil will also drain away leaving you with nothing
to re-distribute.
Your schedule may be so demanding that you cannot
always fly your “bird” to keep it active. You might select a
pilot friend you can trust and check him out in your machine
so that he or she can fly it occasionally. Between the two of
you, it shouldn’t be much of a problem to fly it for thirty
minutes several times a month. This regular exercise will
help retain your engine’s mechanical health, and don’t forget
the oil. Use a good brand of lubricating oil and change it
frequently.

ENGINE OIL CHANGES ARE NECESSARY
“Reprinted from Sport Flying Magazine”
Periodic oil changes are the most economical maintenance
you can buy for your engine. Therefore oil changes are
absolutely necessary.
I doubt if there is a pilot anywhere who hasn’t been
confronted with this subject and the controversial confusion
surrounding it.
I believe that the average aircraft owner cares about his
engine and wants to do right by it. However when one
considers the amount of controversial information on just
one aspect of engine maintenance, it isn’t any wonder that
the owner can be confused or misled. Therefore he deserves
an explanation regarding the “Why’s and Wherefore’s” of
periodic oil change.
OIL’S 5 FUNCTIONS
The lubricating oil in your engine does considerably more
than reduce friction. In fact it performs five major functions
all of which are necessary requirements. Each of these five
basic requirements must be met to the degree specified by
the engine manufacturer before the oil can be approved for
use. You should be aware of these five requirements because
they will play an important part in helping you to
discriminate between fact and misconception. They are as
follows:
1. Reduce friction between moving parts to a negligible
amount.
2. Provide necessary cooling to the internal areas of the
engine that cannot be reached by external means.
3. Cushion moving parts against shock and help seal the
piston rings to cylinder walls.
4. Protect the highly finished internal parts of the engine
from rust and corrosion.
5. Keep the interior of the engine clean and free of sludge,
dirt, varnish and other harmful contaminants.
OIL WEARS OUT
The lubricating oil must perform all five of these functions
simultaneously and without compromise among any of the
five functions. Therefore the oil must have a high degree of
compatibility between each of its five functions so that each
will function as required without impairing any of the others.
That’s no small task and to do all of that it has to be more
than just plain oil. Since each of these five functions has a
definite influence on when the oil shall be changed, let’s
examine each one separately. In each of these five functions
we have the behavior of the oil in performing its function
and the subsequent effects imposed upon it by the engine.

1. Reduce Friction – During normal operation lubricating
oil is distributed to all moving parts in the engine. The
method of delivery, quantity and pressure vary according to
the loads imposed on the various parts. In all cases however
the oil reduces friction by behaving like millions of “tiny
ball bearings” rolling around between the moving parts of
the engine. In a sense these “little ball bearings” of oil can be
regulated in size by the petroleum refineries. Thus the
different viscosities or grades of lubricating oils that are
available.
The clearances or space between moving parts in your
engine dictate what grade or viscosity of oil the engine must
have in order to provide satisfactory operation and a long
service life.
Now let’s examine the effects imposed upon the oil by the
engine. No doubt you have heard that old statement, “Oil
does not wear out.” Well the truth of this misconception is
that oil does wear out. Today’s high compression engines
subject their lubricating oils to severe stresses and in more
ways than one. Actual laboratory tests have shown
conclusively shearing action from many of the moving parts
in the engine. In time this shearing action will alter the oils
original viscosity properties. The petroleum engineers call
this a change in the oil’s “thixotropic” properties. That “two
dollar” word simply means the oil “isn’t what it used to be.”
Once this happens to the oil. Its continued use could lead to
a reduction in service life of the engine. This same condition
was also observed in oil samples taken from actual engines
in regular normal service. Remember that “this tired”
condition of the lubricating oil is a product of continued
normal engine operation.
2. Provide necessary cooling – Moving parts generate
friction which in turn produces heat. While the lubricating
oil practically eliminates metal to metal contact, it is subject
to its own friction. The constant flow of oil to al of these
moving parts carries away the heat fast enough to keep the
operating parts at a safe temperature. The upper cylinder
walls, pistons and exhaust valve stems are exposed to
extreme temperatures during normal combustion. Here again
the excess heat inside the engine is removed by the
lubricating oil.
Keep in mind that the oil temperature you see on the
instrument panel is the temperature of the oil after it leaves
the oil cooling radiator. Engines not equipped with oil
radiators usually have their oil temperature taken
immediately after the oil is removed from the sump where it
has time to cool before redistribution. Here again the oil
temperature is considerably less than what it is during actual
contact with the hot parts.

I would like to caution the reader at this point not to draw
the conclusion that the cooler he runs his oil temperatures,
the better for the oil and the engine. Too low an oil
temperature can be harmful to the engine because then the
oil will not get hot enough to dry out the moisture that it
collects during normal shutdown and start up.
The “hot” areas of the engine and turbo-charger impose
high temperatures on the lubricating oil while it is
performing its cooling function. These high temperatures
subject the oil to “coking” and “oxidation.” Coking tends to
dirty up the oil with carbon particles while oxidation causes
the oil to break down and thicken. A “full flow” filter will
help to remove much of the coking effects but nothing can
be done about the oxidation. Both of these effects are
harmful destruction of the oil and if you persist in running
past the manufacturers recommended time between changes,
you are just “begging” for trouble.
3. Cushioning and sealing – A good example of cushioning
is in the valve train. Here each valve is being “thrust” open
and “yanked” shut every 1/20th of a second at normal cruise
power. Imagine how long these parts would last if it were
not for the shock absorbing qualities of the oil film between
these parts. A thin film of oil on the cylinder walls not only
lubricates but helps provide the necessary gas tight seal
between the piston rings and cylinder walls.
In this function one can easily see the severe shearing and
crushing action imposed on the lubricating oil by just the
valve train alone. Also a perfect gas tight seal between
piston rings and cylinder walls is never completely attained
so the lubricating oil will be subjected to some high
temperature “blow by” of combustion gasses. Not only does
this “blow by” contribute to the oxidation situation pointed
out earlier but it also contaminates the oil with various acids
and corrosive lead salts generated during combustion. These
contaminants remain in the oil and are not removed by the
filter. Each hour of engine operation adds more of these
contaminants. After shut-down, water vapor condenses
inside the engine and its subsequent mixture with these
corrosive combustion products produces harmful acids.
4. Preservation – The lubricating oil accomplishes this task
in several ways. After engine shutdown a coating of oil
covers all of the interior of the engine. This coating provides
protection against rust, however it will slowly drain off in
time and eventually expose the interior of the engine to rust
damage. In order to maintain this protection the engine
should be flown (not run up) at least once a month, inland
and every two weeks, sea coast. Additives in the lubricating
oil provide some protection against corrosion, however these
additives are not sufficient for long periods of engine
idleness.
Remember that during normal operation the engine
continuously adds more contaminants to the lubricating oil.
In time the protective additives will be used up and the oil
becomes saturated with undesirable corrosive agents. The
only certain continued protection is changing oil.
5. Interior cleanliness – Ashless dispersant type lubricating
oils will keep the interior of your engine clean if used
continuously after the first 100 hours of the engine’s life.
These oils contain additives that cause the dirt to disperse
throughout the oil and also to prevent the dirt from

precipitating out of the oil and collecting in the engine when
the oil is at rest. This function is vitally important since there
are many oil passages in an engine that could be clogged up
in time with dirt and cause oil starvation. Also there are
many assemblies such as hydraulic valve lifters that must
have clean oil for their satisfactory operation otherwise they
will fill up with dirt and sludge and cease to operate.
Every hour the engine runs it adds more dirt to the oil..
This dirt comes from a variety of places. Dust taken from the
atmosphere which is always present even at high altitudes.
Also from soot during starting and idling. Then there is the
“coke” produced by the “hot” areas. Highly corrosive lead
salts and minute metal particles are other sources. “Blow by”
gasses contribute several different acids such as sulfuric,
formic and others. Water vapor forms each time the engine
is shutdown and started up. Gasoline dilution occurs during
starting especially during cold weather. When all of this
“garbage” gets mixed up in your lubricating oil, it forms
some new contaminates of its own such as sludge, varnish,
and highly corrosive acids. Acids are usually harmful only
when they are wet or contain water. When the lubricating oil
reaches its normal operating temperature, it will “dry out.”
The water is vaporized and passes out through the crankcase
breather during “dry out” of the oil, but remember, after
shutdown it will return and during the humid summer
months this condition is worse than any other time of the
year. The more humid the climate, the more water
condensation during shutdown and start up. All airplane
engines are not equipped with “full flow” filters, but even
those having filters do not enjoy all the protection some
owners are often led to believe. The filter can remove only
the solid contaminants such as, dirt and coke. The liquid
contaminants pass right through the filter and continue to
remain in the oil. The only way to get rid of them is to drain
the oil.
DIRT YOUR ENEMY
Well, there you have the story of what the lubricating oil
does in your engine and what your engine does to the
lubricating oil. One of your engine’s worst enemies is dirty,
contaminated lubricating oil. A badly worn bearing is a
typical example of what happens if your engine is operated
with dirty oil.
If your engine does not have a full flow filter, the oil
should be changed more often and for good reason. Only a
small amount of dirt entering your engine can ruin it. How
does it get in? the engine “breathes” it into its cylinders.
What about the air filter you say? Yes, if the air filter is
properly serviced and replaced when necessary, it will keep
most of the dirt out but some does get in and finds its way
into the oil. There is considerably more dirt and dust in the
atmosphere than you may realize.
THE NEW ENGINE
While we are on the subject of oil changes let’s examine a
few other wide-spread misconceptions. One of these
involves the type of oil to be used in breaking in a new
aircraft engine. To start with, your new or remanufactured

zero time engine is already broken in when you receive it.
Every engine is run on a test stand until it is broken in.
However the first 100 hours of this engine’s life are
considered the final running in period.
During the first 50 hours of operation only straight,
petroleum mineral oil should be used. This type of oil does
not have the special additives found in ashless dispersant or
detergent types. There is nothing special about this oil, it is
simply a petroleum base lubricating oil. Because it does not
contain the “super lubricants” present in the ashless
dispersant oils, it will permit the minute film ruptures
necessary to obtain the desired piston ring to cylinder wall
contact during the initial running in period. This is the same
type oil used during the break in on the test stand.
The use of additive oils could result in failure of the
engine to successfully complete its final piston ring seating
during that first 50 hours. We know of cases where the
owner followed our recommendations and then added one of
those “super friction proofing” additives to the mineral oil.
He meant well because he thought he was helping his engine
through that first 50 hours. If you want your engine to “seat
in” properly, this is exactly what you don’t do.
Usually the first 50 hours of operation will be adequate for
proper ring seating. From then on we recommend that you
use only an ashless dispersant oil for the rest of the engine’s
life.
MIXED BRANDS OK
Another popular misconception is that lubricating oil from
different name brand refineries should not be mixed. This is
not so at all. For example, you’re flying cross country during
your engine’s first 50 hours and the straight mineral in your
engine is brand T. The field where you landed has only
brand S in straight mineral oil and you need a quart. Add a
quart of brand S. No harm will result because they will mix
quite satisfactory.
The same rule applies if you’re past the 50 hour mark and
running on an ashless dispersant oil. Different name brands
of ashless dispersant will mix with each other equally
satisfactorily. We continue to recommend that you pick a
“name brand” and stay with it, however no harm is going to
result if you should have to add another name brand of the
same type and grade during your cross country travels.
Despite what the skeptics may tell you, no major petroleum
company is about to market an aircraft engine lubricating oil
that isn’t compatible with other brands on the market.
Another situation that we encounter is the use of
automotive detergent oil in aircraft engines. This is a no-no

from either side. Don’t use automotive oils of any kind in
your aircraft engine. Automotive oils are refined specifically
for the lower temperature operation encountered in the water
cooled automotive engine. These oils contain metallic ash
additives that could cause pre-ignition in an air cooled
aviation engine. This is no reflection on the quality of
automotive oils. By the same token, aircraft oil should not
ever be used in automobile engines because it is not suited
for this type of operation.
ADDITIVES NOT NECESSARY
Then there is the popular “owner fad” of adding “super
lubricants” to his engine oil. Of course the owner does this
in complete sincerity that he is making life easier for his
engine and prolonging its life. Believe me, the engine
manufacturers appreciate owners like this that really care
about their engines but we also want his engine to operate
economically for him as well as providing a long service
life. Let’s examine a few facts on this subject.
First of all the engine’s bearings are designed in excess of
the loads they must carry even at peak power, so the engine
is never really straining when it is being operated properly.
Second the modern ashless dispersant lubricating oils are
more than adequate for the task they perform. They are so
capable of reducing friction and resisting film rupture that
for this very reason we prefer that you don’t use them during
the first 50 hours of run in operation. These oils already have
“super lubricant” additives blended into them at the refinery.
That old saying “if a little does so much good, think what a
lot would do!” isn’t always applicable. A spoon full of castor
oil does wonders for certain needs and yet you wouldn’t
drink the whole bottle on the basis of the “old saying.” A
good brand of ashless dispersant lubricating oil changed on
schedule is quite satisfactory and that is all that we
recommend.
Many times we are asked what brand of oil do we prefer
or recommend. We have no particular preference and we
recommend any of the brands specified in Continental
Motors bulletin MHS-24A. We do recommend that you
change oil at the first 50 hours, filter or not. Remember, the
filter removes only the solids, not the liquid contaminants.
Above all whatever your choice of engine may be, it is you
who keeps that engine manufacturer in business, therefore he
is not about to advise you wrong. DO CHANGE
LUBRICATING OIL AS RECOMMENDED, OIL
CHANGES ARE NECESSARY!

IS PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE
WORTH IT?
“Reprinted from Airport Services Management Magazine”
Is so called “preventive maintenance” really worth it?
Does it really do any good considering the cost and all? I
have a friend who buys a new car every couple of years and
he never does anything to them; he doesn’t even have them
greased or the oil changed. All he does is put in gas and
drive them. He never has a minute’s trouble.
When you consider all the extra safety features and quality
built into an airplane, plus the fact that it doesn’t have to
operate on muddy, salted streets, one wonders about the
necessity of any preventive maintenance. Nevertheless the
average airplane owner is prone to at least two fallacies
when it comes to maintenance on his airplane.
One is the natural tendency to equate the maintenance of
his airplane to the stock automobile. The other is listening
and in some instances believing those who pass themselves
off as experts on the subject.
But even the most stubborn skeptic will have to concede
that the best machines are susceptible to damage from abuse
and neglect. Trouble-free operation from machinery with no
consideration given to maintenance is wishful mythology.
Even if every pilot was a qualified expert and did everything
perfectly, he still could avoid maintenance.
Misconceptions
There are no aircraft or engines that are fabricated from
metals that are completely indestructible – metals that
cannot wear, rust, burn, corrode or fail structurally. Nor have
we found any rubber or plastic materials that are
indestructible, rubber that cannot age or deteriorate, or
plastic that will not break or deform.
The tendency to compare aircraft with automobiles is
misleading for a second important reason. They are operated
in totally different environs. The typical stock car is seldom
required to deliver even 70 percent of its rated horsepower
on a prolonged basis under normal driving conditions. But
an airplane uses all of its power on every takeoff. Unlike the
car, losses of power due to the lack of required maintenance
will noticeably affect the airplane’s performance, especially
under gross load or short runway conditions.
Cars are not required to pass from hot to cold temperatures
within a matter of minutes, but a turbosupercharged aircraft
is often required to climb from a surface temperature of 100
degrees F or more to a minus 12 degrees F at 20,000 feet in
less than 15 minutes.

These are only some of the many differences that void any
comparison between aircraft and car, particularly when
maintenance requirements are taken into consideration.
The third factor is equally important and consists of
reasonable explanation to the owner of exactly what
“preventative maintenance” is in terms of value to him.
Attempting to badger the owner into accepting preventive
maintenance with high pressure selling, threats or warranty
nullification or FAA mandates is not a satisfactory approach.
Cost Considerations
The factor of most concern to the airplane owners is the
cost involved. You must be able to prove to his satisfaction
that proper preventative maintenance will cost him less over
the period that he owns the airplane than going the route of
neglect.
Every twelve months the airplane must pass a thorough
and rigid inspection before its license can be renewed. We
all know this, including the owner. This is one of the areas in
which to prove the economy of preventive maintenance.
Let’s say we have an owner who flies 350 hours a year
and his airplane is in the shop only when some malfunction
occurs, or once a year for its annual. During the inspection
the mechanic finds a badly leaking exhaust gasket at one of
the cylinder heads.
Closer examination reveals that the gasket has been
leaking for a considerable number of hours. The result is a
cylinder head damaged beyond use. The cost: $480.00 for a
new cylinder barrel and head assembly and this doesn’t
include any of the other incidentals or labor. The total bill
will be in excess of $600.00 just for parts and labor.
Would preventative maintenance have cost this much?
Definitely not. Would it have prevented this damage? The
answer is yes. In this particular case it was pointed out to the
customer that this condition would have been detected
during a regular oil change. But this owner changes the oil
himself because he saves money. One wonders how much he
saved in neglect after the cost of repairs resulting from
neglect were deducted.
Another area of neglect that can cause expensive
repercussions is induction air filter maintenance. The air
filter on the average aircraft engine has nowhere near the
excess capacity for holding dirt that its counterpart on the
automobile has. Consequently it will require more frequent
servicing. It should be serviced every 100 hours or more
often in dusty operation.

Failure to do so will result in a loss of power and this
condition will increase as the filter continues to load up. A
dirty air filter will cause excessively rich mixtures which in
turn will foul spark plugs and lead to carbon build-up in the
combustion chamber. The oil wetted type air filters can be
serviced several times before replacement becomes
necessary. This is also true of some of the dry paper types.
At any rate, the filter should be serviced as often as its
condition dictates and replaced immediately if it shows any
signs of deterioration. Failure to heed this advice will surely
result in a premature engine overhaul.
Dust and Oil
Many pilots believe that dust exists only near the surface
and that once aloft they are out of it. Also, many owners are
led down the road of neglect on the basis of misconceptions
they have come by one way or another and dust is a good
example.
Perhaps the most classic of all examples is engine
lubricating oils. So many wild and conflicting beliefs
surround this subject that one wonders if there exists a single
owner who isn’t confused. There are five basic requirements
that a lubricating oil must fulfill in the reciprocating aircraft
engine. They are in their order of importance as follows:
-Reduce adequate cooling of internal parts.
-Provide adequate cooling of internal parts.
-Help seal piston rings to cylinder walls and cushion
moving parts against shock.
-Preservation from rust and corrosion damage to all
internal engine parts.
-Keep the interior of the engine clean and free of dirt,
sludge, varnish and other harmful contaminants.
The lubricating oil must be capable of performing all five
of these functions and with a degree of compatibility that
will not force undesirable compromises among any one of
these five. To do all of that, it has to be more than just oil. In
fact the rule played by modern lubricating oils within the
reciprocating engine is so significant that it is difficult to
imagine that any usually because of misconceptions.
One common misconception is that oil does not wear out.
In fact there was at one time a government bulletin that so
stated. Today we know that oil does indeed wear out. The
constant and brutal shearing action to which oil is subjected
during normal engine operation will in time break down its
molecular structure.
Under these conditions and depending on the type of oil, it
could be getting thicker or thinner. If this is true, how then
can it continue to perform function number one on a
satisfactory basis, or function number three? Are you willing
to take the chance?
Then there is preservation. Gasoline burning in the
combustion chamber of an engine produces various acids.
Most of these acids are expelled through the exhaust valve,
but not all. Some of each find their way into the lubricating
oil through “blow by” past the piston rings and exhaust
valve guides. There are other corrosive exhaust products in
addition to the acids. However they don’t cause any
appreciable harm while the engine is operating normally
because they are in an antihydrous state. This simply means

that water is not present in their make-up and without water,
they are no threat.
Once the engine is shutdown and begins to cool, water
vapor in the atmosphere will condense on the surfaces inside
the engine. The water droplets run down into the oil and,
being heavier, sink into the oil. As the water passes through
the oil it comes into contact with the acids mentioned
previously. Now destructive acid, activated by the presence
of water, forms. Before the acids can cause harm they are
neutralized by additives blended into your oil at the refinery.
Each time your engine is started up and shutdown this
process is repeated and as long as the additives last you are
protected. But that’s just it. These additives will in time be
consumed and then your protection ends, costing you
function number four. Still willing to take the risk?
How about function number five? Even if your engine is
equipped with an oil filter it will only remove the harmful
solids and not the liquid contaminants. Once your oil reaches
the saturation point for dirt and liquid contaminants, it will
permit additional contaminants to precipitate out and settle
into the engine. When you finally do change oil the excess
contaminants will remain in the engine. Failure to change oil
at the proper interval can eventually reach a point where
your, oil isn’t even performing half of the required functions.
It’s difficult to imagine that anyone would jeopardize an
$8,000.00 investment in his powerplant for less than $10.00
worth of oil.
When to Change
How can the owner be certain of when to change his oil?
Simple! Follow the manufacturer’s recommendations. I
don’t know of one airframe or engine manufacturer who
isn’t concerned with customer satisfaction. Therefore, their
recommendations concerning preventative maintenance and
hat’s exactly what an oil change is – are based on actual
operating experience, backed with the engineering that
conceived the machine in the first place.
Many of the aspects of preventative maintenance are
small in comparison to the trouble they can prevent. A good
example of this is magneto timing and worn out spark plugs.
Improper ignition timing and worn out spark plugs can cause
pre-ignition and the owner will seldom be aware until the
damage is already an expensive reality.
I know of more than one case where the shop
recommended new spark plugs and the owner refused
because the engine was running fine on the plugs presently
installed. The plugs’ ability to fire is only part of the story. If
the core nose insulation has deteriorated to where it isn’t
conducting the heat away from the electrodes and into the
cylinder head fast enough, the electrodes can reach
temperatures that will introduce pre-ignition. Detection of
this condition before it causes trouble is another facet of
preventative maintenance. How many sets of spark plugs do
you suppose this damage would have paid for?
Good Investment
Records and experience prove beyond any doubt that
insufficient maintenance costs more than preventative

maintenance. In addition to offering the owner lower overall
maintenance cost for his aircraft, preventative maintenance
also keeps his “bird” in top operating performance, assures
him of the safety and reliability built into his machine and
protects the top retain value of his investment.
Some owners hold the misconception that preventative
maintenance is a scheme dreamed up by the fixed base
operators and franchised dealers for increasing revenue from
their shops. Nothing could be further from the truth. The
aircraft and engine manufacturers are the progenitors of the
recommended preventative maintenance for their products
and for a very good reason.
I repeat, I don’t know of a single aircraft or powerplant
manufacturer that isn’t interested in customer satisfaction.
This preventative maintenance schedules developed by the
manufacturer are designed to give the owner the longest
possible service life at the lowest possible cost. Wen one
considers that all of these manufacturers are constantly
competing with each other to win that individual owner, it
would be absurd to believe anything else.
Handling Customers
However don’t expect much owner reaction from
statements like “because the factory said so, that’s why”.

Many owners never see a manual, but you do. If they are
skeptical, show them the preventative maintenance schedule
set forth in the service manual for their aircraft or engines.
Remember too, that once you have won them over, you have
an obligation to them.
Don’t pass “mistakes or bloopers” off on the customer’s
bill; they should always be your responsibility. A
maintenance facility that passes excess charges on to the
owner because of its own shortcomings, whatever they may
be, will destroy owner confidence in that facility. This sort
of thing will never encourage a belief in preventative
maintenance.
No one is ever permanently sold. You must continue to
sell him on preventative maintenance each time it is
performed. He is just like you in that he doesn’t have money
to waste and he likes and wants to believe that what he is
paying is wisely spent. It should be easy for you to promote
this feeling. If your customer keeps his bird in “mint”
condition, tell him so; he likes to hear it. If you corrected
some little situation that would have lead to future trouble,
point it out.
But remember, convincing the owner of the merits of
preventative maintenance is only the beginning. It is you
who must keep him sold!

YOUR ENGINE’S HEALTH
Some of the most frequent questions that are encountered
during pilot seminars and in letters, concern engine health.
For example, “How can I tell if my engine is in good
health?”, “When should I consider that my engine is not safe
enough to continue on to the recommended TBO?” and so
on. Such questions are very realistic and therefore deserve
practical answers.
Let’s begin with where the responsibility for engine health
lies. Many owners honestly believe that such responsibility
belongs to their dealer or mechanic. The hard truth of the
matter is that such responsibility rests solely with the aircraft
owner and no one else. The mechanic is responsible only for
the work that he performs. Acceptance by the airplane owner
of this responsibility is the first step in ascertaining and
maintaining engine health.
The second step should be locating a competent and
reliable service facility or certificated A & P mechanic.
Once this step is established the owner has only to follow the
recommendations set forth in his engine and/or airframe
owner’s manuals. While it is not mandatory for privately
owned and operated aircraft, Teledyne Continental Motors
recommend that you have a factory prescribed 100 hour
inspection performed on your engine each 100 hours of
operation. Between 100 hour inspections maintenance items
like oil and oil filter changes, induction air filter service, etc.
should be accomplished as recommended and even more
often where necessary. In addition to these steps the owner

should immediately be suspicious of any unusual or
abnormal operation of his engine and discuss it with his
mechanic as soon as possible. Don’t wait until the next 100
hour inspection. Often troubles can be located and corrected
quickly with modest cost. To delay could be much more
expensive and even dangerous. The most important point in
this second step is to believe and follow the
recommendations of your service facility or mechanic.
Engine health rarely deteriorates rapidly, it is more often a
gradual process. The owner or pilot is in the best position to
monitor the symptoms of deteriorating engine health and
subsequently communicate the symptoms to his mechanic
for proper diagnosis. The owner, unless a qualified A & P
mechanic, should not attempt such diagnosis himself.
Engines, like people, sometimes produce misleading
symptoms that tend to indicate one kind of problem when it
is actually something else. The experienced mechanic is a
specialist and he has the tools and equipment to help him
arrive at an accurate diagnosis. However the pilot should be
able to recognize the major symptoms of deteriorating
engine health, and here are a few examples.
One of the foremost symptoms of failing health is an
increase in oil consumption. A gradual increase in oil
consumption usually indicates piston ring, cylinder wall and
valve guide wear. This tells you that your engine is
approaching a top overhaul.

The top spark plugs will help indicate ring, cylinder and
valve guide wear. After a long cross country flight of 65%
power or more, land and taxi in with as little low power and
ground running as possible. Remove all top spark plugs and
examine them for signs of oil wetness. Under normal
operation, the top spark plugs should be dry
. When all top plugs show oil wetness, you can be fairly
certain that excessive wear is present in all cylinders and this
will usually include the guides. This condition tells you it’s
time to overhaul. If the engine is within a few hundred hours
of its suggested TBO it will be more practical to major it,
otherwise a top overhaul is in order.
A sudden increase in oil consumption is a different story
and usually indicates some sort of malfunction or even a part
failure such as a broken piston ring. If missing and
roughness are also present it could mean a burned piston. At
any rate the actual diagnosis should be left to an experienced
mechanic.
Another symptom of imminent major overhaul is a rough
and noisy engine. Wear increases clearances between
moving parts causing vibration and an increase in noise.
Such a symptom is difficult to detect by the person flying
the airplane on a regular basis because it develops so
gradually that he is accustomed to it. However it will be
apparent to another experienced pilot flying the airplane for
the first time. This condition is usually prevalent in engines
that are operated well past the manufacturer’s recommended
TBO. This condition is usually accompanied with excessive
oil consumption. However that may not always be true., For
example a particular engine has a recommended TBO of
1800 hours. The engine was running so well at 1800 hours
that the owner decided to top it rather than major it. Under
normal conditions a properly executed top overhaul could go
another 1800 hours, but there is no guarantee that all of the
other parts subject to wear will continue properly for that
long. Consequently as the engine progresses beyond its
recommended TBO it may gradually become rough and
noisy while oil consumption remains normal.
Another good indication of health problems is excessive
magneto drops due to fouled spark plugs. In normal
operation a spark plug is self cleaning.
A tremendous amount of technology is involved in the
development of a spark plug, and still more effort is
involved in selecting the correct spark plug, and still more
effort is involved in selecting the correct spark plug for your
engine. In fact it is actually in violation of FAA regulations
to use any other spark plugs but those specified for your
engine by its respective manufacturer. Consequently
excessive spark plug fouling indicates a malfunction or
improper engine operating procedures.
Most common is lead fouling. Under this condition the
core nose insulator and surrounding area of the spark plug
will display tan colored deposits that are usually globular in
appearance. A certain amount of this condition is normal and
not enough to cause trouble or require frequent plug
cleaning. Excessive lead fouling to the extent that plug
removal and cleaning becomes necessary is nearly always
caused by improper engine operation or excessive use of
higher octane fuel than specified for your engine.

Consequently lead fouling is not an indicator of poor or
deteriorating engine health.
Fuel fouling shows up in the form of dark black, sooty
looking deposit. When spark plugs show this condition, they
indicate considerable operation with excessively rich
mixtures. This could be due to insufficient leaning during
high altitude flights. However it is more often due to overly
rich idle mixtures, excessive ground operation and long
power off let downs from altitude with the mixture in full
rich. When this shows up only on one bank of cylinders it
signals distribution problems in your engine. This could be
due to defective carburetion or injection malfunction. Again
this is not an indication of engine health, but rather a
warning of improper operation due to malfunctioning fuel
metering equipment or improper procedures with the
mixture control.
Another warning given by your spark plugs is excessive
lean mixtures. Under this condition the top spark plugs will
be very clean with only a white, powder like appearance. If
the bottom plugs look very nearly the same, you are
operating too lean and a premature top overhaul will be just
around the corner. If this condition shows up on both plugs,
but only on one bank of cylinders it usually indicates
mechanical difficulties such as, an induction air leak on that
side, carburetion or fuel injection difficulties. If it appears on
both plugs from just one cylinder, a partially plugged fuel
injection nozzle is likely the culprit. Whatever the cause, it
must be located and corrected at once otherwise engine
damage will surely result.
Oil fouling is somewhat similar to fuel fouling in
appearance. Under this condition the deposits will be more
of a faded black and of course, always wet. A small amount
of this condition on the bottom plugs will be normal
especially on high time engines. When it begins to appear on
the top plugs, coupled with increasing oil consumption, its
time to overhaul. If this condition shows up on only one
cylinder it is an indication of distress in that particular
cylinder, such as broken rings for example. Oil wetted plugs
on a turbocharged engine could also be indication of oil
passage from the turbocharger into the compressor due to
bearing or seal distress in the turbocharger.
The engines lubricating system provides several
indications of engine health. The main oil screen for
example. This screen should be removed, examined and
cleaned with each oil change. Under normal operating
conditions this screen should contain only small amounts of
carbon particles and perhaps some traces of lint and metal
particles. Any unusual amount of metal in the oil screen is
an indication of trouble and should be investigated by a
mechanic immediately. Excessive carbon deposits in the oil
screen can be an indication of deteriorating engine health.
Such a condition usually indicates insufficient oil changes. It
can also be an indication of excessive overheating or near
red line operating conditions. Whatever the cause, the
presence of excessive carbon in the oil screens is nearly
always a forewarning of stuck or approaching stuck piston
rings. If this condition is accompanied by excessive oil
consumption, it is almost certain that the rings are already
stuck.

Oil pressure can also be used to determine deterioration of
engine health. Oil pressure is nothing more than the sum
total of resistance encountered by the flow of oil through the
lubricating system. As wear increases the clearances
between moving parts, the resistance to oil flow will
decrease. Consequently the pressure at both idle and normal
cruise power will gradually decrease over a period of engine
hours. A properly operated engine that has received adequate
maintenance and oil changes usually won’t experience
noticeable diminishing oil pressure until very near major
overhaul or possibly even well past the recommended TBO.
Consequently regard such an indication as advance warning
and make it known to your mechanic.
All engines are assigned a recommended TBO (Time
Between Overhaul) and this assigned number of hours
applies to major overhaul, not top overhauls. The assigned
number of hours is predicated on actual field experience
with that particular engine in service. While it is possible
that under certain conditions you may find it necessary to
top overhaul the engine before the TBO is reached, most
engines do reach their assigned TBO and in many cases the
engine is still in very good health. The owner may be
reluctant to overhaul an engine that is running well and is in
good health despite the fact that it has reached its TBO.
Under such circumstances he has the option to continue
operating the engine on 100 hour increments for as long as

the engine remains in satisfactory health, and that state of
health is also verified in the engine’s log book by a Certified
A & P mechanic. However keep in mind that such operation
involves some guess work as you are now past the number
of hours of known experience. Also the rate of wear
increases with wear. This means that the wear rate will be
much faster on an engine past 1500 hours as compared to
800 to 1200 hours. Consequently running well past the
recommended TBO could result in a much more expensive
overhaul than if it had been overhauled at the recommended
TBO.
In addition to being able to determine engine health there
are a few very important measures that the owner can take to
help assure his engine’s health.
1. Avoid excessive (a week or more) periods of inactivity.
2. Use a good grade of lubricating oil and change it as often
as recommended in your Owner’s Manual or more often
when necessary.
3. Keep the induction air filter clean at all times and replace
it at first signs of deteriorating efficiency.
4. Avoid excessive ground running and especially during
hot (+90 and above) weather.
5. Maintain sufficient airspeed during climb to provide
adequate engine cooling, especially during hot weather.
6. Be generous with the mixture control, especially at high
power settings.

BACK TO BASICS
ENGINE INSTRUMENTS
“Reprinted from Flying Magazine”
Aside from the principal engine instruments, which register
rpm and manifold pressure, and which were the subject of an
earlier article in this series (December 1969), there are
several other engine instruments the small size and
frequently inconspicuous position of which make us prone to
ignore them. These are the oil-pressure, oil-temperature,
fuel-pressure and cylinder-head-temperature gauges. All
four commonly give the same monotonous indications from
day to day, until we barely notice them any more – or until
we notice with a start, often too late, that one or another of
them has changed its habits.
All of these instruments are characterized in most modern
panels by a green operating range with red lines at either
end. In general, any steady indication in the green is a good
sign of good functioning: any unexpected fluctuation is a
sign of possible trouble. As always, a bad indication may be
instrument trouble rather than engine trouble, and if one
gauge acts up when everything else is perfectly normal, and
everything sounds and feels normal, then the gauge is telling
the truth, and to act accordingly.
Though the basic message of an unusual instrument
indication is usually “land”, it may be possible with a
sufficient understanding of the engine and how its

instrumentation works to judge how urgent the advice is,
what the reason for it is, and what action should be taken on
the ground to set things right again.
The primary function of the oil-pressure gauge is to
inform the pilot that oil pressure exists and that it is within
specified limits. The oil pressure is produced by a pump that
takes oil from the sump and sends it through a series of
passages, called galleries, to the various bearings, sleeves
and bushings, which must remain drenched in oil in order to
operate properly. Air-cooled engines depend heavily upon
their lubricating oil for cooling; heat picked up by the oil on
the way through the engine is dissipated either through the
sump walls, in small engines, or else in an oil radiator.
Sometimes, the flow of oil through the oil radiator is
controlled by a thermostat, which operates in the same
manner as the thermostat in an automobile radiator. When
the coolant (the oil, in this case) is too low a temperature, the
thermostat retards the flow through the radiator, reducing
heat loss and raising the temperature of the oil.
The system is completed by a pressure-relief valve at the
pump end; its purpose is to prevent a pump overload in case
of a high resistance in the lubricating system – that caused
by closing of the radiator thermostat, for instance.

Oil pressure may be read – “picked off” – either just after
the pump, in which case total oil pressure is reported, or just
before the sump, in which case residual pressure is read.
Typically, a pick-off at the pump end reads a high pressure
consistently and gives a nearly instantaneous indication of
pressure upon engine starting; however, it is for most
purposes less informative tan a pick-off midway in the
system or at its, end. When the pick-off is located near the
end of the lubricating system, as on Continental O-300 and
O-470 series engines, the gauge indication lags on start-up;
but when the pressure comes up, you know that oil has made
its way through the entire system and the engine is receiving
lubrication. A pick-off at the pump end might be misleading
in some cases; for instance, on a very cold engine, congealed
oil in the galleries might cause quite a bit of oil to pass
through the pressure-relief valve, giving a good pressure
indication but no lubrication. The pressure read from a pickoff at the sump end is actually “bonus” pressure – the
pressure remaining after most of the engine has received
lubrication. If the pressure indicated at normal operating
temperature at idle speed is within specified limits, the end
pick-off also testifies to the good health of the engine
bearings.
Even without knowing the type of pick-off involved,
however, the pilot can still learn a lot from his oil-pressure
gauge merely by comparing readings from day to day.
Sudden abnormally low oil pressure can indicate low oil
quantity; this condition is usually accompanied by an
abnormal rise in oil temperature. The same symptom might
have other meanings, however. Oil pressure will be low, but
consistently so, when oil of too low a viscosity is used (30weight rather than 40 or 50 in warm weather, for instance).
A gradual loss of oil pressure over a period of time might
indicate clogged filters and screens – a condition usually
arising from the operator’s failure to change oil at the
prescribed intervals. In extreme cold, engines equipped with
thermostatically controlled oil radiators, if improperly
winterized, may experience a loss of pressure shortly after
take-off, along with rise in oil temperature. If fight is
continued, both gauges may eventually reach redline
indications. The cause is oil congealed in the radiator, which
fails to clear out when the thermostat opens.
Sudden loss of oil pressure could be due to an oil-pressure
relief valve sticking open or, in aircraft equipped with oildilution systems, to a malfunction or inadvertent actuation of
the oil by flooding it with fuel.
Abnormally high oil pressure is unusual. It could be due to
oil of too high a viscosity number (most likely), or perhaps
to failure of the oil-pressure relief valve to open. Sudden
pressure fluctuations can mean that you are running out of
oil – because of a rapid leak, if a slow drop in pressure did
not occur first – and that the oil pump is beginning to pick
up air. It could also mean the pressure-relief valve is
alternately sticking and releasing.
Sudden and complete loss of oil pressure is usually an
indication of a mechanical failure such as a broken oil line,
failed bearing or failed pump. These are all very rare –
especially pump failure.
Oil temperature is closely related to oil pressure. Since the
engine depends on oil for some of its cooling, oil

temperature is a measure of a vital operation, especially in
engines that are not equipped with oil radiators. However, a
high oil temperature, as long as it remains within the green,
is not cause for alarm. In fact, oil temperatures running
consistently low, near the bottom of the green, are more
deserving of attention. The reason is that elements other than
solid dirt contaminate the oil. Filters remove dirt, but they do
not remove liquid contaminants, which only boil off at high
temperatures. Consequently low oil temperature may lead to
incomplete boil-off of contaminants, which will then rust or
corrode internal engine parts. Oil temperature tends to run
consistently low in cold-weather operation, especially on
engines not equipped with thermostatically controlled oil
radiators. When consistent low-temperature operation is
unavoidable, the oil should be changed frequently to get rid
of the inevitable liquid contaminants.
Periodic oil temperature fluctuations will be observed in
engines equipped with oil-radiator thermostats, especially
shortly after takeoff and during climb. These fluctuations
indicate normal operation of the thermostat. Persistent
fluctuation during flight, or consistently low or high oil
temperature in fair weather, usually indicates a thermostat
malfunction, although a sharply climbing indication in
extremely cold weather may rather suggest blockage of the
radiator by congealed oil.
High oil temperature may also be due to over – or underfilling of the engine with oil; to excessively high power
settings at low air-speeds; to fuel of too low an octane; or to
laboring or lugging resulting from using high manifold
pressures coupled with low rpm. In the summertime, the air
passages through the oil radiator can become plugged with
insects, causing excessively high oil temperatures – a
condition that a good preflight should preclude. Clogged and
dirty oil-filter elements or screens, which retard the flow of
oil through the system, also may produce high oil
temperatures.
While the oil-temperature gauge does provide valuable
information about the thermal balance of the engine, it is
comparatively insensitive to rapid changes in temperature in
some areas, such as the tops of the cylinders. In order to
keep the pilot informed of temperatures in the cylinder
heads, a temperature sensor is imbedded in one of the rear
cylinders of the engine – usually the one that is assumed to
be the hottest-running of all the cylinders. The cylinder head,
however, is not the hottest-running part of the engine. The
exhaust valves and stacks and the spark plugs run
considerably hotter. Nevertheless, the temperature of the
cylinder heads can give important information about more
than the heads alone.
Usually, an abnormal cylinder-head temperature
indication is on the high side. An uncommonly low reading
might indicate insufficient winterization, open cowl flaps
when they should be closed, or simply insufficient power to
keep temperatures up. High temperatures, however, are the
important ones.
An abnormally high cylinder-head temperature may, to
start with, indicate that the flow of cooling air over the
engine is somehow impeded. It may merely be a matter of
too much power, too little airspeed and too warm a day, as in
a long, steep climb in hot weather. In cold weather, however,

ice can collect on the cooling inlets, constricting airflow. In
spring and summer, it is not uncommon to find birds’ nests
inside the engine cowling on top of the cylinders. Anything
– even a scrap of paper blown into the cooling baffles – that
impedes airflow around the engine will cause a rise in
cylinder-head temperature. At the other extreme, incorrectly
installed or missing baffles, by permitting too unrestricted a
flow around the engine, may prevent efficient cooling and
lead to a rise, not drop, in head temperature.
If the cooling airflow is working as intended, the cause of
heating is internal. High readings at cruise power just after a
fuel stop could mean that you got fuel of too low an octane
for your engine. Excessive temperatures at cruise power
immediately after a 100-hour inspection or engine check
could indicate improper magneto timing. High manifold
pressures combined with low rpm – or any other practice
conducive to detonation – will cause high cylinder-head
temperatures; operating with an excessively lean mixture is
perhaps the most common example. Finally, anything that
interferes with the free discharge of exhaust gas will also
cause a rise in cylinder-head temperature.
The fuel-pressure gauge can also forewarn of trouble if the
pilot is sufficiently familiar with his fuel system to interpret
its indications. On engines equipped with carburetors, the
pressure gauge is used primarily to indicate that fuel
pressure is within the desired operating range. A sudden loss
of all fuel pressure followed by return to normal with
activation of the auxiliary pump usually indicates a broken
fuel line. Under these circumstances, the auxiliary pump
should be shut off immediately and the fuel valve set at the
“off” position; otherwise, there is a possibility of fire.
Fluctuating indications point to a depletion of fuel supply to
the pump, which could be caused by a tank running dry, or
by leaks or obstructions in the line from the tank to the
pump. Upward fluctuations may also indicate an obstruction
in the line from the pump to the carburetor; in this case, a
sudden high rise in fuel pressure is usually coupled with a
loss of power. A sudden drop in fuel pressure coupled with a

loss of power usually reveals a leak between the pump and
the carburetor. If these symptoms are followed by a gradual
drop in oil pressure, the probable cause is a ruptured
diaphragm in the engine-driven fuel pump (which then lets
raw fuel into the crankcase, diluting the oil). If a sudden
drop in fuel pressure, coupled with loss of power and engine
roughness, is alleviated by leaning of the mixture, the
problem is a float needle valve stuck open in the carburetor.
If in cold weather you experience a gradual drop in fuel
pressure and subsequent loss of power, and the situation is
not remedied by the auxiliary fuel pump, you can be
reasonably sure that the cause is water contamination in the
fuel tanks or lines, which is freezing somewhere between the
tanks and the pumps. The possibility of this development
makes it imperative to drain sumps thoroughly when taking
an airplane out of a hangar for a winter flight, or whenever
flight in below-freezing temperatures is planned.
The fuel-pressure gauge on a fuel-injection engine is quite
another matter. This instrument is intended to be used for
monitoring fuel flow with respect to power settings. In
supercharged or turbocharged engines, the subject becomes
even more complicated. Trouble shooting with the fuelpressure gauge on injection engines requires an intimate
knowledge of the injection system and its operation that is
beyond the ken of most laymen, and beyond the scope of
this article.
The other simple engine-monitoring instruments, however,
may be very useful, both for interpreting an incipient
emergency and for preventing one’s ever occurring, as long
as the pilot understands the function and significance of the
gauges, and the systems about which they speak, well
enough to make sense of their reports. For his own safety
and for the good maintenance of his engine, every airplane
owner should familiarize himself sufficiently with his
engine’s entrails to make the readings on his instrument
panel more than merely monotonous mumblings in an
unknown tongue.

AIRCRAFT ENGINE STORAGE
Corrosion can be a devastating enemy of aircraft engines –
particularly those in planes that are flown infrequently or
placed in storage for an extended period of time.
New engines, or those with new or freshly honed cylinders
after a top or major overhaul, are of special concern. In areas
of high humidity, there have been instances where corrosion
has been found in such cylinders after an inactive period of
only a few days. Once these cylinders have been operated
for approximately 50 hours, the varnish that collects on the
cylinder walls offers some protection against this happening.
Obviously, however, proper steps must be taken to
preclude the possibility of corrosion at any time. This is

especially important if the aircraft is based near the seacoast,
or in areas of high humidity, and is not flown more than
once a week.
The best method for preventing corrosion of the cylinders
and other internal parts of the engine is to fly the aircraft at
least once a week, long enough for the engine to reach
normal operating temperatures that will cook out moisture
and other by-products of combustion.
The possibility of corrosion can be lessened by rotating
the engine by hand (five revolutions) every seven days, if the
aircraft cannot be flown during that period. This is more
effective than running the engine up on the ground, which

would only compound the problem by introducing
condensation.
Aircraft engine storage recommendations are broken down
into the following categories: flyable storage (7 to 30 days);
temporary storage (up to 90 days); and indefinite storage.
Flyable Storage. If an aircraft is to be stored much longer
than a week under normal climatic conditions, and if
periodic flying to circulate the oil will not be carried out, it is
advisable to prepare the engine for storage in the following
manner:
Operate the engine (preferably in flight) until the oil
temperature reaches the normal range. Drain the oil supply
from the sump as completely as possible, while the engine is
still warm, and replace the drain plug.
Fill the sump to the full mark on the dipstick gauge with
lubricating oil meeting the requirements of MIL-C-6529,
Type II, which will mix with normal oil and provide
protection against corrosion.
Run the engine at least five minutes, at a speed between
1,200 and 1,500 rpm, with the oil and cylinder-head
temperatures in the normal operating range.
Each seven days during flyable storage, the propeller
should be rotated by hand without running the engine. After
rotating by hand without running the engine. After rotating
the engine six revolutions, stop the propeller 45 degrees to
90 degrees from the position it was in.
Caution: For maximum safety, accomplish engine rotation
as follows: (a) Assure magneto switches are “off”. (b)
Throttle position “closed”. (c) Mixture control “idle cutoff”.
(d) Do not stand within the arc of the propeller blades while
turning the propeller.
If at the end of 30 days the aircraft is not to be removed
from storage, the engine should be started and run. The
preferred method is to fly the aircraft for 30 minutes and up
to, but not exceeding, normal oil and cylinder temperatures.
To prepare the aircraft for service, if the engine has a total
time of more than 25 hours, the MIL-C-6529 oil should be
drained after a ground warmup. Install the engine
manufacturer’s recommended oil before flight. (MIL-C6529 is the Teledyne Continental Motors recommended oil
for the first 25 hours of flight).
Temporary Storage. To prepare the engine for temporary
storage, remove the top spark plug and atomize spray
preservative oil (lubricating oil, contact and volatile,
corrosion-inhibited, MIL-L-46002, Grade 1) at room
temperature, through the upper spark plug hole of each
cylinder, with the piston in the down position. Rotate the
crankshaft as each pair of cylinders is sprayed. Stop the
crankshaft with no piston at top position.
(Approved preservative oils recommended for use in
Teledyne Continental engines for temporary storage are
MIL-L-46002, Grade 1, oils: Nucle Oil 105; Daubert
Chemical Co., 4700 S. Central Ave., Chicago, Ill.; petrotect
VA: Pennsylvania Refining Co., Butler, Pa.; Ferro-Gard
1009-G: Ranco Laboratories, Inc., 3617 Brownsville Rd.,
Pittsburgh, Pa.)
After completing the above, respray each cylinder without
rotating the crank. To thoroughly cover all surfaces of the
cylinder interior, move the nozzle of the spray gun from the
top to the bottom of the cylinder. Then reinstall the spark

plugs. Apply preservative to the engine interior by spraying
the specified oil (approximately two ounces) through the oil
filler tube.
Seal all engine openings exposed to the atmosphere by
using suitable plugs or moisture-resistant tape, and attach red
streamers at each point. Engines with propellers installed
should have a tag affixed to the propeller in a conspicuous
place, with the following notation on the tag: “Do not turn
propeller; engine preserved.”
To prepare the engine for service after temporary storage,
remove seals, tape, paper, and streamers from all openings.
With bottom plugs removed, hand-turn the propeller several
revolutions to clear excess preservative oil, then reinstall
plugs. Conduct the normal startup procedure. Give the
aircraft a thorough cleaning, visual inspection, and test
flight.
Indefinite Storage. Prior to storage, drain the engine oil
and service the engine with a corrosion-preventive mixture.
Use lubricating oil, MIL-C-6529, Type II, as mentioned
earlier, or formulate the same product by thoroughly mixing
one part compound MIL-C-6529, Type I (Esso Rust-Ban
628, Cosmoline No. 1223, or equivalent), with three parts
new lubricating oil of the grade recommended for service
(all at room temperature). Immediately after servicing with
the corrosion-preventive mixture, fly the aircraft for a period
of time not to exceed 30 minutes.
At the conclusion of the preservation flight, with the
engine operating at 1,200 to 1,500 rpm, inject corrosionpreventive mixture (221°F to 250°F) into the carburetor air
intake until heavy smoke comes from the exhaust. Increase
the flow sufficiently to stop the engine. Do not turn the
propeller after the engine stops.
Remove the top spark plug from each cylinder and spray
with corrosion preventive mixture (221°F to 250°F). To
thoroughly cover all surfaces of the cylinder interior, move
the nozzle of the spray gun from the top to the bottom of the
cylinder. If by accident the propeller is rotated following this
spraying, respray the cylinders to ensure an unbroken
coverage of corrosion preventive mixture on all surfaces.
Install protex plugs in each of the top spark plug holes,
making sure that each plug is blue in color when installed.
Protect and support the spark plug leads with AN-4060-1
protectors.
If the engine is equipped with a pressure type carburetor,
preserve this component by the following method. Drain the
carburetor by removing the drain and vapor vent plugs from
the regulator and fuel control unit. With the mixture control
in the “rich” position, inject lubricating oil , Grade 1010,
into the fuel inlet, at a pressure not to exceed 10 psi, until oil
flows from the vapor vent plugs. Wire the throttle in the
open position, place bags of desiccant in the intake, and seal
the opening with moisture-resistant paper and tape, or a
cover plate.
If the carburetor is removed from the engine, place a bag
of desiccant in the throat of the carburetor air adapter. Seal
the adapter with moisture-resistant paper and tape, or a cover
plate. Also place a bag of desiccant in the exhaust pipes, and
seal the openings with moisture resistant tape. Then seal the
cold-air inlet to the heater muff with moisture resistant tape,
to exclude moisture and foreign objects. The engine breather

should then be sealed by inserting a protex plug in the
breather hose and clamping it in place.
Attach a red streamer to each place on the engine where
bags of desiccant are placed. Attach red streamers either
outside the sealed area with tape, or inside the seal area with
safety wire, to prevent wicking of moisture into the sealed
area. Finally, all engines preserved for storage should have
the propeller placarded with a sign: “Do not turn propeller:
engine preserved.”
This procedure may be used for indefinite storage,
providing the airplane is run up at maximum intervals of 90
days and then reserviced in accordance with the temporary
storage requirements.
Aircraft prepared for indefinite storage should have the
cylinder protex plugs inspected weekly. The plugs should be
changed as soon as their color indicates unsafe conditions of
storage. If the dehydrator plugs have changed color in one
half or more of the cylinders, all desiccant material in the
engine should be replaced.
The cylinder bores of all engines prepared for indefinite
storage should be resprayed with corrosion preventive
mixture every six months, or more frequently if bore
inspection indicates corrosion: has started earlier. Replace
all desiccant and protex plugs.
Before spraying, the engines should be inspected for
corrosion as follows. Inspect the interior of at least one
cylinder on each engine through the spark plug hole. If the

cylinder shows the start of rust, spray it thoroughly with
corrosion preventive oil and turn the prop over five or six
times, then respray. Remove at least one rocker box cover
from each engine and inspect the valve mechanism.
To return the aircraft to service remove the cylinder protex
plugs and all paper, tape, and dehydrating agent used to
preserve the engine. Drain the corrosion preventive mixture
and reservice with recommended lubricating oil.
If the carburetor has been preserved with oil, drain it by
removing the drain and vapor vent plugs from the regulator
and fuel control unit. With the mixture control in the “rich”
position, inject service type gasoline into the fuel inlet, at a
pressure not to exceed 10 psi, until all the oil is flushed from
the carburetor. Reinstall the carburetor plugs and attach the
fuel line.
Rotate the propeller to clear excess preservative oil from
the cylinders. Reinstall the spark plugs and battery, and
rotate the propeller by hand through all compressions of the
engine to check for liquid lock. Reinstall the cowling and
start the engine in the normal manner. Give the aircraft a
thorough cleaning, visual inspection, and a test flight.
The foregoing are general recommendations for proper
engine care. Since local conditions may differ and Teledyne
Continental Motors has no control over the application of
these recommendations, no warranty against corrosion is
intended.



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