Introduction_to_FOR_PRO_Oct83 Introduction To FOR PRO Oct83

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INTRODUCTION TO FOR:PRO
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SYSTEM TOOLS
.

INTRODUCTION TO FOR:PRO
COMMAND,LEVEL USE OF
FORTUNE'S OPERATING SYSTEM

I

:I:ORTUNE SYSTEMS
300 Harbor Boulevard
Belmont, CA 94002

Copyright

~

1983 Fortune Systems Corporation.

All rights reserved.

No part of this document may be copied, photocopied, reproduced,
translated, or reduced to any electronic medium or machine readable
form without prior consent in writing from Fortune Systems
Corporation. The information in this manual may be used only under
the terms and conditions of separate Fortune Systems Corporation
license agreements.
UNIX is a trademark of Bell Laboratories.
FOR:PRO is a trademark of Fortune Systems Corporation.
Printed in U.S.A.
1 234 5 6 7 8 9 0
Ordering

Introduction to FOR:PRO

Order Number: 1002268-01 October 1983 Software Release 1.7
Please do not order products from the address shown below. Consult
an authorized Fortune Systems dealer for copies of manuals and
technical information.
Disclaimer of Warranty and Liability
No representations or warranties, expressed or implied, of any kind
are made by or with respect to anything in this manual. By way of
example, but not limi tat ion , no representations or warranties of
merchantability or fitness for any particular purpose are made by
or with respect to anything in this manual.
In no event shall Fortune Systems Corporation be liable for any
incide'ntal, indirect, special or consequential damages whatsoever
(including but not limited to lost profits) arising out of or
related to this manual or any use thereof even if Fortune Systems
Corporation has been advised, knew or should have known of the
possibility of such damages. Fortune Systems Corporation shall not
be held to any liability with respect to any claim on account of,
or arising from, the manual or any use thereof.
For full details of the terms and conditions for using Fortune
software, please refer to the Fortune Systems Corporation Customer
Software License Agreement.

ii

About This Book
FOR: PRO, Fortune's Professional Operati ng System, is an enhanced
version of Bell Laboratories' Version 7 UNIX operating system,
modified to run on the Fortune system. The IntroductiQn~Q_EQR~ERQ
is designed to address the needs of two different groups of Fortune
system users:
•

Those who have read Understan~Your_EQrtllng_~Y§tgm, used the
Fortune menu system, and need to know FOR:PRO at the command
level.

•

Those with prior computer experience who want to use FOR:PRO
at the command level rather than at the menu level.

The main goals of this book are to familiarize you with the
commands on the FOR:PRO single-user operating system so you can use
them to perform everyday tasks, and to provide a complete set of
MAN pages cor responding to the commands on the FOR: PRO set of
flexible disks.
The first two chapters are designed to bridge the gap between the
menu system interface and the command level interface to FOR:PRO.
The material contained in these chapters assumes only minimal
familiarity with computer terminology and concepts. The last two
chapters are designed to meet the needs of users experienced with
other computer systems, but not necessarily UNIX-based systems.
This book assumes you have already read Underst.§n~.J:...ouL-.Fortune
so the concepts here are simply summarized.

~Y§tem,

ORGANIZATION OF THIS BOOK
This document has two parts:

•

Part 1 introduces FOR: PRO and describes how to use simple

commands to perform common operations.

•

Part 2 is the entire collection of the manual pages, called

"MAN pages."
They provide reference documentation for all
commands and files that are part of the single-user FOR:PRO
system.

iii

Part 1 is divided as follows:
•

Chapter 1 reviews UNIX terms and concepts introduced in
Understand Your Fortune System.
It then explains how to
access FOR:PRO at the command level and how to set up your
working environment.

•

Chapter 2 compares

•

Chapter 3 deals

•

explains the organization of system director ies
provided with FOR:PRO and summarizes the commands available
on the FOR:PRO single-user operating system.

•

Appendix A describes

the menu system with equivalent UNIX
commands, and describes how to use some of these commands.

with advanced commands, such as those
enabling you to set up system security, change the way
commands work, and put commands together to perform routine
tasks.

Chapter 4

the changes to the print

spooler at

this release.

CONVENTIONS USED IN PART 1
When communicating with FOR:PRO at command level, you type entire
commands without going through the menu system.
Commands must be
typed using proper command format, or syntax. This document uses
certain conventions to help you understand exactly how a command is
typed. These are outlined below.
•

Commands to FOR:PRO are almost always lowercase letters, as

is with most UNIX commands.
Occasionally, some command
options may be uppercase. Be careful to type commands using
the case shown in the syntax descriptions.
•

In examples, any input you must type appears in boldface,
while output such as system messages does not.
Also, items
shown in boldface must be typed exactly as they appear in
the text.

•

Words

•

Brackets

to be replaced wi th your own text are under.11.D§Q.
Such items are also referred to as command-line parameters.

indicate one or more options you may select

from.

iv

•

Hyphens (-) usually signal an option on a command line,

as

in the command
Is -1

Always remember to type the hyphen.
•

( ... ) mean that
repeated more than once.

Ellipses

the preceding option may

be

Commands are sent to FOR: PRO by pressing the RETURN key,
shown as Return throughout this text.
In examples and in
command syntax, it is represented as  file.3

10/83

1-17

Introduction to FOR:PRO

Inc ;)nCLL CI'IV I "'VI'IMCI'II

Then file.3 is created from the results of concatenating
file.l and file.2, leaving file.l and file.2 in their
original form.
The > symbol tells the system to put the
results of the cat process into file.3. Should you use this
form where file.3 already exists, file.3 is overwritten by
the results of the concatenation of file.l and file.2.
3. cat allows you to create a new file by simply pausing while
you enter text. In this case you'd type
cat

>

new. file

to create a brand new file called new.file.
also type
cat

»

You can

old.file

to append information you type at the terminal
existing file, called old.file.

to an

In either case, the system waits while you type information
you want sent to new. file or old. file.
Just type in the
lines you want.
Signal the end of the file by pressing
CTRL-D. Make sure new.file is the name of a new file and not
an existing one; otherwise, it will be overwritten.
Using cat:
To use cat for the first time, use the cd command to
get to letc and type
cat group
The system displays the contents of the file group on the screen.
The file letc/group is a system file containing the names of all
user groups on the system.

NOTE
Do not use cat to display binary files such as
system programs and executable user programs on
the screen.
If you do this by mistake, you may
get a strange screen display. Use the -v option
of cat (cat -v) to look at binary files.

Introduction to FOR:PRO

1-18

10/83

THE SHELL ENVIRONMENT
Display a File a Screen at a Time (more)
The more command is similar to the display function of cat, because
it displays an already existing text file on the screen. However,
the more command only displays 24 lines of text at a time.
Use
more to display long files, because cat rapidly scrolls a long file
over several screens without stopping until the end of the file.
To use more, type
more filename
The more command pauses at the bottom of the first screen of text
until you press the Spacebar to display the next screen of text, or
press Return to display the next line.
A pipe (I)
The following example demonstrates the use of more.
will also be used.
On many keyboards, the I key is one of the
three gray keys located to the left of the standard keys.
Pipes
allow you to use the output of one command or process as input to
another.

1. Type the following:

Is -1 letc I more
You've "piped" the results of an Is -1 operation to the more
command.
If letc is your current directory, you can omit
letc from the Is command line.
2. The system displays the first screen of the long directory
listing, indicating that there is more to come.

3. Press the Spacebar to view the next 24 lines of output.

If
the $ prompt isn't at the bottom of the directory list, keep
pressing the Spacebar until you see the $ prompt, signifying
the end of the file.
To get out of a display before it is
finished, type q and press Return, or press the Cancel key.

INTRODUCTION TO TEXT EDITING AND THE ed COMMAND
Text editors provide tools for creating and editing text files. If
you need to create reports and memos on the Fortune system, you
should use the Fortune:Word application.
However, if you need to
create source programs, perform minor file updates, and create data
files, you should use a text editor.

10/83

Introduction to FOR:PRO

THE SHELL ENVIRONMENT
Types of Editors
There are two basic types of text editors available on the FOR:PRO
system:
line editors and screen editors. Line editors enable you
to create text, then edit one line at a time. The line editor, ed,
is the text editor available on the single-user operating system
set of disks. It's easy to learn and adequate for cr~ating simple
ASCII text files.
To do extensive text formatting on a file
created with ed, use the commands associated with the text
formatting program nroff, available with the Development Utilities
software.
Screen editors enable you to edit text a screenful at a time,
taking advantage of the characteristics of the video screen.
If
you have the Development Utilities set on your system, you can use
vi, the screen editor provided with that software package.
The next couple of pages show you how to use ed.
and table of ed commands are also provided.

A brief example

Accessing ed
To use ed, you must be at the command level.
Once there, use ed
like any other FOR:PRO command. Use the syntax
ed filename

regardless of whether you are creating a new file or editing an
existing one.

NOTE
The cursor control keys (grey keys with arrows)
do not work in ed.

Rules for Creating

~

There are a few rules governing the creation of files.
The first
rule is that filenames can be a maximum of 14 characters, and
should not begin with the following special characters:
,$>
(New text--as many lines as needed)
• 

d

Deletes the indicated line or lines.
The syntax of d is
[line number]d
or
[line number],[line number]d

i

Inserts text above the current line.
You can
insert as much text as necessary, indicating the
end of text by typing a period on the I ine below
the last line of text, followed by a Return.
The
syntax of i is

(New text--as many lines as needed)
• 

i

p

Prints on the screen the line or range of lines
specified. The syntax of p is
[line number]p
[line number],[line number]p
Use the $ symbol to specify the last line of the
file. You can also print the contents of a line by
typing that line number, for example, 3 Return.

q

10/83

Quits ed and returns to the shell.

1-23

Introduction to FOR:PRO

THE SHEll ENVIRONMENT
s

Substitutes (replaces) a new string of text for an
old string in the given line, in a range of lines,
or globally, throughout the entire file.
Use this format to change the current line of text.
Use the g option when you want to make the
indicated change to every occurrence of oldtext on
that line.
s/oldtext/newtext/[gJ
Use this format to change text over a
lines indicated by A,Y.

range of

A,Y s/oldtext/newtext/
This format adds the newtext string to the
beginning of the current line.
s/" /newtext/
To add something to the end of the line,
instead of ..

use $

To change a string globally (throughout an entire
file), use this format of the substitute (s)
command:
1,$s/oldtext/newtext/g
u

Restores the results of the last editing command
issued at the current line.
This only applies to
editing commands that may have modified the current
line.
The contents of the line are restored to
their state before the last command was issued.
This command will not undo global changes -- it
will only undo the change made to the last line of
the file.

w

Writes the contents of the file to the hard disk.

/llx,1/

Searches for the characters between the slashes.
(If the text contains special characters like
/ , \ , [ , ; , or *
they must be preceded by a
backslash \.)

Introduction to FOR:PRO

1-24

10/83

THE SHELL ENVIRONMENT
Return prints the current line.
In edit mode, typing a period and pressing Return
prints the current line.
File Position Commands
$

Moves you to the last line of a file, printing its
contents.

+ Lon]

Moves you from the current line to the next line;
with.ll.ll, moves you forward .n.n lines.
Moves you from the current line to the preceding
line; with nu, moves you backwards illl lines
(towards the top of the file).

.n.n

Moves you to the line numbered .n.n, and prints that
line.

belongs, and the shell into which the user is automatically placed
upon logging in. For most accounts, the listing will end with
/bin/menu
meaning that the account enters the menu system upon login. To
access a shell other than the menu system, you must change menu to
read sh or csh.
Changing the passwd File
To change the /etc/passwd file from the FOR:PRO level, you must log
in as manager or root.
When you log in as manager or root, your
working directory is automatically set to /.
(Get to the shell
from the menu by typing I or Ish.) Then use cd to get to the fete
directory. It is recommended that a backup copy of the passwd file
be made. To do this, simply use the cp command, as in
cp passwd passwd.baekup
There is now a backup copy that you can reinstate if needed.
Should you accidentally delete or mangle the passwd file, type
cp /etc/passwd.backup /etc/passwd
to restore the file from your backup copy.

10/83

1-25

Introduction to FOR:PRO

THE SHELL ENVIRONMENT
Get into the passwd file by typing ed passwd. Find the line in the
passwd file that pertains to your account.
Use the I~/
command to find it. For example,
/laura/
will find the entry for the user laura and print out that line.
Note that the last entry on the line describing your account reads
/bin/menu. Now change the string /bin/menu to read
/bin/sh
Type this command line to change the string
s/menu/sh/p
The changed line is then displayed.
Save your changes using the w
and q commands.
See the previous section on the editor Editing
Text Using ed if you need help.
To see the effect of this change, you have to log in again.
You
can log off and log back in, or you can just type login, and you
will be prompted for your account name and password.
You should
directly access the Bourne shell instead of the global menu. Once
you've done this, you might want to set up your environment by
modifying the .profile file.

Setting up .profile
The .profile file is listed in the / directory, and is merely a
prototype file.
It is meant for the manager or root account and
does nothing for you as an ordinary user until you customize it.
You must first make a copy of .profile in your home directory and
then make the necessary modifications to the copy. These steps are
described in the following paragraphs.

NOTE
Once you put a .profile file in your home
directory, it will be executed upon login, even
if your login shell is Ibin/menu.

Introduction to FOR:PRO

1-26

10/83

THE SHELL ENVIRONMENT
What's in ,profile
Before you modify it, .profile looks like this:
PATH=':/bin:/usr/bin:/usr/ucb:/etc'; export PATH
TERM=FT; export TERM
HOME=I; export HOME
The first line of the file describes your command search PATH,
which tells the system where to look for the commands you type. By
default, the system first looks in the current directory, then the
Ibin directory, then in lusr/bin, and so on, as shown above. Since
the shell environment gives you the ability to define your own
commands, you may want to change the PATH so the system looks in
your directory first, then searches the others.
The TERM line indicates the type of terminal you are USing,
default FT, which stands for Fortune terminal.

by

The HOME line indicates the directory that FOR:PRO considers your
home directory. The default for root and manager is I, which is why
the PATH and HOME fields have the values they do.
You should
change this to be /u/yourname, where yourname is the name of your
account. That way, whenever you type cd without specifying a name,
you access your home directory.

Customizing ,profile
First, copy .profile to your home directory, as in this example:
cp I,profile lu/yourname/.profile
Now you have your own copy to work with.
If you type the command
Is -la, you will notice that the permission rights for the .profile
file are read only
r--r--r-You have to change this so you have write access to the file.
Use
the cbmod (change mode) command to give yourself write access. The
cbmod command is complex, as is the entire concept of permissions.
cbmod is described in Chapter 3.
Enter this command line, so you
can edit the file
cbmod u+w .profile

10/83

1-27

Introduction to FOR:PRO

THE SHELL ENVIRONMENT
The "u" stands for user and the "w" stands for write.
Issue the
command Is -la, and you see a write permission to the file. Use ed
to change the first line. This is the PATH line that indicates the
search path for your account. Change the string :/bin to
:/u/yourname:/bin
where yourname is the name of your account.
Use the following command string to change the PATH line, using a
comma as the delimiter for the s command:
s,:/bin,:/u/yourname:/bin,p
This changes your PATH line and
modifications you just made.

prints it out with the

Change the HOME line so that it has your account name instead of
the root directory.
Again, use the comma as a delimiter in the
substitution.
3s,/,/u/yourname,p
The "3" specifies that the change will take place on the third line
of the file. You can omit it if "3" is already the current line.
Type w Return and q Return to get out of ed and to make these
changes permanent.
Having done this, you can go to your home
directory by simply typing cd.
To put these changes into effect, you must log in again. First log
out, using CTRL-D, then log in as you normally do.
When you log into the system from now on, your .profile file will
automatically be executed.

MORE CUSTOMIZATIONS
You can customize your login environment by adding items to your
.profile file. Here is a list of some simple things you can do:
•
•
•
•
•

Display a message or "reminder" file
Display the system time and date
Change the default shell prompt
List the contents of your directory
Find out who is on the system

Introduction to FOR:PRO

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10/83

THE SHELL ENVIRONMENT
The first item in the list involves using either the echo command,
followed by some text to be displayed, or using the cat command to
list a file of reminders you've previously created.
For example,
if you have a file called reminder in your directory, you can list
its contents by including the command
cat reminder

in your .profile file.
Similarly, the current time and date can be displayed by putting
the date command in the .profile file.
Here is a sample • profile file that uses all the custom features
listed above.
PATH=':/u/1aura:/bin:/usr/bin:/usr/ucb:/etc'; export PATH
TERM=FT; export TERM
HOME=/u/laura; export HOME
PS1=LJD$
date
echo This system is running 1.7
cat reminder
1s -las
who

Setting Shell Variables
Changing the default Bourne shell prompt ($) involves setting the
special PS1 variable.
In the example shown above, the default
prompt is set to the user's initials, followed by a dollar sign, in
this case, LJD$.
Like PS1, all shell variables are set by equating them to some
value. The general format is
variable=value

with no space on either side of the equal (=) sign.

For example,

PS1=PROHPT$

If you want a prompt that contains embedded spaces, surround the
entire prompt string with quotes, as in
PS1="HI THERE$"

10/83

1-29

Introduction to FOR:PRO

THE SHELL ENVIRONMENT
Once set, a shell variable is referenced by preceding it with the
dollar sign.
For example, to display the setting of the HOME
variable, type: echo $HOME.
With a .profile setup like the one
shown in the example, typing cd $HOME should get you to the
directory you defined as "home".
(You can also simply type cd to
get home.)

Qisplaying Variable Settings
To find out what
environment, type

shell variables are currently set for your

set

A complete list of variables and their settings is displayed.

/etc/profile in FOR:PRO

The file /etc/profile defines the default language for the system
(LANGUAGE=EN), the lpr defaul ts for users of the menu system
(LPRFLAGS), and the XON/XOFF mode for Fortune terminals.
In
XON/XOFF mode, when output to the screen is suspended using CTRL-S,
it can only be resumed by typing CTRL-Q.
Currently, only the menu shell invokes /etc/profile.
The Bourne
shell (/bin/sh) does not read /etc/profile. If your login shell is
Ibin/sh, incorporate the settings in Jete/profile into your
environment by copying the lines from /etc/profile into your
.profile file.
Note that Ipr does not use the LPRFLAGS setting
when used from the Bourne shell. (See Appendix A.)

Introduction to FOR: PRO

1-30

10/83

2 Using FOR:PRO Commands

The most frequently used FOR:PRO commands included in the
single-user operating system set of disks are described in this
chapter.
You'll also find a section describing the connection
between selec tions on the menu system and the FOR: PRO commands
which the selections activate.

HOW MENU FUNCTIONS RELATE TO FOR:PRO COMMANDS
If you've used the menu system prior to reading this document, you
probably noticed a similarity between the FOR:PRO commands
discussed so far and certain selections on the menus.
In fact,
most of the selections on the System Utilities and System
Management menus merely activate FOR:PRO commands.
Other
selections run shell scripts consisting of a series of commands.
For example, the selection "Create a Directory" on the System
Utilities menu activates the FOR:PRO command mkdir.
Table 2-1 lists some commonly used menu system selections and the
FOR:PRO commands that are activated by these selections.
To use the commands with the "/etc" prefix, you must either be in
the letc directory or you must type the full pathname for the
command. If you are logged in as manager or root, you can use them
without typing "/etc" before the command name. These commands are
described more fully in Chapter 3.

USING FOR:PRO COMMANDS FOR ROUTINE TASKS
The next few pages describe some basic FOR: PRO commands.
You'll
use these commands to create and manipulate files and directories,
print your work, and perform disk-related activities. You'll also
learn how to receive and interpret system status information.

10/83

2-1

Introduction to FOR:PRO

USING FOR:PRO COMMANDS
Table 2-1.

Menu System Selections and FOR:PRO Commands

Menu Items

FOR:PRO Command Invoked

System Utilities

Copy a file
Delete a file
Group ID change of a file
List file contents on screen
Move or rename a file
Owner change file ownership
Print file content on printer
Permission change of a file
Copy a directory
Create a directory
Delete a directory
Go to another directory
Group ID change of a directory
List directory information
Move or rename a directory
Name current directory
Owner change of a directory
Permission change of a directory

cp
rm
letc/chgrp
more
mv
letc/chown
Ipr
chmod
cp
mkdir
rmdir
cd
letc/chgrp
Is
mv
pwd
letc/chown
chmod

System Management

Shutdown computer
Who is using the computer
Disk usage
Percent of disk used
Display current date and time
Set date and time
Write a message to a terminal
Send a message to all terminals

shutdown
who
du
df

date
setdt
write
wall

METACHARACTERS AS SHELL "SHORTHAND"
The Bourne shell provides a notation method that enables you to use
a single special character in a command to represent any number of

Introduction to FOR:PRO

2-2

10/83

USING FOR:PRO COMMANDS
files and directories.
Use these special characters, called
metacharacters, in the command line in the following fashion:
•

To match a string of characters of any length,
including a null (empty) string.

?

To match any single character except null.

[.!1.=nl

To match any single character within the range
indicated in n-n where n=n can be any two letters in
the alphabet.

Metacharacters are most useful when copying, moving, deleting, and
simply listing file names.

The asterisk character matches a character string of any length.
Suppose you had the following files in a directory:
apples1
apples2
oranges

grapes1
pears
apples.a

grapes2
apples.g

If you issued the command
Is apples.

the result would be
apples1

apples2

apples.a

apples.g

The system lists all files that begin with apples.
The * matches
any characters in the filename that follow the string apples.

Using?

Unlike the asterisk, the question mark metacharacter matches any
single character in a file, not an unlimited string.
Using the
same directory as above, if you issued the command
Is apples?

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2-3

Introduction to FOR:PRO

USING FOR:PRO COMMANDS
the result would be
apples1

apples2

The system lists any files in the directory whose names begin with
the string apples and include one other single character.
Notice
that the files apples.a and apples.g were not listed because in
both cases apples was followed by more than one character.
If you
type
Is apples??
you receive the results
apples.a

apples.g

In this case, the two question marks ?? match any two characters
(except null) following the apples string.

The brackets indicate that the match required by the command be any
Using the same directory
single character between the range n-n.
as in the two previous examples, suppose you issued the command
Is apples.[a-f]
The system would respond only with the name apples.a.
apples.g is outside the range enclosed in the brackets.

The file

CREATING AND MODIFYING DIRECTORIES AND FILES
Among the most commonly used commands are those for creating and
manipulating directories and files:
mkdir, mY, cp, rm and rmdir.
The next few pages describe the syntax and usage of these commands
and their most commonly used options.

CreatinR-Q1rectories (mkdir)
You can use the
To create a directory, use the mkdir command.
mkdir command to create subdirectories in your home directory or in
any other directory for which you have write permission.

Introduction to FOR:PRO

2-4

10/83

USING FOR:PRO COMMANDS
The easiest way to use mkdir is to first go to the directory where
you want to create the new directory. Then issue the mkdir command
using the following syntax:
mkdir directory.name

You can supply as many directory names as you want, depending on
how many directories you are creating.
However, remember to use a
pathname for any directories not in the current directory.
The
mkdir command automatically creates the • file, representing the
directory itself, and the
file representing the parent
directory, in any new directory.

The my command's most commonly used function is to move files and
directories to different places.
You can also use my to simply
rename files and directories without moving them. This is because
my removes the file from its original location and puts it in the
specified location.
If you use my on a file in the current
directory, and specify a new filename instead of a I@thname as
destination, then the file remains in the original directory, but
its name is changed.
The syntax for that use of my is
my

{filenam~}
dir.name.1

{filena~}
dir.name.2

It's also possible to move a file or directory, changing its name
in the process. Use the following syntax
my {Old. filename
Qld-Ll!ir...1l~

new. pathname}
ne~I@thname

new.pathname is a complete pathname which specifies where
directory or file is located.

the

To move
syntax

the

a file

from the current directory

to

another,

use

my [options] filename •.. directory.name

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USING FOR:PRO COMMANDS
Supply the name of the file you want moved and the name of the
destination directory.
Remember, once you move a file to another
directory, it no longer exists in its former directory. The options
are explained below.
Move one directory to another by using the syntax
my [options] dir.name

to.dir.name

When you move a directory, all its files and subdirectories are
moved as well. Note that you cannot move a directory to one of its
subdirectories.
my Command Options:

You can use one of three options: -f, -i, or
when invoking my. The -i option causes the system to pause if
it finds an existing file in the directory with the same name as
the file you want to move into that directory.
If you type a "y"
as the next character in response to the prompt, the system
replaces the old file with the new file.
If you type any other
character in response, the system will not move that file.
The-f
option causes all files to be moved, regardless of any permissions
set or the existence of duplicate filenames. The -f and -1 options
are mutually exclusive.
If you do use them together, -1 overrides

-f.

The - option interprets all later arguments to my as filenames.
This means you can move a file whose name begins with Theoption can be used with -1 or -f.

Copying Files and Directories (cp)
The cp command offers facilities for copying both files and
directories.
When you use cp to copy a file or directory, the
original is not destroyed.
Instead, you have two copies of the
same data.
To make this clearer, in the following syntax
descriptions for cp, the original file or directory is referred to
as the "source," and the new copy or file or directory receiving
the copy is called the "destination."
Making a Copy of an Original File:
following cp syntax:

For basic file copying, use the

cp [opt1ons][-] source.f1lg destination. file

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USING FOR:PRO COMMANDS
This form of cp makes a copy of a file in the same directory as the
original or in a different directory.
The options are described
below.
The destination file retains the same file permissions as
the source file.
If the destination file is in the same directory
as the source, be sure to give the copy a different name than the
source.
If either the source or destination file isn't in your
working directory, remember to use pathnames.
Here's a shortcut for copying a file from another directory into
the current directory.

Recall that • represents the current directory.
file is not changed when it is copied.

The name of the

Options~:
On the Fortune system, the cp command has a great
number of options. As with the mv command, you can use the option
-i to have the system prompt you every time it finds an existing
file in the destination directory with the same name as a source
file to be copied into the directory. The -f forces copying of all
source files to the destination directory even when the system
encounters duplicate filenames.
You can also use the - option to
create files with names beginning with a hyphen.

£QQyin~irectories:

You

can

copy a directory

into

another by

using the -r option.

The -r stands for recursive, meaning that the source directory and
all of its subdirectories and files are copied into the destination
directory.
You cannot copy a directory into one of its
subdirectories.
You must use the -r option to completely copy a
directory that contains subdirectories, otherwise the system
ignores any subdirectories it encounters and only copies the files.
Removing Files and Directories-1rml
The rm command removes files and directories from the file system.
Its syntax is
rm [-f][-i][-r][-]

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U!)ING FOR:PRO COMMANDS
You can use rm to delete more than one file by typing individual
filenames or by using metacharacters. Due to the serious nature of
rm, you should be very careful when using this command. Unless you
use the -i option, the only time rm prompts during file deletion is
when it encounters a file for which you do not have write
permission.

NOTE
You do not need write permission on a file to
delete it, as long as you have write permission
for the directory in which the file resides. If
you try to delete a file for which you don't
have write access, the system simply informs you
of the file's permission mode and then asks
again if you want to delete it. All you have to
do is type y and the system deletes the file.

Options of rm:
The safest way to use rm for deleting files is to
use the command with the -i option, as in
rm -i

filename •.•

In this case, the system prompts, "rm: remove filename?" and waits
for your response. Type y to remove the file.
Any other response
cancels the deletion.
To force rm to delete all files without displaying prompts or error
messages (even on write-protected files), use the -f option, as in
rm -f
Once again, -i and -f are mutually exclusive, with -i taking
precedence if you mistakenly use them in the same command.
RLIILQ. v i n R-lLi r LUQLi.~_w i.LIL- r m: Tor e m0 v e a I I f i 1 e san d
subd i rector i es in a directory, use the recur si ve option of rm, as
in

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USING FOR:PRO COMMANDS
In this case, rm searches for and deletes first all files, then all
subdirectories beneath the named directory.
To give you an
command
rm -r

idea of the danger of rm -r,

if you

issued the

it

the system would delete all files and directories from the current
directory on down the file hierarchy. If you were to issue such a
command from I, you could delete the entire contents of the hard
disk!
So be very cautious using rm -r, particularly with
metacharacters. Use the -i option whenever you use -r, just to be
safe.

You can use the rmdir command to delete directories, provided the
directories do not contain any files. The syntax of rmdir is
rmdir dir.name
If you created directories and didn't put any files into them, you
can use rmdir to delete them. However, if you use rmdir to delete
a directory that does contain files, you'll receive an error
message, and the system will ignore the command.
You must delete
the directory's contents before you can delete it with rmdir.

MANIPULATING FILES ON FLEXIBLE DISKS
FOR:PRO provides three commands for handling flexible disks: mount,
umount, and format. These commands, along with cp, help you store
and retrieve user files on flexible disks.
Note that to install
and backup any Fortune Systems' software, you must use the Product
Maintenance menu.

HowJnformation-iLOrganized on a Flexible Disk
a

Each flexible disk contains a separate file system with the
directory If at the top of the hierarchy.
When you copy or move
files to the flexible disk, they are listed under If.

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USING FOR:PRO COMMANDS
The file system on the hard disk includes an empty directory also
called f listed directly under I. When you mount a flexible disk,
the system "logically" attaches the files on the flexible disk to
the If directory on the hard disk.
When you unmount the flexible
disk, the association between the flexible disk and If on the hard
disk is removed.

During the
Before using a flexible disk, you must format it.
formatting process, the system arranges the surface of the disk, so
that data can be stored on it.
The surface is divided into areas
called blocks. Individual blocks hold 1024 bytes or characters, on
the FOR:PRO operating system.

NOTE
An attempt to access an unformatted disk will
If this happens,
cause the system to hang.
reset the system by pushing the reset switch.

During formatting, the system also creates the configuration block,
the first block on the disk. The configuration block describes the
size of the disk, the date the disk was formatted, and other status
information.
Using the format Command: Use the format command to prepare brand
new disks or to reformat a used flexible disk. The format command
erases any files that might exist on the disk.
Therefore, do not
format a disk that contains files you want to save. The syntax of
format is
format [-k][other options] Idev/fd02

The -k option of the format command causes the system to save
information in the configuration block about any bad blocks
encountered in the formatting process.
If you're reformatting
disks, you may want to use format -k, because used disks are more
likely to have bad blocks than new ones.

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USING FOR:PRO COMMANDS
After you've formatted the disk, you should use the command mkfs to
make a file system on the flexible disk. Type
mkfs -a /dev/fd02

This command creates a file system on the flexible disk.
running mkfs, the system will display some messages.

While

The mount and umount commands tell the system that you want to load
Before issuing the mount
or unload a removable file system.
Then use this
command, place the flex i ble disk in the drive.
syntax to mount the flexible disk
/etc/mount /dev/fd02 /f

Since fd02 is a special device file, it is contained in the /dev
directory.
This is why you use the full pathname /dev/fd02.
The
system attaches the file system on the disk in drive fd02 to the
directory /f on the hard disk.

NOTE
If you followed the directions on setting up a
.profile file in your home directory, you don't
need to type the /etc prefix.
Just type mount
or umount plus the proper arguments.

To unmount a file system, use the following syntax:
/etc/umount /dev/fd02

Again, the /etc prefix is not necessary if your path has been
changed to include /etc.
This unmounts the files listed under /f
on the hard disk.
After typing the command, remove the disk from
the drive.

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USING FOR:PRO COMMANDS

NOTE

Do not remove the flexible disk from the drive
before issuing the umount command.
Such an
action could damage the file system on the hard
disk.

To copy files to the flexible disk, mount the disk and then use cp
with the following syntax:
cp file1 [file2] .•• If

You can copy as many files as you want onto the flexible disk,
provided that there is enough space on the disk.
Use
metacharacters wi th cp as shortcuts; don I t forget to specify
pathnames for files not in the current directory.
To look at the
contents of a mounted flexible disk, just type
11

If

or
Is -a If

The second format displays all special "." files as well as other
files.

To copy a directory and all its contents to the flexible disk, use
the -r option:
cp -r dirname If

For example, to copy the contents of the directory lu/greg/memos,
type
cp -r lu/greg/memos If

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USING FOR:PRO COMMANDS
Copying Files from a Flexible Disk
To copy files from the flexible disk onto the hard disk,
mount the disk, then use this syntax:

first

The directoryname represents a relative pathname, and specifies the
directory name where the file is to be copied.
The Qirecto£y~
argument should not contain the name of the file being copied. You
can specify more than one filename to be copied from a flexible
disk.
Suppose you want to copy the file may from a flexible disk
to the lu/greg/memos directory on the hard disk.
You would use
this format of cp:
cp If/may lu/greg/memos
To copy all the files and any directories on a flexible disk to a
directory lu/greg/index on the hard disk, use
cp -r If/* lu/greg/index
All the files under If, including any directories (except special
files beginning with "."), are copied to the directory
lu/greg/index. To copy the entire contents of the flexible disk to
your current directory, type
cp -r If/* •
To copy all the files and directories in the current directory to a
flexible disk, use this form of cp:
cp -r

*

If

The contents of your current directory, including any
subdirectories and all their contents (except for special files,
like .profile, which have to be copied individually) are copied to
the flexible disk.
Other useful options are V, 0, t, B, and R.
See the MAN page entry for cp in Part 2 of this book.

PRINTING YOUR FILES
FOR:PRO provides the following printer-related commands, which
enable you to print files according to your specifications, and
then manipulate these files once they are placed in the print
queue:

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USING FOR:PRO COMMANDS
Command
lpr

Places the file you request in print queue
printing.

for

pr

Displays a paginated file on the screen, or,
when used with lpr, causes the printing of a
paginated file.

lpq

Displays the list of files
printed.

lprm

Removes files from the list of those waiting to
be printed.

lpdun

Interrupts and resumes printing.
Sets printer
defaults and creates new printer directories.

lpmv

Changes the order of files
printed.

waiting to be

waiting to be

Printing Files with the lpr Command
The lpr command places requested files
in a list called a print
queue for printing.
There are many options to the lpr command,
ranging from those that serve the simplest printing needs to others
used for more complex printing equipment.
Only the basic options
of lpr are explained here.
Refer to Appendix A for information
related to lpr and its associated utilities.
Simple Print Requests Using lpr aruL.p!::
If you simply want a
printout of a file, without page breaks or page numbers, use lpr as
shown below:
lpr [options] filename

If you want page numbers on your printout, use a combination of pr
and lpr.
The command pr organizes the file into pages with the
file title and the page number displayed at the top of each page.
The syntax of pr is
pr filename

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USING FOR:PRO COMMANDS
If you issue pr in this form, your file is displayed on the screen
in the paginated format.
To print a paginated file, you must use
pr and Ipr connected by a pipe, as in
pr filename I Ipr

Some Useful Options of lQr
Some particularly useful options of Ipr are summarized below. They
are described in more detail in the following paragraphs and in
Appendix A.

-b

Adds a banner preceding the text of the printed
file containing the name you specify in the center.

-d

Causes the printer to stop after printing a page so
you can load single sheet paper (only for printers
with friction feed or single sheet feeders).

-b

Removes the leading banner from a printed file.

-n

Requests more than one copy of a file.

-0

Changes the owner name printed on the banner page.

-p

Indicates the number of the printer you want to use
on a multiple printer system.

+P

Specifies pitch of a printed file.

+L

Changes the print position of the left margin of a
file.

+V

Determines the number of lines printed per inch.

NOTE
You can use more than one of these options on
the command line. If you do, make sure you type
all options beginning with - before typing those
beginning with +.
Otherwise, the + options
override those beginning with a -

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USING FOR:PRO COMMANDS
Banner-related options:
If your login shell is Ibin/sh instead of
Ibin/menu, the first page of every printout created by Ipr usually
consists of a banner containing the name of the person who printed
the file, the date of printing, and the name of the file.
Users
wi th menu login shells (/bin/menu) will not have banner pages on
Banners are the only method of identifying the
their printouts.
owner of a printout. You can use the -b option to produce a banner
containing both your account name and another specified name. The
format for this version of Ipr is
Ipr -b user.name filename
This might be useful if several people use the same account, like
ENG, and you want to identify a printout as belonging to you, for
example, MARVIN. The printout would show both the account name you
were using, ENG, plus the user name you specified, MARVIN. In this
case, the command line would be
Ipr -b HARVIN report
To eliminate the banner (header page) entirely, use the -h option:

NOTE
The default Ipr setting for users with menu
login shells is to suppress the banner on each
print job.
Use the -b option to override the
default.
(See Appendix A for details.)

You can print out more than one copy of a file
by issuing the command:

Duplicat~copies:

xx is an integer specifying the number of copies to be printed.
SpecifYin&-print~I__~mbers:

your

system,

each will

Introduction to FOR:PRO

If you have more than one printer on
have a printer number assigned.
(See

2-16

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USING FOR:PRO COMMANDS
FOR:PRO Installation Instructions for details on defining
printers.) The default printer number is 1. If you want to print
a file on a printer other than printer 1, type

Qrinter~

represents the number of the printer you wish to use.

Printing one sheet at a time:
The -d option of Ipr causes the
printer to pause after printing each page of a file. This enables
you to feed single sheets of paper 1 ike letterhead stationery or
other preprinted forms into the printer while it is inactive.
After you've loaded the next sheet, continue printing by issuing
the command Ipdun.
Specifying Pitgh: The +P option of Ipr lets you specify the pitch
(characters per inch) for the individual print job. Its syntax is
Ipr +Pnn

filenam~

nn is either 10, 12, or 15 characters per inch.

The default is 10.

Use the +L option to specify the left
margin of the printout.
When the printer is inactive, its
printhead rests in the leftmost print position which is position 0
on printers which have a margin ruler. Normally the left margin of
a file begins at this print location.
If you specify +L, the left margin changes without having to
reposition the paper. Its syntax is
Ipr +Lnn

fil~name

1111 represents the number of characters to the right of the
printhead where the left margin starts. If you use both the +P and
+L options on the command line, be sure to specify +P before you
specify +L.
Changing-1in~~_Q~r_Inch:
The +V option of Ipr lets you specify the
number of vertical lines per inch you want on your printout.
Its
syntax is

nn represents lines per inch.
The default is 6 lines per inch.
Other choices are 8 or 10 lines per inch.

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USING FOR:PRO COMMANDS

NOTE

The +L, +P, and +V options are effecti ve on a
per print job basis.
To change specifications
for all print jobs, you must change the
defaults. To do this, see Appendix A.

The Print Queue CQillmand-1lR9l
When you use Ipr to send a file to the printer, the file is placed
in the print queue. The system maintains the queue for the purpose
of determining print priorities.
By default, the first file sent
to the printer is the first printed.
However, you can change the
order of files in the queue by using Ipmv.
Each printer attached to the Fortune system has its own print
queue.
You can view the contents of the queue by issuing the Ipq
command, using the following syntax:
Ipq [-aqsp]

The table below explains the Ipq options and their uses.

-p nn

The -p nn option lets you view the queue for the
printer whose number is represented by nn.
The
default is printer 1.
On a multiple printer
system, use Ipq -p nn to view the queue for a
printer other than printer 1.

-a

To view the queues of all printers on the system,
type Ipq -a.

-s

The -s option displays a status table, in place of,
or in addition to, the print queue.
It is
explained further in the following pages.

-q

When used with -s in the form Ipq -qs,
both the print queue and status table.

Introduction to FOR:PRO

2-18

displays

10/83

USING FOR:PKU
Simply typing Ipq displays the queue for printer #1.
should resemble the following:
Pdf Owner
1
steff
ruby

QID Type Size
419 File 5183
421 File 13295

Filename
cab00419
cab00421

l.UMMANU~

That display

Jobname
Comment
bridge.2.3
prog.15

Copies

The individual fields are defined below.

prif

Printer number - given only for first job in each
queue.

Owner

Owner of the file in the queue.

QID

Queue identification number.

Type

Type of entry.
are:

The possible values for this field

doc

Word processing document

file

Ordinary file created by an editor

pipe

File created through a pipe

shell

File created through a shellscript

Size

Size of the file in bytes.

Filename

The name the system gives the file.

Jobname

The job name of file being printed,
same as the actual file name.

Comment

Any comment typed on the comment line of a word
processing document summary.

Copies

Number of printed copies requested.

usually

the

In addition to the print queue, you can also view the state of the
printer by issuing the Ipq command and the option -so
The result
is a table that describes the printer's current mode of operation.
The display you receive after issuing Ipq -5 should resemble the
one on the next page.

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U;'II'I'V

rUK:t'KU l.UMMANDS

Pr# State Ribbon
1 Active Black

Wheel
Round

Forms
paper

Line
256

Page
66

PID
422

Waiting on

Here is a description of the individual fields.
Description
Pr#

Printer number.

State

Current operational mode of the printer.
Most
common states are: active, suspended, and idle.

Ribbon

Type of ribbon currently loaded.

Wheel

Type of printwheel loaded on the printer.

Forms

Type of forms loaded.

Line

Maximum width of a line in characters.

Page

Maximum length of a page in lines.

PID

The process id number of the filter currently
handling printing.

Waiting on

A message explaining why printing is suspended.

To display both the print queue and the printer state, type
Ipq -ds

Removing Files from the Print Queue (lprm)
To remove a file from the print queue or to terminate a job being
printed, use the Iprm command.
Before issuing Iprm, display the
print queue; make note of the QID of the file you wish to delete.
Then issue the Iprm command using the following syntax:
Iprm [-p nn] OlD. number
where OlD. number represents the QID of the file to be deleted. The
system then alerts you that i t is deleting the file.
If the

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USING FOR:PRO

LUMMANU~

deleted file was the one currently printing, printing halts, and
the message, "Printing Cancelled by Operator" appears as the last
line on the printout.
Use the -p lin option to kill a file queued to a printer other than
printer 1. The lin represents the number of the printer.

NOTE
If a file is almost done printing when you issue
Iprm, it may finish printing anyway.
This is
because many printers have a large buffer size
(typically 2000 characters) and the buffer must
empty before the Iprm takes effect.

To remove all jobs queued by the same person, type
Iprm

owner,name

where owner.name is the login name of the person who sent the
files to the printer.

Suspending and Resuming Printing (lpdun)
The command lpdun is used to suspend and restart a print job.
You'll most often interrupt printing to fix buckling paper, change
a ribbon, or change a printwheel on a character printer. Using the
Ipdun command, you can resume printing at the last page printed
before the paper or ribbon problem occurred.
The proper syntax for suspending a print job is
1pdun -1 [-p nn]

When you issue this command, the printer stops printing the current
file.
Use the -p nn option to interrupt printing on a printer
other than printer 1.
Resume printing by issuing Ipdun using the following syntax:
Ipdun [-n lill]

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U"'II~\..7 rVro;.:iro;.U LUMMANU~

You'll often use the -n option of Ipdun, where QQ represents the
number of pages to be reprinted.
For example, suppose paper
started buckling on the fourteenth page of a file, mangling this
page and the next, before you were able to suspend printing. Your
last good page was the thirteenth page.
In this case, you would
type Ipdun -n2 to reprint the last 2 pages.
However, you could
reprint up to nine pages.
If QQ is more than the number of pages
that have been printed, printing starts at the beginning of the
job. To restart the printer at the point it stopped, simply type
Ipdun.

On jobs that are being printed one sheet at a time (started with
Ipr -d), issue lpdun after you've successfully fed and positioned
the paper in the printer.
In addition, Ipdun has other useful options explained in the MAN
page entry for Iprm.

SYSTEM STATUS COMMANDS
The FOR: PRO operating system provides
commands, among them are the following:

a number of system status

Command
date

Presents the date and time.

who

Tells you who
system.

ps

Presents a table of programs on which your
account is currently running.

du

Displays the amount of space in blocks a file
takes uP.

df

Presents a table indicating how much free space
remai~s on a disk.

is currently logged

into the

The date and who commands were described in the previous chapter.
The ps, dU, and df commands display tables concerning the
operational state of the computer; they are especially useful
if
you are the manager of a multiuser system.
The major aspects of
these commands are discussed on the next pages.

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USING FOR:PRO COMMANDS

The ps command displays a table describing the state of all
processes on the system.
You might think of a process as a
currently executing program.
The process table displayed by ps
lists any
system and user-created programs that are currently
running.
The syntax of ps is
ps [-a][-l][other options][Qig]

To see the short form of the process table, type ps. The resulting
display shows all processes running under your current account
flame.
(Note that if you are currently logged in at two terminals
at the same time, the process table shows the processes running
under the same account on both terminals.)
The resulting short
process table will resemble the following:
PID
29

TTY
03

TIME
0:04

CMD
-sh

Here's an explanation of the fields in the short process table.

PID

The process ID number assigned by the system to the
running process.

TTY

The terminal controlling the running process.

TIME

The amount of computer time used so far to execute
the process.

CMD

The command line typed to start the process.
Note
that the information listed under CMD may not
always look exactly like what you typed.
If you
run a shellscript or type a command that uses
pipes, you'll see a process number for each pipe
under CMD.

In the above example, the account that issued the ps command is
currently running the Bourne shell (-sh) from terminal TTY 03. The
system assigned the process ID 29 to the shell and has spent four
seconds of CPU time running the shell.

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USING FOR:PRO COMMANDS

NOTE
If you are logged in as manager or root, you
will also see an entry for the ps process
itself, even when you issue the "short form" (no
options) of ps.

If you are the system manager, you'll probably want to view a table
listing all processes initiated from every terminal on your system.
The -a option lets you view all processes executing from all
terminals. Type
ps -a
The resulting display resembles this one.
PID
28
29
59

TTY TIME CMD
co 0:07 /m/menu/bin/msh -p /m/menu/control
-1 user -s
03 0:04 -sh
co 0:00 sh -c TERM=FTAJexport TERMAJCLEARHOME
=20 AL10 AAA Jexport CLEAR HOM

In this case, terminal 03 is running the Bourne shell, while the
console is running shell scripts from the menu system.

If you have a single-user system, or are the system manager, you'll
want to monitor disk usage from time to time on your system to
prevent the hard disk from running out of space. Two commands, du
and df, provide information relevant to disk usage.
Displaying Used and Free Space:
The df command displays a table
depicting the number of free blocks available on the file system.
You can use df to determine the free space not only on the hard
disk, but also on a mounted flexible disk.
The syntax of df is
df [-f) [other options] [filesystem ••• ][file ••• ]

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USING FOR:PRO COMMANDS
filesystem

represents

system,

/dev/hd02 for

disk.

(The

the

device

containing

the hard disk,

flexible

disk

inserted, to use df.)

the

particular

file

or /dev/fd02 for a flexible

doesn't

have

to

be

mounted,

If you do not specify a filesystem,

just
the df

table is shown for the root file system on the hard disk.
The

df Table

Wh en

Display:

you

type

df,

the

resul ti ng

t abl e

resembles this one.
Filesystem

Mounted on

kbytes

used

free

/dev/hd02

/

7895

5342

2553

% used
68%

Th€ fields of the table are described below.

Filesystem

Device containing the f{le system.

Mounted on

The top directory in the file system hierarchy
on the specified device.
the

entry

directory.
entry
kbytes

If

is

I,

For

a

In the example above,

representing
mounted

the

flexible

root

disk,

the

appears in this field.

The total number of kilobytes of storage space
available
bytes.

on

the

Also,

disk.

one

(A

block

kilobyte
is

equal

is

1024

to

1024

bytes.)
used

The

number

of

kilobytes

used

or

taken

up

by

files.
free

The number of kilobytes still unused.

% used

The percentage of disk space used.

The most significant field in the display is % used.
check this

field every day,

heavily used.
hard

disk

perhaps more often if your

You should
system is

You shouldn't let the amount of used space on the

exceed

90

percent,

because

hard

disk

efficiency

reduced when free space on the disk gets closer to zero.
this happen,

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is

Should

delete files you don't need and backup on a flexible

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Introduction to FOR:PRO

USING FOR:PRO COMMANDS
disk other files that you don't use routinely but want to save. The
% used field. If you type df -f,
you'll receive a message like

-f option lets you view just the

"68% of the available space is in use"

Displaying Disk Usage iQyl
The du command shows how much space a specified directory takes up
on the disk in terms of blocks.
(Remember that one block is one
kilobyte, or 1024 bytes.)
If you are the system manager or have
your own single-user system, use du to determine the size of files.
You may want to move any large files that are seldom used but still
must be saved onto a flexible disk.
The syntax of du is
du [-a][-s][Qir.name ..• ]

If you type du dir.name, the system presents a display resembling
the following
56

/u/ruby

where /u/ruby is the directory specified for
If you simply type du, the resulting

dir.nam~.

display may resemble

11

Since you haven't supplied a name, the system gives you the disk
usage of the current directory (.).
If the current directory
contains other directories, du (with no options or arguments)
displays the size and names of all directories within the requested
directory, plus any of their subdirectories.
To view just a total
-5 option of du, as in

of blocks used

by

a directory,

use the

To see how many blocks the entire file system takes up, type
du

-5 /

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USING FOR:PRO COMMANDS
Displaying File Size in Blocks: The -a option of du gives the disk
usage for all files in the specified directory.
For example,
suppose you wanted to view the disk usage for all files in the
directory /u/ruby. You would type
du -a /u/ruby

The system's response might be
4
3

4

/u/ruby/a.out
lu/ruby/hist.1ist
lu/ruby/hist.1ist.fr
lu/ruby/hist.1ist.dc
lu/ruby/myprog.p

If you want to view the disk usage of all files on the system, type
du -a /

I more

since the list generated will appear on more than one screen.

USING THE SORT COMMAND
The sort command sorts information in existing files (typically
lists) in alphabetic and numeric order.
It is particularly useful
for sorting files such as telephone lists, price lists,
inventories, and statistics.

The sort command considers each line in a list to be composed of
fields:
strings of alphanumeric characters, separated from others
on the same line by spaces, tabs, or other delimiters.
Since
sorting is done on a field basis, you don't have to set up the data
in a file in columns.
The next paragraphs use the file, bookfile, as an example. You may
want to use it for practice with sort.
bookfile is the type of
list a bookseller might use to keep an inventory.
It lists
anthologies of the works of famous authors, the price for each
book, and current inventory.
It has four fields on each 1 ine:
first name, last name, price, and quantity.

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USING FOR:PRO COMMANDS
William Shakespeare
Washington Irving
Emily Bronte
Leo Tolstoy
Walt Whitman
Charlotte Bronte
Alexandre Dumas

24.98
10.98
5.98
20.00
3.35
5.98
12.00

14
10
85
6

103
71
28

You can have the system perform the sort on any or all of the four
fields.
Suppose you wanted the list rearranged alphabetically by last
names.
When issuing the sort command, you'd designate that the
last name field is the field to be sorted. The field used in the
sort is called the key field.
sort looks at the key field on each
line, and reorganizes the lines in the file so that the key fields
are in alphabetic or numeric order.

Invoking sort
The general syntax of sort is
sort [+QQ§j] [-pos2] [-0 new.file] [orig.file] •.•

where origifile represents the file or files you want to sort. If
you don't specify a filename for orig.file, sort expects you to
type in the data you want sorted from your keyboard.
When you're
finished, type CTRL-D.
To perform a simple sort on an existing
file, type
sort filename

In this case, the system considers each line in filename to be a
single field.

NOTE
Unless you specify otherwise, files are sorted
according to the ASCII collating sequence.
In
this sequence, control characters come first,
then special characters (1'#, and so forth), the

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USING FOR:PRO COMMANDS

numbers 0-9, uppercase letters, and finally
lowercase letters. Tables containing the entire
ASCII collating sequence can be found in most
programming texts.

Sorting by Key Field
You are more likely to sort by specific fields, rather than by
using an entire line.
To do this, you must indicate the position
of the field on the line. When defining key fields, use the syntax
sort [+~] [-pos2] ••• QLig.file
where +~ indicates the starting position and -pos2 the ending
position of the field. Sort considers the starting position of the
first field on a line to be position O.
The ending character of
the first field is position -1. The starting character of the next
field is position +1, and so on.
The chart below shows the position indicators for an entry in the
bookfile illustrated earlier:
William

Shakespeare

-1 +1

-2

24.98
+2

-3

14

+3-4

To sort the file by the author's last name, issue the command
sort +1 -2 bookfile
Sorting is done on the second field, which begins with position +1
and ends with position -2.
You can indicate as many key fields as you want in a single sort
command. The system sorts key fields in the order specified on the
command line, not in the order they appear in the file.

Saving Sorted Lists in a File (-0 and
The -0 option of sort lets
file.
When you issue the
sorted list is by default
only as long as it remains

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»

you save the sorted list in a specified
sort command without the -0 option, the
displayed on your terminal, and exists
on the screen.

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Introduction to FOR:PRO

USING FOR:PRO COMMANDS
However, most of the time, you'll probably want to save the sorted
file. To do so use the -0 option

orig.file represents the file to be sorted and new.file represents
the resulting sorted file.
Note that new.file is not displayed on
the screen.
You'll have to use cat or more to display new. file.
The contents of Qrig.file are unchanged by the sort operation.
Another way to achieve the same results is to type
sort [options]

[+QQ~][-pos2]

..• orig.file > new.filg

The > symbol preceding new. file tells the system to direct the
sorted list to a file called new.file, rather than display it on
the screen. In general, the> symbol can be used after any FOR:PRO
command to redirect the output that would otherwise appear on the
screen to a specified file.

More sort Options
The sort command has many options.
They are usually specified
before the field positions. The general format of sort, including
options, is

The most useful
below:

options

for

sorting

single files

are described

-b

Ignores leading blanks in fields.

-f

Treats uppercase and lowercase letters equally.

-n

Performs a numeric sort.

-r

Sorts the list in reverse order.

-0

Saves the sorted list in the specified output file.

-tx

Lets you define field separators
default tabs or spaces.

Introduction to FOR:PRO

2-30

other than

the

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USING FOR:PRO COMMANDS
Equal Treatment for ~ca~-E.nd--L.owercase LetteL.§_( -f) :
The-f
option tells the' system to sort an uppercase letter in the same
Its syntax
pOSition as the lowercase version of the same letter.
is:
sort -f [options] [+Qosl] [-Qos2] .••

ori~file

For example, suppose you were sorting a list in which the starting
letters of the key field were mixed uppercase and lowercase.
Naturally, you'd put the fields beginning with Band b after the
a's and before the C's.
However, unless you specify the -f option, the system first lists
all fields beginning with A-Z then all fields beginning with a-z.
Remember, the system uses the ASCII collating sequence, where
upppercase letters are higher in the collating order than lowercase
letters.
The -f option makes the system treat uppercase and
lowercase letters equally.
Removing Leading Blanks~:
A blank also has a value in the
ASCII collating sequence.
If you have more than one blank at the
beginning of the field, sorting is performed first on the blanks,
then on the remaining characters in the field, which may result in
an incorrect sort. Use the -b option to remove any leading blanks
from fields.
You can use -b in either of two ways.
sort -b [options]

[+~]

[-pos2] ..• orig.file

leading blanks are removed from all
blanks from a specific field, type
sort

[+~]b

If you type

fields.

To

remove

leading

orig.file

Leading blanks are now removed from the field indicated in +~.
In the syntax form above, a letter following a field position is
called a flag, rather than an option.
Note that when you use a
flag, it overrides other options.
Numeric Sorts (-TIl: Numbers in fields can be regarded in two ways,
as characters or as numeric values. A number regarded as a string
of characters such as a phone number or serial number has no
significant numeric value.
Numbers such as prices or quantities
obviously have significant numeric value.

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Introduction to FOR:PRO

USING FOR:PRO COMMANDS
To sort a field in which numbers have values, use the -n option to
indicate you want to perform a numeric sort.
If you use the
following syntax:
sort -n [options]

[+~]

[-pos2] ••• orig.file

all fields are treated as numeric fields. To limit numeric sorting
to a specified field, use -n as a flag, as in
sort
where

[+~]-n

+QQ~

••. filename

represents the field to be sorted numerically.

NOTE
You can use the -b option to sort a field in
which numbers are treated as characters,
provided that the numbers are all equal in
length.
For example, zip codes occupy five character
positions.
If the numbers vary in length,
you'll need to use -n to achieve the results you
want.

Sorting in Reverse Order l=r~: You can use the -r option to sort
files in reverse alphabetic order (Z-A) or from highest numeric
value to lowest. If you type
sort -r [options] [+QQ§j] [-pos2] orig.file [-0 new.file]
all fields are sorted in reverse alphabetic order.
specific field in reverse alphabetic order, use r
following the position indicator of the field.
If you
sort a specific field in reverse numeric order, use both
flags, as in
sort [+QQ§j]nr

To sort a
as a flag
wanted to
nand r as

orig. file

Specifying Field Delimiters (-tx): The -t option of sort lets you
specify a delimiter other than a space or tab to represent field
boundaries. Use the following syntax:
sort -tx [options]

Introduction to FOR:PRO

[+QQ~]

[-QQs2]

2-32

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USING FOR:PRO COMMANDS
x represents the character you want to use as a delimiter for
example, I or :). When choosing delimiters, be very careful that
the delimiter is not one that has a special meaning to FOR: PRO,
such as I or I. If you need to use a special character, precede it
with the escape character I, as described in Chapter 2.

COMMUNICATING WITH OTHER USERS
The FOR:PRO single-user operating system includes two commands for
sending messages, write and wall. The write command enables you to
send a message to another terminal, even to carryon a
telephone-like conversation.
wall sends your message to all
terminals.

Communication Between

Users-1writ~

The write command is very simple to use.

Its syntax is

You can specify either a user's account name or the tty number of
the terminal used by the person with whom you want to communicate.

NOTE
Normally you don't have to supply the tty number
to use write.
However, sometimes you may want
to contact a person who is logged in on two or
more terminals at the same time.
You may have
to send a message to both terminals in order to
contact the individual.

Once you invoked write, the system waits for your input at the
terminal.
Type your message, ending each line with a Return.
After you type the first line, the system sends your message to the
specified user. To end the message, press CTRL-D.

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Introduction to FOR:PRO

USING FOR:PRO COMMANDS
The person you indicated receives a message on the screen
specifying your name and tty number plus a "beep" to get the
recipient's attention. For example:
Message from ruby tty03
Can you check the printer to see if it has enough paper?
Thanks.

NOTE
If you send a message to a user who isn't
currently logged in, that message will be lost.
Therefore, use the who command before using
write, not only to find out who is on the
system, but also to see which terminals are in
use.

~ending_a_Messa@

to All Terminals

~alll

wall operates according to the same principle as write, except that
the message you type is sent to every terminal on your Fortune
system. To invoke wall, type
wall

As in write, the system pauses, waiting for your input.
Type the
message, indicating its end by pressing the CTRL-D.
Unlike write,
the system waits for the CTRL-D, regardless of the message's
length, before transmitting it to everyone currently logged in.
A typical message from wall might look like
Message from manager console
EMERGENCYI! We're 95% full.
Please delete any junk files
or move files you don't need right now to a flexible disk.

~ug@stions

for Using write and wall

Use write and wall with a certain amount of discretion.
Ideally,
these commands should only be used to communicate vital
information, as in the case of the system in danger of becoming

Introduction to FOR:PRO

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USING FOR:PRO COMMANDS
overloaded,

or

if a shared

taken offline for servicing.

resource,

such as

a printer,

must be

It is a good practice to restrict use

of the wall command to the manager and root accounts.
Since your messages are transmitted as you type them, they are
displayed in the middle of whatever the recipient is currently
viewing on the screen.
Although the messages are only temporary,
it appears as though the message text has been written into the
recipient's file, particularly if the recipient is running an
application. However, these messages are nondestructive.
The
recipient need only clear the screen and return to the file to see
that the message has not become part of the file and has not
disturbed anything.
You may want to put the text of the message into a temporary file
so you can edit it before sending it.
To do this, use ed filename
or cat filename to put the text into a file, then edit the text
using ed.

Send the message using this syntax:

or

The < symbol directs the text of fil~ to the indicated FOR:PRO
command, for example, wall or write.
Using write Like a Telepho~:
You can carryon a two-way
conversation with another user via write.
For example, User
issues the write command and sends a message to User 2 without
pressing CTRL-D.
User 2 invokes write and answers User l' s
message.
This response is promptly displayed on User 1's screen.
Both users can continue sending messages in this fashion, until
they both press CTRL-D.
You should establish a protocol for carrying on two-way
conversations, to ensure both users don't write to each other at
the same time. When you finish writing to another user, wait for a
response before writing again.
End each message with a code you
have both agreed upon. It is a common practice to end each message
in the conversation with the letter "0" for "over." To indicate
that you are going to sign off, end your final message with "00"
for "over and out."

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Introduction to FOR:PRO

2-36

3 Advanced Concepts

This chapter describes advanced operations you may want to perform
at command level. It also explains in detail more involved UNIX
concepts you may have previously encountered. Among them are:
•
•
•
•
•
•

File and directory permissions
Changing file and directory ownership
More about groups
Changing default erase and kill characters
Redirection of input and output
Creating simple shell scripts

PERMISSIONSIACCESS RIGHTS
The methods used to keep files safe from unauthorized users have
many names:
file or directory permissions, access rights, user
right~, and file protection rights.
These terms all refer to the
protection settings that can be placed on a file or directory.
These settings specify what kind of access different users on the
system have to that file or directory.

File Permissions
There are three kinds of access rights for files. Directories are
a little different. (See Direct~ermissions below.) As used on
the FOR:PRO operating system, these are:
r

Means the file can be examined or read but can I t
modified or changed.

w

Means you can modify or write to the file.
The file can also be edited or changed.

x

Means you can run or execute the file.
Such a file
contains instructions, as does a program.
You can
execute a shell script by simply typing its name, as
long as it has "x" rights.

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be

Introduction to FOR:PRO

ADVANCED CONCEPTS

NOTE
If a file is read only, you
protection setting in order
message asks whether you
protection for the file when
such a file.

must override this
to delete it.
A
want to override
you try to remove

For example, look at this listing, obtained by using the -1 option
of the Is command:
-rw-rw-r--rw-rw-r--rw-rw-r--rwxrw-r--rwxrw-r--rw-rw-r--rw-rw-r--rw-rw-rw-rw-rw-r--rwxrw-r-x

laura
laura
laura
laura
laura
laura
laura
laura
laura
laura

604
1926
210
42
5
1278
1578
652
114
47

Jun
Jun
Jun
Jun
Jun
Jun
Jun
Jun
Jun
Jun

14
15
15
13
15
14
14
17
15
15

17:09
15:41
15:08
13:58
16:44
15: 10
16:44
16:34
16: 11
15:45

change. stuff
customs
ex1
fd.look
logout
10ng2
new. stuff
private
reminder
u

The read, write, and execute permissions are indicated in the left'
columns of the display. The first hyphen indicates an ordinary file
rather than a directory. Nine possible permission slots follow,
three for each class of user. Possible values for these permission
slots are r, w, x, and -. They correspond to read, write, execute,
and no, or null permission, respectively. (The hyphen indicates
that a permission is denied.)

The three classes of users on the FOR:PRO system are:

user
(u)

Group
(g)

The user who created the file or now "owns"
the file. The permissions for the owner are
always shown first.
Users can be placed in different groups on a
FOR:PRO system.
A group can have rights which
di ffer from those of the owner and everybody
else.

Introduction to FOR:PRO

3-2

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ADVANCED CONCEPTS
Other
(0)

Everybody else, or the general public, is
assigned a third set of rights. This is useful
when you want to protect certain files from
modification, but you want everyone to be able
to read those files.

Note that the three classes of users have single-letter
abbreviations:
u is user, g is group, and 0 is other. These will
come in handy when you need to change a file's access rights.

Directory permissions are a bit different from file permissions.
Here is what the r, w, and x permissions mean when applied to
directories.

r

Permits users
contents.

to list or read

a directory's

w

Permits users to write or copy items to a
directory.
Thus, they can create files and
directories in that directory, copy files and
other directories into that directory, and
remove files and directories within that
directory.

x

Permits users to go to, or search the directory
and to copy files from that directory as long
as they also have read rights to that
directory.
Also allows users to execute
programs from the directory, as long as they
already know the program name.

The hyphen (-) indicates the absence or denial of a permission.
That is, the permission slot is set to nUll.

You'll find it necessary to change the access rights on a file or
directory from time to time. For example, you may want to

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3-3

Introduction to FOR:PRO

ADVANCED CONCEPTS
make a file executable, as in the case of a shellscript,
need to add or take away certain access privileges on a
file or directory. It is important to remember that you
the owner of a file or logged in as root or manager to
access rights on a file or directory.

or you may
particular
have to be
change the

To change file or directory permissions, use the chmod command.
This command has a variety of arguments and options.
A quick way
to learn chmod is to memorize the following six letters:

u

user or owner (must be you!)

g

group (everyone else in your group)

o

other (everyone on
group)

r

read permission

w

write permission

x

execute permission

the system besides

owner and

NOTE

The directory a file resides in must be writable
in order to delete a file.
If the file you are
trying to delete is read only, but is in a
writable directory, rm prints a message. If you
answer y in response to it, the file is deleted.
Also, if you use rm -f, it overrides the file's
read only status and deletes it anyway.

The chmod command uses these six letters in combination with these
common operators:
Meaning

+

Means "assign these rights to"
Means "add this right to"
Means "take this right away from"

Introduction to FOR:PRO

3-4

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ADVANCED CONCEPTS
The chmod command is used in this form:
filename

chmod {ugo} {-+=} {rwx}

You can specify more than one letter, more than one permission, and
more than one filename in a single chmod command.
For example, to assign all users except yourself read only rights
to the file badges and payroll, you'd issue this command:
chmod go=r badges payroll

Of course, you would have to be the owner of both the badge and
payroll files in order to change their access privileges.
Another chmod example: Assume you are the user called pubs, and you
want to take away write privileges from the general public (the
user class other) for a file called private. This file currently
has rw permissions assigned to all user classes. Here's the command
line you would use:
chmod o-w private

You are subtracting the write privilege (w)
other (0).

from the user class

If you issue the command
Is -1 private

you'd see the following display:

-rw-rw-r-- 1 pubs

652 Jun 17 16:34 private

Changing File/Directory Ownership (chown)
When you copy a file from someone else's directory to your own, you
become the owner of the copy in your directory.
If another user
copies a file or directory to your directory, that user will own
the copy. If the permissions for the other class deny write access,
you may need to use the chown command to change the ownership of
that file or directory so you can modify it.

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Introduction to FOR:PRO

ADVANCED CONCEPTS
You must be logged in as manager or root to use chown.
format to change the ownership of a file or directory:

Use this

The name of the new. owner must be a valid existing user account
name on the system. The filename can be a pathname, if necessary.

MORE ABOUT GROUPS
Users on a Fortune system can be organized into groups for purposes
of restricting access to certain files or directories.
All users
on the system belong to the group called users by default. Assuming
you belong to the group called users, any file or directory created
by you can be assigned a special set of access rights for the rest
of the user accounts on the system. Thus, any other account
belonging to the users group can have special access to your files
and directories as discussed previously. Conversely, if you don't
want any other user accounts to access your files and directories,
simply use chmod to take all access rights away from the group
class.

To find out what groups exist on your system and which users belong
to each group, type
cat /etc/group

You may want to create another group for yourself and other people
in your department to use. This makes it easier to control access
to information that you want only certain people to use.
On a
FOR: PRO system, the best way to assign special access rights to
certain people is to put those users into a group.
Remember
however, that a user account can only belong to one group at a
time.
The procedures for creating and modifying user groups are discussed
in detail in Under:.§.tamL.1ouLLortul1Jl._~y..§.tem.
You can accomplish
the same tasks from FOR:PRO level, if necessary, by modifying the
/etc/group and /etc/passwd files.

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ADVANCED CONCEPTS

Like the chown command, chgrp can only be accessed by the manager
or root accounts. Its purpose is to change the group ownership of
You may want to do this when you need to
files and directories.
turn over files to a different group of users.
For example, if the Acctg group decides to turn over all the files
in the back.order directory to the Audit group, you'd have to
change the ownership of the directory.
Use this format of the
command:
chgrp

new~rogQ {filename

}

QirectorY...name

CHANGING ERASE AND KILL CHARACTERS
The default erase and kill characters were discussed in Chapter 1.
Should you need to change either or both of them, use the stty
command, followed by the word erase or kill, and the new character
sequence you want to use.

stty kill ne!:hkill.....ghill:

You can find out what the default settings are for the erase and
kill characters by typing
stty everything
This displays the various settings for your particular terminal,
most of which may not mean much at first glance.
If you look at
the bottom two lines, you'll see listings for the current erase and
kill characters. The defaults are:
erase: AH
kill: AX

(CTRL-H)
(CTRL-X)

In this case the nAn means CTRL.

10/83

3-7

Introduction to FOR:PRO

ADVANCED CONCEPTS

Sometimes you may accidentally use cat on a long file instead of
more.
If you want to stop a screen display, type CTRL-S.
To
restart the display, type CTRL-Q. This is also known as XON/XOFF
protocol, or flow control.

REDIRECTION OF INPUT AND OUTPUT
Command input and/or output can be redirected.
You might redirect
output so it can be used by another command. Input can come from a
file, rather than the keyboard, as it normally does. This section
describes how redirection can be done.

Redirection of-QutQY1
Output produced by FOR:PRO commands is normally sent to the screen,
which is called the standard output. When you run the who command,
for example, the resulting list of who is on the system appears on
your screen.
However, if you want to send the listing to a file,
you can redirect the output with a "greater than" sign (» followed
by the destination filename. For example,
who > whofile
directs the output from the who command into a file named whofile
in the current directory. The output is not displayed on the
screen.
If whofile already exists, its contents will be replaced
by the output from the who command.
If you wish to append a command's output to an existing file rather
than overwriting the current contents, use two greater than signs
(»). For example, you might start a list of thoughts for future
reference with the following commands:
date > ideas
echo 'With the echo command and redirection
of output I can easily jot down
ideas in a file for future reference.' » ideas
The date> ideas command line creates a file named ideas and places
its output, the current date, within it. The echo command

Introduction to FOR:PRO

3-8

10/83

ADVANCED CONCEPTS
appends the first idea to the file. (If you follow the echo command
with multiple lines of text as shown here, you will receive a >
prompt at the start of the second and third lines, indicating that
the shell is waiting for the rest of the command to be entered.)
Additional entries could be appended similarly. For example,
date

»

ideas

echo 'I should keep a list of things I need
to do in a separate file'

»

ideas

Programs often expect input from the keyboard, called the standard
Just as output can be redirected, input can be redirected
so that it comes from a file or another device rather than from the
keyboard.
input.

Suppose, for example, that you have written a novel, the chapters
of which are stored in 34 files. You now decide to change the main
characters' names from Paul, Mary, Jack, and Susan to Pierre,
Marilyn, Jacques, and Victoria. Rather than entering the necessary
editing commands 34 times while editing the 34 files, you can store
the required commands in a file and use the file as input to the
editor. This file, which might be called edits, could contain the
following:
1,$s/Paul/Pierre/g
1,$s/Hary/Harilyn/g

1,$s/Jack/Jacques/g
1,$s/Susan/Victoria/g

w
q

The first four of these commands tell the ed editor to start at the
first line of the file being edited and to continue to the bottom
line ($), and for each line in that range to substitute the second
name shown for the first name. The g, which stands for global,
changes every occurrence of the indicated string throughout the
line. Without the g, only the first occurrence on each line would
be replaced.

10/83

3-9

Introduction to FOR: PRO

ADVANCED CONCEPTS
Once the necessary editing commands have been stored in the file
edits, you can change the names in Chapter 1 of the novel, which is
contained in the file ch.01, by typing
ed ch.01

< edits

The result is exactly the same as if you had typed
ed ch.01

and then proceeded to type the lines contained in edits from your
keyboard.
It would be tedious to make changes in all the files with the
method just described j you would have to type 34 command lines.
Bourne shell programs by default take input from the keyboard, but
you can simplify the editing process by sending these 34 commands
to the shell from a file instead.
First, put the names of the
files to be edited into a file named shell. input using the command
Is ch.*

> shell.input

The shell.input file now contains 34 lines, each of which is the
filename of one of the chapters. Edit shell.input using the
following commands:
ed shell.input

1,$srled 1
< editsl

1 ,$s/$1
w
q

The second of these commands tells the editor to insert the string
Similarly, the next command
fled " at the start of each line.
instructs the editor to place the string " < edits" at the end of
each line. When surrounded by slashes, the $ represents the end of
a line just as the ~ represents the start of a line. After editing
with these commands, the lines of shell.input look like this
ed ch.01
ed ch.02

< edits
< edits

and so on.

Introduction to FOR:PRO

3-10

10/83

ADVANCED CONCEPTS
To initiate a shell that will take its input from the file you just
created, shell. input, use this command:
sh < shell. input

A new Bourne shell is started up by this command. When the shell
finishes executing the commands in shell. input it will die, and the
original shell will then give a prompt indicating it is ready for
another instruction.

Instead of creating a new shell that takes its input from a file
like shell. input, you can instruct the original shell to directly
execute the commands in the file. To do so, you would first make
the file executable by typing
chmod +x shell. input

Then, simply typing the filename
shell.input

would cause the commands in shell. input to be executed. Command
files like shell.input are called shellscripts, and are useful when
a sequence of commands must be executed numerous times. For
example, FOR:PRO uses the shellscript named rc to perform part of
the system start-up procedure every time you power up the Fortune
system. See Mor~_On~hellscri~ in this section.

PIPES
In Chapter 1, you saw how a pipe Cl) could be used to send a long
directory listing through the more command. A pipe connects one
program's output channel to another program's input channel. The
result is the same as redirecting the first program's output to a
file, and then redirecting the second program's input from that
file, but the pipe process is more efficient.
Suppose, for example, that you want to examine a long listing of
all files on your system. The command

Is -lR /

10/83

3-11

Introduction to FOR:PRO

ADVANCED CONCEPTS
produces the desired listing, but it flashes by too quickly to be
read. To make the listing appear a screenful at a time, pipe i t
through more
Is -IR /

more

Similarly, the listing could be sent to the printer by piping it
through lpr
Is -IR /

I Ipr

Mul tiple pipes are quite useful.
For example, suppose you have a
list of names and phone numbers in a file named phone. The list is
in no particular order because new names have been appended as they
became available.
Thomas Decatur
Barbara Danforth
Paula Pearson
Bill Brodsky

400-846-2412
200-347-9825
800-968-2135
200-845-7623

To produce a printed listing with last names in alphabetical order,
including the date of the printout, a suitable heading, and line
numbers, you can use the following command:
sort +1 -2 phone

cat -n I pr -h "Phone Numbers" I Ipr

The +1 -2 sequence in the sort indicates that the second field of
each line in the phone file (the last name field) should be used
for sorting (see Chapter 2 for more information on how sort works).
The first pipe symbol sends the output from the sort command to
cat, which adds line numbers when used with the -n option. The pr
command divides its input into pages, putting a heading at the top
of each page which includes the date and time, the input filename
(if any), and a page number. In this case, there is no input
filename, because the input comes from a pipe rather than a file,
so the -h (for "header") option has been used to include the
character string "Phone Numbers" in the heading. The output from pr
is piped into Ipr, which prints the text.
The result is shown on
the next page.

Introduction to FOR:PRO

3-12

10/83

ADVANCED CONCEPTS
Sep

1 12:16 1983

2
3
4

Phone Numbers Page 1

Bill Brodsky
Barbara Danforth
Thomas Decatur
Paula Pearson

200-845-7623
200-347-9825
400-846-2412
800-968-2135

Shellscripts have many uses and are great timesavers. Mounting and
unmounting disks are common operations, and are particularly suited
to shellscripts.
Earlier in Chapter 1, you saw an example of a
shellscript that performed those disk-handling operations. Suppose
you used the ed editor or the cat command to put the following
command lines in a file called mu:

mount Idev/fd02 If
11 If
cd If
pwd
cd

umount Idev/fd02

You could then
command

execute this series of commands by typing the

sh mu

Alternatively, you could make the command file executable (chmod +x
mu) and then simply type its name, mu, at shell level.
Now let's get fancy.
Suppose you want to make a shellscript that
will automatically back up all the files in your home directory to
a flexible disk. This is probably a good idea because you want to
back up your directory on a daily basis anyway.

10/83

3-13

Introduction to FOR:PRO

ADVANCED CONCEPTS
cd $HOME
mount Idev/fd02 If
cp -rtV * If
11 If

echo 'The Backup Is Now Complete.'
cd $HOME
umount Idev/fd02
echo 'Please Remove Your Disk.'
echo 'Bye!'

Using the $HOME variable is a precaution to make sure you are in
your home directory. The echo command I ines let you know what I s
going on by displaying the text enclosed in quotes.

Suppose you want to write a shellscript that prints files with
certain printer attributes, like a different pitch or vertical
spacing. It would be helpful to have a way of specifying the name
of a file to be printed each time you run the shellscript. Using
variables within a shell script gives you just that flexibility.
Variables are indicated by a dollar sign $ followed by a number, or
a string.
For example, $1, $2, and $ans are typical shell
variables. Here I s an example of a shellscript (called print) that
uses a variable:
lpr ,+P10 +V8 $1

To use this shellscript, type its name, followed by the name of the
file to be printed, as in
print chapter1.o

(Remember that the file must be executable to be used this way.
make it executable, type chmod +x print.)

To

When writing shellscripts, you may want to give yourself or other
users the option of doing some particular action.
For example,
when mounting a disk, you might ask if the user wants to see what's
on the flexible disk. In this case, you would have to perform one
action if they wanted a l i s t , and another if

Introduction to FOR:PRO

3-14

10/83

ADVANCtLJ LUNLtt'l~

they

did

not.

That

if ..• then •.• else,

can

be

taken

in

calls

for

the

use

of

a

conditional,

or

statement. Often, the two alternate paths that
a conditional statement are called branches,

indicating that the program can branch to one section or another,
depending on some particular condition.
For example, if you ask a
question and the user answers "yes," the program takes the then
branch but if the user answers "no," the else branch is taken
instead.
Here is an example of using a conditional in a simple shellscript:
mount Idev/fd02 If
echo Disk is Not Hounted
echo "Do you want to see what's on the flexible disk?

(yes

or no)"
read ans
if test "$ans"

= "yes"

then Is -las If I more
else echo "Bye!"
fi

exit

The test line checks the value of the $ans variable. If it is yes,
the list operation is performed, if not, the word "Byel" is echoed.
The test operation has many options which you can read about in
many commercially
recommended below.

To learn
books:

more

about

S.R. Bourne.

available UNIX

shellscripts,

Th~~ni~~~~~em:

texts,

consult

some

one of

of which

the

are

following

Addison-Wesley Publishing Co.,

1982.
McGilton, H., Morgan, R.
McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1983.

10/83

3-15

Introduction to FOR:PRO

3-16

4 Single-User Operating System

The three flexible disks labeled FOR:PRO Single-User Operating
System are packaged with FO~.lJIstallation_Instructio!l§.. They
are distinguishable from the other command and
utility sets
available on the Fortune System:
IlevelJ!.P.ment Utilities, and
Langua~ DevelQQmgnt Tools. You may also have a multiuser operating
system master disk which allows you to upgrade your system from one
to multiple users.
This chapter summarizes the commands and system files
directories on the single-user operating system disks.

and

SYSTEM FILES AND DIRECTORIES
The / directory, the root of the hard disk file system, also
contains some special files.
This section briefly summarizes the
purpose of the files and directories located in the root directory.
If

you list the contents of the root directory using the command

Is -las, you will see something like the following:
/:

total 126
drwxrwxr-x14
drwxrwxr-x14
-r--r--r-- 2
drwxrwxr-x 2
drwxr-xr-x 2
drwxrwxr-x 3
drwxrwxrwx 2
drwxrwxr-x 2
2 drwxrwxrwx 2
1 drwxrwxrwx 9
drwxr-xr-x 2
drwxrwxrwx 2
drwxrwxr-x 4
110 -r--r--r-- 2
1 drwxrwxr-x 9

10/83

root
root
bin
root
root
root
root
bin
root
root
bin
root
bin
bin
root

304
304
90
832
704
1024
64
32
2048
144
64
112
80
112580
144

4-1

Jul
Jul
May
Jul
Jul
Aug
Jul
Jun
Jun
Jul
Jun
Aug
Aug
Jun
Jul

13 16: 19

13
9
7
22
11
8
27
27
11
27
11
4
27
7

16: 19
20:30
16:30
10:42
09:25
17:08
11:06
12: 19
13:27
11 : 10
11: 04
14:45
12:22
16:28

. profile
bin
dev
etc
f
h
lost+found
m
sa
tmp
u
unix
usr

Introduction to FOR:PRO

SINGLE-USER OPERATING SYSTEM
Remember that the contents of the root directory on your system may
be somewhat different, especially if you have the multiuser
operating system installed.
In this list of entries, the first number you see indicates the
number of i-nodes taken up by the file or directory. An i-node
describes a file and points to the actual physical disk blocks that
make up the file. There is at least one i-node for each file and
directory on the system.
A "d" in the column immediately to the right of the i-node number
indicates that the entry is a directory.
A hyphen (-) indicates
that the entry is a file.

An executable file contains information that can be interpreted by
the shell as command input.
Such files are sometimes called
"command files" on other systems, because they contain commands
that can be executed by the operating system. You will notice that
certain executable files and commands in /bin and /etc have a
Any program or file so
special mode known as set user id.
designated has an "s" instead of an "x" in the owner rights slot.
This means that when users execute these files, the user ID is set
equal to that of the actual owner of the file.
This allows users
other than root to use commands that must create files in
directories to which they normally would not have access rights.
The set user id mode is important for such processes as login,
date, mail, and mkdir.

The concept of a link is really a system-level way of saving space
by having several command names linked to a single copy of the
actual binary source for that command.
Commands that are 1 inked
use the same source but sometimes produce a slightly different
result.
Examples are 11, If, lr, and Is, all of which list the
contents of a directory, but in different ways.
You can see whether a command is linked by looking at the first
number to the right of all the access and protection rights.
For
most entries, a 1 appears in this column. However, for files like
11, If, lr, and Is, the number is greater than 1, indicating that
there are several different versions of the same command.

Introduction to FOR:PRO

4-2

10/83

SINGLE-USER OPERATING SYSTEM

Here's what the major directories listed in the root (I) directory
are used for.

10/83

bin

Contains the binary source code for most of the
FOR:PRO commands on the system. These commands
are accessible to all users on the system.

dey

Contains all the special device files needed by
the operating system.
Each peripheral device
attached to the system is defined as a file,
and has an entry in the Idev directory.
The
contents of this directory vary depending on
the devices you have attached to your
particular system.

etc

Contains those FOR :PRO commands and special
files which can only be accessed by manager or
root. There are some exceptions to this which
are discussed below.
letc also contains many
crucial system files and tables which you can
look at, but should not modify unless you know
what you are doing.

f

The root node (directory) of the flexible disk
file system.
The If directory is used by the
system in order to transfer information between
the file system on the flexible disk and a file
system on the hard disk.

h

Top-level directory for the hard disk-based
file system.
Like If, its function is to
provide a way for the operating system to
reference the contents of the hard disk by
treaating it as a directory.

sa

Contains important files which are needed to
reboot the system.
These files are /sa/boot
and /sa/reconf.
The "sa" stands for stand
alone because the programs in sa are meant to
run without the aid of the operating system.

tmp

This is a very important directory used by many
system processes to store temporary

4-3

Introduction to FOR:PRO

SINGLE-USER OPERATING SYSTEM
information. It is a "scratch" area on the disk
where information may be temporarily stored
before it is written or copied to some other
location. Don't ever delete this directory.
u

This is the master directory for all user
accounts. All the login accounts on the system
which were created by the newuser process are
1 is ted in lu.
(See .!In.951.rst an.1LLQ..YL_.Fortu~
System for more information about the newuser
process.)

unix

The operating system itself -- don't touch this
one!

usr

Contains programs for users, including macros,
user libraries, and other development
utilities.

The Ibin DirectoLY
Many of the commands you will use on a routine basis are stored in
the Ibin directory. The word bin stands for binary. Most files in
the Ibin directory are binary files, so don't try to use cat to
display them unless you use the -v option.
In FOR:PRO, Ibin
contains the following commands on the single-user operating system
set of disks:
cat
date
echo
11

chmod
dd
ed
lr

mkdir
pwd
sh
du
login
ps
test
who

mv
rm
sync
expr
passwd
sort
true
write

cp
df
If

Is
rmdir
cmp
kill
pr
stty
wall

Most of the entries in letc are programs used by the system to do
routine operations.
For example, important system startup and
shutdown programs are stored here.
You must be logged in as
manager or root to access some of these files and commands (for
example, the passwd file).
In this way, the files and commands
that are crucial to the proper operation of the system are
protected from unauthorized users.

Introduction to FOR:PRO

4-4

10/83

SINGLE-USER OPERATING SYSTEM
The chgrp command, which changes the group ownership of directories
or files, can only be used by the manager.
You can't change the
ownership of a file unless you are logged in as manager or root.

When You ~eed These Commands
You may find it necessary to use some of the commands in letc and
modify some of the files there if you need to reboot the system, or
install a new operating system.
For example, when starting up the
system, you may experience an unsuccessful file check.
You would
then have to use the letc/fsck program to manually check the file
system.
You might also want to know what's in the special files
that reside in this directory in case you need to modify them or
back them up.

The letc directory contains the following special files:

10/83

devtype

Lists all peripheral devices
the system.
Specifies port
number), baud rate, category
device, printer message port
location description.

disk

Contains configuration blocks for
devices.

disktab

A list of all the disk drives available on
potential Fortune systems.

fstab

The file system table which indicates the
name of the device on which the file
system resides.

group

Lists all the user groups defined for the
system.
By default, there are groups
defined for sys, bin, daemon, and users.
The first field is the group name, the
second, the group password, the third, the
group ID, and the last, a list of all the
accounts that belong to that group.

4-5

attached to
number (tty
and type of
and optional

disk

Introduction to FOR:PRO

SINGLE-USER OPERATING SYSTEM
motd

Stands for message of the day.
put in this file
any message

You can
that you

want all users to see when they log onto
the system.

mtab

A table of all currently mounted devices.
Useful when you want to know whether a
flexible disk is really mounted or not.
If a disk is mounted, you might see
something like this when you type cat
/etc/mtab

Iffd02
This means a flexible disk is mounted on
drive 02, with a root directory of If.

passwd

Contains a list of all the user accounts
on the system, including default users
like root and manager.

printcap

Contains

defini tions

for

all

supported

printers on Fortune systems.
These
definitions are used by the printer
control programs.

profile

A general purpose profile file which is
executed prior to your own .profile file,
if you have one in your home directory.
At this release, /etc/profile defines
print spooler defaults for printing files
via the global menu "Print a File" option.
It also defines the default language as
"English," LANGUAGE=EN, and
terminals to XON/XOFF mode.

termcap

sets

Fortune

The file used by FOR:PRO to interpret the
in formation coming from your particul ar
terminal.
It contains data on nearly
every terminal type supported by UNIX.

ttys

Defines the baud rate, login setting, and
tty number for each port available on the
system.

Introduction to FOR:PRO

4-6

10/83

SINGLE-USER OPERATING SYSTEM
A table of the device names and tty
numbers that are connected to your system.
There should be one entry here for each
port listed in the ttys file.

ttytype

The fetc directory also contains the following

commands:

chgrp
chown
disk
format
getty
init
mkconf
mkfs
mknod
pstat
rc.cold
rc.passl
rc.passl.F1
rc.passl.H
rc.pass2.run
reboot
setnswap
surf test
umount
utmp

boot
chlog
config
dskselect
fsck
halt
login.help
mkdevs
mklost+found
mount
rc
rc.hd
rc.passl.O
rc.passl.F2
rc.pass2
rdconf
setdt
shutdown
uconf
update

SINGLE-USER OPERATING SYSTEM CONTENTS
This section is an alphabetical summary of all the commands
available on the single-user operating system. If you have either
or both of the other command sets installed on your system, you
will notice that this list doesn't show some of the commands you
may be accustomed to using.
The (f) indicates the item is a text
file, a (c) indicates it is a command, (sf) indicates it is a
special system file, (sc) indicates it is a system administration
level command, and (m) indicates it is a miscellaneous routine or
table.
basename (c)
bootflop.conf (m)
cd (c)
chmod (c)

10/83

boot (c)
capture (c)
chgrp (c)
chown (c)

4-7

bootcp (sc)
cat (c)
chlog (c)
cmp (c)

Introduction to FOR:PRO

SINGLE-USER OPERATING SYSTEM
config (sf)

cp (c)

cp.AM (sf)

date (c)

dd (c)

devtype (f)

df (c)

disk (f)

diskconf (f)

disktab (f)
du (c)

dskselect (sc)

dtinit (c)

echo (c)

ed (c)

expr (c)

filsys (f)

find (c)

flop.conf (m)

format (sc)

fsck (sc)

fsck.AM (sf)

fstab (f)

getty (c)

genstring (c)
init (sc)

group (f)
kill (c)

I f (c)

halt (c)

11 (c)

login (c)

login. help (sf)

Ipd (sc)

Ipdun (sc)

Ipf (sc)

Ipdun (sc)

1 pq (c)

Ipr (c)

Iprm (c)

lr (c)

Is (c)

menu (c)

mid (sc)

mkconf (sc)

mkdevs (c)

mkdir (c)

mkfs (c)

mklost+found (sc)

mknod (sc)

more (c)

mknod (sc)

more (c)

motd (f)

mount (sc)
newgrp (c)

mtab (f)

mv (c)
page (c)

passwd (c)

nice (c)
pr (c)

ps (c)

profile (f)

pstat (sc)

pwac (c)

pwd (c)

rc (c)

printstring (c)

rc.cold (sf)

rc.hd (sf)

rc.pass1 (sf)

rc.pass1.0 (sf)

rc.pass1.F1 (sf)

rc.pass1.F2 (sf)

rc.pass1.H (sf)

rc.pass2 (sf)

rc. real (sf)

rdconf (sc)
rm (c)

reboot (sc)

reconf (sc)

rmdir (c)

setdt (sc)

setnswap (sc)
sleep (c)

sh (c)

shutdown (sc)

sort (c)

stty (c)
tee (c)

surf test (c)

sync (sc)

termcap (f)

test (c)

trans (f)

true (c)

tty (c)

ttys (f)

ttytype (f)

uconf (sc)

umount (c)

update (sc)

utmp (f)

wall (c)

what (c)

whl (f)

who (c)

write (c)

Introduction to FOR:PRO

4-8

10/83

Appendix A: The New Print Spooler
A new version of the print spooler is included with the 1.7
operating system.
This print spooler resides in the directory
/usr/bin, instead of in /usr/ucb as in the previous release.
Several new utilities are associated with the print spooler.
Whether you print from the menus or use Ipr from FOR: PRO command
level, you should read this information.

WHAT'S IN THIS APPENDIX
This appendix describes the following:
•

The new version of Ipr and its associated utilities

•

The changes to Ipr that affect print formatting options

•

The impact of the new spooler on various software
applications

•

Related
FOR:PRO

programs and files made obsolete by the release of

THE NEW Ipr
The new Ipr command brings increased functions and some changes
from the previous version, making it necessary for some users to
change the way they use their printers.
For example, software
features are now available to do the following from the FOR: PRO
command level, not just from the Fortune:Word menus:
•

Temporarily stop and restart a print job so you can change
the paper or ribbon.

•

Change the pitch, lines per inch, and page size on a per
print job basis, using Ipr options.

•

Run more than one printer on your system.
can logically number them so you can
specific printers.

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A-1

In addition, you
direct jobs to

Introduction to FOR:PRO

•

Change the order in which print jobs will be printed by
manipulating print queues.

•

Control individual print job formats by writing customized
shellscripts, by setting variables in user .profile files.
Alternatively, the system manager which can set up printer
defaults for everyone on the system.
The latter is most
useful when people do thei r printing from the System
Utilities menu.

lpr and Related Commands

The components of the print spooler interface include:
•

lpr

Sends files to a designated printer with optional
formatting.

•

lprm

Removes one or more files from a designated print
queue.

•

lpq

Displays the status of one or more print queues.

•

lpmv

Changes the order in which jobs for a given printer
will be printed.

•

lpdun

Stops and restarts a print job for printer
servicing, or adding/changing paper or ribbon.
Also sets new defaults for print page format.

•

pr

Displays a file on the screen, placing page numbers
at the top of each unit of 66 lines.
Output from
pr can be piped to lpr, if page numbers are desired
on the printout.

Per Print Session Formatting
New features in the current lpr enable you to control the format of
a print job via software on a per print job basis. This makes it
possible for individual users to print documents according to their
own specifications without interfering with one another.
It is no
longer possible to set print format parameters via hardware
switches and have the lpr software recognize them.
Users who

Introduction to FOR:PRO

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10/83

previously controlled settings like pitch, lines per inch, page
size, and baud rate by physically setting switches on the printer
should note that the FOR:PRO spooler will not look at these
hardware settings.
Instead, such changes in pitch, lines per inch, and so forth, must
be done by using options of the lpr command, or by modifying the
system-supplied defaults for print jobs.
For users printing from
the System Utilities menu, system-supplied defaults can be found in
the file /etc/profile, in a variable called LPRFLAGS.
This is
explained below.
Users of lpr from command level will find that print job defaults
are set by lpdun and lpr, and can be changed on a per user and per
print job basis by issuing the appropriate options on the command
line.

Print Job Defaults in LPRFLAGS
A file called /etc/profile is supplied with the FOR:PRO operating
system.
Currently, this file is only executed by the menu shell
and is therefore effective only for menu system users.
However,
users can include its settings in their .profile files.
It can be
used to set up defaults for banners, pitch, lines per inch, page
size, and line width for all print jobs queued through the print
option of the System Utilities menu.
When at the Bourne shell
level, users who log into the menu shell can still override these
settings on a per print job basis by using the proper lpr and
lpdun options.
As delivered, LPRFLAGS in /etc/profile contains the following
default printer setting for global menu users:
-h

This means that all printouts will have no header (banner) page,
unless otherwise specified.
This is a change from the previous
system in which banners were the default.
The change was made
speci fically to prevent paper waste in single-user systems where
there is little need to identify printouts by user name. To change
this default, you must edit the file and remove -h from the
LPRFLAGS line.
Use ed (or vi, if you have Development Utilities)
to do this.
You can also delete the LPRFLAGS line entirely
if you like.

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Introduction to FOR:PRO

Users of the "Print" option on the System Utilities menu will get
their print job defaults from the LPRFLAGS variable in
/etc/profile.
This is true except for users who have .profile
files and who also use the menus.
LPRFLAGS is ignored by lpr when
used from the Bourne shell level.
Only the menu shell uses
LPRFLAGS with lpr.
However, any other lpr-related setting in a
user's .profile file will override the settings in /etc/profile,
since the user's .profile file is executed after /etc/profile.

Defaults and How to Override Them
The following table shows how printer settings correspond to
options of lpr and lpdun.
To set these options for people using
the global menus, include the proper option in LPRFLAGS in
/etc/profile.
Setting

lpdun/lpr Option

Default Value

Line
Length

-tLnn (lpr)
-cnn (lpdun)

132

Lines Per Page
(Form Length)

-Fnn (lpr)
-Inn (lpdun)

66

Left Margin

+Lnn (lpr)

0

Pitch

+Pnn (lpr)

10

Lines Per Inch
(Vertical Pitch)

+Vnn (lpr)

6

NOTE
Note that the - options must appear before the +
options on a command line, and in LPRFLAGS.
This is because any - options that appear after
+ options are treated as filenames.

You can check the lpdun defaults by typing
lpdun -z

Introduction to FOR:PRO

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10/83

Changing the Vertical Pitch
If you use the +V option to change vertical pitch, it will slightly
adjust the size of a page. You will have to adjust the top-of-form
after the job with the changed pitch size is completed.
Note also
that 10 pitch is really 9.6, so there are really 9.6 lines per inch
instead of 10. This means the number of lines per page is really
105.6, not 105 or 106.
You will notice a slight increase in page
size on long print jobs when printing with +V10.

Length

~hangin&-1ine

The default line length is 132 characters.
print job basis, use
Ipr

-tLnn

To change it on a per

filename

The -t option guarantees the line will be truncated at nn
characters.
To change the default line length on a global basis,
use the -c option of Ipdun
Ipdun -c

nn

Indiyidual Settings for Print Jobs
Print job settings can be altered on a per print job basis by each
individual user.
System defaults can be overriden by shellscripts
that print files, or by customizing user .profile files.
For example, the following one-line shellscript prints files with a
horizontal pitch of 12 characters per inch, and a vertical pitch of
8 lines per inch:
Ipr +P12 +V8 $1

By making this shellscript executable (chmod 755 filename), you
could print files according to these settings by simply typing the
name of the shellscript followed by the name of the file to be
printed. For example, if the shellscript containing the above Ipr
line were named mpr, you could print files wi th it using this
command line:
mpr filename

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Introduction to FOR:PRO

You could also put a line similar to this one
.profile file:

in your

mpr='lpr -b Greg +L5 $1'
Every time you type
mpr filename
from the Bourne shell, your printouts will have a banner name, like
Greg in this case, and an adjusted left margin.
Notice that the
variable name used here is mpr and not lpr. It is advised that you
do not use lpr as a name for shellscripts or aliases, as this can
only cause confusion.
By using other names you can make multiple
lpr command lines that perform different functions.

NOTE
For users with login shells set to /bin/menu,
your .profile file (if you have one) is
executed after the /etc/profile file is read.
Therefore, settings in your .profile file will
override those in /etc/profile.
Since
/etc/profile is only read by the menu shell,
you can incorporate its contents in your login
environment with this command
. /etc/profile
as the first line of your .profile file.

Multiple Printers and Print Queues
The FOR:PRO spooler and Device Connection Menus allow you to define
and make use of multiple printers per system.
The lpq, lpmv, and
lprm utili ties allow you to look at, manipulate entries in, and
remove entries from multiple print queues.

For Fortune:Word Users
In order to use Fortune:Word 1.0 at Release 1.7, it must be
upgraded using the 1.7 Upgrade disk.
Users who are familiar with
version 1.0 of Fortune:Word will recognize that much of the printer

Introduction to FOR:PRO

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functionality available to them in Fortune:Word is now available at
the FOR: PRO level v ia the new lpr.
In Fortune :Word, the printer
control menu can be used to set defaults on a per print job basis
by changing the prototype file used for a particular print job.

In order to use Multiplan on 1.7, it must be upgraded using the
1.7 Upgrade disk. The program mp.printer, which was formerly used
to set printer defaults for Multiplan, has been replaced by a
program called mpinit. This program defines the page size, pitch,
number of lines per inch, and so forth for Multiplan print jobs.
It is run automatically when you upgrade the Multiplan master disk
using the 1.7 Upgrade disk, or when you use the Upgrade disk to
mpinit can be run by the manager
restore your system backup.
account whenever the print job characteristics for Multiplan print
jobs need to be changed.
It is located in the directory usr/bin.
In future releases of Multiplan, this program will be replaced by a
printer menu similar to that of Fortune:Word.

Users of BAS applications should note that /dev/lp is linked by
default to /dev/tty01.
If you have mul tiple printers on your
system and want to print BAS application files on a printer
attached to a port other than tty01, make changes to the IPL files
as discussed in Technical Tip 1.1, MultiQle Printers within BASIC.
(See also Appendix E of the Business BASIC manual.)

NOTE
Since BAS does not use Ipr, if you use the same
printer for both BAS and FOR:PRO-level printing,
output from both may appear intermixed on the
same printer.
In this case, use Ipdun to stop
the Ipr-level print job, then reprint the pages
after the BAS job is finished. The BAS job will
have to be restarted if clean output is desired.
The same problem may occur if two or more people
are printing BAS jobs at the same time.

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Introduction to FOR:PRO

Related Print Spooler Files
The following files are also related to the new print spooler on
the single-user operating system:

/etc/profile

For users of global menu system.

/etc/devtype

Defines all devices, including printers.

/devllp

Used by BAS applications only.

/etc/*.whl

* stands for any supported printer type.
Files of this nature are used for
alternate character sets.

/etc/printcap

Defines printer control characteristics
for all supported printers.

Controlling Print Spooler Priority
As delivered at 1.7, the print spooler is assigned the standard
priority (0). The default number of pages saved is 2. To change
either of these default settings, use these options of Ipdun:

-mnn
-Pnn

Change number of pages to save
Change priority of print spooler

In the -m option, the nn argument specifies how many pages are to
be kept in memory for reprinting if it is necessary to restart a
print job several pages back from the one at which printing
halted. The -P option takes an nn argument that can have a value
of -20 to +20. The highest priority setting is -20, which devotes
maximum system resources to the print spooler.
The lowest
priority setting is +20, which will improve interactive response,
but slow printing down.
(On very heavily loaded systems, low
priority jobs may never run, so use caution when lowering
priorities.)

Introduction to FOR:PRO

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10/83

If you used Fortune:Word, Multiplan,
following programs are now obsolete:

or other applications,

the

letc/ttype
lusr/bin/def.printer
lusr/bin/mp.printer
lusr/bin/lpint
lusr/lib/lpfc
lusr/bin/on.printer
lusr/bin/off.printer
lusr/ucb/lpr (*)
lusr/ucb/lprm (*)
lusr/ucb/lpq (*)
Items marked with an asterisk (*) have been moved to lusr/bin as
of this FOR:PRO release.

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Introduction to FOR:PRO

A-10

SINGLE,USER OPERATING
SYSTEM MAN PAGES

2

Part 2 contains reference documentation for the FOR:PRO single-user
operating system.
It is provided in the form of MAN pages (manual
pages) in the same format as the Bell Laboratories' IDi.lX
Programmer's Manual.
The MAN pages provide Fortune-specif ic
reference material for all commands and system level files
available on the single-user operating system set of disks.

ORGANIZATION OF THE MAN PAGES
UNIX MAN pages are traditionally divided into eight sections. This
subset of the FOR:PRO MAN pages contains entries from Sections 1,
4, 5, and 8 and are descr ibed below.
All sections appear in the
FOR:PRO Programmer's Manual, which is included with the Development
utilities software.
Refer to the header on the page for
correlation to UNIX MAN pages.
Section

Description

1

Commands
(Chapter 1
in this manual.)

References commands invoked directly from
the shell, including the most commonly
used commands.

4

Special Files
(Chapter 2
in this manual.)

Discusses the special device files
contained in the directory /dev. These
files describe peripheral devices
connected to the Fortune system.

5

File Formats and
Conventions
(Chapter 3
in this manual.)

Describes important system files used
by a number of system programs.

8

System Administration
Commands
(Chapter 4
in this manual.)

Explains commands used for system
administration.

THE MAN PAGE FORMAT
All MAN pages follow a specific format.
at least these three sections:
NAME

Most MAN page entries have

Gives the command name and a description of its use.

ii

SYNOPSIS

Presents the syntax of the particular command, all its
options, and other possible arguments.

DESCRIPTION

Gives a detailed description of the command and how it
interprets its arguments.
NOTE

In the SYNOPSIS section of certain commands,
more than one command option may be listed. For
example, the Is command has many options, as
this syntax indicates:
Is [-abcCdFgilmgrRstuxl]
Each character within the brackets is an option
of the Is command.
You may use one, many, or
none of the options on the same command line.
However, make sure the first option you type is
immediately preceded by a hyphen, as in
Is -1
Some entries have additional sections that include the following:
OPTIONS

Command options are discussed in detail here.

EXAMPLES

Gives one or more examples of the command.

FILES

Names any files built into the command.

SEE ALSO

Refers you to commands related to the one described.

DIAGNOSTICS

Discusses diagnostics you may receive when using the
command.

WARNINGS

Indicates problem areas and gives precautions.

LIMITATIONS

Lists known bugs and design limitations.

iii

iv

BASENAME (1)

Fortune Systems

BASENAME (1)

NAME
basename - strip filename affixes
SYNOPSIS
basename string [suffixJ
DESCRIPTION
Basename deletes any prefix ending in II' and the suffix, if present in
string, from string, and prints the result on the standard output. It
is normally used inside substitution marks' , in shell procedures.

This shell procedure invoked with the argument /usr/src/cmd/cat. c
compiles the named file and moves the output to cat in the current
directory: cc $1 mv a.out 'basename $1 .c'
SEE ALSO
sh(l)

9/83

1-1

FOR:PRO

CAPTURE(1)

Fortune Systems

CAPTURE (1)

NAME
capture - allows automatic capture of certain key system information
SYNOPSIS
ca pture [fps J
DESCRIPTION
Capture is a shell-script which allows automatic capture of certain key
system information to a diskette, a listing, or interactively to the
screen. This information is intended to assist in problem reporting
and trapping for software products.

Capture gathers 'what' strings, directory listings, the contents of certain files, and other system information. It then dumps this data to
a diskette or a listing which may be included with a problem report
to provide information regarding the environment in which the
problem occurred. Alternatively, capture has an interactive mode in
which the user can select items of information items of information
to be displayed on the screen, one at a time. Progress and information messages are sent to the screen.

OPTIONS
f
sends the information to a flexible diskette. The user is asked
whether to continue with the process ('y' to continue the process, 'n' to end the process). The diskette is formatted and the
information from capture is written. The user is notified upon
completion.
p

sends the information to a printer.

s

displays the information on the screen. Build a two digit code
of (col)(row) from the displayed chart.

Example:
"2g". Reply  to "«STOPPED»".
Use "q" to quit.

FILES
lusrlbinlcapture
shell script
lusr/lib/capture_menu
contains the menu for the screen option
lusr/lib/capture_ inst
displays instructions
DIAGNOSTICS
If no option is specified when capture is invoked, the following is
disp!~ed:

Usage: capture floppy or
capture printer or
capture screen

FOR:PRO

1-2

9/83

Fortune Systems

CAT(1)

CAT(1)

NAME
cat - concatenate and print
SYNOPSIS
cat [-nJ [-5] [-u] [-vJ file ...
DESCRIPTION
Cat reads each file in sequence and writes it on the standard output.

If no input file is given, or if the argument '-' is encountered, cat
reads from the standard input file. Output is buffered in 1024-byte
blocks unless the standard output is a terminal, in which case it is
line buffered.
OPTIONS
-n Causes the output lines to be numbered sequentially from 1.
Giving -b with -n causes numbers to be onutted from blank
lines.
-5

Causes the output to be single spaced.

-u

Causes the output to be completely unbuffered.

-v

Causes non-printing characters to be printed in a visible way.
Control characters print like "X for control-x; the delete character
(octal 0177) prints as "? Non-ascii characters (with the high bit
set) are printed as M- (for meta) followed by the character of the
low 7 bits. A -e option can be given with -v and causes the ends
of lines to be followed by t~e character '$'; the -t option with -v
causes tabs to be printed as 1.

EXAMPLES
cat file
prints the file
cat file1 file2 > file3
concatenates the first two files and places the result in the third
SEE ALSO
cp(l), ex(l), more(l), pr(l), tail(1).
LIMITATIONS
Beware of 'cat a b >a' and 'cat a b >b', which destroy the input
files before reading them.

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FOR:PRO

CO(1)

Fortune Systems

CO(1)

NAME
cd - change working directory
SYNOPSIS
cd directory
DESCRIPTION

Directory becomes the new working directory.
have execute (search) permission in directory.

The process must

Because a new process is created to execute each command, cd
would be ineffective if it were written as a norma.l command. It is
therefore recognized and executed by the shells. In csh{l) you can
specify a list of directories in which directory is to be sought as a subdirectory if it is not a subdirectory of the current directory; see the
description of the cdpath variable in csh{l).
SEE ALSO
csh(l), sh{l), pwd{l), chdir(2).

FOR:PRO

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9/83

CHLOG(1)

Fortune Systems

CHLOG(1)

NAME

chlog - change UNIX error logging format
SYNOPSIS

chlog [unixJ [defaultJ [debug hexllumberJ [decimal decimalJ
DESCRIPTION

Chlog changes the style in which UNIX prints internal error messages. Chlog unix switches to the standard unix style of error message, while chlog default prints them in the default style of error
numbers. chlog debug hexnwnber controls how hardware fault messages are printed. Chlog uses the elog(2) system call. Chlog decimal
decimal does a direct eLogO system call.
EXAMPLES

Chlog unix performs elog(LOCTYPE, LUNIX). ChLog default performs
elog(LOGTYPE, LOEFL T), Chlog debug SOp performs elog(OBGLVL,
Ox50f3). Chlog 4 40 performs elog(kupdate,4O), which instructs the
kernel to do a sync(2) every 40 seconds.
1*

* Used in the elogO system call to determine error logging type
*/

#define
#define
#define
#define

1*
1*
1*
1*

LOGTYPE
0
OBCL VL
1
KUPOA TE
4
KNOUPOA TE 5

#define LOEFL T
#define LUNIX

o
1

set the 'logtype' variable
set the' debug' variable
enable kernel updateOs
disable updateOs from kernel

*/

*1
*1
*1

1* default error logging
1* make it more like normal

*1

UNIX logging

*1

The OBGLVL bits are defined as follows (from sys/debug.h) :
#define
#define
#define
#define
#define
#define
#define
#define

0_ MAIN
OxOOOl /* starting icode & schduler msgs */
0_TRAP
Ox0002 /* system calls, trap messages
*/
0_ UREG
OxO004/* remapping calls to ureg, estabur*/
0 _ SYSCALL OX0400 1* system call info
*/
0_STACK OX0800 1* Stack trace before death
*/
0 _FLOPPY OxlOOO /* Floppy disk mfg debugs
*/
0 _FOPRINT Ox2000 /* Floppy disk verbose printfOs */
0_ WOISK Ox4000 /* Winchester disk printfsOs
*/

FILES

/usr/include/sys/err. h
/usr/include/sys/types. h
SEE ALSO

elog(2)

9/83

1-5

FOR:PRO

Fortune Systems

CHMOD(1)

CHMOD(1)

NAME
chmod - change mode
SYNOPSIS
chmod mode file .. ,
DESCRIPTION
The mode of each named file is changed according to mode, which
can be absolute or symbolic. An absolute mode is an octal number
constructed from the OR of the following modes:
4000
2000
1000
0400
0200
0100
0070
0007

set user ID on execution
set group ID on execution
sticky bit, see chmod(2)
read by owner
write by owner
execute (search in directory) by owner
read, write, execute (search) by group
read, write, execute (search) by others

A symbolic mode has the form

[who] op permission [op permission] ...
The who part is a combination of the letters u (for user's permissions), g (group) and 0 (other). The letter a stands for all three types
(ugo). If who is omitted, the default is a but the setting of the file
creation mask (see umask(2» is taken into account.

+ to add permission to the file's mode, - to take away per-

Op can be
mission and
reset).

=

to assign permission absolutely (all other bits will be

Permission is any combination of the letters r (read), w (write), x (execute), s (set owner or group id) and t (save text - sticky). Letters u,
g , or 0 indicate that permission is to be taken from the current mode.
Omitting permission is only useful with = to take away all permissions.
Multiple symbolic modes separated by commas may be given.
Operations are performed in the order specified. The letter s is only
useful with u or g.
Only the owner of a file (or the super-user) can change its mode.

FOR:PRO

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9/83

CHMOD(1)

Fortune Systems

CHMOD(1)

EXAMPLES
To deny write permission to others,
chmod o-w file
To make a file executable:
chmod +x file

SEE ALSO
Is(l), chmod(2), stat(2), urnask(2), chown(8).

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FOR:PRO

Fortune Systems

CMP(1)

CMP(1)

NAME
cmp - compare two files
SYNOPSIS
emp [-1] [-s] filel file2
DESCRIPTION
The two files are compared. (If filel is '-', the standard input is
used.) Under default options, cmp makes no comment if the files are
the same; if they differ, it announces the byte and line number at
which the difference occurred. If one file is an initial subsequence of
the other, that fact is noted.
OPTIONS
-1 Print the byte number (decimal) and the differing bytes (octal)
for each difference. If this option is not given, only the first
difference is listed.
-8

Print nothing for differing files; return codes only.

SEE ALSO
comm(l), diff(l).

DIAGNOSTICS
Exit code 0 is returned for identical files, 1 for different files, and 2
for an inaccessible or missing argument.

FOR:PRO

1-8

9/83

Fortune Systems

CP(1)
NAME
cp - copy

OF

CP(1)

link files and directory trees

SYNOPSIS
cp [-abBdilnNoprRsStTuvVxXj [backup optionsj [-j filel file2
cp [-abBdilnNoprRsStTuvVxXj [-] file ... directory
DESCRIPTION
File1 is copied onto file2. In the second form, one or more files are
copied into directory, which must exist, and the last element of the
file pathname is used as the name of the new file in directory. Links
between source files will be preserved in the destination wherever
possible.
If there is a single source argument and it is a special file, it is
opened and read as if it were a regular file. In the multiple-sourceargument or recursive case, special files are ignored.
If a destination file exists, its owner and mode are unchanged, and
the source is copied onto it. Otherwise it is created with the ownership of the invoker and the mode of the source. The setuid and setgid bits will each be set only if the new file is owned by the same
user id and group id as the source, respectively. If the source is not
a regular file and the destination is new, then cp creates the new file
with permissions rw-rw-rw- subject to the umask.
Cp attempts to read 20K bytes at a time, and writes out the same

amount it reads each time. Thus it is usable with tapes or other devices with large or irregular block sizes.
Cp will not attempt to copy a file onto itself.

OPTIONS
-a Ask on all files before copying. If -r is selected, sets -d. Answer
is interpreted as in -i.
-b

Copy a file only when the destination doesn't already exist or its
inode modification time (st ctime) is older than the source.
-B Backup. Automatically makes file systems, handles error
recovery and works with any other cp option. -8 requires two
backup options:

.

1) special file to use (mount)
2) size of file system to make
There is no destination file specified on the command line as it is
assumed the same name is used on the backup media. Backup calculates the sizes of every file and tells you how many volumes are
needed to store the files specified. Examples:
cp -B Idev/fd02 770 !bin/cat !bin/Is
This will back up only the files !bin/cat and !bin/Is.

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FOR:PRO

CP(l)

Fortune Systems,

CP(l)

cp -Br Idev/fd02 770 /bin lusr
This will backup all directories and files under /bin and lusr.
cp -Broust Idev/fd02 770 I
This will backup the entire filesystem
-d

Ask on all but regular files before copying. If cp is copying
recursively, and you decline to examine a directory, that directory and recursively all its contents are skipped. Answer is
interpreted as in -i.

-i

Prompts the user with the name of the file whenever the copy
causes an existing file to be overwritten. An answer of 'y' or 'Y'
will cause cp to continue. Any other answer prevents it from
overwriting the file.

-I

Link instead of copying if source and destination are on the
same file system If a link can be made and the destination
already exists, cp unlinks it before making the new link. Note
that this is different from the behavior of In(l). If you want a
link to fail when the destination exists, as it would if you were
using In(l), then use -n along with -1.

-n

Copy a file only when the -destination does not already exist.

-N No copy operation. This allows you to do a -0 and/or -t, to destination file(s) which already exist. No file copies take place,
and no directories are made when this option is in effect. Cannot be used with -I, -n, or -u.
-0

Set the group and user id ownership of the destination to that of
the source. Only super-user can do this.

-p

Use full pathnames. Form each destination name by appending
the entire source path to the destination path. This is especially
useful for copying selected files from one tree to another.
Example:
cp -p dl/d2lfi x
will make xld1 and xldl/d2 if necessary and copy dlld2lfl to
xldl/d2lfl.

-r

Recursive. Copy each source directory and its entire subtree.
Make new subdirectories in the destination directory as necessary. Without this option, directories are skipped.

-R Restore. Asks the user to insert diskettes and ensures they are
all from the same backup. -R requires one backup option which
is the special file to mount. Restore first dis~overs where each
file is and asks you to insert each volume as needed. Examples:

cp -R Idev/fd02 bin/cat bin/Is /bin

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CP(1)

CP(1)

Fortune Systems

This restores the files "cat" and "Is" to the directory bin.
cp -rpR Idev/fd02 bin usr I
This restores everything in /bin and lusr.
cp -Rroust Idev/fd02 I. I
This restores an entire backed-up filesystem
-5

Do special files. If -1 is not set, or it is set and cp can't link, and
you are super-user, do a mknod(2) so that the destination file is
a device just like the source.

-5

Replace an argument of "=" with a list of newline-separated
files from the standard input. If this option is in effect, it is
assumed that you are copying multiple files to a directory even
if there is only one file in the list from the standard input, and
the destination argument must be on the command line. This
option is incompatible with -B, -R or -i.

-t

Set the file modification and access times of the destination to
that of the source. This only works if you are super-user or you
own the destination file. To be sure that you will own destination files, use the -u option.

-T Same as -t plus the access time of the source is unchanged by
the copy.
-u

If the destination is not a directory and already exists, unlink it
before copying. This is useful when the destination file is
multiply-linked and you don't want to affect all the links. It is
also useful when you want all the destination files to be owned
by you and to have the same mode as the source.

-v

Verbose, partial. Print a line on the standard output noting
each copy operation which is skipped because of conditions
specified by the -n or -b options.

-V Verbose, full. Print a line on the standard output noting each
copy operation, whether it is to be done or skipped, each source
directory that is examined, and each destination directory that is
created.

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-x

Copy a file only when the destination already exists.
make any directories.

-X

When used with the backup option, -B, verifies that the backup
media is readable after each disk is written. Does not check file
system integrity or do any data verification, however. This
option is ignored when not used with -B.

1-11

Do not

FOR:PRO

Fortune Systems

CP(1)

CP(1)

The null option - indicates that all the arguments following it are
to be treated as file names. This allows cp to work with files
whose names start with a minus.
EXAMPLES
For these examples, assume the following directories and files:

dl/fl, dl/d2/f2, and d3
where dI, etc. are directories, and £1, etc. are files. Then
cp dl/£1 d3
would make d3/£1, and
cp -r dl d3
would make d3/dl/£1 and d3/dl/d2/f2, and
cp -r dl/. d3
would make d3/£1 and d3/d2/f2.
You can effect a recursive move across file systems by doing a 'cp -r'
followed by a 'rm -r'. The mv(I) command is best for moving a subtree within a file system.
SEE ALSO
cat(I), In(I), mv(l), rm(I).
DIAGNOSTICS
Copy is normally silent about its operation. If an error occurs, a
message will be printed to the standard error output. If a file is not
copied for some other reason, this will be noted on the standard output unless this was because it did not meet a condition specified by
-n or -b. For more verbosity, use -v or -V.
Cp does not stop prematurely on errors. Exit status is '0' if all files
are copied OK. If any file or directory was skipped for some reason,
the exit status is 'I' unless any file or directory was supposed to be
copied, but couldn't because of an error, in which case the exit
status is '2'. Errors may result in partially-written destination files.
Other exit statuses are possible for "fatal" errors.

LIMITATIONS
The ownership and times of directories created under the -p option
cannot be set to match the source directories. In this case, the
owner is set to the current uid, the time to the current times, and
the mode is set to 'rwxrwxrwx'.

Links may be 'preserved' in the destination to a file which did not
copy successfully.

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DATE(1)

Fortune Systems

DATE(1)

NAME
date - print and set the date
SYNOPSIS
date [yymmddhhmm [.ss]]
DESCRIPTION
[f no argument is given, the current date and time are printed. [f an
argument is given, the current date is set. yy is the last two digits of
the year; the first mm is the month number; dd IS the day number in
the month; hh is the hour number (24 hour system); the second mm
is the minute number; .55 is optional and is the seconds. The year,
month and day may be omitted, the current values being the
defaults. (Only the super-user can change the default.) The system
operates in CMT. Date takes care of the conversion to and from
local standard and daylight time. Uconf(2) can be used to set the
timezone.
EXAMPLES
date 8610080045
sets the date to Oct 8,1986 12:45 AM
date 1345
sets time to 1:45 PM and leaves the date unchanged.

FILES
/usr/admJwtmp
to record time-setting
SEE ALSO
uconf(8), utmp(5).
DIAGNOSTICS
'No permission' if you aren't the super-user and you try to change
the date; 'bad conversion' if the date set is syntactically incorrect.

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00(1)

Fortune Systems

00(1)

NAME
dd - convert and copy a file
SYNOPSIS

dd [option=va[uej ...
DESCRIPTION
Dd copies the specified input file to the specified output with possible conversions. The standard input and output are used by default.
The input and output block size may be specified to take advantage
of raw physical I/O.
OPTIONS

option
bs=n

values

set both input and output block size, superseding ibs
and obs; also, if no conversion is specified, it is particularly efficient since no copy need be done
conversion buffer size
cbs=n
copy only 11 input records
count=n
convert EBCDIC to ASCII
conv=ascii
block
convert variable length records to fixed length
ebcdic convert ASCII to EBCDIC
slightly different map of ASCII to EBCDIC
ibm
lease
map alphabetics to lowercase
noerror do not stop processing on an error
swab
swap every pair of bytes
pad every input record to ibs
sync
ucase
map alphabetics to uppercase
unblock convert fixed length records to variable length
several comma-separated conversions
skip 11 input files before starting copy
files=n
input block size 11 bytes (default 512)
ibs=n
input file name; standard input is default
if=
seek over n input records before copying
iseek=n
same as skip
iskip=n
nocreat
don't create the output file before writing to it
output block size (default 512)
obs=n
output file name; standard output is default
of=
oseek=n
same as seek.
skip (read over) n output records
oskip=n
quiet
Don't print summary of input and output records
when done
seek=n
seek 11 records from beginning of output file before
copying
skip=n
skip 11 input records before starting copy
Where sizes are specified, a number of bytes is expected. A number
may end with k, b or w to specify multiplication by 1024, 512, or 2
respectively; a pair of numbers may be separated by x to indicate a
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00(1)

Fortune Systems

00(1)

product.

Cbs is used only if ascii, unblock, ebcdic, ibm, or block conversion is
specified. In the first two cases, cbs characters are placed into the
conversion buffer, any specified character mapping is done, trailing
blanks trimmed and new-line added before sending the line to the
output. In the latter three cases, characters are read into the conversion buffer, and blanks added to make up an output record of size
cbs.
After completion, dd reports the number of whole and partial input
and output blocks.
EXAMPLES
To copy one 6-head (96 512byte blocks/cyl) hard disk to another,
dd if=/dev/rhd02 of=/dev/rhd12 bs=48k
Note the use of the raw hard disk. Dd is especially suited to I/O on
the raw physical devices because it allows reading and writing in
arbitrary record sizes.
To back up a (small) directory to a floppy (10 1K blocks/cyl):
tar cfv - dir I dd of=/dev/rfd02 obs= 10k
SEE ALSO
cp(l), tr(l).
DIAGNOSTICS
f+p records
read( written)

in(out):

numbers

of

full

and

partial

records

LIMITATIONS
The ASCIIIEBCDIC conversion tables are taken from the 256 character standard in the CACM Nov, 1968. The 'ibm' conversion, while
less blessed as a standard, corresponds better to certain IBM print
train conventions.

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FOR:PRO

DF(1)

DF(1)

Fortune Systems

NAME
df - disk free
SYNOPSIS
df [-f] [-i] [-1] [filesystem ... ] [file ... J

DESCRIPTION
Of prints out the number of free blocks available on the specified
filesystem, e.g. "/dev/hdOz", or on the filesystem in which the specified file, e.g. "$HOME", is contained. If no file system is specified,
the free space on all of the normally mounted file systems is printed.
The reported numbers are in file system block units; currently each
filesystem block is 1024 bytes long. du(l) or Is(l) with the -s option.
OPTIONS
-f gives the report in Fortune friendly format. Initial -f should be
used exclusively, as it overides all other options.
-i

Report also the number of inodes which are used and free.

-1

Also examines the free list, double checking that the summary
number in the filesystem superblock is correct.

EXAMPLES
I elf
Files1st . Mounted on kbytes
/dev/hd02 /
5835

1 elf

used

2106

free I used
3129
461

-1

Filesyst. Mounted on kbytes
/dev/hd02 /
5835

used

2106

free harcbray
3129
31.29

" used

461

FILES
letdfstab
list of normally mounted filesystems
SEE ALSO
fstab(5), icheck(8).
LIMITATIONS
It should print some warning message when the' -1' option discovers
a messed-up file system

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DTINIT(1)

Fortune Systems

DTINIT(1)

NAME
dtinit - initialize /etcldevtype
SYNOPSIS
/mlsysman/dtinit [-b baud] [-c classJ [-m #J [-n deviceJ [-eJ [-dJ [-s deviceJ [-t type] [-x nameJ [-TJ [-MJ
DESCRIPTION
Otinit is used to update the device type file /etcldevtype. [f an entry
exists for the device, any new information specified in the command
is added to the entry. If no entry exists, one is created.
OPTIONS
-b baud
baud rate for the entry. baud can be any legal baud rate or the
one character specified as defined in Berkeley getty.
-c class
class of the device (e.g. 'f" for printer,

'e' for comm line).

-m=!l=
number of the device in its class (e.g. P2. for the second printer).

-n device
UNIX special file name (i.e. the name in the device table /dev).
lhis is used for transferring data. (see -s option).
-d

disable this line. lhis sets a status bit to 0 indicating that the
line is disabled.

-e

enable this line. This sets a status bit to 1 indicating that the
line is enabled.

-5

device
service notification port. UNIX special file name (i.e. the name
in the device table /dev). Bells (control g) are sent to this port
when operator intervention is needed.

-t type
type of device. This is most likely a string which identifies an
entry in /etclprintcap or /etcltermcap.
-x name

external name. This is any string to identify the device (e.g. Dot
matrix printer near the water cooler).
-T

Prints out a table of the entries in /etcldevtype.

-M Updates the letclttys and /etclttytype files.
There is a one-to-one correspondence benveen options and fields in
a devtype entry. The minimum arguments necessary to uniquely
identify an entry is either a name or a class and number.

FILES

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DTINIT(1)

Fortune Systems

DTINIT(1)

/etddevtype
device configuration file
SEE ALSO

devtype(5), ttys(5), ttytype(5).

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DU(1)

Fortune Systems

DU(1)

NAME
du - summarize disk usage
SYNOPSIS
du [-aJ [-5J [name ... J
DESCRIPTION
Du gives the number of blocks contained in all files and (recursively)
directories within each specified directory or file name. If name is
missing, '.' is used.

A file having two links to it is only counted once.
OPTIONS
-a causes an entry to be generated for each file. Absence of either
causes an entry to be generated for each directory only.
-5

causes only the grand total to be given.

SEE ALSO
df(l), filsys(S).
LIMITATIONS
Non-directories given as arguments (not under -a option) are not
listed.
If there are too many distinct linked files, du counts the excess files
multiply.
du does not count indirect blocks (see jilsys(S) ).

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FOR:PRO

ECHO(1)

Fortune Systems

ECHO(1)

NAME
echo - echo arguments
SYNOPSIS
echo [-nJ [arg] ...
DESCRIPTION
Echo writes its arguments separated by blanks and terminated by a
newline on the standard output.

Echo is useful for producing diagnostics in shell programs and for
writing constant data on pipes. To send diagnostics to the standard
error file, when running the Bourne shell, do 'echo ... 1>&2'.
OPTIONS
-n No newline is added to the output.

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Fortune Systems

EO(1)

EO(1)

NAME
ed - text editor
SYNOPSIS

ed [-xJ [-J [nameJ
DESCRIPTION
Ed is the standard text editor.
If a name argument is given, ed simulates an e command (see below)
on the named file; that is to say, the file is read into ed's buffer so
that it can be edited.

Ed operates on a copy of any file it is editing; changes made in the
copy have no effect on the file until a w (write) command is given.
The copy of the text being edited resides in a temporary file called
the buffer.
Commands to ed have a simple and regular structure: zero or more
addresses followed by a single character command, possibly followed
by parameters to the command. These addresses specify one or
more lines in the buffer. Missing addresses are supplied by default.
In general, only one command can appear on a line. Certain commands allow the addition of text to the buffer. While ed is accepting
text, it is said to be in input mode. In this mode, no commands are
recognized; all input is merely collected. Input mode is left by typing a period '.' alone at the beginning of a line.

Ed supports a limited form of reguLar expression notation. A regular
expression specifies a set of strings of characters. A member of this
set of strings is said to be matched by the regular expression. In the
following specification for regular expressions the word 'character'
means any character but newline.

9/83

1.

Any character except a special character matches itself. Special
characters are the regular expression delimiter plus \ [. and
sometimes 1\ >I- $.

2.

A . matches any character.

3.

A \ followed by any character except a digit or (\) matches that
character.

4.

A nonempty string 5 bracketed [5 J (or [ s J) matches any character in (or not in) s. In 5, \ has no special meaning, and J may
only appear as the first letter. A substring a-b, with a and b in
ascending ASCII order, stands for the inclusive range of ASCII
characters.

5.

A regular expression of form 1-4 followed by >I- matches a
sequence of 0 or more matches of the regular expression.

1\

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EO(1)

Fortune Systems

EO(1)

6.

A regular expression, x, of form 1-8, bracketed \( x \) matches
what x matches.

7.

A \ followed by a digit n matches a copy of the string that the
bracketed regular expression beginning with the nth \ ( matched.

8.

A regular expression of form 1-8, x, followed by a regular
expression of form 1-7, y matches a match for x followed by a
match for y, with the x match being as long as possible while
still permitting a y match.

9.

A regular expression of form 1-8 preceded by 1\ (or followed by
$), is constrained to matches that begin at the left (or end at the
right) end of a line.

10. A regular expression of form 1-9 picks out the longest among
the leftmost matches in a line.
11. An empty regular expression stands for a copy of the last regular expression encountered.
Regular expressions are used in addresses to specify lines and in one
command (see s below) to specify a portion of a line which is to be
replaced. If it is desired to use one of the regular expression metacharacters as an ordinary character, that character may be preceded
by '\'. This also applies to the character bounding the regular
expression (often II') and to '\' itself.
To understand addressing in ed it is necessary to know that at any
time there is a current line. Generally speaking, the current line is the
last line affected by a command; however, the exact effect on the
current line is discussed under the description of the command.
Addresses are constructed as follows.
1.

The character '.' addresses the current line.

2.

The character '$' addresses the last line of the buffer.

3.

A decimal number n addresses the n-th line of the buffer.

4.

"x' addresses the line marked with the name x, which must be

a lowercase letter.
described below.

Lines are marked with the k command

5.

A regular expression enclosed in slashes 'I' addresses the line
found by searching forward from the current line and stopping
at the first line containing a string that matches the regular
expression. If necessary the search wraps around to the beginning of the buffer.

6.

A regular expression enclosed in queries I?' addresses the line
found by searching backward from the current line and stopping
at the first line containing a string that matches the regular
expression. If necessary the search wraps around to the end of
the buffer.

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ED(1)

Fortune Systems

ED(1)

'+'

7.

An address followed by a plus sign
or a minus sign '-' followed by a decimal number specifies that address plus (resp.
minus) the indicated number of lines. The plus sign can be
omitted.

8.

If an address begins with'
or '-' the addition or subtraction is
taken with respect to the current line; e.g. '-5' is understood to
ll1ean '.-5'.

9.

If an address ends with
or '-', then 1 is added (resp. subtracted). As a consequence of this rule and rule 8, the address
'-' refers to the line before the current line. Moreover, trailing
and '-' characters have cumulative effect, so '--' refers to the
current line less 2.

+'

'+'

'+'

10. To mainta~n compatibility with earlier versions of the editor, the
character' , in addresses is equivalent to '-'.
Commands may require zero, one, or two addresses. Commands
which require no addresses regard the presence of an address as an
error. Commands which accept one or two addresses assull1e
default addresses when insufficient addresses are given. If more
addresses are given than such a command requires, the last one or
two (depending on what is accepted) are used.
Addresses are separated from each other typically by a comma I,'.
They can also be separated by a semicolon ';'. In this case the
current line '.' is set to the previous address before the next address
is interpreted. This feature can be used to determine the starting
line for forward and backward searches ('I', '?'). The second address
of any two-address sequence must correspond to a line following the
line corresponding to the first address.
In the following list of ed commands, the default addresses are
shown in parentheses. The parentheses are not part of the address,
but are used to show that the given addresses are the default.
As Il1entioned, it is generally illegal for more than one command to
appear on a line. However, most commands can be suffixed by 'p'
or by 'I', in which case the current line is either printed or listed
respectively in the way discussed below.
(.) a


The append command reads the given text and appends it after
the addressed line. '.' is left on the last line input, if there were
any, otherwise at the addressed line. Address '0' is legal for this
command; text is placed at the beginning of the buffer.

(., .) c

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Fortune Systems

ED(1)

ED(1)

The change command deletes the addressed lines, then accepts
input text which replaces these lines. '.' is left at the last line
input; if there were none, it is left at the line preceding the
deleted lines.
( ., .) d

The delete command deletes the addressed lines from the
buffer. The line originally after the last line deleted becomes the
current line; if the lines deleted were originally at the end, the
new last line becomes the current line.
e filename
The edit command causes the entire contents of the buffer to be
deleted, and then the named file to be read in. '.' is set to the
last line of the buffer. The number of characters read is typed.
'filename' is remembered for possible use as a default filename
in a subsequent r or w command. If 'filename' is missing, the
remembered name is used.
E filename
This command is the same as e, except that no diagnostic results
when no w has been given since the last buffer alteration.
f filename
The filename command prints the currently remembered
filename. If 'filename' is given, the currently remembered
filename is changed to 'filename'.
(1,$) g/regular expression/command list
In the global command, the first step is to mark every line which
matches the given regular expression. Then for every such line,
the given command list is executed with '.' initially set to that
line. A single command or the first of multiple commands
appears on the same line with the global command. All lines of
a multi-line list except the last line must end with '\'. A, i, and c
commands and associated input are permitted; the '.' terminating input mode can be omitted if it would be on the last line of
the command list. The commands g and v are not permitted in
the command list.
( .)i


This command inserts the given text before the addressed line.
'.' is left at the last line input, or, if there were none, at the line
before the addressed line. This command differs from the a
command only in the placement of the text.
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ED(1)

Fortune Systems

ED(1)

(., .+l)j
This command joins the addressed lines into a single line; intermediate newlines simply disappear. '.' is left at the resulting
line.

( . ) kx
The mark command marks the addressed line with name x,
which must be a lowercase letter. The address form" x' then
addresses this line.
( ., .) I

The list command prints the addressed lines in an unambiguous
way: non-graphic characters are printed in two-digit octal, and
long lines are folded. The L command can be placed on the
same line after any non-i/o command.
(., .)trn
The move command repositions the addressed lines after the
line addressed by a. The last of the moved lines becomes the
current line.

(., .) p
The print command prints the addressed lines. '.' is left at the
last line printed. The p command can be placed on the same
line after any non-i/o command.
(., .) p

This command is a synonym for p.

q
The quit command causes ed to exit. No automatic write of a file
is done.

Q
This command is the same as q, except that no diagnostic results
when no w has been given since the last buffer alteration.
($) r filename

The read command reads in the given file after the addressed
line. If no filename is given, the remembered filename, if any, is
used (see e and f commands). The filename is remembered if
there was no remembered filename already. Address '0' is legal
for r and causes the file to be read at the beginning of the
buffer. If the read is successful, the number of characters read
is typed. '.' is left at the last line read in from the hle .
. , .) s/regular expression/replacement!
., .) s/regular expression/replacementlg

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EO(1)

Fortune Systems

EO(1)

The substitute command searches each addressed line for an
occurrence of the specified regular expression. On each line in
which a match is found, all matched strings are replaced by the
replacement specified, if the global replacement indicator 'g'
appears after the command. If the global indicator does not
appear, only the first occurrence of the matched string is
replaced. It is an error for the substitution to fail on all
addressed lines. Any character other than space or new-line can
be used instead of 'I' to delimit the regular expression and the
replacement. ': is left at the last line substituted.
An ampersand '&' appearing in the replacement is replaced by
the string matching the regular expression. The special meaning
of '&' in this context can be suppressed by preceding it by '\'.
The characters '\ n' where n is a digit, are replaced by the text
matched by the n-th regular subexpression enclosed between '\ ('
and '\)'. When nested, parenthesized subexpressions are
present, n is determined by counting occurrences of '\ (' starting
from the left.
Lines can be split by substituting new-line characters into them.
The new-line in the replacement string must be escaped by
preceding it by '\'.
(., .)ta
This command acts just like the m command, except that a copy
of the addressed lines is placed after address a (which can be 0).
'.' is left on the last line of the copy.
u

The undo command restores the preceding contents of the
current line, which must be the last line in which a substitution
was made.
(1, $) vlregular expression/command list
This command is the same as the global command g except that
the command list is executed g with '.' initially set to every line
except those matching the regular expression.
(1, $) w filename
The write command writes the addressed lines onto the given
file. If the file does not exist, it is created mode 666 (readable
and writable by everyone). The filename is remembered if there
was no remembered filename already. If no filename is given,
the remembered filename, if any, is used (see e and f commands). '.' is unchanged. If the command is successful, the
number of characters written is printed.

(I,$)W filename

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Fortune Systems

EO(1)

EO(1)

This command is the same as w, except that the addressed lines
are appended to the file.
x

A key string is dema.nded from the standard input. Later r, e
and w commands will encrypt and decrypt the text with this key
by the algorithm of crypt(l). An explicitly empty key turns off
encryption. This option does not work unless you have the
Development Utilities Set installed on the Fortune 32:16.
($)=

The line number of the addressed line is typed. '.' is unchanged
by this command.
!
The remainder of the line after the '!' is sent to sh(l) to be interpreted as a command. '.' is unchanged.
'( .+1) 
An address alone on a line causes the addressed line to be
printed. A blank line alone is equivalent to '. + 1p'; it is useful
for stepping through text.
If an interrupt signal (ASCII DEL) is sent, ed prints a '?' and returns

to its command level.
Some size limitations: 512 characters per line, 256 characters per global command list, 64 characters per filename, and 128K characters in
the temporary file. The limit on the number of lines depends on the
amount of core: each line takes 1 word.
When reading a file, ed discards ASCII NUL characters and all characters after the last newline. It refuses to read files containing nonASCII characters.
OPTIONS
-x An x command is simulated first to handle an encrypted file.

Suppresses the printing of character counts bye, r, and w commands.
FILES
Itmp/e*

ed.hup
work is saved here if terminal hangs up
SEE ALSO
sed(l), crypt(l).

B. W. Kernighan, A Tutorial Introduction to the ED Text Editor
B. W. Kernighan, Advanced editing on UNIX

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EO(1)

Fortune Systems

EO(1)

DIAGNOSTICS
I?narne' for inaccessible file; I?' for errors in commands; I?TMJY for
temporary file overflow.

To protect against throwing away valuable work, a q or e command
is considered to be in error, unless a w has occurred since the last
buffer change. A second q or e is obeyed regardless.
LIMITATIONS
The I command mishandles DEL.
A! command cannot be subject to a g command.

Because 0 is an illegal address for a w command, it is not possible to
create an empty file with ed.

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EXPR(1)

Fortune Systems

EXPR (1)

NAME
expr - evaluate arguments as an expression
SYNOPSIS
expr arg .. ,
DESCRIPTION
The arguments are taken as an expression. After evaluation, the
result is written on the standard output. Each token of the expression is a separate argument.

The operators and keywords are listed below. The list is in order of
increasing precedence, with equal precedence operators grouped.

expr I expr
yields the first expr if it is neither null nor '0', otherwise yields
the second expr.

expr & expr
yields the first expr if neither expr is null or '0', otherwise yields
'0'.

+

expr expr
expr - expr
addition or subtraction of the arguments.

expr'" expr
expr / expr
expr % expr
multiplication, division, or remainder of the arguments.

expr : expr
The matching operator compares the string first argument with
the regular expression second argument; regular expression syntax is the same as that of ed(l). The \ ( ... \) pattern symbols
can be used to select a portion of the first argument. Otherwise, the matching operator yields the number of characters
matched ('0' on failure).

expr reLop expr
where relop is one of <

< = = != > = >, yields 'I' if the indicated comparison is true, '0' if false. The comparison is numeric
if both expr are integers, otherwise lexicographic.

( expr )
parentheses for grouping.
EXAMPLES
To add 1 to the Shell variable a:

a='expr $a

+ l'

To find the filename part (least significant part) of the pathnarne
stored in variable a, which mayor may not contain 'I':

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FOR:PRO

Fortune Systems

EXPR(1)

expr $a : ' .*/\(.*\)'

EXPR(1)

'1' $a

Note the quoted Shell metacharacters.
SEE ALSO
sh(l), test(l).
DIAGNOSTICS
Expr returns the following exit codes:

o
1
2

FOR:PRO

if the expression is neither null nor '0',
if the expression is null or '0',
for invalid expressions.

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FINO(1)

Fortune Systems

FINO(1)

NAME
find - fmd files
SYNOPSIS
find pathname-list expression
DESCRIPTION
Find recursively descends the directory hierarchy for each pathname
in the pathname-list (i.e., one or more pathnames) seeking files that
match a boolean expression written in the primaries given below. [n
the descriptions, the argument 11 is used as a decimal integer where
+n means more than n, -n means less than 11 and 11 means exactly 11.
-atime n
True if the file has been accessed in

11

days.

-exec command
True if the executed command returns a zero value as exit
status. The end of the command must be punctuated by an
escaped semicolon. A command argument I{}' is replaced by
the current pathname.
-group gname
True if the file belongs to group gname (group name or numeric
group 10).
-inum n
True if the file has inode number n.
-links n
True if the file has n links.
-mtime n
True if the file has been modified in

11

days.

-name filename
True if the filename argument matches the current file name.
Normal Shell argument syntax can be used if escaped (watch out
for ,[" I?' and 1*').
-newer file
True if the current file has been modified more recently than the
argument file.
-ok command
Like -exec except that the generated command is written on the
standard output, then the standard input is read and the command executed only upon response y.
-perm onum
True if the file permission flags exactly match the octal number
Ol1um (see chmod(l». If onum is prefixed by a minus sign, more
flag bits (017777, see stat(2)) become significant and the flags are
compared: (ftags&onum)==onum.
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FINO(1)

Fortune Systems

FIND(1)

-print
Always true; causes the current pathname to be printed.
-size n
True if the file is n blocks long (512 bytes per block).

-type c
True if the type of the file is c, where c is b , c, d or f for block
special file, character special file, directory or plain file.
-user unarne
True if the file belongs to the user uname (login name or numeric
user ID).
The primaries can be combined using the following operators (in
order of decreasing precedence):
1)

A parenthesized group of primaries and operators (parentheses
are special to the Shell and must be escaped).

2)

The negation of a primary ('1' is the unary not operator).

3)

Concatenation of primaries (the and operation is implied by the
juxtaposition of two primaries).

4)

Alternation of primaries ('-0' is the or operator).

EXAMPLES

To remove all files named 'a.out' or
for a week:
find I \( -name a.out

-0

-name

'*.0'

'*.0' \)

that have not been accessed
-atirne +7 -exec rm {} \;

FILES

letdpasswd
letdgroup
SEE ALSO

sh(l), test(l), filsys(5).

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KILL(1)

Fortune Systems

KILL(1)

NAME
kill - terminate a process with extreme prejudice
SYNOPSIS
kill [-signa] processid ...
DESCRIPTION
Kill sends signal 15 (terminate) to the specified processes. If a signal
number preceded by '-' is given as first argument, that signal is sent
instead of terminate (see signal(2)). This kills processes that do not
catch the signal; in particular 'kill -9 ... ' is a sure kill.
By convention, if process number 0 is specified, all members in the
process group (i.e. processes resulting from the current login) are
signaled.
The killed processes must belong to the current user unless he or
she is the manager. To shut the system down and bring it up single
user the manager may use 'kill -1 1'; see init(8).
The process number of an asynchronous process started with '&' is
reported by the shell. Process numbers can also be found by using
ps(l).

SEE ALSO
ps(l), kiU(2), signal(2).

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FOR:PRO

LOrnN(1 )

Fortune Systems

LOGIN(1)

NAME
login - sign on
SYNOPSIS
login [username1
DESCRIPTION
The login command is used when a user initially signs on, or it can
be used at any time to change from one user to another. The latter
case is the one summarized above and described here. See Understand Your Fortune System for initial login.
If login. is invoked without an argument, it asks for a user name,
and, if appropriate, a password. Echoing is turned off (if possible)
during the typing of the password, so it will not appear on the written record of the session.

After a successful login, accounting files are updated and the user is
informed of the existence of mail, and the message of the day is
printed. The user is also informed of the time he last logged in
(unless he has a .hushlogin. file in his home directory - this is mostly
used to make life easier for non-human users, such as uucp).

Login initializes the user and group IDs and the working directory,
then executes a command interpreter (usually sh(l» according to
specifications found in a password file. Argument 0 of the command
interpreter is "-s h ", or more generally the name of the command
interpreter with a leading dash ("_") prepended.
Login also initializes the environment environ(5) with information
specifying home directory, command interpreter, terminal type (if
available) and user name.
[f the file letclnologin exists login prints its contents on the user's ter-

minal and exits.
Login is recognized by sh(l) and csh(l) and executed directly
(without forking).

FILES
Ie tclu tmp
accounting

lusr/adm/wtmp
accounting
lusrlspooVmail/*
mail
letclmotd
message-of-the-day

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LOGIN(1)

LOGIN(1)

Fortune Systems

/etc/passwd
password file
/etc/nologin
stops log ins
.hushlogin
makes login quieter
/etc/securetty
lists ttys that root may log in on
SEE ALSO
mail(l), newgrp(l), passwd(l), environ(5),
init(8), shutdown(8).

passwd(5), getty(8),

DIAGNOSTICS
"Login incorrect," if the name or the password is bad.
"No Shell", "cannot open password file", "no directory": consult
your dealer.

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FOR:PRO

Fortune Systems

LPR(1)

LPR(1)

Ipr, print - line printer spooler

SYNOPSIS
print file ...
Ipr -CdhclLmriTn -Fn -n n -p n -z n -f filter -j jobname -u file -0 name
-q string -s cmd -Sn,n,n,A -An -Pname -Ln +Pn +0 +Wn +Vn
+:xx=#: [file ... J
DESCRIPTION
Print runs the shell command 'pr $* /lpr', which prints a paginated
copy of each file on the printer. Note that normal pr(l) options can
also be used (but NOT Ipr options).

Lpr causes the named files to be queued for printing. If no files are
named, the standard input is read.
OPTIONS
Options which do not need an additional argument can be concatenated. For example:
"Ipr -mhTcp 3" is the same as "Ipr -m -h -T -c -p 3"
There are a number of options which are ignored if the -C flag is
given, these are preceded by an ,.. The following options are
accepted by Ipr (any ,
options MUST follow any '-' options that
are given):

+'

-An
Number of times to retry an unsuccessful print job. (The default
is 3).
-b name
banner name to be used on the header page at the beginning of
the print job. The default is the username of the owner of the
print job. Overrides -h option. The -b option forces output of a
header page, regardless of the default set by lpdun.
-c n

copy flag causes the print job to be copied into the print queue,
instead of linked. This is usually slower than linking, but guards
against changes that may occur in the file before it is printed.
-C Input is expected to be in a special format, which is currently
used only by Fortune:Word. A number of options are ignored if
this option is given (see note above).
-d Single sheet mode. Causes the printer to pause after printing
each page and wait for a signal from lpdun(l).

+0
draft mode printing (faster, and usually lower quality) is used, if
supported by the printer.

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LPR(1)

Fortune Systems

LPR(1)

-f name
filter "name" will be used to do the actual printing instead of
the normal filter. A full pathname MUST be used. The filter
must accept (even if it ignores) the same flags as the normal
filter. (see the man page for lpJ(8).

* -F

n

form length is set to n lines for this job. The default form length
is set with lpdun(l). This option is ignored if -S is given. If the
value given does not match the length of the paper on the
printer, top of form will be incorrect for subsequent jobs, unless
manually reset.
-h

header page is NOT printed at the beginning of the print job.
Generally used only if just one user is on the system, since this
is the only way to identify the printout. (See also the -b option
of lpdun(l).) This option is ignored if -b is given.

-j name
jobname for this print job. The default is the source filename of
the print job if a file is being printed, shell commands default to
the command, and standard input defaults to "Standard input."
-i

input from a pipe (or standard input) is not copied to a temporary file, as is normally done. This is mainly used for jobs so
large that copying them would use up all or most of the free
space on the filesystem Input from a terminal is not allowed,
since there would then be two processes reading from the terminal at the same time. Requests for multiple copies force a copy
file to be created.

*-Ln

line length is set to n characters for this job. Output lines longer
than this are truncated, if the -t option is also given. This option
is ignored if -5 is given. The default line length is set with
lpdun(l).

* +Ln

Changes the left margin to position n. (Must follow the +P
option if the +P is given.) For example, if n is 10, printing
starts in colunm 11.
-m mail(l) is sent to the owner of the job, when the job completes.
If the owner was set with the -0 option, and the owner given is
not a valid usemame, mail is sent to the person who submitted
the job, unless the owner name contains an @ or an !, in which
case it is assumed the owner name is a valid user on another
system

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Fortune Systems

LPR(1)

LPR(1)

-n n
number of copies to be printed, the default is one.
-0

name
owner of the print job. The default is the username. 1his is
NOT used to determine permission to remove jobs from the
queue, but appears on the header page and in the queue listings
as the owner of the job. It is also used to determine who mail
should be sent to with the -m option.

-p n

printer the job is sent to. The default is printer 1.

-Pname
printer type is set to name for this job, rather than the default,
(which is set by dtinit(l).

* +Pn
pitch for this job is set to rl. Some printers (such as the IDS)
only support fixed pitches. For this reason only 10, 12, and 15
pitch are supported.
-q string
Any comment the user wishes can be placed here. At least the
first 15 characters are displayed by lpq(l).

-r

remove the files (if any) that were submitted after they are
queued. This is useful for printing files which are tmp files. Also
see the -u option.

-5

cmd
cmd will be executed when the job is ready to be printed, and
its standard output will be sent to the printer. Except for the
time "cmd" is run, this is almost identical to:
cmd Ilpr-i
No file arguments are allowed with this option. "cmd" is parsed
to determine if it contains any Bourne shell metacharacters. If it
does, it is run in a subshell, otherwise an attempt is made to run
the command directly. If the exec fails, an attempt is then made
to run the cmd in a subshell. In both cases, the environment is
set to that of the user when Ipr was invoked. This is currently
used by Fortune:Word to do formatting at print time.

-Sn,n,n,A
Use the sheet feeder on this printer, if supported. No checks are
made to ensure the sheet feeder is actually on the printer. At
least 1, and up to 4 comma separated fields follow the '5'. The
first 3 must be numbers from 1 to 3. The first number is the bin
for the first page, the second is for the second page, and the
third is for the third page. If the fourth field is present and is
the letter 'A', the last two bins given will be alternated for the
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LPR(1)

Fortune Systems

LPR(1)

rest of the job; otherwise the last field given will be used as the
bin for the rest of the job. Bin 1 is the 'letterhead' bin, bin 2 is
the 'plain paper' bin, and bin 3 is the 'envelope' bin. (For single
bin feeders, you are considered to have only a 'letterhead' bin.)
Several examples are given below:
lpr -S3,1,2,A
First page is an envelope, second page is letterhead, third page
is plain paper; following this, even pages will be letterhead and
odd pages will be plain paper.
lpr -S1,1,2
First page is letterhead, second page is letterhead, third page is
plain paper; following this, all pages will be plain paper.
The sizes of the paper in each of the bins must be set correctly
for some of the supported sheet feeders to work properly. Use
the -5 option of lpdun(l) to set and display the sizes.

If more bins are specified than are available for the printer type
given (either via command line or from /etddevtype). Those bins
will be converted to I, the 'plain paper' bin, and a diagnostic
will be issued. Similarly, if the -S option is given, and the printer
type does not support sheet feeders at all, the option will be
ignored and a diagnostic issued.

9/83

-t

truncation of overly long lines will be done. (line length is set
by the -L option or by the default set by Lpdun(l).) The default is
to do no truncation; overly long lines will print on the platen.

-T

Transparent mode. All characters in the job are sent to the
printer exactly as they are. This is mainly so the user can include
printer control sequences in their files, such as super/subscripts
(this is particularly useful for moffil) output). This option does
not allow reprinting of pages for print jobs, since the filter has
no way of knowing where pages end. (See lpdun(l) for a
description of this). Tabs are not expanded with this option,
use expand(I) to expand them, if necessary. In addition, LF's are
NOT turned into   sequences, as this would alter
some printer control sequences.
Unfortunately, only the low 7 bits are used, because using 8 bits
requires that the printer accept AND generate 8 bit characters.
Some printers, like the NEC35XX series, can accept 8 bit characters, but always generate MARK parity on output. This has the
unfortunate side effect of losing flow control, which is unacceptable.

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Fortune Systems

LPR(1)

LPR(1)

-u file
Causes the following file to be removed after printing. nus is
useful with shell scripts that create or use temporary files. The
FULL pathname MUST be given. This option may be given up
to ten times to remove multiple files. The file will be removed
even if job is not successfully printed.

'" +Vn
Vertical pitch is set to n lines per inch. Currently only 6, 8 and
10 lines per inch are su pported, although others may work for
some printers. (10 lines per inch is actually 9.6 lines per inch for
all currently supported printers, so page length may not come
out the way one would expect.)

"'+Wn
Change to font n. This is only supported for printers (such as
IDS) which can change their fonts under software control.
-z n

The size the user wishes reported by lpq for this job can be
placed here. This is useful when no files are given to lpr, since a
size would otherwise not be reported.

+:xx=#:
Can be used to pass any capability from the printcap file. xx is
any 2 letter sequence, the the printcap entry where the character
'V' occurs, and the :'s are REQUIRED.
FILES
lusrlspooVlpd/pr#

spooler directories (# is the printer number)
lusrlspooVlpd/pr#/[ cdeltj '"

Control files for use by the spooling system.
lusr/lib/lpd

printer daemon
lusr/lib/lpf

printer filter
/etdprintcap
For printer specific information
letddevtype

For correlation between printer #, printer port, and printer
type, etc.
lusr/admllperr
If this file exists and is writable by all, all messages generated by

the spooling system (including those suppressed by silent
options) are written here. In addition, messages which are for
troubleshooting only, (and hence are never output to a

FOR:PRO

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Fortune Systems

LPR(1)

LPR(1)

terminal), are written here. Note that this file grows rapidly and
is generally created only for troubleshooting.

SEE ALSO
dti11it(1), lprm(l),
printcap(S).

Lpmv(l),

Lpq(l),

Lpdu11(1),

lpf(8) , Lpd(8), pr(l),

NOTES
Each page starts at the right margin (whatever it is). Thus, a line
which has a formfeed in it will become 1WO lines on output, the
second of which will start at the right margin. Note also that a
formfeed followed by a newline will result in a blank line at the top
of the new page.
Error messages are written by a routine which attempts to decide
whether it can output a newline, or if the user is using a screen
oriented program, and therefore cannot do a newline (because the
screen might be scrolled). The determination IS made by checking to
see if the terminal from which the job was started is set in raw
and/or cbreak mode. If so, a message is written (in a terminal
independent manner) to the bottom line of the screen; otherwise it
simply outputs the message followed by a newline.
An attempt is made to send error messages to the terminal that
started the job (the stderr, stdout, and stdin of Ipr are checked in
that order until one is found to correspond to a terminal; if one
does, it is passed thru to Ipd and Ipf).
If a spooler program does not inherit the terminal name as in the

program above (or if it is not writable), /dev/tty is tried, then stderr,
which may, in some cases (e.g. a daemon running jobs started from
more than one terminal), be the wrong terminal. The terminal type
is set from the TERM shell variable, or if TERM is not set, it is set to
FT.

Some messages which are of informational nature only (such as
specifying a sheetfeeder when the printer does not support it) are
not written to the terminal if a screen oriented program is running
(they are still written to the error logging file, if it exists).

LIMITA TIONS
For normal printing (without the -T or -C options) the spooling system will not handle videotext characters. They will be printed as
'''Yx' where x is the escape characters. Future versions may handle
videotext in the same manner as Fortune:Word, by looking up wheel
files and mapping videotext sequences to the appropriate output
sequences.

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FOR:PRO

LPRM(1)

Fortune Systems

LPRM(1)

NAME
Iprm, Ipq, Ipdun, Ipmv - line printer auxilIary programs
SYNOPSIS
lprm [-sp

nJ [QID] [filenameJ [ownerJ [pbnameJ ...
Ipq [-aqsp nJ

Ipdun -b on'pff -c n -C -f form -i -I n -mn -n n -N -p n -Pn -F -r ribbon
-s -S[+-][wl,ll, ... w3,l3J -w printwheel -z
Ipmv [-sp

nJ printid newid

DESCRIPTION
These commands all default to printer #1, unless the -p n option is
given (where 11 is the printer number).
IMPORTANT NOTE
Because of the communications between these programs and the
filter program(s) (see Lpf(8», the action requested may not occur until
the printer is ready to accept more data. The printer may not accept
data if the printer cover is open, if a ribbon breaks, if the paper runs
out, or simply if the data buffer of the printer is full. If for some
reason the printer doesn't request more data, while the filter sends
data to the printer, nothing will happen. For all supported printers
this condition can be cleared by turning the printer off and on. In
this case, some data will probably be lost.
Iprm
This command allows users to remove jobs from the print queue.
Users may only remove their own jobs; the superuser may, however, remove any job. Jobs may be identified by qid, filename,
owner, or jobname. These are all reported by Ipq(l).
-s

silent option; normal results are not reported, but errors are.

rt is important to note that spaces or special characters in the jobname must be given exactly. It is usually easiest to give the QID.
ALL jobs matching ANY of the arguments will be removed. Thus,
"lprm olson" will remove all of the jobs in the queue submitted by
"olson l (also any jobs named "olson").
NOTE: Giving one (or more) filenames for a job which has multiple
files (such as 'lpr a.c b.c d.c e.c') results in ALL files for that job
being removed. This is always the case, no matter what type of
argument is given; if more than one file is assocIated with a job, they
will ALL be removed.
Multiple arguments may be given, as:
lprm 456 789 lpr.c root
Each job removed will be reported by QID, unless the -s option was
given. Jobs that are prmting at the time they are removed are
stopped, and a message is printed on the last printed page.
FOR:PRO

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lPRM(1)

Fortune Systems

lPRM(1)

Lpq
This command lists the line printer queues and state. The following
options are accepted:
-a

all printer queues are displayed. Otherwise, only the information for the printer specified is given. The pnnter nu mber is
listed in the first column for the first job in each queue.

-s

display the state information; the default is to list only the
queue(s).

-q

when given with -s, queue information is displayed, followed by
the state information.

Each entry in the queue is printed showing the owner of the queue
entry, the queue identification number, the type of entry (doc (WP),
file, pipe, or shell), the size (in characters), the file to be printed, the
jobname of the entry, any comments attached to the entry, and the
number of copies to be printed. Jobs are listed in the order they will
be printed. For shell jobs, the shell command is listed under jobname, unless the -j name option was used with Ipf. The jobname
and comment fields are used entirely for the jobname/comment, if
there is nothing in the other field.
With -s, the state, what (if anything) the printer is waiting on, the
current ribbon, wheel and form, the line width in characters, the
page length in lines, and the process id of the filter currently running are displayed (if the PIO is not shown, nothing is printing).
lpdun
Lpdun is used to restart a suspended print job or notify the spooler
of a change in the printer's condition. It is also used to set up
default paper sizes and other default attributes of the printers. With
any ot the options that set defaults (e.g. -5, -c, and -P options) or
with -z, options that interact with the filter (Le., -i, -n, and -N), will
be ignored. With no options, if a job was waiting on a new sheet,
form, etc., it is restarted.
lpdun depends heavily on the normal filter Ipf(8) bemg the printing
filter. If another filter is used, and it does not work in the same
manner, lpdun may not work properly.
-b [onpffl
[f "on" is given, changes printer so it defaults to printing the
banner page, if "off", changes default to no banner page. Either
way, this can be overridden by options to lpr(l).

-c n
changes the default line width (in characters) for printer. (See
also the -Ln option of lpr(l).)

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LPRM(1)

Fortune Systems

LPRM(1)

-c When given with the -5 option, indicates that the sizes given are
in centimeters instead of inches.
-f jDrm
The form type is set to jDrm. lhis, like ribbon is not used by the
spooling system, but may be used by Fortune:Word in the
future.

-i

interrupt the printing of a job, if a job is active. Note: many
printers have a large (typically 2000 character) buffer; therefore
printing may continue for a page or more after printing is interrupted.

-In changes the default formlength in lines per page for printer.
(See also the -Fn option of /pr(l).)

-mn
n is the number of pages to be saved in memory by the filter so
that they can be reprinted if necessary. The range is 0 to 9, with
the default 2. If n is 0, nothing is saved, and no reprinting is
possible. lhis option is provided to allow the user some control
over how much memory is used by the filter; systems that have
little memory or many users will want to keep n low.

-n n
restarts a suspended print job and gives the number of pages to
backup (1 means restart at top of current page, unless a new
page was just fed, in which case it means reprint from the previous page). The header page, if any, is never reprinted.
If printing is suspended while reprinting, and reprinting is again
requested, reprinting starts n pages back from the highest numbered page that has actually been printed, NOT n pages back
from the page that is currently printing. That is, if pages 1-21
have been printed, then a request is made to reprint 4 pages
(18-21), and printing is then stopped at page 19, a request to
reprint 2 pages will cause pages 20 and 21 to be reprinted, NOT
pages 18 and 19.
If this option is omitted, or n is 0, printing resumes at the
current position (this is the only exception to the highest numbered page rule). "lpdun" is thus equivalent to "lpdun -n 0".

-N This option is used to initialize or reinitialize a printer with a
sheet feeder on it, since some sheetfeeders do not have manual
controls to do this. If a job is running or suspended, the filter is
told to output the appropriate strings, and then suspend itself.
If there is no job running, a special job is submitted to the spooling system requesting that the printer be initialized.

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Fortune Systems

LPRM(1)

LPRM(1)

-Pn n is the priority level for the spooler to run at. The range may
be from -20 to 20; 0 is the default for most Unix programs. A
negative n will cause the spooler to run at a higher priority, but
will slow other programs down. If n is 20 (the default) the
spooler wIll run with a very low pnority, putting as little load on
the system as possible.

-r name
Changes the default ribbon for the printer to name.
-5

This option is used with single sheet jobs to inform the spooler
that a new sheet has been inserted, and printing can resume.

-5

If followed by '-', no sheet feeder is in use. If followed by
a sheet feeder is in use, and up to 6 ',' separated numbers can
follow. These are the width and length (in inches by default) of
the paper in each of up to 3 bins. See the -5 option of lpr(l) for
the correspondence between bin numbers and their contents.
Fields that are left blank (two commas in a row, or a comma
immediately after the' +') are left unchanged.

'+ ",

lpdun -5+3.3,4.5",8.5,11
sets bin 1 to 3.3 inches wide and 4.5 inches long. The width
and length of bin 2 is left unchanged, and bin 3 is set to 8.5
inches wide by 11 inches long.
-w name

changes the default wheel for the printer. (See also the +Wn
option of lpr(l).)
-z

reports the sizes of the paper in the various bins, the width in
characters, and the length in lines for single sheet and tractor
feed jobs.

Lpdun is also used to set up new printers (in combination with

dtinit(I». If the printer spooling directories and/or control files are
not found, lpdun will try to create
11 /usr/spoolllpd 11 must already exist.)

them

(The

directory

lpmv
moves a print job to a new position in the queue. printid and newid
are the numbers displayed by Ipq. in the QID column.
-5

silent option; normal results are not reported, but errors are.

Printid is the id of the print job to be moved.
Newid is the print job printid will be printed before.
Note that moving a job in front of a printing job does NOT interrupt
the printing job to print the moved job, however, the moved job will
be the next job printed.

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Fortune Systems

LPRM(1)

LPRM(1)

FILES
/usrispoolllpd/pr#
spooler directories (# is the printer number)
The file (in each spooling directory)
that records current state of a printer.

letddevtype
The master configuration file for serial devices. Checked by Ipq
to see what printers are available.
SEE ALSO
Lpr(l), Lpf(8), Lpd(8).

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LS(1)

Fortune Systems

LS(1)

NAME
Is - list contents of directory
SYNOPSIS
Is [-abcCdfFgilmqrRstuxl] name ...
II [is options] name .. .
If [is options] name .. .
Ir [is options] name .. .
DESCRIPTION
For each directory argument, is lists the contents of the directory; for
each file argument, is repeats its name and any other information
requested. The output is sorted alphabetically by default. When no
argument is given, the current directory is listed. When several
arguments are given, the arguments are first sorted appropriately,
but file arguments appear before directories and their contents.
There are three major listing formats. The format chosen depends
on whether the output is going to a teletype, and can also be controlled by option flags. The default format for a teletype is to list the
contents of directories in multi-column format, with the entries
sorted down the columns. (Files which are not the contents of a
directory being interpreted are always sorted across the page rather
than down the page in columns. This is because the individual file
names may be arbitrarily long.) If the standard output is not a teletype, the default format is to list one entry per line. Finally, there is
a stream output format in which files are listed across the page,
separated by',' characters. The -m flag enables this format; when
invoked as L this format is also used.
OPTIONS
-a List all entries; usually all files beginning with a '.' are
suppressed.
-b

Force printing of non-graphic characters to be in octal notation.

-c

Use time of file creation for sorting or printing.

-C Force multi-column output, e.g. to a file or a pipe.

9/83

-d

If argument is a directory, list only its name, not its contents
(mostly used with -I to get status on directory).

-f

Force each argument to be interpreted as a directory and list the
name found in each slot. This option turns off -1, -t, -5, and -r,
and turns on -aj the order is the order in which entries appear in
the directory.

-F

Cause directories to be marked with a trailing 'I' and executable
files to be marked with a trailing '*'; this is the default if the last
character of the name the program is invoked with is a 'f.

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LS(1)

Fortune Systems

LS(1)

-g

Give group ID instead of owner ID in long listing.

-i

Print i-number in first column of the report for each file listed.

-1

List in long format, giving mode, number of links, owner, size
in bytes, and time of last modification for each file. (See below.)
If the file is a special file the size field will instead contain the
major and minor device numbers.
The mode printed under this option contains 11 characters
which are interpreted as follows:
b
c
d
m

the first character is
if the entry is a block-type special file;
if the entry is a character-type special file;
if the entry is a directory;
if the entry is a multiplexor-type character special file;
if the entry is a plain file.

The next nine characters are interpreted as three sets of three
bits each. The first set refers to owner permissions; the next to
permissions to others in the same user group; and the last to all
others. Within each set the three characters indicate permission
respectively to read, to write, or to execute the file as a program. For a directory, 'execute' permission is interpreted to
mean permission to search the directory for a specified file. The
permissions are indicated as follows:
r
w

x

if the
if the
if the
if the

file is readable;
file is writable;
file is executable;
indicated permission is not granted.

The group execute permission character is given as s if the file
has set-group-ID mode; likewise the user execute permission
character is given as s if the file has set-user-ID mode.
The last character of the mode (normally 'x' or '-') is t if the 1000
bit of the mode is on. See chmod(l) for the meaning of this
mode.
When the sizes of the files in a directory are listed, a total count
of blocks, including indirect blocks is printed.
-m Force stream output format.
-n

FOR:PRO

Displays the user or group id number instead of user or group
id name in a long listing. This option makes a long listing run
much more quickly, as the names do not have to be searched for
in letdpasswd or letdgroup, respectively.

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Fortune Systems

LS(1)

LS(1)

-q

Force printing of non-graphic characters in file names as the
character I?'; this normally happens only if the output device is a
teletype.

-r

Reverse the order of sort to get reverse alphabetic or oldest first
as appropriate.

-R Recursively list subdirectories encountered.

-s

Give size in blocks, including indirect blocks, for each entry.

-t

Sort by time modified (latest first) instead of by name, as is normal.

-u

Use time of last access instead of last modification for sorting (-t)
or printing (-I).

-x

Force colUlrmar printing to be sorted across rather than down
the page; this is the default if the last character of the name the
program is invoked with is an 'x'.

-1

force one entry per line output format, e.g. to a teletype.

FILES
JetcJpasswd

to get user ID's for 'Is -I'.
Jete/group
to get group ID's for 'Is -g'.
LIMITATIONS
Newline and tab are considered printing characters in file names.

The output device is assumed to be 80 columns wide.
The option setting based on whether the output is a teletype is
undesirable as "Is _s" is much different than "Is -s I Ipr". On the
other hand, not doing this setting would make old shell scripts
which used Is almost certain losers.
Column width choices are poor for terminals which can tab.

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FOR:PRO

MAN(1)

Fortune Systems

MAN(1)

NAME
man - print out the manual
SYNOPSIS
man [section J title ...
DESCRIPTION
Man is a shell program which provides on-line access to sections of
the printed manual. If a section specifier is given, man looks in that
section of the manual for the given titles. Section is an Arabic section
number, i.e. 3. If section is omitted, man searches all sections of the
manual and prints all the sections it finds, if any.

Man pipes its output through more(l) to stop after each page on the
screen. Hit a space to continue, a control-D to scroll 11 more lines
when the output stops. More(l) is smart enough not to ask for terminal input if the output of man has been redirected to a file.
FILES
lusr/manlman?l*
SEE ALSO
more(l).

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MENU(1)

MENU(1)

Fortune Systems

NAME
menu - execute the Schmidt shell
. unix - provide unix interface for users of the Schmidt shell

SYNOPSIS
menu
.unix
DESCRIPTION
Menu puts you in the "user-friendly" command interpreter .

. unix allows the user to access the unix system directly from the
Schmidt shell. The unixdoor file contains a list of commands run by
sh(l}. Currently, it contains a single command which calls sh(l) so
the user can interact with the regular unix shell. By editing this file,
a different command processor such as csh(l) can be used instead of
the regular shell.

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FOR:PRO

MKOIR(1)

Fortune Systems

MKOIR(1)

NAME
mkdir - make a directory
SYNOPSIS
mkdir dirname ...
DESCRIPTION
Mkdir creates the specified directories. Standard entries, '.', for the
directory itself, and ' .. ' for its parent, are made automatically.

Mkdir requires write permission in the parent directory. The permission bits of the directories will be 777, as modified by the user's
umask (see sh(1)).
SEE ALSO
chmod(l), rm(l).
DIAGNOSTICS
Mkdir returns exit code 0 if all directories were successfully made.
Otherwise it prints a diagnostic and returns nonzero.

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Fortune Systems

MORE(1)

MORE(1)

NAME
more, page - file perusal filter for crt viewing
SYNOPSIS
more [-cdflsuJ [-nJ [+linenumberJ [+patternJ [name ... J
page more options
DESCRIPTION
More is a filter which allows examination of a continuous text, one
screenful at a time on a soft copy terminal. It normally pauses after
each screenful, printing --More-- at the bottom of the screen. A
return displays just one more line and a space displays another
screenful. Other possibilities are enumerated later.
OPTIONS
-c More draws each page by beginning at the top of the screen and
erasing each line just before it draws on it. This avoids scrolling
the screen, making it easier to read while more is writing. This
option is ignored if the terminal does not have the ability to
clear to the end of a line.
-d

More prompts the user with the message "Hit space to continue,
Rubout to abort" at the end of each screenful. This is useful if
more is being used as a filter in some setting, such as a class,
where many users may be unsophisticated.

-f

This causes more to count logical, rather than screen lines, meaning long lines are not folded. This option is recommended if
nroff output is being piped through ul, since the latter may generate escape sequences. These escape sequences contain characters which would ordinarily occupy screen positions, but do not
print when sent to the terminal as part of an escape sequence.
Thus more thinks that lines are longer than they actually are,
and fold lines erroneously.

-I

Do not treat "L (form feed) specially. If this option is not given,

more will pause after any line that contains a L, as if the end of
a screenful had been reached. Also, if a file begins with a form
feed, the screen will be cleared before the file is printed.

-n

An integer which is the size (in lines) of the window which more
will use instead of the default.

-s

Squeeze multiple blank lines from the output, producing only
one blank line. Especially helpful when viewing nroff output,
this option maximizes the useful information present on the
screen.

-u

Normally, more will handle underlining such as produced by
nroff in a manner appropriate to the particular terminal: if the
terminal can perform underlining or has a standout mode, more
will output appropriate escape sequences to enable underlining

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FOR:PRO

MORE(1)

Fortune Systems

MORE(1)

or standout mode for underlined information in the source file.
The -u option suppresses this processing.

+linenumber
Start up at linenumber.
+Ipattern
Start up two lines before the line containing the regular expression pattern.
If the program is invoked as page, then the screen is cleared before
each scree nfu I is printed (but only if a full screenful is being
printed), and k - 1 rather than k - 2 lines are printed in each screenful, where k is the number of lines the terminal can display.

More looks in the file letc/termcap to determine terminal characteristics, and to determine the default window size. On a terminal capable of displaying 24 lines, the default window size is 22 lines.
More looks in the environment variable MORE to preset any flags
desired. For example, if you prefer to view files using the -c mode
of operation, the csh command setenv MORE -c or the sh command
sequence MORE='-c' ; export MORE would cause all invocations of
more, including invocations by programs such as man and msgs , to
use this mode. Normally, the user will place the command sequence
which sets up the MORE environment variable in the .cshrc or .profile
file.
If more is reading from a file, rather than a pipe, then a percentage is
displayed along with the --More-- prompt. This gives the fraction of
the file (in characters, not lines) that has been read so far.
Other sequences which may be typed when more pauses, and their
effects, are as follows (i is an optional integer argument, defaulting
to 1) :
i 

display i more lines, (or another screenful if no argument is
given).
"D display 11 more lines (a "scroll"). If i is given, then the scroll
size is set to i.
d

same as "D (control-D).

iz

same as typing a space except that i, if present, becomes the
new window size.

is

skip i lines and print a screenful of lines.

if

skip i screenfuls and print a screenful of lines.

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Fortune Systems

MORE(1)

MORE(1)

"q or Q"
Exit from more.
Display the current line number.
v

Start up the editor vi at the current line.

i/expr
search for the i -th occurrence of the regular expression expr. If
there are less than i occurrences of expr, and the input is a file
(rather than a pipe), then the position in the file remains
unchanged. Otherwise, a screenful is displayed, starting two
lines before the place where the expression was found. The
user's erase and kill characters may be used to edit the regular
expression. Erasing back past the first column cancels the
search command.
in search for the i -th occurrence of the last regular expression
entered.
(single quote) Co to the point from which the last search
started. If no search has been performed in the current file, this
command goes back to the beginning of the file.
!command
invoke a shell with command. The characters '%' and '!' in "command" are replaced with the current filename and the previous
shell command respectively. If there is no current filename, '%'
is not expanded. The sequences "\ %" and "\!" are replaced by
"%" and "!" respectively.
i:n skip to the i -th next file given in the command line (skips to last
file if n doesn't make sense).
i:p skip to the i -th previous file given in the command line. If this
command is given in the middle of printing out a file, then more
goes back to the beginning of the file. If i doesn't make sense,
more skips back to the first file. If more is not reading from a
file, the bell is rung and nothing else happens.
:f

display the current filename and line number.

':q or :Q"
exit from more (same as q or Q).
(dot) repeat the previous command.
The commands take effect immediately, i.e., it is not necessary to
type a carriage return. Up to the time when the command character
itself is given, the user may press the line kill character to cancel the
numerical argument being formed. In addition, the user may press
the erase character to redisplay the --More--(xx%) message.
At any time when output is being sent to the terminal, the user can
press the cancel key. More will stop sending output, and will display
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Fortune Systems

MORE(1)

MORE(1)

the usual --More-- prompt. The user may then enter one of the
above commands in the normal manner. Unfortunately, some output is lost when this is done, due to the fact that any characters
waiting in the terminal's output queue are flushed when the quit signal occurs.
The terminal is set to noecho mode by this program so that the output can be continuous. What you type will thus not show on your
terminal, except for the I and! commands.
If the standard output is not a teletype, then more acts just like cat,
except that a header is printed before each file (if there is more than

one).
A sample usage of more in previewing nroff output would be
nroff -ms +2 doc.n I more -s
FILES
Ie tdte rmcap

Terminal data base
lusr/lib/more. help
Help file
SEE ALSO
csh(l), man(l), msgs(l), script(l), sh(l), environ(S).

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Fortune Systems

MV(1)

MV(1)

NAME
mv - move or rename files
SYNOPSIS
mv [-f] [-i] [-] file1 file2
mv [-f] [-i]

[-J file .. .directory

mv [-f] [-i] [-] directory1 ... directory2
DESCRIPTION
Mv moves (renames) file1 to file2.

If file2 already exists, it is removed before file1 is moved. If file2 has
a mode which forbids writing, mv prints the mode (see chmod(2)) and
reads the standard input to obtain a line; if the line begins with y,
the move takes place; if not, mv exits.
In the second form, one or more files are moved to the directory with
their original filenames.

Mv refuses to move a file onto itse If.
Mv also moves (or renames) directory1 to directory2 along with all of
its files and subdirectories.
OPTIONS
-f Stands for force, overrides any mode restrictions or the -i
switch.
-i

Stands for interactive mode. Whenever a move is to supercede
an existing file, the user is prompted by the name of the file followed by a question mark. If answered with a line starting with
'y', the move continues. Any other reply preve1\lts the move
from occurring.
means interpret all the following arguments to mvas filenames.
This allows filenames starting with minus.

SEE ALSO
cp(l), In(l).
LIMITATIONS
If filel and file2 lie on different file systems, mv must copy the file
and delete the original. In this case the owner name becomes that of
the copying process and any linking relationship with other files is
lost.
Directories can only be moved within the same parent directory.

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FOR:PRO

NEWGRP(1)

Fortune Systems

NEWGRP(1)

NAME
newgrp - log in to a new group
SYNOPSIS
newgrp [group]
DESCRIPTION
Newgrp changes the group identification of its caller, analogously to
login(l). The same person remains logged in, and the current directory is unchanged, but calculations of access permissions to files are
performed with respect to the new group ID.
Newgrp without an argument changes the group identification to the
group in the password file; in effect it changes the group identification back to the caller's original group.

A password is demanded if the group has a password and the user
himself does not, or if the group has a password and the user is not
listed in fete/group as being a member of that group.

When most users log in, they are members of the group named
users.
FILES
Jetdgroup
Jetdpasswd
SEE ALSO
login(l), group(5).
LIMITATIONS
There is no convenient way to enter a password into Jete/group.
Use of group passwords is not encouraged, because, by their very
nature, they encourage poor security practices. Croup passwords
may disappear in the future.

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9i83

PASSWD(1)

Fortune Systems

PAS5WD(1)

NAME
passwd - change login password
SYNOPSIS

passwd [name]
DESCRIPTION
This command changes (or installs) a password associated with the
user name (your own name by default).

The program prompts for the old password and then for the new
one. The caller must supply both. The new password must be
typed twice, to forestall mistakes.
New passwords must be at least four characters long if they use a
sufficiently rich alphabet and at least six characters long if monocase.
These rules are relaxed lf you are insistent enough.
Only the owner of the name or the manager can change a password;
the owner must prove he knows the old password.
FILES
/etc/passwd
SEE ALSO
login(l), crypt(3), passwd(5).
Robert Morris and Ken Thompson, UNIX password security
LIMIT ATIONS
The password file information should be kept in a different data
structure allowing indexed access.

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FOR:PRO

Fortune Systems

PR(1)

PR(1)

NAME
pr - print file
SYNOPSIS
pr [option] ... [file] ...
DESCRIPTION
Pr produces a printed listing of one or more files. The output is
separated into pages headed by a date, the name of the file or a
specified header t and the page number. If there are no file arguments, pr prints its standard input.
OPTIONS
Options apply to all following files but can be reset between files:
-f

Use form feeds instead of new lines to separate pages. A form
feed is assumed to use up two blank lines at the top of a page.
(This option does not affect the effective page length.)

-b

Take the next argument as a page header.

-In Take the length of the page to be n lines instead of the default
66.
-m Print all files simultaneously, each in one column.
-F

Fold, rather than truncate, lines in multi-column output.

-n

Produce n-colunm output.

+n
Begin printing with page n.
-sc Separate columns by the single character c instead of by the
appropriate amount of white space. A missing c is taken to be a
tab.
-t

Do not print the 5-line header or the 5-line trailer normally supplied for each page.

-wn
For purposes of multi-column output, take the width of the page
to be n characters instead of the default 72.

SEE ALSO
cat(l}.

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PRINTSTRING (1)

Fortune Systems

PRINTSTRING (1)

NAME
printstring - prints arguments with possible translation
SYNOPSIS
printstring translation-table [argJ ...
DESCRIPTION

Printstring writes its arguments or a translated version of its arguments terminated by a newline on the standard output. It also
understands C-like escape conventions; beware of conflicts with the
shell's use of \:
\ b backspace
print line without new-line
\f form-feed
\n new-line
\r carriage return
\t tab
\ \ backs lash
\n the 8-bit character whose ASCII code is the 1, 2 or 3-digit
octal number n, which must start with a zero. This last
escape convention is not yet implemented.

\c

Each argument is looked up in a translation table to determine if a
corresponding value exists. If there is a corresponding value it is
printed. If no value is found, the argument is printed. This does
not apply if the argument begins with a blank or a backslash. If the
argument begins with a blank or a backs lash the argument is printed
untranslated.

Printstring is useful for producing diagnostics in command files and
for sending known data into a pipe.
SEE ALSO
echo(I), sh(l), trans(5).

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FOR:PRO

Fortune Systems

PS(1)

PS(1)

NAME
ps - process status
SYNOPSIS
ps [akItUvxJ [pid]
DESCRIPTION
Ps prints process status information. First, ps prints a heading line,
then the information for each process. The default short listing
prints only the PI 0, TrY, TIME, and CMD fields described below,
whereas the long listing prints all fields, as in the following example:
FUGS S UID
IC S 0
CS 0
C S 101
C B 101

PID ppm CPU PHI nCE SZ ICRU
0
0
0 70
20 2 runout
20 15 Cwait)
1
0 0 30
32
1 0 28
20 39 ttJ6,O
876 42 51
877
20 37

m
!
!
02
co

TIllE
8:08
0:02
O:U
0:01

CJO)

snpper
/etc/Wt
-csh
ps 10:

The fields are as follows:

Flags associated with the process:

F

D: Detached process, parent has died.
U: Process has asked that it be locked in core.
W: Traced process, parent process is waiting for it.
T: Traced process.
S: Process is swapped out.
L: Temporarily locked in core (e.g. for raw I/O).
K: System process, not normal program.
C: Loaded in core.
S

The state of the process:
0: nonexistent;
S: sleeping;
W: waiting;
R: running;
I: intermediate;
Z: terminated;
T: stopped.

UIO
The user ID of the process owner.
PIO
The process ID of the process, which can be used to kill it. The
listing is sorted in PIO order.
PPID
The process 10 of the parent process.

CPU
Amount of processor utilization, used for scheduling.

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PS(1)

Fortune Systems

PS(1)

PRI The priority of the process, ranging from highest priority, -128,
to lowest, 127. The process cannot be killed while this number
is negative, which should only happen during certain types of
110.
NICE
Used in priority computation. A lower nice value begets higher
priority. Normal value is 20.
SZ The size in 1K core increments of the data and stack portions of
the process, i.e. exclusive of the code segment if it is sharable.

WCHAN
The event for which the process is waiting or sleepmg; if blank,
the process is running. This field is either the name of an internal kernel variable (like runout, lbolt, buf[10J, inode[3J, etc.), a
system call name such as wait or pause (in parentheses), a tty
major/minor dev like ttyO,O, any of the above with an offset, as
in tty1,1+56, or a hex address in rare cases.
TIY

The controlling tty for the process. Examples are "co" for console, "02" for tty02, or I/?" if none.
TIME

The cumulative execution time for the process.
CMD
The command and its arguments. A process that has exited and
has a parent, but has not yet been waited for by the parent is
marked < defunct> . Ps makes an educated guess as to the
command name and arguments given when a process was
created by examining the argument list in the memory image of
the process in memory or the swap area, wherever it is. The
method is inherently somewhat unreliable and in any event a
process is entitled to destroy this information, so the names cannot be counted on too much.

OPTIONS
If the pid argument is specified, ps prints information about only that
process.

a

gives information about all processes with terminals (ordinarily
only one's own processes are displayed).

k

uses the file /usr/sys/core in place of /dev/mem. This is used only
by kernel developers for debugging after a system crash.
gives a long listing.

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PS(1)

PS(1)

ttty gives information only about processes associated with terminal
tty.
U

Prints the current time, the length of time the system has been
up, and the average number of jobs in the run queue over the
last I, 5 and 15 minutes; followed by the ps information.

v

prints the accumulated child user and child system time for each
process in addition to the accumulated time for the process
itself. The I option overrides this option.

x

gives information even about processes with no terminal.

FILES
Idev/hdOI
this or another disk is the swap device
Idev/mem

core memory
lusrlsys/core
alternate core file
SEE ALSO
kill(I), pstat(l).
LIMITATIONS
Things can change while ps is running; thus, the picture it gives is
only a close approximation to reality. In rare cases, ps can die from
a segmentation fault because the kernel tables change too quickly.
Some data printed for defunct processes is irrelevant.

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PWAC(1)

PWAC(1)

NAME
pwac - maintain account and group information files
SYNOPSIS
/m/sysman/pwac [option] ... [name] '"
/m/sysman/pwac -a [option] '" [name] .,.
/m/sysman/pwac -d [option] .. , [name] ...
/m/sysman/pwac -t [option] '"
DESCRIPTION
Pwac is used to add, modify, delete and list the information maintained in the files /ete/passwd and fete/group.
The simple version of the command lists the information for the
specified accounts or groups and makes any desired changes.

OPTIONS
Names and options can be given in any order. Options can also be
combined. The following options are recognized by pwac:
-a

adds new accounts or groups. The information is normally
taken from a template account or group called proto . Normally
names must start with a lower case letter and contain only lower
case letters and digits. The -1 option allows any names to be
added.

-d

deletes accounts or groups.

-t

lists all accounts or groups in a table format. Most items are
printed as they are stored. A few items are not printed but are
instead labeled flags. Currently they are 'y' if the account or
group is on, 'n' if the account or group is off, and 'p' if the
account or group has a password. A group that has been
turned off can still be used by its members. Other people, however, are unable to newgrp(l) to this group even if they know
the password.

In addition, the following options can be used:
-F format

Use format to print only specific information about an account or
group. Most characters are printed without expansion. Many
letters, however, expand to values. For example, the character
'5' expands to the shell, the character 'H' expands to the home
and so forth. A back-slash ('\') causes the next character to be
printed without expansion.
-g

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Group operations are performed.

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Fortune Systems

PWAC(1)
-1

Values are taken literally.

-q

(quiet) prints only error messages.

PWAC(1)

-T name

Use the name as a template instead of the default account
"proto·.
The following options can be used for adding or modifying:
-A group

Adds the accounts specified as members of group. This option
can be repeated several times to add accounts to several groups.
-C comment

Use comment as the comment to be associated with the specified
accounts. On some computers this comment is used to store the
real name of the person who uses this account. On other systems, it is used to store job control information for sending
requests to other systems.
-D group

Deletes the accounts specified as members of group This option
can be repeated several times to delete accounts from several
groups. It is not an error to attempt to delete an account from a
group in which it is not a member.
-G group or number

Use group as the default group for the specified accounts. When
used with a group operation use number as the group-id-number
in the same manner as the user-id-number described above.

-H directory
Use directory as the new home directory. The character '&' is
replaced with the account or group name. The -1 option
prevents this expansion. This is useful when working with
accounts which are to be used as the templates for making other
accounts.
-n

Turn the specified accounts or groups off. This has the same
effect as if the account or group has a password which is unknown.

-N name
Use name as the new name of the specified accounts or groups.
This should normally not be done with more than one account
or group. The rules for a valid name are the same as those used
when adding accounts or groups.
-p password

Use password as the password for the specified accounts or
groups. This password is normally encrypted before being
stored. Using the -1 option this can be prevented. In either case

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PWAC(1)

PWAC(1)

an empty password indicates no password.
-S shell
Use shell as the new shell.
-U number
Use number as the user-id-number. If more than one account is

listed the number is used for the first account, the number plus
one is used for the second account and so forth.
-y

Tum the specified accounts or groups on.

SEE ALSO
newgrp(l), passwd(l), sU(l), passwd(5), group(5).
FILES
letdpasswd
account information file

letdgroup
group information file
/etdptmp
lock file
/etdpasswd. temp
account information temporary
/etdgroup. temp
group information temporary
/etdptmp.link
lock file temporary
LIMITATIONS
There is no way to specify that only some items are to be taken
literally.

The rules affecting group membership are somewhat confusing.

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PWO(1)

Fortune Systems

PWO(1)

NAME
pwd - working directory name
SYNOPSIS
pwd
DESCRIPTION
Pwd prints the pathname of the working (current) directory.
SEE ALSO
cd(l), csh(l).

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RM(1)

RM(1)

NAME
rm, rmdir - remove (unlink) files

SYNOPSIS
rm [-f] [-i] [-r] [-] file ...
rmdir dir ...
DESCRIPTION
Rm removes the entries for one or more files from a directory. If an
entry was the last link to the file, the file is destroyed. Removal of a
file requires write permission in its directory, but neither read nor
write permission on the file itself.
If a file has no write permission and the standard input is a terminal,
its permissions are printed and a line is read from the standard
input. If that line begins with 'y' the file is deleted, otherwise the
file remains.
If a designated file is a directory, an error comment is printed unless
the optional argument -r has been used.
Rmdir removes entries for the named directories, which must be

empty.

OPTIONS
-f

No questions are asked and no errors are reported.

-i

Asks whether to delete each file (interactive option) and, under
-r, whether to examine each directory.

-r

No errors messages are given and rm recursively deletes the
entire contents of the specified directory and the directory itself.
The null option indicates that all the arguments following it are
to be treated as filenames. This allows the specification of
filenames starting with a minus.

SEE ALSO
unlink(2).
DIAGNOSTICS
Cenerally self-explanatory. It is forbidden to remove the file ' .. '
merely to avoid the antisocial consequences of inadvertently doing
something like 'rm -r . *'.

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SH(1)

Fortune Systems

SH(1)

NAME
sh, for, case, if, while, :, ., break, continue, cd, eval, exec, exit,
export, login, newgrp, read, read-only, set, shift, times, trap,
umask, wait - command language
SYNOPSIS
sh [-ceiknrstuvx] [argJ ...
DESCRIPTION
Sh is a command programming language that executes commands
read from a terminal or a file. See invocation for the meaning of
arguments to the shell.
Commands.
A simple command is a sequence of non blank words separated by
blanks (a blank is a tab or a space). The first word specifies the
name of the command to be executed. Except as specified below the
remaining words are passed as arguments to the invoked command.
The command name is passed as argument 0 (see exec(2». The value
of a simple command is its exit status if it terminates normally or
200+status if it terminates abnormally (see signal(2) for a list of status
values).
A pipeline is a sequence of one or more commands separated by I. The
standard output of each command but the last is connected by a
pipe(2) to the standard input of the next command. Each command
is run as a separate process; the shell waits for the last command to
terminate.
A list is a sequence of one or more pipelines separated by;, &, && or
II and optionally terminated by ; or &. ; and & have equal precedence which is lower than that of && and I I, && and 11 also have
equal precedence. A semicolon causes sequential execution; an
ampersand causes the preceding pipeline to be executed without
waiting for it to finish. The symbol && (I I) causes the list following
to be executed only if the preceding pipeline returns a zero (non zero)
value. Newlines may appear in a list, instead of semicolons, to delimit commands.
A command is either a simple command or one of the following. The
value returned by a command is that of the last simple command
executed in the command.
for name [in word ... ] do list done
Each time a for command is executed name is set to the next
word in the for word list If in word '" is omitted then in -$@is assumed. Execution ends when there are no more words in
the list.

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SH(1)

Fortune Systems

case word in [pattern [ I pattern J ... ) list ;; J '" esac
A case command executes the list associated with the first pattern that matches word. The form of the patterns is the same as
that used for filename generation.
if List then List [elif list then List J '" [else list J fi
The List following if is executed and if it returns zero the list following then is executed. Otherwise, the List following elif is
executed and if its value is zero the list following then is executed. Failing that the else list is executed.

while list [do list J done
A while command repeatedly executes the while list and if its
value is zero executes the do list; otherwise the loop terminates.
The value returned by a while command is that of the last executed command in the do list. Until may be used in place of
while to negate the loop termination test.

( List)
Execute list in a subshelL

{ List}
list is simply executed.
The following words are only recognized as the first word of a command and when not quoted.
if then else elif fi case in esac for while until do done { }

Command substitution.
The standard output from a command enclosed in a pair of grave
accents (' ') may be used as part or all of a word; trailing newlines
are removed.
Parameter substitution.
The character $ is used to introduce substitutable parameters. Positional parameters may be assigned values by set. Variables may be
set by writing

name=vaLue [ name=value J '"
$ {parameter}
A parameter is a sequence of letters, digits or underscores (a
name), a digit, or any of the characters >10 @ #- ? - $ The value, if
any, of the parameter is substituted. The braces are required
only when parameter is followed by a letter, digit, or underscore
that is not to be interpreted as part of its name. If parameter is a
digit then it is a po~itional parameter. If parameter is >10 or @ then
all the positional parameters, starting with $1, are substituted
separated by spaces. $0 is set from argument zero when the
shell is invoked.

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SH(1)

SH(1)

$ {parameter -word}
If parameter is set then substitute its value; otherwise substitute
word.
$ {parameter = word}
If parameter is not set then set it to word; the value of the parameter is then substituted.
assigned to in this way.

Positional parameters may not be

$ {parameter? word}

If parameter is set then substitute its value; otherwise, print word
and exit from the shell. [f word is omitted then a standard message is printed.
$ {parameter +word }
If parameter is set then substitute word; otherwise substitute
nothing.
In the above word is not evaluated unless it is to be used as the substituted string. (So that, for example, echo ${ d-' pwd'} will only
execute pwd if d is unset.)
The following parameters are automatically set by the shell.
§.
?

$

The number of positional parameters in decimal.
Options supplied to the shell on invocation or by set.
The value returned by the last executed command in
decimal.
The process number of this shell.
The process number of the last background command
invoked.

The following parameters are used but not set by the shell.

HOME
The default argument (home directory) for the cd command.
PATH
The search path for commands (see execution).
MAIL
If this variable is set to the name of a mail file then the shell
informs the user of the arrival of mail in the specified file.
PSt
Primary prompt string, by default '$ '.
PS2
Secondary prompt string, by default I> '.
IFS Internal field separators, normally space, tab, and newline.
Blank interpretation.
After parameter and command substitution, any results of substitution are scanned for internal field separator characters (those found
in SIFS) and split into distinct arguments where such characters are
found. Explicit null arguments ("" or ") are retained. Implicit null

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SH(1)

SH(1)

arguments (those resulting from parameters that have no values) are
removed.
Filename generation.
Following substitution, each command word is scanned for the characters "', ? and [. If one of these characters appears then the word is
regarded as a pattern. The word is replaced with alphabetically
sorted filenames that match the pattern. If no filename is found that
matches the pattern then the word is left unchanged. The character
. at the start of a filename or immediately following a I, and the character I, must be matched explicitly.
'"
?
[.

.. )

Matches any string, including the null string.
Matches any single character.

Matches anyone of the characters enclosed. A pair of characters separated by - matches any character lexically between the
pair.
Quoting.
The following characters have a special meaning to the shell and
cause termination of a word unless quoted.
;

&

(

)

I <

> newline space tab

A character may be quoted by preceding it with a \ I. \ newline is
ignored. All characters enclosed between a pair of quote marks
(' '), except a single quote, are quoted. Inside double quotes ( •• )
parameter and command substitution occurs and quotes the characters and $.
$* is equivalent to $1 $2 ... whereas
$@ is equivalent to $1 $2 ... .
Prompting.
When used interactively, the shell prompts with the value of PSI
before reading a command. If at any time a newline is typed and
further input is needed to complete a command then the secondary
prompt ($PS2) is issued.
Input output.
Before a command is executed its input and output can be redirected
using a special notation interpreted by the shell. The following may
appear anywhere in a simple command or can precede or follow a
command and are not passed on to the invoked command. Substitution occurs before word or digit is used.

 word
Use file word as standard output (file descriptor 1). If the file
does not exist then it is created; otherwise it is truncated to zero
length.

»word
Use file word as standard output. If the file exists then output is
appended (by seeking to the end); otherwise the file is created.

«word
The shell input is read up to a line the same as word, or end of
file. The resulting document becomes the standard input. If
any character of word is quoted then no interpretation is placed
upon the characters of the document; otherwise, parameter and
command substitution occurs, newline is ignored, and is used
to quote the characters and the first character of word.

< &digit
The standard input is duplicated from file descriptor digit; see

dup(2). Similarly for the standard output using> .
<&The standard input is closed. Similarly for the standard output
using> .
It should be noted that the command 'program < file > file' will
probably destroy file before calling program and should be avoided.
If one of the above is preceded by a digit then the file descriptor
created is that specified by the digit (instead of the default 0 or 1).
For example,

... 2>&1
creates file descriptor 2 to be a duplicate of file descriptor 1.
If a command is followed by & then the default standard input for
the command is the empty file (/dev/null). Otherwise, the environment for the execution of a command contains the file descriptors of
the invoking shell as modified by input output specifications.

Environment.
The environment is a list of name-value pairs that is passed to an
executed program in the same way as a normal argument list; see
exec(2) and environ(S). The shell interacts with the environment in
several ways. On invocation, the shell scans the environment and
creates a parameter for each name found, giving it the corresponding
value. Executed commands inherit the same environment. If the
user modifies the values of these parameters or creates new ones,
none of these affects the environment unless the export command is
used to bind the shell's parameter to the environment. The environment seen by any executed command is thus composed of any
unmodified name-value pairs originally inherited by the shell, plus
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SH(1)

any modifications or additions, all of which must be noted in export
commands.
The environment for any simple command may be augmented by prefixing it with one or more assignments to parameters. Thus these two
lines are equivalent
TERM=450 cmd args
(export TERM; TERM=450; cmd args)
If the -k flag is set, aLL keyword arguments are placed in the environment, even if they occur after the command name. The following
prints 'a=b c' and 'c':

echo a=b c
set -k
echo a=b c
Signals.
The INTERRUPT and QUIT signals for an invoked command are
ignored if the command is followed by &; otherwise signals have the
values inherited by the shell from its parent. (But see also trap.)
Execution.
Each time a command is executed the above substitutions are carried
out. Except for the 'special commands' listed below a new proces.s is
created and an attempt is made to execute the command via an
exec(2).
The shell parameter $PATH defines the search path for the directory
containing the command. Each alternative directory name is
separated by a colon (:). The default path is :lbin:/usrlbin. If the
command name contains a / then the search path is not used. Otherwise, each directory in the path is searched for an executable file.
If the file has execute permission but is not an a.out file, it is
assumed to be a file containing shell commands. A subshell (Le., a
separate process) is spawned to read it. A parenthesized command
is also executed in a subshell.
Special commands.
The following commands are executed in the shell process and
except where specified no input output redirection is permitted for
such commands.
No effect; the command does nothing .

. file
Read and execute commands from file and return. The search
path $P ATH is used to find the directory containing ~le.
break [n j
Exit from the enclosing for or while loop, if any. If 11 is specified then break n levels.

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SH(1)

continue [11 J
Resume the next iteration of the enclosing for or while loop. If
n is specified then resume at the n-th enclosing loop.
cd [arg J
Change the current directory to argo The shell parameter
SHOME is the default argo
eva} [arg ... J
The arguments are read as input to the shell and the resulting
command(s) executed.
exec [arg ... J
The command specified by the arguments is executed in place of
this shell without creating a new process. lnput/output arguments may appear and if no other arguments are given cause
the shell input/output to be modified.
exit [11 J
Causes a non interactive shell to exit with the exit status specified by 11. If n is omitted then the exit status is that of the last
command executed. (An end of file will also exit from the shell.)
export [name ... J
The given names are marked for automatic export to the environment of subsequently executed commands. If no arguments are
given then a list of exportable names is printed.
login [arg ... J
Equivalent to 'exec login arg ... '.
newgrp [arg ... ]
Equivalent to 'exec newgrp arg ... '.
read name ...
One line is read from the standard input; successive words of
the input are assigned to the variables name in order, with leftover words to the last variable. The return code is 0 unless the
end-of-file is encountered.
read-only [name ... ]
The given names are marked read-only and the values of the
these names may not be changed by subsequent assignment. If
no arguments are given then a list of all read-only names is
printed.
set [ -eknptuvx [arg ... ] J
-e If non interactive then exit immediately if a command fails.
-k All keyword arguments are placed in the environment for a
command, not just those that precede the command name.
-n Read commands but do not execute them
-t Exit after reading and executing one command.
-u Treat unset variables as an error when substituting.
-v Print shell input lines as they are read.

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SH(1)

-x

SH(1)

Print commands and their arguments as they are executed.
Turn off the -x and -v options.

These flags can also be used upon invocation of the shell. The
current set of flags may be found in $-.
Remaining arguments are positional parameters and are
assigned, in order, to $1, $2, etc. If no arguments are given
then the values of all names are printed.
shift
The positional parameters from $2... are renamed $1 ...

times
Print the accumulated user and system times for processes run
fro m the she ll.
trap [arg j [n] ...
Arg is a command to be read and executed when the shell
receives signal(s) n. (Note that arg is scanned once when the
trap is set and once when the trap is taken.) Trap commands are
executed in order of signal number. If arg is absent then all
trap(s) n are reset to their original values. If arg is the null
string then this signal is ignored by the shell and by invoked
commands. If n is 0 then the command arg is executed on exit
from the shell, otherwise upon receipt of signal 11 as numbered
in signal(2). Trap with no arguments prints a list of commands
associated with each signal number.

umask [ nnn]
The user file creation mask is set to the octal value nnn (see
umask(2». If nnn is omitted, the current value of the mask is
printed.
wait [n]
Wait for the specified process and report its termination status.
If n is not given then all currently active child processes are
waited for. The return code from this command is that of the
process waited for.
Invocation.
If the first character of argument zero is -, commands are read from
$HOME/. profile, if such a file exists. Commands are then read as
described below. The following flags are interpreted by the shell
when it is invoked.
-c string
If the -c flag is present then commands are read from string.
-s If the -s flag is present or if no arguments remain then commands are read from the standard input. Shell output is written
to file descriptor 2.

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SH(1)

-i

SH(1)

If the -i flag is present or if the shell input and output are
attached to a terminal (as told by gtty) then this shell is interac-

tive. In this case the terminate signal SIG1ERM (see signal(2» is
ignored (so that 'kill 0' does not kill an interactive shell) and the
interrupt signal SIGINT is caught and ignored (so that wait is
interruptable). In all cases SICQUIT is ignored by the shell.
The remaining flags and arguments are described under the set command.

FILES
$HOME/. profile
Itmp/sh*
Idev/null

SEE ALSO
csh(l), exec(2), test(l).
DIAGNOSTICS
Errors detected by the shell, such as syntax errors cause the shell to
return a non zero exit status. If the shell is being used non interactively then execution of the shell file is abandoned. Otherwise, the
shell returns the exit status of the last command executed (see also
exit).
LIMITATIONS
If < < is used to provide standard input to an asynchronous process
invoked by &, the shell gets mixed up about naming the input document. A garbage file Itmp/sh* is created, and the shell complains
about not being able to find the file by another name.

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SLEEP(1)

SLEEP(1)

NAME
sleep - suspend execution for an interval
SYNOPSIS

sleep time
DESCRIPTION
Sleep suspends execution for time seconds.
EXAMPLES
To execute a command after a certain amount of time:

(sleep 105; command)&
To execute a command every so often from the Bourne shell:
while true
do
command
sleep 37
done
SEE ALSO
alarm(2), sleep(3).
LIMITATIONS
Time must be less than 2147483647 seconds.

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SORT(1)

Fortune Systems

SORT(1)

NAME
sort - sort or merge files
SYNOPSIS
sort [-bcdfimnor] [-txJ f+posl [-pos2J] ... [-oname] [-TdirectoryJ [name]
DESCRIPTION
Sort sorts lines of all the named files together and writes the result
on the standard output. The name '-' means the standard input. If
no input files are named, the standard input is sorted.
The default sort key is an entire line. Default ordering is lexicographic by bytes in machine collating sequence. The ordering is
affected globally by the options, one or more of which can appear.
The notation +posl -pos2 restricts a sort key to a field beginning at
posl and ending just before pos2. Posl and pos2 each have the form
m.n, optionally followed by one or more of the flags bdfinr, where m
tells the number of fields to skip from the beginning of the line and

n tells the number of characters to skip further. If any flags are
present they override all the global ordering options for this key. If
the b option is in effect n is counted from the first nonblank in the
field; b is attached independently to pos2. A missing .n means .0; a
missing -pos2 means the end of the line. Under the -tx option, fields
are strings separated by x; otherwise fields are nonempty nonblank
strings separated by blanks.
When there are multiple sort keys, later keys are compared only
after all earlier keys compare equal. Lines that otherwise compare
equal are ordered with all bytes significant.

OPTIONS
b Ignore leading blanks, spaces, and tabs in field comparisons.
c

Check that the input file is sorted according to the ordering
rules; give no output unless the file is out of sort.

d

'Dictionary' order: only letters, digits and blanks are significant
in comparisons.

f

Fold uppercase letters onto lowercase.
Ignore characters outside the ASCII range 040-0176 in nonnumeric comparisons.

m

Merge only, the input files are already sorted.

n

An initial numeric string, consisting of optional blanks, optional
minus sign, and zero or more digits with optional decimal point,
is sorted by arithmetic value; implies option b.

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SORT(1)

o

The next argument is the name of an output file to use instead
of the standard output. This file can be the same as one of the
inputs.

r

Reverse the sense of comparisons.

tx

'Tab character' separating fields is x.

T

The next argument is the name of a directory in which temporary files should be made.

u

Suppress all but one in each set of equal lines. Ignored bytes
and bytes outside keys do not participate in this comparison.

EXAMPLES
Print in alphabetical order all the unique spellings in a list of words.
Capitalized words differ from uncapitalized.
sort -u +Of +0 list
Print the password file (passwd(5» sorted by user id number (the 3rd
colon-separated field).
sort -t: +2n letdpasswd
Print the first instance of each month in an already sorted file of
(month day) entries. The options -um with just one input file make
the choice of a unique representative from a set of equal lines
predictable.
sort -urn +0 -1 dates

FILES
lusr/tmp/strrf, Itmp/*
first and second tries for temporary files
SEE ALSO
comm(l), join(l), uniq(l).
DIAGNOSTICS
Comments and exits with nonzero status for various trouble conditions and for disorder discovered under option -c.
LIMITATIONS
Very long lines are silently truncated.

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STTY(1)

STTY(1)

NAME
stty - set terminal options
SYNOPSIS
stty [option ... ]
DESCRIPTION
Stty sets certain va options on the current output terminal, placing
its output on the diagnostic output. With no argument, it reports
the speed of the terminal and the settings of the options which are
different from their defaults. With the argument "all", all normally
used option settings are reported. With the argument "everything",
everything stty knows about is printed.
OPTIONS
cbreak

-cbreak
cooked
echo
-echo
ek
even
-even
lease
-lease
-nl
nl
odd
-odd
raw
-raw
tabs
-tabs
tandem

-tandem

make each character available to read(2) as received; no
erase and kill processing, but all other processing (interrupt, quit, ... ) is performed
make characters available to read only when newline is
received
same as '-raw'
echo back every character typed
do not echo characters
set erase and kill characters to # and @
allow even parity input
disallow even parity input
map upper case to lower case
do not map case
allow carriage return for new-line, and output CR-LF for
carriage return or new-line
accept only new-line to end lines
allow odd parity input
disallow odd parity input
raw mode input (no input processing (erase, kill, interrupt, ... ); parity bit passed back)
negate raw mode
preserve tabs
replace tabs by spaces when printing
enable flow control,(the system sends out the stop character when its internal queue is in danger of overflowing on
input, and sends the start character when it is ready to
accept further input
disable flow control

For the following commands which take a character argument c, you
may also specify c as the "u" or "under', to set the value to be
undefined. A value of ""x", a 2 character sequence, is also interpreted as a control character, with ;/"7" representing delete.

FOR:PRO

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9/83

STTY(1)

Fortune Systems

STTY(1)

brk c

set break character to c (default undefined.) This character
is an extra wakeup causing character.
bsO bsl
select style of delay for backspace
crO crt cr2 cr3
select style of delay for carriage return (see ioctl(2))
dec
set all modes suitable for Digital Equipment Corp. ope rat~g /lsystems" users; (erase, kill, and interrupt characters to
?, U, and C, decctlq and "newcrt".)
eof c
set end of file character to c (default control D.)
erase c
set erase character to c (default '#', but often reset to "H.)
ffO ff1
select style of delay for form feed
intr c
set interrupt character to c (default DEL or "? (delete), but
often reset to "C.)
kill c
set kill character to c (default '@', but often reset to "U.)
nlO nil n12 nl3
select style of delay for linefeed
quit c
set quit character to c (default control \.)
start c
set start character to c (default control Q.)
stop c
set stop character to c (default control S.)
tabO tab1 tab2 tab3
select style of delay for tab
set all modes suitable for Tektronix 4014 terminal
tek
set all modes suitable for Texas Instruments 700 series terti700
minal
set all modes suitable for a General Electric TermiNet 300
tn300
set all modes suitable for the Teletype Corporation Model
tty33
33 terminal.
set all modes suitable for the Teletype Corporation Model
tty37
37 terminal.
vt05
set all modes suitable for Digital Equipment Corp. VT05
terminal
o
hang up phone line immediately
50 75 110 134 150 200 300 600 1200 1800 2400 4800 9600 19200 (exta) extb
Set terminal baud rate to the number given, if possible.
A teletype driver which supports more functionality that the basic
driver is introduced in newtty(4) and fully described in tty(4). The
following options apply only to it.
crt
-crt
crtbs
crterase

9/83

Set options for a CRT (crtbs, ctlecho and, if > = 1200
baud, crterase and crtkill.)
Tum off options set by crt.
Echo backspaces on erase characters.
Wipe out erased characters with "backspace-spacebackspace."

1-83

FOR:PRO

STTY(1)

-crterase
crtkill
-crtkill
ctlecho
-ctlecho
decctlq

Fortune Systems

STTY(1)

Leave erased characters visible; just backspace.
Wipe out input on like kill as in crterase.
Just echo line kill character and a newline on line kill.
Echo control characters as ,/, x" (and delete as II"?".) Print
two backspaces following the EaT character (control D).
Control characters echo as the mselves;
in cooked mode EOT (control-D) is not echoed.
After output is suspended (normally by "S), only a start
character (normally "Q) will restart it.
This is compatible with DEC's vendor supplied systems.

After output is suspended, any character typed will restart it; the start character will restart output without providing any input. (This is the default.)
etxack
Diablo style etxlack handshaking (not implemented).
Output is being discarded usually because the user typed
flusho
control a (internal state bit).
Output is not being discarded.
-flusho
litout
Send output characters without any processing.
-litout
Do normal output processing, inserting delays, etc.
mdmbuf Start/stop output on carrier transitions (not implemented).
-mdmbuf Return error if write attempted after carrier drops.
new
Use new driver (switching flushes typeahead).
nohang
Don't send hangup signal if carrier drops.
-no hang Send hangup signal to control process group when carrier
drops.
pendin
Input is pending after a switch from cbreak to cooked and
will be re-input when a read becomes pending or more
input arrives (internal state bit).
-pendin Input is not pending.
prterase For printing terminal echo erased characters backwards
within "\" and "/".
tilde
Convert II"''' to II,,, on output (for Hazeltine terminals).
-tilde
Leave poor II"''' alone.
-decctlq

The following special characters are applicable only to the new teletype driver and are not normally changed.
flush c
Inext c
rprnt c
werase c

set flush output character to c (default control 0.)
set literal next character to c (default control V.)
set reprint line character to c (default control R.)
set word erase character to c (default control W.)

The following options control page mode, a Fortune enhancement.
Page mode may be used only after pageen, and then comes into
effect with a pageon command or when one of the page mode control
characters is pressed.

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9/83

STIV(1)

Fortune Systems

STTY(1)

pageen
Enable page mode.
pagelen n Set page length to n (default 25).
pageon
Tum on page mode, if enabled.
Page mode prints out <  > at the bottom of the screen
and waits for input, whenever page/en lines has been printed, and
interesting stuff would scroll off the top of the screen. (See more(1).
When the <  > prompt is printed, one of the following characters will print the next page, the next line, the next halfpage, or clear the screen and print a page. Any other character will
continue printing and turn off page mode.

dear c
nxhalf c
nxpage c
nxline c

set clear character to c (default control N.)
set next half page character to c (default control B.)
set next page character to c (default control F.)
set next line character to c (default control Eo)

SEE ALSO

tabs(l), tset(l), ioctl(2), newtty(4), tty(4).

9/83

1-85

FOR:PRO

TEE(1)

Fortune Systems

TEE(1)

NAME
tee - pipe fitting
SYNOPSIS
tee [-aJ [-iJ [filej ...
DESCRIPTION
Tee transcribes the standard input to the standard output and makes
copies in the files.
OPTIONS
-a Causes the output to be appended to the files rather than
overwriting them
-i

FOR:PRO

Ignores interrupts.

1-86

9/83

Fortune Systems

TEST(1)

TEST(1)

NAME
test - condition command
SYNOPSIS
test expr
DESCRIPTION
test evaluates the expression expr, and if its value is true then returns
zero exit status; otherwise, a non zero exit status is returned. test
returns a non zero exit if there are no arguments.
The following primitives are used to construct expr.

-d file
true if the file exists and is a directory.
-£ file
true if the file exists and is not a directory.
-n sl
true if the length of the string 51 is nonzero.

n1 -eq n2
true if the integers nl and n2 are algebraically equal. Any of the
comparisons -ne, -gt, -ge, -It, or -Ie can be used in place of -eq.
-r file
true if the file exists and is readable.

-s file
true if the file exists and has a size greater than zero.
sl

true if 51 is not the null string.

sl = s2
true if the strings 51 and 52 are equal.
sl != s2
true if the strings 51 and 52 are not equal.

-t [ fildes J
true if the open file whose file descriptor number is filde5 (1 by
default) is associated with a terminal device.
-wfile
true if the file exists and is writable.
-z sl
true if the length of string 51 is zero.

These primaries can be combined with the following operators:

9/83

-a

binary and operator

-0

binary or operator

1-87

FOR:PRO

TEST(1)

Fortune Systems

TEST(1)

( expr)
parentheses for grouping.
unary negation operator
-a has higher precedence than -0. Notice that all the operators and
flags are separate arguments to test. Notice also that parentheses
are meaningful to the Shell and must be escaped.
SEE ALSO
find(l), sh(l).

FOR:PRO

1-88

9/83

TRUE(1)

Fortune Systems

TRUE(1)

NAME

true, false - provide truth values
SYNOPSIS
true
false
DESCRIPTION

True does nothing, successfully. False does nothing, unsuccessfully.
EXAMPLE
True and false are typically used in input to sh(l) such as:

while true
do
command
done
SEE ALSO
sh(l).
DIAGNOSTICS

True has exit status zero, fnlse nonzero.

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1-89

FOR:PRO

TTY(1)

Fortune Systems

TTY(1)

NAME
tty - get terminal name
SYNOPSIS
tty
DESCRIPTION
Tty prints the pathname of the user's terminal.
DIAGNOSTICS
'not a tty' if the standard input file is not a terminal.

FOR:PRO

1-90

9/83

WAIT(1)

Fortune Systems

WAIT(1)

NAME
wait - await completion of process
SYNOPSIS
wait
DESCRIPTION
Wait until all processes started with & have completed, and report
on abnormal terminations.

Because the wait(2) system call must be executed in the parent process, the Shell itself executes wait, without creating a new process.
SEE ALSO
sh(l).
LIMITATIONS
Not all the processes of a 3- or more-stage pipeline are children of
the Shell, and thus can't be waited for. (This does not apply to
csh(l).) Csh prints out the names and process numbers of all background processes when wait is interrupted, while sh does not.

9/83

1-91

FOR:PRO

WALL(1)

Fortune Systems

WALL{1)

NAME
wall - write to all users
SYNOPSIS
wall
DESCRIPTION
Wall reads its standard input until an end-of-file. It then sends this
message, preceded by 'Broadcast Message ... ', to all logged in users.

The sender should be manager to override any protections the users
may have invoked.
FILES
/dev/tty?

/etdutmp
SEE ALSO
mesg(l), write(l).
DIAGNOSTICS
'Cannot send to ... ' when the open on a user's tty file fails.

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Fortune Systems

WHAT (1)

WHAT(1)

NAME
what - identify SCCS files
SYNOPSIS
what files
DESCRIPTION
What searches the given files for all occurrences of the pattern that
get(l) substitutes for @(#) (this is @(#) at this printing) and prints
out what follows until the first IV, >, new-line, \' or null character.
For example, if the C program in file f.e contains
char ident[J = "@(#)identification information ";
and f.e is compiled to yield £.0 and a.out, then the command
what f.c f.o a.out
prints
f.c: identification information
f.o: identification information
a.out:
identification information

sces

What is intended to be used in conjunction with the
command
get(l), which automatically inserts identifying information, but it can

also be used where the information is inserted manually.
SEE ALSO
get(l), help(l).
DIAGNOSTICS
Use he/p(1) for explanations.
LIMITATIONS
It's possible that an unintended occurrence of the pattern @(#)
could be found just by chance, but this causes no harm in nearly all
cases.

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1-93

FOR:PRO

WHO(1)

Fortune Systems

WHO(1)

NAME
who - who is on the system
SYNOPSIS
who [who-file] [-f] [am IJ
DESCRIPTION
Who, without an argument, lists the login name, terminal name, and
login time for each current user.
Without an argument, who examines the letclutmp file to obtain its
information. If a file is given, that file is examined. Typically the
given file is /usr/admtwtmp, which contains a record of all the log ins
since it was created. Then who lists log ins , logouts, and crashes
since the creation of the wtmp file. Each login is listed with user
name, terminal name (with '/devl' suppressed), and date and time.
When an argument is given, logouts produce a similar line without a
user name. Reboots produce a line with 'x' in the place of the device
name, and a fossil time indicative of when the system went down.
With two arguments, as in 'who am I' (and also 'who are you'), who
tells who you are logged in as.

OPJ'IONS
-f prints in Fortune friendly format.
FILES
/etciutmp
SEE ALSO
getuid(2), utmp(S).

FOR:PRO

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9/83

WRITE(1)

Fortune Systems

WRITE(1)

NAME
write - write to another user
SYNOPSIS
write user [ttynameJ
DESCRIPTION
Write copies lines from your terminal to that of another user. When
first called, it sends the message

Message from yourname you rttyna me ...
The recipient of the message should write back at this point. Communication continues until an end of file is read from the terminal or
an interrupt is sent. At that point write writes 'EOT' on the other
terminal and exits.
If you want to write to a user who is logged in more than once, the

ttyname argument can be used to indicate the appropriate terminal
name.
Permission to write can be derued or granted by use of the mesg
command. At the outset writing is allowed. Certain commands, in
particular nroff and pr(l) disallow messages in order to prevent
messy output.
If the character 'I' is found at the beginning of a line, write calls the

shell to execute the rest of the line as a command.
The following protocol is suggested for using write: when you first
write to another user, wait for him to write back before starting to
send. Each party should end each message with a distinctive
signal- (0) for 'over' is conventional so that the other can reply.
(00) for 'over and out' is suggested when the conversation is about
to be terminated.
FILES
/etdutmp
to find user

Ibinlsh
to execute '!'
SEE ALSO
mail(l) , mesg(l), who(l).

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1-95

FOR:PRO

INTRO(4)

Fortune Systems

INTRO(4)

NAME
intro - introduction to special files

DESCRIPTION
Each type of device is accessed through a 'driver' module in the kernel. These drivers can be accessed through 'special files', which can
be opened, closed, read, and written, just like ordinary disk files.
Some of the special files support Iseek(2), and many of them support
ioctl(2). By heavily entrenched convention, unix special files are
found in the /dev directory.
Special files are created by calling the mknod(2) system call The
mknod(l) program can be used to make a special file from the shell,
but that is never necessary on the Fortune Systems 32:16 because
when the system comes up, the program mkdevs(8) is run, which
correctly makes the files in /dev automatically. Manual pages in Section 4 describe the device drivers on the Fortune Systems 32: 16.
These special files in /dev are found on all configurations:
ttyOO
tty01
console
conf
mem
kmem
null
tty
fdO[0-7]
rfdO[O-7]
fd[1-3][0-7]
rfd[l-3][0-7]

Built-in keyboard
Rear serial port
System console
Configuration information.
Memory.
Kernel data memory
Empty file on input, black hole on output.
The controlling terminal of the opening process.
Built-in floppy disk
buffered (block) interface, partitions 0-7
Built-in floppy disk
raw (character) interface, partitions 0-7
Other optional floppy disks, buffered interface.
Other optional floppy disks, raw interface.

Some files for accessing optional plug-in device controller cards:
ttyxx

hd[O-3][0-7]
rhd[0-3][0-7]

Terminal special files, from tty02 on up.
For accessing Comm-A, cards.
Optional hard disk(s)
buffered (block) interface, partitions 0-7
Optional hard disk(s)
raw (character) interface, partitions 0-7

Some of these devices can be accessed through other names in
/dev for the convenience of certain application programs.
lp
tar
culO, cuaO

9/83

Line printer.
Default device used by tar(l), same as rfd02.
tty ports for cu(l) and uucp(l).

2-1

FOR:PRO

INTRO(4)

Fortune Systems

INTRO(4)

SEE ALSO

mkdevs(l), mknod(l), mknod(2), ttys(8),
All of Section 4.

FOR:PRO

2-2

9/83

CONSOLE (4)

Fortune Systems

CONSOLE (4)

NAME
console - Fortune 32:16 system console
DESCRIPTION
Idevlconsole is a character terminal. The built-in keyboard port, also
known as /devlttyOO, operates at 2400 baud. The keyboard is a standard ASCII device. The front port is not a standard RS-232 port, it
only drives 5 volts, instead of the standard 12. The built-in 25x80
monitor operates at a maximum effective rate of 45000
characters/second. It operates according to AT&T Presentation Level
Protocol, as defined in /usrlincludelvideotex.h.
FILES
/dev/console

/dev/ttyOO
/usr/include/videotex. h
SEE ALSO
tty(4) , reconf(8).
DIAGNOSTICS
All UNIX internal problems are reported on the built-in monitor.

9/83

2-3

FOR:PRO

FLOPPY (4)

Fortune Systems

FLOPPY (4)

NAME
floppy - built-in floppy disk drive
DESCRIPTION
The on-board floppy disk controller supplied with the Fortune 32:16
is based on the NEe 765A. The software currently supports MFM,
8O-tra~k, double-sided, double-density (MFM) disks with 5 lK blocks
per track. This adds up to BOOK bytes per disk. There can be up to
3 additional drives attached. See diskconf(S) to find out how floppy
disks are arranged.
FILES
/dev/fd[0-4J[0-7]

/dev/rfd[0-4] [0-7]
SEE ALSO
disk(S)

FOR:PRO

2-4

9/83

HO(4)

Fortune Systems

HO(4)

NAME
Hard Disk - Winchester disks
DESCRIPTION
The hard disks currently offered for the Fortune 32:16 are 5-1/4'
Winchester disks, based on the Seagate-506 electrical interface. The
controller is a version of the Western Digital 1000 Hard Disk Controller. Each controller can support 4 disk drives. The maximum
effective throughput (by dumping a large disk file into /dev/null) is
around 80,000 bytes/second. The raw device (/dev/rhd??) provides
faster throughput in large sequential transfers. The disks are laid
out in from 0 to 7 partitions, described by a table at the beginning of
the disk. See diskconf(5).
FILES
/dev/hd[0-3] [0-7]

/dev/rhd[0-3 J[0-7]
SEE ALSO
disk(5), diskconf(5).

9/83

2-5

FOR:PRO

MEM(4)

Fortune Systems

MEM(4)

NAME
mem, kmem, conf - main memory
DESCRIPTION
Mem is a special file that is an image of the main memory of the computer. It can be used, for example, to examine the system
Byte addresses in mem are interpreted as physical memory
addresses. References to non-existent locations cause errors to be
returned.
Examining and patching device addresses is likely to lead to unexpected results when read-only or write-only bits are present.
The file kmem is the same as mem except that kernel data memory,
rather than physical memory, is accessed.
/dev/Conf is a window onto a small area in low core which contains a
copy of the data in the EAROM. It is the only memory file that is
accessible to user-written programs.
FILES
/dev/mem

/dev!kmem

FOR:PRO

2-6

9/83

NEWTTY(4)

Fortune Systems

NEWTTY(4)

NAME
newtty - summary of the "new" tty driver
SYNOPSIS
stty new
stty new crt
DESCRIPTION
This is a summary of the new tty driver, described completely, with
the old terminal driver, in tty(4). The new driver is largely compatible with the old but provides additional functionality for page control.
CRTs and printing terminals.
The new terminal driver acts differently on CRTs and printing terminals. On CRTs at speeds of 1200 baud or greater it normally erases
input characters physically with backspace-space-backspace when
they are erased logically; at speed under 1200 baud this is often
unreasonably slow, so the cursor is normally moved to the left. This
is the behavior when you say stty new crt; to have the tty driver
always erase the characters say stty new crt crterase crtkill, to have
the characters remain even at 1200 baud or greater say stty new crt
-crterase -crtkill.
On printing terminals the command stty new prterase should be
given. Logically erased characters are then echoed printed backwards between a '\' and an 'I' character.
Other terminal modes are possible, but less commonly used; see
tty(4) and stty(l) for details.

Input editing and output control.
When preparing input the character #: (normally changed to "H
using stty(l)) erases the last input character, "w the last input word,
and the charac!er @ (often changed to "U) erases the entire current
input line. A R character causes the pending input to be retyped.
Lines are terminated by a return or a newline; a "0 at the beginning
of a line generates an end-of-file.
Control characters echo as "x when typed, for some x; the delete
character is represented as "?
The character "Y can be typed before any character so it can be
entered without its special effect. For backwards compatibility with
the old tty driver the character '\' prevents the special meaning of
the character and line erase characters, much as "Y does.
Output is suspended when a "s character is typed and resumed
when a "Q character is typed. Output is discarded after a "0 character is typed until another "0 is typed, more input arrives, or the
condition is cleared by a program (such as the shell just before it
9/83

2-7

FOR:PRO

NEWTTY(4)

Fortune Systems

NEWTTY(4)

prints a prompt.)

Page Mode.
When page mode is set, printing more than a screenful of characters
stops the display, the legend n <  > n prints at the bottom of the screen, and the user must type a ch~racter before the
printout continues. The nxpage character (default F) shows another
page. The nxhalf character ~default liB) shows another half-page.
The nxline character (default E) shows another line, and the nxpage
character (default liN) clears the screen and shows a page.

Stty pageen enables the mode. Enabled means that is possible to tum
on page mode. If the mode is not enabled, the above four special
characters are not interpreted. Page mode can then actually be
turned on when cbreak and raw modes are off, and echo mode is
on. When the mode is enabled, any of the above four characters, or
the conupand stty pageon, turns page mode on. The printer restart
(default Q) restarts the printout and tum page mode off. Typing
any: other character to the n <  > n prompt is equivalent
to I\F. Stty pagelen 25 sets the length of the page to be used, the
default is 25 lines, the screen length of the Fortune Intelligent
Workstation. Signals.
II

A non-interactive pr?gram is interrupted by ~ ? (delete); this character is often reset to C using stty(l). A quit \ character causes programs to terminate like II? does, but also causes a core image file to
be created which can be examined with a debugger. This is often
used to stop runaway processes. Interactive programs often catch
interrupts and return to their command loop; only the most well
debugged programs catch quits.
See tty( 4) for a more complete description of the new terminal
driver.
SEE ALSO

csh(l), newcsh(l), stty(l), tty(4).
LIMITA TIONS
There is always room for more complexity in this area. The page
mode scheme is wired into Fortune terminal control codes. To
operate well with cursor-control programs, it should be sensitive to
cursor controls, this might downgrade efficiency.

FOR:PRO

2-8

9/83

NULL (4)

Fortune Systems

NULL(4)

NAME
null - data sink
DESCRIPTION
Data written on a null special file is discarded.
Reads from a null special file always return 0 bytes.
FILES
Idev/null

9/83

2-9

FOR:PRO

510(4)

Fortune Systems

510(4)

NAME
sio, comrn-a - Standard and optional serial I/O ports
DESCRIPTION
The Fortune 32:16 has two asynchronous serial ports as standard
equipment. One is used for the keyboard input and its beeper output. The other is available for RS-232C connection at the back of the
main unit. Each optional Communications-A board has either two or
four asynchronous serial ports.

All of these devices are accessed through the 'tty' interface described
in tty(4).
The functionality of these serial I/O ports is provided by Zilog Z-80
SIO (motherboard ports) and DART (Comm-A ports) chips. The
Zilog DART is a functional subset of the Z-80 SIO, lacking only the
synchronous capabilities. These ports can operate at the standard
UNIX speeds, 0-19200 baud, with the exception that Comm-A ports
cannot operate at 200 baud. The setting for the input baud rate
determines both the input and output baud rates. The output baud
rate setting is explicitly ignored. The default baud rates for ttyOO
and tty01 are determined by values stored in the EAROM. See
reconf(8).
The DART interrupts the CPU for each character input or output;
however, for efficiency, input characters are batched up and sent to
the reading process with a delay of no more than 1120 of a second.
The device file names for the standard SIO ports are Idev/ttyOO
(built-in keyboard), and Idev/tty01, (RS-232C port at rear of main
unit). The device file names for the Comm-A ports are Idev/tty02,
Idev/tty03, etc. Later, other communications devices may also be
known by ttyxx device names, the actual name assignment depending on the placement of the boards in the I/O option slots.
Electrically, the inputs and outputs of the serial ports described here
appear at the back of the main unit on RS-232C connectors. (RS232C is the Electronic Industries Association standard for serial I/O.)
The world is divided into two kinds of equipment, as far as RS-232C
connectors are concerned: Data Communication Equipment (DCE),
e.g. modems, and Data Terminal Equipment (DTE), e.g. CRT terminals. You can connect DCE to DTE with a simple, straight-through
cable. A special adaptor cable known as a "null modem" must be
used to connect DTE to DTE, and a "null terminal" adaptor cable
must be used to connect DCE to DCE. A port on a host computer
might be connected to either a DCE or DTE depending on the application, requiring a special cable in one of the two cases.
The serial ports on the computers used for the initial development of
UNIX were wired as DTE, and the modem control signals are
described in the software and the manual pages as if this were the
FOR:PRO

2-10

9/83

SI0(4)

SI0(4)

Fortune Systems

case (Fortune retains this nomenclature for standardization with
UNIX practice). However, the Fortune 32:16 RS-232C ports are
wired as DCE so that terminals can be connected with a simple,
straight-through cable. Therefore, modems must be attached with
special adaptor cables. All of this can be a little confusing, so be
careful to note that when the tty(4) manual page talks about DCD,
you can think of this as if it were describing the DCD signal at the
modem end of a modem adaptor cable. (In fact, on the host port, it
corresponds to the DTR pin.) In general, therefore, the tty(4) man
page nomenclature and the software names for the modem control
bits follow the names at the modem end of a modem adaptor cable
as shown below. The tables below show the correspondence,
between the DART signals, RS-232C connector pinouts, and modem
cable connections. Note that the Zilog Z-80 DART is designed to be
used as ow.
The pinouts on the RS-232C ports look like this:
DART
RxD
TxD
ClS
DTR
RlS
GND
DTR
DCD
RI

< ----- >

< ---

--- >
--- >
--- >

<---

< ---

PIN
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
20
25

NAME
TxDTransmitted Data
RxDReceived Data
RTSRequest to Send
ClSClear to Send
DSRData Set Ready
GNDGround
DCDData Carrier Detect
DTRData Terminal Ready
TRBTrouble

Note that the use of pin 25 is not officially defined in the RS-232C
specification, but many printers and modems use it to indicate some
problem (out of paper, taken off line, etc.).
When a port is to be connected to a modem, an adaptor cable must
be used. (Note that this adaptor cable is not the same as a 'null
modem' adaptor.) This adaptor cable has the following connections:
DART
RxD
TxD
CTS
DTR
RTS
GND
DTR
DCD
RI

HOST
TxD
2
RxD
3
RTS
4
CIS
5
DSR
6
7
GND
DCD
8
DTR
20
BUSY 25

<----->
<---

3
2
5

--->

4
7

--->
<--<---

20
8
6

MODEM
Received Data
RxD
TxD
Transmitted Data
crs Clear to Send
RTS
GND
DTR
DCD
DSR

Request to Send
Ground
Data Terminal Ready
Data Carrier Detect
Data Set Ready

The end of the cable that connects to the Fortune 32:16 must terminate in a male connector.

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510(4)

510(4)

NOTE: Noise on the input control lines on pins 4, 20, and 25 can put
a heavy interrupt load on the CPU, crippling or even stopping system activity. Therefore, these pins are all pulled to -12 volts through
a 15k ohm resistor (inactive logic level), so that if left unconnected,
they do not fluctuate from noise. A connected peripheral device
must actively pull them up to the high level to change their state.
As per industry standard, pin 9 is connected to + 12 volts, and pin
10 is connected to -12 volts, for the benefit of short-haul moderns.
These voltages will current-limit at 100 milliamperes. (In the official
EIA RS-232C spec, these pins are defined as "Reserved for dataset
testing". )
The keyboard jack on the front of the unit is intended only for connection of the standard Fortune keyboard. The keyboard input and
output signals are connected directly to the Z-80 DART chip, which
does not use RS-232C voltage levels. Permanent damage is done to
that chip if you connect an RS-232C device to this jack. For the
unusual case that needs to use the front keyboard port for something other than the normal keyboard, the pinouts look like this:
1

Shield

3

GND

4
5
6
7
8

+5V
+5V
Data to keyboard.
Data from keyboard.
gnd

--- >

< ---

FILES
Idev/tty[OI ][0-9]
Idev/console

SEE ALSO
Zilog Z-80 SID Technical ManuaL
tty(4)
LIMITATIONS
Because of a limitation of the baud rate generation hardware, the 200
baud speed is not supported on the Corom-A. The serial port on the
back of the motherboard handles input slightly more efficiently than
the Comm-A ports, its use is preferred for high-speed input from
another computer.

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TTY (4)

TTY (4)

NAME
tty - general terminal interface
SYNOPSIS
#include 
#include 
#include 
DESCRIPTION
The serial communications lines, /dev/tty"', and the console
keyboard-screen combination, /dev/console, are interfaced to the system through this driver. These devices are called tty devices, or just
tty's.
What happens when you open, close, read, and write a tty depends
heavily on the many options you can set with calls to ioctl(2). We
will approach the matter by describing all the basic mechanisms and
how the options affect them. Some of the options actually affect the
hardware, such as setting the speed of a serial device, but most of
the options affect the software behavior of the device.
Unfortunately, you won't find a lot of cleanliness, modularity, or
regularity in anything having to do with tty devices. The whole subject is an incredible morass of compatability with past versions of the
system, Berkeley extensions, Fortune extensions, and the painful
truth that dealing with serial terminals in the real world is like unto
the problems faced at the Tower of Babel. We refer the reader to the
documentation for the standard Bell Version 7 release or the Berkeley release, if he wants to know which features of this driver are
standard Version 7, which came from Berkeley, and which are
Fortune extensions.
For our discussion of control characters, we will often use the official
ASCII names as found in ascii(7). We will use all caps for these
names, as in CR for carriage return.
Line disciplines.
Tty devices do all their input and output through a kind of driver
called a line discipline. In the case where there is more than one line
discipline available, line discipline switching is accomplished with the
TIOCSETD ioctl:
int ldisc = LDISC; ioctl(filedes, TIOeSETD, &ldisc);
where LOISe would be the manifest constant from 
for the desired line discipline. The active line discipline can be
obtained with the TIOCGETD ioctl. Pending input is discarded
when the line discipline is changed.
In this version of the system there is only one discipline available,
the new tty line discipline from the 4.1 Berkeley Software Distribution, with further extensions added at Fortune Systems. The
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TTY (4)

manifest constant for this line discipline, found in , is
NTIYDISC.
This section describes both the characteristics of this particular line
discipline and characteristics that are common to all line disciplines;
unfortunately, the distinction is somewhat blurred.
First open and last close.
Like most UNIX devices, a tty is in a dormant state when it is not
open by any process. It makes the transition from this dormant
state to an active state when a process opens it. This kiss of life is
referred to as 'first open'. Many processes can have the device open
at the same time, and it will remain active until the last of those
processes closes it, an event known as 'last close'.
The control terminal and process groups.
Each process has a pointer to a tty known as its control terminal. The
special file /dev/tty is a handy name for the control terminal of the
process that opens it. This special device can be used by programs
that wish to be sure of writing messages on the control terminal no
matter how output has been redirected. It can also be used by programs that demand a file name for output, when terminal output is
desired and it is tiresome to find out which terminal is currently in
use.
Each process has a process ID and a process group ID. There can be
only one process with a certain process ID, but more than one process can have a given process group ID. The process group ID of 0
is the null process group, i.e. belonging to process group 0 is like
belonging to no process group. Each tty device has a process group
ID associated with it.
If a process whose process group 10 is 0 opens a tty device, then
that tty device becomes the control terminal for that process, and the
process group 10 of the process is set to that of the tty device unless
the process group 1D of the tty is 0, in which case the process group
1D of both the opening process and the tty device are set to the process ID of the opening process. On last close, the process group 10
of the tty is set to O. Under various conditions, a tty device will
send a signal to all the processes with its process group ID.
The TIOCGPGRP ioctl can be used to read the process group ID of
the tty, and the TIOCSPGRP ioctl can be used to set it.
The process group 1D and the control terminal of a process are both
inherited by a child process during a [vrk(2), even if the control terminal is closed.
Basic modes.

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TTV(4)

TTV(4)

There are several shorts, longs, and structures in the kernel that
contain bits, characters, and numbers used by a tty to determine its
mode of operation and its current state. These are called things like
the 'tty state word', the 'local modes word', the 'sgtty structure', etc.
For now, we will just talk about these things and what they do. You
can read and write them with various ioctls which will be summarized later, and you can use the stty(l) command to display and to
modify these things from the shell.
On first open, the tty characteristics are initialized to default values,
and changes persist only until last close. The TIOCSA VEMODES
ioctl causes the current characteristics to be saved as the defaults for
the tty on subsequent first opens. For normal interactive use, process 1 (init(8» forks a child which opens a tty then execs getty(8)
which sets up tty modes then execs login(l). Thus most of the
defaults are quickly overridden by getty(8) for login terminals.

The sgJags word.
Historically, the oldest of the mode words in the tty driver is the
sg_flags word of the sgtty structure. There are two bits in the
sg_flags word of the sgtty structure which determine one of three
major modes of operation, characterized by the amount of processing done on the input and output characters. The bits are RAW and
CBREAK. If the RAW bit is set, it overrides the CBREAK bit. The
major features of these modes are:
cooked

The name comes from the fact that this mode is not
RAW. It is also not CBREAK, but once upon a time there
was only RAW and cooked (Ah, the History of Comedy).
In this mode, the driver collects 7-bit input characters,
allowing editing like backspacing to be done on the data.
A process reading from the device will not get any data
until a NL or an EOT (t_eofc) character, normally liD, is
entered, at which point it gets all the buffered data up
through the NL or up to the EOT (the EOT is not passed
to the reading process). All dnver functions (input editing, interrupt generation, output processing such as delay
generation and tab expansion, etc.) are available in this
mode.

CBREAK This mode is just like cooked mode except that input is
not collected and editing is not effective; each input character is made available to a reading process as it is
received by the hardware.
RAW

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In this mode, 8-bit characters are passed into and out of
the device with minimal hassle. Each input character is
made available to a reading process as it is received by the
hardware.

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TTY (4)

Other bits in the sg_flags word of the sgtty structure are:
ECHO

If this bit is set, input characters are echoed to the output.

CRMOD

If RAW is not set and this bit is set, an input CR is read
as a NL. On output, NL is translated into two characters:
a CR and a NL. If ECHO and CRMOD are both set, CR
and NL will each echo as the two character sequence CR
NL.

LCASE

It is pointless to try to use an upper-case-only terminal
with UNIX. The intent of this bit was try to help a user
of an upper-case-only terminal. In the Fortune 32:16, this
bit is ignored by the tty driver.

TANDEM When this bit is set'll the system outputs a stop (t_stopc)
character, normally 5, whenever the input queue is in
danger of" overflowing, and a start (t_startc) character,
normally Q, when the input queue has drained sufficiently. This mode is used when the input comes from
the output of another machine rather than a person typing at a keyboard, and when the other machine understands this convention. TANDEM mode is unaffected by
RAW or CBREAK modes.
EVENP
ODDP

If the EVENP bit is set, input characters with even parity
are accepted. If the ODDP bit is set, input characters
with odd parity are accepted. If both bits are set or nei-

ther bit is set, input parity is ignored, and all input characters are accepted and their parity bit (most significant
bit) is set to O. Input characters which are not accepted
because they are the wrong parity are discarded. Characters are ouptut with even parity if EVENP is set and
ODDP is not, otherwise they are output with odd parity.
In RAW mode, all input parity checking and output parity
generation is disabled and full 8-bit characters are input
and output.
Output delays and tab expansion.
In cooked and CBREAK mode, delays can be invoked after outputting backspaces (H), form feeds (L), carriage returns (M), tabs (I)
II
and newlines (J). These delays are controlled by bit fields in the
sg_flags word of the sgtty structure. For compatibility with the
past, when the C compiler did not support bit fields, the bit fields
are not declared as such in the sgtty structure in  but
instead, masks and manifest constants are provided for the job.
The backspace delay capability is not implemented.

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TTY (4)

The vertical tab delay, which should really be called the form feed
delay, is either on or off. If it is on, an output Form Feed is followed by a delay of 2.12 seconds.
The carriage return delay can be CRO (off), or one of three types:
CRt, CR2, or CR3. Delay type 1 lasts about .08 seconds and is suitable for the General Electric Terminet 300. Delay type 2 lasts about
.16 seconds and is suitable for the DEC VT05 and the 11 700. Delay
type 3 is intended for the Concept-100 and is not really a delay. If
delay type 3 is set, then enough nulls are output to guarantee that at
least nine characters are ouptut on each line.
The newline delay can be NLO (off) or one of three types: NLt, NL2,
or NL3. Delay type 1 is dependent on the current column and is
tuned for Teletype model 37's. Type 2 is useful for the DEC VT05
and is about .10 seconds. Type 3 is unimplemented and is O.
The tab delay can be off, T ABO (off) or one of three types: T ABt,
TAB2, or XTABS. Tab delay type 1 is dependent on the amount of
movement and is tuned to the Teletype model 37. Type 2 is unimplemented and is O. Type 3, called XTABS, is not a delay at all but
causes tabs to be replaced by the appropriate number of spaces to
advance the column to the next multiple of 8.
Input.
UNIX expects terminals to operate in full-duplex mode. Characters
may be input at any time, even while output is occurring. Input
characters are buffered by the tty driver until some process reads
them Input characters will be discarded if the number of buffered
input characters exceeds the maximum allowed, 255, or in extremely
rare circumstances when the system's character input buffers
become completely choked. In cooked or CBREAK mode, a BEL
character is echoed when an input character is discarded. In RAW
mode, if a character is discarded, all buffered input and output characters for that tty are discarded and no BEL is echoed.
In cooked mode, and less so in CBREAK mode, special behavior is
invoked when certain characters are input. Some of the characters
cause editing of the buffered input (cooked mode only), others control the flow of output, and others cause signals to be sent to the
process group associated with the device. There are ioctls, to be discussed later, which will select the control character which invokes
each kind of special processing.
In cooked mode, terminal input is processed in units of lines. A
program attempting to read will normally be suspended until an
entire line has been received. No matter how many characters are
requested in the read call, at most one line will be returned. It is
not, however, necessary to read a whole line at once; any number of
characters may be requested in a read, even one, without losing
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TTY (4)

TTY (4)

data. Note, however, that it is much more efficient to read several
characters at a time. In cooked mode, an input EaT (t_eofc) terminates a line of input and starts a new one in much the same way
that a NL does, except that an EaT is discarded and not read. If an
EaT is input at the beginning of a line, a read will return with a
count of 0, indicating end-of-file.
The t_brkc character, normally disabled, acts like a new-line in that
it terminates a line, is echoed, and is read. Typically, this character
is set to ESC by programs that use it.
lt is possible for a program to simulate terminal input using the
TIOCSTI ioctl, which takes as its third argument the address of a
character. The system pretends that this character was typed on the
terminal, which must be the control terminal except for the superuser.

If the LTELETEX bit in the local modes word is set, the tty driver
tries its best to treat videotex three-character sequences that describe
accented alphabetic characters as if they were a unit. Such a
/I
sequence is a Y followed by a character in the range of Ox40
through Ox5F followed by a character in the range of Ox20 through
OxFF.

Input editing (cooked mode only).
In cooked mode, inlZut line editing is done with the erase (sg_erase)
character, normally H (same as the backspace key), ~rasing the last
character typed, the kill (sg_kill) character, normally X, erasing the
entire current input line, and the word-erase (t_werasec) character,
normally W, erasing the last word typed. For the purposes of the
word-erase character, a word is defined as a sequence of non-blank
characters, with tabs counted as blanks. Erasing of input characters
never goes back beyond the beginning of the current input line.
The literal-next (t_lnextc) character, normally /IV, can be typed
preceding any character to prevent its special meaning. This also
works in CBREAK mode. The erase and kill characters may also be
entered literally by preceding them with '\ for compatiblity with
olden days; the '\ will normally disappear upon typing the next
character.
I

I

The reprint (t_rprntd character, normally /lR, retypes all unread
input. Retyping occurs automagically in cooked mode if you attempt
to erase over intermingled program output. If the LRETYPE bit in
the local modes word is set, then output is retyped on every input
character which was preceded by program output.
Input echoing and redisplay options.
The driver has several options for handling the echoing of terminal

input, controlled by bits in the local modes word. (The name is an

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TTV(4)

artifact from Berkeley, where the 'new tty' line discipline was originally considered a 'local extension' in the Berkeley system It is
really just another funny-named word containing a bunch of bits
controlling tty operation.)

Hardcopy terminals. The LPRTERA bit is normally set in the local
modes word when a hardcopy terminal is in use. Characters which
are logically erased are then printed out backwards preceded by '\'
and followed by'/' in this mode.

Crt terminals. The LCRTBS bit is normally set in the local modes
word when a crt terminal is in use. The terminal driver then echoes
the proper number of backspace ( "H) characters when input is
erased; in the normal case where the erase character is a "H this
causes the cursor of the terminal to back up to where it was before
the logically erased character was typed. If the input has become
fouled due to interspersed asynchronous output, the input is
automagically retyped.

Erasing characters from a crt. When a crt terminal is in use, the
LCRTERA bit may be set to cause input to be erased from the screen
with a backspace-space-backs pace sequence when character or word
deleting sequences are used. The LCRTKIL bit may be set as well,
causing the input to be erased in this manner with the kill character
as well.
Echoing of control characters. [f the LCTLECH bit is set in the local
modes wor~, then non-printing (control) characters are normally
echoed as X (for some X) rather than being echoed unmodified;
DEL is echoed as "?
Output flow control.

. cause output to be
The stop (t stope) character, normally "5, will
suspended.- The start (t_startc> character, normally "5, will cause
output to resume. Extra stop characters typed when output is
already stopped have no effect. Extra start characters typed when
output is not stopped have no effect except to tum off page mode
(see below). [f the LDECCTQ bit of the local modes word is set,
stopped output will only restart when the start character is input;
otherwise any character will restart output (page mode characters,
discussed below are special here). If the start and stop characters are
both set to the same character, then the function of that character
toggles between stopping and starting output. These characters
have no effect in RAW mode unless the LOUTFLOW bit is set in the
local modes word, in which case they do have this effect, and they
are read instead of discarded.
If the AUTOEN bit in the tty state word is set, output flow is controlled by the ClS input modem control status bit. I.e. output flows
only when C1S is on. Also when AUTOEN is set, input is discarded

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TTY (4)

whenever the OeD input modern control status bit is off.

Flushing input and output.
Output to serial devices, as well as input, is buffered in the tty
driver. Depending on the speed of the device, up to 496 characters
may be buffered by the driver on their way to the output port.
Under certain conditions, the tty driver will discard, or 'flush', buffered output.
The flush (t_flushd character, normally "0, sets the LFLUSHO bit in
the local modes word, causing subsequent output to be flushed until
the LFLUSHO bit is cleared by a program or more input is typed.
This character has effect in both cooked and CBREAK modes and
causes pending input to be retyped if there is any pending input.
The TIOCFLUSH ioctls can be used to flush the characters in the
input and/or output queues depending on the third argument. The
TIOCOUTQ ioctl can be used to determine the number of characters
still in the output queue.

Page mode.
Very fast terminal screen output, such as one finds on the Fortune
32:16 console or on terminals running at 19200 baud, can go by so
fast that you can't read it. Page mode is intended to solve this problem When page mode is on, the tty driver keeps a count of the
number of lines it has output since the last input character. When
this number reaches the number of lines on the page, output stops,
the <  » prompt is printed, and the terminal driver
waits for input. The nxpage (t_pagec) character, normally "F,
enables" another page of output, the nxhalf (t_halfc) character, normally B, enables another half page of output, and the nxline
(t_lined character, normally "E, enables another line of output. If
you type these characters ahead, the amount of output enabled will
accumulate.
If the LPAGE _ EN bit in the local modes word is set, page mode is
enabled, which means that it mayor may not be turned on. Then if
the LPAGE _ ON bit in the local modes word is set, page mode is
turned on. When the LP AGE_EN bit is set, LPAGE _ ON can be set
by typing any of the three page mode characters mentioned above.
The start character turns page mode off, but does not disable it. The
stop character does not tum page mode on or off, but it does stop
output, and then the page mode characters can be used to get more
output.

The TIOCSPAGE and TIOCGP AGE ioctls are used to change the
page length and to read it, respectively. Page mode is never enabled
if the page length is O.

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Input characters that generate signals.
There are several characters that generate signals in cooked and
CBREAK mode; such signals are sent to all processes with the same
process group IO as the tty. In addition, when input, these characters also flush pending input and output. This same flushing action
can be effected with the TIOCFLUSH ioctl.
The interrupt (t_intrc) character, normally "? (same as ASCII DEL),
sends a SIGINT signal. This is the normal way to blow away a process from the terminal. In addition, many interactive programs
catch this signal and revert to command mode when they catch it.
In cooked and CBREAK mode, a received break is converted by the
driver into an interrupt character, and acts just like one. In RAW
mode, a received break is read as a NUL.
The quit (t_quitc) character, normally "\' sends a SIGQUIT signal.
This signal is used to cause a foreground program to terminate and
produce a core image if possible, in a file called core in the current
directory.
Output.
When one or more characters are written, they are transmitted to
the terminal as soon as previously-written characters have finished
typing. (As noted above, input characters are normally echoed by
putting them in the output queue as they arrive.) When a process
writes characters more rapidly than they can be output through the
output hardware, it will be suspended when its· output queue
exceeds a limit which is automatically selected to be higher for
higher output speeds, with a maximum of 496 characters. When the
queue has drained down to a threshold, the program is resumed.

If the LNOEOTOUT bit in the local modes word is set, the EOT
character is not transmitted in cooked or CBREAK mode. This is to
prevent terminals that respond to it from hanging up; programs
using RAW or CBREAK mode should be careful.
If the LLITOUT bit in the local modes word is set, output translations are suppressed in cooked and CBREAK mode, and output acts
much like RAW mode.
Modem control signals
NOTE: Important information on modem control signal information
is presented in sio(4). The tty driver knows about the output
modem control signals 01R and RIS, and the input modem control
signals DCD, OSR, and CIS.

Output modem control signals
Whenever a tty is opened, whether it is the first open or not, the
DTR and RTS output modem control signals are both raised. If the

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TTY(4)

LNOOPENDTR bit of the local modes word is set, DTR will not be
raised on open. Similarly, if the LNOOPENRTS bit of the local
modes word is set, RTS will not be raised on open. If the HUPCLS
bit of the tty state word is set, OTR and RTS will be lowered on last
close. Setting the input speed to 0 causes OTR and RTS to be
lowered immediately. The TIOCSDTR ioctl raises OTR, and the
TIOCCDTR ioctllowers it. The TIOCSRTS ioctl raises RTS, and the
TIOCCRTS ioctl lowers it.

Input modem controL signaLs
If the NOMDMINTS bit of the local modes word is set, then the
input modem control signals are totally ignored, an input break will
act as if it were an ordinary null character, and the discussion of
other features relating to input modem status signals and input
breaks elsewhere in this section becomes moot. (1llis bit should
only be used if the equipment connected to the port generates noise
on one of the input modem control signals, and it is inconvenient to
disconnect the offending signal(s), and the status of the other unoffending signals is unimportant. Specifically, some printers generate
noise on pin 25. Noise on an input modem control signal can very
seriously degrade system performance.)

The current state of the three modem control inputs is available in
the tty state word as the DCD_STATUS, CTS_STATUS, and
DSR_STATUS bits. Three more bits in the tty state word,
DCD_ CHANGE, CTS_ CHANGE, and DSR_CHANGE, are set to
indicate a change since first open or since the most recent
TIOCGETSTATE ioctl on the device. These bits are useful for
detecting transitions that are too quick to be caught by looking at the
status bits.
A process can issue a TIOCSETSIG ioctl to arrange for a specified
signal to be sent to the tty's process group on each transition of
selected input modem control bits. The selection of bits is made
with a bitrnask made up of the DCD STATUS, CTS STATUS, and
DSR_STATUS bits. The TIOCGETSIG ioctl reportS the currently
selected modem status change signal number and the selected bits.
On last close, the bitmask of selected bits and the selected modem
status change signal are both set to O.

Carrier Detect.
The tty driver maintains a bit in the tty state word named
CARR_ON, for 'carrier on'. The name 'connected' would be more
appropriate to its true function, since this bit can often be set when
the DCD input is not. Depending on the settings of the
RESPECTCARR, IWTCARR, and OWTCARR bits in the tty state
word, CARR_ON may go up and down with the DeD input signal
or it may be independent of it.

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If the RESPECTCARR bit in the tty state word is not set, then the
OeD input signal has no effect on CARR_ON, and the IWTCARR
and OWTCARR bits in the tty state word are ignored. In this case,
the CARR_ON bit is set on first open, and cleared on last close.
Both input and output function normally when the CARR_ON bit is
on. If the RESPECTCARR bit in the tty state is set, then
CARR_ON starts out high on first open, but will then go down and
up with the DeD input signal. If OeD makes CARR_ON drop
while the tty is open, a SIGHUP signal is sent to all the processes in
the tty's process group, and all current and subsequent reads and
writes terminate prematurely, i.e. with a returned count of 0 (reads)
or a smaller count than requested (writes). (Pending reads and
writes which are interrupted by the SIGHUP signal will return -1.)
The SIGHUP is suppressed if the LNOHANG bit in the local modes
word is set.

A normal tty device, such as /dev/tty01, is considered an 'incoming'
device. For each incoming device there can be a corresponding 'outgoing' device, which is the same except that its minor device number
is 128 greater than its corresponding incoming device. Logins use
incoming devices; cu(l) and uucico(8) use outgoing devices. For
example, if /dev/tty01, which is an incoming device, is device
major:minor 1:1, then the corresponding outgoing device, which
would probably be named /dev/cuIO, would be device major:minor
1:129. If the RESPECTCARR and IWTCARR bits in the tty state
word are both set on an incoming device, then if DCD is low, opens
will block until DCD comes up, at which point CARR_ON is set and
sleeping open calls will return. Similarly, the OWTCARR bit can be
used to cause opens on an outgoing device to wait for carrier.

If a process, such as getty, is waiting for carrier on an incoming device, the corresponding outgoing device can be used, and the process
sleeping on the incoming device will continue to sleep until the outgoing device is dosed, at which time the incoming process will continue to wait for carrier. If an incoming tty is open, then opens on
the corresponding outgoing tty will fail with errno set to EBUSY.
If the RESPECTCARR bit in the tty state word is set, the
TIOCW AITCARR ioctl can be used to explicitly wait until carrier is
up. This ioctl returns immediately if carrier is already up at the time
of the call.
Breaks.
The TIOCSBRK ioctl will set the 'transmit break' bit in the hardware
interface causing the transmitted line to go to the mark condition
until this condition is reversed by a TIOCCBRK ioctl (usually after a
delay with sleep(3». The TCSBRK ioctl will cause a 250 millisecond
break to be transmitted.

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Fortune Systems

TTV(4)

TTV(4)

An input break in RAW mode is read as a NUL character. In cooked
or CBREAK mode it is read as if it were the interrupt character.
More detail on the ioct} commands.
Programs using tty ioctls will include  and
 which in turn includes . Some ioctls
require including < sys/tty.h > .
#include 
struct sgtty sgtty;
ioctI(filedes, TIOCGETP, &sgtty);
This ioctl reads the sgtty structure. The TIOCSETN ioctl writes it,
and the TIOCSETP ioctl writes it after waiting until output is quiescent, the flushes input and output.
The sgtty structure, and the defines for the bits used in that structure, are defined in :
struct sgttyb {
char
char
char
char
short
};

sg ispeed;
sg=ospeed;
sg erase;
sg=kill;
sg_flags;

The sg ispeed and sg ospeed fields describe the input and output
speeds of the device according to the following table. Symbolic
values in the table are as defined in :
80
850
875
8110
8134
8150
8200
8300
8600
81200
81800
82400
84800
89600
EXTA
EXTB

FOR:PRO

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15

(hang up dataphone)
50 baud
75 baud
110 baud
134.5 baud
150 baud
200 baud
300 baud
600 baud
1200 baud
1800 baud
2400 baud
4800 baud
'9600 baud
External A (19200 baud)
External 8

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TTY (4)

Fortune Systems

TTY (4)

The EXTA baud rate is 19200 baud on the Fortune 32:16. Code
conversion and line control required for IBM 2741's (134.5 baud)
must be implemented by the user's program Half-duplex operation,
(such as is used on the Bell 202 dataset is not supported.
The bits in the sg_flags field are as follows:
ALLDELAY
BSDELAY

0177400
0100000

BSO
BS1
VTDELAY
FFO
FF1
CRDELAY
CRO
CR1
CR2
CR3
TBDELAY
TABO
TAB1
TAB2
XTABS
NLDELAY
NLO
NL1
NL2
NL3

0
0100000
0040000
0
0100000
0030000
0
0010000
0020000
0030000
0006000
0
0001000
0004000
0006000
0001400
0
0000400
0001000
0001400

EVENP

0000200

ODDP
RAW

0000100
0000040

CRMOD

0000020

ECHO
LCASE
CBREAK
TANDEM

0000010
0000004
0000002
0000001

Delay algorithm selection
Select backspace delays
(not implemented):

Select form-feed and vertical-tab delays:

Select carriage-return delays:

Select tab delays:

Select new-line delays:

Even parity allowed on input
(most terminals)
Odd parity allowed on input
Raw mode: wake up on all characters,
8-bit interface
Map input CR into LF,
output LF to CR LF
Echo (full duplex)
Map upper case to lower on input
Return each character as soon as typed
Input flow control

include 
struct tchars tchars;
ioctl(filedes, TIOCGETC, &tchars);
This ioctl reads the tchars structure, and the TIOCSETC ioctl writes
it. This structure contains some of the characters that are special on
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Fortune Systems

TTY(4)

-

input. The tchars structure is defined in
strud tchars {
char
char
char
char
char
char

t_intrc;
t_quitc;

t_startc;
t_stopc;
t_eofc;
t_hrkc;

TTY (4)

< syslioctL. h > :

1* interrupt "'I
1* quit *1
1* start output"I
1* stop output *1
1* end-of-file "'I
1* input delimiter (like nl) *1

include 
struct Itchars Itchars;
iodl(filedes, TIOCGLTC, &Itchars);
'Ihis ioctl reads the ltchars structure, and the TIOCSLTC ioctl writes
it. This structure contains some of the characters that are special on
input. The It<;hars structure is defined in < syslioctl.h >:
struct ltchars {
char
char
char
char
char
char
};

t_suspc;
t_dstopc;
t_rprntc;
t_flushc;
t_ werasec;
t_Inextc;

1* stop process signal "'I
1* delayed stop process signal *1
1* reprint line "'I
1* flush output (toggles) *1
1* word erase *1
1* literal next character *1

The t_suspc and t_dstopc characters are not implemented.
include 
struct ptchars ptchars;
ioctl(filedes, TIOCGPTC, &ptchars);
This ioctl reads the Itchars structure, and the TIOCSPTC ioctl writes
it. This structure contains the characters that are special to page
mode. The ptchars structure is defined in :
struct ptchars {
char
t_pagec;
char
t_linec;
char
t_halfc;
char
t_clearc;

1* show next page *1
1* show next line *1
1* show half next page "'I
1* clear screen and show next
page *1

};
The t_clearc character is not implemented.
Characters in the sgtty, tchars, ltchars, and ptchars structures
should be unique, except that the t stopc and t startc can be the
same for a toggling effect. Setting ooe of these characters to OxFF
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Fortune Systems

TTY (4)

TTY (4)

disables that function.
unsigned long localmodes;
ioct1(filedes, TIOCLGET, &Iocalmodes);
This ioctl reads the local modes word. The TIOCLSET ioctl writes
it, the TIOCLBIS ioctl ORs localmodes into it, and the TIOCLBIC ioctl
ANOs it with the complement of localmodes.
The bits of the local modes word are:
LCRTBS

OxOOOOOl

LPR1ERA
LCR1ERA

OxOOOOO2
OxOOOOO4

LTlLDE

OxOOOOO8

LMDMBUF

OxOOOOlO

LLITOUT
LTOSTOP

OxOOOO20
OxOOOO40

LFLUSHO
LNOHANG

OxOOOO80
OxOOOlOO

LETXACK

OXOOO200

LCRTKIL

OXOOO400

LINTRUP

OxOOO800

LCTLECH

OxOOlOOO

LDECCTQ

OXOO4000

LPAGE EN

OXOO8000

LPAGE ON
L1ELE1EX
LNOEOTOUT
LOUTFLOW

OxOlOOOO
OX020000
OX040000
OX080000

LRE1YPE

OxlOOOOO

LNOOPENDTR
LNOOPENRTS

Ox200000
Ox400000

Backspace on erase rather than
echoing erase
Printing terminal erase mode
Erase character echoes as
backspace-space-backspace
Convert '" to ' on output
(for Haze ltine terminals)
Stop/start output when carrier
drops
Suppress output translations
Send SIGTTOU for background
output
Output is being flushed
Don't send hangup when carrier
drops
Diablo style buffer hacking
( unimplemented)
BS-space-BS erase entire line on
line kill
Generate interrupt SIGTlNT when
input ready to read
.
A
Echo mput control chars as X,
delete as A?
A
A
Only Q restarts output after S,
like DEC systems
Enable page mode, does not tum
it on.
Turn page mode on.
teletex multi-char sequences
don't output EOT's
flow ctrl in raw mode & read the
chars
Retype whenever echoed data is
messed up
Do not raise DTR on open
Do not raise RTS on open

The LTILDE, LTOSTOP, LINTRUP, and LMDMBUF bits are

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Fortune Systems

TTY (4)

TTY (4)

unimplemented.
unsigned long state;
ioctl(filedes, TIOCGETSTATE, &state);
This ioctl reads the tty state word, and the TIOCSETSTATE ioctl
writes certain bits into it.
The interesting bits of the tty state word are:
CARR ON
BUSY
XCLUDE
TISTOP
HUPCLS
TBLOCK
DCD STATUS
CTS STATUS
DSR STATUS
RTS ON
DTR ON
RESPECTCARR
IWTCARR
OWTCARR
AUTOEN

OxOOOOOlO
OxO000020
OXOOOO080
OxOOOOlOO
Ox0000200
Ox0000400
OxOOOlOOO
OxO002000
Ox0004000
OxO008000
OxO 100000
OX0200000
OX0400000
OX0800000
OxlOOOOOO

DCD CHANGE
CTS CHANGE
DSR CHANGE

Ox2000000
Ox4000000
Ox8000000

Connected
Output in progress
Exclusive-use flag against open
Output stopped by ctl-s
Hang up upon last close
Tandem queue blocked
DCD status
CTS status
DSR status (RI on the sio)
Software copy of rts on
Software copy of dtr on
Respect the carrier
Wait for carrier on incoming open
Wait for carrier on outgoing open
DCD & CTS enable receiver and
xmitter
DCD status changed
CTS status changed
DSR status changed
(RI on the sio)

The TIOCSETSTATE ioctl loads only the XCLUDE, HUPCLS,
IWTCARR, OWTCARR, RESPECTCARR, and AUTOEN bits. The
others are read-only. The TIOCGETSTATE ioctl clears the
DCD_CHANGE, CTS_CHANGE, and DSR CHANGE bits after
reading them
include 
struct mdmsig mdmsig;
ioctl(filedes, TIOCSETSIG, &mdmsig);
This ioctl writes the modem signaling information and the
TIOCGETSIG reads it. This information is transmitted with the
mdmsig structure found in :
struct mdmsig {
unsigned long ms mask;/" mask of status bits to
signal on ../
unsigned char ms_ signo;/" which signal to send ..,
};

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TTY (4)

Fortune Systems

TTY (4)

A number of other ioctL(2) calls apply to ttys, and have the general
form:
#include 
ioctl(fildes, command, arg)
item *arg;
where item would be an unsigned long, or a short, or an int, as
appropriate for the ioctl command. Unless otherwise specified, ioctl
commands that don't take an argument should be passed a NULL
pointer for the argo
With the following commands the arg is ignored, although 0 is
recommended.
TIOCEXCL

Set exclusive-use mode: no further opens are permitted until last close.

TIOCNXCL

Tum off exclusive-use mode.

TIOCHPCL

On last close, hang up, i.e. drop the D1R and R1S
outputs. This is useful when the line is associated
with an ACU used to place outgoing calls.

TIOCSAVEMODES
Save the current characteristics as the defaults for
the tty on subsequent first opens. This is what is
saved: sgtty structure, tchars structure, ltchars
structure, ptchars structure, local modes word, line
discipline, page length, and the DTR_ ON,
RTS_ON, DCD_STATUS, CTS_STATUS, and
DSR_STATUS bits of the tty state word.
TIOCWAITCARR
Wait until DCD is up if the RESPECTCARR bit is set
in the tty state word, otherwise return immediately.
In the remaining calls, where arguments are required they are
described; arg should otherwise be given as the NULL pointer (0).
TIOCFLUSH
If arg is 0, all characters waiting in input or output queues are
flushed. If arg is non-O, it is taken as a pointer to an into The
input queue is flushed if the 1 bit of the int is set, and the output queue is flushed if the 2 bit of the int is set.
TIOCSTI
the argument is the address of a character which the system
pretends was typed on the terminal.
TIOCSBRK
the break trans mit bit is set.

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TTY (4)

Fortune Systems

TTY (4)

TIOCCBRK
the break transmit bit is cleared.
TIOCSDTR
DTR output is set.
TIOCCDTR
D1R output is cleared.
TIOCSR1S
R1S output is set.
TIOCCR1S
R1S output is cleared.
TIOCGPGRP
arg is the address of a short into which is placed the process
group number of the tty.
TIOCSPGRP
arg is a short (typically a process id) which becomes the process
group for the tty.
TIOCOUTQ
reads the number of characters awaiting output into the int
whose address is argo
TIOCSPAGE
loads the page length from the int whose address is argo
TIOCGPAGE
reads the page lenth into the int whose address is argo
TCSBRK
Wait for output to be quiescent, and if arg is the NULL pointer,
output a 250 millisecond break.
FIONREAD
returns in the long integer whose address is arg the number of
immediately readable characters from the argument unit. This
works for files, pipes, and ttys.
FILES
Idev/tty

Idev/tty*

Idevlconsole
SEE ALSO

csh(l), stty(l),
ioctl(2), signal(2), stty(2),
getty(8), init(8).

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DEVTYPE(5)

Fortune Systems

DEVTYPE(5)

NAME
devtype - serial line configuration file
DESCRIPTION
Oevtype contains for each serial line the following information:

unix device name
internal name (eg. As described in termcap, printcap .. )
class (P=printer, T=terminal, C=communications device)
number - number of device in it's class
baud rate
external name (eg. location)
service notification port
Status bit 1 = enabled, 0 = disabled
This is an ASCII file. Each field within each entry is separated from
the next by a tab. Each entry is separated from the next by a newline.

This file resides in directory lete.
FILES
letddevtype
SEE ALSO
dtinit(l).

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FOR:PRO

DIR(5)

Fortune Systems

DIR(5)

NAME
dir - format of directories
SYNOPSIS
#include 
DESCRIPTION
A directory behaves exactly like an ordinary file, save that no user
can write into a directory. The fact that a file is a directory is indicated by a bit in the flag word of its i-node entry see, jilsys(5). The
structure of a directory entry as given in the include file is:
#ifndef DIRSIZ
#define DIRSIZ 14
#endif
struct direct

{
ino t
char

d_ino;
d_ name[DIRSIZj;

};

By convention, the first two entries in each directory are for '.' and
' . .'. The first is an entry for the directory itself. The second is for
the parent directory. The meaning of ' .. ' is modified for the root
directory of the master file system and for the root directories of
removable file systems. In the first case, there is no parent, and in
the second, the system does not permit off-device references.
Therefore in both cases ' .. ' has the same meaning as '.'.

SEE ALSO
filsys(5).

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DISK (5)

Fortune Systems

DISK(5)

NAME
disk - Special liD commands for disk devices
SYNOPSIS
ioctl(fildes, request, addr)
devctl(b_or_ c, dev, request, addr)
DESCRIPTION
Special disk maintenance operations are done with the ioetl and
devctl calls. Some special operations may only be done when the
device has no outstanding open(2) calls, necessitating the use of
devctl, and some can be done either with devctl or with ioctl.

The different calls use and return data in addr pointers. The various
calls and their arguments.
devct1(b or c,dev,IOCRCONFB,struct diskconf *)
ioctl(fildes,IOCRCONFB,struct diskconf *)
Read the configuration for this disk into struct diskconf.
devctl(b_ or_ c,dev , IOCWCONFB,struct diskconf *)
Change the configuration block to that in struct diskconf. There
can be no outstanding requests on the drive, and the conf block
must be correct.
devctl(b or c,dev ,IOCFMT ,struct diskconf *)
Format the drive. There may be no outstanding requests. The
conf block must be correct.
devct1(b _ or_ c,dev ,IOCFMTTRK,strud fmttrk *)
Format the track on the drive. Same as above.
devct1(b _ or_ c,dev ,IOCCHMED,unused)
Force driver to assume that media in drive has changed. There
may be no outstanding requests.
devctl(b _ or_ c,dev ,IOCAUTO,struct devauto *)
ioctl(fildes,IOCAUTO,struct devauto *)
Place standard name and mode of device, if it exists, into struct
devauto.
devct1(b or c,dev,IOCSAFE,unused)
Move disk heads to a safe place, in case of power outage, global
or local earthquake, or other acts of Cod.
devct1(b_ or_ c,dev,IOCSEEK,cylinder)
ioctl(fildes,IOCSEEK,cy linder)
Seek disk heads to given cylinder.
devctl(b_ or_ c,dev ,IOCRESET, unused)
Force driver to rebuild its concept of the state of the drive. No
outstanding requests.
devctl(b or c,dev,IOCDRVSTAT,struct diskstat *)
ioctl(fildes,IOCDRVSTAT,struct diskstat *)
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Fortune Systems

DISK (5)

DISK (5)

Report current state of drive: its head position, any error conditions, and indicate any outstanding accesses.
FILES
lusr/include/sys/ioctl. h

lusr/include/sys/diskconf. h
SEE ALSO
devctl(2), ioctl(2), diskconf(5), floppy(5), wd(5).
DIAGNOSTICS
Devctl and ioctl return -1 on error.
LIMITATIONS
It is not guaranteed that all of these commands are implemented in
every driver.

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DISKCONF (5)

Fortune Systems

DISKCONF (5)

NAME
Diskconf
DESCRIPTION
The diskconf structure, also known as the disk configuration block,
occupies the first block of every disk used by the Fortune 32:16. It
contains information describing physical characteristics of the disk,
the disk partition layout, bad block information, etc. used by the
particular disk driver. Mkconf(l), rdconf(l), and format(l) manipulate the config block.
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
The canonical disk described by the config block consists of one or
more platters each of which is a series of dc _cyls concentric circles of
information-bearing magnetic media. The disk also has dc head
read/write heads, each of which has its own platter. The heads can
move from outermost cylinder to the innermost. They are usually
attached together and must move in tandem. Each individual band
is called a track, and there are dc_head * dc _cyls tracks per disk.
Each track is subdivided into dc sectrk sectors. Each sector holds
dc_blksiz bytes. Each sector is called a block, and the standard
address of any sector on the disk is its block number. There are
dc_head * de_eyls * dc _sectrk blocks on a disk. Block numbers
increase by sector, then by head, then by cylinder. The UNIX system has a notion of two kinds of blocks: logical blocks and physical
blocks. Logical blocks are 1024 bytes long. The 32:16 built-in floppy
disk operates with 1024-byte (or 1K) physical blocks. The Winchester disks operate with S12-byte (or 1I2K) physical blocks. All block
numbers in the config block are in physical blocks.
The dc _ wrtred and de _ wrtpre fields stand for write reduce and writeprecompensation. These affect the way data is encoded on the
surface of the disk via magnetic blips. The dc_ro Jags contain one
bit per partition. If that bit is on, the partition can be accessed but
not changed.
The
disk can be
divided
into
NPART (defined
in
/usr/include/sys/diskconf. h) contiguous areas, called partitions. Partition X is described by the first block and number of blocks, i.e., it
starts
at block de _sizes[X].dcJoffset
and
continues
for
dc _sizes[X].dcJsize blocks. The disk can also contain up to NPART
level 1 boot program areas. These are indicated in a separate table,
similar to the partition table. A boot area must be wholly within a
partition, because only the partitions are accessed by the drivers.
When a disk error occurs, the offending block(s) is/are replaced by
the sparing mechanism. When a block is decided to be unusable, any
reference to it is redirected to its replacement block. Spare blocks
are pulled from the first cylinder. Thus, data should never be stored
on the first cylinder. The field dc nbad and the array de_bad[J
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DISKCONF (5)

Fortune Systems

DISKCONF (5)

constitute the bad block map. The construction of the bad block map
differs between devices.
A config block must follow certain rules: dc_magic must contain
CONFMAGIC (defined in 
/linc1ude 
/linc1ude 
/linc1ude < sys/ino.h >
DESCRIPTION
Every file system storage volume (e.g. /dev/hd[O-3J[2-7], /dev/fd[O3][2-7]) has a common format for certain vital information. Every
such volume is divided into a certain number of l024-byte blocks.

Block 0 is unused. Block 1 is the super block. The layout of the super
block as defined by the include file  is:

1*
* Structure of the super-block
*/

struct

filsys {
unsigned short s_ isize; 1* size in blocks of i-list */
daddr t s fsize;
/* size in blocks of entire volume */
short - s==nfree;
/* number of addresses in s free */
daddr t s free[NICFREE]; 1* free block list */
short - s-ninode; 1* number of i-nodes in s inode */
ino t
s- inode[NICINOD]; /* free i-node list */
char
s-flock;
/* lock during free list manipulation */
char
s- ilock;
1* lock during i-list manipulation */
char
s fmod;
1* super block modified flag */
char
s==ronly;
/* mounted read-only flag */
time
s_time;
/* last super block update */

/* remainder not maintained by this version of the system */
daddr_ t s_ tfree;
ino t
s _ tinode; •
short
s_ m;
short
s_n;
char
s _ fname[6];
char
s _ fpack[6];

/*
1*
/*
/*
/*
/*

total free blocks*/
total free inodes *1
interleave factor *1
" " */
file system name */
file system pack name */

};
S isize is the address of the first block after the i-list, which starts just
after the super-block, in block 2. Thus the i-list is s_isize-2 blocks long.
SJize is the address of the first block not potentially available for allocation to a file. These numbers are used by the system to check for bad
block addresses; if an 'impossible' block address is aUocated from the free
list or is freed, a diagnostic is written on the on-line console. Moreover,
the free array is cleared, so as to prevent further allocation from a presumably corrupted free list.
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Fortu ne Systems

FllSYS(5)

FllSYS(5)

The free list for each volume is maintained as follows. The sJee
array contains, in sJee{1]' ... , sJee[s_nfree-1], up to NICFREE free
block numbers. NlCFREE is a configuration constant. 5 Jee[OJ is
the block address of the head of a chain of blocks constituting the
free list. The layout of each block of the free chain as defined in the
include file  is:
struct fblk

{
int
df_ nfree;
daddr_ t df_ free[NICFREE];

};
The fields df_nfree and dfJee in a free block are used exactly like
s_ nfree and sJee in the super block. To allocate a block: decrement
s_nfree, and the new block number is sJee[s_nfree1. If the new
block address is 0, there are no blocks left, so give an error. If
s_ nfree became 0, read the new block into s_ nfree and s Jee. To free
a block, check if 5_ nfree is NlCFREE; if so, copy s_nfree and the
sJee array into it, write it out, and set 5 _n free to O. In any event
set sJee[s _nfree1 to the freed block's address and increment s_nfree.
5_ninode is the number of free i-numbers in the s_in ode array. To
allocate an i-node: if s_ninode is greater than 0, decrement it and
return s inode[s ninodeJ. If it was 0, read the i-list and place the
numbers-of all free inodes (up to NlCINOO) into the s_inode array,
then try again. To free an i-node, provided s_ ninode is less than
NlCINOOE, place its number into s_inode[s _l1illodeJ and increment
s ninode. If s ninode is already NlCINOOE, don't bother to enter the
freed i-node into any table. This list of i-nodes is only to speed up
the allocation process; the information as to whether the inode is
really free or not is maintained in the inode itself.
The fields s lasti and s nbehind are used to avoid searching the
inode list from the beginning each time the system runs out of
inodes. 5_Lasti gives the base of the block of inodes last searched on
the filesystem when inodes ran out, and s_ nbehind gives the number
of inodes, whose numbers were less than 5_lasti when they were
freed with s_ ninode already NlCINOOE. Thus s ninode is the
number of free inodes before s_lasti. The system will search forward
for free inodes from s lasti for more inodes unless s l1behind is sufficiently large, in which case it will search the file system inode list
from the beginning. This mechanism serves to avoid n**2 behavior
in allocating inodes.
5Jock and s_ilock are flags maintained in the core copy of the file
system while it is mounted and their values on disk are immaterial.
The value of sJnod on disk is likewise immaterial; it is used as a flag
to indicate that the super-block has changed and should be copied to

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FILSYS(5)

Fortune Systems

FILSYS(5)

the disk during the next periodic update of file system information.
S_,only is a write-protection indicator; its disk value is also immaterial.
S_time is the last time the super-block of the file system was
changed. During a reboot, s_time of the super-block for the root file
system is used to set the system's idea of the time.
The fields s_tfree, s_tinode, syame and sJJack are not currently
maintained.
I-numbers begin at I, and the storage for i-nodes begins in block 2.
I-nodes are 64 bytes long, so 16 of them fit into a block. I-node 2 is
reserved for the root directory of the file system, but no other inumber has a built-in meaning. Each i-node represents one file.
The format of an i-node as given in the include file  is:
1*
"" Inode structure as it appears on
* a disk block.
*1
struct dinode

{
unsigned short di_ mode; I"" mode and type of file *1
short
di_ nlink;
1* number of Links to file *1
short
di_ uid;
1* owner's user id *1
short
di_gid;
1* owner's group id *1
off t
di_size;
1* number of bytes in file *1
chell
di addr[40]; 1* disk block addresses *1
time t d(~atime;
1* time last accessed *1
time t di_ mtime; I"" time last modified *1
time t di_ctime;
1* time created *1

};
1*

* the 40 address bytes:
*
39 used; 13 addresses
*

of 3 bytes each.

*/

Di_mode tells the kind of file; it is encoded identically to the st_mode
field of stat(2). Di nlink is the number of directory entries (links) that
refer to this i-nOde. Di_ uid and diJid are the owner's user and
group IDs. Size is the number of bytes in the file. Di_atime and
di mtime are the times of last access and modification of the file contents (read, write or create) (see times(2»; Di_ctime records the time
of last modification to the inode or to the file, and is used to determine whether it should be dumped.
Special files are recognized by their modes and not by i-number. A
block-type special file is one which can potentially be mounted as a

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FILSVS(5)

Fortune Systems

FILSVS(5)

file system; a character-type special file cannot, though it is not
necessarily character-oriented. For special files, the di addr field is
occupied by the device code (see types(5». The device cOdes of block
and character special files overlap.
Disk addresses of plain files and directories are kept in the array
di_addr packed into 3 bytes each. The first 10 addresses specify device blocks directly. The last 3 addresses are singly, doubly, and triply indirect and point to blocks of 256 block pointers. Pointers in
indirect blocks have the type daddr _t (see types(5)).
For block b in a file to exist, it is not necessary that all blocks less
than b exist. A zero block number either in the address words of the
i-node or in an indirect block indicates that the corresponding block
has never been allocated. Such a missing block reads as if it contained all zero words.
SEE ALSO

stat(2), dir(5), types(5) dcheck(8), fsck(8), icheck(8), mount(8).

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FOR:PRO

Fortune Systems

FSTAB(5)

FSTAB(5)

NAME
fstab - static information about the file systems
SYNOPSIS
#include 
DESCRIPTION
The file letc/fstab contains descriptive information about the various
file systems. letclfstab is only read by programs, and not written; it is
the duty of the system administrator to properly create and maintain
this file.
These programs use letclfstab: dump, mount, umount, swapon, fock and
df The order of records in letc/fotab is important, for fock, mount, and
umount sequentially iterate through letclfotab doing their thing.
The special file name is the block special file name, and not the character special file name. If a program needs the character special file
name, the program must create it by appending an "r" after the last
"I" in the special file name.
If fo_type is "rw" or "ro" then the file system whose name is given in
the fo Jle field is normally mounted read-write or read-only on the
specified special file. The fo Jeq field is used for these file systems
by the dump(8) command to determine which file systems need to be
dumped. The fs yassno field is used by the fock(8) program to determine the order in which file system checks are done at reboot time.
The root file system should be specified with a fs yassno of 1, and
other file systems should have larger numbers. File systems within a
drive should have distinct numbers, but file systems on different
drives can be checked on the same pass to utilize parallelism available in the hardware.

Fs _type can be specified as IIXX" to cause an entry to be ignored.
This is useful to show disk partitions which are currently not used
but will be used later.
#define FSTAB
#define FSNMLG

"letclfstab"
16

#define FSTABFMT "%I6s:%I6s:%2s:%d:%d\n"
#define FSTABARG(p)
(p)->fs_spec, (p)->fs_file, \
(p)- > fs _type, &(p)- > fs _ freq, &(p)- > fs Jassno
#define FSTABNARGS
5
#define
#define
#define
#define

FSTAB_RW "rw ll
FSTAB_RO "ro"
FSTAB_ SW "sw II
FSTAB_ XX "XXII

/* read write device *1
1* read only device *1
/* swap device *1
1* ignore totally *1

struct fstab {
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FSTAB(5)

Fortune Systems

char
char
char
int
int

FSTAB(5)

fs spec[FSNMLG]i 1* block special device name */
fs~)ile[FSNMLG]i /* file system path prefix */
fs _ type[3]; 1* TW,ro,SW or xx */
fs _ freq;
1* dump frequency, in days */
fs _passno; 1* pass number on parallel dump */

};
The proper way to read records from letclfstab is to use the routines
getfsentO, getfsspecO or getfsfileO.
FILES
letdfstab
SEE ALSO

getfsent(3)

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GROUP (5)

Fortune Systems

GROUP (5)

NAME
group - group file
DESCRIPTION
Group contains for each group the following information:

group name
encrypted password
numerical group lD
a comma separated list of all users allowed in the group
This is an ASCII file. The fields are separated by colons. Each
group is separated from the next by a carriage return. If the password field is null, no password is demanded.
This file resides in directory /etc. Because of the encrypted passwords, it can and does have general read permission and can be
used, for example, to map numerical group lD's to names.
FILES
/etdgroup
SEE ALSO
newgrp(l), passwd(l), pwac(l), crypt(3), passwd(5).
LIMITATIONS
The passwd(l) command won't change the passwords. The group
concept is nowhere near sophisticated enough for 'real' security systems and not really very handy for small systems.

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MOTD(5)

Fortune Systems

MOTD(5)

NAME
motd - message of the day
DESCRIPTION
Motd is a file that resides in directory Jete and is the "message of the
day" that is printed out when users login.
SEE ALSO
login(l)

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FOR:PRO

MTAB(S)

Fortune Systems

MTA8(S)

NAME
mtab - mounted file system table
DESCRIPTION
Mtab resides in directory fete and contains a table of devices mounted
by the mount command. Umount removes entries.
Each entry is 64 bytes long; the first 32 are the null-padded name of
the place where the special file is mounted; the second 32 are the
null-padded name of the special file. The special file has all its directories stripped away; that is, everything through the last 'I' is thrown
away.
This table is present only so people can look at it. It does not matter
to mount if there are duplicate entries or to umount if a name cannot
be found.

FILES
fetcJIl'ltab
SEE ALSO
mount(8).

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PASSWD(5)

Fortune Systems

PASSWD(5)

NAME
passwd - password file
DESCRIPTION
Passwd contains for each user the following information:
name (login name, contains no upper case)
encrypted password
numerical user ID
numerical group ID
comment
initial working directory
program to use as Shell
This is an ASCII file. Each fie ld within each user's entry is separated
from the next by a colon. Each user is separated from the next by a
new-line. If the password field is null, no password is demanded; if
the Shell field is null, then /bin/sh is used.
This file resides in directory /etc. Because of the encrypted passwords, it can and does have general read permission and can be
used, for example, to map numerical user ID's to names.
Appropriate precautions must be ta~en to lock the file against
changes if it is to be edited with a text editor; vipw(8) does the necessary locking.

FILES
/etdpasswd
SEE ALSO
login(l), passwd(l), pwac(l), crypt(3), getpwent(3), group(S).
LIMITATIONS
User information (name, office, etc.) should be stored elsewhere.

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FOR:PRO

Fortune Systems

PRINTCAP (5)

PRINTCAP (5)

NAME
printcap - printer capability data base
SYNOPSIS
letc/printcap
DESCRIPTION
Printcap is a data base describing printers. They are described by
giving a set of capabilities which they have, and by describing how
operations are performed.
Entries in printcap consist of a number of ':' separated fields. The
first entry for each printer gives the names which are known for the
printer, separated by , , characters.

TYPES OF PRINTCAP DESCRIPTORS
:xx: This is a switch. It is either present or absent.
:xx#:
< num> must be a decimal number. This is frequently used as
the number of an algorithm applicable to the printer being
described. Example:
:ir#l:
Use initialization routine 1.
:XX= <

string> :
< string> is any string of ascii characters other than ':'. It may
also include \E for escape, \nnn for an octal code, \n, etc.
Example:
:wh=/etddiab. whl:
Printwheel descriptor file is letddiab. whl

:XX= <

expr>:
 is a string as above. It is evaluated as a sequence of
numbers and operators. The legal operators are:

+, -, *, I, II, > >, < <, I, ", &,

N

The symbol II is remainder (% in C), and the rest have their normal C meanings. There is no precedence, and evaluation is
strictly left to right. Numbers may be decimal, octal (begins
with 0), or hex (begins with Ox). The letter 'I' is interpreted as a
number whose value is an inch. Example:
:bv= I/48*12S:
Maximum vertical increment is 12S/48ths of an inch.
:XX= <

format>:
< format> is a string as above. If the string is to be used to
output a value, it may contain format specifications. A format
specification begins with a '%'. Thus a real '%' must be
represented in the string as '%%'. The '%' is followed by an expr

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Fortune Systems

PRINTCAP (5)

PRINTCAP (5)

as above, with the addition that 'V' is interpreted as the value to
be output. The expr is followed by a 'c', a 'd', or a''''.
c' causes the low order 8 bits of the value of the expression to
be output as a single byte.
I

I

d' causes the value of the expression to be output in decimal.

causes the string which follows (terminated by another ,,,, to
be output the number of times specified by the value of the
expression. The characters in the string are interpreted as 7-bit,
so if a' ", must be repeated, it can be expressed as \242.
I

,,'

Examples:
:ah=EG, %Vd,$:
Absolute horizontal positioning on the IDS is done by sending ESC, 'G', ',', the position to move to as a string of
decimal digits, ',', '$'.

+

:iu=E 36% V lc:
The vertical increment on a Diablo 630 is set by sending
ESC, '\036', and the binary value of the size of the increment plus 1 as a single byte.
:rh=EI% V> >6&077 0100c% V&077 0100c:
Relative horizontal positioning on the Sanders is done by
sending ESC, 'I', and the value in two bytes, each containing 6 bits, and with the 0100 bit on.
:fl=E?E7% V"OELE@:Forms length on the NEC 3510 is set by putting
the printer in format mode (ESC, '?'), clear- ing forms
length (ESC, '7'), sending newlines to feed to the bottom of
the page (% V"\n"), setting form length to the number of
lines just fed (ESC, 'L'), and exiting format mode (ESC, '@').
:XX= < numlist >:
< numlist> must be a list of decimal, octal or hex numbers,
separated by','. This is frequently used as a list of numbers of
an algorithms applicable to the printer being described.

DET AILED DESCRIPTION OF /etc/printcap ENTRIES
Bold text:
:bs#:
bold start routine number or
:bs=:
bold start string
:be#:
bold end routine number or

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PRINTCAP (5)

Fortune Systems

PRINTCAP (5)

:be=:
bold end string
:bo=:
bold offset
:bc=:
bold repeat count

bs can be a number of a routine to enter bold mode or a string
which causes the printer to start printing in the bold mode.
be can be a number of a routine to exit bold mode or a string

which causes the printer to stop printing in the bold mode.
If 'bs' and 'be' are numbers, they must be identical. Routines
currently in existence are 1 and 2. '
Routine 1 prints the char 'be' times, advances the printhead a
distance of 'bo', and prints the char 'be' times. If 'bo' is 0, the
char will print 'be' times (not 2*'be').
Routine 2 disables bolding.
Overstruck text:
:os#:
overstrike start routine number or
:os=:
overstrike start string
:oe#:
overstrike end routine number or
:oe=:
overstrike end string

os can be a number of a routine to enter overstrike mode or a
string which causes the printer to start printing in overstrike
mode.

oe can be a number of a routine to exit overstrike mode or a
string which causes the printer to stop printing in overstrike
mode.
If 'os' and 'oe' are numbers, they must be identical. Routines
currently in existence are 1 and 2.
Routine 1 prints each character overstruck with a ' /'.
Routine 2 disables overstriking.
Underlined text:
:us#:
underline start routine number or

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PRINTCAP (5)

Fortune Systems

PRINTCAP (5)

:us=:
underline start string
:ue#:
underline end routine number or
:ue= :
underline end string

us can be a number of a routine to enter underline mode or a
string which causes the printer to start printing in underline
mode.

ue can be a number of a routine to exit underline mode or a
string which causes the printer to stop printing in underline
mode.
If 'us' and 'ue' are numbers, they should be identical. Routines
currently in existence are 1 and 2.

Routine 1 prints the characters to be underlined, backs up the
print head, and underlines them
Routine 2 disables underlining.
Double underlined text:
:ds#:
double underline start routine number or
:ds= < string>:
double underline start string
:de#:
double underline end routine number or
:de= < string>:
double underline end string
:di= < expr> :
double underline increment
ds can be a number of a routine to enter double underline mode

or a string which causes the printer to start printing in double
underline mode.
de can be a number of a routine to exit double underline mode
or a string which causes the printer to stop printing in double
underline mode.
If 'ds' and 'de' are numbers, they should be identical. Routines
currently in existence are 1 and 2.

Routine 1 prints the characters to be underlined, backs up the
print head, underlines them, moves down the double underline
increment, backs up the print head, underlines again, and
moves up the double underline increment.

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PRINTCAP (5)

Fortune Systems

PRINTCAP (5)

Routine 2 disables double underlining.
Unrecognized sequences:
:Bs#:
bad sequence start routine number or
:Bs= < string>:
bad sequence start string
:Be#:
bad sequence end routine number or
:Be=:
bad sequence end string

Bs can be a number of a routine to enter bad sequence display
mode or a string which causes the printer to start printing in
this mode.
Be can be a number of a routine to exit bad sequence display
mode or a string which causes the printer to stop printing in this
mode.
If '8s' and 'Be' are numbers, they should be identical. Routines
currently in existence are 1 and 2.

Routine 1 prints the characters to be displayed in this mode,
backs up the print head, and prints "A",S underneath them
Routine 2 disables the special mode display.
Horizontal motion:
:hf=:
list of horizontal positioning routine numbers

hI is

a list of routine numbers to be tried for moving horizon-

tally.
All routines in the list will be tried, and the one producing the
fewest bytes will be used. Routines currently in existence are I,
2, 3, 4, and 5.
Routines 1 to 4 output spaces or the string 'bk' to move to the
desired location, changing the increment as necessary, using the
routine specified in 'hi'.
Routines 2 and 4 change to the largest increment first.
Routines 1 and 3 only change the increment if the distance to be
traversed is not an integral multiple of the current increment.
Routines 1 and 2 move left by sending backspaces.
Routines 3 and 4 move left by sending the string' cr' followed by
spaces.

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PRINTCAP (5)

Fortune Systems

PRINTCAP (5)

Routine 5 moves to the desired horizontal location by sending
the number of minimum increments 'lh' formatted according to
'ah'.
:ah= < format>:
absolute horizontal positioning string
ah is used only if horizontal positioning routine 5 is selected.

:nb:
no backspace (for diablo firmware)

nb prevents routines 1 thru 4 from sending a backspace. The
firmware in some Diablo 630' s does not always get its backspace
increment from the horizontal increment register.
:hi#:
horizontal increment routine
:lh= < expr> :
minimum (littlest) horizontal increment
:bh= < expr>:
maximum (biggest) horizontal increment
:ih= < format>:
horizontal increment string
hi is the number of the routine to set the horizontal increment.
This is only used if routine I, 2, 3, or 4 is specified in the 'hf
list. Routines currently in existence are 1 and 2.

Routine 1 is used to change the horizontal increment by sending
the number of minimum increments 'lh' formatted according to
'ih'. It never changes to an increment larger than 'bh'.
Routine 2 does nothing.
:cr= < string>:
carriage return

cr is the string sent to move the printhead to the left margin.
:bk= :
backspace
bk is the string sent to move the printhead left one character
position.

Vertical motion:
:vf=:
list of vertical positioning routine numbers

vf is a list of routine numbers to be tried

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for moving vertically.

FOR:PRO

PRINTCAP (5)

Fortune Systems

PRINTCAP (5)

All routines in the list are tried, and the one producing the
fewest bytes is used. Routines currently in existence are 1, 2,
and 3.
Routines 1 and 2 output up or down strings to move to the
desired location, changing the increment as necessary, using the
routine specified in 'vu' or 'vd' as appropriate.
Routine 2 changes to the largest increment first.
Routine 1 only changes the increment if the distance to be
traversed is not an integral multiple of the current increment.
Routine 3 is used only for an IDS printer.
Routine 4 outputs the string 'ff if the destination is the bottom
of the page.
:vd#:
downward vertical increment routine number
:vu#:
upward vertical increment routine number
:bv=:
maximum (biggest) vertical increment
:lv=:
minimum (littlest) vertical increment
:id=:
downward vertical increment string
:iu=:
upward vertical increment string
vd is the number of the routine to set the downward vertical

increment.
vu is the number of the routine set the upward vertical increment. These are only used if routine 1 or 2 is specified in the
'vf list. Routines currently in existence are 1 and 2.
Routine 1 is used to change the vertical increment by sending
the number of minimum increments 'Iv' formatted according to
'id' or 'iu'. It never changes to an increment larger than 'bh'.
Routine 2 does nothing.
:ud:
up and down vertical increments are kept in separate registers
This indicates that 'id' and 'iu' load different registers in the
printer.

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PRINTCAP (5)

Fortune Systems

PRINTCAP (5)

:ii= < format>:
Third vertical increment string

ii initializes another vertical increment register for the IDS
printer.
:dn= < string>:
line feed
:up= < string>:
reverse line feed
dn and up are the strings sent to move down or up on the page
by the current vertical increment.
:ff=:
form feed

if is the string sent to eject a page.
:xv=:
extra vertical increment for good paper registration when moving upwards
When moving paper backwards, it is sometimes necessary to
move back some distance beyond the desired location, and then
move forward in order to take up paper slack. xv is this distance.
:dm- :
defeat firmware
Some printers have optimizing firmware that takes a sequence
such as 'up 3 units, down 2 units', and turns it into 'up 1 unit'.
If the hardware on such a printer does not give good vertical
registration, setting the 'xv' value to nonzero does not have the
desired effect. The firmware defeats the software attempt to
make up for the hardware limitations. dm is any string which
convinces the firmware that it has printed something. This
prevents the firmware from outsmarting the software.
:sd#:
subscript routine number
:su#:
superscript routine number
Routines currently in existence are 1 and 2.
Routine 1 moves vertically by a fraction of a line.
Routine 2 disables superscripting and subscripting.
Miscellaneous:

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FOR:PRO

PRINTCAP (5)

Fortune Systems

PRINTCAP (5)

:is= :
initialization string

is is the string sent to reset the printer to a known state for all
attributes except forms length and top of form
:tf= < string> :
top of form initialization string

tf is the string sent to reset forms length and top of form This is
used by spoolers between print jobs. WP uses fl and fi instead.
This string may cause the printer to read its switch settings or
set forms length to a fixed value.
:ir#:
initialization routine number
Routines currently in existence are 1 and 2.
Routine 1 does nothing.
Routine 2 is used only by the IDS.
:fi=:
forms length increment
:fl= < format>:
forms length initialization
The page length is set using fl. The value formatted ('V') is ' fi',
or the current line height if 'fi' evaluates to O.
:pl=:
pitch if 10 cpi selected from menu
:p2=:
pitch if 12 cpi selected from menu
:p3= < expr > :
pitch if 15 cpi selected from menu (IDS uses 16.8)
These are the fractions of an inch to be used as a character
width for the menu selections labeled 10, 12, and 15 pitch.
:wh= < string>:
printwheel descriptor file
This is the file from which font information is taken.
:of= < string>:
output filter
This is an executable file, which filters wpprfmt's output into
printer-specific, print-ready format.

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PRINTCAP (5)

Fortune Systems

PRINTCAP (5)

:qo#:
quick output routine number
Routines currently in existence are 1 and 2.
Routine 1 is the normal one to use.
Routine 2 is used only by the IDS.
ALPHABETIC LISTING OF PRINTCAP SWITCHES
:ah= < format>:
absolute horizontal positioning string
:bc=:
bold repeat count
:be#:
bold end routine number
:be=:
bold end string
:Be#:
unrecognized \ sequence end routine number
:Be= :
unrecognized \ sequence end string
:bh=:
maximum (biggest) horizontal increment
:bk= :
backspace
:bo=:
bold offset
:bs#:
bold start routine number
:bs=:
bold start string
:Bs#:
unrecognized \ sequence start routine number
:Bs= < string>:
unrecognized \ sequence start string
:bv=:
maximum (biggest) vertical increment
:cr= :
carriage return

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FOR:PRO

PRINTCAP (5)

Fortune Systems

PRINTCAP (5)

:de#:
double underline end routine number
:de= :
double underline end string
:di= < expr>:
double underline increment
:dm= :
defeat firmware - send this string to keep the printer from
optimizing out our ups and downs, intended to produce good
paper registration when moving upwards
:dn= < string>:
line feed
:ds#:
double underline start routine number
:ds=:
double underline start string
:ff= < string>:
form feed
:fi=:
forms length incre ment
:f1= < format>:

forms length initialization string
:hf= :
list of horizontal positioning routine numbers
:hi#:
horizontal increment routine
:id= < format>:
downward vertical increment string
:ih= < format>:
horizontal increment string
:ii= < format>:
third vertical increment string
:ir#:
initialization routine number
:is= < string>:
initialization string
:iu= < format>:
upward vertical increment string

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PRINTCAP(5)

Fortune Systems

PRINTCAP (5)

:lh= < expr>:
minimum (littlest) horizontal incre ment
:lv= < expr>:
minimum (littlest) vertical increment
:nb:
no backspace (for diablo firmware)
:oe#:
overstrike end routine number
:oe= < string>:
overstrike end string
:of=:
output filter
:os#:
overstrike start routine number
:os=:
overstrike start string
:p1=:
pitch if 10 cpi selected from menu
:p2= < expr>:
pitch if 12 cpi selected from menu
:p3= < expr>:
pitch if 15 cpi selected from menu (IDS uses 16.8)
:qo#:
quick output routine number
:sd#:
subscript routine number
:su#:
superscript routine number
:tf: reset top of form and set form length to a known value
:ud:
up and down vertical increments are kept in separate registers
:ue#:
underline end routine number
:ue=:
underline end string
:up= < string>:
reverse line feed

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PRINTCAP (5)

Fortune Systems

PRINTCAP (5)

:us#:
underline start routine number
:us= :
underline start string
:vd#:
downward vertical increment routine number
:vf= :
list of vertical positioning routine numbers
:vu#:
upward vertical increment routine number
:wh= :
printwheel descriptor file
:xv=:
extra vertical increment for good paper registration when moving upwards
FILES
/etdprintcap
file containing printer descriptions
SEE ALSO
printcap(5)

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PROFILE (5)

Fortune Systems

PROFILE (5)

NAME
profile - setting up an environment at login time
DESCRIPTION
If your login directory contains a file named .profile, that file will be
executed (via the shell's exee .profile) before your session begins;
.profiles are handy for setting exported environment variables and
terminal modes. If the file fete/profile exists, it will be executed for
every user before the . profile. The following example is typical
(except for the comments):
=1= Make some environment variables global
export MAIL PATH TERM
=1= Set file creation mask
umask 22
=1= Tell me when new mail comes in
MAIL=/usrlspooV maiV myna me
=1= Add my Ibin directory to the shell search sequence
PATH=$PATH:$HOMEibin

Currently letdprofile defines Ipr defaults for users printing from the
global menu, system language defaults (eg. LANGUAGE=EN), and
specifies XON/XOFF protocol for Fortune terminals.

FILES

s-l$HOME/. profile
fete/profile
SEE ALSO
login(l), mail(l), menu(l), sh(l), stty(l), su(l).

BUGS
At present, the "/etdprofile" file is only implemented for users
whose shell is menu(l).

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Fortune Systems

TERMCAP(5)

TERMCAP(5)

NAME
terrncap - terminal capability data base
SYNOPSIS
/etc/termcap
DESCRIPTION
Termcap is a data base describing terminals, used, e.g., by vi(l) and
curses(3). Terminals are described in termcap by giving a set of capabilities which they have, and by describing how operations are performed. Padding requirements and initialization sequences are
included in termcap.

Entries in termcap consist of a number of I:' separated fields. The
first entry for each terminal gives the names which are known for
the terminal, separated by characters. The first name is always two
characters long and is used by older version six systems which store
the terminal type in a 16-bit word in a systemwide data base. The
second name given is the most common abbreviation for the terminal, and the last name given should be a long name fully identifying
the terminal. The second name should contain no blanks; the last
name can contain blanks for readability.
CAPABILITIES
(P) indicates padding can be specified
(P*) indicates that padding can be based on no. lines affected

Name
ae
al
am
as
be
bs
bt
bw
CC
cd
ce
ch

cI
cm
co
cr
cs
cv
da
dB
db
FOR:PRO

Type
str
str
boo I
str
str
bool
str
bool
str
str
str
str
str
str
num
str
str
str
bool
num
bool

(P)
(P*)
(P)

(P)

(P*)
(P)
(P)

(P*)
(P)
(P*)

(P)
(P)

Pad? Description
End alternate character set
Add new blank line
Terminal has automatic margins
Start alternate character set
Backspace if not IIH
Terminal can backspace with IIH
Back tab
Backspace wraps from column 0 to last column
Command character in prototype if terminal settable
Clear to end of display
Clear to end of line
Like cm but horizontal motion only, line stays same
Clear screen
Cursor motion
Number of columns in a line
.
II
Carnage return, (default M)
Change scrolling region (vt100), like cm
Like ch but vertical only.
Display can be retained above
Number of millisec of bs delay needed
Display can be retained below
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TERMCAP(5)

dC
dc
dF
dl
dm
dN
do
dT
ed
ei
eo
ff
hc
hd
ho
hu
hz

num
str
num
str
str
num
str
num
str
str
str
str
boo I
str
str
str
str
ic
str
if
str
im
bool
in
bool
str
ip
is
str
kO-k9 str
kb
str
kd
str
ke
str
kh
str
kl
str
kn
num
ko
str
kr
str
ks
str
ku
str
10-19 str
Ii
num
11
str
rna
str
mi
bool
m1
str
ms
bool
mu
str
nc
bool
nd
str
nl
str
ns
bool
bool
os
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Fortune Systems

TERMCAP(5)

Number of millisec of cr delay needed
Delete character
Number of millisec of ff delay needed
(P*) Delete line
Delete mode (enter)
Number of millisec of nl delay needed
Down one line
Number of millisec of tab delay needed
End delete mode
End insert mode; give :ei=: if ic
Can erase overstrikes with a blank
(P*) Hardcopy terminal page eject (default "L)
Hardcopy terminal
Half-line down (forward 112 Iinefeed)
Home cursor (if no cm)
Half-line up (reverse 112 line feed)
Hazeltine; can't print ""s
(P)
Insert character
Name of file containing is
Insert mode (enter); give :im=: if ic
Insert mode distinguishes nulls on display
(P*) Insert pad after character inserted
Terminal initialization string
Sent by other function keys 0-9
Sent by backspace key
Sent by terminal down arrow key
Out of keypad transmit mode
Sent by home key
Sent by terminal left arrow key
Number of other keys
Termcap entries for other non-function keys
Sent by terminal right arrow key
Put terminal in keypad transmit mode
Sent by terminal up arrow key
Labels on other function keys
Number of lines on screen or page
Last line, first column (if no cm)
Arrow key map, used by vi version 2 only
Safe to move while in insert mode
Memory lock on above cursor.
Safe to move while in standout and underline mode
Memory unlock (tum off memory lock).
No correctly working carriage return (DM2500,H2000)
Non-destructive space (cursor right)
(P*) Newline character (default \n)
Terminal is a CRT but doesn't scroll.
Terminal overstrikes
(P*)

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TERMCAP(5)

str
boo I
str
(P)
str
num
str
str
(P)
str
(P)
str
str
str
str
str
num
bool
str
str
str
str
str
boo I
bool
bool
boo I
bool

pc
pt
se
sf
sg
so
sr
ta
tc
te
ti
uc
ue
ug
ul
up
us
vb
ve
vs
xb
xn
xr
xs
xt

Fortune Systems

TERMCAP(5)

Pad character (rather than null)
Has hardware tabs (may need to be set with is)
End stand out mode
Scroll forwards
Number of blank chars left by so or se
Begin stand out mode
Scroll reverse (b~ckwards)
Tab (other than I or with padding)
Entry of similar terminal - must be last
String to end programs that use cm
String to begin programs that use cm
Underscore one char and move past it
End underscore mode
Number of blank chars left by us or ue
Terminal underlines even though it doesn't overstrike
Upline (cursor up)
Start underscore mode
Visible bell (may not move cursor)
Sequence to end open/visual mode
Sequence to start open/visual mode
Beehive (f1=escape, f2=ctrl C)
A newline is ignored after a wrap (Concept)
Return acts like ce \r \n (Delta Data)
Standout not erased by writing over it (HP 264?)
Tabs are destructive, rna.gic so char (Teleray 1061)

A Sample Entry
The following entry, which describes the Concept-IOO, is among the
more complex entries in the termcap file as of this writing. (This particular concept entry is outdated, and is used as an example only.)
c11c100IconceptlOO:\
:is=\EU\Ef\E7\E5\E8\EI\E~\EK\E\2g0\Eo&\~00:\

:al=3*\E R:am:bs:cd=16*\E C:ce=16\E
S:cl=2*
L:\
II
II
:cm=\Ea%+ %+ :co#80:dc=16\E A:dl=3*\E B:ei=\E\200:eo:\
:00= \ Ellp:in:ip= 16*:li#24:mi:nd= \E=: \
:se=\Ed\Ee:so=\ED\EE:ta=8\t:ul:up=\E;:vb=\Ek\EK:xn:
Entries can continue onto multiple lines by giving a \ as the last
character of a line, and empty fields can be included for readability
(here between the last field on a line and the first field on the next).
Capabilities in termcap are of three types: Boolean capabilities which
indicate the terminal has some particular feature, numeric capabilities giving the size of the terminal or the size of particular delays,
and string capabilities, which give a sequence which can be used to
perform particular terminal operations.
Types of Capabilities
All capabilities have two letter codes. For instance, the fact that the
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TERMCAP(5)

Concept has "automatic margins" (i.e. an automatic return and
linefeed when the end of a line is reached) is indicated by the capability am Hence the description of the Concept includes am
Numeric capabilities are followed by the character '#' and then the
value. Thus co which indicates the number of columns the terminal
has gives the value '80' for the Concept.
Finally, string valued capabilities, such as ce (clear to end of line
sequence) are given by the two character code, an '=', and then a
string ending at the next following ':'. A delay in milliseconds may
appear after the '=' in such a capability, and padding characters are
supplied by the editor after the remainder of the string is sent to
provide this delay. The delay can be either a integer, e.g. '20', or an
integer followed by an '*', i.e. '3*'. An ,*, indicates that the padding
required is proportional to the number of lines affected by the operation, and the amount given is the per-affected-unit padding
required. When an ,*, is specified, it is sometimes useful to give a
delay of the form '3.5' and specify a delay per unit to tenths of milliseconds.
A number of escape sequences are provided in the string valued
capabilities for easy encoding of characters there. A \ E maps to an
II
•
ESCAPE character, x maps to a control-x for any appropnate x, and
the sequences \n \r \t \b \f give a newline, return, tab, backspace
and formfeed. Finally, characters may be given as three octal digits
after a \' and the characters II and \ can be given as \" and \ \. If it
is necessary to place a : in a capability it must be escaped in octal as
\ 072. If it is necessary to place a null character in a string capability
it must be encoded as \200. The routines which deal with termcap
use C strings, and strip the high bits of the output very late so that a
\200 comes out as a \000 would.
Preparing Descriptions
We now outline how to prepare descriptions of terminals. The most
effective way to prepare a terminal description is by imitating the
description of a similar terminal in termcap and to build up a description gradually, using partial descriptions with ex to check that they
are correct. Be aware that a very unusual terminal may expose deficiencies in the ability of the termcap file to describe it or limitations in
ex. To easily test a new terminal description you can set the environment variable TERMCAP to a pathname of a file containing the
description you are working on and the editor looks there rather
than in /etcltermcap. TERMCAP can also be set to the termcap entry
itself to avoid reading the file when starting up the editor. (1his
only works on version 7 systems.)
Basic Capabilities
The number of colunms on each line for the terminal is given by the
co numeric capability. If the terminal is a CRT, then the number of

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TERMCAP(5)

lines on the screen is given by the Ii capability. If the terminal wraps
around to the beginning of the next line when it reaches the right
margin, then it should have the am capability. If the terminal can
clear its screen, then this is given by the cl string capability. If the
terminal can backspace, then it should have the bs capability, unless
a backspace is accomplished by a character other than "H in which
case you should give this character as the be string capability. If it
overstrikes (rather than clearing a position when a character is struck
over) then it should have the os capability.
A very important point here is that the local cursor motions encoded
in termcap are undefined at the left and top edges of a CRT terminal.
The editor never attempts to backspace around the left edge, nor
attempts to go up locally off the top. The editor assumes that feeding off the bottom of the screen causes the screen to scroll up, and
the am capability tells whether the cursor sticks at the right edge of
the screen. If the terminal has switch selectable automatic margins,
the termcap file usually assumes that this is on, i.e. am.
These capabilities suffice to describe hardcopy and "glass-tty" terminals. Thus the model 33 teletype is described as
t3 33 tty33:co#72:os
while the Lear Siegler ADM-3 is described as
cl adm3 3 lsi adrn3:am:bs:cl= "Z:li#24:co#80
Cursor addressing
Cursor addressing in the terminal is described by a cm string capability, with printf(3s) like escapes %x in it. These substitute to encodings of the current line or column position, while other characters
are passed through unchanged. If the cm string is thought of as
being a function, then its arguments are the line and then the
column to which motion is desired, and the % encodings have the
following meanings:
%das in printf, 0 origin
%2like %2d
%3like %3d
%.like %c
% +xadds x to value, then %.
% >xyif value> x adds y, no output.
%rreverses order of line and column, no output
%iincrements linelcolumn (for 1 origin)
%%gives a single %
%nexclusive or row and column with 0140 (DM2S00)
%BBCD (16*(X/10»
(x%10), no output.
%DReverse coding (x-2*(x%16)), no output. (Delta Data).

+

Consider the HP2645, which, to get to row 3 and column 12, needs
to be sent \E&a12c03Y padded for 6 milliseconds. Note that the
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TERMCAP(5)

order of the rows and columns is inverted here, and the row and
colunm are printed as two digits. Thus its cm capability is
"cm-6\E&%r%2c%2Y". The Microterm ACT-IV needs the current
row and column sent preceded by a "T, with the row and column
simply encoded in binary, "cm= "T%. %.". Terminals which use
"%." need to be able to backspace the cursor (bs or be), and to move
the cursor up one line on the screen (up introduced below). This is
necessary because it is not always safe to transmit \t, \n "0 and \r,
as the system can change or discard them
A final example is the LSI AOM3a, which uses row and column
offset by a blank character, thus "cm=\E=%+ %+ ".
Cursor motions
If the terminal can move the cursor one position to the right, leaving
the character at the current position unchanged, then this sequence
should be given as nd (non-destructive space). If it can move the
cursor up a line on the screen in the same column, this should be
given as up. If the terminal has no cursor addressing capability, but
can home the cursor (to very upper left comer of screen) then this
can be given as ho; similarly a fast way of getting to the lower left
hand comer can be given as 11; this may involve going up with up
from the home position, but the editor never does this itself (unless
11 does) because it makes no assumption about the effect of moving
up from the home position.
Area clears
If the terminal can clear from the current pOSition to the end of the
line, leaving the cursor where it is, this should be given as ceo If the
terminal can clear from the current pOSition to the end of the
display, then this should be given as cd. The editor only uses cd
from the first column of a line.
Insertldelete line
If the terminal can open a new blank line before the line where the
cursor is, this should be given as al; this is done only from the first
position of a line. The cursor must then appear on the newly blank
line. If the terminal can delete the line which the cursor is on, then
this should be given as dl; this is done only from the first position on
the line to be deleted. If the terminal can scroll the screen backwards, then this can be given as sb, but just al suffices. If the terminal can retain display memory above then the da capability should
be given; if display memory can be retained below then db should be
given. These, let the editor understand that deleting a line on the
screen can bring non-blank lines up from below or that scrolling back
with sb can bring down non-blank lines.
Insertldelete character
There are two basic kinds of intelligent terminals with respect to
insert/delete character which can be described using tenncap. The

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TERMCAP(5)

most common insert/delete character operations affect only the characters on the current line and shift characters off the end of the line
rigidly. Other terminals, such as the Concept 100 and the Perkin
Elmer Owl, make a distinction between typed and untyped blanks
on the screen, shifting upon an insert or delete only to an untyped
blank on the screen which is either eliminated, or expanded to two
untyped blanks. You can find out which kind of terminal you have
by dearing the screen and then typing text separated by cursor
motions. Type "abc def" using local cursor motions (not spaces)
between the "abc" and the "def". Then position the cursor before
the "abc" and put the terminal in insert mode. If typing characters
causes the rest of the line to shift rigidly and characters to fall off the
end, then your terminal does not distinguish between blanks and
untyped positions. If the "abc" shifts over to the "def" which then
move together around the end of the current line and onto the next
as you insert, you have the second type of terminal, and should give
the capability in, which stands for "insert null". If your terminal
does something different and unusual then you may have to modify
the editor to get it to use the insert mode your terminal defines.
The editor can handle both terminals which have an insert mode,
and terminals which send a simple sequence to open a blank position on the current line. Give as im the sequence to get into insert
mode, or give it an empty value if your terminal uses a sequence to
insert a blank position. Give as ei the sequence to leave insert mode
(give this, with an empty value also if you gave im so). Now give as
ic any sequence needed to be sent just before sending the character
to be inserted. Most terminals with a true insert mode will not give
ic, terminals which send a sequence to open a screen position should
give it here. (Insert mode is preferable to the sequence to open a
position on the screen if your terminal has both.) If post insert padding is needed, give this as a number of milliseconds in ip (a string
option). Any other sequence which needs to be sent after an insert
of a single character can also be given in ip.
It is occasionally necessary to move around while in insert mode to
delete characters on the same line (e.g. if there is a tab after the
insertion position). If your terminal allows motion while in insert
mode you can give the capability rni to speed up inserting in this
case. Omitting rni affects only speed. Some terminals (notably
Datamedia's) must not have mi because of the way their insert mode
works.

Finally, you can specify delete mode by giving drn and ed to enter
and exit delete mode, and dc to delete a single character while in
delete mode.
Highlighting, underlining, and visible bells
If your terminal has sequences to enter and exit standout mode
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TERMCAP(5)

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TERMCAP(5)

these can be given as so and se respectively. If there are several flavors of standout mode (such as inverse video, blinking, or underlining - half bright is not usually an acceptable "standout" mode unless
the terminal is in inverse video mode constantly) the preferred mode
is inverse video by itself. If the code to change into or out of standout mode leaves one or even two blank spaces on the screen, as
the TVI 912 and Teleray 1061 do, then ug should be given to tell
how many spaces are left.
Codes to begin underlining and end underlining can be given as us
and ue respectively. If the terminal has a code to underline the
current character and move the cursor one space to the right, such
as the Microterm Mime, this can be given as uc. (If the underline
code does not move the cursor to the right, give the code followed
by a nondestructive space.)
Many terminals, such as the HP 2621, automatically leave standout
mode when they move to a new line or the cursor is addressed.
Programs using standout mode should exit standout mode before
moving the cursor or sending a newline.
If the terminal has a way of flashing the screen to indicate an error
quietly (a bell replacement) then this can be given as vb; it must not
move the cursor. If the terminal should be placed in a different
mode during open and visual modes of ex, this can be given as vs
and ve, sent at the start and end of these modes respectively. These
can be used to change, e.g., from a underline to a block cursor and
back.
If the terminal needs to be in a special mode when running a program that addresses the cursor, the codes to enter and exit this
mode can be given as ti and teo This arises, for example, from terminals like the Concept with more than one page of memory. If the
terminal has only memory relative cursor addressing and not screen
relative cursor addressing, a one screen-sized window must be fixed
into the terminal for cursor addressing to work properly.
If your terminal correctly generates underlined characters (with no
special codes needed) even though it does not overstrike, then you
should give the capability ul. If overstrikes are erasable with a
blank, then this should be indicated by giving eo.

Keypad
If the terminal has a keypad that transmits codes when the keys are
pressed, this information can be given. Note that it is not possible
to handle terminals where the keypad only works in local (this
applies, for example, to the unshifted HP 2621 keys). If the keypad
can be set to transmit or not transmit, give these codes as ks and ke.
Otherwise the keypad is assumed to always transmit. The codes
sent by the left arrow, right arrow, up arrow, down arrow, and

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TERMCAP(5)

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TERMCAP(5)

home keys can be given as kI, kr, ku, kd, and kh respectively. If
there are function keys such as £0, fl., ... , f9, the codes they send
can be given as kO, kI, ... , k9. If these keys have labels other than
the default £0 through f9, the labels can be given as 10, 11, ... , 19. If
there are other keys that transmit the same code as the terminal
expects for the corresponding function, such as clear screen, the
termcap 2 letter codes can be given in the ko capability, for example,
":ko=cl,ll,sf,sb:", which says the terminal has clear, home down,
scroll down, and scroll up keys that transmit the same thing as the
cl, ll, sf, and sb entries.
The rna entry is also used to indicate arrow keys on terminals which
have single character arrow keys. It is obsolete but still in use in
version 2 of vi, which must be run on some minicomputers due to
memory limitations. This field is redundant with kI, kr, ku, kd, and
kh. It consists of groups of two characters. In each group, the first
character is what an arrow key sends, the second character is the
corresponding vi command. These commands are h for kI, j for kd,
k for ku, I for kr, and H for kh. For examole, the mime would be
A
,A
II
A"
II
:ma= KJ ~k XI: indicating arrow keys left ( H), down ( K), up ( Z),
and right (X). (There is no home key on the mime.)
Miscellaneous
lf the terminal requires other than a null (zero) character as a pad,
then this can be given as pc.
lf tabs on the terminal require padding, or if the terminal uses a
character other than "I to tab, then this can be given as tao

Hazeltine terminals, which don't allow ,"I, characters to be printed
should indicate hz. Datamedia terminals, which echo carriage-return
linefeed for carriage return and then ignore a following line feed
should indicate nco Early Concept terminals, which ignore a line feed
immediately after an am wrap, should indicate xn. If an erase-eol is
required to get rid of standout (instead of merely writing on top of
it), xs should be given. Teleray terminals, where tabs tum all characters moved over to blanks, should indicate xt. Other specific terminal problems may be corrected by adding more capabilities of the
forrnxx.
Other capabilities include is, an initialization string for the terminal,
and if, the name of a file containing long initialization strings. These
strings are expected to properly clear and then set the tabs on the
terminal, if the terminal has settable tabs. If both are given, is is
printed before if. This is useful where if is lusrllibltabsetlstd but is
clears the tabs first.
Similar Terminals
If there are two very similar terminals, one can be defined as being
just like the other with certain exceptions. The string capability tc

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TERMCAP(5)

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TERMCAP(5)

can be given with the name of the similar terminal. This capability
must be last and the combined length of the two entries must not
exceed 1024. Since tennlib routines search the entry from left to
right, and since the tc capability is replaced by the corresponding
entry, the capabilities given at the left override the ones in the similar terminal. A capability can be cancelled with xx@ where xx is the
capability. For example, the entry
hn 2621nl:ks@:ke@:tc=2621:

defines a 2621nl that does not have the ks or ke capabilities, and
hence does not tum on the function key labels when in visual mode.
This is useful for different modes for a terminal, or for different user
pre ferences.
FILES
letdtermcap

file containing terminal descriptions

SEE ALSO
ex(l), more(l). tset(l), ul(l), vi(l), curses(3), termcap(3).
LIMITATIONS
Ex allows only 256 characters for string capabilities, and the routines
in termcap(3) do not check for overflow of this buffer. The total
length of a single entry (excluding only escaped newlines) must not
exceed 1024.
The ma, vs, and ve entries are specific to the vi program.
Not all programs support all entries. There are entries that are not
supported by any program.

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TRANS (5)

Fortune Systems

TRANS (5)

NAME
trans - translation table file
DESCRIPTION

Translation table files contain labeled strings. They are often used to
lookup a string associated with a particular label. For example, the
label" INSERT-DISK" might have a string value of
"Please insert the flexible disk and press

< return> . "

Software that needs to have a diskette inserted can lookup the label
"INSERT-DISK" and display the string that is found. If the translation table is changed, a different message would be displayed. This
happens without any change to the software which is doing the
lookup and displaying the message.
Much of Fortune Systems' software uses translation tables. This
often allows a single program to work in different environments.
Only the translation table needs to be changed.
The translation table file consists of two parts. The first contains the
labels and the offsets into the file of the corresponding values. The
second part conains these values. Both the labels and the string
values are terminated by the null character.
SEE ALSO
printstring(l)
LIMITATIONS
The file is normally generated by a string compiler which is currently
not available to Fortune customers.

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TTYS(5)

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TTYS(5)

NAME
ttys - terminal initialization data
DESCRIPTION
The ttys file is read by the l1'zit program and specifies which terminal
special files are to have a process created for them which allows people to log in. It contains one line per special file.
The first character of a line is either 'a' or '1'; the former causes the
line to be ignored, the latter causes it to be effective. The second
character is used as an argument to getty(8), which performs such
tasks as baud-rate recognition, reading the login name, and calling
login. For normal lines, the character is 'a'; other characters can· be
used, for example, with hard-wired terminals where speed recognition is unnecessary or which have special characteristics. (Getty has
to be fixed in such cases.) The remainder of the line is the terminal's
entry in the device directory, /dev.

FILES
/etdttys
SEE ALSO
login(l), getty(8), init(8).

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TTYTVPE(5)

Fortune Systems

TTYTVPE(5)

NAME
tty type - data base of terminal types by port
SYNOPSIS
/etc/ttytype
DESCRIPTION
Ttytype is a database containing, for each tty port on the system, the
kind of terminal that is attached to it. There is one line per port,
containing the terminal kind (as a name listed in termcap (5», a
space, and the name of the tty, minus /dev/.
This information is read by tset(l) and by login(l) to initialize the
TERM variable at login time.

SEE ALSO
login(l), tset(l).
LIMITATIONS
Some lines are merely known as "dialup" or "plugboard".

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Fortune Systems

UTMP(5)

UTMP(5)

NAME
utmp, wtmp - login records
SYNOPSIS
#include 
DESCRIPTION
The utmp file allows one to discover information about who is
currently using the operating system The file is a sequence of
entries with the following structure declared in the include file:
1*

* Structure of utmp and wtmp files.
*
* Assuming the number 8 is unwise.
*1
struct utmp {
char
char
long
};

ut_line[8]; /* tty name */
ut_ name[8]; /* user id */
ut_ time;
/* time on */

This structure gives the name of the special file associated with the
user's terminal, the user's login name, and the time of the login in
the form of time(2).
The wtmp file records all log ins and logouts. Its format is exactly like
utmp except that a null user name indicates a logout on the associated terminal. Furthermore, the terminal name ,N, indicates that the
system was rebooted at the indicated time; the adjacent pair of
entries with terminal names " and I}' indicate the systemmaintained time just before and just after a date command has
changed the system's idea of the time.

Wtmp is maintained by login(l) and init(8). Neither of these programs creates the file, so if it is removed record-keeping is turned
off. It is summarized byac(8).
FILES
/etdutmp
/usr/adm/wtmp

SEE ALSO
login(l), who(l), ac(8), init(8).

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FOR:PRO

Fortune Systems

WHL(5)

WHL(5)

NAME
whl - print wheel (font) descriptor file
DESCRIPTION
A printwheel descriptor file contains descriptions of all the known
fonts for a particular printer. Text on a line following a '#' is
ignored:
#Comment line
+init "xxx"
#the init string is "xxx"
The following items appear in the descriptions below. They have
the following meanings:
[Name1], [Name2], [Name31, etc.
These are strings by which this entry is identified. They can
contain any combination of alphabetics and numerics.
[pitch]
This appears as a fraction of an inch (e.g. 1110, 1115). It must be
expressed in terms of integers (1116.8 should appear as 10/168).
In a monos paced font, it is the width of a character. In a proportional spaced font, it is the width of an em-space (the widest
character).
Cps default width]
This appears as a fraction of the pitch. It must be expressed in
terms of integers. This is used only in a proportional spaced
font. It is the most common character width in the font. It is
used as the default for any character which does not have an
explicit width.
[char width]
This appears as a fraction of the pitch. It must be expressed in
terms of integers. This is used only in a proportional spaced
font. It is the width of the character defined on the current line.
[videotex]
This is the videotex representation of the character being
defined.
[string]
This is the string sent to the printer to display the videotex character.
[videotex] and [string] are sequences of characters.
[videotex] begins at the beginning of the line, and is terminated by a space or tab. [string] is delimited by'"' at
either end. \ sequences recognized as single characters are:

\n
\r

\f
FOR:PRO

012
015
014

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Fortune Systems

WHL(5)

\t

\E
\[
\b
\ xxx

\x

WHL(5)

011
033
033
0210
the character whose octal value is xxx
the character 'x' where x is any character
not listed above. [n particular:

\\

'\'
'II'

\"

\#

'#'

\> -

'>'

\+
\

'+'

A font description starts with the name line:
>[Name1] [Name2] [Name3] ... (etc.)
and continues until the name line for the next font or end of
file.
Next in the file are optional data lines. These can be:
+init "[string]"
[string] is the character sequence which must be sent in
order to select this font. If this line is absent, no init string
is sent.
+pitch ([pitch])
[pitch] is a fraction of an inch.
default pitch is assumed.

[f

this line is absent, a

+ps ([ps default width])
If this line is absent, the font is monospaced. If present, it is
proportional spaced. [ps default width] is optional. [f
present, it is a fraction of the pitch, and is used as the
width of any character not having an entry containing a
width.
Next in the file are optional character lines.
[videotex] "[string]" ([char width])
These describe the character sequence which must be sent to
print the character described on this line, and the width of the
character. There are four types of videotex characters described
in the file. The following list explains each of these types:
1.

9/83

Standard printable ascii (non-overstriking): in the range
040-0177.

3-47

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WHL(5)

Fortune Systems

WHL(5)

entry absent
The output string defaults to the ascii character. The
character width defaults to Cps default width], or [pitch]
if not present.
[videotex] "[string]"
If [string] is null, this character is not available. Otherwise, the output string is [string], and the character
width defaults to Cps default width], or [pitch] if not
present.
[videotex] ([char width])
The output string defaults to the ascii character. [char
width] is a fraction of pitch.
[videotex] "[string] " ([char width])
The output string is [string]. [char width] is a fraction
of pitch.
2.

Non-overstriking supplementary characters: SS2 (031), followed by a character in the range 040-077 or 0120-0177.
entry absent
This character is not in the font.
[videotex] "[string]"
The output string is [string]. Character width defaults
to Cps default width], or [pitch] if not present.
[videotex] "[string]" ([char width])
The output string is [string]. [char width] is a fraction
of pitch.

3.

Overstriking supplementary characters which can be combined with non-overstriking characters: SS2 (031), followed
by a character in the range 0100-0117.
entry absent
This character is not in the font.
[videotex] "[string]"
The output string is [string]. Printing this string leaves
the position of the printhead unchanged. If printing
the character causes the head to advance, the string
must end with '\ b'. Since this is an overstrike, it is not
considered to have a width.

4.

FOR:PRO

Overstriking supplementary characters already combined
with non-overstriking characters: SS2 (031), followed by a
character in the range 0100-0117, followed by a printable
ascii character (in the range 040-0177).

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Fortune Systems

WHL(5)

WHL(5)

entry absent
This character is not in the font.
[videotex] "[stringJ"
The output string is [string]. Character width defaults
to [ps default widthJ, or [pitchJ if not present.
[videotex] "[stringJ" ([char width])
The output string is [string]. [char width] is a fraction
of pitch.
In types 3 and 4, all descriptions containing the same overstriking character must appear in adjacent lines within a font
description (e.g. a-umlaut, o-umlaut, umlaut alone).
EXAMPLE
Sample wheel file entry:

"# wp print wheel 4 on NEC
"# Multilingua1-A 803-020004-702

> Multi

lingual 4

+init "i'""0"

\177" "#not on wheel
#supplementary set
"# (Y below indicates that the control character is in
# the file, not" that the file contains the two
7! characters' , and 'Y').
YA
,,"N(O\b"
# All
"YAa
" "N' "O\ba"
# the
"YAe
,,"N'''O\be''
# "YA's
"YAi
,,"N'''O\bi''
# must
"YAo
""N'''O\OO Ii
# be
"YAu
" "N' "O\bu"
# adjacent.
"YAc
,,"N'''O\bc''
#
"YAj
,,"N'''O\bj''
#
"YB
"O\b"
""
N@
# The first three
"YBa
,,"NF"O\ba"
"# "YB's are all
"YBe
" "NF" 0\ be"
# that will be seen.
"YC
""N> "O\b"
"
" "
# These "YB's will
"YBi
""NF"O\bi"
# be ignored
YBo
" NF 0\00"
"YBu
# due to the
" "NF "O\bu"
"YBc
,,"NF"O\bc"
# intervening "YC.
"YBj
,,"NF"O\bj"
# This is an error.
"YO
" " "O\b"
\031H
""NX O\b"
# \031 is identical to fly
\031Ha
,,"NA"O\ba"
#
\031He
,,"NA"O\be"
#
\031Hi
,,"NA"O\b"NN"O"#
\031Ho
""NA "0\00"
#

N<"

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FOR:PRO

Fortune Systems

WHL(5)
\031Hu
"YJ
IIYJA
II
YJa
IIYK
lIyO
lIy#
lIy!
lI y '
IIYa
II
yz
lIy?
IIYT
1IyII J
yy
lIyS
lIyv
"Y{
"Yi
II
Yq
lIy "
IIY6
lIy(
IIYR

II
II
II NAil O\bu"
II NR O\b"
II
II II NW 0 II
II
II
II NV 0"
II
II
"I1NEIIO\b"
II ND O\b"
II
"I1NB O"
II
II
II NC 0"
II
II
II NG 0"
I1
II N(O"
II
II
II NKO"
II
"I1NL O"
II
"I1NM O"
II
II
II NO 0"
II
II II NP 0 II
II
II
" II NQII 0"
"NS
II
II0"
" II NT II0"
" NU 0"
" II NYII 0 "
II
II
" II NZII 0"
" N}. 0"
"liN 11 0 "
II
II
"N 0"

WHL(5)

#

II

FILES
Any files with the .whl extension.
SEE ALSO
mapvtx(3)

FOR:PRO

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INTRO(8)

Fortune Systems

INTRO(8)

NAME
intro - introduction to section 8
DESCRIPTION
Section 8 of the Programmer's Manual describes system management
programs. These utilities mostly reside in fete and usually must be
run by the system manager. Most of the time the system manager
will not need to run these programs directly; they are run automatically when the need arises by the fetclrc shell file, or are not needed.
See ( re(8).)

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8001(8)

Fortune Systems

8001(8)

NAME
boot -the standalone shell
SYNOPSIS

Isalboot
DESCRIPTION
Isa/boot, also known as the "Levell" boot, is the 32:16'5 equivalent of
the standalone shell. It is a standalone program which normally
resides in boot partition 0 of every hard and some floppy disks used
on the 32:16. When booting up, a level 0 boot program (usually in
ROM), reads in the indicated level 1 boot program (0-7) from the
indicated device and drive. The level 1 boot program, usually
/sa/boot, then reads in the boot file name stored in the EAROM. This
usually is hd02/unix (or fd02/unix). If there is no file name specified,
or the specified file does not exist, a prompt appears and the user
may type any file. The syntax supplied to boot must be of the form:
device/file, where device is one of hd[0-3J[0-7] or fd[O-3J[0-7]. For
instance, to get the reconfiguration menu, (see reconf(8)), one can
reboot the system, holding the DEL key. First, type the F7 key and
hd02/sa/reconf Then type the RETURN key and then the EXECU1E
key. The reconfiguration menu will appear.
SEE ALSO
bootmenu(8) .
LIMITATIONS
/sa/boot is actually just an image of what is in the boot partition.
Changing or removing /sa/boot will not affect normal operation of the
32:16. /sa/boot is a standalone program and cannot be invoked
through UNIX.

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BOOTCP(8)

Fortune Systems

BOOTCP(8)

NAME
bootcp - copy a boot image
SYNOPSIS
bootcp ifile ofile bootno
DESCRIPTION
Bootep copies a boot image from ifile to ofile. ifile can be a regular file
or a character device. If it is a regular file, it is assumed to be the
boot image. If it is a character device, boonoth boot is read. ofiIe can
be a regular file or a character device. If it is a regular file, it will
contain the boot. If it is a character device, bootnoth boot contains
the boot. If the bootno boot exists, it is overwritten. If it doesn't,
space for it is found in partition O. In either case the configuration
block is updated.
SEE ALSO
devctl(2), diskconf(S), disktab(S), rdconf(8).
DIAGNOSTICS
Error messages if the ifile does not exist, if the ifile is not a regular
file or a character special file, if the ofiie is not a regular file or a character special file or if the partition 0 doesn't have enough space for
the boot.

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FOR:PRO

BOOTMENU (8)

Fortune Systems

BOOTMENU (8)

NAME
bootmenu - first power-up menu
DESCRIPTION
Ute boot menu allows you to decide what the 32:16 does on powerup or reset, which device, drive, and boot program # to used in
booting up, the brand(s) of floppy drive(s), the UNIX file name
brings up, and the default baud rates used on the front and back
ports. Each line of the menu has a short description, the current
setting of that field (if appropriate to the command), and the function key which picks that field (highlighted). The EXECUTE key
quits the menu and either goes into terminal mode or starts the boot
device and drive routine. The HELP key gives a description of how
to use each command.
F1
F2
F3
F4
F5
F6
F7
F8
F9
FlO

Change Front port speed
Change Back port speed
Change power-up action
Change boot device
Change boot program number
Change floppy drive #0 type
Change boot file name
Read settings from EAR OM
Save settings into EAROM
Start system from floppy disk

current setting

"

"

EXECUTE Start up system using information on screen
HELP For more information
The function keys are brightened to indicate they are to be
depressed. Pressing F1 to FlO picks one of the possible fields, the
chosen field is indicated by showing the description in reverse video.
FI-F6 are changed by typing the space key. F7 requires the user to
type in a string device/file, followed by RETURN. F8 and F9 do not
have settings to change; the underlined message confirms the action
was taken. FlO sets the proper settings you need to run the cold
boot diskette or the floppy-based unix diskette. The EXECUTE key
goes ahead and boots, using the information on the screen but not
writing the EAROM. The HELP key shows an alternate menu, giving a slightly longer description of each field.
If there is some problem in booting up the "Level I" boot, the boot
menu is entered with a flashing error message.

DESCRIPTION OF COMMANDS
Change Front port speed:
Change Back port speed:
The Fortune keyboard port (TIYOO) and the port on the back of
the machine (TIYOl) are RS-232C serial lines. These can operate
at various speeds. The Fortune keyboard should be at 2400
FOR:PRO

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BOOTMENU (8)

Fortune Systems

BOOTMENU (8)

baud. The back port can be used for various purposes and the
speed can be set for however it is used. These are default
speeds only. They are in effect whenever the MomROM functions as a terminal, and also under UNIX until they are changed.
TTYOO can be set to any baud rate if that port is to be used for
operation with other than the Fortune integral keyboard.
Change power-up action:
Decide what the machine will do when you tum it on. It can
boot from the "Boot Device", show the menu, or act as a terminal with another computer connected to ttyOl.
Change boot device:
Decide from which peripheral and drive number to boot. The
32:16 can boot from the back port, the floppy disk drive, and
some of the VO option cards.
Booting from the hardware peripherals consists of using data
stored on the hardware. Booting from a serial line requires
another computer at the other end of the line. Most of the disk
drive peripherals can have more than one drive attached to
them, and the drives have unique numbers, starting from O.
This field also sets which drive on the above-named device will
be used.
Change boot program number:
Each disk drive can have one or more boot programs. This
number specifies which boot program should be used to find the
'level 1 boot file'. See bootcp(8).
Change floppy drive #n type:
The 32:16 can have up to four floppy disk drives attached to it.
This allows you to indicate which model of floppy disk drive is
connected to each of the four channels. You will notice that
there are four drives and only one type shown; drive number n
is changed, where n is 0 unless the boot device is set to floppy
drive #=1, #2, or #3. You should never have to change this.
Read settings from EAROM:
This overwrites the current settings on the screen with the contents of the non-volatile part of the EAROM.
Save settings into EAROM:
This saves the settings on the screen into the permanent part of
the EAROM.
Start system from floppy disk:
This sets the other items on the screen to the necessary settings
for running the floppy-based FOS system (such as cold boot disk
#1). It also sets the EAROM root device and swap device fields
(see reconf(8» to "fd02" and II fd01", respectively. This merely
allows you to boot up on floppy-based unix once; it only
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BOOTMENU (8)

Fortune Systems

BOOTMENU (8)

changes the volatile portion of the EAR OM.
See reconf(8) for a full description of what these fields do.
EXECUTE
This saves the settings on the screen into the volatile portion of
the EAROM. They are only in force until the machine is re'set or
powered down, at which time the non-volatile contents of the
EAROM are consulted.
HELP
This replaces the screen with a list of terse reminders of each
key's function; it is no replacement for this document.
See momrom(8) for information to run the boot menu.
DIAGNOSTICS
Unexpected processor trap!
This is caused by an unexpected processor trap, and could indicate a program bug or an unexpected device interrupt. Probably
what happened is that the indicated level 1 boot program is garbage. If this happens, try booting from a floppy; for hard disk
systems, use the cold boot floppy.

Downloading:
This message appears when using terminal mode. Th~ download function has started (because the 32:16 received a D from
the back port), and the processor is accepting records from the
back port.
These messages can appear with the boot menu:
EAROM checksum error!
The Motherboard EAROM has been changed too many times
and needs to be replaced, or the data in the EAROM was
accidentally changed. The F9 key should make this message go
away; if it doesn't, consult your dealer.
Please set boot device The EAROM code for the boot device means
nothing.
When booting from the floppy:
No disk in floppy drive
Bad conf block on floppy
Empty boot program on floppy
Bad boot program on floppy
Floppy drive can't seek

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BOOTMENU (8)

Fortune Systems

BOOTMENU (8)

Floppy has bad block
Floppy does not respond
The floppy disk boot routine ran into some problem; The first
message is obvious. The last message indicates that the floppy
controller may be broken. The rest are explained in boot(8),
disk(5) and diskconj(8).
Any of the above problems can also occur when booting from the
hard disk.
OLD VERSIONS
Older versions of the motherboard PROMs use "There's something
wrong, start over" instead of "Unexpected processor trap," and
"EAROM may not work" instead of "EAROM checksum error."
SEE ALSO
boot(8), momrom(8), reconf(8).

9/83

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,FOR:PRO

CHOWN(8)

Fortune Systems

CHOWN(8)

NAME
chown, chgrp - change owner or group
SYNOPSIS
letc/chown owner file .. .
letclchgrp group file .. .
DESCRIPTION
Chown changes the owner of the files to owner. The owner can be
either a decimal UlD or a login name found in the password file.

Chgrp changes the group-ID of the fiLes to group. The group can be
either a decimal GID or a group name found in the group-ID file.
Only the super-user can change owner or group, in order to simplify
as yet unimplemented accounting procedures.

FILES
/etdpasswd
/etdgroup

SEE ALSO
chown(2), group(5), passwd(5).

FOR:PRO

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9/83

DSKSELECT (8)

Fortune Systems

DSKSELECT (8)

NAME
dskselect - select a disk configuration block
SYNOPSIS
dskselect file [disktype]
DESCRIPTION
Dskselect reads the disktab data base and displays the disk type
names on the screen after printing the prompt. One of the displayed
types can be selected by typing its index. A configuration block of
the selected disk is written out to file. If the disktype is given, the
user is not prompted and configuration block for that type is written. The letcldisktab file contains the data base of the configuration
blocks.
SEE ALSO
devctl(2), disktab(5), rdconf(8).
DIAGNOSTICS
Error messages if letc/disktab can not be found, disktype is not in the
disktab file or file can not be written.

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FOR:PRO

FORMAT (8)

Fortune Systems

FORMAT (8)

NAME
format - formats a floppy or a hard disk
SYNOPSIS
format [-c conftle] [-kJ [-t track -h head] device
DESCRIPTION
Format is a disk formatter. It formats the device and writes a new
configuration block on it. You must use mkfs if you want to create a
new filesystem on the device.
OPTIONS
-c conftle
reads a configuration block from con#le instead of device.

-k

saves the bad block information present on the disk. This
avoids the need to res pare known bad blocks. This option has
no effect on an unformatted hard disk. This option, when used
on an unformatted floppy disk, will hang the system

-t track -h head
formats a single track on a head.
SEE ALSO
mkconf(8), mkfs(8), rdconf(8), diskconf(S), mkfs(8).
DIAGNOSTICS
Error messages if the conftle or device does not exist, configuration
block can not be read or is invalid, configuration block can not written to device, invalid track or head, or if formatting was unsuccessful.

FOR:PRO

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9/83

FSCK(8)

Fortune Systems

FSCK(8)

NAME
fsck - file system consistency check and interactive repair
SYNOPSIS

letc/fsck -p [file system ... ]
letc/fsck [-n] [-sX] [-SX] [-tfilenameJ [-yJ [file system] ...
DESCRIPTION
The first form of fock preens a standard set of file systems or the
specified file systems. It is normally used in the script letclrc during
automatic reboot. In this case fock reads the table letcJfstab to determine which file systems to check. It uses the information there to
inspect groups of disks in parallel taking maximum advantage of I/O
overlap to check the file systems as quickly as possible. Normally,
the root file system is checked on pass I, other "root" ("a" partition)
file systems on pass 2, other small file systems on separate passes
(e.g. the "d" file systems on pass 3 and the "e" file systems on pass
4), and finally the large user file systems on the last pass, e.g. pass
5. A pass number of 0 in fstab causes a disk to not be checked; similarly partitions which are not shown as to be mounted "rw" or "ro"
are not checked.
The system takes care that only a restricted class of innocuous inconsistencies can happen unless hardware or software failures intervene. These are limited to the following:
Unreferenced inodes
Link counts in inodes too large
Missing blocks in the free list
Blocks in the free list also in files
Counts in the super block wrong
These are the only inconsistencies which fock with the -p option
corrects; if it encounters other inconsistencies, it exits with an abnormal return status and an automatic reboot then fails. For each
corrected inconsistency one or more lines are printed identifying the
file system on which the correction takes place, and the nature of
the correction. After successfully correcting a file system, fock prints
the number of files on that file system and the number of used and
free blocks.
Without the -p option, fock audits and interactively repairs inconsistent conditions for file systems. If the file system is inconsistent
the operator is prompted for concurrence before each correction is
attempted. It should be noted that a number of the corrective
actions are not fixable under the -p option result in some loss of
data. The amount and severity of data lost can be determined from
the diagnostic output. The default action for each consistency

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FOR:PRO

FSCK(8)

Fortune Systems

FSCK(8)

correction is to wait for the operator to respond yes or no. If the
operator does not have write permission fock defaults to a -n action.
check, dcheck, [check, and icheckcombined.
OPTIONS
The following flags are interpreted by fock.
-0

Assume a no response to all questions asked by fock; do not
open the file system for writing.

-sX Ignore the actual free list and (unconditionally) reconstruct a
new one by rewriting the super block of the file system The file
system should be unmounted while this is done; if this is not
possible, care should be taken that the system is quiescent.
The -sX option allows for creating an optimal free-list organization:

-sBlocks-per-cylinder:Blocks-to-skip (for anything else)
If X is not given, the values used when the file system was
created are used.
-SX

Conditionally reconstruct the free list. This option is like -sX

above except the free list is rebuilt only if there were no discrepancies
discovered in the file system. Using -S forces a no response to aU
questions asked by fock. This option is useful for forcing free list
reorganization on uncontaminated file systems.

-t

If fock cannot obtain enough memory to keep its tables, it uses a
scratch file. If the -t option is specified, the file named in the
next argument is used as the scratch file, if needed. Without

the -t flag, fock prompts the operator for the name of the scratch
file. The file chosen should not be on the file system being
checked, and if it is not a special file or did not already exist, it
is removed when fsck completes.
-y

Assume a yes response to all questions asked by fock; this should
be used with great caution as this is a free license to continue
after essentially unlimited trouble has been encountered.

If no file systems are given to fock then a default list of file systems is

read from the file /etc/fstab.
Inconsistencies checked are as follows:
1.

Blocks claimed by more than one inode or the free list.

2.

Blocks claimed by an inode or the free list outside the range of
the file system

3.

Incorrect link counts.

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Fortune Systems

FSCK(8)

4.

FSCK(8)

Size checks:
Directory size not 16-byte aligned.

5.

Bad inode format.

6.

Blocks not accounted for anywhere.

7.

Directory checks:
File pointing to unallocated inode.
[node number out of range.

8.

Super block checks:
More than 65536 inodes.
More blocks for inodes than there are in the file system.

9.

Bad free block list format.

10. Total free block and/or free inode count incorrect.
Orphaned files and directories (allocated but unreferenced) are, with
the operator's concurrence, reconnected by placing them in the
lost+found directory. The name assigned is the inode number.
The only restriction is that the directory lost+found must preexist
in the root of the file system being checked and must have empty
slots in which entries can be made. This is accomplished by making
lost+found, copying a number of files to the directory, and then
removing them (before fock is executed).
Checking the raw device is almost always faster, but does not work
on /dev/rhd??
FILES
/e tdfs tab
contains default list of file systems to check.
DIAGNOSTICS
The diagnostics produced by fock are intended to be self-explanatory.
If the root (I) file system has to be modified, the system must be
rebooted.
SEE ALSO
fstab(5), filsys(5), reboot(8).
LIMITATIONS
Inode numbers for. and.. in each directory should be checked for
validity.
-b and -g options from check should be available in fock.

9/83

4-13

FOR:PRO

GETIV(8)

Fortune Systems

GETTV(8)

NAME
getty - set terminal mode
SYNOPSIS
fete/getty [char1
DESCRIPTION
Getty is invoked by init(8) immediately after a terminal is opened, following the making of a connection. While reading the name getty
attempts to adapt the system to the speed and type of terminal
being used.

Init calls getty with an argument specified by the ttys file entry for
the terminal line. Arguments other than '0' can be used to make
getty treat the line specially. Normally, it sets the speed of the interface to 300 baud, specifies that raw mode is to be used (break on
every character), that echo is to be suppressed, and either parity
allowed. It prints the 'login:' message. Then the user's name is
read, a character at a time. If a null character is received, it is
assumed to be the result of the user pushing the 'break' ('interrupt')
key. The speed is then changed to 1200 baud and the 'login:' is
typed again; a second 'break' changes the speed to 150 baud and the
'login:' is typed again. Successive 'break' characters cycle through
the speeds 300, 1200, and 150 baud.
The user's name is terminated by a newline or carriage-return character. The latter results in the system being set to treat carriage
returns appropriately (see stty(2)).
The user's name is scanned to see if it contains all upper-case alphabetic characters; if so the user will be warned that he should not be
using all capital letters. If the user again types logs in using all capital letters, the system is told to map any future uppercase characters
into the corresponding lowercase characters. Finally, login is called
with the user's name as argument.
The letter codes and their characteristics follow. If Code is given as
argument to getty, then that line is used. If a break is received by
code 0, then code Oa is attempted. Code Oa "breaks" to code Ob,
then code Oc, then back to code O. Codes Oa, Ob, and Oc are not
available as arguments. Similarly, codes 3 and 5 switch to each
other.

FOR:PRO

4-14

9/83

GETTY (8)

Fortune Systems

GETTY (8)

Code

Stty Commands

Input
speed

Output
speed

0

ANYP, ECHO
ANYP,XTABS, ECHO, CRMOD
EVENP,ECHO,FFl,CR2, TABl, NLI
ANYP, ECHO,CRMOD,XTABS, LCASE
ANYP, ECHO,CRMOD,XTABS, LCASE
EVENP,ECHO,FFl,CR2, TABl,NLl
ANYP,XTABS, ECHO,CRMOD
ANYP,XTABS,ECHO,CRMOD
ANYP,ECHO,CRMOD,XTABS
ANYP,ECHO
ANYP,ECHO
ANYP,XTABS, ECHO, CRMOD
ANYP,XTABS, ECHO,CRMOD
ANYP,XTABS, ECHO,CRMOD
ANYP,XTABS, ECHO,CRMOD
ANYP,XTABS, ECHO,CRMOD
ANYP,XTABS, ECHO,CRMOD
ANYP,XTABS, ECHO,CRMOD
ANYP, XTABS, ECHO,CRMOD
ANYP,XTABS,ECHO,CRMOD
ANYP, XTABS, ECHO, CRMOD
ANYP,XTABS, ECHO,CRMOD
ANYP, XTABS, ECHO,CRMOD
ANYP, XTABS, ECHO,CRMOD
ANYP,XTABS, ECHO,CRMOD

300
1200
150
110
110
150
9600
1200
300
300
2400
50
75
110
134
150
200
300
600
1200
1800
2400
4800
9600
19200

300
1200
150
110
110
150
9600
1200
300
300
2400
50
75
110
134
150
200
300
600
1200
1800
2400
4800
9600
19200

Oa
Ob
Oc
1
2
3
4
5
6

a
b
c
d
e
f

g
h
j
k
1
m

n
SEE ALSO

login(I), stty(2), ttys(S), init(8).

9/83

4-15

FOR:PRO

HALT (8)

Fortune Systems

HALT (8)

NAME
halt - prepare to stop
SYNOPSIS
fete/halt
DESCRIPTION
Halt executes any hardware specific functions prior to shutdown,
informs the user of its completion and requests that the machine be
turned off. It then executes the pause(2) primitive.

Halt is not intended to be called directly; rather it is executed from
/etdrc.
SEE ALSO
pause(2), rc(8), shutdown(8).

FOR:PRO

4-16,

9/83

INIT(8)

Fortune Systems

INIT(8)

NAME
init - process control initialization
SYNOPSIS
letc/init
DESCRIPTION
[nit is invoked inside UNIX as the "first" user program Its general
role is to first make sure that the system is ready to run, and then
create a process for each typewriter on which a user may log in.
First it prints a "7" in the count-up sequence (see countup(8)), and
reads the system language code from the EAROM (see uconJ(8» and
creates the LANGUAGE= environment variable (see environ(S).
This is passed in the environment to all user programs. It then forks
Ibinfsh to run the shell script lete/re. See rc(8). (If fetdrc exits with
nonzero status, or if letdrc is not present, it runs a single user shell
on Idevlconsole.)
To allow logins, init reads the file letclttys and forks several times to
create a process for each terminal specified in the file. Each of these
processes opens the appropriate terminal for reading and writing.
These channels thus receive file descriptors 0, 1 and 2, the standard
input and output and the diagnostic output. After an open
succeeds, lete/getty is called with argument as specified by the second
character of the ttys file line. Getty reads the user's name and
invokes login to log in the user and execute the user's login program
(usually the menu shell or /bin/sh, see passwd(S».
Ultimately the user's shell will exit. The main path of init, which has
been waiting for such an event, wakes up and removes the appropriate entry from the file utmp, which records current users, and makes
an entry in fusrladm/wtmp, which maintains a history of log ins and
logouts. The wtmp entry is made only if a user logged in successfully on the line. Then the appropriate terminal is reopened and
getty is reinvoked.

[nit catches the hangup signal (signal 1) and interprets it to mean that
init should start over. Everybody logged in is preremptorily logged
out. To do this use: 'kill -1 1.' If there are processes outstanding
which are deadlocked (due to hardware or software failure),- init will
not wait for them all to die (which might take forever), but will time
out after 30 seconds.

[nit's role is so critical that if it dies, the system will stop with an
automatic "Software Error 22". If, at bootstrap time, the lete/init program cannot be exec'd, the system will stop with "Software Error
18".
DIAGNOSTICS

9/83

4·17

FOR:PRO

INIT(8)

Fortune Systems

INIT(8)

File rr/etc!rc rr missing, running in maintenence mode.
The letclrc shell script is gone, and init is forking Ibin/sh so that
the system manager can do something.
Can't execute rr Ibin/sh rr. Contact your dealer.
The program Ibin/sh is gone, or can't run.
Can't execute rr/etclgettyrr. Contact your dealer.
The program letclgetty is gone, or can't run.
Can't open rr letc!ttys rr file
The terminal types database is gone.
See rc(8) to find out how to run the maintenence mode shell.
Can't creat rr/etc!utmp" file
The database of currently logged in terminals cannot be maintained. This is not serious, and will not hinder multi-user
operation.
FILES

Idev/console, Idev/tty??, letclutmp, lusr/adrrv'wtmp, letc!ttys, letc!rc
SEE ALSO

login(l), kill(l), sh(l), uconf(8), environ(5), ttys(S), getty(8), rc(8),
reboot(8), halt(8), shutdown(8)

FOR:PRO

4-18

9/83

LPD(8)

Fortune Systems

LPD(8)

NAME
Ipd - the line printer daemon
SYNOPSIS
Ipd -p printer -i PID
OPTIONS
-p n
is the printer number, and can be from 0 - 999. The default is
1.
-i PID
This option indicates that the daemon is to pass the standard
input along to the filter. In this case, the daemon will hang
until the lock file is unlocked, indicating that the previous daemon has finished. When it runs, the PIO given is checked
against the 'P' line in the control file. If they are the same, the
job runs; otherwise it releases the lock file, then again hangs
until it is unlocked, the assumption being that there is another -i
job with a lower priority waiting to run. This option is invoked
by giving the -i option to Ipr. The intention is to allow printing
of jobs so large that a copy file would require more disk space
than is available.

DESCRIPTION
The line printer daemon is the portion of the printer spooling program which decides which file should be printed next, and what
options should be given to the printer filter for each job. It also
determines the output device, sets the baudrate, etc. for the output
device, and prevents other programs from using the output device.
A daemon is responsible for one printer only. Thus, it is possible to
have a number of daemons running at the same time, one for each
enabled printer. The daemon is normally started by lpr(l) (lpr
checks to see if a daemon is active by checking the file "lock" in the
appropriate directory; if it is there and is locked (via lockf(2» Ipr simply exits, (unless invoked with the -i option), otherwise it forks and
execs Ipd with the appropriate option(s). When it starts, lpd also
checks to see if a daemon is active for the printer; if so, it exits
unless the -i option was given.
The daemon determines which job will print next by examining the
control file. If there are two or more jobs vlith the same priority, the
one which occurs first in the directory will be printed first. Every
job in the queue is examined every time, since priorities may be
altered by lpmv(l).
When all jobs in the queue have been printed, the daemon exits.

This is less of a load on system resources than having a daemon for
each printer which wakes up when jobs are submitted.

9/83

4-19

FOR:PRO

Fortune Systems

LPD(8)

LPD(8)

After each job, the daemon will write the jobname, the size, the
printer and the owner to an accounting file, if the file exists and is
writable.
CONTROL FILE
Each line in the control file is treated as a unit, there is no conception of continuation lines, and each line must be 128 characters or
less. The first byte of each line is the control byte, the meanings are
listed below.
As each file in a job is successfully printed, the 'F', 'P', or'S' is
replaced with
so that if another atte mpt to print the job is
required, only those jobs which were NOT printed are retried.
A Gives the full path name of the output filter.
a
Number of times to try and reprint unsuccessful jobs.
B String to be used as the banner on the header page. Passed to
the filter as -b.
e Indicates that the filter is to be passed the 'W' option.
c Indicates that setup is to be done by the filter to enable manual
feeding of a page for the sheet feeder. (Not available from Ipr,
used only by lpdun.)
o The job is to be printed in single sheet mode. Passed to the
filter as -d.
E The type of terminal the job was invoked from Passed to the
filter as -E.
e The port the job was invoked from (full pathname). Passed to
the filter as -e.
F A filename to be passed to the filter as its input file. It is important to note that all lines containing information for the filter
must precede the 'F', '5' and 'P' lines, since the filter is invoked
as soon as any of these lines are encountered.
f
The formlength (in lines) to be used for the job. Passed to the
filter as -F.
e The real group 10 of the user who started the job.
H A header page was specifically requested, as opposed to a
default header page. Forces the filter to be passed the -0
option.
The real user 10 of the user who started the job.
A string of options which correspond to keywords in the
printcap file, of the form fI:xy=#:ab=#: .... :fI where # will be
substuted for the letter 'V' in a printcap formula. Passed to the
filter as -I.
J The job name, used when sending mail announcing job completion, also passed to the filter, and reported by lpq(l).
K The umask of the user who started the job, used only with '5'
below.

+

FOR:PRO

'+',

4-20

9/83

LPD(8)

L

m
o
P

Q

p
R
s
5

u
W

9/83

Fortune Systems

LPD(8)

The owner of the job, passed on to the filter, and used as the
person to send mail to, if it is a valid user name, (or looks like a
uucp or Arpanet address). Passed to the filter as -0, if a header
page is to be printed.
The maximum output line length to be used. Passed to the filter
as -L.
Send mail via mail(l) when the job is completed.
overly long lines should be truncated on output. Passed to the
filter as -to
This job is a piped job, and should be run only if the -i option
was given, and the PIO given with it matches the one on this
line. See also 'F'.
This is the QIO, which is initially the same as the PIO of the Ipr
that made the control file. (It may be altered by lpmv(l». The
job with the lowest QIO is printed next. This must be the first
line in the control file.
The type of printer this job is being sent to. Passed to the filter
as -Po
The number of copies of this job that should be printed.
This job is being sent to a sheet feeder, the rest of the string is
passed to the filter as the '_5' option.
This line is a command to be run, whose output will be passed
to the filter. (See also the note under 'F'.) The command is
parsed, and if it contains no Bourne shell metacharacters, an
attempt is made to run it via exec. The environment of the user
who started the job is passed to the execed program (or to the
shell). If the exec fails, or the command contains shell metacharacters, the cmd is run as II sh -c cmd II • The umask is set to
that on the 'K' line, and the environment is set up from the file
whose name is the same as the control file, except that the first
letter of the relative portion of the path name is 'e', instead of
'd'. The working directory is set from the 'w' line. The format
of the environment file is:
3 digits which give the length of the variable and its value,
including the LF at the end; the variable name followed by an
'='; the value of the variable; and a LF terminator. This allows
environmental variables to contain an arbitrary string, including
8 bit characters.
This job is to be printed in transparent mode; the filter should
output all characters without altering them or masking them.
Passed to the filter as -T.
A filename (always a full pathname) to be unlinked when the
job is finished (successfully or not).
The directory from which the filter should be run, used only
with the '5' line.

4-21

FOR:PRO

lPD(8)
Z

Fortune Systems

lPD(8)

The size to be reported for this file. Jobs for which the daemon
can not determine the size (such as piped input with -i, and '5'
cmds) report this size in the accounting file. For cases in which
the size can be determined, this is added to the real size.

FILES
lusrlspooVlpd/pr#=
spooler directories (#= is the printer number)
lusrlspooVlpdlpr#=/[ cd Ie J*
Input and control files.
letc/devtype
For correlation between printer #, printer port, and printer
type, etc.
lusr/admllpacct
If this file exists and is writable by root, a line of statistics is
written for each job. (The size of the job is given as zero if the
job was a shell script, or there was no file AND the -I option
was given.
dtinit(l), lprm(l), lpmv(l), lpq(l), lpdun(l), lpr(l), Ipf(8), printcap(5).

NOTES
See the NOTES section in lpr(l) for a description of how error messages are handled.

FOR:PRO

4-22

9/83

Fortune Systems

LPF(8)

LPF(8)

NAME
Ipf - the line printer spooler program which actually does output
SYNOPSIS
Ipf -b banner -d -D name -e -E name -e name -£'=/1 -F # -I string
-j name -L # -1=/1 -N name -0 owner -P name -s=/l -S name - T -t

-w
DESCRIPTION
Arguments fall into three classes: required for proper operation,
desirable, and optional. Since this program is not intended to be
used directly by humans, error checking for invalid/missing arguments is minimal! The intention is that it be started by the line
printer daemon Lpd(8).
The filter is responsible for extracting printer specific strings and
capabilities from /etc/printcap. The program itself is printer independant. If certain strings (carraige return, line feed, formfeed mainly)
are not found, or the printer type is not found, defaults are assumed
(the ascii characters 013, 012, and 014, respectively).
The filter also handles asynchronous signals from the lpdun(1) program, requesting that printing be suspended, restarted, pages be
reprinted, etc. The program Lpnn(1) also signals the filter, requesting
that the job be terminated. The S[GBAND (most system calls are not
interrupted) signal is used.

REQUIRED ARGUMENTS
-D name
name is the relative portion of the output device name, e.g. tty01
for the S[O port.
-£n The file descriptor to be used in reading from the daemon, used
to verify that the daemon has changed the prstate file as
requested. (The file is opened by the daemon, and the descriptor inherited by the filter.) n is ANDED with 077 to determine
the actual number.
-In n is the file descriptor for the output devicelfile.

(The file is
opened by the daemon, and the descriptor inherited by the
filter.) n is ANDED with 077 to determine the actual number.

-sn The file descriptor to be used in sending to the daemon, used to
request that the daemon change the prstate file. (The file is
opened by the daemon, and the descriptor inherited by the
filter.) n is ANDED with 077 to determine the actual number.
-N name
name is the relative portion of the notification device name, e.g.
console. This port is used to notify the operator that human
intervention is required, e.g. feeding a new sheet of paper.

9/83

4-23

FOR:PRO

Fortune Systems

LPF(8)

LPF(8)

-p name

name is the printer type to be used. It should be one that is
legal, i.e., in /etdprintcap.
DESIRABLE ARGUMENTS
-j name
name is the job name. It is used on the header page to identify
the job.

-e name
name is the tty port from which the job is started. Error messages are sent to this port. If not given, or not writable, /dev/tty
is tried; if /dev/tty is not writable, messages go to stderr.
-E name

name is the terminal type of the user who started the job. This
allows messages to be placed properly on the screen. If not
given, type FT is assumed.
OPTIONAL ARGUMENTS
-b string
string is printed in large letters in the center of the header page
(if any). It is truncated to 10 letters.

-d

This option informs the filter that the job is to be printed as single sheets. After each page, the filter will send bells (CTRL G)
to the notification port and wait for a signal from Ipdun(l).

-F n

Form length for the job is set to n lines. The formfeed string is
sent every n lines (the default is taken from the state file).
-I string

This string contains keywords that match entries in
/etdprintcap, optionally followed by '=' and a number. This is
how the'
options of Ipr(l) are implemented. See the 'I' line of
the control file in Ipd(8) for the exact format.

+'

-L n

line length in characters; not significant unless -t is also given.
-0

name
name is printed on the header page at top and bottom It is usually the owner of the job. The presence of this argument is
what causes the header page to be printed. If the -b option
was not given, this is also used as the banner name.

-S string
string is the same as the string after the -S option of Ipr(l). It

informs the filter that the job is being printed on a printer with a
sheet feeder. It has a special significance if the string is "-1"
(that is, 'minus one'), which is NOT allowed by Ipr. In this case
the filter sends the required strings to the printer to enable a
FOR:PRO

4-24

9/83

LPF(8)

Fortune Systems

LPF(8)

new sheet of paper to be fed from the sheet feeder. This is normally done by using the -N option of Ipdun(I).

-t

truncate lines that are too long (as shown by the -L option or
the default in the state file).

-T

transparent mode. All 8 bits of each character in the input are
sent directly to the printer; no processing is done, and no
reprinting is possible. Normally, non-printing characters are
shown the same as they would be by the -v option of cat(I).

-W Expect input to be in a special format, with key letters indicating
the action to be taken. This option corresponds to the -C
option of Ipr(I). The following options are ignored if this option
is given: -t, - T, -L, and -F. Currently, only the word processing formatter uses this format. A listing of the special characters
and their meaning follows. The number in parentheses indicates the number of bytes that go with the command.
A

Software length change. 2 byte arg (12 bits).

B

Bin number change. 1 byte arg (6 bit).

C

Software ribbon change. LF terminated string argo

o

Delay. 1 byte arg (6 bit).

E

End of page.

F

Operator forms change. LF terminated string argo

H

Software character set change. LF terminated string argo
Turn off overriding un-interruptible mode.

J

Turn on overriding un-interruptible mode.

L

Operator width change. 2 byte arg (12 bits).

o

Software forms change. LF terminated string argo

P

Operator length change. 2 byte arg (12 bits).

R

Operator ribbon change. LF terminated string argo

S

Re-Schedule this job for later.

T

Software width change. 2 byte arg (12 bits).

W

Operator character set change. LF terminated string argo

X

Transmit n bytes interruptible (count is in following byte)

Y

Transmit n bytes un-interruptible (count is in following
byte)

Count for 'X' ana. 'V' commands:
@ ABC 0 E F G H I J K L M N 0
17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32

9/83

4-25

FOR:PRO

LPF(8)

Fortune Systems

LPF(8)

P Q R STU V W X Y Z [
]
33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48
abc d e f g h i j kim n 0
49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64
I

p q r s t u v w x y z { I } - de I
65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
'Ii

through '0'
Transmit n bytes interruptible
abcde fgh
j k lmno
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
I

'p' through 'DEL'
Transmit n bytes un-interruptible
p q r s t u v w x y z { I } - del
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
FILES
lusrispoolllpd/pr#
spooler directories (# is the printer number)
lusrlspoolllpd/pr#/prstate
The file containing information about the current state of the
printer and the spooler. The lprm, [pmv, and lpdun programs
change this file before they signal the filter, so the filter can
determine what request was made. See the functional spec for
the spooling system for more details about this file. The following printer states are currently understood:

o
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
10
11
12
13
14
15

FOR:PRO

IDLE
ACTIVE
SUSPEND
WAITING FOR SHEET
WAITING FOR RIBBON
WAITING FOR WHEEL
WAITING FOR FORM
WAITING FOR LINEWIDTH
WAITING FOR PAGELENGTH
KILLED
INTERRUPIED
RESTART
RESUME
TRANSPARENT (-T option or no pages being saved)
SETSHEET (see -S-I)

4-26

9/83

LPF(8)

Fortune Systems

LPF(8)

/etc/printcap
For printer specific information
SEE ALSO
dtinit(l), lpnn(l), lpmv(l), lpq(l), lpdun(l), lpr(l), lpd(8), printcap(5).

NOTES
See the N01ES section in lpr(l) for a description of how error messages are handled.
LIMIT ATIONS
Ipf attempts to save pages in memory, so jobs can be restarted up to
9 pages (the actual number is set by Lpdun(l); see it's -m option)
before the current one. If there is a very limited amount of memory,
this can result in some thrashing if any pages are being saved. The
job will still be printed, but very slowly.
Ipf does not know about videotext characters. It will pass through
sequences in transparent mode or from Fortune:Word, but in normal
printing, they will be shown as ""'yx' where x is the escape character.

9/83

4-27

FOR:PRO

Fortune Systems

MID (8)

MID (8)

NAME
mid - display machine serial 10 number andlor group 10 number
SYNOPSIS
mid [-5J [-g] [-hJ
DESCRIPTION
Mid displays the machine serial number and group number. If either
the -5 or -g option is specified then only those requested fields will
be displayed as described below; otherwise, both numbers will be
displayed prefixed with descriptive labels.
.

Both the serial number and group number are 32-bit numbers which
are displayed in "license plate format" (unless the -h option is specified). This format maps a 32-bit number into an ascii string of the
form "nnn-CCC-nnn" where n is a digit and C is an alphabetic consonant.
OPTIONS
-s display the machine serial number in a format suitable for pipelining, i.e. with no descriptive label and immediately followed by
a carriage return.

-g

display the group number in a format suitable for pipe lining.

-h

use hexadecimal format for displaying numbers. If both the -s
and -g options are specified then the serial number and group
number will be displayed, in that order, in a form suitable for
pipe lining.

FOR:PRO

4-28

9/83

MKCONF(8)

Fortune Systems

MKCONF(8)

NAME
mkconf - create/change a configuration block
SYNOPSIS
mkconf -c ifile ofile
mkconf -floppy ofile
mkconf [ -i ifile] ofiLe
mkconf -rigid ofile
mkconf [-S size J 0 file
DESCRIPTION
Mkconf allows you to create a configuration block and save it on a
regular file or a disk device.
OPTIONS
-c Copies the conf block from ifile to ofile.
-floppy / -rigid
Allows the user to interactively change fields in the configuration block. Cause a reasonable default configuration block to be
created for floppy disks and rigid disks, respectively.
-i

Reads the configuration block from ifile if available or from device
and uses that as a starting point.

-S

Sets the size of the swap partition to size.

SEE ALSO
devctl(2), diskconf(5), rdconf(8).
DIAGNOSTICS
Error messages if the device does not exist, if read or write errors
occur, or if one of the files does not exist.

9/83

4-29

FOR:PRO

MKDEVS(8)

Fortune Systems

MKDEVS(8)

NAME
mkdevs - generate canonical device names
SYNOPSIS
mkdevs -p
DESCRIPTION
Every 32:16 device driver has a unique set of file names for the devices it gives access. Mkdevs -p prints out a shell script which creates
all of these standard device names in /dev, along with permission
bits supplied by the driver. The devices are queried via the
IOCAUTO command available with devctl(2) or ioctl(2).
FILES
/dev/*
SEE ALSO
devctl(2), ioctl(2), intro(4), disk(5).

FOR:PRO

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9/83

MKFS(8)

Fortune Systems

MKFS(8)

NAME
rnkfs - construct a file system
SYNOPSIS
lete/mkfs -a special [mn]
lete/mkfs special size [mn]
lete/mkfs special proto

DESCRIPTION
Mkfs constructs a file system by writing on the special file special. In
the first form the size of the file system is the same as the size of the
partition and is taken from the disk configuration block. In the
second form of the command a numeric size is given and mkfs builds
a file system with a single empty directory on it. The number of inodes is calculated as a function of the file system size. (No boot
program is initialized in this form of mkfs.)
NOTE: All file systems should have a lost+found directory for fsck(8);
this should be created for each file system by running
mklost+ found(8) in the root directory of a newly created file system,
after the file system is first mounted.
The second form of mkfs is sometimes used in bootstrapping. In this
form, the file system is constructed according to the directions found
in the prototype file proto. The prototype file contains tokens
separated by spaces or new lines. The first token is the name of a
file to be copied onto sector zero as the bootstrap program. The
second token is a number specifying the size of the created file system. Typically it is the number of blocks on the device, perhaps
diminished by space for swapping. The next token is the number of
i-nodes in the i-list. The next set of tokens comprises the specification for the root file. File specifications consist of tokens giving the
mode, the user-id, the group id, and the initial contents of the file.
The syntax of the contents field depends on the mode.
The mode token for a file is a six character string. The first character
specifies the type of the file. (The characters -bed specify regular,
block special, character special and directory files respectively.) The
second character of the type is either u or - to specify set-user-id
mode or not. The third is g or - for the set-group-id mode. The rest
of the mode is a three digit octal number giving the owner, group,
and other read, write, execute permissions, see chmod(l).
Two decimal number tokens come after the mode; they specify the
user and group IO's of the owner of the file.

If the file is a regular file, the next token is a pathname whence the
contents and size are copied.
If the file is a block or character special file, two decimal number
tokens follow which give the major and minor device numbers.

9/83

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FOR:PRO

MKFS(8)

Fortune Systems

MKFS(8)

If the file is a directory, mkfs makes the entries. and" .. and then
reads a list of names and (recursively) file specifications for the
entries in the directory. The scan is terminated with the token $.

487255
d--77731
usr
d--777 3 1
sh
---755 3 1 /bin/sh
ken
d--755 6 1
$

bO

b--644 3 1 0 0

cO

c--644 3 1 0 0

$
$
The arguments m and n specify the interleave factor. They default
to 3 and 68 respectively in the first form of the command. In the
second form they are taken from the configuration block. Recommended values for m and n are, respectively, 3 and the number or
I024-byte blocks per disk cylinder.

SEE ALSO
dir(5) , filsys(5), format(8), fsck(8), mkconf(8L mklost+found(8),
rdconf(8).
LIMITATIONS
There is no way to specify links.
There is no way to specify bad blocks.
Lost+ftJUnd is not made automatically.

FOR:PRO

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9/83

MKLOST +FOUNO (8)

Fortune Systems

MKLOST +FOUNO(8)

NAME
mklost+found - make a lost+found directory for fsck
SYNOPSIS

/etclmklost+found
DESCRIPTION
A lost+found directory is created in the current directory containing
a number of empty files. These provide empty slots for fsck(8). 1his
command should be run immediately after mounting a newly created
file system
SEE ALSO
fsck(8), mkfs(8).
LIMITATIONS
Should be done automatically by mkfs.

9/83

4-33

FOR:PRO

MKNOO(8)

Fortune Systems

MKNOO(8)

NAME'
mknod - build special file
SYNOPSIS
/ete/mknod name [b] [e] major minor
DESCRIPTION
Mknod makes a special file. The first argument is the name of the
entry. The second is b if the special file is block-type (disks, tape) or
c if it is character-type (other devices). The last two arguments are
numbers specifying the major device type and the minor device (e.g.
unit, drive, or line number).
The assignment of major device numbers is partly dependent on the
order of I/O option boards in the 32:16 expansion slots. The mkdevs
program queries each available driver for the "real name" of each
device, and this program should never be run. If it is necessary to
make an alternate name for a device, i.e. !devltar for /dev/rfd02, the
Ln(l) command should be used.
SEE ALSO
mknod(2), mkdevs(8).

FOR:PRO

4-34

9/83

MOMROM(8)

Fortune Systems

MOM ROM (8)

NAME
Motherboard Rom - the startup program for the Fortune 32:16
DESCRIPTION
The motherboard rom, or momrom, is run when the 32:16 is turned
on or the reset button is depressed. It is not a disk file, instead it is
part of the 32:16 hardware. To get the boot menu, turn on the
machine while holding down the CanceVDel key. The 32:16 contains
a small store of non-volatile RAM. The contents remain when the
32:16 is turned off. This storage area, the EAROM (electrically alterable read-only memory), contains information the motherboard rom
uses.
When momrom runs, it clears the screen, prints "1 n, and then does
one of three things: runs UNIX, acts as a simple computer terminal,
or shows the boot menu. The first is the usual action; this does the
normal startup sequence ("2 345 6 7 8 9" etc.). The second, terminal mode, prints "Terminal mode" on the screen and operates as a
simple terminal. It assumes that a remote host is connected to the
serial port on the back of the machine. The boot menu allows you to
change the action taken and the details of booting up, i.e. whether
to boot from the hard disk or the floppy disk, what baud rates the
keyboard and back serial ports run at, and similar trivia. For a
detailed guide to the boot menu, read bootmenu(8». Also, all of the
items in the boot menu can also be changed in the reconfiguration
menu programs (reconj(8».
Essentially, the boot menu is a stripped-down version of the reconfiguration menu, which only changes the information in the EAROM
used in booting up to a stage where the full reconfiguration menu
can be run. The keyboard and the built-in CRT is usually used as the
system console. However, both the keyboard and back ports can
also, when attached to an FIS 1000, be used as the system console.
This can be done by changing the "Console location" field in the
reconfiguration menu (normally set to CR1) to TTYOO or TTYOl. The
next time UNIX comes up, or the machine is powered up or reset,
the keyboard port (TTYOO) or the back port (TTY01) is used as the
console, instead of the keyboard/CRT combination.

If the CANCEL/DEL key is held down on the keyboard right after
the machine is turned on or reset, the boot menu appears on the
CRT/keyboard console. This overrides the EAROM "Boot action"
and "Console location" settings. Also, if an FIS 1000 is attached to
the front or back port, and any of the arrow keys are held down
immediately after reset or power-up, the boot menu appears on FIS.
Until the reconfiguration menu is run, or the machine is again reset
or powered up, that terminal is the system console.

9/83

4-35

FOR:PRO

MOUNT (8)

Fortune Systems

MOUNT (8)

NAME
mount, umount - mount and dismount file system
SYNOPSIS
letclmount [special name [-rU

letclmount -a
letc/umount special
letclumount -a
DESCRIPTION
Mount announces to the system that a removable file system is
present on the device speciaL. The file name must ex~st already; it
must be a directory (unless the root of the mounted file system is
not a directory). It becomes the name of the newly mounted root.

Umount announces to the system that the removable file system previously mounted on device special is to be removed.
These commands maintain a table of mounted devices in letclmtab. If
invoked without an argument, mount prints the table.
Physically write-protected and magnetic tape file systems must be
mounted read-only or errors occur when access times are updated,
whether or not any explicit write is attempted.
OPTIONS
-a For either mount or umount, aU of the file systems described in
letcl[stab are attempted to be mounted or unmounted. In this
case, special and name are taken from letcl[stab. The speciaL file
name from letcl[stab is the block special name.
-r

Indicates that the file system is to be mounted read-only.

FILES
letdmtab
mount table

letdfstab
file system table
SEE ALSO
mount(2), fstab(5), mtab(5).
LIMITATIONS
Mounting file systems full of garbage crash the system.
Mounting a root directory on a non-directory
apparently good pathnames invalid.

FOR:PRO

4-36

makes some

9/83

PSTAT(8)

Fortune Systems

PSTAT(8)

NAME
pstat - print system status
SYNOPSIS
pstat [-acCfimMpstxwW] [-d dumpfileJ [-u pid]
DESCRIPTION
Pstat prints miscellaneous information from inside the kerneL The
option switches determine what is printed. Most of the options
cause pstat to print out data tables from kernel memory. Most of the
information is only of use to those working on kernel development,
but it can also be useful for analyzing system resource usage patterns.
OPTIONS
-a With -p or -t, print out the whole table, not just active table
slots.
-c

Print total number of dist blocks, number of clist blocks free,
number of characters in free clist blocks, and the freelist wait
address. Example:
c:lists: 14 total. 14 free. 1736 chars. 1084: nit address

-c

Print configuration information, i.e. how much memory is
plugged in, and what is plugged in to the option slots. Information about an I/O board in an option slot comes from the ROMs
on the board. Example:
Total Ma.ory

=10241 bytes

Slot' c:onta.1Ds Crt. Version 1.1
Slot E c:onta.1Ds Bard boot. JersioD 0.0

-f

Print the open file table. Example:
100 files. 3 ac:tive
LOC FLG CIT 110

15 I
41 HI
42 HI

1
7
9

4
3
9

OFFS

0
34
2886

The headings are:

LaC
The index of this table entry.

FLG
Miscellaneous state bits:
H open for hole-skipping read
P pipe
R open for reading

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FOR:PRO

Fortune Systems

PSTAT(8)

PSTAT(8)

W open for writing

CNT
Number of file descriptors referencing this file table entry.
INa
The index of the inode table entry for this file.
OFFS
The file offset, see lseek(2).

-i

Print the incore inode table. Example:
100 inode••

LoC ruGS
0
1
2
3

T
T

4 active
110 1I0DE i l l urn SIZE/DEI
1152
2 40777 45 0
1. 18
6784
1. 18 1239 100170 2 101
4
26272
1. 18 1304 101777 1
54 20623 2 101
8, 0
1. 18

CIT DEllCE

8
1
1
2

The headings are:

LaC
The index of this table entry.
FLAGS
Miscellaneous state bits:
A access time must be corrected
C changed time must be corrected
H hole-skipping read is in progess
L locked
M file system is mounted here
P is a pipe
T contains a text file
U update time (filsys(5» must be corrected
W wanted by another process (L flag is on)

CNT
Number of open file table entries for this inode.
DEVICE
Major and minor device number of file system in which this
inode resides.
INa
I-number within the device.

MODE
Mode bits, see chmod(2).
NLK
Number of links to this inode.

FOR:PRO

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9/83

PSTAT(8)

Fortune Systems

PSTAT(8)

UID
User ID of owner.
SIZE/DEV
Number of bytes in an ordinary file, or major and minor
device numbers of special file.
-m Print total physical memory, amount available for user
processes, amount of user memory free, maximum memory
allowed per process, number of core freelist slots used out of
total number available. Amounts are in increments of 1024
bytes. Example:
. . total = 10241, user = 8031. free = 3391.
perproc = 2851 coraaap: t/50

-M Print amount of memory available for user processes, total phy-

sical memory, and maximum memory allowed per process.
Amounts are in increments of 1024 bytes. Example:
8031 user .-cry available out of 10241 total.
2561 uxiJIaDI per process

Print the process table. Example:

-p

37 processel. 5 active
LOe s F PHI SIGIll urn TIll CPU H PCRP pm ppm SIZ ICHU
o1 3 0 0
o 127 199 20 0 0
0 2 runout
1 1 1 30 0
o 121 o 20 0
1
0 15 (nit)
101 121 o 20 32 32
2 1 1 30 0
1 42 (nit)
3 1 1 to 0
o 127 50 30 0 29
1 22 (pause)
o 121 o 20 0 33
1 15 ttJi.l+56
t 1 0 28 0

LIB TEITP CUT
0
0 0
o ffUe 0
o ff432 0
0
0 t5
o ffUe 0

The headings are:
LOC

The core address of this table entry.
S

Run state encoded thus:
no process
1 waiting for some event
3 runnable
4 being created
5 being terminated
6 stopped under trace

o

F

9/83

Miscellaneous state bits (hexadecimal):
1

loaded

2

the scheduler process

4

locked

4-39

FOR:PRO

PSTAT(8)

PSTAT(8)

Fortune Systems

8

swapped out

10 traced
20 used in tracing
4{)

locked in by lock(2).

PRI Scheduling priority, see nice (2).

SIGNAL
Signals received (signals 1-32 coded in bits 0-31),
UID

Real user 10.
TIM

Time resident in seconds; times over 127 coded as 127.
CPU
Weighted integral of CPU time, for scheduler.
NI Nice level, see nice(2).
PGRP
Process group number of process (usually process
controlling terminal).

[0

of the opener of the

PID
The process 10 number.
PPID
The process ID of parent process.

SIZE
Size of process image in clicks (IK bytes). Does not include shared code
segment if sharable.
WCHAN
The event for which the process is waiting or sleeping; if blank, the process
is running. This field is either the name of an internal kernel variable,
like runout, lbolt, buf[10J, inode[3J, etc., a system call name such as wait
or pause (in parentheses), a tty major/minor dev like ttyO,O, any of the
above with an offset, as in ttyl, 1 +56, or a hex address in rare cases.

LINK
Link pointer in list of runnable processes.
TEXTP
If text is pure, index of text table entry.

CLKT
Countdown for alarm(2) measured in seconds.
-5

Print information about swap space.
Example:

FOR:PRO

4-40

9/83

Fortune Systems

PSTAT(8)

PSTAT(8)

Strap allocation size is 512 bJtes.
Total 3264. total free
2236
Largest free chUDlr: is 2158. snpu.p: 38 slota. 5 used

=

-t

=

Print table of tty devices. Example:
7 ttJs
STATE: T=TIIIEOUT '=lOPEI O=ISOPEI C--C.lBll 01 B=BUST A=.ISLEEP
I=ICLUDE H=HOPCLS S=STOPPED
DEY RA' CAl OUT IIODE DEL COL
STATE PCBP DISC LOCAL LSTJ.TE
eO 0
0
DC
o
O. 0
0
0
0
46 nttJ 119405
cdS 0
4
DC
6. 0
0
0
0
41 nttJ 119405
o

The headiDga are:

DEV
Major and minor of the device.
RAW
Number of characters in raw input queue.

CAN
Number of characters in canonicalized input queue.
OUT
Number of characters in output queue.

MODE
Encoded in hexadecimal Things like echo, tab expansion,
etc. See tty(4).

DEL
Number of delimiters (newlines) in canonicalized input
queue.

COL
Calculated column position of output.
STATE
Miscellaneous state bits:
A process is awaiting output
B busy doing output
C carrier is believed to be on
H hangup on close
a open
S output is stopped
T output timeout delay is in progress
W waiting for open to complete
X open for exclusive use
Use stty(l) for complete state.

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FOR:PRO

Fortune Systems

PSTAT(8)

PSTAT(8)

PCRP

Process group for which this is controlling terminal.
DISC
Line discipline in use for terminaL
LOCAL
Hexadecimal contents of tty. t_Iocallongword.
LSTA1E
Hexadecimal contents of tty.t_Istate longword.
-u

print information about a process from its 'upage'; the next
argument is the process ID. The 'upage' is a data structure that
is part of the data segment of a process and is 2K bytes in this
implementation for the Fortune 32:16. Pstat finds the upage in
main memory or swap space, wherever it is. If the process ID
argument is -1 and dumpfile is the core file of a process that died,
this option prints out the information from the upage of the
deceased process represented by the core file.

-w

Print what version of the kernel this is and when it was built.

-w

Like -w but also tells who built the kernel and where.

-x

Print the text table with these headings:

LaC
The index of this table entry.
FLAGS
Miscellaneous state bits:
K locked
L loading in progress
T ptrace(2) in effect
w wanted (L flag is on)
W text not yet written on swap device
SIZE
Size of text segment, measured in clicks (IK bytes).
INa

Core location of corresponding inode.
CNT
Number of processes using this text segment.
CCNT
Number of processes in core using this text segment.
FILES
Idev/mem
default source of tables, kernel data space

FOR:PRO

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9/83

PSTAT(8)

Fortune Systems

PSTAT(8)

Idev/hdOl

this or some other disk will be the swap device
SEE ALSO

ps(l), stat(2), filsys(S).
K. Thompson, UNIX ImpLementatIOn

9/83

4-43

FOR:PRO

RC(8)

Fortune Systems

RC(8)

NAME
letdrc - Shell script for system startup
DESCRIPTION
letclrc is a shell script run by init(8) when the system starts up. If
there is a file Itmpl.reboot, then the system is rebooted. If there is a
file Itmpl.powerdown, then letclrc goes through an orderly powerdown
sequence, which runs any product shutdown scripts, prints
"Software shut down complete", unrnounts any file systems in
letdfstab (to prevent file system damage), prints "Hardware shut
down starting, please wait 60 seconds" places a marker for future
use that the file systems are in order, and runs lete/halt, which
merely waits for 60 seconds. After 60 seconds of no disk activity,
the disk heads are moved to a safe place, otherwise shutting off
power could destroy datd.

If neither of the two files exist, letclrc attempts to bring up the system It prints the number "8" in the countup sequence (see
countup(8», builds all the proper special devices (see mkdevs(8», and
then prints "9". Next, the screen is cleared and the user is given 5
seconds to hit the DEL key. If he does, then letclrc goes into maintenence mode and the user is allowed to log in as 'root'. The user
then sets the time and date.
If the file letcl.fsclean does not exist, it assumed that the system was
not brought down with letclshutdown but instead crashed in some
fashion. Acting on this assumption, lete/rc runs ' fsck' to clean up
any possible file system damage.

Lastly, any product startup scripts (/m/rd*.rc) are run.
FILES
Itmp/.reboot
Itmp/. powerdown

/m/rd*.rc
letd.fsclean
letc/mtab
letdutmp
Ie tdpt mp

Idev/console

SEE ALSO
fsck(8), login(l), mkdevs(8), mount(8), pstat(l), setdt(8), sh(8),
sync(8), update(8).

FOR:PRO

9/83

RDCONF(8)

Fortune Systems

RDCONF(8)

NAME
rdconf - read configuration block
SYNOPSIS
rdconf [-T I -bJ device ...
DESCRIPTION
Rdconf reads the configuration block from each device and prints it's
contents on the standard output in a human readable form.

Device can take several forms and it should be noted that all the programs which manipulate disk drives via devctl(2) use this same form.
If device is of the form
- {b Ie} ma jor / minor
then the appropriate block or character (b or c) device with the
respective major/minor pair of numbers will be used in the devctL call.
If device does not match this form then it is assumed to be either the
name of a device special file or a data file in which case either a
devctL is made on the device or the file is read; this way files can be
used to store configuration blocks and used anywhere a device could
be used.

OPTIONS
-b causes an image of the configuration structure to be output
instead of the human readable text.
-T

prints out only the typename from the configuration block.
Checks are made to see if the configuration block is legitimate
and if not diagnostics are produced; this does not, however,
prevent the information in the block from being interpreted and
printed.

SEE ALSO
mkconf(8), devctl(2), diskconf(5).
DIAGNOSTICS
Error messages if a device does not exist or if a read error occurs on
a device.

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4-45

FOR:PRO

REBOOT (8)

Fortune Systems

REBOOT (8)

NAME
reboot - reboot the system
SYNOPSIS
reboot [-nJ
DESCRIPTION
Reboot takes down the Fortune System and brings it back up. It asks
you to confirm that you want the system to reboot, if the -n flag is
not given.
OPTIONS
-n Does not ask you if you want the system to reboot.
DIAGNOSTICS
Reboot failed, you must be super-user.
WARNING
Reboot does not issue a sync(l) command.
SEE ALSO
sync(l).

FOR:PRO

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9/83

SETDT(8)

Fortune Systems

SETDT(8)

NAME
setdt - set date and time
SYNOPSIS
/etc/setdt [e][t#J
DESCRIPTION
Setdt reads the current time with time(2) and puts it on the screen in
human-readable format to be edited. If the time entered is earlier
than the current time or more than five days in advance of the
current time, the user is told that the time appears to be incorrect
and is asked to verify that it is the correct time. When setdt determines the user has entered a reasonable time, or has confirmed the
time entered is correct, it prints the time and asks the user to verify
that they have entered the correct time. If the Cancel key is pressed
any time while the program is running, the current time is printed in
the format shown above and the program terminates.
OPTIONS
e
Indicates that European format is desired, rather than American
format. The'f' or 'F' keys can be used to toggle between formats once the program has been invoked.
t

Allows the user to give a time limit in seconds after which the
program should time out, e.g. 'setdt t30' gives the user 30
seconds to edit the date, and if the program is still running after
30 seconds it is sent signal 1 (alarm clock). If this option is used
it must be the last option given.

SEE ALSO
date(l), stime(2), time(2), ctime(3).
LIMITATIONS
If a yes/no question is answered with "no " or
"n< EXECUTE > ", this is interpreted as a response of "yes".
An hour of "00" is accepted as a valid time in American format.
The 'f' and up-arrow keys are not accepted if the cursor is on the
right side of the date or time fields.

9/83

4-47

FOR:PRO

SETNSWAP (8)

Fortune Systems

SETNSWAP (8)

NAME
setnswap - set the 'nswap' variable in the kernel binary file
SYNOPSIS
setnswap partition-number confblock-file unix-file
DESCRIPTION
Setnswap reads the configuration block from confblock-file, usually a
disk device, and determines the number of blocks in partition-number.
It patches this number into the 'nswap' variable in unix-file.
LIMITATIONS
Setnswap assumes the sector size is 512.

FOR:PRO

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9/83

SHUTDOWN (8)

Fortune Systems

SHUTDOWN (8)

NAME
shutdown - orderly shutdown
SYNOPSIS
shutdown
DESCRIPTION
Shutdown takes down the Fortune Operating System in an orderly
fashion. It asks you to confirm that you really want the system to
quit.

9/83

4-49

FOR:PRO

SYNC (8)

Fortune Systems

SYNC (8)

NAME
sync - update the super block
SYNOPSIS
sync
DESCRIPTION
Sync executes the sync system primitive. Sync can be called to insure
all disk writes have been completed before the processor is halted.
See sync(2) for details on the system primitive.
SEE ALSO
sync(2), halt(8), reboot(8), update(8).

FOR:PRO

4-50

9/83

UCONF(8)

Fortune Systems

UCONF(8)

NAME
/etduconf - change basic system parameters
SYNOPSIS
/etc/uconf - UNIX program
/sa/reconf - Stand-alone program
DESCRIPTION
The reconfiguration menu allows you to use the 32:16 with its various peripheral devices. The various fields allow you to decide what
the system will do when it powers up, and the size of various
operating system resources. /etc/ucon[ can only be run by the system
manager. /sa/reconf operates in generally the same way as /etduconf,
except it is a stand-alone program, i.e. it runs before UNIX comes
up.
To run it you must hold down the CANCEL/DEL key when the system is powered up or rebooted, and change the "Boot file name"
(F7) field to disk/salreconf, where disk is probably "hd02" for the
hard disk or "fd02" for the floppy disk. Type EXECUTE and the
reconf menu eventually appears. To leave the menu, type F3, and
the level 1 boot program (the ":" prompt) re-appears and you can
then bring in UNIX (disk/unix). (See boot(8), bootmenu(8), and momrom(8).)
The menu consists of fields and values for the fields. Upon entry to
the program the current value of the fields as stored in the EAROM
is displayed.
Certain of the fields simply have a list of possible values that are
cycled through by pushing the space bar. Others require the data to
be manually entered; for these entries, the space bar either has no
effect or enters a space character in the field. In either case, simply
type the  key to move on to the next field.
Certain of the fields also have associated with them" Used/Total"
information. In any case, that information is not crucial, so it can be
ignored.
The information in some of the fields may also be in overstruck. See
the description of "Set params auto?".
Field Definitions
Power up action: Decide what the machine will do when you tum it
on. It can boot from the "Boot Device n, show the menu, or act as a
terminal, with another computer connected to ttyOl.

Boot Device: Decide from which peripheral to boot. The 32:16 can
boot from the back port, the floppy disk drive, or some of the
Fortune peripheral options, such as the hard disk controller.
Boot drive #: Most of the disk drive peripherals can have more than
one drive attached to them, and the drives have unique numbers,
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UCONF(8)

starting from O. 1his sets which actual drive will be used on the
above-named boot device.

Boot Program: Each disk drive can have up to eight boot programs.
This number specifies which boot program will be used.
Boot file: This is a file name in the UNIX file system in the boot partition (usually hd02lunix or fd02lunix).
Flex drive #1, #2, #3, #4: The 32:16 can have up to four floppy disk
drives hooked up to it. This allows you to indicate which model of
floppy disk drive is connected to each of the four channels.
TTYOO port speed & TTYOI port speeds:
The Fortune keyboard port (TTYOO) and the port on the back of the
machine (TTY01) are RS-232C serial lines. These can operate at various speeds. The Fortune keyboard should be at 2400 baud. The back
port can be used for various purposes and the speed can be set up
for whatever it is used. These are default speeds only. They are in
effect whenever the MomROM functions as a terminal, and also
under UNIX until they are changed. TTYOO can be set to any baud
rate if that port is to be used for operation with other than the
Fortune integral keyboard.
Console location: You may want to run a standard video-display terminal or even a printing terminal as the console. This item allows you
to use ttyOO or tty01 for this purpose. Typically, you would figure
out an appropriate speed for the terminal, and plug it into ttyOl.
Timezone: This allows you to tell the UNIX time-keeping system
about your timezone. All of the world's timezones (except Saudi
Arabia) are available here, in either verbal or numerical form.
Daylight savings: This field allows you to tell the UNIX time-keeping
system whether or not daylight savings time ever applies in your
hemisphere; the system uses Daylight Savings at the appropriate
time of the year.
Line frequency: Sets the line frequency of the of the ambient AC
power supply. If you are in America, this is 60 hertz; otherwise, it is
probably 50 hertz. If this is set wrong the integral CRT will flicker.
Language: The language field indicates the natural language used in
this machine's application software. It controls the LANGUAGE=
environment variable.
Floating point?: The 32:16 supports floating point software using a
large emulator in the kernel, and some of the software distributed by
Fortune needs this package. You should set this field to YES unless
you know that you don't need it.
Hex number: This field is not used in the 2.0 release, but is included
for future use.

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Now we come to the really interesting part of the menu. The next
eight fields allow you to change how well UNIX performs under
various loads. If you are confused by any of this, change the "Set
params auto?" field to YES. It automatically calculates generally
acceptable values to use for the fields that are overstruck when the
"Set params auto?" field is set to YES.

Number buffers: Unix performs disk-handling through intermediate in
and out boxes called buffers. The more file-handling (disk activity)
occurs, the more the buffers are used. If you are performing much
activity on a certain few disk files, for instance a data-base, increasing the number of buffers might have cause an improvement.
Number inodes: There is an in-core inode required for every active
(open) file, and the number of inodes limits the number of active
files. These in-core structures are also another kind of buffer cache.
If you are dealing with many files, increasing the number of in-core
inodes can also have an effect on performance. It should also be
increased if the "Software Error 142" message ever appears on the
console.
Number files: There is a also file structure in core for every open file.
The number of file structures limits the total number of files that can
be open at one time. Having more of them will not help performance. But not having enough of them could make it so you can't
get anything done. Increase this number if the "Software Error 129"
message ever appears on the console.
Number clists: Clists are to terminals as buffers are to disk files.
Increasing these to large amounts is only useful when running the
32:16 with much va activity to printers, networks, or terminals other
than the integral CRT.
Number processes: Every program that runs is a process. Many programs, to work effectively, use 2 or more processes. and the 32:16
can only run so many processes. If you try to run too many programs at once, you will get the message "No more processes" (or
something similar) from the shell; this means you need room for
more processes.
Max process size: The largest amount of memory (the most critical system resource) that a process can use up. The number you enter is
multiplied by 1024 bytes.
Set params auto? If this is set to YES, the operating system ignores
the above eight fields, and instead uses rules of thumb. It does a
pretty good job, and you should only need to control these fields if
you always use your system in a certain way. It bases its estimation
of the above fields based on the total memory on your system and
on your estimate of the number of users that will be using the system If this field is set to YES, the values of the fields are displayed
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crossed out, meaning that those values are ignored and the automatically calculated parameters used instead.

Appx. # of users: This is a guess as to how many users you will have
using your 32:16. This number is useful to UNIX in "Set params
auto?". Note that if you want to just increase everything proportionately, but aren't really increasing the number of users on the system, you can still just make this number larger. The numbers which
are ignored when this field is set to YES are struck out in the menu,
when the field is so set. This field does not control how many people are allowed to log in.
/etc/uconf also displays certain system resource usage parameters: the
ram usage, swap space usage, and the actual system parameters
listed above "Set params auto" which can be changed. These
numbers are already tuned to run well with a general mix of applications, but if you wish to fine-tune these numbers for a specific type
of computing load, this display is of aid. Please note that setting
any of these too low crashes UNIX or otherwise hinders the system
from working well. Also, the pstat(1) program helps identify performance problems.
Saving your changes, or what does that bottom line mean?
The settings in the configuration menu are stored in a special kind of
computer memory called an EAROM (electrically alterable read-only
memory). This memory has two levels: one whose contents goes
away when the computer is turned off (known as volatile memory),
and another one whose contents is permanent (non-volatile).
Isalreconf allows you to save your changes in one or the other;
letduconf only saves things in the permanent area, and these
changes do not take effect until Unix comes up again.
The F1 key puts your changes in non-volatile memory, so that whenever you tum the system off and on, the changes stay in effect.
There is an important problem here: Every time that you SAVE your
changes with F1 into non-volatile memory, the EAROM degrades.
The "EAROM has been changed # times" line at the bottom records
only this, not changes to the volatile part. After the EAROM has
been changed around 1000 times, it can fail. When this happens, a
flashing message (see below) appears at the bottom of the screen,
This does not necessarily mean that the EAROM has gone bad, it
may also mean that the data in the EAROM may not have been
properly maintained.
The F2 key throws away any changes you may have done, and reads
what was in the EAROM when you last powered up. This is useful
if you made a change and didn't really mean it.
In the stand-alone version, typing the F3 key causes the changes you
made to be used on this boot-up only, they are not saved in the

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non-volatile portion of the EAROM, and the level 1 boot prompt
(":") appears. Turning the 32:16 off and on again (or pushing the
reset button) causes the configuration menu to revert to its old state.
In the stand-alone version, the F4 key indicates that the contents of
the screen are used on the next boot-up only, but the program goes
back to the beginning of the boot-up process (before the "1 II
appears) instead of merely going back to the level 1 boot prompt
(": ").

In letdreconf, the F3 key merely exits the program and F4 does
nothing.
FILES
bootmenu(8)

SEE ALSO
boot(8), bootmenu(8), momrom(8), pstat(8).
DIAGNOSTICS
EAROM checksum error!
This message appears when the earom has either gotten old and
started to malfunction, or it was aCcidentally altered by a program
malfunction. The Fl key should make this error go away. If it
doesn't, consult your dealer. A checksum is computed from the
data in the EAROM and is then stored in the EAROM. If this checksum is incorrect, the EAROM may have shuffled off this mortal coil,
or may have been improperly altered by a program bug.

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UPDATE (8)

NAME
update - periodically update the super block
SYNOPSIS
fete/update
DESCRIPTION
Update is a program that executes the sync(2) primitive every 30
seconds. This insures that the file system is fairly up to date in case
of a crash. This command should not be executed directly, but
should be executed out of the initialization shell command file. This
program has been subsumed into the kernel, and does not need to
be run.
SEE ALSO
sync(l), sync(2), init(8).
LIMITATIONS
With update running, if the machine is powered down just as the
sync is executed, a file system can be damaged.

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