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Dissertation Proposal[DRAFT] Perceived impacts and employee engagement in corporate volunteering: An interactionist perspective Akwasi Opoku-Dakwa PhD Candidate Rutgers Business School Page 1 of 96 Contents INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 5 Research questions .......................................................................................................... 7 Theoretical contributions................................................................................................. 8 Practical contributions ................................................................................................... 10 LITERATURE REVIEW AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK ................................. 11 Employee engagement in corporate volunteering ......................................................... 11 Perspectives on corporate volunteering......................................................................... 14 Issue characteristics as drivers of engagement in CVP ................................................. 20 Beneficiaries of CVPs ................................................................................................... 20 Perceived impacts and motives for corporate volunteering .......................................... 23 Individual differences and contextual factors moderating engagement in CVP ........... 25 Outcomes of employee engagement ............................................................................. 27 Gaps in the literature ..................................................................................................... 27 Conceptual framework of this study ............................................................................. 29 CVP CHARACTERISTICS AND PERCEIVED IMPACTS .......................................... 31 Perceived impacts on the employee, community and employer ................................... 31 Intrinsic vs. extrinsic characteristics of CVPs ............................................................... 34 Relationship of CVP characteristics to employee engagement ..................................... 35 The relationship of CVP characteristics to perceived impacts ...................................... 38 Page 2 of 96 Employee-focused characteristics of CVPs: Knowledge and skills opportunities ....... 39 Beneficiary-focused CVP characteristics ...................................................................... 40 Humanitarianism ....................................................................................................... 40 Beneficiary contact .................................................................................................... 42 Employer-focused CVP characteristics: Strategic alignment ....................................... 43 PERCEIVED IMPACTS AND EMPLOYEE ENGAGEMENT ..................................... 45 The effects of perceived impacts on employee engagement ......................................... 45 Perceived impact on the employee ............................................................................ 46 Perceived impact on the community and employer................................................... 46 The mediating role of perceived impacts ...................................................................... 48 MODERATING EFFECTS OF EXTRINSIC CVP CHARACTERISTICS .................... 49 Perceived support for CVP............................................................................................ 49 Managerial feedback processes ..................................................................................... 54 THE INFLUENCE OF INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS ON EMPLOYEE ENGAGEMENT ........................................................................................................................... 56 Individual differences moderating the effects of CVP characteristics on perceived impacts ...................................................................................................................................... 56 Need growth strength................................................................................................. 56 Prosocial motivation .................................................................................................. 58 Identification with a group ........................................................................................ 62 Page 3 of 96 Identification with the employer................................................................................ 63 Identification with community stakeholders ............................................................. 64 Individual differences moderating the effects of perceived impacts on engagement ... 68 Prosocial motivation .................................................................................................. 68 Identification with community stakeholders and the employer ................................. 69 OUTCOMES OF EMPLOYEE ENGAGEMENT IN CVP ............................................. 71 Work satisfaction........................................................................................................... 72 Employee well-being..................................................................................................... 75 Turnover intentions ....................................................................................................... 76 Figure 1: Conceptual framework ...................................................................................... 78 APPENDIX: MEASURES ............................................................................................... 79 Engagement (Rich et al., 2010) ..................................................................................... 79 Identification with the organization (Mael & Tetrick, 1992) ........................................ 80 Prosocial motivation (Grant & Sumanth, 2009)............................................................ 80 Individual growth need strength (Hackman & Lawler, 1971) ...................................... 81 Work satisfaction (D. Weiss, Dawis, & England, 1967)............................................... 82 Employee wellbeing (Berkman, 1971).......................................................................... 83 Turnover intentions ....................................................................................................... 83 REFERENCES ................................................................................................................. 84 Page 4 of 96 INTRODUCTION I set out to understand why and how employees are motivated to voluntarily engage in socially responsible behavior (SRB). I define SRB as voluntary employee behaviors undertaken ostensibly for the benefit of external stakeholders. SRB is distinguished from other prosocial behaviors by three key characteristics. First, it refers to behaviors undertaken within an organizational context as opposed to prosocial behaviors outside of work; secondly it is limited to discretionary behaviors; and lastly it refers to behaviors targeted towards society rather than the organization or its employees (Crilly, Schneider, & Zollo, 2008; Wood, 1991). Why employees are motivated to engage in SRB is an interesting question for two reasons. First, because the social responsibilities of employees and organizations continue to be debated, there remains some question as to which types of socially-oriented behaviors are appropriate at work (Barnett, 2007; Friedman, 1970). In engaging in SRBs at work, employees, like managers, often face conflicting demands of different stakeholders including their supervisors, co-workers and the external parties affected by their actions. Secondly, this is an interesting question because of the complexity of motives for engaging in SRB at work. It is not clear to what degree employees engage in SRB at work out of self-interest, out of compliance with organizational or peer norms, or out of concern for beneficiaries. Despite this, employer sponsored volunteering is a growing phenomenon (The Benefits of Employee Volunteer Programs, 2009). Antecedents and enablers of SRB include business and social norms (Cullen, Parboteeah, & Hoegl, 2004; Maignan & Ralston, 2002; Matten & Moon, 2008; Mudrack, 2007), issue Page 5 of 96 salience, visibility and emotivity (Bansal & Roth, 2000; Jiang & Bansal, 2003), collective moral emotion and ethical efficacy (Arnaud & Schminke, 2012), and supervisor and co-worker support (Ramus & Steger, 2000). In terms of motives for engaging in SRBs, scholars have identified competitiveness, legitimacy and moral duty (social responsibility) as motives at the organizational level (Aguinis & Glavas, 2012; Bansal & Roth, 2000). At the employee level, the literature suggests that employees engage in SRB for multiple motives including concern for stakeholders, relational motives such as the desire to be a good employee (organizational citizenship), and self-interested motives that include impression management and personal and professional development (Aguilera, Rupp, & Williams, 2007; Peloza & Hassay, 2006; Peloza, Hudson, & Hassay, 2008). Past research suggests that SRB differs from dyadic prosocial behaviors and that a model of triadic relationships that includes the employee, the organization and external beneficiaries provides a more accurate depiction. Grant, (2007) has suggested that impact on others increases the motivation to make a prosocial difference. Assessing this proposition raises several questions. First, how strong is the motivational influence of impact on others relative to that of impact on self (the volunteer)? While SRB may be targeted at external social stakeholders, an understanding of the drivers of SRB requires an expanded consideration of the morality of the behavior that takes into account the consequences of SRB for the employer as well. Secondly, what social information gives rise to employees’ perceptions of impact on self and others and what individual factors moderate this process? In this study I explore the role that perceived impact on the self, community stakeholders and the employer play in motivating employee engagement in corporate volunteering programs (CVP). I consider objective informational cues in the form of CVP characteristics that shape Page 6 of 96 such perceptions. I focus on corporate volunteering as one form of SRB. Corporate volunteering fits the definition of SRB because it is typically (though not always) a voluntary behavior directed at external (community) stakeholders that occurs within the work context. The discretionary nature of corporate volunteering also facilitates teasing out more intrinsic vs. extrinsic motivations for engaging in SRB. Research questions To approach the overarching research question, considered three research questions. First, I examine how the characteristics of CVPs affect employee engagement in volunteering. CVPs are “programs created by organizations to coordinate and encourage community service among their paid employees” (Henning & Jones, 2013). CVPs address issues that include education, health, economic development, the environment, homelessness, hunger, diversity, welfare-to-work, and arts & culture (The Corporate Volunteer Program as a Strategic Resource: The Link Grows Stronger, 1999). Most studies of the characteristics of CVPs have focused on structural factors such as the degree of formalization of the programs and the degree of integration of volunteering programs with the core business; the extent of resources deployed in support of the programs; and on effects of recognition and rewards and employer-provided benefits on employee participation. This approach has neglected the importance of substantive characteristics of CVPs such as the morality of the task and the perceived impacts of the programs. Secondly, I consider how individual differences in prosocial motivation, and identification with stakeholders, shape cognitions and motivations related to engagement in volunteering. Finally, I consider consequences of engagement in volunteering – specifically, job Page 7 of 96 satisfaction, employee well-being and turnover intentions. The final model suggests how situational factors (the program) interact with relatively stable individual factors shape employee engagement in CVPs, thus taking into account the influence of both information processing and individual identity (Lazarus, 1982; Salancik & Pfeffer, 1978). Finally, I consider how engagement in CVPs might influence employee and organizational outcomes of work satisfaction, employee well-being and turnover intentions. Theoretical contributions Prior research suggests that SRB is driven by multiple motives and is enabled or constrained by contextual factors. While moral and altruistic motives arguably play an important role in driving SRB, a full understanding of SRB requires a consideration also of self-interested and social motives unrelated to altruism. One of the motivations for the current research is to further explore an integrated model of employee motivation for SRB that illustrates how antecedents, motives and contextual factors interact to predict one form of SRB: engagement in corporate volunteering. In the current research model, I distinguish self-interested from otheroriented motives and demonstrate the importance of distinguishing impacts on specific others in considering other-oriented motives. I also suggest how the distinct motives may be triggered by different antecedent characteristics of the work – in this case, characteristics of the CVP. I look for evidence that the different types of motives may lead to qualitatively different outcomes in engagement in CVP. Finally, I consider the relationship of employee engagement in CVPs, which is a new construct in the literature, to employee and organizational outcomes of work satisfaction, employee well-being and turnover intentions. Page 8 of 96 The major contribution of the dissertation is in demonstrating how characteristics of CVPs influence employee engagement. To-date, despite calls for more research at the program (Wood, 2010) and individual (Aguinis & Glavas, 2012) levels, few studies have examined how program characteristics drive employee engagement and none have considered how the nature of the task characteristics influences employee engagement. While I focus on CVPs, the characteristics of CVPs examined in this study can apply to other types of socially responsible corporate programs. For example, I consider the degree of humanitarianism of CVPs. One could also consider the degree of humanitarianism of product quality initiatives, distinguishing between initiatives that focus on safety issues as more humanitarian than those that focus on ergonomics. The model presented here in the context of CVPs therefore suggests future research approaches to other types of engagement in SRB. A second contribution of the paper is to expand on Grant’s theory of relational job design (Grant, 2007, 2008a, 2012; Grant et al., 2007), which stresses impact on beneficiaries as a motivational aspect of work. I suggest that perceived impact of ones work on others is in general motivational and that a consideration of the impact of work on all beneficiaries of the work provides a more comprehensive understanding of how work can be motivating. In the case of SRB, these beneficiaries include both community stakeholders and the employing organization. Impact of SRBs on these stakeholders thus captures the moral consequences of the SRB that lead to feelings of task significance. This study also provides insight into how employees come to know what impact their work has on others by considering the role of sources of social information such as contact with beneficiaries and managerial feedback processes. Finally this study makes a number of contributions to the identity literature. First, I suggest how individual differences in personality and identification with the employer and Page 9 of 96 community stakeholders affected by SRB can act as boundary conditions on employee engagement in SRB. This study seeks to provide evidence that personality differences in the desire to behave morally shape the likelihood of moral behavior, contributing to the existing literature on the moderating effects of personality characteristics in shaping moral behavior. However, the research design provides a more precise approach to examining the effects of personality differences because I distinguish moral motives from instrumental motives thus reducing noise in the relationship being studied. Departing from prior studies, I also suggest that beyond personality factors, social identification of employees with beneficiaries (community stakeholders or the employer) also moderates employee engagement in SRB. This perspective emphasizes the importance of the identity of beneficiaries in moderating employee engagement in SRB. The relationships studied in this paper also suggest how the concept of employee identification can be extended to external stakeholders. In the management literature, the concept of identification has traditionally focused on identification with the employing organization. However as the concepts of corporate social responsibility (CSR), triple bottom line accounting and stakeholder thinking gain acceptance, employee identification with community stakeholders may play an important role in how employees perceive and act towards external stakeholders. Practical contributions The theory and findings presented in this dissertation have several practical implications. First, they suggest how program design can influence employee engagement in CVPs. CVP design can shape which motives for employee engagement are more salient and how these motives result in qualitatively different employee engagement. For example, I expect to find that Page 10 of 96 more altruistic motives are associated with more enduring commitment to volunteering, and increased affect associated with volunteering. I also examine whether positive affect associated with engagement in CVPs will spillover to work satisfaction, employee well-being and turnover intentions. Findings may also suggest practical implications for how communication about CVPs can be tailored to promote employee engagement. If the hypothesized effects CVP characteristics on engagement are supported, they will suggest which characteristics of CVPs can be communicated to promote employee engagement. If the hypothesized moderating effects of managerial feedback mechanisms are supported, this will demonstrate the effectiveness of frequent feedback about CVP performance vs. goals in driving employee engagement. Finally, I test the proposition that those high in prosocial motivation and those who identify strongly with both the organization and with community beneficiaries of CVPs tend to be more engaged in CVPs. If this proposition is supported, it will suggest identifying characteristics of employees who may make effective internal champions of CVPs. LITERATURE REVIEW AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK Employee engagement in corporate volunteering Employee engagement in corporate volunteering is the dependent variable of interest in this study. Engagement refers to the “simultaneous employment and expression of a person's ‘preferred self’ in task behaviors that promote connections to work and to others, personal presence (physical, cognitive, and emotional), and active, full role performances” (Kahn, 1990:700). Maslach, Schaufeli, & Leiter (2001) describe engagement as characterized by high levels of activation and pleasure, vigor, dedication and absorption. Engagement has physical, Page 11 of 96 cognitive and emotional components (Rich, Lepine, & Crawford, 2010; Rothbard, 2001). The physical component captures the amount of effort exerted at work; the cognitive component captures absorption and attention to the work; and the emotional component captures the employee’s positive feelings about the work such as pride or enthusiasm about the work. Within the management literature, the concept of engagement has been applied primarily to jobs (Kahn, 1990; May, Gilson, & Harter, 2004; Rich et al., 2010). Rich, Lepine, & Crawford (2010) view job engagement as the simultaneous holistic interaction of job involvement, job satisfaction and intrinsic motivation. Job involvement captures “the cognitive energy individuals invest to maintain identities related to work”; job satisfaction the affective attitudes towards the task; and intrinsic motivation the “individual’s effort and persistence dedicated to maintaining autonomy and control” (Rich et al., 2010: 618). This view of engagement supports the approach taken in this paper, which builds on the literatures of identity and motivation to understand employee engagement in CVPs. Beyond job engagement, (Rothbard, 2001) associated engagement with roles, distinguishing between engagement in work vs. family roles. Saks (2006) considered organizational engagement. However, his definition of that construct overlaps significantly with that of affective organizational commitment (Meyer & Allen, 1991; Mowday, Steers, & Porter, 1979; O’Reilly & Chatman, 1986) and may be redundant with it. The definitions of engagement discussed so far suggest that the construct has broad application within and across contexts. Essentially, individuals can be more or less engaged with any task or role either at work or elsewhere. In this study I focus on employee engagement in SRBs at work (that is, on company time) – specifically employee engagement in CVPs. The physical and emotional dimensions of engagement extend straightforwardly to engagement in CVPs: volunteers can exert more or less quantity (physical engagement) or quality (cognitive Page 12 of 96 engagement) of effort in volunteering, and may be more or less proud and enthusiastic about a CVP (emotional engagement). While some scholars have investigated engagement as a trait (Macey & Schneider, 2008), I follow Kahn (1990) in conceptualizing engagement as a more dynamic and multi-dimensional construct influenced over time by events, emotions and social information among other things. In this study, I consider how social information provided by the characteristics of the task, traits such as prosocial motivation, and cognitions about the task and role of volunteering (the latter related to the duties of the volunteer with respect to the community stakeholders) act in concert to explain employee engagement. The construct of engagement is well suited to the question of why employees are selfmotivated to engage in SRBs because engagement suggests self-determined motivation to exert cognitive or physical energy in a task or role. Individuals may be self-determine to engage in SRB either because they find engagement to be intrinsically motivating or because they internalize and integrate social obligations towards the employer or community (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Obviously, in practice, employees may also engage in corporate volunteering for extrinsic reasons. For example, if explicit corporate volunteering goals are set by the organization, employees may feel pressured to participate. Employees may also experience social pressure from peers to volunteer. In some organizations, volunteering is discussed as part of employee evaluations. However, there is strong evidence that engaging in SRB can be intrinsically meaningful to employees (cf. Bolton, Kim, & O’Gorman, 2011; Pajo & Lee, 2010; Rupp, Shao, Paddock, Kim, & Nadisic, 2013; Rupp, Shao, Thornton, & Skarlicki, 2013). I therefore define engagement in CVP as the employee's internal motivation to be involved in a CVP, manifested in the display of high levels of effort and attention in volunteering and positive affect towards volunteering. Page 13 of 96 Whether employees are engaged by CVPs is an important outcome for organizations. The success of most CVPs is contingent on employee participation and support. Benefits of corporate volunteering to the organization include improving public perceptions of the company, enhancing business operations, building employee skills in team work, leadership and project management, valuing diversity, and indirect positive effects on recruiting and retention of employees (The Benefits of Employee Volunteer Programs, 2009). Further, employee engagement in CVPs has been related to organizational outcomes such as increased employee identification with the organization and organizational attachment (D. A. Jones, 2010; Kim, Lee, Lee, & Kim, 2010). In keeping with the idea that volunteering can be viewed as a type of work (Wilson & Musick, 1997), I suggest that the construct of engagement, because it covers physical, cognitive and emotional engagement, can shed light on why employees participate in CVPs and what CVPs mean to employees. In the remainder of this document, the term “engagement” refers to physical, cognitive and emotional engagement in CVPs. Hypotheses made in reference to engagement refer to all three distinct components even though, for the sake of brevity I will refer to them simply as engagement. However, in testing the hypotheses I will measure and present results for each component of engagement separately. Perspectives on corporate volunteering Corporate volunteering is a form of socially responsible behavior (Crilly et al., 2008), which in turn is a specific form of prosocial behavior (Penner, Dovidio, Piliavin, & Schroeder, 2005). Below, I discuss past research on both of these constructs to shed light on what drives engagement in CVPs. While corporate volunteering occurs in a different context from Page 14 of 96 volunteering outside of work, which I refer to as public volunteering, I also consider knowledge from the public volunteering literature that suggests drivers of engagement in CVPs. Brief & Motowidlo (1986: 711) define prosocial behavior as “behavior which the actor expects will benefit the person or persons to whom it is directed”. They distinguish prosocial behaviors from other constructs such as altruism by noting that the criteria for classifying behaviors as prosocial does not require distinguishing the motive for the helping behavior. Moral and ethical behaviors are one subset of prosocial behaviors in which altruistic motives are more salient. However, prosocial behavior can also be motivated by instrumental or self-interested needs. In organizational settings, prosocial behavior has been studied primarily as behaviors intended to benefit co-workers or the organization (Crilly et al., 2008). Such behaviors are typically referred to as organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs) (LePine, Erez, & Johnson, 2002; Morrison, 1994; Organ, 1990). However, prosocial organizational behaviors may also benefit external stakeholders. Brief & Motowidlo (1986:711) define prosocial organizational behavior as “behavior which is (a) performed by a member of an organization, (b) directed toward an individual, group, or organization with whom he or she interacts while carrying out his or her organizational role, and (c) performed with the intention of promoting the welfare of the individual, group, or organization toward which it is directed”. This “deliberately broad” (Brief & Motowidlo, 1986:711) definition accommodates behaviors that promote the welfare of external stakeholders. For example, whistle-blowing to external bodies is considered as a form of prosocial organizational behavior (Brief & Motowidlo, 1986). Page 15 of 96 Whereas OCB focuses on prosocial behaviors towards the organization, SRB explicitly refers to behaviors “primarily targeted at the societal level” (Crilly et al., 2008:6). CVPs are a form of SRB to the degree that they have a positive impact on society. If we accept that organizational roles extend beyond employees’ narrow job descriptions, corporate volunteering fits the definition of an “organizational role” because corporate volunteering is a role undertaken by the employee that has the potential to impact the image, reputation and other outcomes of the organization. In this paper, I focus on individual rather than organizational SRB, specifically engagement of a particular employee in corporate volunteering. However, at the organizational level of analysis, the socially responsible collective behaviors and decisions of an organization have also been considered a form of socially responsible organizational behavior. Multi-level studies have elaborated on the processes by which employee issue selling and voice at the individual level promote socially responsible behavior at the organizational level (Aguilera et al., 2007; Bansal, 2003; Dutton & Ashford, 1993). Because CVPs are both an individual (employee) and collective (organizational) pursuit, I consider both SRB and socially responsible organizational behavior in my literature review in order to gain insight into the drivers of employee engagement in volunteering. Prosocial behavior is driven by moral, rational and affective mechanisms. From a moral perspective, prosocial behavior has been shown to be related to contextual factors such as the salience of consequences, and to individual factors such as the dispositional tendency to ascribe responsibility to the self vs. others, or to think in empathic terms about the situations of others (Schwartz, 1974). The rationalist theories of prosocial behavior focus on the cost-benefit calculations on which helping behavior is contingent (Grube & Piliavin, 2000; Omoto & Snyder, Page 16 of 96 1995; Perlow & Weeks, 2002; Piliavin, Dovidio, Gaertner, & Clark III, 1981). Benefits may be material or psychological, such as the opportunity to learn new skills, to demonstrate competence or to uphold sacred values. Costs reflect the potential sacrifices required of the helper (Penner et al., 2005). Emotions have also been found to play an important role in facilitating or inhibiting prosocial behavior. Weiner’s Attribution-Affect-Action Model of Helping Behavior suggests helping behavior is mediated by the emotion of sympathy, while the withholding of assistance is mediated by anger (caused by the belief that the needy individual caused his or her own predicament; Weiner, 1980). Studies have shown that the decision to help is fully mediated by this cognition-affect chain (Reisenzein, 1986; Schmidt & Weiner, 1988). As in the case of more general prosocial behaviors, the literature on prosocial organizational behavior suggests the presence of multiple motives (i.e. moral and rational) driving prosocial organizational behavior. For example, McNeely & Meglino (1994) found that prosocial behavior towards the employing organization was predicted by reward equity and recognition while prosocial behavior towards co-workers was more strongly related to empathy and concern for others. While moral motives are not inherent in the definitions of SRB, there is an implicit assumption of morality associated with such behaviors. By morality I refer to concern about the effects of our actions on others (Haidt, 2007). Motives towards others are particularly complex and to understand them I build on the literature on morality. Moral philosophy is dominated by three approaches to considering the effects of our actions on others: teleological, deontological and aretaic approaches (Etzioni, 1988). The teleological approach focuses on the consequences of our actions for others, while the deontological approach focuses more on intentions. From a deontological perspective, positive outcomes guided by callous intentions are immoral. The deontological approach also focuses on duties, which are typically associated with specific social Page 17 of 96 or relational roles. For example, one may have duties towards family members that do not apply to work colleagues. Finally, the aretaic or virtue approach focuses on personality traits such as honesty, integrity and courtesy that predispose individuals to show concern for others rather than being purely self-interested (Hosmer, 1994). Each of these three approaches to considering motives for SRB has different theoretical and practical implications. A teleological approach focusing on consequences suggests the importance of the impact of SRB on others. This approach is not concerned with motives, with the virtue of the organization or the individual, or with the identity of the benefactor. Rather, it focuses on the direct effects of actions taken on stakeholders affected and the practical implication is that engagement can be increased by emphasizing impact on CVP stakeholders. This teleological viewpoint guided my selection of mediators of the effects of CVPs on employee engagement. A deontological approach focuses less on impact and more on why a volunteer is motivated to help a particular stakeholder. Here the theoretical focus is on the fit between intentions and duties, and the nature of the relationship between the volunteer and the beneficiary is important. We may feel a duty towards certain stakeholders and not towards others depending on social or role identities. For example, a Hispanic employee may be motivated to participate in a CVP that helps Hispanics in the community because he feels a sense of duty towards that community. He may also derive some personal satisfaction or benefit from the advancement of the interests of the Hispanic community. A deontological approach suggests that identities are motivational and that social identities in particular blur the lines between purely self-interested and purely altruistic motives (both of which are likely rare extremes in practice). The practical implication of this approach is that beneficiary selection will be an important driver of engagement in CVPs. This deontological viewpoint guided my selection of constructs that Page 18 of 96 capture the relationship of the individual to the other two beneficiaries of CVPs (the employer and community stakeholders) that are likely to moderate the effects of CVP characteristics on engagement. Finally, an aretaic or virtue perspective emphasizes characteristics of individuals that cause them to behave in altruistic ways consistently across situations and relationships. The theoretical focus of the aretaic approach is on personality characteristics that promote altruistic behavior and the practical implication is that engagement in CVP will be driven by volunteer self-selection. This aretaic viewpoint guided my selection of constructs that capture the personal qualities (or virtues) of the individual that are likely to moderate the effects of CVP characteristics on engagement. What a CVP means (meaning) and how much it means to an individual (meaningfulness) are two separate cognitive evaluations (Rosso, Dekas, & Wrzesniewski, 2010). The first is likely to be a more objective evaluation than the second. An assessment of the impacts of CVP characteristics on the self and others beneficiaries is primarily a cognitive assessment of meaning and is one way of answering the question: “what does this CVP mean to me and other affected groups?” (H. M. Weiss & Cropanzano, 1996). In the study, this cognitive evaluation is considered by examining how perceived impacts mediate the effects of CVP characteristics on employee engagement. How much a CVP means to an individual is a secondary assessment that is more likely to be colored by individual differences. This assessment will reflect the degree to which the perceived meaning of the CVP is thought to advance or inhibit the goals of the individual. Considering the deontological and aretaic perspectives suggests that identification with others a personal tendency towards altruism will moderate the effects of CVP characteristics on engagement. Overall, this suggests that the main effects of cognitions may be Page 19 of 96 augmented by the presence of relational motives arising from the degree to which the volunteer identifies with a specific beneficiary stakeholder (i.e. the social beneficiary or the employing organization); or it may be attenuated by the absence of such relational motives. In addition, for individuals more predisposed to altruistic or virtuous behavior, the main effect of impact-based cognitions will be augmented for all beneficiary stakeholders (compared to those low in altruism). Issue characteristics as drivers of engagement in CVP The moral perspective on prosocial behavior suggests that the nature of the issue – specifically the consequences at stake – is an important antecedent of engagement. For example, the literature on ethical behavior suggests that magnitude, likelihood and immediacy of consequences will all be positively related to ethical behavior (T. M. Jones, 1991). The literature on socially responsible organizational behavior also acknowledges the role of issue characteristics as antecedents of socially responsible organizational behavior. Bansal & Roth (2000) find that transparency, certainty and emotivity around a social issue increase the salience of the issue to organizational members and the likelihood of socially responsible organizational behavior. In the current study, the role of the characteristics of the issue as antecedents of engagement in volunteering is examined by hypothesizing how CVP characteristics that signal consequences for the self and others are related to engagement through the mediation of perceived impacts. Beneficiaries of CVPs While benefiting the community is an important organizational goal, there is no consistent evidence that it is the primary goal of CVPs. In a study of organizations in Chicago, Page 20 of 96 Benjamin (2001:72) found that 54% of respondents report that goals of volunteer programs include intended benefits to employees, 46% reported corporate image and 31% meeting the needs of the community. This contrasts with a national survey in which 83% of large companies indicated they measure benefits to the community (The Corporate Volunteer Program as a Strategic Resource: The Link Grows Stronger, 1999). However, the low response rate of 9% to the national survey suggests a possible selection bias in the sample of the national study; the percentage of companies measuring the benefits of their CVPs is probably much lower than 83%. Bansal & Roth (2000) found socially responsible organizational behavior was undertaken to increase competitiveness, increase legitimacy or achieve social goals. Socially responsible organizational behaviors can increase competitiveness if they attract or retain customers or help the organization to innovate or reduce costs. An example of this is Walmart’s sustainability initiative which is undertaken primarily to reduce Walmart’s costs1. Socially responsible organizational behaviors undertaken to increase competitiveness obviously have a positive impact on the organization. Socially responsible organizational behaviors can increase organizational legitimacy if they win the approval of powerful external stakeholders such as government or powerful NGOs. In this case, the focus is not so much on gaining a competitive advantage, but rather on not being at a disadvantage because of non-compliance with social or regulatory expectations. Finally, companies may engage in socially responsible organizational behavior to achieve social goals. Sometimes such efforts may also result in increased legitimacy or competitiveness of the organization, such as in the case of Patagonia, a manufacturer of sports 1 http://corporate.walmart.com/global-responsibility/environmental-sustainability/environmental-sustainability Page 21 of 96 equipment famous for its focus on sustainable business practices. Other times, companies may choose to sustain a potential competitive disadvantage on order to achieve social goals that they consider important. An example of this would be McCulloch Corporation, a manufacturer of chainsaws that chose to install chain brakes as safety features on all of its products (Carroll & Buchholtz, 2011:202-203). Despite data showing that chainsaw-related injuries had almost doubled in five years, the Chainsaw Manufacturer’s Association’s had refused to accept this standard. McCulloch installed the safety brakes as standard features on all its products despite evidence that consumers were unwilling to pay a premium for this features, thus potentially putting themselves at a cost disadvantage vs. competitors. These findings on the reasons for socially responsible organizational behavior are consistent with other research in the literature on corporate citizenship and CSR, which include many tripartite formulations of organizational motives for engaging in socially responsible organizational behavior: Maignan, Ferrell, & Hult (1999) imply market, humanistic and competitive motives for corporate citizenship. In the marketing literature, studies distinguish between egoistically- or strategically driven (competitive), stakeholder-driven (legitimacy) and values-driven (socially responsible) organizational behaviors (Ellen, Webb, & Mohr, 2006; Vlachos, Tsamakos, Vrechopoulos, & Avramidis, 2008). These studies provide compelling evidence that organizations engage in socially responsible organizational behaviors, including CVPs to achieve positive outcomes for themselves, for the community and for interested stakeholders. Thus employee, community stakeholders and employers are all beneficiaries of CVPs. Page 22 of 96 Perceived impacts and motives for corporate volunteering Consistent with the theories of the prosocial behavior, the functional theories of public volunteering also recognize the interplay of both moral and rational motives. They suggest that individuals volunteer because volunteering meets both moral and instrumental needs (Atkins, Hart, & Donnelly, 2005; Clary et al., 1998; Wilson, 2000). People may volunteer to express tightly held personal or social values; to reinforce their views of themselves as “good” people; because they seek rewarding experiences; to foster relationships with important others; or to advance their careers (Clary et al., 1998). Continued commitment to volunteering is predicted by the degree to which the experience of volunteering continues to meet instrumental needs (Grube & Piliavin, 2000; Omoto & Snyder, 1995; Penner & Finkelstein, 1998; Piliavin, Grube, & Callero, 2002). Theories of volunteering have not focused on emotion as a driver of volunteering, possibly because of the previously noted pre-meditated nature of volunteering as compared to helping behaviors that are driven by proximal immediate need. However, emotions attached to volunteering – such as feelings of pride and self-importance – are given a central place as outcomes of volunteering that promote continued commitment to volunteering (Grube & Piliavin, 2000; Piliavin et al., 2002). Corporate volunteering differs from public volunteering in important ways. First, because in corporate volunteering the employer often acts as an intermediary between the employee and the community, attitudes and motives about corporate volunteering are directed not only at community stakeholders but also at the employer (Grant & Mayer, 2009; D. A. Jones, 2010). Secondly, in addition to self-interested and altruistic motives, corporate volunteering may be motivated by impression management (Grant & Mayer, 2009) or by the desire to be a good member of the employing organization (Peloza & Hassay, 2006). Peloza & Hassay (2006) Page 23 of 96 suggested three categories of motives for employee involvement in CVPs: egoism, charity and organizational citizenship. These categories of motives mirror the types of CVP goals identified in the practitioner literature and discussed earlier in this paper. At the individual level, there is evidence that, in corporate volunteering, self-interested motives for skill development, new experiences and organizational rewards may play a more significant role than altruistic motives. Peloza et al. (2008) suggest that the pre-selected nature of employer-led volunteer programs may reduce the relevance of altruistic motives for engaging in these programs. In summary, the literature suggests that engagement in corporate volunteering (or any SRB) can arise from multiple disparate motivations. These motivations may differ across individuals or may work in tandem to drive the behaviors of a single individual. Corporate volunteering may be a form of altruistic behavior, conforming to more moralist perspectives of prosocial behavior including ethical behavior. It may also be a form of more self-interested or instrumental behavior that serves the ego functions identified in the functional views of volunteering and the rational views of prosocial behavior. Finally, corporate volunteering may be a type of OCB if undertaken primarily for the benefit of the employer. These three categories of motives at the individual level correspond to the three categories of motives for SRB identified at the organizational level – specifically, socially responsible, competitiveness, and legitimacy motives (Bansal & Roth, 2000). This pattern of tri-partite motives associated with the socially responsible actor, the community beneficiary and the employer may provide a general model for understanding SRB (see also Rupp, Ganapathi, Aguilera, & Williams, 2006). In the case of this study they provide an organizing framework for examining the cognitions that lead to employee engagement in SRBs. Page 24 of 96 The tripartite approach suggests three different cognitions that would facilitate employee engagement in CVPs: cognitions about benefits to the employee, to the community, and to the employer. Cognitions about benefits to the self may trigger more egoistic motivations for personal and professional growth through the developmental and experiential opportunities provided by CVPs. Cognitions about benefits to the community may trigger socially responsible motives arising from the desire to improve the wellbeing of the community. Finally, cognitions about the benefits of CVPs to the organization may trigger the motivation to be a good organizational citizen who upholds the values of the employer. Perceived impacts of the CVP on the community, the self and the employing organization are therefore important cognitions that would be associated with employee engagement in CVPs. The degree to which each of the 3 motives for engagement will be triggered or made salient will in turn depend on the degree to which the characteristics of the CVP suggest positive impacts on each of these three stakeholders of the CVP. Individual differences and contextual factors moderating engagement in CVP The moral perspective on prosocial behavior suggests that personality differences that increase the likelihood of empathic feelings and acceptance of personal responsibility will moderate the relationship between perceived consequences and engagement in volunteering. Personality differences may also affect the intensity with which the individual perceives the moral issue and consequences. For example, Treviño (1986) suggests that individuals high in moral development are more likely to recognize an issue as having moral consequences and to act morally as a result. Crilly et al. (2008) find that values (universalism and benevolence) increase the propensity to engage in SRB, as do moral and reputation-based reasoning. The volunteering literature also suggests that volunteering is predicted by individual factors including Page 25 of 96 personality types (cf. Gillath et al., 2005), prior volunteer experience, human capital (education, occupational status), social networks, and organizational memberships (Wilson, 2000). The effects of individual socialization on volunteering are illustrated in the spillover theory of volunteering, which holds that those who acquire greater human capital through education, increased experience and job complexity volunteer more because they have greater awareness of social issues and acquire through work the skills that make them more effective volunteers and the drives that lead them to seek out new opportunities to make a contribution (Wilson & Musick, 1997). In contrast, compensation theory holds that workers volunteer to compensate for meaning that is lacking in their work (Rodell, 2013). The affective perspective on prosocial behavior suggests that relational factors – specifically identification with other stakeholders involved in the CVP – can influence engagement in corporate volunteering by predisposing the individual to feel more or less sympathetic or obligated towards the community stakeholder or employing organization. In the current study, I focus on assessing the moderating effects of prosocial motivation – a dispositional trait that captures the degree to which the individual aspires to helping behavior in general – on the effects of CVP characteristics on engagement. I also consider how differences in the degree to which employees identify with the organization and beneficiary moderate employee engagement. Finally, the rational perspective on prosocial behavior suggests that any contextual factors that affect the balance of costs vs. benefits will moderate the relationship between perceived consequences and engagement in volunteering (Grube & Piliavin, 2000; Omoto & Snyder, 1995; Perlow & Weeks, 2002; Piliavin et al., 1981). In this study, I consider the effects of various forms of employer support for CVP that determine the relative costs and benefits of volunteering for the employee (Booth, Park, & Glomb, 2009). Page 26 of 96 Outcomes of employee engagement Engagement in corporate volunteering has never explicitly been measured. Its relationship to work and organizational outcomes is therefore unknown. However, volunteering (outside of work) has been linked with increased OCB, reduced antisocial behavior, and improved physical and mental health (Gillath et al., 2005; Wilson, 2000). In the engagement literature, work engagement is positively associated with task performance, OCB, job satisfaction, organizational commitment; and negatively related to intentions to quit (Christian, Garza, & Slaughter, 2011; Rich et al., 2010; Saks, 2006). In this study, I examine the relationship of engagement in CVP to employee well-being, work satisfaction and turnover intentions. These three outcomes are selected because they respectively suggest the potential of engagement in CVP to influence employee, work and organization outcomes. Gaps in the literature Overall, the literature on corporate volunteering suggests that it differs in several ways from public volunteering and is significantly influenced by organizational factors. To-date this literature has focused on the effects of organizational structure, support and incentives on employee participation but few studies have looked at how the substantive characteristics of the volunteering programs – that is, the non-separable content of the volunteering task – influence employee participation and engagement in volunteering. Exceptions to this include Grant et al. (2008) and Pajo & Lee (2010). Grant, Dutton, & Rosso (2008) demonstrated that interpretations of volunteering work as caring mediated the positive effects of volunteering on affective organizational commitment. Pajo & Lee (2010) suggested that opportunities for altruism and Page 27 of 96 organizational citizenship through volunteering may increase the meaningfulness of volunteering for employees. Relational theories of work design (Grant & Parker, 2009; Grant, 2007) suggest that impact on beneficiaries will be positively related to physical engagement (effort). These studies suggest that impact on others is an important determinant of meaningfulness but more research is needed to understand the role that impact plays in motivating engagement at work. This study explores the idea that impacts on the self, community stakeholders and the employer mediate employee engagement. It also explores the extent to which these impacts are communicated through the objective characteristics of the work – in this case, the characteristics of the CVP. There is wide variation in the types of projects for which employees volunteer and these differences are likely to affect employees’ motives for volunteering. Measuring how different perceived impacts of CVPs mediate employee engagement will suggest different motives for employee engagement in volunteering. These suggested motives may be associated with variation in the quality of engagement. Functional theories of volunteering suggest that egoistically motivated volunteering is likely to last until ego motives are satisfied. In contrast, values-based or altruistically motivated volunteering is more likely to persist until needs of beneficiaries are met (Grant et al., 2008; Grube & Piliavin, 2000; Piliavin et al., 1981, 2002; Shantz, Saksida, & Alfes, 2013). Research to-date has not shed light on whether different motives lead to qualitatively different types of engagement. Establishing the mediating role of perceived impacts has additional practical and theoretical implications for understanding what drives engagement. For example, it may suggest other factors not considered in this study that could have positive effects on employee Page 28 of 96 engagement through their effects on perceived impacts. Distinguishing the mediating role of perceived impacts also allows for a more refined consideration of how individual differences moderate the effects of CVP characteristics on employee engagement. These individual differences can help explain why subjective assessments of impact may differ among employees given similar objective characteristics of the CVP. This would be one factor explaining variation in employee engagement in CVPs. Conceptual framework of this study The preceding literature review suggests that CVP characteristics can be motivating to employees primarily because they have positive impacts on the self and on others. This motivation leads employees to become more engaged in CVPs. The strength of this relationship would be moderated by the degree to which employees feel related to the other parties affected by the CVP and by the degree to which employees possess a strong sense of motivation to help others. This is the basic model that I explore in the following sections. The relationships suggested in the theoretical model for this study are shown in figure 1. Together, the theoretical model suggests some antecedents of employee engagement in CVPs, giving a central role to perceived impacts of the CVP on the employee, the Community and the employer. I have identified characteristics of CVPs that signal impact on employees, the community and the employer – the three key relationships that define CVPs. I also describe how cognitions of perceived impacts on each of these three stakeholders mediate the effect of CVP characteristics on employee engagement. I suggest that the degree to which the employee identifies with the other stakeholders involved in the CVPs will influence the meaning of perceived impacts for employees. Increased identification with the organization or beneficiaries Page 29 of 96 will increase the valence of the cognitive and emotional meaning of the CVP to employees through its effects on perceptions as well as its effects on the how strongly perceptions influence subsequent behaviors and psychological states of engagement. I specify the role that individual prosocial motivation plays in moderating the effects of CVP characteristics on employee engagement. I also consider how extrinsic characteristics of a CVP, comprised of perceived support and managerial feedback processes, would moderate the effect of perceived impacts on engagement in CVPs. Finally, I consider how engagement in CVPs influences employee and organizational outcomes of work satisfaction, employee well-being and turnover intentions. The resulting model suggests how the characteristics of CVP programs shape employees’ cognitive, emotional and physical engagement in those programs through perceived impacts on self and others; taking into account the individual’s prosocial motivation and identification with said others. The overarching theory used to explore the research question builds on theories of ethical decision-making and behavior. In this literature, it is argued that issue characteristics, personal characteristics and social cues interact to shape decision-making and behavior (T. M. Jones, Felps, & Bigley, 2007; T. M. Jones, 1991; Sonenshein, 2007; Treviño, 1986). In this study, the CVP represents an opportunity for helping behavior; the specific characteristics of the CVP act as social cues that signal meaning to the employee in the form perceived impact of the CVP on the employee, the community and the employer. The resulting meaningfulness of the CVP for the employee drives engagement. I integrate theories of work design and moral intensity to explain how CVP characteristics are related to perceived impacts on beneficiaries. I use selfdetermination theory as well as theories of moral reasoning to explain the mechanisms by which perceived impacts motivate employee engagement in CVPs by satisfying fundamental needs for Page 30 of 96 competence and relatedness; and I build on identification theory to explain individual differences in engagement. There are several variables involved in testing the hypotheses presented in this paper. For the sake of brevity, rather than take the traditional approach of providing formal relationships between the independent and dependent variable (IV and DV) and then specifying the relationships of each to the mediator, I rather present hypotheses for the relationship between IV and mediator, mediator and DV and then state the hypothesis for the mediating effect. Specifically, in the following sections, I discuss the main effects of characteristics of the CVP on engagement. I then present arguments for how perceived impacts mediate the effects of CVP characteristics engagement. Following this, I consider how contextual factors moderate engagement and finally consider outcomes of engagement. I then describe how individual differences in prosocial motivation and identification moderate employee engagement. CVP CHARACTERISTICS AND PERCEIVED IMPACTS In this section I propose relationships between CVP characteristics and perceived impacts on the employee, the community and the employer. Perceived impacts on the employee, community and employer By perceived impact of CVPs I refer to positive or negative impacts on the employee, community and employer. An example of a negative impact is when participation in CVPs causes employees to feel overworked. In some cases CVPs may be seen as appropriation of organizational resources that should be spent on other activities. My primary focus in presenting theory and hypotheses about perceived impact is on the role that positive impacts of CVPs play in mediating the effects of CVP characteristics on engagement. Implicit in this approach is the Page 31 of 96 hypothesis that perceived negative impacts will have the opposite effects to perceived positive impacts. Grant (2007) distinguishes different types of positive impacts that our actions can have. He identifies impact on physical well-being (i.e. health and safety), hedonic well-being (i.e. enjoyment and satisfaction), the eudaimonic well-being (i.e. growth and development), and material well-being of beneficiaries (e.g. financial well-being). Here I consider these categories of impact to illustrate the range of impacts that CVPs can have on beneficiaries. Perceived impacts of a CVP on employees will be a result of the employee’s assessment of how the CVP can contribute to or impede attainment of valued goals. This is equivalent to what Weiss & Cropanzano (1996) refer to as “concern relevance”, which is part of the individual’s initial appraisal of what a given event or situation means for her. Positive impacts of CVPs on employees are primarily eudaimonic. CVPs can positively impact employees’ growth and development primarily in two ways. First, they can provide employees with opportunities to grow through learning – that is by acquiring new knowledge and skills or by leveraging existing skills to demonstrate personal agency. In so doing, CVPs provide opportunities for employees to increase their sense of competence, self-efficacy and self-esteem. Secondly, CVPs can positively impact employees’ well-being by creating or strengthening affective bonds between employees and others, or by increasing the employee’s sense of relatedness to valued others. CVPs might possibly also have hedonic benefits for employees. However, given that volunteering is typically viewed as a form of personal sacrifice, I assume in this paper that enjoyment beyond that arising from the eudaimonic impacts already discussed is not a primary driver of employee engagement in CVPs. Page 32 of 96 The positive impacts of CVPs on community stakeholders could be physical, hedonic, eudaimonic or material. For example, a disaster relief program aims to impact the physical wellbeing of community stakeholders. A CVP that focuses on taking orphans out for a day could have a positive impact on their hedonic well-being. A program that focuses on mentoring high school students would impact their eudaimonic well-being. And pro-bono services offered to the poor by tax consultants would impact their material well-being. The positive impacts of CVPs on the employer can be eudaimonic or material. They can be eudaimonic in the sense that CVPs that pursue goals that are important to the organization can have positive impacts on organizational morale, which would be a positive eudaimonic impact on other employees. They can also have a material impact on the organization if the CVP supports achievement of the organization’s financial goals. I give several examples of CVPs that have financial impacts on the employer when I discuss the employer-focused characteristics of CVPs. Perceived impacts on the employee, community and organization are likely to be interrelated. For example, perceived impact on the community will likely be related to perceived impact on the employer because of its effects on the employer’s public relations and reputation. Similarly, perceived positive impacts on employees may be seen as benefits also to the employer. While these interrelationships are acknowledged, they are not the focus of the study. Main effects are proposed only for relationships that occur independently of the interrelated effects of perceived impacts on each other. Page 33 of 96 Intrinsic vs. extrinsic characteristics of CVPs Studies assessing the CVP characteristics that affect employee outcomes have considered organizational structure of the program and its leadership, participatory mechanisms, employer and co-worker support, and the degree to which the programs provide opportunities for selfdevelopment and skills acquisition (Booth et al., 2009; Brammer & Millington, 2003; Clary et al., 1998; Ramus & Steger, 2000). Pajo & Lee (2010) found that volunteer perceptions of role variety, teamwork and opportunities for networking had a positive motivational effect on employee volunteers. The practitioner literature has looked at the positive effects of linking CVPs to the organizational mission; defining and leveraging clear goals of CVPs for the business, employees and the community; providing adequate resources (e.g. leadership and budget); and utilizing policies and procedures to encourage employee involvement. Studies have also looked at the effects of differences in program duration; employee autonomy in selection of projects / beneficiaries; incentives and rewards for volunteering and evaluation of business and community outcomes (Benjamin, 2001; Boccalandro, 2009). The importance of CVPs as a tool for developing employees is given significant attention in both the academic and practitioner literatures. A few studies have also considered whether volunteering is team-based or individual (Benjamin, 2001; Muthuri, Matten, & Moon, 2009). My choice of CVP characteristics that influence employee engagement is based on characteristics identified in the academic and practitioner literatures and is guided by a consideration of those characteristics of CVPs that have the potential to be trigger selfdetermined engagement. One reason employee engagement may be self-determined is because the content of the volunteering task is intrinsically motivating. For this reason, in considering the main effects of CVP characteristics on employee engagement, I focus on CVP characteristics Page 34 of 96 that identify the non-separable content of the volunteering work (the “what”) from those that describe how the program is implemented (the “how”). I refer to these two types of characteristics as intrinsic and extrinsic CVP characteristics respectively. This distinction has not previously been made in the literatures on volunteering and SRB, but it is useful for understanding employee’s personal motivations for SRB. Such a distinction is appropriate since the focus of the study is on voluntary behaviors of employees requiring the exercise of personal discretion. Changes to intrinsic characteristics of CVPs fundamentally change the task at hand. For example, if we change the community stakeholder beneficiary of a CVP, we have changed the task. If we announce on day one that the CVP will benefit the homeless in the neighborhood and later change our minds and decide that we will instead assist the local farmers, the task is no longer the same. In contrast, changes to extrinsic characteristics of the program such as the decision to award a prize for the best volunteer (a form of recognition) may vary independently of the nature of the task. Extrinsic characteristics of the CVP are therefore more likely to moderate than cause self-determined employee engagement by affecting the costs and benefits of engagement. Relationship of CVP characteristics to employee engagement For the sake of brevity, I do not present specific hypotheses relating the CVP characteristics to employee engagement. However, the rationale for the direct effect of CVP characteristics on employee engagement is based on the argument that CVP characteristics motivate employee engagement because they signal, or provide, opportunities for employees to basic needs for competence and relatedness. Self-determination theory (SDT) is a motivational Page 35 of 96 theory that specifies the drivers of self-determined motivation in a task or role. SDT is concerned with “human learning, interpersonal relations, and the general mastery and management of people’s physical and social environments” (Deci & Ryan, 2000:230). SDT is thus well suited to the study of volunteering because volunteering is an approach to positively influencing one’s physical and social environment through personal agency. SDT focuses on the motivating effects of psychological (as opposed to physiological) needs, specifically the needs for competence, relatedness and autonomy. In contrast to other needs such as the need for achievement (McClelland, 1985) which are considered to be learned, needs for competence, relatedness and autonomy are considered to be innate and therefore universal (Deci & Ryan, 2000). Competence refers to the need to “have an effect on the environment as well as to attain valued outcomes within it” (Deci & Ryan, 2000:231). Relatedness refers to the desire to feel connected to others. Autonomy refers to regulation by the self as opposed to regulation that occurs without selfendorsement (Ryan & Deci, 2006). The SDT literature suggests that autonomy rather than having independent motivational effects, may be a necessary condition for individuals to express their competence and to pursue meaningful relationships (Ryan & Deci, 2006). I therefore consider autonomy later in this paper as a contextual factor that will promote or attenuate employee engagement. In this section I focus on explaining how CVPs can meet the other two needs for competence and relatedness. Many other needs have been identified within the literature, some of which may overlap with, subsume or form parts of the needs for competence, relatedness and autonomy. For example, the three needs that are the focus of SDT are respectively similar if not identical to the needs for (i) achievement / growth (ii) affiliation / belonging and (iii) power / control cited by others (Baumeister & Leary, 1995; Leotti, Iyengar, & Ochsner, 2010; Ryan, Kuhl, & Deci, 1997; Page 36 of 96 Spector, 1986; Steel & Konig, 2006). I therefore accept the SDT typology of needs as broadly capturing the basic human needs identified within need theory though they may be called by other names. The relationship of needs to motivation is that needs represent an “internal energy force” that directs behavior toward satisfaction of the need (Steel & Konig, 2006: 895). Satiation of needs can thus be thought of as the source of intrinsic motivation. SDT suggests that engagement will be self-motivated when volunteering meets basic psychological needs for competence and relatedness. When CVP characteristics satisfy basic psychological needs of employees, the volunteering task and role become more meaningful to employees. Meaningfulness is one of the antecedents of engagement. Kahn (1990:703) describes meaningfulness as “a feeling that one is receiving a return on investments of one's self in a currency of physical, cognitive, or emotional energy.” While the engagement literature does not make explicit the role of needs in defining what is meaningful, need satisfaction is one way of thinking of, or more clearly defining, “a return of investments of one’s self“. My key argument for the effect of CVP characteristics on employee engagement is that those characteristics which both signal and create the opportunity for satisfaction of the basic needs for competence and relatedness will increase employee engagement in the CVP because they increase the psychological meaningfulness of the volunteering task and role to the employee. To the degree that the actual experience of competence or relatedness is rewarding to the employee, this will result in increased cognitive absorption with the work and increased emotional engagement in the form of enjoyment or enthusiasm for the work (Grube & Piliavin, 2000; Omoto & Snyder, 1995; Penner, 2002; Piliavin et al., 1981, 2002). Intrinsic characteristics of CVPs should therefore (i) be essential to the definition of the task (ii) signal impacts on the employee, community and employer and (iii) have the potential to meet the fundamental needs of the Page 37 of 96 employee for competence and relatedness. These are the three criteria used to select CVP characteristics in the following sections. The relationship of CVP characteristics to perceived impacts Engagement in CVP can be viewed as a moral decision, choice and behavior. T. M. Jones (1991:367) defines a moral issue as being “present where a person's actions, when freely performed, may harm or benefit others. In other words, the action or decision must have consequences for others and must involve choice”. CVPs represent an opportunity for employees to help others, and the employee’s decision to participate and to exert effort in the CVP (or not) has consequences for the employer and the community stakeholders. These consequences are reflected in the employee’s perceptions of the impacts that the CVP will have on the community and the employer. Work design theory sheds further light on how task characteristics signal perceived impacts of one’s work. Historically, work design theory has focused on how task-oriented jobs could be made more intrinsically motivating for employees. The most widely used model of work design is Hackman & Oldham's (1976) job characteristics model (JCM) which has subsequently been expanded (cf. Grant & Parker, 2009; Humphrey et al., 2007). Job characteristics models define perceptions about work, such as the perceived significance of the task and the perceived level of worker autonomy, that are hypothesized to either motivate or demotivate. The relational approach to work design additionally considers the architecture of jobs that “affect employees’ interpersonal interactions and connections” with others (Grant, 2007:395). This approach gives greater focus to the impact of work on others. Page 38 of 96 A closer examination of job characteristics models suggests that work impacts the employee, the beneficiary of the work (who could be a co-worker or customer) and the organization. For example, perceived job characteristics such as skills variety, job complexity and specialization (Humphrey et al., 2007) are about what the work means for the employee. Perceived job characteristics such as feedback from the job and feedback from others may also impact the employee, but they may also communicate what the work means for the organization, co-workers and customers. Finally, perceived impact on beneficiaries (Grant, 2007) is specifically about how the job impacts beneficiaries outside the organization. In the following section, I relate relevant intrinsic characteristics of CVPs to the perceived impacts with which they would be positively associated. Employee-focused characteristics of CVPs: Knowledge and skills opportunities CVPs often provide opportunities for employees to develop or demonstrate skills such as project management, leadership development and self-management (Measuring Employee Volunteer Programs : The Human Resources Model, 2005). Often, these skills are essential to the task. For example, if the volunteering task is to teach science to local students then the task cannot be accomplished with employees who do not have expertise in science. Opportunities to acquire or demonstrate knowledge and skills can be an objective characteristic of volunteering programs to the degree that they are explicitly called out in the program description or in the volunteer recruiting processes. Knowledge and skills opportunities associated with CVPs are primarily related to impact on the employee. Such opportunities signal to employees the experiential, learning and status opportunities associated with the CVP as well as opportunities for personal and professional Page 39 of 96 development. As a result they provide opportunities for fulfillment of personal competence needs and for achievement of personal and professional development goals. Both need fulfillment and goal fulfillment are positive outcomes for the employee. As a result, knowledge and skills opportunities of CVPs will be perceived by the employee as having a positive impact on herself. Hypothesis 1: More challenging knowledge and skills opportunities associated with a CVP will be positively related to perceived impact on employees There does not appear to be any reason to believe that knowledge, skills and interaction requirements would be associated with perceived impact on the employer (beyond the fact that positive impacts on the employee may partially accrue also to the employer – an effect of interactions between perceived impacts). Beneficiary-focused CVP characteristics Humanitarianism In situations in which helping behavior is critical, individuals are more likely to recognize the impact of their actions on others. Criticality can be viewed either from the perspective of those requiring help or from the perspective of those in a position to give it (cf. Chen, Au, & Komorita, 1996; Markóczy, 2007). From the perspective of the beneficiary, criticality refers to the extent to which the cooperation or help is critical to the well-being of the beneficiary. From the perspective of the focal actor (benefactor), criticality refers to the degree to which the wellbeing of the beneficiary is contingent on action by the focal actor as opposed to action by other parties that may be able to offer assistance. Page 40 of 96 One way of considering criticality of the situation is by looking at the needs of the beneficiary that are being fulfilled through the program. Grant (2007) distinguishes between helping that focuses on the physical well-being (i.e. health and safety), hedonic well-being (i.e. enjoyment and satisfaction), the eudaimonic well-being (i.e. growth and development), and material well-being of beneficiaries (e.g. financial well-being). These can be considered intended outcomes and impacts to the beneficiary of volunteering. While Grant’s typology of impacts is qualitatively meaningful, it is not obvious how the types can be arranged to capture increasing or decreasing criticality. For example, it is not clear whether hedonic well-being is less critical than eudaimonic well-being; whether happiness is less critical than personal growth; and whether the impact of a clown who entertains children in a hospice is less critical than the impact of a kindergarten teacher. However, there is likely to be high social consensus that physical wellbeing is more critical than the other types of well-being because physical needs are often considered to be the most fundamental needs, and fulfillment of physical needs is often thought to be a necessary prerequisite for fulfillment of higher order needs (Maslow, 1943). By humanitarianism I refer to the degree to which the mission of a CVP is related to the amelioration of life-threatening situations. Life threatening situations include those in which there is imminent physical danger or life-threatening ill-health. Examples of more humanitarian CVPs would be disaster relief programs and programs that target the sick. CVPs of a more humanitarian nature, will be perceived as having greater moral intensity (T. M. Jones, 1991) because the consequences for the community beneficiaries will be high and social consensus around the need for help will be high. When the moral intensity of the situation being addressed by the CVP is high, employees are more likely to perceive the CVP as having a greater impact on the community. Page 41 of 96 Hypothesis 2a: More humanitarian CVPs will be associated with increased perceived impact on community stakeholders Beneficiary contact Beneficiary contact refers to “opportunities for employees to interact and communicate with the people affected by their work” (Grant, 2007:389). Grant (2007) argues that beneficiary contact will be more motivational as frequency and duration of contact increases, when there is increased physical proximity with beneficiaries, and when contact enables mutual expression of cognitions, emotions and identities. Some of these characteristics of beneficiary contact can be objectively associated with a CVP based on the program description and requirements. While in some cases beneficiary contact may be at the discretion of the employee, often it will be an inherent requirement of the task. For example, a volunteering project that involves cleaning up a public space will provide and require less beneficiary contact than one that involves coaching school children to take the scholastic aptitude test. We can therefore consider whether beneficiary contact of a CVP is ad-hoc or more or less frequent and whether it requires physical proximity. Other aspects of beneficiary contact such as the opportunity for mutual expression of cognitions, emotions and identities may be inferable based on program descriptions. High beneficiary contact suggests the creation of an ongoing social relationship in which the employee / volunteer is not easily substitutable. For employees who are not yet involved in CVPs, high beneficiary contact requirements can signal that the volunteering role is critical to the well-being of the community stakeholder. High beneficiary contact also means that impacts are more proximal (T. M. Jones, 1991). Increased perceptions of criticality and proximity will likely lead to increased perceptions of impact. For those already involved in the CVP, high Page 42 of 96 beneficiary contact will also allow employees to receive direct feedback from community stakeholders regarding the positive impacts that the program has on them. Hypothesis 2b: Increased beneficiary contact will be positively related to perceived impact on the community. Beneficiary contact may also impact employees in several ways. If increased beneficiary contact contributes to the employee’s sense that her role is critical to the community beneficiary, this will contribute to the employee’s sense of importance and self-esteem. It is also often the case that part of the appeal of volunteering is in the opportunity to learn more about a group of interest. For example, employees may value opportunities to interact with youth in order to stay or feel more in touch with the concerns and preferences of young people. Feelings of closeness with beneficiaries often do not exist at the onset of volunteering but rather develop over time as volunteers are exposed to the volunteering role and beneficiaries (Grube & Piliavin, 2000; Piliavin et al., 2002). Increased beneficiary contact will provide opportunities for the employee to satisfy such relatedness needs by forming new social bonds. For these reasons I argue that beneficiary contact will be positively related to perceived impact on the employee. Hypothesis 3: Increased beneficiary contact will be positively related to perceived impact on the employee. Employer-focused CVP characteristics: Strategic alignment Strategic alignment refers to the degree to which the objectives of a CVP are related to the strategic goals of the organization (Hess & Warren, 2008; Wood, 1991). CVPs that are more aligned with organizational strategies will be more critical to organizational well-being. Examples of CVPs with high strategic alignment are Campbell’s program on childhood obesity Page 43 of 96 and hunger2 and IBM’s smarter cities challenge3. Campbell’s program focuses on educating young students about nutritious eating. Employees volunteer in schools to teach students about diet and also to monitor behavioral change and health outcomes such as body mass index. The program is strategic for Campbell’s because it raises awareness of the company in the community, raises awareness of Campbell’s healthy food products, and drives behavior change among the youth that converts young potential consumers of junk foods made by Campbell’s competitors into potential consumers of healthier foods made by Campbell’s. IBM’s smarter cities challenge allows cities to apply for pro-bono services of IBM personnel who advise the municipalities on how to run more effectively through the use of cutting-edge technologies. These experts advise on the use of technology infrastructure to drive efficiency – infrastructure that IBM is uniquely positioned to provide. In contrast, a CVP by any of these companies that was focused on activities tangential to core strategic objectives – for example, clearing litter from a local park – would have low strategic alignment. Strategic alignment can be an objective characteristic of CVPs to the degree that such links are explicitly stated in the program description or formally articulated by organizational leaders. CVPs that are more aligned with organizational strategy have the potential for greater impact on the material and collective psychological well-being of the organization. They impact material well-being of the organization through their anticipated instrumentality in achieving the future business objectives of the organization. As a result, strategic alignment of a CVP signals a positive impact on the collective well-being of the organization and its members. 2 3 http://www.campbellsoupcompany.com/csr/pages/neighbors/childhood-obesity-and-hunger.asp#.UazlgUB5mSo http://smartercitieschallenge.org/ Page 44 of 96 Hypothesis 4: Increased strategic alignment of a CVP will be positively associated with perceived impact on the organization PERCEIVED IMPACTS AND EMPLOYEE ENGAGEMENT In this section I present arguments for why perceived impacts are more proximal antecedents of employee engagement in CVPs than CVP characteristics, and for why they mediate the effects of CVP characteristics on employee engagement. I first explain how perceived impacts will be positively related to engagement. I then discuss moral and rational psychological mechanisms through which CVP characteristics will positively influence engagement through their effects on perceived impacts. The effects of perceived impacts on employee engagement Work design research (Hackman & Oldham, 1976; Humphrey et al., 2007; Johns, Xie, & Fang, 1992; Morgeson & Humphrey, 2006) shows that task significance, which measures perceived impact of the work on others, is positively related to psychological meaningfulness of work and to intrinsic work motivation. Work design research also shows that perceived feedback from work and others, and social interaction at work, are positively related to psychological meaningfulness and work motivation. These relationships suggest that perceived impacts can be intrinsically motivating and are related to psychological meaningfulness, which is an antecedent of engagement. Perceived impacts on others should therefore have a positive relationship with engagement. The psychological mechanisms through which perceived impacts affect engagement can be understood by considering the effects of moral reasoning on engagement as well as by Page 45 of 96 considering how perceptions of impact suggest opportunities for individuals to satisfy basic individual needs of competence and relatedness. Perceived impact on the employee CVP characteristics and the impacts that they signal might be meaningful to employees because they satisfy the employee’s personal needs. Perceived impacts on the employee capture the positive eudaimonic impacts of CVPs on employees, which may include positive impacts on the employee’s personal or professional development and growth. These positive impacts may accrue from the development of new knowledge and skills or the exercise of existing knowledge and skills that reinforce the employee’s sense of competence, self-efficacy and self-esteem. Positive impacts on the employee also include positive emotions arising from satisfaction of competence needs or enriched relationships with others. Rational self-interest and goal-seeking behavior (Ambrose & Kulik, 1999) all suggest that when an employee perceives a task as having a positive impact on her well-being, she is more likely to be engaged in that task. Hypothesis 5: Perceived impact on the employee will be positively related to engagement Perceived impact on the community and employer The need for competence is fundamentally a need to be able realize one’s goals within one’s environment. Achieving positive impacts on one’s environment is therefore one way of satisfying this need. Because one’s employing organization and local community are part of one’s environment, realizing positive impacts on the community or on one’s employer is a means of demonstrating competence and control. As a result, perceived positive impacts of CVPs on the community and on the employer will lead employees to recognize participation in the CVP as an opportunity for satisfaction of competence (and control) needs through the display of self- or Page 46 of 96 collective-efficacy within her environment. This perceived opportunity for need satisfaction will motivate employees to engage in the CVP. From a more moral perspective, perceived impacts on the community are likely to be positively associated with engagement because they trigger socially responsible motives to help others. To the degree that CVPs present moral choices to employees, T. M. Jones' (1991) theory of moral intensity suggests that moral action is more likely when consequences are large, highly probable, and more temporally immediate. The idea that the effect of one’s work on others is important is also supported by work design research, which shows that feedback from others is positively related to psychological meaningfulness and work motivation. This suggests that, even in contexts in which the moral consequences of one’s actions are not dire, perceived impacts on others is still meaningful and likely to increase engagement. Hypothesis 6: Perceived impact on the community will be positively related to engagement In contrast to perceived impacts on the community, perceived impacts on the employer will trigger organizational citizenship motives. Organizational citizenship motives include the desire to make a good impression on supervisors and colleagues or to help the organization and its members to achieve shared goals. The greater the impact of a CVP on the employer is perceived to be, the more salient will be organizational citizenship motives. When such motives are more salient, they increase the likelihood that employees will engage in a CVP. Additionally, the more is at stake for the employer, the more effort and emotional concern will be associated with the employee’s engagement in the CVP. Hypothesis 7: Perceived impact on the employer will be positively related engagement Page 47 of 96 The mediating role of perceived impacts In this section, I build on motivational need theories and theories of moral decisionmaking to present arguments that illustrate why CVP characteristics would have a main effect on employee engagement, and why this effect would be fully mediated by perceived impacts. CVPs provide the opportunity to demonstrate competence and self-efficacy by having a positive impact on the community and potentially also on one’s own organization. CVPs also provide opportunities to strengthen relationships or psychological bonds with members of the community and of the employing organization (Baumeister & Leary, 1995). The CVP characteristics related to knowledge and skills opportunities provide an opportunity to realize competence and relatedness needs through engagement. Beneficiary contact provides opportunities for mutually enriching social exchanges. CVPs of a more humanitarian nature will be perceived as having high moral intensity. As a result, employees will be more attentive to the task and are likely to be more emotionally engaged. In critical situations, individuals are also more likely to experience emotions of guilt if they do not act and emotions of relief and pride if they do. Employees will therefore be motivated to engage because engagement helps them feel more competent and related by promoting positive emotions or preventing negative ones. Engagement in CVPs that have high strategic alignment will strengthen feelings of organizational membership and collective self-efficacy. The more CVPs have these characteristics, the more employees will see engagement in CVPs as a means to personally valued ends, and the more they will engage in the CVP (Vroom, 1964). Understanding how CVP characteristics signal opportunities for satisfaction of basic needs elucidates the psychological mechanisms underlying the main direct effect of CVP Page 48 of 96 characteristics on employee engagement. However, these psychological mechanisms may not necessarily be explicit or conscious. Considering the mediating role of perceived impacts in this relationship provides an organizing framework for the cognitions that mediate the effects of CVP characteristics on engagement. The CVP characteristics provide social information and social cues that will shape employee’s perceptions of the positive impacts that the CVP may have on them, on the community, and on the employer. The effects of the objective CVP characteristics will therefore be mediated by the employee’s subjective perceptions of positive impacts. Thus the perceptions of physical, hedonic, eudaimonic or material impact on the self or on others are the means through which CVP characteristics signal to employees the utility of engagement. H7: Perceived impact on the (a) employee (b) community and (c) employer will mediate the effects of intrinsic CVP characteristics on engagement. MODERATING EFFECTS OF EXTRINSIC CVP CHARACTERISTICS So far, I have discussed the effects on employee engagement of the CVP characteristics that I characterized as intrinsic to the volunteering task and role. However, contextual factors not essential to the task have been shown to influence employee engagement in volunteering. I refer to these as extrinsic characteristics of the programs and discuss in this section how they moderate employee engagement in volunteering. Perceived support for CVP Extrinsic characteristics that have been shown to increase employee engagement in volunteering can generally be grouped under the umbrellas of employer, supervisor and coworker support for volunteering. I refer to these collectively as support for CVP. Employers may support volunteering programs by allowing employees to volunteer on company time, providing Page 49 of 96 financial and logistical support, organizing volunteering events, providing placement services, or providing incentives and rewards for volunteering (Benjamin, 2001; Booth et al., 2009; The Corporate Volunteer Program as a Strategic Resource: The Link Grows Stronger, 1999). Booth, Park, & Glomb (2009) find that employer-supported volunteering benefits (e.g. volunteering on company time, employer donations of cash or kind, logistical support, rewards and recognition for volunteers) are positively related to employee hours of volunteering. They explain this link using social exchange theory. However, employer support could also lead to increased employee engagement in volunteering by increasing both perceived psychological safety and psychological availability of the employee (Kahn, 1990; May et al., 2004). Both work engagement research (Rich et al., 2010; Saks, 2006) and research on socially proactive employee behavior at work (Booth et al., 2009; Ramus & Steger, 2000) point to the importance of organizational support as antecedents of engagement. These studies suggest that any policies associated with a CVP that reduce the psychological and material costs of either participating in or visibly supporting the CVP will facilitate employee engagement. Such policies include paid time to volunteer, autonomy in scheduling volunteering time, any material assistance provided by the employer (e.g. funds, equipment, logistical support), and formal recognition and rewards for employees (Booth et al., 2009). Peloza & Hassay (2006) suggest that autonomy in selection of volunteering projects may influence employee’s attitudes about, and motivations for, volunteering. Other authors have suggested that task characteristics that give rise to feelings of autonomy will increase employees’ intrinsic motivations for volunteering (Pajo & Lee, 2010). Autonomy can be considered within the context of support for CVP. Autonomy refers to the degree to which employees are free to participate in CVPs (or choose not to participate) and Page 50 of 96 the degree to which they have choice in scheduling and arranging the volunteering work. When autonomy is high, it suggests increased support for the CVP. Increased autonomy will increase engagement in two ways. First, flexibility in scheduling and structuring of the work will allow for optimal physical engagement because employees will be able to volunteer when it is most convenient. Secondly, autonomy will allow for self-selection of employees into volunteering resulting on higher levels of engagement on average. In contrast, when autonomy is low – for example, if participation in a CVP is required, while more employees may participate, on average the quality of their participation (i.e. attention, absorption, pride and enthusiasm in the program) will be lower. The attitudes about volunteering held by key organizational referents such as supervisors and co-workers can increase or reduce the psychological costs of supporting CVPs (D. A. Jones, 2007; Ramus & Steger, 2000; Treviño, 1986). Supervisors and co-workers may see involvement in CVPs as a form of shirking work. Even if supervisors and co-workers have more tolerant views about CVPs, employees may nevertheless experience guilt about spending precious time supporting CVPs while others work. Thus either perceived resistance to volunteering among supervisors and co-workers or ambiguity about the attitudes of supervisors and co-workers towards volunteering can create a psychological burden on employees that may reduce employee engagement even when employees are actually motivated to support a CVP. Finally, the “scope” (Bansal, 2003) of the program, which refers to the relative number of organizational members who participate, is both an indication of organizational support for the CVP and also an impetus in itself for individual participation. If most of the employees in an organization participate in a CVP then the likelihood that supervisors and co-workers support the program is high. Page 51 of 96 Perceived support for CVP refers to the employee’s subjective perception of support for the CVP. Employee perceptions of support for CVP may be more or less accurate but are more proximal to and will have a more direct effect on employee engagement than will the objective levels of support. Because of this, and because examining the antecedents of perceived support is not the focus of this study, I treat perceived support for CVP as a single construct that captures the employee’s perception of organizational and co-worker support for the CVP. Perceived support for CVP should positively moderate the relationship between CVP characteristics and perceived impacts on the employee, community and employer. This negative moderating effect should be strongest for the relationship between CVP characteristics and perceived impacts on the employee. This is because the construct of support CVP effectively captures cost and benefits of volunteering to the employee. When support for CVP is low, the employee faces a situation in which she must potentially volunteer on her own time, without the support of her supervisor and co-workers, and is one of very few employees in the organization to volunteer for the CVP. In this case, the social and material costs of volunteering are high and have a negative impact on the employee. This negative impact on the employee may offset perceived positive impacts related to knowledge and skills opportunities. In contrast, when support for CVP is high, employees will perceive less material costs of engaging and may even perceive positive social benefits of doing so, such as an increased sense of organizational membership (if most of their colleagues are participating). When support for CVP is high, employees are less likely to feel that the costs of volunteering outweigh the benefits. Support for CVP will also moderate the effects of CVP characteristic on perceived impact on the community. Low support for CVP may suggest that the organization is not committed to the volunteering task. This may objectively be the case if the CVP is more Page 52 of 96 symbolic than substantive (Ashforth & Gibbs, 1990; Hess & Warren, 2008). If employees perceive the organization as not committed to the CVP, they will conclude that the organization is more interested in appearances than in maximizing social impact. They will factor this into their assessments of the real impacts that the CVP will have. Thus low support for CVP will likely attenuate the effects of CVP characteristics on perceived impacts on the community while high support for CVP will amplify the effects of CVP characteristics on perceived impacts on the community. One might assume that if a CVP has high strategic alignment that the organization would show strong support for CVP. In general this is likely to be the case. However, it is possible for a CVP that is of high strategic importance to the organization to have low support for CVP. This may occur either because of poor communication or poor implementation on the part of organizational leaders. For example, organizational leaders may view the CVP as strategically important, but managers and co-workers may not share this belief because they do not have access to the same data as organizational leaders or because they have different perspectives. Alternatively, a CVP can be of strategic importance to an organization but organizational leaders may fail to provide adequate organizational support for the program either due to lack of awareness of the importance of support, or simply due to lack of attention to doing so (Cyert & March, 1963). In the event that support for CVP is low for programs that have high strategic alignment, employees will receive mixed cues – one cue from the CVP characteristics that suggest high strategic importance and a conflicting cue from their assessment of support for the CVP, which suggests that the CVP is not that important to the organization. Hypothesis 8: Perceived support for CVP will moderate the relationship between CVP characteristics and perceived impacts on (a) the employee (b) the community and (c) the Page 53 of 96 employer such that when perceived support for CVP is high, the effects of CVP characteristics on perceived impacts will be stronger. Managerial feedback processes Another extrinsic characteristic of CVP programs that may moderate the effects of perceived impacts on engagement are the feedback mechanisms utilized as part of CVP implementation. The practitioner literature on corporate volunteering suggests that there is variation in whether organizations establish measurable goals for CVPs and in the degree to which they measure outcomes (Boccalandro, 2009; The Corporate Volunteer Program as a Strategic Resource: The Link Grows Stronger, 1999). In this section, I argue that, consistent with goal-setting theory (E. A. Locke & Latham, 2002), feedback processes associated with a CVP will enhance engagement by increasing the perceived instrumentality of effort. By a feedback process, I refer to managerial processes that facilitate access to data about performance of a CVP vs. goals. Examples would include periodic reviews with community stakeholders or discussion of volunteering as part of performance review. Feedback processes requires that goals exist and that data about outcomes can be obtained to compare to these goals. Feedback processes are weakest when no goals exist and no outcomes are measured. They are stronger when goals are not set but some data about outcomes is collected. Assuming some outcomes are measured, feedback processes can be considered stronger depending on the frequency with which these outcomes are communicated to the organization. Robustness of feedback processes can also be considered in terms of the stakeholders for whom outcomes are measured. Outcomes can be measured for employees, community stakeholders or the employing organization. Not all CVPs will measure outcomes for all 3 stakeholders. Feedback processes Page 54 of 96 will be most robust when goals are established for all 3 stakeholders and outcomes data is obtained for all three stakeholders, and outcomes vs. goals are communicated frequently to employees. We can therefore consider the robustness of feedback processes for each stakeholder. In practice, the positive effect of goals is contingent on the quality of the goals – whether they are specific, realistic and so on. However, assessing quality of goals is beyond the scope of this study. Here I focus only on the degree to which the robustness of feedback processes affects employee engagement in volunteering. When employees see a CVP as impactful, robust feedback processes will increase effort and persistence primarily by directing effort and attention (E. A. Locke & Latham, 2002). Positive feedback will increase effort by increasing feelings of competence and self-efficacy. Negative feedback could either create a sense of urgency or a sense of failure – depending on how constructively the feedback is delivered. However, consistent with goal-setting theory, I argue that even negative feedback would generally be more motivating than no feedback. Hypothesis 9: Beneficiary-focused feedback processes will moderate the relationship between perceived impacts on the community and engagement such that when beneficiary-focused feedback processes are more robust the relationship will be stronger Hypothesis 10: Employee-focused feedback processes will moderate the relationship between perceived impacts on the employee and engagement such that when employeefocused feedback processes are more robust the relationship will be stronger Hypothesis 11: Employer-focused feedback processes will moderate the relationship between perceived impacts on the organization and engagement such that when employer-focused feedback processes are more robust the relationship will be stronger Page 55 of 96 THE INFLUENCE OF INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS ON EMPLOYEE ENGAGEMENT Because motivations can be seen as aspirations for the self or for others with whom we strongly identify (Haslam, Powell, & Turner, 2000), differences in how employees view themselves and their relationships with others should moderate motivation to engage in CVPs. In this section, I discuss how differences in personality and identification affect employee engagement. An identity perspective sheds light on how the employee views herself in relation to others and can help understand how personal and relational identities motivate engagement. I consider first how individual differences in growth need strength moderate the effects of knowledge and skills characteristics of the CVP program on perceived impact on the employee. I then consider how dispositional prosocial motivation moderates the effects of CVP characteristics on engagement irrespective of employees’ identification with community stakeholders or the employer. Finally, I discuss how identification with community stakeholders and the employer respectively moderate employee engagement in CVPs. Individual differences moderating the effects of CVP characteristics on perceived impacts Need growth strength Work design theory suggests that the motivational effects of challenging work are dependent on individuals having high growth need strength. Growth need strength refers to the degree to which individuals are “desirous of obtaining higher order need satisfactions from their work” (Hackman & Lawler, 1971:269). In theory, individuals high in growth need strength find challenging work more motivating whereas those low in growth need strength find challenging work less motivating or even demotivating. The theory has received considerable empirical Page 56 of 96 support (Fried & Ferris, 1987; Hackman & Lawler, 1971; Hackman & Oldham, 1976) though white collar samples often do not show sufficient variation in growth need strength to have a significant effect (Johns et al., 1992). I consider growth need strength here as an individual difference that acts as a boundary constraint for the positive effects of knowledge and skills opportunities on perceived impact on the employee. While it may increasingly be the norm that employees seek out opportunities to acquire knowledge and skills at work, such opportunities may not be viewed positively by all employees. Differences in expectations about work and work goals may arise from differences in individual disposition, attitudes about work, or the nature of the work itself. For example individuals have differ in whether they have a prevention or promotion focus (self-regulatory focus, Gorman et al., 2012; Higgins, Roney, Crowe, & Hymes, 1994; Higgins, 1989, 1997). These differences may be chronic or situationally primed. Individuals with a chronic promotion focus are more likely to find challenging work – specifically opportunities to develop or demonstrate knowledge and skills – more rewarding. Individuals with a chronic prevention focus may see such opportunities as raising the specter of possible failure or as additional unnecessary work. Self-regulatory focus may also be primed by the work. An individual may view learning opportunities as desirable in one type of work that she finds intrinsically motivating, but may find them a drag in another type of work that she finds tedious. Growth need strength captures at a point in time the degree to which an individual is desirous of challenge, learning and independent thought in her work. Conceptually, one can think of it as the degree to which an individual has a promotion focus towards work. Growth need strength should therefore moderate the effects of knowledge and skills characteristics of CVPs Page 57 of 96 on perceived impact on the employee such that the effect will be stronger for those higher in growth need strength. Hypothesis 12: Growth need strength will moderate the effects of challenging knowledge and skills opportunities on perceived impact on the employee such that the effect will be stronger when growth need strength of the individual is higher. Prosocial motivation As the classic bystander experiments (Latane & Darley, 1970; Schwartz & Clausen, 1970) show, some individuals among us are more motivated to help strangers than are others. In this section, following the aretaic approach to moral behavior, which focuses on how virtues or (behavioral values) instilled in individuals shape moral behavior, I consider how differences in individual personality might moderate the relationship between CVP characteristics and perceived impacts, and between perceived impacts and engagement in CVP. Broadly speaking, the literatures on prosocial behavior and volunteering suggest three individual characteristics that increase the likelihood of helping behavior: (i) sensitivity to the plight of others (empathy) (ii) ascription of personal responsibility and (iii) moral identity (Aquino & Reed, 2002; Blasi, 1980; Detert, Treviño, & Sweitzer, 2008; Hogan, 1973; Penner et al., 2005; Schwartz, 1974). Empathy refers to an individual’s tendency and ability to see things from the perspective of another and is essentially the characteristic primarily associated with the motive of altruism (Batson & Powell, 2003). Ascription of personal responsibility refers to the individual’s tendency to accept personal responsibility in social situations and has often been examined under the guise of perceived locus of control (cf. Treviño, 1986). In practice, ascription of personal responsibility is likely a function of dispositional locus of control and Page 58 of 96 perceived self-efficacy in a specific situation. Finally, the construct of moral identity seeks to capture the degree to which behaving morally is central to the individual’s self-identity. It measures the degree to which it is important to the individual to behave in ways perceived as compassionate, friendly, hardworking and honest…to name a few virtues. Of the three individual characteristics that increase the likelihood of moral action, empathy and moral identity are likely to be related: a person high in moral identity is more likely to develop empathy skills by virtue of interest and effort over time. The construct that is less related to the other two is the tendency to ascribe personal responsibility in social situations. Individuals who are high in empathy and moral identity are less likely to exhibit prosocial behavior if they either have a dispositional tendency to view outcomes as being beyond their control or if they are low in generalized self-efficacy (Erez & Judge, 2001). The fact that variables such as empathy, moral identity and altruism alone are insufficient to predict behavior is suggested by Batson & Powell's (2003:463) observation that “there is no one-to-one correspondence between prosocial behavior and altruism. Prosocial behavior need not be motivated by altruism; altruistic motivation need not produce prosocial behavior”. To increase explanatory power, an individual difference construct that moderates the effects of CVP characteristics on employee engagement should capture not only how one thinks about others but also how one ascribes responsibility for the welfare of others. Two constructs that capture the individual differences of empathy, ascription of personal responsibility and moral identity emerged from my literature review. The first was Penner & Finkelstein's (1998) prosocial personality orientation. Prosocial personality orientation refers to “an enduring tendency to think about the welfare and rights of other people, to feel concern and empathy for them, and to act in a way that benefits them” (Penner & Finkelstein, 1998:526). Page 59 of 96 Their composite measure of prosocial personality orientation measures empathy, moral reasoning and altruism (i.e. acts of helping) via self-reports. The second measure that emerged from the literature on individual differences in prosocial behavior was Grant's (2008b) prosocial motivation . Grant (2008b:49) describes prosocial motivation as the desire to expend effort to benefit other people, a relatively enduring individual difference reflected in the personality trait of agreeableness, dispositions toward empathy and helpfulness, and values of concern for others. This definition covers the three individual differences highlighted in the prosocial behavior literature and is also well reflected in the measures of the construct, which reflect a concern for others (empathy), a sense of personal agency (ascription of responsibility), and a high value placed on benefiting others through ones behaviors (moral identity). For this study I focus on the construct of prosocial motivation for two reasons. First, rather than focusing on helping behavior, the measure of prosocial behavior focuses on the motivation to work to benefit others. It is conceptually therefore more applicable to the corporate volunteering context than prosocial personality orientation, which was conceived with more of a focus on prosocial behavior in general social situations (such as the bystander situation). Secondly, the measure of prosocial motivation is shorter than that for prosocial orientation but still effectively captures the three individual characteristics predictive of prosocial behavior. For these reasons, I selected the construct of prosocial motivation as the best reflection of an individual characteristic – or aretaic virtue – that captures the personality traits most predictive of prosocial behavior across situations and independent of the identity of the beneficiaries. Prosocial motivation captures personality (agreeableness and empathy) and values (concern for others). The five questionnaire items used to measure the construct respectively begin with “I get energized by…I like to work on…I prefer to work on….I do my best when Page 60 of 96 working on…It is important to me to have…”. As Ashforth and colleagues note, statements about what we value and care about are statements of identity (Ashforth, Harrison, & Corley, 2008). According to Ashforth & Mael (1989:25) "individuals tend to choose activities congruent with salient aspects of their identities, and they support the institutions embodying those identities.” The idea that personality and identify variables influence the tendency both to volunteer and to engage in prosocial behavior has received significant empirical support (Penner & Finkelstein, 1998; Penner, 2002; Shantz, Saksida, et al., 2013). For example, Grant (2008) found that, in the presence of intrinsic motivation, prosocial motivation predicted effort and persistence among firefighters and fundraisers. Role identities have also been shown to predict volunteering behavior (Grube & Piliavin, 2000; Piliavin et al., 2002). Those who volunteer often develop role identities as volunteers that result in volunteering becoming a core component of their identities. In other words, people come to see part of their identity as “someone who volunteers”. The centrality of volunteering role identities can be driven by altruistic motivations but may also be driven by the experience of prestige and importance that comes from being a volunteer. The relevant motivational effects of both individual and role identities that employees have as volunteers would be reflected in the measure of prosocial motivation. Prosocial motivation will moderate the effects of CVP characteristics on perceived impacts on the community and on the employer. I present the same rationales with respect to the two focal beneficiaries – the community stakeholders and the employer – because, from the perspective of individual differences in prosocial motivation, they are theoretically the same. Both are, in theory, equally legitimate beneficiaries of prosocial motivations and prosocial behaviors. The only theoretical difference between the two is in the motives that tend to be associated with each. As previously discussed, prosocial behavior towards the organization may Page 61 of 96 be less altruistically motivated than prosocial behaviors towards the community (Grant & Mayer, 2009; McNeely & Meglino, 1994; Peloza & Hassay, 2006; Peloza et al., 2008). However, in discussing the moderating effects of individual prosocial motivation on employee engagement, I am not distinguishing motives. The interactionist approach to ethical behavior argues that individual differences (such as differences in moral development) cause variation in perceptions of the moral implications of our actions (Sonenshein, 2007; Treviño, 1986). Social cues are interpreted through the lens of individual personality such that, given the same social cues, different individuals will arrive at different interpretations because of differences in needs, values and personal history. This perspective appears to have applicability to meaning-making in general including at work (Wrzesniewski, Dutton, & Debebe, 2003) and in volunteering (Penner, 2002). When faced with a situation, opportunity or other social cue, the interactionist view suggests that individuals high in prosocial motivation are more likely to notice the need for help and to interpret it as such. This suggests that individual prosocial motivation will moderate the effects of CVP characteristics on perceived impacts on the community and employer. Hypothesis 13: Prosocial motivation of the employee will moderate the effects of CVP characteristics on perceived impact on (a) the community and (b) the employer such that, for employees high in prosocial motivation, CVP characteristics will have a stronger effect on perceived impacts Identification with a group Identification with a group is defined by Mael & Tetrick (1992:814) as “a feeling of oneness with a defined aggregate of persons, involving the perceived experience of its successes Page 62 of 96 and failures”. In the context of corporate volunteering, identification with others occurs through the comparison of social identities. Social identities are constructed when an individual categorizes herself as a member of a psychological group (men, women, soldiers, teachers, cancer survivors etc.) and subsequently accepts characteristics of the group as part of her own identity (Hogg & Terry, 2000). Social identities differ from personal identities in that social identities focus on shared qualities whereas personal identities tend to focus on the characteristics that uniquely identify the individual (Ashforth et al., 2008:327). Identification can to refer either to a process whereby individuals identify more and more with a social identity, or to a relatively stable state of identification with a particular group. As a state, the more proximal or central a social identity is to an individual’s personal identity the more stable will be the individual’s identification with that social identity (Rousseau, 1998). Here I refer to identification as a state that may vary over time but that is related to the stable personal identity of the individual. Identification with the employer Identification with the employer (also referred to as organizational identification, OI) is a well-established construct in organizational research that refers to “psychological attachment that occurs when members adopt the defining characteristics of the organization as defining characteristics for themselves” (Dutton, Dukerich, & Harquail, 1994:242). It is predictive of several organizational outcomes including commitment to the organization, OCB and reduced turnover (Riketta, 2005). Individuals vary in the degree to which they identify with their organizations. Consistent with the interactionist perspective presented in the discussion of the moderating role of prosocial Page 63 of 96 motivation, individuals high in OI will be more sensitive to social cues about potential consequences of a CVP to the employing organization. The main effect of strategic alignment of a CVP on perceived impact on the organization operates through the mechanism of making more salient shared organizational goals and values (Haslam et al., 2000). The effects of strategic alignment as a social cue on perceived impact on the organization will therefore be strengthened for those who identify more strongly with the organization because these individuals will pay greater attention the impact of the program on the company. Hypothesis 13: Identification with the employer will moderate the effects of CVP strategic alignment on perceived impact on the employer such that the effect will be stronger when identification with the employer is high Identification with community stakeholders While identification research in the management field has focused on identification with a past, current or future employer, there is a growing acknowledgment that identification with other groups is an important driver of employee motivation and organizational behavior (cf. Grant, 2007; Johnson & Chang, 2010). In some cases volunteers donate their time and energies to strangers, such as in the case of blood donation or volunteering at soup kitchens. In other cases, people volunteer to benefit groups and causes in which they have a personal interest. Choice of community beneficiary for CVPs is rarely arbitrary. Typically, beneficiaries are either selected by the organizational leaders or by the employees. Beneficiaries selected by organizational leaders are typically of strategic importance to the organization or the result of collective decision making or both (Bansal, 2003; Dutton & Ashford, 1993; Grant & Ashford, 2008; Morrison & Phelps, 1999; Muller, Pfarrer, & Little, 2013; Soderstrom, 2010). Because Page 64 of 96 selection of beneficiaries of CVPs is not random, we can assume some level of affiliation between employers and community beneficiaries, which suggests some level of identification with community stakeholders. The degree to which corporate volunteering is motivated by the desire to help one’s own community or preferred others (in contrast to just helping in general) has received little attention in the literature. To what degree does the motivation to help other women drive the engagement of female employees in a particular CVP? To what degree are minorities more likely to volunteer on projects that help their particular minority group? I refer to this desire to help one’s own group or to help those more similar to us as the identification motive. It is an example of behavior that combines at once both altruistic motives and in-group self-interest. The identification motive is altruistic in that its focus is helping others; but it is self-interested in that its motive is helping others like me or solving issues that are important to me. The identification motive suggests that employees are partly motivated to engage in CVPs because they identify with community stakeholders. When community stakeholders are preselected, identification with community stakeholders will likely have a significant influence on employee engagement. Because CVPs typically focus on community groups rather individuals, the employee’s perception of the community stakeholder will be based on a depersonalized social identity associated with the community group rather than on the identities of individual members. Identification with community stakeholders will then be a function of the proximity between the employee’s personal identity and the perceived social identity of the community beneficiary group. Identification with community stakeholders will be highest when there is high overlap between the employee’s personal identity and the perceived social identity of the community beneficiary Page 65 of 96 group. In this case the employee will perceive greater similarity with the community beneficiary group and may be more cognizant of shared goals, values and experiences. Identification with community stakeholders will be highest when the employee considers herself a prototypical member of the community beneficiary group. Example of this would be when female engineers volunteer in schools to encourage young girls to choose careers in the sciences. The female engineers will likely see younger versions of themselves in the students with whom they interact. Identification with community stakeholders may also arise as result of work roles. For example, we may expect an employee working in public relations to feel a greater sense of responsibility for contributing to the local community than an employee working in the accounting department who has little exposure to community stakeholders. The greater identification of the public relations employee with community stakeholders may be partly because of increased contact (Pettigrew, 1998), but it is also partly because of the role-taking responsibilities required of the public relations employee’s job that require her to think about issues from the perspective of community stakeholders (Treviño, 1986). In this case, identification arises not from overlap of identities but from the relational responsibilities and practices of the work role. Work related role identities may also emerge that suggest a moral obligation to certain external stakeholders – for example, in the case of teachers who may feel a moral obligation for the social well-being of young people (Sluss & Ashforth, 2007). Identification with community stakeholders, whether arising from overlap of social identities or from role identities, will cause CVP characteristics of beneficiary contact and humanitarianism to have a stronger effect on perceived impact on the beneficiary. The rationale and underlying mechanisms for these relationships is again based on the interactionist perspective presented in the discussion of the moderating role of prosocial motivation. That is, Page 66 of 96 identification with community stakeholders will increase attention to social information about consequences for community stakeholders and will therefore increase the effect of such information on perceptions of impact on the community. This argument is identical to that offered by T. M. Jones (1991) in arguing that the perceived moral intensity of ethical issues will be greater for those who have greater proximity with those affected. Identification with a community stakeholder would increase feelings of empathy towards the beneficiary which will heighten awareness of interpersonal consequences (Schwartz, 1974) of prosocial behavior towards that group. As a result, when identification with community stakeholders is high, individuals will be more attentive to social cues, or CVP characteristics, that are related with that beneficiary and will be more attentive to how those characteristics affect the community stakeholder. Hypothesis 14: Employee identification with community stakeholders will moderate the effects of (a) humanitarianism and (b) beneficiary contact on perceived impact on the community such that the effect will be stronger when identification with community stakeholders is high When employees identify more with a community stakeholder, beneficiary contact will also have greater significance and meaning for the employee personally because it will signal the opportunity for a relationship that is more likely to provide opportunities for mutual expression of cognitions, emotions and identities. As a result beneficiary contact will have a stronger effect on perceived impact on the employee. Page 67 of 96 Hypothesis 15: Employee identification with community stakeholders will moderate the effects of beneficiary contact on perceived impact on the employee such that the effect will be stronger when identification with community stakeholders is high Individual differences moderating the effects of perceived impacts on engagement Prosocial motivation Empathy and awareness of consequences for others are insufficient to predict prosocial behavior. Ascription of personal responsibility and moral identity are required to translate cognitive awareness of need into helpful action. The construct of prosocial motivation was selected because it captures all three of these characteristics. As a result, I expect prosocial motivation to explain individual differences in the effects of perceived impacts on the community and employer, which are altruistic cognitions, on engagement. Assuming that two individuals differing in prosocial motivation arrive at similar perceptions of the impact of a CVP on others, the individual higher in prosocial motivation should be more likely to choose to exercise personal agency and possibly to incur personal cost in order to make good on perceived positive impacts. This is because the individual higher in prosocial motivation is more likely to feel personal responsibility for achieving the perceived impacts. Additionally, to the degree that personal costs are incurred in volunteering, the individual higher in prosocial motivation is more likely to see the benefits of prosocial behavior, which may include maintaining a self-image as a prosocial person, as justifying the costs. This latter argument is consistent with Grant’s finding that prosocial motivation, which is driven by a desire to realize positive benefits for others, can be a substitute for or complement to intrinsic motivation when the task itself is not enjoyable. Page 68 of 96 From a less rational perspective, the business ethics literature suggests that moral behavior may be more likely to be intuitively triggered by salient identities than through conscious moral reasoning (Treviño, Weaver, & Reynolds, 2006). While the relatively low urgency of volunteering decisions might suggest a greater role rational decision-making, the volunteering literature also confirms the notion that volunteering is not typically based on extensive moral reasoning (Grube & Piliavin, 2000; Piliavin et al., 2002; Wilson, 2000). As a result, prosocial motivation should moderate the effects of perceived impacts on the community and employer on engagement. Hypothesis 16: Prosocial motivation of the employee will moderate the effects of perceived impact on (a) the community and (b) the employer on engagement such that, for employees high in prosocial motivation, perceived impacts on the community and employer will have a stronger effect on employee engagement Identification with community stakeholders and the employer The previous hypotheses focused on prosocial motivation, which captures employees’ aspirations to have a positive impact on others based on altruistic motives. These altruistic motives are assumed to act independently of the specific identity of the parties being helped. However, pure altruism may not be the only salient individual difference moderating employee engagement in helping others. For example, social pressure from peers and significant others has been shown to play a significant role in predicting initial volunteering (Grube & Piliavin, 2000; Piliavin et al., 2002). This suggests that the identity of those with whom we volunteer and those for whom we volunteer matters. If we identify strongly with either group, then we will experience greater social pressure to volunteer. Personality and identity factors that capture Page 69 of 96 altruism are therefore insufficient to explain volunteering behavior. Consideration of differences in identification allows us to capture variance in relational motives. In this section, following the deontic approach to moral behavior, I focus on how identification with the employer or a community stakeholder of a CVP will moderate engagement by moderating feelings of duty or felt responsibility that are triggered by perceived impacts on the community and employer. In this regard, the degree of identification of employees with community stakeholders and the employer is likely to be an important boundary condition for engagement. The idea that identification with others affects the likelihood of prosocial behavior is supported by studies that show that psychological distance (the conceptual opposite of identification) is negatively related to prosocial behavior (Henderson, Huang, & Chang, 2012; Levine & Crowther, 2008; Spence, Poortinga, & Pidgeon, 2012). Thus, identification with others has motivational properties that explain helping behavior above and beyond individual altruism. Identification with others is predictive of the degree to which we are likely to internalize and integrate the goals of others as our own. When we identify with others, we are more likely to feel a sense of self-determined moral obligation towards them and more likely to voluntarily embrace the goals of others, resulting in self-determined motivation to help. As a result, identification with community stakeholders or the employer will strengthen the effects of perceived impacts on each respective stakeholder on engagement. Hypothesis 17: Identification with community stakeholders will moderate the effects of perceived impact on the community on engagement such that, when identification with community stakeholders is high, the effects of perceived impacts on the community will be stronger Page 70 of 96 Hypothesis 18: Identification with the employer will moderate the effects of perceived impact on the employer on engagement such that when identification with the employer is high the effects of perceived impacts on the employer will be stronger OUTCOMES OF EMPLOYEE ENGAGEMENT IN CVP Volunteering (outside of work) has been linked to individual and organizational outcomes including increased OCB, reduced antisocial behavior, and improved physical and mental health (Gillath et al., 2005; Wilson, 2000). Within the engagement literature, work engagement is positively associated with task performance, OCB, job satisfaction, organizational commitment and negatively related to intentions to quit (Christian, Garza, & Slaughter, 2011; Rich et al., 2010; Saks, 2006). Work engagement is also negatively related to job burnout, which is reflected in symptoms of exhaustion, cynicism, and inefficacy at work (Maslach et al., 2001). These prior findings suggest that employee engagement in CVP may be related to some individual and organizational outcomes of interest. In this section, I hypothesize effects of employee engagement in CVPs on work satisfaction, employee well-being, and turnover intentions. The purposes of these hypotheses is to begin to explore (i) the degree to which employee engagement in CVP has consequences similar volunteering outside of work and employee engagement in work (Kahn, 1990; Rich et al., 2010; Saks, 2006) and (ii) the degree to which engagement in CVPs spills over in to domains of personal well-being, job attitudes and attitudes towards the organization. The effects of engagement in CVPs on the outcomes of job satisfaction, employee wellbeing and turnover intentions will depend less on how many hours of volunteering the employee engages in (physical engagement) or how much attention the employee commits to volunteering Page 71 of 96 (cognitive engagement) than it will on the feelings that the employee takes away from volunteering (emotional engagement). I argue that any correlation between physical and cognitive engagement and these outcomes may arise because employees who enjoy volunteering more may volunteer more and with greater effort. The underlying mechanism I propose for how engagement in CVPs affects employee well-being, job satisfaction and turnover intentions is based on spillover of positive affect from emotional engagement in volunteering to other domains (job, life, organization). Work satisfaction Job satisfaction refers to “a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one's job or job experiences” (E. Locke, 1976:1300). Job satisfaction has several distinct facets including satisfaction with work, pay, supervision, coworkers, and promotion opportunities (Igalens & Roussel, 1999; Judge & Kammeyer-Mueller, 2012). Here I present hypotheses about the relationship of engagement to work satisfaction. I choose to focus on work satisfaction because viewing CVPs as a form of extra-role work suggests that it may affect work satisfaction whereas there is not as obvious a logical link between engagement in CVP and the other facets of job satisfaction. There is some debate as to whether job satisfaction is an emotional state or a cognitive evaluation (Lazarus, 1982; H. M. Weiss & Cropanzano, 1996). Here I focus on work satisfaction as an evaluative judgment. There are two ways in which employee engagement in CVP might result in increased work satisfaction of volunteers. The first possibility is based on the enrichment hypothesis (Marks, 1977). Roles, such as volunteering roles, can be depleting if we do not find them intrinsically motivating. The more roles we have that are associated with a sense of negative duty Page 72 of 96 or in which we feel reduced autonomy, the more we feel depleted. The key premise of the enrichment hypothesis is that multiple life roles can be energy enriching rather than depleting if these roles energize us. As Rothbard (2001:658) simply puts it: “people tend to find energy for things they like doing”. Rothbard (2001) found evidence of the both the enrichment and depletion hypothesis in her study of engagement in work and home domains. She found that negative or positive affect associated with a role was a good indicator of whether that role would be enriching or depleting: positive affect was associated with enrichment while negative affect was associated with depletion. Rothbard also found evidence that enrichment at work spilled over into the home domain and vice versa. Positive affect associated with self-determined engagement in CVP can spillover into attitudes about one’s job as a subconscious transfer of emotion from one domain into another. Affective events theory (H. M. Weiss & Cropanzano, 1996) suggests that job attitudes are malleable and that, in addition to being shaped by the work environment and by individual dispositions, they are shaped by discrete affective episodes associated with events at work. While past research and definitions of the job satisfaction construct have focused on job satisfaction as an outcome of experiences associated with the job, it is reasonable to consider that experiences proximal to the job also influence job satisfaction. To the degree that engagement in CVP provides employees with emotionally satisfying episodes and relationships, engagement in CVP should be positively related to work satisfaction. Spillover from corporate volunteering to the job may also occur as part of a more rational sensemaking process that results in feelings of increased task significance. Task significance refers to the perception that one’s work is important for others. In work design research, task significance has been shown to be an antecedent of job satisfaction (Grant, 2012; Hackman & Page 73 of 96 Lawler, 1971; Hackman & Oldham, 1976; Humphrey et al., 2007; Morgeson & Humphrey, 2006) and recent studies suggest that work engagement mediates this relationship (Shantz, Alfes, Truss, & Soane, 2013). To the degree that engagement in CVP makes employees feel that their work is more significant, it should therefore have a positive effect on job satisfaction. In some cases, corporate volunteering can provide employees with exposure to customers or other stakeholders that the employee would not otherwise meet who benefit from their work. For example, consider an employee working in the supply chain department of a food manufacturer that runs a community program to educate children in inner city neighborhoods about nutrition. The employee may not view her job as particularly important outside of her contribution to achieving intra-organizational work goals. If the employee participates in the volunteering program she may learn about the difficulty for low income families in inner city neighborhoods of accessing nutritious food. She may, as a result, see her role in increasing and improving the distribution of her (healthy) products as a task that has social importance beyond that associated with the business expectations of her supervisor and co-workers. As a result, she may feel that her job has greater significance. This suggests that corporate volunteering may provide opportunities for employees to obtain feedback from external stakeholders about the broader significance of their work. Positive affect arising from increased task significance will be a result of positive feedback from volunteering that stimulates more positive feelings about one’s work. Hypothesis 19: Emotional engagement in CVP will be positively associated with work satisfaction Page 74 of 96 Employee well-being Management research has focused on the consequences of job satisfaction probably because, of the different types of life satisfaction, job satisfaction is the one most within the control of organizations. However, employee well-being, which measures individual’s more general satisfaction with their lives, has been shown to be a better predictor of job performance than job satisfaction (Wright & Bonett, 2007; Wright & Cropanzano, 2000) and has been shown to moderate the relationship between job satisfaction and turnover intentions (Wright, Cropanzano, & Bonett, 2007). The lay definition of employee well-being is simply “happiness” (Wright et al., 2007). More specifically, the construct, also referred to in the literature as subjective well-being or psychological well-being, refers to “people's emotional responses, domain satisfactions, and global judgments of life satisfaction” (Diener, Suh, Lucas, & Smith, 1999:277). To the degree that activities such as corporate volunteering are able to influence employee satisfaction beyond just the job, they may positively impact employee well-being and, as a result, have stronger effects on satisfaction-related outcomes. Positive affect from volunteering (emotional engagement) should contribute to the employee’s more general affective well-being. Here I provide rationales for why it makes sense that positive affect from volunteering should spillover into the broader life domain by explaining how affect from volunteering can have lasting rather than just fleeting effects. Engagement in CVPs has the potential to have lasting positive impacts on employee’s affective well-being and life satisfaction in two ways. First, engagement in CVPs can result in discrete emotionally rewarding events (H. M. Weiss & Cropanzano, 1996) that increase positive Page 75 of 96 affect. Secondly, engagement in CVPs can have sustained effects on employee’s affective wellbeing by creating or strengthening the ongoing relationships with members of the community or with co-workers, meeting the employee’s fundamental needs for relatedness – need satisfaction being one of the sources of employee well-being (Diener et al., 1999). Hypothesis 20: Emotional engagement in CVP will be positively associated with employee well-being Turnover intentions Turnover intentions refer to the intentions of the employee to quit her job in the near future. Turnover has significant adverse consequences for employers who must deal with the psychological and material costs of regretted losses of employees. Turnover also has adverse consequences for employees, who must find new jobs and adjust to a new environment (Holtom, Mitchell, Lee, & Eberly, 2008). While job satisfaction captures an employee’s feelings about her job and employee well-being captures an employee’s feelings about life in general, turnover intentions capture more holistically an employee’s feelings and cognitions about her relationship with her employer. Turnover intentions are thought to be a consequence of employee attitudes including job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and well-being as well as employee perceptions of organizational justice, fit, interpersonal relationships and job alternatives (Holtom et al., 2008). If employee engagement in CVP is positively related to work satisfaction and employee well-being as I have suggested above, then employee engagement in CVP should be negatively related to turnover intentions. because of turnover intentions are negatively related to job satisfaction and employee well-being. Additionally, to the degree that engagement in CVPs is Page 76 of 96 promoted by CVP characteristics that reaffirm the shared goals of the organization (strategic alignment) they may improve the employee’s sense of fit by affirming value congruence between the employee and the organization, thus acting against intentions to quit. Engagement in CVPs may also strengthen interpersonal relationships either internally amongst co-workers who volunteer together, or extra-organizationally between employees and the local community. Any valued relationships that the employee develops that are geographically bound and associated with the employer should increase the psychological costs to the employee of turnover. Hypothesis 21: Emotional engagement in CVP will be negatively associated with turnover intentions Page 77 of 96 Figure 1: Conceptual framework Page 78 of 96 APPENDIX: MEASURES Engagement (Rich et al., 2010) Page 79 of 96 Identification with the organization (Mael & Tetrick, 1992) Prosocial motivation (Grant & Sumanth, 2009) Page 80 of 96 Individual growth need strength (Hackman & Lawler, 1971) Page 81 of 96 Work satisfaction (D. Weiss, Dawis, & England, 1967) Page 82 of 96 Employee wellbeing (Berkman, 1971) Turnover intentions Adams, Gary A & Beehr, Terry A. (1998). Turnover and retirement: A comparison of their similarities and differences. Personnel Psychology, 51, 643-665. doi:10.1111/j.17446570.1998.tb00255.x 1. I am planning to leave my job for another in the near future. 2. 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