NARA Style Guide National Archives And Records Administration (NARA)

User Manual:

Open the PDF directly: View PDF .
Page Count: 63

Download
Open PDF In Browser	View PDF

NARA Style Guide

2012

Preface
Clear writing conveys clear thought. NARA writers in all offices must strive for clear
communication to explain their increasingly complex work. They write letters, memorandums,
finding aids, web pages, blogs, leaflets, reports, articles, exhibit scripts, brochures, budget requests,
speeches, forms, and email messages. This style guide establishes agency standards of punctuation,
word usage, and grammar that will answer writers‘ most common questions and will, we hope,
promote clear and effective writing throughout NARA.
Style changes over time and even from place to place, depending on the intended audience. These
differences do not necessarily make one choice ―wrong.‖ What is ―right‖ is consistency within your
own work and using the appropriate language and usage for your audience.
The NARA Style Guide fills two needs. First, the section ―Writing for Plain Language‖ will help us
comply with the Plain Writing Act of 2010. Second, it addresses many of the questions and issues
unanswered by the Government Printing Office Style Manual (GPO manual). This guide is based
on the GPO manual but includes modifications that reflect current usage.
The most notable difference from the GPO manual concerns the treatment of numbers. This style
guide simplifies the rules. In most cases, writers will spell out numbers under 10 and use numerals
for numbers 10 and over. (See section 4.10.)
The GPO manual is still NARA‘s primary reference for style. For issues not covered in the NARA
guide, continue to consult the GPO manual.
The appendix, ―Quick Reference,‖ may be particularly helpful to NARA writers. This list of words
and phrases provides quick answers to common questions about capitalization, spelling, compound
words, and plurals.
The NARA Style Guide took shape from the agency‘s specific language needs and will continue to
change to reflect the needs and concerns of NARA writers.
Use the NARA Style Guide for all NARA communications.
If you have questions about spelling, grammar, or usage that are not addressed by this guide,
contact the Strategy and Communications staff (SC, Mary Ryan: mary.ryan@nara.gov, telephone
202-357-5482).

i

Helpful References
PlainLanguage.gov (www.plainlanguage.gov)
Bremner, John B. Words on Words. New York: Columbia University Press, 1980.
The Chicago Manual of Style. 16th ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2010.
Cormier, Robin. Error-Free Writing: A Lifetime Guide to Flawless Business Writing. Paramus, NJ:
Prentice Hall, 1995.
Editors of EEI Press, E-What?: A Guide to the Quirks of New Media Style and Usage. Alexandria,
VA: EEI Press, 2000.
General Services Administration, Standard and Optional Forms Procedural Handbook.
Washington, DC: GSA, July 2009. www.gsa.gov/portal/forms/type/SF
Gunning, Robert. The Technique of Clear Writing. New York: McGraw-Hill, rev. 1983.
Lauchman, Richard. Plain Style: Techniques for Simple, Concise, Emphatic Business Writing. New
York: AMACOM, 1993.
National Archives and Records Administration, Guide for Preparing NARA Correspondence: A
Supplement to NARA 201 (June 13, 2005). www.nara-atwork.gov/nara_policies_and_guidance/directives/0200_series/word/corrguide.doc
National Archives and Records Administration, Office of the Federal Register, Plain Language
Tools. www.archives.gov/federal-register/write/plain-language/
National Archives and Records Administration, Office of the Federal Register, Drafting Legal
Documents. www.archives.gov/federal-register/write/legal-docs/index.html
The New York Public Library Writer’s Guide to Style and Usage. New York: HarperCollins, 1994.
Redish, Janice (Ginny). Letting Go of the Words: Writing Web Content that Works. San Francisco:
Morgan Kaufman, 2007.
Strunk, William, Jr. The Elements of Style. With revisions, an introduction, and a chapter on
writing by E. B. White. 4th ed. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1999. (commonly known as ―Strunk and
White‖)
United States Government Printing Office Style Manual. Washington, DC: GPO, 2008.
www.gpoaccess.gov/stylemanual/browse.html

ii

Contents
1.
Writing in Plain Language
1.1 Think about your audience
1.2 Organize your material
1.2.1 Use headings and subheadings
1.2.2 Limit heading levels to three or fewer
1.2.3 Write short sections
1.3 Verbs
1.3.1 Use the active voice (unless passive makes more sense)
1.3.2 Use the simplest form of the verb
1.3.3 Don‘t hide the verb
1.3.4 Don‘t use ―shall‖
1.3.5 Avoid the false subjects It is and There are
1.3.6 Use contractions when appropriate
1.4 Nouns and pronouns
1.4.1 Use everyday words
1.4.2 Avoid ―noun strings‖
1.4.3 Use pronouns
1.5 Omit unnecessary words
1.5.1 Write with a word, not a phrase
1.5.2 Avoid redundancy
1.5.3 Avoid intruding words
1.5.4 Don‘t ―double‖ terms
1.5.5 Beware basis, manner, fashion, and way
1.6 Sentences
1.6.1 Write short sentences
1.6.2 Place words carefully
1.6.3 Use idioms
1.6.4 Minimize the use of ―not‖
2.
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
2.10
2.11

Formatting for Readability
Understand that isolation is emphasis
Don‘t hesitate to use headings in any document
Isolate lead sentences
Feel free to write one-sentence paragraphs
Use standard typefaces for the text
Leave the right margin ragged
Leave plenty of white space
Use discretion with graphics
Use tables to present comparisons
Use vertical lists
Use footnotes and endnotes for explanatory or
peripheral information

iii

2.12 Adjust established formats when necessary
3.
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6

Writing and Formatting Email
Think before sending
Use the subject field
Be cautious about using special type styles
Be judicious when capitalizing words
Keep paragraphs short
Maintain a businesslike tone

4.
Usage and Style
4.1 Abbreviations and Symbols
4.1.1 Geographic locations
4.1.2 United States / U.S.
4.1.3 Personal titles
4.1.4 Citations
4.1.5 Typographic symbols
4.2 Acronyms
4.3 Addresses
4.4 Capitalization
4.4.1 Geographic terms
4.4.2 Military terms
4.4.3 NARA forms, directives, and notices
4.4.4 Organizations
4.4.5 Personal titles
4.5 Compounds
4.5.1 Prefixes
4.5.2 Compound adjectives
4.5.3 Compound nouns
4.5.4 Suspended compounds
4.5.5 References to ethnicity
4.6 Computer-related terms
4.7 Dates
4.8 Grammar reminders
4.8.1 Subject/verb agreement
4.8.2 Prepositions and pronouns
4.9 Gender-neutral language
4.10 Numbers
4.11 Plurals
4.12 Possessives
4.13 Problem words and phrases
4.14 Punctuation
4.14.1 Apostrophe
4.14.2 Colons and semicolons
4.14.3 Comma
4.14.4 Dash
iv

4.14.5 Ellipses
4.14.6 Parentheses
4.14.7 Quotation marks
4.15 References to NARA
4.16 Titles of works: italics or quotation marks
Appendix: Quick Reference

v

1. Writing in Plain Language
Writing in plain language means writing clearly. It means writing so that readers can
find what they need,
understand what they find, and
use what they find to meet their needs.
The more clearly you communicate, the more likely your readers will grasp what
you want them to grasp and do what you want them to do, from filling out a form
correctly to complying with a regulation. And the less likely it is that your readers
will call or write you to ask questions or express frustration.
Ultimately, your job will be easier and more pleasant if you take the time to
communicate clearly.

1.1 Think about your audience.
A misconception about plain language is that it means ―dumbing down‖ your
writing so that everyone can read it. That‘s not true. The first rule of plain language
is write for your audience.
That starts with figuring out who your audience is, then focusing on your audience‘s
needs. Here are some questions to ask yourself:
Who is my audience?
What does my audience already know about the subject?
What does my audience need to know?
What‘s the best way to guide them from their current knowledge to what
they need to know?
What questions will my audience have?
What language will my audience be most familiar with?

1.2 Organize your material.
We‘re all busy—including your readers. Nobody wants to waste time slogging
through dense, convoluted documents. Write so that your readers can read your
document quickly and understand it the first time they read it.
Before you start writing, think about what you want to say and what order it makes
the most sense to say it. Organize to serve your audience‘s needs. Think about the
questions your audience will have and the order in which those questions will most
naturally arise.
1

1.2.1 Use headings and subheadings.
Use headings and subheadings to indicate (1) where the important ideas are and (2)
where major separations of thought occur. Think of headings as signs along the
highway. Readers depend on such signs as much as drivers do. A 20-mile stretch of
interstate without any signs would be spooky and aggravating.
There are three types of headings: question headings, statement headings, and topic
headings.
Question headings (for example, How Do I Locate the Records I Want?)
are particularly useful in letters and general instructions. Readers move
through the document with particular questions in mind, and question
headings guide them to the answers. Phrase the question headings from
the reader's point of view. In other words, use Will I Be Charged for the
Service? rather than Will You Be Charged for the Service?
Statement headings are short declarative sentences (for example,
Lodging Is Available Nearby) and are the next most engaging.
Topic headings (the most common form) are considered the most
―formal,‖ so management is often most comfortable with them. Topic
headings consist of a word or phrase (e.g., Requesting Records), but they
are not engaging and are often so vague as to be unhelpful. If topic
headings are to be used, make sure they are clear and accurate.

1.2.2 Limit heading levels to three or fewer.
While headings are useful for organizing your text, don‘t use more than three levels.
Dividing your document into more pieces at the top levels should allow you to limit
subdivisions below the major level to two. In most cases, you will need only the
main heading and one level of subheading.
The Office of the Federal Register recommends that regulations contain no more
than three levels, noting that more than three levels make regulations hard to read
and use.

1.2.3 Write short sections.
Long paragraphs are daunting and discourage the reader from even trying to
understand your material. Short paragraphs are more inviting and are easier to read
and understand.
2

Each paragraph should discuss one main idea, not two. But if the idea requires 20
sentences to develop, that doesn‘t mean you should have a 20-sentence paragraph.
Find places to break lengthy paragraphs.
If a paragraph is long, the writer will certainly have provided transitional terms in at
least a few places. For example, the writer may have started sentences with such
words and phrases as Next, Furthermore, In addition, However, or As a result.
Paragraphs can also begin with these transitions. Just make sure that the resulting
smaller paragraphs are unified in themselves.
Short paragraphs also give you the opportunity to insert informative headings into
your material.

1.3 Verbs
1.3.1 Use the active voice (unless passive makes more sense).
Active voice is the best way to identify who is responsible for what action.
In an active sentence, the person or organization that‘s acting is the subject of the
sentence. In a passive sentence, the person or item that is acted upon is the subject of
the sentence. Passive voice obscures who is responsible for what and is one of the
biggest problems with government documents.
Passive

Active

Mistakes were made.
New regulations were proposed.

The committee made mistakes.
NARA proposed new regulations.

Especially in directives, regulations, or instructions, use the active voice to make it
clear to the reader who takes what action.
Passive

Active

The form is sent to Business Support
Services.
The request will be approved by
Information Services.
The following information must be
included.

3

The executive sends the form to
Business Support Services.
Information Services approves the
request.
You must include the following
information.

More than any other writing technique, using active voice and specifying who is
performing what action will change the character of your writing. However, to say
that the passive voice must be avoided at all cost would mean that we could never
write She was born but must always write Her mother bore her. When the actor is
understood, implied, or irrelevant, use the passive voice, as in the following
example.
Meteorologists are predicting snow.

Snow is predicted.

The passive voice is acceptable whenever the emphasis of the sentence should not
be on the actor but rather on what was, is, or will be done. Any of the following
sentences could be just fine, depending upon which word the writer thinks deserves
emphasis.
Passive

Active

We were amazed by the results.
Materials must be handled with care.
Your shipment has been received.
Many documents must be
declassified.

The results amazed us.
You must handle materials with care.
We have received your shipment.
We must declassify many documents.

The passive voice may also be appropriate when one action follows another as a
matter of law, and there is no actor (besides the law itself) for the second action.
If you do not pay the royalty on your mineral production, your lease will be
terminated.
1.3.2 Use the simplest form of the verb.
The simplest and strongest form of a verb is present tense. Using the present tense
makes your document more direct and forceful and less complicated. The more you
use conditional or future tense, the harder your audience has to work to understand
your meaning.
These sections describe types of information that would satisfy the
application requirements of Circular A-110 as it would apply to this grant
program.
These sections tell you how to meet the requirements of Circular A-110 for
this grant program.

4

1.3.3 Don’t hide the verb.
Verbs are the heart of clear writing. They tell what happened or tell the reader what
to do. Avoid hiding verbs by turning them into nouns. Turning verbs into nouns
makes them less effective and requires you to use more words than necessary.
Watch out for the words make, do, give, have, provide, perform, and conduct, which
often indicate that a verb has been turned into a noun.
We made the decision to
They did a study of
This gives the indication that
This has the tendency to
He provided an explanation
They performed an assessment of
She conducted a review of
Have researchers show

We decided
They studied
This indicates
This tends
He explained
They assessed
She reviewed
Ask researchers to show

1.3.4 Don’t use “shall.”
Avoid the ambiguous shall. The word can suggest obligation or simply a future
event. Good business writing never forces the reader to interpret.
For obligation, use ―must.‖
When you examine records, you must keep them in their original order.
For permission, use ―may.‖
You may bring a coin purse or wallet into the research room.
When recommending a course of action, use ―should.‖
You and your financial institution should agree on how invoice information
will be provided to you.
When indicating the future, use ―will.‖
Our facility will reopen on September 1.

1.3.5 Avoid the false subjects It is and There are.
It is shown in the photographs
It was proven by the research
It will be argued by the plaintiff

The photographs show
The research proved
The plaintiff will argue

There are times when
There were delays due to
There will be complications unless

Occasionally/Sometimes
Delays were caused by
Complications will occur unless

5

It is her opinion that there are several issues that need to be resolved.
She believes that several issues need to be resolved.

1.3.6 Use contractions when appropriate.
When appropriate, use contractions to foster a conversational tone. While
contractions make text less formal, very few documents are purely formal. (An
exception is the wedding invitation, in which even the number of the street address
is spelled out.)
This office will put forth utmost effort to accommodate the needs of
researchers.
Better: We'll do our best to accommodate your research needs.
It is the hope of everyone at the Hoover Library that researchers have
benefited from their visit.
Better: We hope you've enjoyed your visit.
Note: Be consistent within a given document and avoid informality when
informality is inappropriate. Press releases, public announcements, letters to
individuals, and information packets are good candidates for using contractions.
Official policy statements and directives can be more formal.

1.4 Nouns and pronouns
1.4.1 Use everyday words.
Clarity begins with the choice of words. When a writer describes an elevator as a
vertical transportation system, or refers to a leak as a moisture event, clarity goes
out the door.
Rather than using subsequent to, use after. Rather than taking a proactive position
vis-à-vis the problematic situation, the writer anticipates the problem.
Write to communicate, not to impress. Avoid unnecessarily complicated language
used to impress, rather than inform, your audience. That doesn‘t mean you need to
avoid necessary technical terms, if your audience is familiar with them.

6

1.4.2 Avoid “noun strings.”
Often, when a writer attempts to be brief by stringing nouns together, confusion
results. Below, compare the meaning of the original sentences with the intended
meaning, revealed in the revisions.
We must modernize our obsolete nuclear weapons tracking system.
We must modernize our system for tracking obsolete nuclear weapons.
We must revise our outdated check redemption procedures.
We must revise our procedures for redeeming outdated checks.
1.4.3 Use pronouns.
Pronouns include you, your, we, us, our, he, she, and they.
―You‖ pulls readers into the document. It helps them understand how the document
relates to them and what they need to do. And it helps make your sentences shorter,
more direct, and clearer.
Researchers traveling by car may reach Hyde Park via the New York State
Thruway . . .
Better: If you are driving, take the New York State Thruway . . .
A research pass will be issued after the researcher completes an application
and furnishes photographic identification.
Better: You will receive a research pass after you complete an application
and show photographic identification.
Use ―we,‖ ―our,‖ and ―us‖ to stand for NARA or your particular office.
Beginners are urged to read the free pamphlet, ―Using Records in the
National Archives for Genealogical Research,‖ before commencing their
research.
Better: If you are a beginner, you should read our free pamphlet Using
Records in the National Archives for Genealogical Research before starting.

When writing letters, let the letterhead identify you.
Regrettably, the resources of the National Archives at Atlanta do not include
sources that will be of assistance in the location of an individual.
7

Better: Regrettably, our resources do not include information that will help
you locate an individual.
When you are writing about a person or a group, use ―he,‖ ―she,‖ or ―they.‖

1.5 Omit unnecessary words.
Dense, wordy construction is one of the biggest problems in government writing.
Nothing is more confusing or frustrating to the reader than long, complex sentences
full of words that are doing no useful work.
To address the problem, become a tougher critic of your own writing. Consider
whether you need every word.
Would you rather read this:
This letter concerns your request under the Freedom of Information Act. We
received your request on 13 February 2000. We then sent it to the Agency
for Regulatory Policy. Unfortunately, the Agency cannot process your
request without more information. We need you to reasonably describe the
records you are seeking. Specifically, we need to know what records you
need.
Or this:
Unfortunately, the Agency for Regulatory Policy dealing with your Freedom
of Information Act request cannot reply to you until it knows specifically
what records you need.
(examples from the Plain Language Action and Information Network)
1.5.1 Write with a word, not with a phrase.
Don‘t use a phrase if a single word will do the job.
at this point in time
in the vicinity of
it is clear that
in order to

currently, now
near
clearly
to

Be especially watchful for phrases using ―the fact that.‖ Often, the simple word
―because‖ can stand in place of many words.
in consideration of the fact that
in view of the fact that
due to the fact that
8

because
because
because

given the fact that

because

1.5.2 Avoid redundancy.
Weigh the meanings of words and let those meanings do their job. October is a
month, so there‘s no need to say ―the month of October.‖ Cooperation means
working jointly.
the month of October
joint cooperation
the State of Nebraska
advance planning
completely destroyed
advance warning
absolutely essential
past experience
including, but not limited to
forecast for the future
predict in advance
period of three weeks
12 noon
hidden pitfall
postpone until later
whether or not
specific example
established tradition
depreciate in value
completely ignored
general consensus

October
cooperation
Nebraska
planning
destroyed
warning
essential
experience
including
forecast
predict
three weeks
noon
pitfall
postpone
whether
example
tradition
depreciate
ignored
consensus

1.5.3 Avoid intruding words.
―Intruders‖ are another type of verbal padding—extra words that contribute nothing
to the meaning of the sentence. Common intruders include program, event, effort,
method, conditions, and activities.
Records are endangered by fluctuating temperature conditions.
Records are endangered by fluctuating temperatures.
The new policy simplifies reporting activities.
The new policy simplifies reporting.
The declassification effort is proceeding on schedule.
The declassification is proceeding on schedule.

9

1.5.4 Don't “double” terms.
Don‘t repeat the same concept by using different words that mean the same thing.
Use one word. (While you‘re at it, make it an everyday word.)
These data must be assessed and evaluated.
The accessions must be entered and recorded.
You must cease and desist.
The program will begin and commence…
The measure and breadth...

(Use one or the other.)
(Use one or the other.)
(Use stop.)
(Use start.)
(Use scope.)

1.5.5 Beware basis, manner, fashion, and way.
These words often signal the presence of verbal clutter.
in a timely manner
in a rapid manner
on a periodic basis
in an unusual fashion
in an unpredictable way

promptly, soon
rapidly
periodically
unusually
unpredictably

1.6 Sentences
1.6.1 Write short sentences.
Readers process information easily when it is presented in short chunks. Long
sentences require much more effort to figure out.
In light of the fact that the report does not include specific examples in its
discussion of ways to improve productivity, we are of the strong belief that it
should undergo revision.
Better: We believe the report should be revised because it does not include
examples of how to improve productivity.

1.6.2 Place words carefully.
Even in short sentences, place your words carefully. Sloppy word placement can
cause ambiguity. To reduce ambiguity:
Keep subjects and objects close to their verbs.

10

Put conditionals such as ―only‖ or ―always‖ and other modifiers next to
the words they modify. Write ―you are required to provide only the
following,‖ not ―you are only required to provide the following.‖
Put long conditions after the main clause. Write ―complete form 9-123 if
you own more than 50 acres and cultivate grapes,‖ not ―if you own more
than 50 acres and cultivate grapes, complete form 9-123.‖

1.6.3 Use idioms.
―The deadline is creeping up on us‖ is an idiomatic expression—that is, a nonliteral
use of words. No deadline is on its hand and knees, but we say that it is, for the sake
of simplicity, and the reader instantly understands our intent. Ignore the argument
that ―inanimate objects cannot act‖; it may be true, but it‘s beside the point. When
we write ―Figure 2 illustrates‖ or ―Appendix B describes,‖ readers do not imagine a
gesturing Figure 2 or a talking Appendix B.
Plain language calls for the use of such everyday expressions because they are clear
and simple. Figure 2 provides an illustration of and Appendix B contains a
description of are complex compared to their idiomatic equivalents.
Good taste is crucial here. NARA writing should not bring reading to a screeching
halt, and The directive crucifies our plans would do just that. Use common
expressions, but do not invent or use attention-grabbing ones.
1.6.4 Minimize the use of “not.”
It‘s clearer and more concise to say what something is or does than to say what it is
not or does not do.
did not remember
not on time
does not consider
did not bother
not precise

forgot
late
ignores
neglected
imprecise

11

2. Formatting for Readability
The reader should be able to tell at a glance what the document is, how it is
organized, and where the important points are. In business and government writing,
format follows function.
The page should invite reading, not discourage it. We all sigh when we look at a
document that presents immense, unbroken paragraphs with no visual guidance—no
clues about what the pages contain or how to navigate them. Use lots of white space,
and give the reader landmarks. Make the page reader-friendly. Break things up.
Direct the eye.

2.1 Understand that isolation is emphasis.
On the page, nothing is more emphatic than isolation. When you want the reader to
pay particular attention to an idea, find a way to segregate it visually. Make it stand
out. You might, for example, boldface the essential sentence in a memo or letter, or
you might grab the reader‘s attention with a centered table, a heading, or an
italicized phrase.

2.2 Don't hesitate to use headings in any document.
Some people think it is ―wrong‖ to use headings in letters. But in the practical
world, what is ―wrong‖ is to write a document that requires two readings to be fully
grasped.
Use headings wherever headings are helpful. In very short documents, there is
probably no need for them. In longer documents, however, they are crucial
clarifying devices. Rather than telling yourself, ―I can‘t use headings because this is
a letter (or memo, or email),‖ ask yourself, ―Would headings help clarify the text?‖
Remember, instant clarity is what we want—because it‘s what the reader wants.

2.3 Isolate lead sentences.
Isolate lead sentences to alert your reader to the main idea of a paragraph. This page
exemplifies the technique. The ―thesis statements‖ are presented in boldface. People
who wish to read the remainder of the paragraph can do so; those who already know
the explanation can skip it. You can use either boldface or italics for emphasis.

12

2.4 Feel free to write one-sentence paragraphs.
Since most paragraphs contain more than one sentence, a one-sentence paragraph
will stand out. Before people even read the idea, they understand that it must be
important.
Don‘t concern yourself with the instruction that one-sentence paragraphs are taboo.
They were taboo when we were trying to learn the principles of unity and
coherence; what we are trying to do now is convey information quickly.

2.5 Use standard typefaces for the text.
Common fonts installed on word processors include Times Roman, Arial, Univers,
Palatino, and Garamond. Use the same typeface throughout your document. You
may choose another (compatible) typeface for headings, if you wish.
NARA‘s Guide for Preparing NARA Correspondence: A Supplement to NARA 201
[www.nara-atwork.gov/nara_policies_and_guidance/directives/0200_series/word/corrguide.doc]
specifies that the typeface for official correspondence should be Times New Roman,
12 pt.
Reserve novelty typefaces (decorative, script, Old English) for special effects in
advertising, posters, and the like. A page full of type in a fancy typeface will slow
the reader down and distract from your message.

2.6 Leave the right margin ragged.
Research strongly indicates that most people read more quickly and with better
comprehension when the right margin is ragged, as opposed to justified.

2.7 Leave plenty of white space.
Pages that contain dense blocks of text are intimidating. Establish reasonable
margins (i.e., don't crowd the text to within a quarter-inch of the sides of the paper),
use headings, and employ bulleted lists to make the page visually appealing and the
information easy to grasp.

2.8 Use discretion with graphics.
In other words, don't go overboard with headings, subheadings, leads, boldface,
italics, and so on. Too much of a good thing is a bad thing, and when writers
13

overuse graphics, the result is a page that looks cluttered or ―busy.‖ Remember that
graphics should be helpful—never distracting, and never there merely for their own
sake.

2.9 Use tables to present comparisons.
Tables are easy to set up, interesting to the eye, helpful in breaking up the text, and
far more concise than sentences can ever be. They have the added advantage of
requiring minimal effort from the reader.
Consider the following sentence.
Current ethics officials and Standards of Conduct advisers are George M.
Smith, General Counsel; Charles G. Harris, Designated Agency Ethics
Official (DAEO); Anne L. Kupchak, Alternate DAEO; and Charles Branson,
Denise Mead, Keith Cain, Estelle Orokian, and James Landon, Deputy
Ethics Officials.
Contrast that sentence with the following visual presentation of the same
information.
Current ethics officials and Standards of Conduct advisers are:
General Counsel

George M. Smith

Designated Agency Ethics
Official (DAEO)

Charles G. Harris

Alternate DAEO

Anne L. Kupchak

Deputy Ethics Officials

Charles Branson, Denise Mead, Keith
Cain, Estelle Orokian, and James
Landon

Most readers find that the table is easier to understand than the sentence. It isn't that
the sentence is unclear—only that the table is simpler, which means ―clearer on first
reading.‖

2.10 Use vertical lists.
Vertical lists highlight a series of requirements or other information in a visually
clear way. Use vertical lists to help your user focus on important material.
Vertical lists
14

highlight levels of importance,
help the user understand the order in which things happen,
make it easy for the user to identify all necessary steps in a process,
add blank space for easy reading, and
are an ideal way to present items, conditions, and exceptions.
Use bullets if the order of the listed items is not critical. Use numbers if the steps
must be followed in order.
For guidance on how to punctuate vertical lists, see section 4.14.2.

2.11 Use footnotes and endnotes for explanatory or peripheral
information.
The reader understands the relatively minor importance of footnoted material. How
essential can it be if it is cast in tiny type and relegated to the bottom of the page? In
terms of format alone, the mere presence of footnotes strongly suggests that you
have organized and emphasized with care.
As is true with headings, footnotes may be used in any document—including
letters—when they are appropriate. Determining whether they are appropriate is a
matter of answering these two questions: If I place this idea in my text, will it
rupture coherence? But is it nonetheless necessary to include this idea in the
communication? If the answer to both questions is yes, then you should put the idea
either in parentheses or in a note.

2.12 Adjust established formats when necessary.
We may have been writing a report in a certain format for the past 10 years, but that
does not mean we have to worship the tradition. The whole purpose of format is to
simplify the reader's job; when changes are necessary, make the changes. If the
established format of a routine review complicates the reading, change the format. If
the customary format of a report does not adequately fit the report you are now
writing, create a new format.

15

3. Writing and Formatting Email
NARA‘s Guide for Preparing NARA Correspondence: A Supplement to NARA 201
[www.nara-atwork.gov/nara_policies_and_guidance/directives/0200_series/word/corrguide.doc]
provides standards for preparing a variety of kinds of correspondence, including
email.
Given the prevalence of email correspondence and the speed with which it is
sometimes written and sent, this manual provides additional guidelines for creating
email messages that are written and formatted for readability and usefulness.

3.1 Think before sending.
As is true of any writing, the occasion, audience, and purpose dictate the level of
care. In a quick response to a question from a co-worker, an awkward sentence is
not the end of the world, but it does indicate a lack of consideration. Before sending
that quick response, do something else for a minute—then come back and read what
you‘ve written. Chances are you'll find a typo or two, an imprecise word, a way you
could easily clarify a sentence. Your reader deserves your best effort.
Especially when sending email to an external reader, edit and proofread the message
as carefully as you would any hard-copy document. Remember that you are
representing NARA; create and maintain an impression of professionalism.

3.2 Use the subject field.
This is all that shows up in the recipient's mailbox, and busy people often decide
whether to read email based on what they see there. Consider using a statement
heading in the subject field. Be as precise as you can, and briefly describe the
subject of the email.

3.3 Be cautious about using special type styles.
Although messages sent within NARA‘s network will preserve italics, boldface,
underlining, and color, those special treatments may be filtered out when messages
go to recipients outside our system. You can emphasize text in several other ways,
including isolating it with space above and below, using quotation marks, or using
_underscore marks_.

16

3.4 Be judicious when capitalizing words.
Occasionally capitalizing an entire word may correctly express your desire to draw
attention to that word, but capitalizing every word in the message is considered
rude, as if you were shouting at the reader.

3.5 Keep paragraphs short.
Rather than indent to indicate a paragraph break, skip a line instead. Doing so
increases white space, and it becomes essential when you remember that only a
portion of the page may appear on the reader‘s screen at any given time. A block of
text filling the screen is intimidating because it offers no visual guidance on the
structure and content of the text.

3.6 Maintain a businesslike tone.
Although email is more casual than a formal letter, keep in mind that you are still
presenting an image of NARA to the recipient. Be polite. Remember that humor,
irony, and sarcasm don‘t always come across as intended in writing—especially in
writing to strangers. They don‘t belong in good business writing.

17

4. Usage and Style
4.1 Abbreviations and Symbols
a.m. and p.m. (lowercase with periods) 5 p.m., 10:30 a.m.
FY 2001 (use four numerals; one space between ―FY‖ and the numerals)
i.e. and e.g. The abbreviation i.e. stands for ―that is‖ or ―in other words.‖ Use it
when you paraphrase what you've just written or point out something important
about what you've just written. Human error contributed to the accident at
Chernobyl (i.e., the technology was only partly to blame).
The abbreviation e.g. stands for ―for example.‖ Use it to introduce one or more
examples of a point you've just made. The legislation was supported by a number of
former Presidents (e.g., Gerald Ford, Jimmy Carter, and Ronald Reagan). Notice
that i.e. and e.g. appear inside parentheses. They never begin a sentence.
4.1.1 Geographic locations
Except in cases where the location of the city is universally known (e.g., Los
Angeles, Boston, Chicago), identify the state when using the name of a city (Los
Alamos, NM). NARA‘s style is to use postal code abbreviations of states for this
purpose (She was born in Dublin, OH). If you do not name a city, always spell out
the name of the state. The Rio Grande separates Texas from Mexico.
(Note: In correspondence between NARA organizations in the same regional area,
the state reference can be eliminated.)

4.1.2 United States / U.S.
U.S.: Use the abbreviation U.S. as an adjective, but spell out United States when
used as a noun. U.S. Government, U.S. foreign policy, U.S. citizen.
United States: United States Code, foreign policy of the United States. Always spell
out United States in formal writing (e.g., in Executive orders and proclamations).

4.1.3 Personal titles
The following titles are not abbreviated: President, Commander in Chief, Governor,
Senator, Congressman/Congresswoman, and Representative. ―Secretary‖ is spelled
out when it refers to an individual at the Cabinet level or at the international level.
Secretary of the Treasury is correct, not Sec. of the Treasury or Treasury Sec.

18

Titles of military rank are abbreviated when they precede a full name (Lt. George
Armstrong Custer) but not when only the last name is used (Lieutenant Custer).

4.1.4 Citations
When citing a particular law, statute, regulation, or Executive order, use the
abbreviated form. When referring to these items in general, spell out the names. For
more specialized guidance on citations, see the Federal Register‘s Document
Drafting Handbook (www.archives.gov/federal-register/write/handbook/).
Citation
E.O. 12226
Pub. L. 89-1
80 Stat. 1423
15 U.S.C. 311
36 CFR part 1200
36 CFR 1200.1

Spelled-out descriptions
Executive Order 12226; an Executive order
Public Law 89-1; public laws
Statutes at Large
United States Code
Code of Federal Regulations citation to a group of
regulations
Code of Federal Regulations citation to a specific
Regulation (Title 36 Code of Federal Regulations,
part 1200, section 1

4.1.5 Typographic symbols
The only symbol considered formal is the dollar sign ($). Other symbols (for
example, @, %, # +, >) appear in text only on fairly informal occasions. Use them
freely in charts, tables, and graphs.
The symbol @ is used when indicating an email address.

4.2 Acronyms and initials
Be judicious in your use of acronyms and initials. When an acronym is familiar to
your primary audience, as ―NARA‖ is to employees of NARA, then introducing it
and explaining it is as unnecessary as explaining an ordinary word. However, when
you believe that an abbreviation might not be instantly understood, spell out the full
name and introduce the acronym or initials in parentheses. NARA’s regulations are
found in the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR).
Discretion is important. Never introduce an acronym or initials unless you plan to
use it at least once more (and fairly soon) in the document. Common sense argues

19

that a reader unfamiliar with FERS will have forgotten what FERS means if the
acronym is introduced in the first paragraph and doesn't appear again until page 3.
Never use ―the‖ in front of ―NARA,‖ as in The NARA safeguards the records . . .
Acronyms, which are pronounced as words (e.g., NARA, NASA, OSHA), are
considered proper names and are not preceded by ―the.‖ Only when we pronounce
each letter of the abbreviation (e.g., FBI, CIA, SEC) does the word ―the‖ precede it.
To indicate the possessive, write ―NARA's mission,‖ not ―the NARA mission.‖

4.3 Addresses
The address of the National Archives Building is 700 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW,
Washington, DC 20408-0001. Note that neither NW nor DC requires periods.
When citing a web (or email) address in text, use italics to isolate it. Note that the
http:// is unnecessary unless the address does not begin with ―www‖
(http://bushlibrary.tamu.edu/).
Please visit our website, www.archives.gov, for additional information. My
email address is joe.godot@nara.gov.

4.4 Capitalization
Convention requires that we capitalize the important words in a proper name
(National Archives and Records Administration). Shortened forms of proper names
must also be capitalized (Foundation for the National Archives, the Foundation; the
House of Representatives, the House).
Common nouns (i.e., generic names) should not be capitalized. Just as we lowercase
street but capitalize Porter Street, we lowercase records center but capitalize
Washington National Records Center.
Visit one of our regional offices.
Please visit the Northern Great Plains Regional Office.
The EPA‘s regional offices
The EPA‘s Region 3
The Wagner Act; the act
Record Group 115; many record groups
but
The Truman and Eisenhower Libraries
The Mississippi and Missouri Rivers
Presidential administration: The Bush administration; the Roosevelt administration

20

Capitalize ―congressional‖ only when it forms part of a proper name. First
Congressional District, Congressional Budget Office. Lowercase the word when it
is not part of a proper name: congressional action, a congressional district.
Capitalize ―Executive‖ when referring to the President of the United States in such
phrases as ―Chief Executive‖ and ―Executive Office.‖ The shortened form of the
latter would be ―Office.‖ But executive branch, executive power.
Capitalize ―Order‖ when you refer to a specific Executive order. According to
Executive Order 11907 . . . The word is lowercase when the phrase is used in the
generic sense: an Executive order, some Executive orders. (See also E.O. in section
4.1.4)
Lowercase specific parts of a document: the preface, a preface, chapter 3, the
chapter, an appendix. Capitalize the part if it is followed by the full name: Chapter
18, Typography and Design; Table 6, Mortgage Highlights.

4.4.1 Geographic terms
Capitalize ―state‖ when referring to a specific domestic or international state.
Washington State, the State of Veracruz. The word is lowercase when used in a
generic sense: state parks, states with high crime rates, all state governments.
Hawaii has the most temperate climate in the country. The state also . . .
Note that only with Washington is the addition of ―state‖ sometimes necessary; the
State of Ohio is redundant.
capital: The seat of government of a state or nation (the ―Nation‘s Capital‖ may be
used to refer to Washington, DC)
Capitol: The building in Washington, DC, that houses Congress
Lowercase ―capitol‖ when not referring to the U.S. Capitol (Thomas
Jefferson designed Virginia’s capitol in Richmond.)
Capitalize geographic terms such as Middle East, Northern Hemisphere, and West
Coast. Lowercase descriptive terms in expressions such as southern Europe and
northern California.

4.4.2 Military terms
With military terms, capitalize the full proper name of the force (as well as
shortened forms of the name) at the national level.
the U.S. Army, the Army, Army adviser groups

21

the Russian Navy, the Navy
but
U.S. artillery units
Russian naval forces
Korean ground troops
Capitalize the full proper name of military subunits, but lowercase subsequent
shortened references to the subunit.
the 2nd Army, the army, army adviser groups
the 7th Fleet, the fleet
the 82nd Airborne Division, the division
Charlie Company, the company
Capitalize ―Army,‖ ―Navy,‖ ―Air Force,‖ and ―Marines‖ when the words refer to the
U.S. Army, U.S. Navy, and so on.
Capitalize the names of famous battles and specific military operations.
Battle of the Bulge

Operation Desert Storm

Capitalize ―war‖ in references to specific wars (Revolutionary War, Korean War,
Gulf War) and in the term Cold War.
Confederate and Union (when referring to the Civil War)

4.4.3 NARA forms, directives, and notices
Use initial capital letters (no italics or quotations marks) to name forms.
Standard Form 1, Printing and Binding Requisition to the Public Printer
Short form for subsequent references: SF 1
NA Form 14001, Reference Service Slip
Short form: NA Form 14001
NATF Form 82, National Archives Order for Copies of Census Records
Short form: NATF Form 82
Use initial capital letters (no italics or quotations marks) to name NARA notices and
directives.
NARA Notice 2003-144, Retroactive Salary Increase (Notice)
a NARA notice
NARA 802, Appropriate Use of NARA Office Equipment (Directive)
Short form: NARA 802

22

If you are creating or revising forms, consult the GSA‘s Standard and Optional
Forms Procedural Handbook found at www.gsa.gov/portal/forms/type/SF.

4.4.4 Organizations
Always follow an entity‘s formal name. If it is formally known as the ―International
Monetary Fund,‖ then capitalize ―Fund‖ when the word is used to stand for the
entity.
Note the difference in the following expressions. The first is the formal name. The
second is not.
Security is an issue in the Portland District Office.
Security is an issue at the district office in Portland.
Capitalize ―Federal‖ when the phrase refers to the Government of the United States.
Otherwise ―federal‖ is lowercase.
The size of the Federal Government has been greatly reduced.
Federal record
Federal employee
Federal law
Federal agency
But, a federal form of government.
Capitalize the full proper name of a national government body as well as the
shortened form of the name.
the United States Government, the Government
the British Parliament, the Parliament
the United States Senate, the Senate
Capitalize the names of Cabinet-level bodies and shortened forms.
the Department of Labor, the Department
Capitalize the full names of sub-Cabinet-level bodies and shortened forms.
the United States Geological Survey, the Survey
the Bureau of Land Management, the Bureau
Communist: referring to the Communist Party or a Communist-run government.
communist, communism, communistic: used merely in a descriptive sense.

23

4.4.5 Personal titles
Capitalize ―President,‖ ―Presidency,‖ ―Presidential‖ when referring to the President
of the United States (as well as to former Presidents). Capitalize ―Vice President‖ in
the same manner.
The President spoke . . .
the Truman Presidency

Presidential library
Presidential records

Capitalize the full title and the shortened form when you refer to the head of a
Federal or international body (regardless of whether you include the individual's
name).
Secretary of State John Quincy Adams, the Secretary
the Chairman of the Federal Reserve Board, the Chairman
Capitalize ―Archivist‖ when referring to the Archivist of the United States.
The Archivist is speaking to the Senate committee.
Many archivists have recognized . . .
Capitalize a full, official title when used with a personal name or in place of it.
When a title is unique to a person (i.e., only one person at a time may hold the
position), capitalize it.
Amanda Gray, Executive for Agency Services
Mark Lucas, Chief Records Officer
Peter White, Director of the Lyndon Baines Johnson Library
Isabel Hamilton, Director of Preservation Programs
Note: As a result of the 2011 reorganization, the term ―office head‖ is no longer
being used. Use the term "executive" instead of "office head."
Lowercase position titles that are not unique to the person
Jane Doe, archives technician
Bob Brown, budget analyst
Lowercase the titles ―executive,‖ ―unit head,‖ ―staff director,‖ ―library director,‖ and
―regional liaison‖ when they are not part of a full, official title.
The regional liaisons met last week.
Send copies to all executives.
Capitalize most personal titles when they appear before a name. Lowercase titles
after a name.

24

Professor Edmund Morgan
Edmund Morgan, professor of history
James White, vice president for marketing
A named academic chair will always be capitalized.
Edmund Morgan, Sterling Professor Emeritus of History

4.5 Compounds
Two or more words that express a single idea are called compound words.
Compounds may be open (two separate words), hyphenated, or closed: sailing ship,
post office box, blockade-runner, sister-in-law, birthplace, groundwater. Verb forms
of compound words are generally open. The more widely a compound is used, the
more likely it is to evolve into a closed compound. A current dictionary will be your
best guide to which form to use.
The follow-up is scheduled for December 2.
She attended the follow-up session.
Please follow up before the end of the month.

noun, hyphenated
adjective, hyphenated
verb, two words

When runoff enters storm drains, it carries many
pollutants with it.
The runoff election will be held in two weeks.
Please run off these labels for me.

noun, one word
adjective, one word
verb, two words

The most troublesome compounds can be found in the appendix, ―Quick
Reference,‖ at the end of this guide.

4.5.1 Prefixes
While co-operate was the spelling in 1930, cooperate is today's form. If you consult
a dictionary, make sure it is both recent and oriented toward American usage.
British and American usages differ widely (it is non-combatant and north-east in
Britain, but noncombatant and northeast in the United States).
When you put a prefix in front of a year, hyphenate:
pre-1999

post-1986

When you put a prefix in front of a capitalized word, hyphenate:
un-American

neo-Nazi

25

pro-British

Always use a hyphen to prevent confusion or mispronunciation. Resign is to leave a
position, but re-sign is to sign again. Recover is to get something back, but re-cover
is to cover again.
re-encasement

rededicate

reinstall

e- as a prefix: The prefix e- is short for electronic. Apply the same rules as for other
prefixes. Close up the word when the closed version has become common usage, as
with email. Keep the hyphen when the root word is capitalized (e.g., e-Government)
or may cause confusion or mispronunciation. Some trademarked terms may differ.
Newly coined words may also show up in various ways until they become
embedded in common language.
Capitalize these terms when they begin a sentence.
Note: You will likely see several variations of the term ―e-Government.‖ Many
agencies are capitalizing it in different ways. This style guide recommends ―eGovernment‖ because it is a logical extension of guidance concerning ―e-‖ as prefix
and capitalizing ―Government‖ when it refers to the U.S. Government. In a
compilation of work from different sources, just remember to make all occurrences
of the term match.
Prefixes that commonly form closed compounds:
ante
anti
bi
bio
co
counter
extra
infra
inter
intra
macro

meta
micro
mid
mini
multi
neo
non
over
post
pre
pro
proto

pseudo
re
semi
socio
sub
super
supra
trans
ultra
un
under

4.5.2 Compound adjectives
Omit the hyphen in a two-word modifier when the first word is an adverb ending in
―ly.‖
the recently received shipment
a quickly reached verdict
a rapidly approaching storm

26

Hyphenate two or more words that behave as a single adjective and precede the
noun. When two (or more) adjectives precede the noun but can describe it
individually, use a comma. A little, used car is a car that is both little and used; a
little-used car is a car of indeterminate size that hasn‘t been used much.
When the compound appears before the noun, it is usually hyphenated. When it
appears after the noun, omit the hyphen.
This is an up-to-date report.
The report is up to date.
He is a well-known artist.
He is well known.
The hyphen is omitted in a two-word modifier when the first word is a comparative
or superlative:
upper income groups

worst case scenario

best loved books

Even with comparatives and superlatives, however, hyphenate when the modifying
phrase consists of three words or more.
most-favored-nation status
faster-than-light particle
lighter-than-air balloon

4.5.3 Compound nouns
Follow the conventions with regard to compound nouns such as president-elect, selfconsciousness, recordkeeping, deck chair and so on. A current American-usage
dictionary is your best guide. (The Merriam-Webster Collegiate dictionary is found
at www.merriam-webster.com).

4.5.4 Suspended compounds
For brevity‘s sake, we often delay (―suspend‖) the second adjective in a compound
when we have a series of parallel adjectives. In such cases, hyphenate the
incomplete term(s), but skip a space before the next word:
temperature- and humidity-controlled area
third-, fourth-, and fifth-floor reading rooms
German- and English-language journals
a write- and copy-protected disk

27

4.5.5 References to ethnicity
Phrases such as Japanese American, African American, and Polish American are
always two words, regardless of whether the phrase is used as a noun or adjective.

4.6 Computer-related terms
Computer technology has become a common presence in our lives, both at work and
at home. Terms that were once used only by specialists are now part of our everyday
vocabulary. In this section, we address some of the most common terms and
recommend the preferred style that you should use in NARA communications. You
will undoubtedly find alternative spelling and capitalization for these terms from
other sources. In many cases, there is no ―right‖ answer. Until there is a generally
acceptable way of expressing computer terms consistently, we can only pick one
and use it consistently in our work at NARA.
Except in the exact phrase ―World Wide Web,‖ lowercase ―web‖ in all web-related
constructions: webmaster, web address, presence on the web. Note that ―World
Wide Web‖ consists of three separate words.
PDF (Portable Document Format), the file created by Adobe Acrobat
a PDF file
S:\ drive: Save the file in the S:\ drive.
IT Help / IT Help Desk / the help desk
Compounds
database
double-click, right-click, left-click (verbs)
email
Internet
intranet
password-protected (hyphenate the adjective before the noun)
user-friendly (hyphenate the adjective before the noun)
voicemail
webmaster
web page
website
See the appendix for more terms.

28

4.7 Dates
Abbreviations and order
Dates must be fully written out (August 1973 or August 10, 1973) in formal writing.
The month is never abbreviated.
the September 1970 report
The museum was closed between September 2 and 7, 2003.
Except in charts or graphs, do not abbreviate dates in purely numeral form
(12/10/1973).
Do not use the European and military form (10 August 1973).
Use enough commas
When you mention a precise date in a sentence, place a comma after the day and
after the year.
The author was born on April 13, 1906, in Dublin, Ireland.
Using “th”
When you name the month, never use the ordinal number (June l0th) but always the
cardinal number (June 10). Use ordinal numbers only when you do not name the
month.
Lincoln had every reason to be optimistic on May 1. By the 30th, however,
he had grave doubts about victory.
Span of time
Do not use a dash between dates when you use ―from‖ or ―between.‖ The correct
form is from 1996 to 1999 or between 1996 and 1999, not ―from 1996–99‖ or
―between 1996–99.‖
When a period of time is used as an adjective and is confined to a specific century,
use an en dash and two digits for the second term. (In Microsoft Word, you can
create an en dash two ways: press the Control (Ctrl) key and the hyphen in the
number pad or type a space, then two hyphens [ -- ] and another space before the
second number.)
the 1820–39 expansion

the 1991–92 campaign

When a period of time is used as an adjective and spans a century, use all four digits
for the second term.
the 1797–1816 Barbary conflicts

29

Use the same logic when periods of time are objects of prepositions.
the campaign of 1991–92

the Barbary conflicts of 1797–1816

Decades
Decades are written as ―1840s,‖ not ―1840's.‖
Shortened references to decades are spelled out, as in ―the sixties,‖ not ―the 60s.‖
Compounds
A compound adjective involving ―century‖ requires a hyphen.
17th-century philosophy

ninth-century sagas

―Mid‖ takes a hyphen in such constructions as ―mid-1990s.‖

4.8 Grammar reminders
4.8.1 Subject/verb agreement
The subject and the verb must agree. If the subject is plural, use a plural verb.
The Kyl and Lott Amendments require that . . .
All staff are required to wear ID badges in the research areas.
Sometimes it is not so obvious. Collective nouns may look plural, but they usually
take the singular verb.
The team practices on Mondays.
The ERA staff is giving a presentation in Lecture Room A.
Or a group of words may contain a singular noun but conveys the idea of a number
of individuals. Use the plural verb in these cases.
A majority of the population are . . .
Only a fraction of the records are considered to be permanent.

4.8.2 Prepositions and pronouns
Use the objective case after prepositions. Prepositions connect verbs and objects.
One of the most common errors in spoken and written language is the use of
―between you and I.‖ ―Between‖ is a preposition; therefore, the words that follow
must be in the objective case. The correct usage is ―between you and me.‖

30

―Myself‖ is not a substitute for ―me.‖ It is a reflexive pronoun, not an object or
subject. Use it in conjunction with ―I‖: I did it myself. I asked myself, ‗What should
I do next?‖
Subjective case
I
you
he/she/it
we
you
they

Objective case Use these forms after prepositions
me
you
him/her/it
us
you
them

Common prepositions:
aboard
about
above
across
after
against
along
amid
among
anti
around
as
at
before
behind
below
beneath
beside

besides
between
beyond
but
by
concerning
considering
despite
down
during
except
excepting
excluding
following
for
from
in

inside
into
like
minus
near
of
off
on
onto
opposite
outside
over
past
per
plus
regarding
round

save
since
than
through
to
toward
under
underneath
unlike
until
up
upon
versus
via
with
within
without

4.9 Gender-neutral language
Many readers are sensitive to the implied sexual bias of words such as ―chairman‖
and ―mailman‖ as well as to the possible bias of sentences such as Each manager
must submit his report by July 15.
Within reason, it is best to defuse the situation by using gender-neutral terms.
With sentences, we have a number of options. Often, as in the examples below, we
can simply cut the ―his‖ from the sentence.
Every individual must use his good judgment.

31

The applicant must be prepared to spend his weekends traveling.
Susan James staffed manned the booth at the conference.
When cutting ―his‖ results in an ungrammatical construction, here are some options.
The original sentence reads ―Each researcher must bring his driver‘s license or other
photo identification.‖
When you are writing to someone, use ―you.‖
You must bring your driver’s license or other photo identification.
Make the first term plural.
All researchers must bring their driver’s licenses or other photo
identification.
Use an article (an ―a,‖ ―an,‖ or ―the‖).
Each researcher must bring a driver’s license or other photo
identification.
Use ―his or her,‖ ―his or hers,‖ or ―he or she‖ only after you have tried the
techniques mentioned above. Do not use ―his/her,‖ ―his/hers,‖ ―he/she,‖ or ―(s)he.‖
You can avoid this problem by saying what a person does (as opposed to what that
person is). Whether it is better to use ―Chairwoman,‖ ―Chairman,‖ or ―Chairperson‖
becomes moot if we say that someone chairs a committee.
When you must describe the individual (as opposed to saying what the person does),
and when the gender of the individual is known, attempting to conceal gender makes
little sense. It is better to write Chairwoman Helen Smith than Chairperson Helen
Smith and better to write Congressman Frank Black than Congressperson Frank
Black.
When you know the individual‘s preference, always defer to it. If she prefers
Chairwoman, Chairperson, or Chair, respond in kind.

32

4.10 Numbers
[adapted from New York Public Library Writer’s Guide to Style and Usage (1992)]

Examples
Spell out numbers
zero to nine

eight children, one-time offer, nine
applicants
ordinal numbers first to ninth

Exceptions
Use figures—
With numbers nine and below
grouped for comparison in the same
sentence or paragraph with numbers
10 and above—
3 of 21 students; 9th and 12th grades
With numbers preceding symbols and
abbreviations—8ºC, 4 MB, 5-mg
dose
With names of parts of books, series,
tables, etc.—chapter 2, volume 7, row
9, grade 3
With percentages—1 percent; mixed
fractions—2½ years; decimals—1.3
times; and ratios—2 to 1
With sums of money—$5.25, $7
million
With military units—1st Army,
7th Fleet

Use numerals for
numbers 10 and over

49 states, 200,000 people, 14 million
residents (spell million, billion,
trillion)
ordinal numbers 10th and above (21st
birthday, 18th century, 13th edition)

Spell out at beginning of sentence or
list item—Forty women helped.
Spell out all numbers in dialogue—
―Meet me in forty-five minutes.‖
Spell out to clarify back-to-back
modifiers—20 six-year-olds, 12
thirty-minute segments, 100 twentynine-cent stamps
Spell out decades—the sixties or the
1960s

Inclusive numbers (use the en dash; see 4.14.4 for how to type dashes)
103–210
141–48
107–8
1960–64
1903–5
1882–1902
1900–1920
Telephone numbers (use hyphens)
202-501-5000, ext. 999

33

4.11 Plurals
Do not use the apostrophe to make the plural form. Apostrophes show
possession.
To make an acronym plural, add s: ABMs, CEOs, MIAs. When an acronym ends in
s, it is best to rewrite. Rather than The crew sent numerous SOSs, try The crew sent
numerous SOS signals.
Criteria is the plural form of criterion and takes a plural verb. These criteria are . . .
Data is considered a plural form: These data indicate . . .
In nontechnical writing, data is often paired with the singular verb.
Some plural forms
addendum / addenda
adjutant general / adjutants general
alumnus / alumnae (feminine)
alumnus / alumni (masculine, or for
mixed groups)
appendix / appendixes (general)
appendix / appendices (scientific)
attorney general / attorneys general
brother-in-law / brothers-in-law
chief of staff / chiefs of staff
court-martial / courts-martial
crisis / crises
formula / formulas
general counsel / general counsels
GILs is the plural of the acronym for
General Information Leaflet
governor general / governors general
grant-in-aid / grants-in-aid

higher-up / higher-ups
hypothesis / hypotheses
index / indexes (general)
index / indices (scientific)
inspector general / inspectors general
major general/ major generals
matrix / matrices
memorandum / memorandums
(common usage)
millennium / millennia
passer-by / passers-by
phenomenon / phenomena
plateau / plateaus (not plateaux)
right-of-way / rights-of-way
symposium / symposia
SF 115 / SF 115s
tableau / tableaus (not tableaux)
thesis / theses

4.12 Possessives
When a proper noun ends in s, add an apostrophe and an s: Adams’s, Davis’s
Acronyms are treated as ordinary nouns: NARA’s mission, NASA’s funding

34

When writing about an organization, always follow the organization‘s preference.
Reader’s Digest prefers the singular possessive, but in Typesetters Union and
Dramatists Guild, the first word is treated as descriptive, as is the third word in
Department of Veterans Affairs.
Users manual, teachers guide, and officers club are considered descriptive and do
not take the apostrophe.

4.13 Problem words and phrases
a / an
Use ―a‖ before a consonant sound and ―an‖ before a vowel sound.
a European office, a unique event, a one-time adjustment, a historian, an hour, an
FDIC-insured account, an SOS
abovementioned, aforesaid, said
These are cumbersome words. Use this, that, these, and those. Rather than ―the
abovementioned collection‖ or ―said collection,‖ write this collection. Rather than
―the aforesaid dates,‖ write these dates.
adverse / averse
―Adverse‖ applies to conditions. The snow created adverse driving conditions.
―Averse‖ applies to people and is a close synonym of ―opposes.‖ They are averse to
change.
affect / effect / impact
Use ―affect‖ only in the sense of ―to influence‖; never use ―effect‖ and ―impact‖ as
verbs.
Always ask yourself if you are using the most precise word. The policy affected
morale and the proposed regulation will impact revenue are unclear. If you mean
the policy improved or damaged morale and the regulation will increase or
jeopardize revenue, say so. The ruling negatively impacts our budget is a waste of a
sentence: the reader waits to hear exactly how much funding has been lost, and the
writer should say so in the first place. The ruling decreases our FY 2003 budget by
$2.5 million.
―Affect‖ may be used to ask a question. How will the decision affect us? ―Affect‖ is
the right word when you wish to specify no particular effect. The new tax law does
not affect your take-home pay.
Using ―effect‖ as a verb always results in imprecision. If they are attempting to
effect a solution to the problem, all they are doing is trying to solve it.
―Effect‖ is a noun, where it is a close synonym of ―result.‖ The effect of rising
interest rates is profound.

35

and / or
Use this construction only after you‘ve made sure that you don‘t mean both (―and‖)
or one or the other (―or‖).
anxious / eager
―Anxious‖ has anxiety in it. The defendant waited anxiously for the verdict. ―Eager‖
is used to express a pleasant prospect. We eagerly await your visit.
attached please find / enclosed please find
Write ―enclosed is‖ or ―attached is,‖ whichever is accurate. If you wish to suggest a
conversational tone, use ―I‘m enclosing.‖
because / since / as
Use ―because‖ when you are reasoning; use ―since‖ when you refer to time; use ―as‖
when you mean ―during the time that.‖
―Since‖ can logically mean both ―because of‖ and ―from the time of.‖ Use
―because‖ if there is a chance of confusion. Since the secretary left, the office has
become a shambles can mean either that trouble began after the secretary left or that
the loss of the secretary caused the problem. Since you won’t share the information
with me, I can’t help you is not confusing.
Using ―as‖ to mean ―because‖ can confuse the reader in a sentence such as He
couldn’t hear the siren as he was listening to the car radio.
between you and me
The preposition ―between‖ takes the objective case. Between you and me is correct;
between you and I is not.
biannual, biennial
These words are notoriously confusing to readers, and it is best to define them
before using them. The conference will be held every two years. Holding it
biennially will ensure that . . . The sale will be held twice a year. We have had great
success holding this sale biannually.
bimonthly, biweekly
These words are even more confusing to readers as both words can have two
different meanings. ―Bimonthly‖ can mean both twice a month and every two
months. ―Biweekly‖ can mean twice a week or every two weeks. Define the terms
before you use them.
compose / comprise / constitute
The parts compose (or constitute) the whole. The book is composed of 15 chapters.
(not The book is comprised of 15 chapters.) These reasons constitute her argument.

36

The whole comprises the parts (a close synonym is ―embraces‖). The collection
comprises more than 4,000 letters.

currently, presently, at this point
These words prepare the reader for a contrast. Currently, we are receiving 50
shipments every week must be followed by a sentence like We expect this number to
double within six months or Less than a year ago, we rarely received 50 per month.
different from / different than
―Different from‖ is the preferred form. Requirements for women applicants should
be no different from those for men.
due to / because of
―Due to‖ is not equivalent to ―because.‖ Use ―because of‖ for cases of clear cause
and effect. The trucker lost control on the slippery pavement because of [not due to]
bald tires. Use ―due to‖ only following forms of the verb ―to be‖: His fall was due to
the icy pavement.
ensure / insure / assure
The only meaning of ―insure‖ is ―to cover with insurance.‖ The collection is insured
by Aetna. ―Assure‖ applies only to persons. We assure you that . . . ―Ensure‖ is used
for all other senses of making an outcome certain or securing from harm. To ensure
the privacy of your records . . .
fewer / less
If you can count the things you're writing about, use ―fewer.‖ If you can't, use
―less.‖ Fewer people, fewer hours; less of an audience, less time.
foreign words and phrases
Write in English. Rather than vis-à-vis, use ―about,‖ ―regarding,‖ or ―concerning.‖
Rather than ad hoc, use ―special‖ or ―temporary,‖ whichever is your intent.
herein, hereto, herewith
We often read these words in such phrases as ―herein enclosed is‖ or ―is attached
hereto.‖ The words do not add meaning to a sentence—do not use them.
his/her, his or her (see section 4.9, ―Gender-neutral language‖)
if / when
―If‖ means ―in the event of‖; ―when‖ means ―on the occasion of.‖ If you discontinue
using public transportation, immediately notify your local PTSP manager. You will
take the action only if you decide to discontinue using public transportation. When
your application expires, you must submit a new one.

37

imply / infer
―Imply‖ means ―to suggest‖ and is the verb applied to speakers, writers, and text. He
implied that NATO would partition the country. ―Infer‖ is a close synonym of
―guess‖ and is the word applied to listeners and readers. When Hemingway noticed
that the large unopened package was marked “Return to Sender,” he inferred that
his manuscript had been rejected.
include
The word indicates that your list is not exhaustive. Use it only when you are giving
examples, never when you list everything. On her visit she toured a number of
popular sites, including the Washington Monument, the National Air and Space
Museum, and the Capitol. That sentence is accurate if she toured other sites as well.
If, however, she toured only those three sites, then ―including‖ is misleading. The
sentence should then read, On her visit she toured the Washington Monument, the
National Air and Space Museum, and the Capitol.
including, but not limited to
Avoid this redundant phrase. Write ―including.‖
issues / problems
Issues are resolved, not solved. Problems are solved, not resolved.
loose / lose
―Loose‖ is the opposite of tight. ―Lose‖ is the opposite of win and is also the word
we use when we no longer have something. She continually loses her car keys.
obviously
The best advice is to avoid it. Numerous relationships have been sunk by this
torpedo of a word, which in effect calls the reader a dunce. Such phrases as
―Jefferson obviously thought‖ and ―It's obvious that‖ greatly annoy most people.
The word ―clearly‖ conveys the same emphasis without ruffling feathers.
only
Be sure to place this word precisely where it should go (i.e., immediately before the
distinction you are drawing). He plays basketball only on weekends means that he
confines his basketball playing to weekends. He only plays basketball on weekends
means that he does nothing but play basketball on weekends.
principal / principle
―Principal‖ is an adjective or a noun. As an adjective, it means ―main‖ or ―major.‖
Her principal motive was fame. As a noun, it signifies (1) money, as in principal and
interest, or (2) a person with responsibility, as in a principal of the corporation or
the principal of the elementary school. A ―principle‖ is a rule of action or
conduct, as in the principles of physics and unprincipled behavior.

38

prior to / before
In most cases, ―before‖ is the word you need. ―Prior to‖ carries the idea of necessary
precedence—something must happen prior to something else happening. Because
this usage is limited, you‘ll be safe in sticking with ―before.‖
proactive
This word is both faddish and without fixed meaning. We must take a proactive
position vis-à-vis the problem is gobbledygook. If you mean ―act,‖ ―anticipate,‖ or
―preempt,‖ use those words instead.
shall
Don‘t use shall (see section 1.3.4).
subsequent to / after
Many readers confuse ―subsequent to‖ with ―before‖ or ―because of.‖ ―After‖ is the
better word. The same holds for ―subsequently.‖ Use ―later‖ or ―afterward‖ instead.
than / then
―Than‖ is used in comparisons. He wrote more than 8,000 letters. ―Then‖ is used in
reference to time. They said they'd have the project finished by then. Until recently,
―then‖ was also used to introduce the outcome of a conditional, as in If the software
saves us time, then we should buy it. Now, however, most writers drop the implied
―then.‖
that / which
―That‖ introduces information essential to the meaning of a sentence. The committee
that has jurisdiction on the issue is the House Appropriations Committee. The
phrase ―that has jurisdiction on the issue‖ cannot be cut from the sentence; if it were,
the result would be meaningless. The committee is the House Appropriations
Committee. Use ―that‖ to specify.
―Which‖ is used to introduce a phrase or clause that is nonessential to meaning. The
House Appropriations Committee, which debated the matter yesterday, is scheduled
to vote on it today. There is only one House Appropriations Committee, so we do
not need to specify the one that we‘re talking about. We are adding some interesting
information to the sentence, but the information is nonessential, and thus it must be
punctuated. Use commas, dashes, or parentheses, depending on your intended
emphasis.
this office, this division
Once the reference has been made clear, use ―we,‖ ―us,‖ and ―our.‖ Rather than
write ―The principal function of this office,‖ write Our main function.
12 noon / 12 midnight / 12 a.m. / 12 p.m.
Just write ―noon‖ or ―midnight.‖ ―12 a.m.‖ and ―12 p.m.‖ are ambiguous. ―Noon‖
and ―midnight‖ are clear.

39

under way
The adverb ―under way‖ is spelled as two words: The project is under way.

unique
―Unique‖ means one of a kind. There are no degrees on uniqueness, such as ―most
unique.‖
use / utilize
Reserve ―utilize‖ for occasions when the sense is ―ingeniously made use of.‖ She
utilized a paper clip to pick the lock. Nearly always, the right word is ―use.‖
v. / vs.
Though ―versus‖ should usually be spelled out, ―vs.‖ is the correct abbreviation in
most cases; ―v.‖ is used in citations of legal cases.

who / whom
To decide whether to use ―who‖ or ―whom‖ in a sentence, delete the word ―who‖ or
―whom‖ and substitute ―he‖ or ―him.‖ If ―he‖ completes the thought, then ―who‖ is
correct. If ―him‖ makes sense, use ―whom.‖

4.14 Punctuation
4.14.1 Apostrophe
Use the apostrophe to form contractions and possessives (see sections 1.3.6 and
4.12).
The apostrophe is never used to form plurals except in instances of single-character
elements. They had better mind their p’s and q’s. It's difficult to distinguish his 1’s
from his 7’s.

4.14.2 Colons and semicolons
Use a colon to introduce a summary statement:
The dictator learned something important: brutality has consequences.
She came right to the point: the cost overruns must stop.
Use a colon after a complete sentence that introduces a list. Use a comma or a dash
after an introductory phrase.

40

We have yet to finish three activities: recataloging, reclassifying, and
reorganizing the collection.
The exhibit includes copies of the Charters of Freedom:
the Declaration of Independence,
the Constitution, and
the Bill of Rights.
To improve our service, we have set three goals:
We will respond to all written requests within 10 working days.
We will assist all researchers within 15 minutes of their signing in.
We will acknowledge all FOIA requests within 20 working days.
Use a semicolon to separate phrases in a series when one or more of the phrases
already contain a comma. Follow this practice in vertical lists as well.
The conferences were held in Dallas, TX, on May 1; in Denver, CO, on June
30; and in San Francisco, CA, on September 2.
Do not use a colon to express ratio. Instead of ―3:1,‖ write 3-to-1 (as an adjective, as
in a 3-to-1 vote) or 3 to 1 (when the numerals are nouns, as in odds of 3 to 1).

4.14.3 Comma
In the phrase the ―Washington, DC, area,‖ place commas on both sides of ―DC.‖
When your sentence contains a list of three or more items, always place a comma
after the next-to-last item in the series (i.e., before the ―and‖ or ―or‖):
The President visited Helsinki, St. Petersburg, and Berlin.
Please bring your passport, driver‘s license, or birth certificate.
Use a comma after an introductory phrase only when your meaning would be
unclear without it:
In February 1999 we issued the directive.
In 1998, 1,406 documents were released.
Always place a comma after an opening dependent clause:
When we returned, we found the materials in disarray.
Compound sentences require a comma when they are connected by these
conjunctions: and, but, or, for, nor, so, yet.

41

Some took great care of the materials, but many did not.
Do not use a comma in a ―compound predicate‖ (when the sentence has one subject
and two verbs):
The documents are now on display and may be viewed by the public.
Lewis and Clark endured many hardships but finally prevailed.
Nonrestrictive (also called ―parenthetical‖ and ―nonessential‖) phrases require
punctuation. In the sentence below, which has been NARA’s principal finding aid
since 1974, could be omitted without changing the meaning.
The Guide to Federal Records in the National Archives of the United States,
which has been NARA‘s principal finding aid since 1974, may eventually be
replaced by the Online Public Access resource.
Restrictive phrases must not be punctuated. In the example below, that were written
before 2006 specifies the regulations you are talking about. (If it were cut, the
sentence would read ―Revise all regulations,‖ which is not the intended meaning.)
Revise all regulations that were written before 2006.

4.14.4 Dash
Use dashes instead of commas when you wish to call special attention to
nonrestrictive material. This is always a judgment call.
Senator Smith—reversing his position—has announced that he will resign.
Use dashes around appositives if the use of commas might cause confusion.
Three former Presidents—Ford, Carter, and Bush—attended the ceremony.
Note: There are two dashes, both longer than a hyphen, that must appear in NARA
printed publications in place of double or triple hyphens. The ―em‖ dash is
commonly used to set off parts of a sentence (as in the examples above). The shorter
―en‖ dash connects inclusive numbers (e.g., 1997–98; pp.123–126). For further
information about the uses of these dashes, see United States Government Printing
Office Style Manual 2000, sections 8.60–8.75, and The Chicago Manual of Style,
sections 6.78–6.91.
In Microsoft Word, when you type a space, then two hyphens ( -- ), then another
space, an en dash is automatically inserted. When you type two hyphens without
leaving space, an em dash is inserted. You can also create an en dash by pressing the

42

Control (Ctrl) key and the hyphen in the number pad. Create an em dash by pressing
Ctrl, Alt, and that hyphen.

4.14.5 Ellipses
Use ellipses only to indicate that part of a quotation has been left out. If a politician's
exact words were, ―The American people are smarter than my Aunt Sallie's mule
and can't be fooled forever,‖ and you omit the colorful comparison, you write He
said, “The American people . . . can't be fooled forever.”
Ellipses are written as three spaced periods when words have been omitted from the
beginning or the middle of a sentence. However, when you omit words from the end
of a sentence, use the appropriate punctuation and three spaced periods.
The introduction declared: ―The pages that follow present some of these
great documents. . . . Many have heralded new departures or marked closed
chapters.‖
Note that in the four-dot ellipsis above, the first dot is the period. Ellipses always
appear inside quotation marks.

4.14.6 Parentheses
If the material within parentheses appears within a sentence, do not use a capital
letter or period to punctuate that material, even if the material is itself a complete
sentence. (A question mark or exclamation mark, however, might be appropriate and
necessary.) If the material within your parentheses is written as a separate sentence
(not included within another sentence), punctuate it as if it were a separate sentence.
Thirty-five years after his death, Robert Frost (we remember him at
Kennedy‘s inauguration) remains America's favorite poet.
Thirty-five years after his death, Robert Frost (do you remember him?)
remains America‘s favorite poet.
Thirty-five years after his death, Robert Frost remains America's favorite
poet. (We remember him at Kennedy‘s inauguration.)
Use parentheses when you introduce an acronym.
The collection contains hundreds of documents pertaining to the formation
of the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA).

43

Use parentheses to capture i.e. and e.g. expressions.
Several species (e.g., the bald eagle, the dusky marmot, the spotted owl)
have been removed from the ―endangered‖ list.
Use parentheses instead of commas or dashes when you wish to indicate that
nonrestrictive information is of only minor importance. As is true of dashes, this is
always a judgment call.
The records (which arrived in damaged condition) require immediate
attention.
Use brackets as parentheses within parentheses.
The collection contains the papers from the terms of three former Secretaries
of State (John Hay [1898–1905], Elihu Root [1905–9], and Robert Bacon
[1909]).

4.14.7 Quotation marks
In American usage, the comma and the period always go inside closing quotation
marks.
In Chapter 7, ―The Missing Link,‖ the author poses a number of questions.
She stated, ―I have read Chapter 2, ‗Nature of Archives.‘‖
The conference ended with the playing of ―Rule Brittania,‖ ―The
Marseillaise,‖ and ―The Star-Spangled Banner.‖
Colons, semicolons, and dashes always go outside closing quotation marks.
I have only one question about the word ―proactive‖: What does it mean?
They call it a ―leather personnel carrier‖; what they mean is boot.
He attended the lecture ―The New Physics‖—and says he is more confused
than ever.
The question mark goes inside closing quotes whenever the quoted material is a
question.
She asked, ―Are you talking about Harry Truman?‖
Have you read the article entitled ―When Does the Millennium End?‖
He asked, ―Have you read Chapter 2, ‗Nature of Archives‘?‖
Which President said, ―The buck stops here‖?

44

The exclamation point requires the same treatment as the question mark. It goes
inside closing quotes whenever the quoted material is exclamatory.
The speaker asked, ―Do you want me to continue?‖ In unison, the audience
yelled, ―No!‖
Use single quotation marks to enclose a quotation within a quotation.
She asked, ―Have you read Chapter 2, ‗Nature of Archives‘?‖
When you have a lengthy quotation, set it off as a block quotation. Indent the text,
and do not use quotation marks at the beginning or end. Do not use ellipsis points
when the quotation begins with a complete sentence or is introduced by a sentence
that is completed by the quotation.
Malone explains that Jefferson
had been a close observer of financial affairs at home and abroad.
Furthermore, he was familiar with the literature of the young science
of political economy. He paid his respects to Adam Smith and Jean
Baptiste Say in the introduction he wrote to Destutt de Tracy‘s
treatise.

4.15 References to NARA
NARA has had several names throughout its history. When making historical
references, use the appropriate name. From its creation until 1949, the agency was
referred to as the ―National Archives of the United States‖ or the ―National
Archives.‖ In 1949, when the National Archives became part of the General
Services Administration, the name changed to the ―National Archives and Records
Service.‖ With independence in 1985, the name became the ―National Archives and
Records Administration.‖
When referring to the entire agency, use ―National Archives and Records
Administration‖ at the first reference. Use ―NARA‖ or "the National Archives" in
subsequent references; consider your audience when you choose which term to use.
To refer to the collections of our permanent holdings, use the full title, as in the
holdings of the National Archives of the United States. Later references to
permanent holdings may be stated as National Archives holdings.
Never write ―the‖ in front of ―NARA,‖ as in The NARA safeguards the records . . .
Use the terms ―Archives I‖ and ―Archives II‖ only in informal and internal
communications. Do not use these terms in external communications.

45

In the few cases where the acronym might be appropriate, ―AI,‖ ―AII,‖ ―A1,‖ or
―A2‖ are acceptable as long as the writer is consistent throughout the document.
(Don‘t use both A1 and AI in the same document.)
On organization charts and on internal mail, NARA units are identified by an
organization code. Don‘t use these codes when writing for an external audience. In
internal communications, spell out the unit‘s name before using the code (e.g., spell
out Business Support Services before using ―B‖). In general, avoid ―talking in code‖
and use names whenever possible.
The reorganization of NARA in 2011 was just a part of NARA‘s overall
transformation efforts. The terms ―reorganization‖ and ―transformation‖ should not
be used interchangeably.
Washington, DC, area
National Archives Building
Rotunda for the Charters of Freedom; the Rotunda
National Archives Experience
Public Vaults exhibition (the Public Vaults)
William G. McGowan Theater (second reference, the McGowan Theater)
Lawrence F. O‘Brien Gallery (second reference, the O‘Brien Gallery)
Boeing Learning Center
Robert M. Warner Research Center/the Research Center
National Archives at College Park
Steny H. Hoyer Research Center/the Research Center
Adrienne C. Thomas Auditorium
Research Center
Washington National Records Center
The Federal Register

Archival Operations Facilities
National Archives at Boston
National Archives at Philadelphia
National Archives at Atlanta
National Archives at Chicago
National Archives at New York City
National Archives at Denver
National Archives at Fort Worth
National Archives at Kansas City
National Archives at Anchorage
National Archives at Riverside
National Archives at San Francisco
National Archives at Seattle

46

When writing for a NARA audience about units in Research Services, you may use
whatever organizational names that apply (e.g., Archival Operations—Chicago or
National Archives at Chicago), as listed in organization charts and NARA 101.

Federal Records Centers
Atlanta Federal Records Center
Boston Federal Records Center
Chicago Federal Records Center
Dayton Federal Records Center
Dayton-Kingsridge Federal Records Center
Denver Federal Records Center
Fort Worth Federal Records Center
Lee's Summit Federal Records Center
Lenexa Federal Records Center
Philadelphia Federal Records Center
Pittsfield Federal Records Center
Riverside Federal Records Center
San Francisco Federal Records Center
Seattle Federal Records Center
National Personnel Records Center
Washington National Records Center
Capitalize the term ―Federal Records Center‖ when referring to the full name of a
part of the Federal Records Center Program
the Seattle Federal Records Center
the Federal Records Center at Seattle
Lowercase ―records center‖ when using the term in a generic sense or as a
subsequent reference to a NARA records center.
The Denver Federal Records Center sponsored a charity drive.
Staff at the records center collected food and clothing for the local shelter.

Presidential libraries
Herbert Hoover Presidential Library and Museum
Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library and Museum
Harry S. Truman Presidential Library and Museum
Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library and Museum
John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum
Lyndon Baines Johnson Presidential Library and Museum
Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum
Gerald R. Ford Presidential Library and Gerald R. Ford Presidential Museum
Jimmy Carter Presidential Library and Museum
Ronald Reagan Presidential Library and Museum
George Bush Presidential Library and Museum

47

William J. Clinton Presidential Library and Museum
George W. Bush Presidential Library and Museum

Executive Leadership Team titles
Archivist of the United States
Deputy Archivist
Chief Human Capital Officer
Chief Operating Officer
Executive for Information Services
Chief Financial Officer
General Counsel
Congressional Affairs Director
Chief Strategy and Communications Officer
The Management Team titles
Executive for Agency Services
Director of the Federal Register
Executive for Business Support Services
Chief Records Officer
Executive for Legislative Archives, Presidential Libraries, and Museum Services
Executive for Research Services

4.16 Titles of works: italics or quotation marks
Italicize the following:
books and plays

Lord of the Flies, The Iceman Cometh
United States Government Manual
King of Hearts
The Simpsons
World at War
The Civil War
Sources for Family History
New York Times
Prologue, National Geographic
Federal Register
Pieta, Mona Lisa
Enola Gay, Hindenburg
USS Arizona, HMS Victory
United States of America v. Karl Bundt
first.last@nara.gov
www.archives.gov

movies
television series
newsreel series
documentaries
catalogs and brochures
newspapers
magazines
other periodicals
works of art
named aircraft
ships
court cases
email addresses
web addresses (URLs)

Note that USS and HMS in citations for ships are not italicized.

48

As a general rule, specific parts of larger wholes are placed in quotation marks.
Chapters of books, articles in magazines and newspapers, and episodes of newsreel
and television series are quoted:
Chapter 7, ―Of Chocolate Quarks,‖ proves that a physicist can have a sense
of humor.
There was a fascinating article in Newsweek entitled ―Biology‘s Big Bang.‖
Exhibit titles use quotation marks, not italics.
―American Originals‖
―What‘s Cooking, Uncle Sam?‖
―The Charters of Freedom—‗A New World Is at Hand‘‖

49

Appendix
Quick Reference
This appendix is not an index. Listed below are words and phrases commonly used by NARA
writers. Also included are words that are commonly misspelled (these words do not have references
to a section of this guide). Not listed here are usages that require explanation (e.g., how to handle
―his/her‖ [see section 4.9, ―Gender-neutral language.‖]). If the word or phrase you‘re looking for
isn‘t listed here, we encourage you to check the appropriate section of this guide or a recent
dictionary (the Merriam-Webster Collegiate dictionary is found at www.merriam-webster.com).
Numbers (4.10)
four boxes
40 boxes
4-percent (adj.)
4 percent (noun)
4-to-1 (adj.)
4 to 1 (noun)
4-year-old (adj. and noun)
400-horsepower (adj.)
400 horsepower (noun)
fourth-quarter (adj.)
fourth quarter (noun)
21st-century records
A
acknowledgment (not acknowledgement)
addenda (4.11, Plurals)
adjutants general (4.11, Plurals)
administration (the Clinton administration) (4.4, Capitalization)
adviser (not advisor)
African American (4.5.5, Compounds)
agency-wide (4.5.2, Compounds)
airborne (4.5, Compounds)
alumnae (feminine) (4.11, Plurals)
alumni (masculine, or for mixed groups) (4.11, Plurals)
appendices (scientific) (4.11, Plurals)
appendixes (general) (4.11, Plurals)
ARC (Archival Research Catalog)
Archives I (4.15, References to NARA)
Archives II (4.15, References to NARA)
archivist (4.4.5, Capitalization)
Archivist (the Archivist of the United States) (4.4.5, Capitalization)
artwork (4.5, Compounds)
at-risk (adj.) (4.5.2, Compounds)
audiocassette (4.5, Compounds)
audiotape (4.5, Compounds)

50

autumn (season) (4.4, Capitalization)
B
back up (verb) (4.5, Compounds)
backup (noun/adj.) (4.5, Compounds)
bestseller (4.5, Compounds)
bestselling (4.5, Compounds)
black-and-white (adj.) (4.5.2, Compounds)
black and white (when referring to racial groups) (4.5.5, Compounds)
black-market (adj.) (4.5.2, Compounds)
black market (noun) (4.5.3, Compounds)
book signing (4.5.3, Compounds)
branch chief (4.4.5, Capitalization)
brothers-in-law (4.11, Plurals)
bureau-wide (4.5, Compounds)
C
Cabinet (of the United States) (4.4.4, Capitalization)
capital (state or national) (4.4.4, Capitalization)
Capitol, U.S. (building) (4.4.1, Capitalization)
catalog (not catalogue)
CD-ROM (4.1, Abbreviations)
Charters of Freedom (Declaration of Independence, Constitution, and Bill of Rights)
chiefs of staff (4.11, Plurals)
codename (4.5.3, Compounds)
Communist/communist (4.4.4 Capitalization)
Confederate and Union (when referring to the Civil War) (4.4.2, Capitalization)
congressional (4.4, Capitalization)
cost-effective (4.5.2, Compounds)
cost-of-living (adj.) (4.5.2, Compounds)
cost of living (noun) (4.5.3, Compounds)
courthouse (4.5.3, Compounds)
court(s)-martial (noun) (4.11, Plurals)
co-worker (4.5.1, Prefixes)
cross-reference (adj. and noun) (4.5.2, Compounds)
cross reference (verb) (4.5, Compounds)
customhouse (4.5.3, Compounds)
cutoff (adj. and noun) (4.5, Compounds)
cut off (verb) (4.5, Compounds)
D
data (4.11 Plurals)
decision-making (adj.) (4.5.2, Compounds)
decision making (noun) (4.5.3, Compounds)
deck log (4.5.3, Compounds)
Deputy Archivist (4.4, Capitalization)

51

dialogue
disk (not floppy disc)
diskette
division director (4.4.5, Capitalization)
E
e-commerce (4.5, Compounds)
e-Government (4.5.1, Prefixes)
email (4.5.1, Prefixes)
Executive Order 9066 (but an Executive order) (4.4, Capitalization)
E.O. (abbreviation for a specific Executive Order, as in E.O. 10101) (4.1.4, Abbreviations)
ERA (Electronic Records Archives)
F
fall (season) (4.4, Capitalization)
fax
Federal (4.4, Capitalization)
FedEx
floorplans (4.5.3, Compounds)
focusing
focused
follow-up (adj. and noun) (4.5.3, Compounds)
follow up (verb) (4.5, Compounds)
formulas
Foundation (referring to Foundation for the National Archives) (4.4, Capitalization)
free enterprise (adj. and noun) (4.5.3, Compounds)
freethinking (4.5.3, Compounds)
fundraiser (4.5.3, Compounds)
fundraising (adj. and noun) (4.5.3, Compounds)
G
general counsels (4.11, Plurals)
GILs is the plural of the acronym for General Information Leaflet (4.11, Plurals)
GILS is the acronym for Government Information Locator Service (4.2, Acronyms)
Government (U.S.) (4.4.4, Capitalization)
Government-wide (U.S.) (4.5, Compounds)
governors general (4.11, Plurals)
grants-in-aid (4.13, Plurals)
Great Depression (4.4, Capitalization)
Great Society (4.4, Capitalization)
GroupWise (4.4, Capitalization)
H
higher-ups (4.11, Plurals)
high-level (adj.) (4.5.2, Compounds)
home page (4.5.3, Compounds)

52

homefront (4.5.3, Compounds)
House Minority Leader (4.4.5, Capitalization)
hypotheses (4.11, Plurals)
I
indexes (general) (4.11, Plurals)
indices (scientific) (4.11, Plurals)
inhouse (4.5.3, Compounds)
inspectors general (4.11, Plurals)
interagency (4.5.1, Compounds)
Internet (4.6, Computer-related terms)
interoffice (4.5.1, Compounds)
intranet (4.6, Computer-related terms)
IT Help (4.6, Computer-related terms)
J
judgment (not judgement)
K
knowledgeable
L
labor force (adj. and noun) (4.5, Compounds)
landowner (4.5.3, Compounds)
levelheaded (4.5, Compounds)
library (e.g., Presidential library) (4.4, Capitalization)
Library (e.g., the Reagan Library) (4.4, Capitalization)
lifecycle (adj. and noun) (4.5,2, Compounds)
life insurance (4.5.3, Compounds)
lifesaving (4.5.3, Compounds)
logbook (4.5.3, Compounds)
login (adj. and noun) (4.5.3, Compounds)
log in (verb) (4.5, Compounds)
logon (adj. and noun) (4.5.3, Compounds)
log on (verb) (4.5, Compounds)
long-term (adj.) (4.5.2, Compounds)
longtime (adj.) (4.5, Compounds)
loose (not tight)
lose (the opposite of "win")
M
McGowan Theater (William G. McGowan Theater; 4.15, References to NARA)
major generals (4.11, Plurals)
Manhattan Project (4.4, Capitalization)
manmade (4.5, Compounds)
matrices (4.11, Plurals)

53

memorandums (not memoranda) (4.11, Plurals)
midair (4.5.1, Compounds)
mid-term (adj.) (4.5.1, Compounds)
midterm (noun) (4.5.3, Compounds)
mid-twenties (age) (4.4, Capitalization; 4.5.1, Compounds; 4.10, Numbers)
mid-seventies (decade) (4.4, Capitalization; 4.5.1, Compounds; 4.10, Numbers)
millennia (4.11, Plurals)
minefield (4.5.3, Compounds)
multivolume (4.5.1, Compounds)
N
NARA home page (4.5.3, Compounds)
NARA@work (NARA‘s intranet for staff)
NARANET (4.4, Capitalization)
NARA Notice 2000-001 (4.4.3, Capitalization)
NARA notice (4.4.3, Capitalization)
NARA-wide (4.5, Compounds)
nation (The President will address the nation tonight) (4.4.1, Capitalization)
nationwide (4.5, Compounds)
National Archives and Records Administration (4.15, References to NARA)
National Archives Building (4.15, References to NARA)
National Archives at College Park (4.15, References to NARA)
National Archives Experience (4.15, References to NARA)
National Archives Trust Fund (Trust Fund) (4.4, Capitalization)
neoclassical (4.5.1, Compounds)
New Deal (4.4, Capitalization)
next-of-kin (noun) (4.5.3, Compounds)
noncurrent (4.5.1, Compounds)
non-Federal (4.5.1, Compounds)
non-Government (4.5.1, Compounds)
non-NARA (4.5.1, Compounds)
North and South (when referring to the Civil War) (4.4, Capitalization)
O
executive (4.4.5, Capitalization)
off-limits (adj.) (4.5.2, Compounds)
off-site (4.5, Compounds)
off-the-shelf (adj.) (4.5.2, Compounds)
ongoing (4.5, Compounds)
online (4.5, Compounds)
on-site (4.5 Compounds)
OPA(online public access)
out-of-print (adj.) (4.5.2, Compounds)

54

P
pagemaster (4.5.3, Compounds)
part-time (adj.) (4.5.2, Compounds)
passbooks (4.5.3, Compounds)
percent (4.5, Compounds)
phenomena (4.11, Plurals)
plateaus (not plateaux) (4.11, Plurals)
postwar (4.5, Compounds)
pre-existing (4.5.1, Compounds)
preprint (4.5.1, Compounds)
present-day (adj.) (4.5.2, Compounds)
present day (noun) (4.5.3, Compounds)
Presidency (4.4, Capitalization)
Presidential (4.4, Capitalization)
pre-war (4.5.1, Compounds)
prisoner-of-war (adj.) (4.5.2, Compounds)
prisoner of war (noun) (4.5.3, Compounds)
private-sector (adj.) (4.5.2, Compounds)
private sector (noun) (4.5.3, Compounds)
problem solver (noun) (4.5.3, Compounds)
problem solving (noun) (4.5.3, Compounds)
problem-solving (adj.) (4.5.2, Compounds)
public law (generic sense, as in a Public law . . .) (4.4, Capitalization)
Public Law (a particular law, as in Public Law 89-1) (4.4, Capitalization)
Pub. L. (abbreviation for a particular law, as in Pub. L. 89-1) (4.1.4, Citations)
Public Vaults (4.15, References to NARA)
R
Record Group ## (4.4, Capitalization)
record group (4.4, Capitalization)
record keeper (4.5.3, Compounds)
recordkeeping (4.5, Compounds)
Records Center Revolving Fund (Revolving Fund) (4.4, Capitalization)
reduction in force (4.5.3, Compounds)
re-encasing (4.5.1, Compounds)
reengineering (4.5.1, Compounds)
reexamine (4.5.1, Compounds)
requester (not requestor)
Research Center (at the National Archives Building, 4.15, References to NARA)
rights-of-way (4.11, Plurals)
risk-taking (adj. and noun) (4.5.2, Compounds)
rollout (noun) (4.5.3, Compounds)
room 410, the research room
Room (Archivist‘s Reception Room, Central Research Room) (4.4 Capitalization)
Rotunda (the National Archives Building and U.S. Capitol) (4.4, Capitalization)
roundtrip (4.5, Compounds)

55

S
security-classified (adj.) (4.5.2, Compounds)
self-government (4.5.3, Compounds)
Senate (at the national level) (4.4.4, Capitalization)
senate (at the state level) (4.4.4, Capitalization)
set-aside (noun) (4.5.3, Compounds)
sixties, seventies (when referring to the decade) (4.7, Dates; Numbers, 4.10)
South and North (when referring to the Civil War) (4.4, Capitalization)
Speaker of the House (4.4.5, Capitalization)
spring (season) (4.4, Capitalization)
Standard Form 115 (SF 115) (4.4.3, Capitalization)
Standard Form 115s (SF 115s) (4.11, Plurals)
subsection (4.5.1, Compounds)
summer (season) (4.4, Capitalization)
symposiums (4.11, Plurals)
T
time-consuming (adj.) (4.5.2, Compounds)
timeline (4.5.3, Compounds)
tableaus (not tableaux) (4.11, Plurals)
theses (4.11, Plurals)
U
under way (adverb) (4.5.3, Compounds)
Union and Confederate (when referring to the Civil War) (4.4.2, Capitalization)
up-to-date report (4.5.2, Compounds)
usable (not useable)
V
Vice President (of the United States) (4.4.5, Capitalization)
vice president (generic, a vice president) (4.4.5, Capitalization)
Vice-Presidential (4.4, Capitalization)
videocassette (4.5.3, Compounds)
videotape (4.5.3, Compounds)
voicemail (4.6, Computer-related terms)
W
wartime (4.5, Compounds)
war-torn (4.5.2, Compounds)
waterways (4.5.3, Compounds)
web (4.6, Computer-related terms)
web address (4.6, Computer-related terms)
webmaster (4.6, Computer-related terms)
web page (4.6, Computer-related terms)
website (noun) (4.6, Computer-related terms)

56

well-known (adj.) (4.5.2, Compounds)
winter (season) (4.4, Capitalization)
workday/working day (4.5.3, Compounds)
workforce (4.5.3, Compounds)
work hours (4.5.3, Compounds)
workplace (4.5.3, Compounds)
worksheet (4.5.3, Compounds)
workstation (4.5.3, Compounds)
World Wide Web (4.6, Computer-related terms)
worldwide (4.5, Compounds)
X
X-ray (adj.) (4.5.2, Compounds)
X ray (noun) (4.5.3, Compounds)

57



---

Source Exif Data:

File Type                       : PDF
File Type Extension             : pdf
MIME Type                       : application/pdf
PDF Version                     : 1.5
Linearized                      : No
Language                        : en-US
Tagged PDF                      : Yes
XMP Toolkit                     : Adobe XMP Core 4.2.1-c043 52.372728, 2009/01/18-15:08:04
Format                          : application/pdf
Creator                         : National Archives
Title                           : NARA Style Guide
Description                     : 2012
Create Date                     : 2012:04:10 15:27:11Z
Creator Tool                    : Microsoft® Office Word 2007
Modify Date                     : 2012:09:13 15:22:19-04:00
Metadata Date                   : 2012:09:13 15:22:19-04:00
Producer                        : Microsoft® Office Word 2007
Document ID                     : uuid:7c2959de-4924-4891-88c9-d69225778fdb
Instance ID                     : uuid:e1433129-8c89-4548-995c-470cce364e58
Page Count                      : 63
Author                          : National Archives
Subject                         : 2012
Warning                         : [Minor] Ignored duplicate Info dictionary

EXIF Metadata provided by EXIF.tools