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American Red Cross
First Aid/CPR/AED
PARTICIPANT’S MANUAL

This participant’s manual is part of the American Red Cross First Aid/CPR/AED program. By itself, it does not
constitute complete and comprehensive training. Visit redcross.org to learn more about this program.
The emergency care procedures outlined in this book reflect the standard of knowledge and accepted emergency
practices in the United States at the time this book was published. It is the reader’s responsibility to stay
informed of changes in emergency care procedures.
PLEASE READ THE FOLLOWING TERMS AND CONDITIONS BEFORE AGREEING TO ACCESS AND
DOWNLOAD THE AMERICAN RED CROSS MATERIALS. BY DOWNLOADING THE MATERIALS, YOU
HEREBY AGREE TO BE BOUND BY THE TERMS AND CONDITIONS.
The downloadable electronic materials, including all content, graphics, images and logos, are copyrighted by and
the exclusive property of The American National Red Cross (“Red Cross”). Unless otherwise indicated in writing
by the Red Cross, the Red Cross grants you (“recipient”) the limited right to download, print, photocopy and use
the electronic materials, subject to the following restrictions:
The recipient is prohibited from selling electronic versions of the materials.
The recipient is prohibited from revising, altering, adapting or modifying the materials.
The recipient is prohibited from creating any derivative works incorporating, in part or in whole, the content of
the materials.
The recipient is prohibited from downloading the materials and putting them on their own website without Red
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Any rights not expressly granted herein are reserved by the Red Cross. The Red Cross does not permit its
materials to be reproduced or published without advance written permission from the Red Cross. To request
permission to reproduce or publish Red Cross materials, please submit your written request to The American
National Red Cross.
Copyright © 2014 by The American National Red Cross. All rights reserved.
The Red Cross emblem, American Red Cross® and the American Red Cross logo are trademarks of The
American National Red Cross and protected by various national statutes.
Published by StayWell Health & Safety Solutions
ISBN: 978-1-58480-624-9

Acknowledgments

his is the fourth edition of the American Red Cross First Aid/CPR/AED Participant’s Manual. This
is a revised version of the text that was previously published under the title, First Aid/CPR/AED for
Schools and the Community.

This manual is dedicated to the thousands of employees and volunteers of the American Red Cross
who contribute their time and talent to supporting and teaching life-saving skills worldwide and to the
thousands of course participants and other readers who have decided to be prepared to take action when an
emergency strikes.
This manual reﬂects the 2010 Consensus on Science for CPR and Emergency Cardiovascular Care (ECC)
and the Guidelines 2010 for First Aid. These treatment recommendations and related training guidelines
have been reviewed by the American Red Cross Scientiﬁc Advisory Council, a panel of nationally recognized
experts in ﬁelds that include emergency medicine, occupational health, sports medicine, school and public
health, emergency medical services (EMS), aquatics, emergency preparedness and disaster mobilization.
The American Red Cross First Aid/CPR/AED Participant’s Manual was developed through the dedication
of both employees and volunteers. Their commitment to excellence made this manual possible.

First Aid/CPR/AED

Acknowledgments

iii

Table of Contents

CHAPTER

SKILL SHEET:
SKILL SHEET:
SKILL SHEET:

CHAPTER

SKILL SHEET:
SKILL SHEET:
SKILL SHEET:

CHAPTER

SKILL SHEET:
SKILL SHEET:

About This Manual

vii

Health Precautions and Guidelines During Training

viii

Before Giving Care and Checking an Injured or Ill Person
Your Role in the EMS System
Disease Transmission and Prevention
Taking Action: Emergency Action Steps
Checking a Conscious Person
Shock
Checking an Unconscious Person
Incident Stress
Putting It All Together
Removing Gloves
Checking an Injured or Ill Adult
Checking an Injured or Ill Child or Infant

1
2
5
8
14
16
17
22
23
24
25
27

Cardiac Emergencies and CPR _____________________________ 29
Background
Heart Attack
Cardiac Arrest
Putting It All Together
CPR—Adult
CPR—Child
CPR—Infant

30
30
33
41
42
43
44

AED____________________________________________________________ 45
When the Heart Suddenly Fails
Using an AED
AED Precautions
How to Use an AED—Adults
How to Use an AED—Children and Infants
Special AED Situations
Other AED Protocols
AED Maintenance
Putting It All Together
AED—Adult or Child Older Than 8 Years or Weighing More than 55 Pounds
AED—Child and Infant Younger Than 8 Years or Weighing Less than 55 Pounds

First Aid/CPR/AED

Participant’s Manual

46
46
46
47
48
48
50
50
50
51
53

CHAPTER

SKILL SHEET:
SKILL SHEET:
SKILL SHEET:

CHAPTER

Breathing Emergencies

Background
Respiratory Distress and Respiratory Arrest
Choking
Putting It All Together
Conscious Choking—Adult
Conscious Choking—Child
Conscious Choking—Infant

56
57
60
64
65
66
67

Sudden Illness

Sudden Illness
Specific Sudden Illnesses
Poisoning
Putting It All Together
CHAPTER

69
70
76
80

Environmental Emergencies

Heat-Related Illnesses and Cold-Related Emergencies
Bites and Stings
Poisonous Plants
Lightning
Putting It All Together
CHAPTER

SKILL SHEET:
SKILL SHEET:

CHAPTER

SKILL SHEET:
SKILL SHEET:
SKILL SHEET:
SKILL SHEET:

82
85
95
96
97

Soft Tissue Injuries

Wounds
Burns
Special Situations
Putting It All Together
Controlling External Bleeding
Using a Manufactured Tourniquet

99
106
109
113
114
115

Injuries to Muscles, Bones and Joints

116

Background
Types of Injuries
Putting It All Together
Applying an Anatomic Splint
Applying a Soft Splint
Applying a Rigid Splint
Applying a Sling and Binder

117
118
126
127
129
131
133

First Aid/CPR/AED

Table of Contents

CHAPTER

Special Situations and Circumstances _____________________ 135
Children and Infants
Emergency Childbirth
Older Adults
People With Disabilities
Language Barriers
Crime Scenes and Hostile Situations
Putting It All Together

CHAPTER

SKILL SHEET:

CHAPTER

SKILL SHEET:

APPENDIX

Asthma _______________________________________________________ 148
Asthma
Putting It All Together
Assisting With an Asthma Inhaler

Anaphylaxis and Epinephrine Auto-Injectors
Anaphylaxis
Putting It All Together
Assisting with an Epinephrine Auto-Injector

Injury Prevention and Emergency Preparedness
Injuries
Putting It All Together

136
142
143
144
146
146
147

149
151
152

154
155
157
158

160
161
168

Sources

169

Index

172

First Aid/CPR/AED

Participant’s Manual

About This Manual

his manual has been designed to help you acquire the knowledge and skills you will need to
effectively respond to emergency situations. The following pages point out some of the manual’s
special features.

CHAPTER

SKILL SHEET

FOCUS ON PREVENTION

POISONING

Breathing Emergencies

Use common sense when handling substances that
could be harmful, such as chemicals and cleaners.
Use them in a well-ventilated area. Wear protective
clothing, such as gloves and a facemask.
Use common sense with your own medications.
Read the product information and use only as
directed. Ask your health care provider or pharmacist
about the intended effects, side effects and possible
interactions with other medications that you are
taking. Never use another person’s prescribed
medications. What is right for one person often is
wrong for another.

breathing emergency is any respiratory problem that can threaten a person’s life. Breathing emergencies
happen when air cannot travel freely and easily into the lungs. Respiratory distress, respiratory arrest and
choking are examples of breathing emergencies. In a breathing emergency, seconds count so you must react
at once. This chapter discusses how to recognize and care for breathing emergencies.

CPR—CHILD

According to the FDA, any possible risk to people
and the environment from ﬂushing these few
medications is small. The FDA maintains that the
risk is outweighed by the possibility of someone
accidentally ingesting these medications, which
could be life threatening.

Over time, expired medications can become less
effective and even toxic to humans if consumed.
Dispose of out-of-date or unused medications
properly by following the guidelines below.

Preventing Poisoning in Children
Many substances found in or around the house
are poisonous. Children younger than 3 years and
infants that are able to crawl are especially likely to
be poisoned because of their curious nature, and
because they explore their world through touching
and tasting things around them (Fig. 5-5). If you care
for or are near young children, be warned: it only
takes a moment for a small child to get into trouble.

Another option is to check if your state or local
community has a community-based household

AFTER CHECKING THE SCENE AND THE INJURED OR ILL CHILD:

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
website maintains a list of some of the medications
that should be ﬂushed down the toilet. These
medications are especially dangerous to humans
and pets. One dose could cause death if taken by
someone other than the person for whom it was
prescribed. Flushing these medications avoids any
chance that children or pets would ingest them
accidentally.

Always keep medications in their original containers.
Make sure that this container is well marked with
the original pharmacy labeling. If taking several
medications, always check the label to ensure
that you are taking the correct medication, and
be especially aware of possible adverse drug
interactions.

Most medications should be thrown away in the
household trash and not ﬂushed down the toilet.
Follow these steps to maintain safety and protect
the environment from unnecessary exposure to
medications:
1. Pour the medication out of its original container
into a sealable plastic bag.
2. Mix the medication with something that will
hide the medication or make it unpleasant (e.g.,
coffee grounds or kitty litter).
3. Seal the plastic bag.
4. Throw the plastic bag into your household
trash.
5. Remove and destroy all personal
information and medication information
(prescription label) from the medication
container. Recycle or throw away the
medication container.

NO BREATHING

hazardous waste collection program. You may be
able to take your expired and unused medications to
your pharmacy or another location for disposal.

GIVE 30 CHEST COMPRESSIONS
Push hard, push fast in the center of the chest about
2 inches deep and at least 100 compressions per minute.
TIP: The child must be on a ﬁrm, ﬂat surface.

GIVE 2 RESCUE BREATHS
■
■
■
■
■

DO NOT STOP
Continue cycles of CPR. Do not stop except in one of these situations:
■ You ﬁnd an obvious sign of life, such as breathing.
■ An AED is ready to use.
■ Another trained responder or EMS personnel take over.
■ You are too exhausted to continue.
■ The scene becomes unsafe.
TIP: If at any time you notice an obvious sign of life, stop
CPR and monitor breathing and for any changes in condition.

FIGURE 5-5 Always supervise young children closely,
especially in areas where common, but poisonous, household
items are stored.

(Continued )

WHAT TO DO NEXT
■

First Aid/CPR/AED

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FA_CPR_AED_PM_CH04_p054-070.indd 54

Tilt the head back and lift the chin up.
Pinch the nose shut then make a complete
seal over the child’s mouth.
Blow in for about 1 second to make the
chest clearly rise.
Give rescue breaths, one after the other.
If chest does not rise with the initial rescue breath,
retilt the head before giving the second breath.
If the second breath does not make the chest rise, the
child may be choking. After each subsequent set of
chest compressions and before attempting breaths, look for an object and, if seen, remove it.
Continue CPR.

CHAPTER

Sudden Illness

1/13/11 10:42:18
AM
FA_CPR_AED_PM_CH05_p071-083.indd
81

USE AN AED AS SOON AS ONE IS AVAILABLE.

CHAPTER

Cardiac Emergencies and CPR

FA_CPR_AED_PM_CH02_p029-044.indd 43

S
Chapter Openers
Each chapter concentrates on
an essential component of the
American Red Cross First Aid/
CPR/AED course. Material
is presented in a clear and
concise manner, complete
with color imagery.

1/12/11 12:20:15 PM

S
Prevention and
Preparedness Boxes
These sidebars expand on
the essential prevention and
preparedness information
covered in the course.
They appear in most chapters.

4/30/14 7:49 AM

S
Skill Sheets
At the end of certain chapters,
skill sheets give step-by-step
directions for performing speciﬁc
skills. Photographs enhance
each skill sheet. Learning
speciﬁc skills that you will
need to give appropriate care
for victims of sudden illness or
injury is an important part of this
course.

First Aid/CPR/AED

About This Manual

vii

Health Precautions and Guidelines
During First Aid Training
The American Red Cross has trained millions of people in first aid and
cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) using manikins as training aids.
The Red Cross follows widely accepted guidelines for cleaning and decontaminating training manikins.
If these guidelines are adhered to, the risk of any kind of disease transmission during
training is extremely low.
To help minimize the risk of disease transmission, you should follow some basic health precautions and
guidelines while participating in training. You should take precautions if you have a condition that would
increase your risk or other participants’ risk of exposure to infections. Request a separate training manikin
if you—
■

Have an acute condition, such as a cold, a sore throat, or cuts or sores on the hands or around your mouth.

■

Know you are seropositive (have had a positive blood test) for hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg),
indicating that you are currently infected with the hepatitis B virus.*

■

Know you have a chronic infection indicated by long-term seropositivity (long-term positive blood tests)
for the hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg)* or a positive blood test for anti-HIV (that is, a positive test for
antibodies to HIV, the virus that causes many severe infections including AIDS).

■

Have had a positive blood test for hepatitis C (HCV).

■

Have a type of condition that makes you unusually likely to get an infection.

To obtain information about testing for individual health status, visit the CDC Web site at:
www.cdc.gov/ncidod/diseases/hepatitis/c/faq.htm
After a person has had an acute hepatitis B infection, he or she will no longer test positive for the surface
antigen but will test positive for the hepatitis B antibody (anti-HBs). Persons who have been vaccinated
for hepatitis B will also test positive for the hepatitis antibody. A positive test for the hepatitis B antibody
(antiHBs) should not be confused with a positive test for the hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAG).
If you decide you should have your own manikin, ask your instructor if he or she can provide
one for you to use. You will not be asked to explain why in your request. The manikin will not be used
by anyone else until it has been cleaned according to the recommended end-of-class decontamination
procedures. Because the number of manikins available for class use is limited, the more advance notice
you give, the more likely it is that you can be provided a separate manikin.

*A person with hepatitis B infection will test positive for the hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg). Most persons infected with hepatitis B
will get better within a period of time. However, some hepatitis B infections will become chronic and will linger for much longer. These
persons will continue to test positive for HBsAg. Their decision to participate in CPR training should be guided by their physician.

viii

First Aid/CPR/AED

Participant’s Manual

Some people are sensitive to certain allergens and may have an allergic reaction. If you start experiencing
skin redness, rash, hives, itching, runny nose, sneezing, itchy eyes, scratchy throat or signs of asthma, wash
your hands immediately. If conditions persist or you experience a severe reaction, stop training and seek
medical attention right away.

GUIDELINES
In addition to taking the precautions regarding manikins, you can further protect yourself and other
participants from infection by following these guidelines:
■

Wash your hands thoroughly before participating in class activities.

■

Do not eat, drink, use tobacco products or chew gum during class when manikins are used.

■

Clean the manikin properly before use.

■

For some manikins, this means vigorously wiping the manikin’s face and the inside of its mouth with a
clean gauze pad soaked with either a fresh solution of liquid chlorine bleach and water (1⁄4 cup sodium
hypochlorite per gallon of tap water) or rubbing alcohol. The surfaces should remain wet for at least
1 minute before they are wiped dry with a second piece of clean, absorbent material.

■

For other manikins, it means changing the manikin’s face. Your instructor will provide you with
instructions for cleaning the type of manikin used in your class.

■

Follow the guidelines provided by your instructor when practicing skills such as clearing a blocked airway
with your ﬁnger.

PHYSICAL STRESS AND INJURY
Successful course completion requires full participation in classroom and skill sessions, as well as successful
performance in skill and knowledge evaluations. Due to the nature of the skills in this course, you will be
participating in strenuous activities, such as performing CPR on the ﬂoor. If you have a medical condition or
disability that will prevent you from taking part in the skills practice sessions, please let your instructor know
so that accommodations can be made. If you are unable to participate fully in the course, participate as much
as you can or desire. Be aware that you will not be eligible to receive a course completion certiﬁcate unless
you participate fully and meet all course objectives and prerequisites.

First Aid/CPR/AED

Health Precautions and Guidelines During First Aid Training

CHAPTER

Before Giving Care and Checking
an Injured or Ill Person

edical emergencies can happen every day, in any setting. People are injured in situations like falls or
motor-vehicle accidents, or they develop sudden illnesses, such as heart attack or stroke.

The statistics are sobering. For example, about 900,000 people in the United States die each year from some
form of heart disease. More than 300,000 of these deaths are caused by sudden cardiac arrest. Heart disease is the
number one cause of death in this country.
Another leading cause of death is unintentional injury. In 2008, approximately 118,000 Americans died from an
unintentional injury and another 25.7 million were disabled.
Given the large number of injuries and sudden illnesses that occur in the United States each year, it is possible that you
might have to deal with an emergency situation someday. If you do, you should know who and when to call, what care
to give and how to give that care until emergency medical help takes over.
This chapter discusses your role in the emergency medical services (EMS) system, the purpose of Good Samaritan laws,
how to gain consent from an injured or ill person and how to reduce your risk of disease transmission while giving care.

In addition, you will read about the emergency action steps, CHECK—CALL—CARE, which guide you on how to
check and give emergency care for an injured or suddenly ill person. You also will read about the effects of incident
stress and how to identify the signals of shock and minimize its effects.

CHAPTER

Before Giving Care and Checking an Injured or Ill Person

Step 3: Activate the EMS system.
Step 4: Give care until help takes over.

Step 1: Recognize that an Emergency
Exists
Emergencies can happen to anyone, anywhere.
Before you can give help, however, you must be able
to recognize an emergency. You may realize that an
emergency has occurred only if you become aware
of unusual noises, sights, odors and appearances or
behaviors. Examples include the following:
■
FIGURE 1-1 EMS call taker or dispatcher

YOUR ROLE IN THE EMS
SYSTEM
You play a major role in making the EMS system
work effectively. The EMS system is a network of
community resources, including police, ﬁre and medical
personnel—and you.
The system begins when someone like you recognizes
that an emergency exists and decides to take action,
such as calling 9-1-1 or the local emergency number for
help. The EMS dispatcher or call taker answers the call
and uses the information that you give to determine
what help is needed (Fig. 1-1). Emergency personnel are
dispatched to the scene based on the information given.
These personnel then give care at the scene and transport
the injured or ill person to the hospital where emergency
department staff and other professionals take over.
Early arrival of emergency personnel increases
a person’s chance of surviving a life-threatening
emergency. Calling 9-1-1 or the local emergency number
is the most important action that you can take.
Your role in the EMS system includes four basic steps:

Unusual silence
■ Unusual sights
A stopped vehicle on the roadside or a car that has
run off of the road
Downed electrical wires
A person lying motionless
Spilled medication or empty container
An overturned pot in the kitchen
Sparks, smoke or ﬁre (Fig. 1-2, A)
■ Unusual odors
Odors that are stronger than usual
Unrecognizable odors
Inappropriate odors
■ Unusual appearances or behaviors

Unconsciousness (Fig. 1-2, B)
Confusion, drowsiness or unusual behavior
(Fig. 1-2, C)

Step 1: Recognize that an emergency exists.

Step 2: Decide to act.

FIGURE 1-2, A–C Unusual sights or behavior may indicate an emergency.

Unusual noises
Screaming, moaning, yelling or calls for help
Breaking glass, crashing metal or screeching
tires
A change in the sound made by machinery
or equipment
Sudden, loud noises, such as the sound of
collapsing buildings or falling ladders

First Aid/CPR/AED

Participant’s Manual

Trouble breathing
Sudden collapse, slip or fall

Clutching the chest or throat
A person doubled over in pain
Slurred, confused or hesitant speech
Sweating for no apparent reason

situation involving a stranger, and you might feel
uneasy about helping someone whom you do not know.
For example, the person may be much older or much
younger than you, be of a different gender or race, have
a disabling condition, be of a different status at work or
be the victim of a crime.

Uncharacteristic skin color
Inability to move a body part

Step 2: Decide to Act
Once you recognize that an emergency has occurred, you
must decide how to help and what to do. There are many
ways you can help in an emergency, but in order to help,
you must act.

Sometimes, people who have been injured or become
suddenly ill may act strangely or be uncooperative.
The injury or illness; stress; or other factors, such as
the effects of drugs, alcohol or medications, may make
people unpleasant or angry. Do not take this behavior
personally. If you feel at all threatened by the person’s
behavior, leave the immediate area and call 9-1-1 or the
local emergency number for help.

Overcoming Barriers to Act
Assuming Someone Else Will Take Action

Being faced with an emergency may bring out mixed
feelings. While wanting to help, you also may feel
hesitant or may want to back away from the situation.
These feelings are personal and real.

If several people are standing around, it might not
be easy to tell if anyone is giving care. Always ask if
you can help. Just because there is a crowd does not
mean someone is caring for the injured or ill person.
In fact, you may be the only one on the scene who
knows ﬁrst aid.

Sometimes, even though people recognize that
an emergency has occurred, they fail to act. The
most common factors that keep people from
responding are:
■
■
■
■
■

■
■

Panic or fear of doing something wrong
Being unsure of the person’s condition and what to do
Assuming someone else will take action
Type of injury or illness
Fear of catching a disease (see the Disease
Transmission and Prevention section in this
chapter)
Fear of being sued (see discussion of Good Samaritan
laws in this chapter)
Being unsure of when to call 9-1-1 or the local
emergency number

Although you may feel embarrassed about coming
forward in front of other people, this should not stop
you from offering help. Someone has to take action in an
emergency, and it may have to be you.
If others already are giving care, ask if you can help.
If bystanders do not appear to be helping, tell them
how to help. You can ask them to call 9-1-1 or the local
emergency number, meet the ambulance and direct it
to your location, keep the area free of onlookers and
trafﬁc, send them for blankets or other supplies such
as a ﬁrst aid kit or an automated external deﬁbrillator
(AED), or help to give care.

The Type of Injury or Illness
Panic or Fear of Doing Something Wrong
People react differently in emergencies. Some people
are afraid of doing the wrong thing and making matters
worse. Sometimes people simply panic. Knowing what
to do in an emergency can instill conﬁdence that can
help you to avoid panic and be able to provide the right
care. If you are not sure what to do, call 9-1-1 or the
local emergency number and follow the instructions of
the EMS dispatcher or call taker. The worst thing to do
is nothing.

Being Unsure of the Person’s Condition
and What to Do
Because most emergencies happen in or near the home,
you are more likely to ﬁnd yourself giving care to a
family member or a friend than to someone you do not
know. However, you may be faced with an emergency
CHAPTER

An injury or illness sometimes may be very unpleasant.
Blood, vomit, bad odors, deformed body parts, or torn
or burned skin can be very upsetting. You may have to
turn away for a moment and take a few deep breaths to
get control of your feelings before you can give care. If
you still are unable to give care, you can help in other
ways, such as volunteering to call 9-1-1 or the local
emergency number.

Fear of Catching a Disease
Many people worry about the possibility of being
infected with a disease while giving care. Although it
is possible for diseases to be transmitted in a ﬁrst aid
situation, it is extremely unlikely that you will catch
a disease this way. (For more information on disease
transmission, see the Disease Transmission section
in this chapter.)
Before Giving Care and Checking an Injured or Ill Person

Fear of Being Sued
Sometimes people worry that they might be sued for
giving care. In fact, lawsuits against people who give
emergency care at a scene of an accident are highly
unusual and rarely successful.

Good Samaritan Laws
The vast majority of states and the District of
Columbia have Good Samaritan laws that protect
people against claims of negligence when they give
emergency care in good faith without accepting
anything in return. Good Samaritan laws usually
protect citizens who act the same way that a
“reasonable and prudent person” would if that
person were in the same situation. For example,
a reasonable and prudent person would:
■
■
■
■
■

Move a person only if the person’s life were in danger.
Ask a conscious person for permission, also called
consent, before giving care.
Check the person for life-threatening conditions
before giving further care.
Call 9-1-1 or the local emergency number.
Continue to give care until more highly trained
personnel take over.

Good Samaritan laws were developed to encourage
people to help others in emergency situations. They
require the “Good Samaritan” to use common sense
and a reasonable level of skill and to give only the type
of emergency care for which he or she is trained. They
assume each person would do his or her best to save a
life or prevent further injury.
Non-professionals who respond to emergencies, also
called “lay responders,” rarely are sued for helping in an
emergency. Good Samaritan laws protect the responder
from ﬁnancial responsibility. In cases in which a
lay responder’s actions were deliberately negligent
or reckless or when the responder abandoned the
person after starting care, the courts have ruled Good
Samaritan laws do not protect the responder.
For more information about your state’s Good
Samaritan laws, contact a legal professional or check
with your local library.

Being Unsure When to Call 9-1-1
People sometimes are afraid to call 9-1-1 or the local
emergency number because they are not sure that the
situation is a real emergency and do not want to waste
the time of the EMS personnel.
Your decision to act in an emergency should be
guided by your own values and by your knowledge of
the risks that may be present. However, even if you

First Aid/CPR/AED

Participant’s Manual

decide not to give care, you should at least call 9-1-1
or the local emergency number to get emergency
medical help to the scene.

Step 3: Activate the EMS System
Activating the EMS system by calling 9-1-1 or the local
emergency number is the most important step you can
take in an emergency. Remember, some facilities,
such as hotels, ofﬁce and university buildings, and some
stores, require you to dial a 9 or some other number
to get an outside line before you dial 9-1-1.
Also, a few areas still are without access to a 9-1-1 system
and use a local emergency number instead. Becoming
familiar with your local system is important because
the rapid arrival of emergency medical help greatly
increases a person’s chance of surviving a
life-threatening emergency.
When your call is answered, an emergency call taker
(or dispatcher) will ask for your phone number, address,
location of the emergency and questions to determine
whether you need police, ﬁre or medical assistance.
You should not hang up before the call taker does so.
Once EMS personnel are on the way, the call taker may
stay on the line and continue to talk with you. Many call
takers also are trained to give ﬁrst aid instructions so
they can assist you with life-saving techniques until EMS
personnel take over.

Step 4: Give Care Until Help Takes Over
This manual and the American Red Cross First Aid/
CPR/AED courses provide you with the conﬁdence,
knowledge and skills you need to give care to a person in
an emergency medical situation.
In general, you should give the appropriate care to an ill
or injured person until:
■

You see an obvious sign of life, such as breathing.
■ Another trained responder or EMS personnel
take over.
■ You are too exhausted to continue.
■

The scene becomes unsafe.

If you are prepared for unforeseen emergencies, you can
help to ensure that care begins as soon as possible for
yourself, your family and your fellow citizens. If
you are trained in ﬁrst aid, you can give help that can
save a life in the ﬁrst few minutes of an emergency.
First aid can be the difference between life and death.
Often, it makes the difference between complete
recovery and permanent disability. By knowing what
to do and acting on that knowledge, you can make
a difference.

Getting Permission to Give Care
People have a basic right to decide what can and cannot
be done to their bodies. They have the legal right to
accept or refuse emergency care. Therefore, before
giving care to an injured or ill person, you must obtain
the person’s permission.
To get permission from a conscious person, you must
ﬁrst tell the person who you are, how much training you
have (such as training in ﬁrst aid, CPR and/or AED),
what you think is wrong and what you plan to do. You
also must ask if you may give care. When a conscious
person who understands your questions and what you
plan to do gives you permission to give care, this is
called expressed consent. Do not touch or give care to
a conscious person who refuses it. If the person refuses
care or withdraws consent at any time, step back and
call for more advanced medical personnel.
Sometimes, adults may not be able to give expressed
consent. This includes people who are unconscious
or unable to respond, confused, mentally impaired,
seriously injured or seriously ill. In these cases,
the law assumes that if the person could respond,
he or she would agree to care. This is called
implied consent.

Bacteria and viruses spread from one person to another
through direct or indirect contact. Direct contact
occurs when germs from the person’s blood or other
body ﬂuids pass directly into your body through breaks
or cuts in your skin or through the lining of your mouth,
nose or eyes.
Some diseases, such as the common cold, are transmitted
by droplets in the air we breathe. They can be passed on
through indirect contact with shared objects like spoons,
doorknobs and pencils that have been exposed to the
droplets. Fortunately, exposure to these germs usually is
not adequate for diseases to be transmitted.
Animals, including humans and insects, also can spread
some diseases through bites. Contracting a disease from
a bite is rare in any situation and uncommon when
giving ﬁrst aid care.
Some diseases are spread more easily than others. Some
of these, like the ﬂu, can create discomfort but often are
temporary and usually not serious for healthy adults.
Other germs can be more serious, such as the Hepatitis
B virus (HBV), Hepatitis C virus (HCV) and Human
Immunodeﬁciency Virus (HIV), which causes Acquired
Immune Deﬁciency Syndrome (AIDS)
(see HIV and AIDS box in this chapter). Although
serious, they are not easily transmitted and are not
spread by casual contact, such as shaking hands.
The primary way to transmit HBV, HCV or HIV during
ﬁrst aid care is through blood-to-blood contact.

If the conscious person is a child or an infant,
permission to give care must be obtained from a parent
or guardian when one is available. If the condition
is life threatening, permission—or consent—is implied
if a parent or guardian is not present. If the parent
or guardian is present but does not give consent,
do not give care. Instead, call 9-1-1 or the local
emergency number.

Preventing Disease Transmission
By following some basic guidelines, you can greatly
decrease your risk of getting or transmitting an
infectious disease while giving care or cleaning up
a blood spill.

DISEASE TRANSMISSION
AND PREVENTION
Infectious diseases—those that can spread from one
person to another—develop when germs invade the body
and cause illness.

While Giving Care
To prevent disease transmission when giving care,
follow what are known as standard precautions:
■

Avoid contact with blood and other body ﬂuids
or objects that may be soiled with blood and other
body ﬂuids.
■ Use protective CPR breathing barriers.

How Disease Spreads
The most common germs are bacteria and viruses.
Bacteria can live outside of the body and do not
depend on other organisms for life. The number
of bacteria that infect humans is small, but some
cause serious infections. These can be treated with
medications called antibiotics.

■

Use barriers, such as disposable gloves, between the
person’s blood or body ﬂuids and yourself.
■ Before putting on personal protective equipment
(PPE), such as disposable gloves, cover any of your
own cuts, scrapes or sores with a bandage.
■ Do not eat, drink or touch your mouth, nose or eyes
when giving care or before you wash your hands after
care has been given.

Viruses depend on other organisms to live. Once in
the body, it is hard to stop their progression. Few
medications can ﬁght viruses. The body’s immune
system is its number one protection against infection.

CHAPTER

Before Giving Care and Checking an Injured or Ill Person

FOCUS ON PREPAREDNESS

BE PREPARED FOR AN INJURY OR ILLNESS!
Important Information
■
Keep medical information about you and
your family in a handy place, such as on
the refrigerator door or in your car’s glove
compartment. Keep medical and insurance
records up to date.
■
Wear a medical ID tag, bracelet or necklace
if you have a potentially serious medical
condition, such as epilepsy, diabetes, heart
disease or allergies.
■
Make sure your house or apartment number is
easy to read. Numerals are easier to read than
spelled-out numbers.
Emergency Telephone Numbers
■
Keep all emergency telephone numbers in a
handy place, such as by the telephone or in the
first aid kit. Include home and work numbers of
family members and friends. Be sure to keep
both lists current.
■
If your wireless phone came pre-programmed
with the auto-dial 9-1-1 feature turned on, turn
off the feature.
■
Do not program your phone to automatically
dial 9-1-1 when one button, such as the “9”
key is pressed. Unintentional 9-1-1 calls,
which often occur with auto-dial keys, cause
problems for emergency call centers.
■
Lock your keypad when you’re not using your
wireless phone. This action prevents automatic
calls to 9-1-1.
■
Most communities are served by an emergency
9-1-1 telephone number. If your community
does not operate on a 9-1-1 system, look up
the numbers for the police, fire department and
EMS personnel. Emergency numbers usually
are listed in the front of the telephone book.
Know the number for the National Poison
Control Center Hotline, 1-800-222-1222,
and post it on or near your telephones. Teach
everyone in your home how and when to use
these numbers.
■
Many 9-1-1 calls in the United States are not
emergencies. For this reason, some cities have

started using 3-1-1 (or similar) as a number for
people to call for non-emergency situations. Find
out if your area uses this number. Remember,
your local emergency number is for just that—
emergencies! So, please use good judgment.

First Aid Kit
■
Keep a first aid kit in your home, car, workplace
and recreation area. A well-stocked first aid kit
is a handy thing to have. Carry a first aid kit with
you or know where you can find one. Find out
the location of first aid kits where you work or
for any place where you spend a lot of time.
First aid kits come in many shapes and sizes.
You can purchase one from redcross.org
or the local American Red Cross chapter.
Your local drug store may sell them. You also
may make your own. Some kits are designed
for specific activities, such as hiking, camping
or boating. Whether you buy a first aid kit or put
one together, make sure it has all of the items
you may need. Include any personal items such
as medications and emergency phone numbers
or other items suggested by your health care
provider. Check the kit regularly. Make sure that
flashlight batteries work. Check expiration dates
and replace any used or out-of-date contents.
■
The Red Cross recommends that all first aid
kits for a family of four include the following:

2 absorbent compress dressings
(5 x 9 inches)

25 adhesive bandages (assorted sizes)

(Continued )

First Aid/CPR/AED

Participant’s Manual

FOCUS ON PREPAREDNESS

(Continued )

1 adhesive cloth tape (10 yards x 1 inch)
5 antibiotic ointment packets
(approximately 1 gram each)
5 antiseptic wipe packets
2 packets of chewable aspirin
(81 mg each)
1 blanket (space blanket)
1 CPR breathing barrier (with one-way
valve)
1 instant cold compress
2 pairs of non-latex gloves (size: large)
2 hydrocortisone ointment packets
(approximately 1 gram each)
Scissors
1 roller bandage (3 inches wide)

1 roller bandage (4 inches wide)
5 sterile gauze pads (3 x 3 inches)

5 sterile gauze pads (4 x 4 inches)

Oral thermometer (nonmercury/nonglass)

2 triangular bandages

Tweezers

First aid instruction booklet
For items to include in a workplace first aid kit, see
the latest ANSI/ISEA-Z308-1 standard for minimum
requirements.

Be Prepared
Learn and practice CPR and first aid skills.
■
Learn how to use an AED for victims of
sudden cardiac arrest.
■

■

Avoid handling any of your personal items, such as
pens or combs, while giving care or before you wash
your hands.

■

Do not touch objects that may be soiled with blood or
other body ﬂuids.

■

Be prepared by having a ﬁrst aid kit handy and
stocked with PPE, such as disposable gloves,
CPR breathing barriers, eye protection and other
supplies.

■

Wash your hands thoroughly with soap and warm
running water when you have ﬁnished giving care,
even if you wore disposable gloves. Alcohol-based
hand sanitizers allow you to clean your hands when
soap and water are not readily available and your
hands are not visibly soiled. (Keep alcohol-based hand
sanitizers out of reach of children.)

■

Tell EMS personnel at the scene or your health care
provider if you have come into contact with an injured
or ill person’s body ﬂuids.

■

If an exposure occurs in a workplace setting,
follow your company’s exposure control plan for
reporting incidents and follow-up (post-exposure)
evaluation.

Use disposable gloves and other PPE when
cleaning spills.
■ Wipe up the spill with paper towels or other
absorbent material.
If the spill is mixed with sharp objects, such
as broken glass or needles, do not pick these
up with your hands. Use tongs, a broom and
dustpan or two pieces of cardboard to scoop
up the sharp objects.
■ After the area has been wiped up, ﬂood the area
with an appropriate disinfectant, such as a solution
of approximately 11⁄2 cups of liquid chlorine bleach

While Cleaning Up Blood Spills
To prevent disease transmission while cleaning up a
blood spill:
■

Clean up the spill immediately or as soon as possible
after the spill occurs (Fig. 1-3).

CHAPTER

FIGURE 1-3 Cleaning up a blood spill

Before Giving Care and Checking an Injured or Ill Person

FOCUS ON PREVENTION

HIV AND AIDS
AIDS is a condition caused by HIV. When HIV
infects the body, it damages the body’s immune
system and impairs its ability to fight other infections.
The virus can grow quietly for months or even years.
People infected with HIV might not feel or look sick.
Eventually, the weakened immune system allows
certain types of infections to develop. This condition
is known as AIDS. People with AIDS eventually
develop life-threatening infections, which can cause
them to die. Because currently there is no vaccine
against HIV, prevention still is the best tool.
The two most likely ways for HIV to be transmitted
during care would be through:
■
Unprotected direct contact with infected
blood. This type of transmission could
happen if infected blood or body fluids from
one person enter another person’s body at a
correct entry site. For example, a responder
could contract HIV if the infected person’s
blood splashes in the responder’s eye or if
the responder directly touches the infected
person’s body fluids.
■
Unprotected indirect contact with infected
blood. This type of transmission could happen
if a person touches an object that contains
the blood or other body fluids of an infected
person, and that infected blood or other body
fluid enters the body through a correct entry
site. For example, HIV could be transmitted if

to 1 gallon of fresh water (1 part bleach
per 9 parts water), and allow it to stand for
at least 10 minutes.
■

Dispose of the contaminated material used
to clean up the spill in a labeled biohazard
container.
■ Contact your worksite safety representative
or your local health department regarding
the proper disposal of potentially infectious
material. For more information on preventing
disease transmission, visit the federal
Occupational Safety and Health administration:
http://www.osha.gov/SLTC/bloodbornepathogens/
index.html.

First Aid/CPR/AED

Participant’s Manual

a responder picks up a blood-soaked bandage
with a bare hand and the infected blood enters
the responder’s hand through a cut in the skin.
The virus cannot enter through the skin unless there
is a cut or break in the skin. Even then, the possibility
of infection is very low unless there is direct contact
for a lengthy period of time. Saliva is not known to
transmit HIV.
The likelihood of HIV transmission during a first
aid situation is very low. Always give care in ways
that protect you and the person from disease
transmission. For more information on preventing
HIV transmission, see the Preventing Disease
Transmission section in this chapter.
If you think you have put yourself at risk for an
infectious disease, get tested. Tests are readily
available and will tell whether your body is producing
antibodies in response to the virus. If you are not
sure whether you should be tested, call your health
care provider, the public health department, an AIDS
service organization or the AIDS hotline listed in the
next paragraph.
If you have any questions about AIDS, call the
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC),
24 hours a day, for information in English and Spanish
at 1-800-232-4636. (TTY service is available at
1-888-232-6348.) You also can visit www.aids.gov
or call your local or state health department.

TAKING ACTION:
EMERGENCY ACTION STEPS
In any emergency situation, follow the emergency action
steps:
1. CHECK the scene and the person.
2. CALL 9-1-1 or the local emergency number.
3. CARE for the person.

CHECK
Before you can help an injured or ill person, make sure
that the scene is safe for you and any bystanders (Fig. 1-4).
Look the scene over and try to answer these questions:

ﬁreﬁghters and police. Once they make
the scene safe, you can offer to help.

Is Immediate Danger Involved?
Do not move a seriously injured person
unless there is an immediate danger,
such as ﬁre, ﬂood or poisonous gas; you
have to reach another person who may
have a more serious injury or illness; or
you need to move the injured person to
give proper care and you are able to do
so without putting yourself in danger
from the ﬁre, ﬂood or poisonous gas.
If you must move the person, do it as
quickly and carefully as possible. If
there is no danger, tell the person not to
move. Tell any bystanders not to move
the person.

What Happened?

FIGURE 1-4 Check the scene for anything that may threaten the safety of you, the injured
persons and bystanders.

■
■
■
■
■
■

Look for clues to what caused the
emergency and how the person might be
injured. Nearby objects, such as a fallen
ladder, broken glass or a spilled bottle
of medicine, may give you information.
Your check of the scene may be the only
way to tell what happened.

If the injured or ill person is a child,
keep in mind that he or she may have
been moved by well-meaning adults. Be sure to ask
about this when you are checking out what happened.
If you ﬁnd that a child has been moved, ask the adult
where the child was and how he or she was found.

Is it safe?
Is immediate danger involved?
What happened?
How many people are involved?
Is anyone else available to help?
What is wrong?

How Many People Are Involved?
Look carefully for more than one person. You might
not spot everyone at ﬁrst. If one person is bleeding or
screaming, you might not notice an unconscious person.
It also is easy to overlook a small child or an infant.
In an emergency with more than one injured or ill
person, you may need to prioritize care (in other words,
decide who needs help ﬁrst).

Is It Safe?
Check for anything unsafe, such as spilled chemicals,
trafﬁc, ﬁre, escaping steam, downed electrical lines,
smoke or extreme weather. Avoid going into conﬁned
areas with no ventilation or fresh air, places where
there might be poisonous gas, collapsed structures, or
places where natural gas, propane or other substances
could explode. Such areas should be entered by
responders who have special training and equipment,
such as respirators and self-contained breathing
apparatus.

Is Anyone Else Available to Help?

If these or other dangers threaten, stay at a safe
distance and call 9-1-1 or the local emergency number
immediately. If the scene still is unsafe after you call,
do not enter. Dead or injured heroes are no help to
anyone! Leave dangerous situations to professionals like

CHAPTER

You already have learned that the presence of
bystanders does not mean that a person is receiving
help. You may have to ask them to help. Bystanders
may be able to tell you what happened or make the call
for help while you provide care. If a family member,
friend or co-worker is present, he or she may know if the
person is ill or has a medical condition.
The injured or ill person may be too upset to answer
your questions. Anyone who awakens after having been

Before Giving Care and Checking an Injured or Ill Person

unconscious also may be frightened. Bystanders can
help to comfort the person and others at the scene.
A child may be especially frightened. Parents or
guardians who are present may be able to calm a
frightened child. They also can tell you if a child has
a medical condition.

While you are checking the person, use your senses of
sight, smell and hearing. They will help you to notice
anything abnormal. For example, you may notice an
unusual smell that could be caused by a poison. You
may see a bruise or a twisted arm or leg. You may hear
the person say something that explains how he or she
was injured.

What Is Wrong?
When you reach the person, try to ﬁnd out what
is wrong. Look for signals that may indicate a
life-threatening emergency. First, check to see if the
injured or ill person is conscious (Fig. 1-5). Sometimes
this is obvious. The person may be able to speak to you.
He or she may be moaning, crying, making some other
noise or moving around. If the person is conscious,
reassure him or her and try to ﬁnd out what happened.
If the person is lying on the ground, silent and not
moving, he or she may be unconscious. If you are not
sure whether someone is unconscious, tap him or her
on the shoulder and ask if he or she is OK. Use the
person’s name if you know it. Speak loudly. If you are
not sure whether an infant is unconscious, check
by tapping the infant’s shoulders and shouting
or ﬂicking the bottom of the infant’s foot to see if the
infant responds.
Unconsciousness is a life-threatening emergency.
If the person does not respond to you in any way, assume
that he or she is unconscious. Make sure that someone
calls 9-1-1 or the local emergency number right away.
For purposes of ﬁrst aid, an adult is deﬁned as
someone about age 12 (adolescent) or older; someone
between the ages of 1 and 12 is considered to be a child;
and an infant is someone younger than 1 year. When using
an AED, a child is considered to be someone between the
ages of 1 and 8 years or weighing less than 55 pounds.
Look for other signals of life-threatening injuries
including trouble breathing, the absence of breathing or
breathing that is not normal, and/or severe bleeding.

Checking Children and the Elderly
Keep in mind that it is often helpful to take a slightly
different approach when you check and care for
children, infants and elderly people in an emergency
situation. For more information on checking and caring
for children, infants, the elderly and others with special
needs, see Chapter 9.

Identifying Life-Threatening Conditions
At times you may be unsure if advanced medical
personnel are needed. Your ﬁrst aid training will
help you to make this decision. The most important
step you can take when giving care to a person who
is unconscious or has some other life-threatening
condition is to call for emergency medical help. With a
life-threatening condition, the survival of a person often
depends on both emergency medical help and the care
you can give. You will have to use your best judgment—
based on the situation, your assessment of the injured
or ill person, information gained from this course and
other training you may have received—to make the
decision to call. When in doubt, and you think a
life-threatening condition is present, make the call.

CALL
Calling 9-1-1 or the local emergency number for help
often is the most important action you can take to
help an injured or ill person (Fig. 1-6). It will send
emergency medical help on its way as fast as possible.
Make the call quickly and return to the person. If
possible, ask someone else to make the call.
As a general rule, call 9-1-1 or the local emergency
number if the person has any of the following conditions:
■
■
■

■
■
■
FIGURE 1-5 When you reach the person, first check to see if he or
she is conscious.

First Aid/CPR/AED

Participant’s Manual

■
■

Unconsciousness or an altered level of consciousness
(LOC), such as drowsiness or confusion
Breathing problems (trouble breathing or no breathing)
Chest pain, discomfort or pressure lasting more than
a few minutes that goes away and comes back or that
radiates to the shoulder, arm, neck, jaw, stomach or back
Persistent abdominal pain or pressure
Severe external bleeding (bleeding that spurts
or gushes steadily from a wound)
Vomiting blood or passing blood
Severe (critical) burns
Suspected poisoning

CARE
Once you have checked the scene and the person and have
made a decision about calling 9-1-1 or the local emergency
number, you may need to give care until EMS personnel
take over. After making the 9-1-1 call, immediately go
back to the injured or ill person. Check the person for
life-threatening conditions and give the necessary care
(see Checking a Conscious and Unconscious Person section
in this chapter). To do so, follow these general guidelines:
■

Do no further harm.
■ Monitor the person’s breathing and consciousness.
FIGURE 1-6 Calling 9-1-1 or your local emergency number is
important because getting emergency help fast greatly increases a
person’s chances of survival.

■

Help the person rest in the most comfortable position.
Keep the person from getting chilled or overheated.
■ Reassure the person.
■

■

Seizures
■ Stroke (sudden weakness on one side of the face/
facial droop, sudden weakness on one side of the
body, sudden slurred speech or trouble getting words
out or a sudden, severe headache)
■ Suspected or obvious injuries to the head, neck or spine
■ Painful, swollen, deformed areas (suspected broken
bone) or an open fracture
Also call 9-1-1 or the local emergency number
immediately for any of these situations:
■
■
■
■
■
■

Fire or explosion
Downed electrical wires
Swiftly moving or rapidly rising water
Presence of poisonous gas
Serious motor-vehicle collisions
Injured or ill persons who cannot be moved easily

Call First (call 9-1-1 or the local emergency number
before giving care) for:

Any adult or child about 12 years of age or older
who is unconscious.
A child or an infant who you witnessed
suddenly collapse.
An unconscious child or infant known to have
heart problems.
■ Care First (give 2 minutes of care, then call 9-1-1 or
the local emergency number) for:
An unconscious child (younger than about
12 years of age) who you did not see collapse.

■

When the trip may aggravate the injury or illness or
cause additional injury.
■ When the person has or may develop a lifethreatening condition.
■ If you are unsure of the nature of the injury or illness.

One of the most dangerous threats to a seriously injured
or ill person is unnecessary movement. Moving an injured
person can cause additional injury and pain and may
complicate his or her recovery. Generally, you should not
move an injured or ill person while giving care. However,
it would be appropriate in the following three situations:
1.

Call First situations are likely to be cardiac emergencies,
where time is a critical factor. In Care First situations, the
conditions often are related to breathing emergencies.
1

In some cases, you may decide to take the injured or ill
person to a medical facility yourself instead of waiting
for EMS personnel. NEVER transport a person:

Moving an Injured or Ill Person

Any drowning victim.

CHAPTER

Transporting the Person Yourself

Discourage an injured or ill person from driving him- or
herself to the hospital. An injury may restrict movement,
or the person may become groggy or faint. A sudden
onset of pain may be distracting. Any of these conditions
can make driving dangerous for the person, passengers,
other drivers and pedestrians.

If you are ALONE:

Give any speciﬁc care as needed.

If you decide it is safe to transport the person,
ask someone to come with you to keep the person
comfortable. Also, be sure you know the quickest route
to the nearest medical facility capable of handling
emergency care. Pay close attention to the injured or ill
person and watch for any changes in his or her condition.

Deciding to Call First or Care First
■

■

When you are faced with immediate danger,
such as ﬁre, lack of oxygen, risk of explosion or a
collapsing structure.

2. When you have to get to another person who may
have a more serious problem. In this case, you
may have to move a person with minor injuries to
reach someone needing immediate care.
Before Giving Care and Checking an Injured or Ill Person

3. When it is necessary to give proper care. For
example, if someone needed CPR, he or she might
have to be moved from a bed because CPR needs
to be performed on a ﬁrm, ﬂat surface. If the
surface or space is not adequate to give care, the
person should be moved.

Techniques for Moving an Injured
or Ill Person
Once you decide to move an injured or ill person, you
must quickly decide how to do so. Carefully consider
your safety and the safety of the person. Move an injured
or ill person only when it is safe for you to do so and
there is an immediate life threat. Base your decision
on the dangers you are facing, the size and condition of
the person, your abilities and physical condition, and
whether you have any help.
To improve your chances of successfully moving an injured
or ill person without injuring yourself or the person:
■

Use your legs, not your back, when you bend.
Bend at the knees and hips and avoid twisting
your body.
■ Walk forward when possible, taking small steps and
looking where you are going.
■ Avoid twisting or bending anyone with a possible
head, neck or spinal injury.
■ Do not move a person who is too large to
move comfortably.
You can move a person to safety in many different ways,
but no single way is best for every situation. The objective
is to move the person without injuring yourself or causing
further injury to the person. The following common types
of emergency moves can all be done by one or two people
and with minimal to no equipment.
■

Types of Non-Emergency Moves
Walking Assist
The most basic emergency move is the walking assist.
Either one or two responders can use this method with
a conscious person. To perform a walking assist, place
the injured or ill person’s arm across your shoulders
and hold it in place with one hand. Support the person
with your other hand around the person’s waist
(Fig. 1-7, A). In this way, your body acts as a crutch,
supporting the person’s weight while you both walk.
A second responder, if present, can support the person
in the same way on the other side (Fig. 1-7, B). Do not
use this assist if you suspect that the person has a head,
neck or spinal injury.

Two-Person Seat Carry
The two-person seat carry requires a second responder.
This carry can be used for any person who is conscious
and not seriously injured. Put one arm behind the
person’s thighs and the other across the person’s back.
Interlock your arms with those of a second responder
behind the person’s legs and across his or her back.
Lift the person in the “seat” formed by the responders’
arms (Fig. 1-8). Responders should coordinate their
movement so they walk together. Do not use this
assist if you suspect that the person has a head,
neck or spinal injury.

Types of Emergency Moves
Pack-Strap Carry
The pack-strap carry can be used with conscious and
unconscious persons. Using it with an unconscious
person requires a second responder to help position
the injured or ill person on your back. To perform the

FIGURE 1-7, A–B A, In a walking assist, your body acts as a crutch, supporting the person’s weight while you both
walk. B, Two responders may be needed for the walking assist.

First Aid/CPR/AED

Participant’s Manual

neck and back stabilized. Grasp the person’s clothing
behind the neck, gathering enough to secure a ﬁrm grip.
Using the clothing, pull the person (headﬁrst) to safety
(Fig. 1-10).
During this move, the person’s head is cradled by
clothing and the responder’s arms. Be aware that this
move is exhausting and may cause back strain for the
responder, even when done properly.

Blanket Drag
The blanket drag can be used to move a person in an
emergency situation when equipment is limited. Keep
the person between you and the blanket. Gather half of
the blanket and place it against the person’s side. Roll
the person as a unit toward you. Reach over and place
the blanket so that it is positioned under the person,
then roll the person onto the blanket. Gather the blanket
at the head and move the person (Fig. 1-11).

FIGURE 1-8 The two-person seat carry

Ankle Drag
Use the ankle drag (also known as the foot drag) to
move a person who is too large to carry or move in any
other way. Firmly grasp the person’s ankles and move
backward. The person’s arms should be crossed on his

FIGURE 1-9 The pack-strap carry

pack-strap carry, have the person stand or have a second
responder support the person. Position yourself with
your back to the person, back straight, knees bent, so
that your shoulders ﬁt into the person’s armpits.

FIGURE 1-10 The clothes drag

Cross the person’s arms in front of you and grasp the
person’s wrists. Lean forward slightly and pull the
person up and onto your back. Stand up and walk to
safety (Fig. 1-9). Depending on the size of the person,
you may be able to hold both of his or her wrists with
one hand, leaving your other hand free to help maintain
balance, open doors and remove obstructions. Do not
use this assist if you suspect that the person has a head,
neck or spinal injury.

Clothes Drag
The clothes drag can be used to move a conscious or
unconscious person with a suspected head, neck or
spinal injury. This move helps keep the person’s head,
CHAPTER

FIGURE 1-11 The blanket drag

Before Giving Care and Checking an Injured or Ill Person

■

CHECKING A CONSCIOUS
PERSON

FIGURE 1-12 The ankle drag

or her chest. Pull the person in a straight line, being
careful not to bump the person’s head (Fig. 1-12).

Reaching a Person in the Water
Do not enter the water unless you are speciﬁcally
trained to perform in-water rescues. Get help from
a trained responder, such as a lifeguard, to get the
person out of the water as quickly and safely as possible.
You can help a person in trouble in the water from a safe
position by using reaching assists, throwing assists or
wading assists.
When possible, start by talking to the person. Let the
person know that help is coming. If noise is a problem or
if the person is too far away to hear you, use nonverbal
communication. Direct the person what to do, such as
grasping a line, ring buoy or other object that ﬂoats. Ask
the person to move toward you, which may be done by
using the back ﬂoat with slight leg movements or small
strokes. Some people can reach safety by themselves
with the calm and encouraging assistance of someone
calling to them.
■

Reaching Assists. Firmly brace yourself on
a pool deck, pier or shoreline and reach out to
the person with any object that will extend your
reach, such as a pole, oar or paddle, tree branch,
shirt, belt or towel. If no equipment is available,
you can still perform a reaching assist by lying
down and extending your arm or leg for the
person to grab.
■ Throwing Assists. An effective way to rescue
someone beyond your reach is to throw a ﬂoating
object out to the person with a line attached.
Once the person grasps the object, pull the
individual to safety. Throwing equipment includes
heaving lines, ring buoys, throw bags or any
ﬂoating object available, such as a picnic jug,
small cooler, buoyant cushion, kickboard or
extra life jacket.
14

First Aid/CPR/AED

Wading Assists. If the water is safe and shallow
enough (not over your chest), you can wade in
to reach the person. If there is a current or the
bottom is soft or unknown, making it dangerous
to wade, do not go in the water. If possible, wear
a life jacket and take something with you to
extend your reach, such as a ring buoy, buoyant
cushion, kickboard, life jacket, tree branch, pole,
air mattress, plastic cooler, picnic jug, paddle or
water exercise belt.

Participant’s Manual

If you determine that an injured or ill person is
conscious and has no immediate life-threatening
conditions, you can begin to check for other conditions
that may need care. Checking a conscious person with
no immediate life-threatening conditions involves two
basic steps:
■
■

Interview the person and bystanders.
Check the person from head to toe.

Conducting Interviews
Ask the person and bystanders simple questions to learn
more about what happened. Keep these interviews brief
(Fig. 1-13). Remember to ﬁrst identify yourself and to
get the person’s consent to give care. Begin by asking
the person’s name. This will make him or her feel more
comfortable. Gather additional information by asking
the person the following questions:
■

What happened?
■ Do you feel pain or discomfort anywhere?
■ Do you have any allergies?
■ Do you have any medical conditions or are you taking
any medication?

FIGURE 1-13 Ask simple questions and keep interviews brief.

■

If the person feels pain, ask him or her to describe
it and to tell you where it is located. Descriptions often
include terms such as burning, crushing, throbbing,
aching or sharp pain. Ask when the pain started and
what the person was doing when it began. Ask the
person to rate his or her pain on a scale of 1 to 10
(1 being mild and 10 being severe).

■
■

Sometimes an injured or ill person will not be able to give
you the information that you need. The person may not
speak your language. In some cases, the person may not
be able to speak because of a medical condition. Known
as a laryngectomee, a person whose larynx (voice box)
was surgically removed breathes through a permanent
opening, or stoma, in the neck and may not be able to
speak. Remember to question family members, friends
or bystanders as well. They may be able to give you
helpful information or help you to communicate with
the person. You will learn more about communicating
with people with special needs in Chapter 9.
Children or infants may be frightened. They may be fully
aware of you but still unable to answer your questions.
In some cases, they may be crying too hard and be
unable to stop. Approach slowly and gently, and give
the child or infant some time to get used to you. Use the
child’s name, if you know it. Get down to or below the
child’s eye level.

■
■

■

Write down the information you learn during the
interviews or, preferably, have someone else write it down
for you. Be sure to give the information to EMS personnel
when they arrive. It may help them to determine the type
of medical care that the person should receive.

Checking from Head to Toe

■

Next you will need to thoroughly check the injured or
ill person so that you do not overlook any problems.
Visually check from head to toe. When checking a
conscious person:

FIGURE 1-15 Medical ID tags and bracelets can provide important
information about an injured or ill person. Courtesy of the Canadian
Red Cross.

FIGURE 1-14 Feel the forehead with the back of your hand to
determine its temperature.

CHAPTER

Do not move any areas where there is pain or
discomfort, or if you suspect a head, neck or
spinal injury.
Check the person’s head by examining the scalp, face,
ears, mouth and nose.
Look for cuts, bruises, bumps or depressions. Think
of how the body usually looks. If you are unsure if a
body part or limb looks injured, check it against the
opposite limb or the other side of the body.
Watch for changes in consciousness. Notice if the
person is drowsy, confused or is not alert.
Look for changes in the person’s breathing. A healthy
person breathes easily, quietly, regularly and without
discomfort or pain. Young children and infants generally
breathe faster than adults. Breathing that is not normal
includes noisy breathing, such as gasping for air;
rasping, gurgling or whistling sounds; breathing that is
unusually fast or slow; and breathing that is painful.
Notice how the skin looks and feels. Skin can provide
clues that a person is injured or ill. Feel the person’s
forehead with the back of your hand to determine if
the skin feels unusually damp, dry, cool or hot
(Fig. 1-14). Note if it is red, pale or ashen.
Look over the body. Ask again about any areas that
hurt. Ask the person to move each part of the body
that does not hurt. Ask the person to gently move his
or her head from side to side. Check the shoulders by
asking the person to shrug them. Check the chest and
abdomen by asking the person to take a deep breath.
Ask the person to move his or her ﬁngers, hands and
arms; and then the toes, legs and hips in the same way.
Watch the person’s face and listen for signals of
discomfort or pain as you check for injuries.
Look for a medical identiﬁcation (ID) tag, bracelet
or necklace (Fig. 1-15) on the person’s wrist, neck or
ankle. A tag will provide medical information about
the person, explain how to care for certain conditions

Before Giving Care and Checking an Injured or Ill Person

and list whom to call for help. For example, a person
with diabetes may have some form of medical ID tag,
bracelet or necklace identifying this condition.
If a child or an infant becomes extremely upset, conduct
a toe-to-head check of the child or infant. This will be less
emotionally threatening. Parents or guardians who are
present may be able to calm a frightened child. In fact,
it often is helpful to check a young child while he or she
is seated in his or her parent’s or guardian’s lap. Parents
also can tell you if a child has a medical condition.
When you have ﬁnished checking, determine if the
person can move his or her body without any pain.
If the person can move without pain and there are
no other signals of injury, have him or her attempt to
rest in a sitting position or other comfortable position
(Fig. 1-16). When the person feels ready, help him or her
to stand up. Determine what additional care is needed
and whether to call 9-1-1 or the local emergency number.

When someone is injured or becomes suddenly ill,
these normal body functions may be interrupted. In
cases of minor injury or illness, this interruption is brief
because the body is able to compensate quickly. With
more severe injuries or illnesses, however, the body may
be unable to adjust. When the body is unable to meet
its demand for oxygen because blood fails to circulate
adequately, shock occurs.

What to Look For
The signals that indicate a person may be going into
shock include:
■

Restlessness or irritability.
■ Altered level of consciousness.
■

Nausea or vomiting.
Pale, ashen or grayish, cool, moist skin.
■ Rapid breathing and pulse.
■
■

SHOCK
When the body is healthy, three conditions are needed
to keep the right amount of blood ﬂowing:
■

The heart must be working well.
■ An adequate amount of oxygen-rich blood must be
circulating in the body.
■ The blood vessels must be intact and able to adjust
blood ﬂow.
Shock is a condition in which the circulatory system
fails to deliver enough oxygen-rich blood to the body’s
tissues and vital organs. The body’s organs, such as the
brain, heart and lungs, do not function properly without
this blood supply. This triggers a series of responses that
produce speciﬁc signals known as shock. These responses
are the body’s attempt to maintain adequate blood ﬂow.

Be aware that the early signals of shock may not be
present in young children and infants. However, because
children are smaller than adults, they have less blood
volume and are more susceptible to shock.

When to Call 9-1-1
In cases where the person is going into shock, call 9-1-1
or the local emergency number immediately. Shock
cannot be managed effectively by ﬁrst aid alone.
A person suffering from shock requires emergency
medical care as soon as possible.

What to Do Until Help Arrives
Caring for shock involves the following simple steps:
■

Have the person lie down. This often is the most
comfortable position. Helping the person rest in
a more comfortable position may lessen any pain.
Helping the person to rest comfortably is important
because pain can intensify the body’s stress and speed
up the progression of shock.

■

Control any external bleeding.
Since you may not be sure of the person’s condition,
leave him or her lying ﬂat.
Help the person maintain normal body temperature
(Fig. 1-17). If the person is cool, try to cover him or
her to avoid chilling.
Do not give the person anything to eat or drink, even
though he or she is likely to be thirsty. The person’s
condition may be severe enough to require surgery, in
which case it is better if the stomach is empty.
Reassure the person.

■
■

■

FIGURE 1-16 If there are no signals of obvious injuries, help the
person into a comfortable position.

First Aid/CPR/AED

Participant’s Manual

Excessive thirst.

■

FIGURE 1-17 Help the person going into shock to lie down and keep
him or her from getting chilled or overheated.

■

FIGURE 1-18 If you are not sure whether an infant is unconscious,
check by tapping the infant’s shoulder or flicking the bottom of the
infant’s foot.

■

Continue to monitor the person’s breathing and for
any changes in the person’s condition. Do not wait
for signals of shock to develop before caring for the
underlying injury or illness.

CHECKING AN
UNCONSCIOUS PERSON
If you think someone is unconscious, tap him or her
on the shoulder and ask if he or she is OK. Use the
person’s name if you know it. Speak loudly. If you are
not sure whether an infant is unconscious, check by
tapping the infant’s shoulder and shouting or by ﬂicking
the bottom of the infant’s foot to see if the infant
responds (Fig. 1-18).

When someone is unconscious and lying on his
or her back, the tongue may fall to the back of the
throat and block the airway. To open an unconscious
person’s airway, push down on his or her forehead
while pulling up on the bony part of the chin with
two or three ﬁngers of your other hand (Fig. 1-19).
This procedure, known as the head-tilt/chin-lift
technique, moves the tongue away from the back
of the throat, allowing air to enter the lungs.
For a child: Place one hand on the forehead
and tilt the head slightly past a neutral position

If the person does not respond, call 9-1-1 or the local
emergency number and check for other life-threatening
conditions.
Always check to see if an unconscious person:
■

Has an open airway and is breathing normally.
■ Is bleeding severely.
Consciousness, effective (normal) breathing and
circulation and skin characteristics sometimes are
referred to as signs of life.

Airway
Once you or someone else has called 9-1-1 or the local
emergency number, check to see if the person has an
open airway and is breathing. An open airway allows air
to enter the lungs for the person to breathe. If the airway
is blocked, the person cannot breathe. A blocked airway
is a life-threatening condition.

CHAPTER

FIGURE 1-19 Open an unconscious person’s
airway using the head-tilt/chin-lift technique.

Before Giving Care and Checking an Injured or Ill Person

(the head and chin are neither ﬂexed downward
toward the chest nor extended backward).

For an infant: Place one hand on the forehead and
tilt the head to a neutral position while pulling
up on the bony part of the chin with two or three
ﬁngers of your other hand.
■ If you suspect that a person has a head, neck or spinal
injury, carefully tilt the head and lift the chin just
enough to open the airway.
Check the person’s neck to see if he or she breathes
through an opening. A person whose larynx was
removed may breathe partially or entirely through a
stoma instead of through the mouth (Fig. 1-20).
The person may breathe partially or entirely through
this opening instead of through the mouth and nose.
It is important to recognize this difference in the way
a person breathes. This will help you give proper care.

Breathing
After opening the airway, quickly check an unconscious
person for breathing. Position yourself so that you can
look to see if the person’s chest clearly rises and falls,
listen for escaping air and feel for it against the side
of your face. Do this for no more than 10 seconds
(Fig. 1-21). If the person needs CPR, chest
compressions must not be delayed.
Normal breathing is regular, quiet and effortless.
A person does not appear to be working hard or
struggling when breathing normally. This means that
the person is not making noise when breathing, breaths
are not fast (although it should be noted that normal
breathing rates in children and infants are faster than
normal breathing rates in adults) and breathing does
not cause discomfort or pain. In an unconscious adult
you may detect an irregular, gasping or shallow breath.
This is known as an agonal breath. Do not confuse
this with normal breathing. Care for the person as if

FIGURE 1-20 A stoma is an opening in the neck that allows a
person to breathe after certain surgeries on the airway. Courtesy of the
International Association of Laryngectomees.

First Aid/CPR/AED

Participant’s Manual

there is no breathing at all. Agonal breaths do not occur
frequently in children.
If the person is breathing normally, his or her heart
is beating and is circulating blood containing oxygen.
In this case, maintain an open airway by using the
head-tilt/chin-lift technique as you continue to look for
other life-threatening conditions.
If an adult is not breathing normally, this person most
likely needs immediate CPR.
If a child or an infant is not breathing, give 2 rescue
breaths. Tilt the head back and lift chin up. Pinch the
nose shut then make a complete seal over the child’s
mouth and blow in for about 1 second to make the chest
clearly rise (Fig. 1-22, A). For an infant, seal your mouth
over the infant’s mouth and nose (Fig. 1-22, B). Give
rescue breaths one after the other.
If you witness the sudden collapse of a child,
assume a cardiac emergency. Do not give 2 rescue
breaths. CPR needs to be started immediately, just as
with an adult.
Sometimes you may need to remove food, liquid
or other objects that are blocking the person’s airway.
This may prevent the chest from rising when you
attempt rescue breaths. You will learn how to
recognize an obstructed airway and give care to the
person in Chapter 4.

Circulation
It is important to recognize breathing emergencies
in children and infants and to act before the heart
stops beating. Adults’ hearts frequently stop beating
because of disease. Children’s and infants’ hearts,
however, are usually healthy. When a child’s or
an infant’s heart stops, it usually is the result of
a breathing emergency.

FIGURE 1-21 Check for breathing for no more than 10 seconds.

FIGURE 1-22, A–B A, Give a child 2 rescue breaths with each breath lasting about 1 second. B, For an infant, cover the mouth and nose.

If an adult is not breathing or is not breathing normally
and if the emergency is not the result of non-fatal
drowning or other respiratory cause such as a drug
overdose, assume that the problem is a cardiac emergency.
Quickly look for severe bleeding by looking over the
person’s body from head to toe for signals such as
blood-soaked clothing or blood spurting out of a wound
(Fig. 1-23). Bleeding usually looks worse than it is.
A small amount of blood on a slick surface or mixed
with water usually looks like a large volume of blood.
It is not always easy to recognize severe bleeding.

What to Do Next
■

If an unconscious person is breathing normally, keep
the person lying face-up and maintain an open airway
with the head-tilt/chin-lift technique. If the person
vomits, ﬂuids block the airway, or if you must leave
the person to get help, place him or her into a modiﬁed
high arm in endangered spine (H.A.IN.E.S.) recovery
position. (Placing an Unconscious Person in a Recovery
Position is discussed in this chapter.)

■

If an unconscious adult has irregular, gasping or
shallow breaths (agonal breathing) or is not breathing
at all, begin CPR. You will learn how to perform CPR
in Chapter 2.

If an unconscious child or infant is not breathing,
after giving 2 rescue breaths, perform CPR
(see Chapter 2).
■ If the person is bleeding severely, control the bleeding
by applying direct pressure (see Chapter 7).

Using CPR Breathing Barriers
You might not feel comfortable with giving rescue
breaths, especially to someone whom you do not know.
Disease transmission is an understandable worry, even
though the chance of getting a disease from giving
rescue breaths is extremely small.
CPR breathing barriers, such as face shields and
resuscitation masks, create a barrier between your
mouth and nose and those of the injured or ill person
(Fig. 1-24). This barrier can help to protect you from
contact with blood and other body ﬂuids, such as
saliva, as you give rescue breaths. These devices
also protect you from breathing the air that the
person exhales. Some devices are small enough to
ﬁt in your pocket or in the glove compartment of
your car. You also can keep one in your ﬁrst aid kit.
If a face shield is used, switch to a resuscitation mask, if
available, or when one becomes available. However, you
should not delay rescue breaths while searching

FIGURE 1-24 CPR breathing barriers, such as face shields and
resuscitation masks, create a barrier between your mouth and
nose and the injured or ill person’s mouth.

FIGURE 1-23 Check for severe bleeding by quickly looking over the
person from head to toe.

CHAPTER

■

Before Giving Care and Checking an Injured or Ill Person

for a CPR breathing barrier or by trying to learn how
to use one.
Pediatric CPR breathing barriers are available and
should be used to care for children and infants. Always
use the appropriate equipment for the size of the injured
or ill person.

Special Situations
When giving rescue breaths while performing CPR,
you may encounter certain special situations. These
include air in the stomach; vomiting; mouth-to-nose
breathing; mouth-to-stoma breathing; persons
with suspected head, neck or spinal injuries; and
drowning victims.
■

Air in the Stomach: When you are giving rescue
breaths, be careful to avoid forcing air into the
person’s stomach instead of the lungs. This may
happen if you breathe too long, breathe too hard or do
not open the airway far enough.
To avoid forcing air into the person’s stomach,
keep the person’s head tilted back. Take a normal
breath and blow into the person’s mouth, blowing
just enough to make the chest clearly rise.
Each rescue breath should last about 1 second
for an adult, a child or an infant. Pause between
breaths long enough for the air in the person to
come out and for you to take another breath.
Air in the stomach can make the person
vomit and cause complications. When an
unconscious person vomits, the contents of
the stomach can get into the lungs and block
breathing. Air in the stomach also makes it
harder for the diaphragm— the large muscle
that controls breathing—to move. This makes
it harder for the lungs to ﬁll with air.

FIGURE 1-25 If the person vomits, roll him or her onto one side and
wipe the mouth clean.

First Aid/CPR/AED

Participant’s Manual

■

Vomiting. Even when you are giving rescue breaths
properly, the person may vomit.

If this happens, roll the person onto one side and
wipe the mouth clean (Fig. 1-25). If possible, use
a protective barrier, such as disposable gloves,
gauze or even a handkerchief when cleaning out
the mouth.
Then roll the person on his or her back again and
continue giving care as necessary.
■ Mouth-to-Nose Breathing. If you are unable to make
a tight enough seal over the person’s mouth, you can
blow into the nose (Fig. 1-26).
With the head tilted back, close the mouth by
pushing on the chin.
Seal your mouth around the person’s nose and
breathe into the nose.
If possible, open the person’s mouth between
rescue breaths to let the air out.
■ Mouth-to-Stoma Breathing. Check the person’s neck
to see if he or she breathes through a stoma.
If you discover that the person needing rescue
breaths has a stoma, expose his or her entire
neck down to the breastbone. Remove anything
covering the stoma that blocks the person’s
airway. Also, wipe away any secretions
or blockages.
Keep the airway in a neutral position; do not
allow the chin or head to ﬂex forward toward
the chest or extend backward as you look,
listen and feel for normal breathing with
your ear over the stoma. To give rescue
breaths, make an airtight seal with your lips
around the stoma or tracheostomy tube and
blow in for about 1 second to make the chest
clearly rise.

FIGURE 1-26 If you are unable to make a tight enough seal over the
person’s mouth, you can blow into the nose.

Give rescue breaths into the stoma at the same
rate you would breathe into the mouth when
performing CPR. Your rescue breaths are
successful if you see the chest rise and fall and you
hear and feel air escape from the stoma.
If the chest does not rise and fall, the person’s
tracheostomy tube may be blocked. If this
happens, remove the inner tube and give rescue
breaths again.

■

If you hear or feel air escaping from the person’s
mouth or nose, the person is a partial neck
breather. In order to give rescue breaths to a partial
neck breather, the responder must seal the person’s
mouth and nose with either his or her hand or a
tight-ﬁtting face mask so that air does not escape
out of the mouth or nose when you give rescue
breaths into the stoma or tracheostomy tube.
You might feel uncomfortable with the thought
of giving mouth-to-stoma rescue breaths. An
alternative method is to use a barrier device (see
Using CPR Breathing Barriers section in this
chapter). For a neck breather or partial neck
breather, a round pediatric mask may provide a
better seal around a stoma or tracheostomy tube
neck plate (Fig. 1-27).
■ Head, Neck and Spinal Injuries. Be especially careful
with a person who may have a head, neck or spinal
injury. These kinds of injuries can result from a
fall from a height greater than the person’s height,
an automobile collision or a diving mishap. If you
suspect such an injury, try not to move the person’s
head, neck and back. If a child is strapped into a car
seat, do not remove him or her from it. To give rescue
breaths to a person whom you suspect has a head,
neck or spinal injury:
Minimize movement of the head and neck when
opening the airway.

Carefully tilt the head and lift the chin just enough
to open the airway.

Drowning Victims. For an adult, give 2 rescue
breaths as you would for a child or an infant once you
determine there is no breathing. If alone, you should
give 2 minutes of care before calling 9-1-1 (Care First)
for an unconscious person who has been submerged.
Do not enter the water unless you are speciﬁcally trained
to perform in-water rescues. Get help from a trained
responder, such as a lifeguard, to get the person out of
the water as quickly and safely as possible. If the person
is not breathing, you will have to give proper care.

Placing an Unconscious Person
in a Recovery Position
In some cases, the person may be unconscious but
breathing normally. Generally, that person should
not be moved from a face-up position, especially if
there is a suspected spinal injury. However, there are
a few situations when you should move a person into
a recovery position whether or not a spinal injury is
suspected. Examples include situations where you
are alone and have to leave the person (e.g., to call for
help), or you cannot maintain an open and clear airway
because of ﬂuids or vomit. Fig. 1-28, A–B shows how
to place a person, whether or not a spinal injury is
suspected, in a modiﬁed H.A.IN.E.S. recovery position.
Placing a person in this position will help to keep the
airway open and clear.
To place an adult or a child in a modiﬁed H.A.IN.E.S.
recovery position:
■

Kneel at the person’s side.

■

Reach across the body and lift the arm farthest
from you up next to the head with the person’s palm
facing up.
■ Take the person’s arm closest to you and place it next
to his or her side.
■
■

Grasp the leg farthest from you and bend it up.
Using your hand that is closest to the person’s
head, cup the base of the skull in the palm of your
hand and carefully slide your forearm under the
person’s shoulder closest to you. Do not lift or push
the head or neck.

■

Place your other hand under the arm and hip closest
to you.
■ Using a smooth motion, roll the person away from
you by lifting with your hand and forearm. Make
sure the person’s head remains in contact with the
extended arm and be sure to support the head and
neck with your hand.
■ Stop all movement when the person is on his or
her side.

FIGURE 1-27 To give rescue breaths into a stoma, make an
airtight seal with your lips around the stoma or use a round pediatric
resuscitation mask and blow in to make chest clearly rise.

CHAPTER

Before Giving Care and Checking an Injured or Ill Person

FIGURE 1-28, A–B A, Placing a person in a modified H.A.IN.E.S. recovery position. B, Placing a person in a modified H.A.IN.E.S if you must leave
to call 9-1-1.

■

Bend the knee closest to you and place it on top of the
other knee so that both knees are in a bent position.
■ Make sure the arm on top is in line with the upper
body.
If you must leave the person to get help, place
the hand of the upper arm palm side down
with the ﬁngers under the head at the armpit of
the extended lower arm.
An infant can be placed in a recovery position as would
be done for an older child. You can also hold an infant in
a recovery position (Fig. 1-29) by:
■

Carefully positioning the infant face-down along your
forearm.

■

Supporting the infant’s head and neck with your
other hand while keeping the infant’s mouth and
nose clear.
■ Keeping the head and neck slightly lower than
the chest.

INCIDENT STRESS
After responding to an emergency involving a serious
injury, illness or death, it is not unusual to experience
acute stress. Sometimes, people who have given ﬁrst aid
or performed CPR in these situations feel that they are
unable to cope with the stress. This feeling is known
as incident stress. If not appropriately managed, this
acute stress may lead to a serious condition called
post-traumatic stress disorder.

Signals of Incident Stress Reactions
Some effects may appear right away whereas others
may take longer to develop. Signals of incident
stress include:
■

Anxiousness and inability to sleep.
■ Nightmares.
■ Restlessness and other problems.
■

Confusion.
Lower attention span.
■ Poor concentration.
■
■

Denial.
Guilt.
■ Depression.
■
■

Anger.
■ Nausea.
■ Change in interactions with others.
FIGURE 1-29 An infant recovery position

First Aid/CPR/AED

Participant’s Manual

■

Increased or decreased eating.

■

Uncharacteristic, excessive humor or silence.
■ Unusual behavior.
■ Difﬁculty performing one’s job.

PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER
Given the large number of injuries and sudden illnesses
that occur in the United States each year, it is likely
that you might have to deal with an emergency
situation someday.

Guidelines for Coping with
Incident Stress

Remember that you have a vital role to play in the EMS
system. This includes following the emergency action
steps of CHECK—CALL—CARE, which will help you
to react quickly and calmly in any emergency situation.
Emergencies happen every day. Be prepared, respond
immediately and make a difference.

Incident stress may require professional help to
prevent post-traumatic stress from developing.
Other things that you may do to help reduce stress
include using relaxation techniques, eating a balanced
diet, avoiding alcohol and drugs, getting enough
rest and participating in some type of physical
exercise or activity.

CHAPTER

Before Giving Care and Checking an Injured or Ill Person

SKILL SHEET

REMOVING GLOVES
AFTER GIVING CARE AND MAKING SURE TO NEVER TOUCH THE BARE SKIN
WITH THE OUTSIDE OF EITHER GLOVE:

PINCH GLOVE
Pinch the palm side of one glove near the wrist.
Carefully pull the glove off so that it is inside out.

SLIP TWO FINGERS UNDER GLOVE
Hold the glove in the palm of the remaining gloved
hand. Slip two fingers under the glove at the wrist
of the remaining gloved hand.

PULL GLOVE OFF
Pull the glove until it comes off, inside out, so that
the first glove ends up inside the glove just removed.

DISPOSE OF GLOVES AND WASH HANDS
After removing the gloves:
■ Dispose of gloves in the appropriate biohazard container.
■ Wash hands thoroughly with soap and warm running water, if available.
■ Otherwise, use an alcohol-based hand sanitizer to clean the hands if they are not visibly soiled.
24

First Aid/CPR/AED

Participant’s Manual

SKILL SHEET

CHECKING AN INJURED OR ILL ADULT
APPEARS TO BE UNCONSCIOUS

TIP: Use disposable gloves and other PPE.
AFTER CHECKING THE SCENE FOR SAFETY, CHECK THE PERSON.

CHECK FOR RESPONSIVENESS
Tap the shoulder and shout, “Are you okay?”

CALL 9-1-1
If no response, CALL 9-1-1 or the local emergency number.
■ If an unconscious person is face-down, roll him or her face-up keeping the head,
neck and back in a straight line.
If the person responds, obtain consent and CALL 9-1-1 or the local emergency number for any
life-threatening conditions.
CHECK the person from head to toe and ask questions to find out what happened.

OPEN THE AIRWAY
Tilt head, lift chin.

CHECK FOR BREATHING
CHECK for no more than 10 seconds.
■ Occasional gasps are not breathing.

Continued on next page
CHAPTER

Before Giving Care and Checking an Injured or Ill Person

SKILL SHEET continued
QUICKLY SCAN FOR SEVERE
BLEEDING

WHAT TO DO NEXT
■
■

IF THERE IS NO BREATHING—Perform CPR or use an AED (if AED is immediately available).
IF BREATHING—Maintain an open airway and monitor breathing and for any changes in condition.

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Participant’s Manual

SKILL SHEET

CHECKING AN INJURED
OR ILL CHILD OR INFANT
APPEARS TO BE UNCONSCIOUS
TIP: Use disposable gloves and other PPE. Get consent from
a parent or guardian, if present.
AFTER CHECKING THE SCENE FOR SAFETY, CHECK THE CHILD OR INFANT.

CHECK FOR RESPONSIVENESS
Tap the shoulder and shout, “Are you okay?”
For an infant, you may flick the bottom of the foot.

CALL 9-1-1
If no response, CALL 9-1-1 or the local emergency number.
■ If an unconscious child or infant is face-down, roll him or her face-up supporting the head,
neck and back in a straight line.
If ALONE, give about 2 minutes of CARE, then CALL 9-1-1.
If the child or infant responds, CALL 9-1-1 or the local emergency number for any life-threatening
conditions and obtain consent to give CARE.
CHECK the child from head to toe and ask questions to find out what happened.

OPEN THE AIRWAY
Tilt head back slightly, lift chin.

Continued on next page
CHAPTER

Before Giving Care and Checking an Injured or Ill Person

SKILL SHEET continued
CHECK FOR BREATHING
CHECK for no more than 10 seconds.
■ Occasional gasps are not breathing.
■ Infants have periodic breathing, so changes in
breathing pattern are normal for infants.

GIVE 2 RESCUE BREATHS
If no breathing, give 2 rescue breaths.
■ Tilt the head back and lift the chin up.
■ Child: Pinch the nose shut, then make a complete seal
over child’s mouth.
■ Infant: Make complete seal over infant’s mouth and nose.
■ Blow in for about 1 second to make the chest clearly rise.
■ Give rescue breaths, one after the other.

TIPS:
If you witnessed the child or infant suddenly collapse, skip
rescue breaths and start CPR.
If the chest does not rise with the initial rescue breath,
retilt the head before giving the second breath.

QUICKLY SCAN FOR SEVERE BLEEDING

WHAT TO DO NEXT
■
■
■

IF THE SECOND BREATH DOES NOT MAKE THE CHEST RISE—The child or infant may be
choking. Give CARE for unconscious choking by performing CPR, starting with compressions.
IF THERE IS NO BREATHING—Perform CPR or use an AED (if AED is immediately available).
IF BREATHING—Maintain an open airway. Monitor breathing and for any changes in condition.

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Participant’s Manual

CHAPTER

Cardiac Emergencies and CPR

ardiac emergencies are life threatening. Heart attack and cardiac arrest are major causes of illness and death
in the United States. Every day in U.S. homes, parks and workplaces someone will have a heart attack or
go into cardiac arrest. Recognizing the signals of a heart attack and cardiac arrest, calling 9-1-1 or the local
emergency number and giving immediate care in a cardiac emergency saves lives. Performing CPR and using an
automated external deﬁbrillator (AED) immediately after a person goes into cardiac arrest can greatly increase his
or her chance of survival.
In this chapter you will ﬁnd out what signals to look for if you suspect a person is having a heart attack or has gone into
cardiac arrest. This chapter also discusses how to care for a person having a heart attack and how to perform CPR for a
person in cardiac arrest. In addition, this chapter covers the important links in the Cardiac Chain of Survival.
Although cardiac emergencies occur more commonly in adults, they also occur in infants and children. This chapter
discusses the causes of cardiac arrest and how to provide care for all age groups.

CHAPTER

Cardiac Emergencies and CPR

BACKGROUND
The heart is a fascinating organ. It beats more than 3
billion times in an average lifetime. The heart is about
the size of a ﬁst and lies between the lungs in the middle
of the chest. It pumps blood throughout the body. The
ribs, breastbone and spine protect it from injury. The
heart is separated into right and left halves (Fig. 2-1).
Arteries of the heart

Blood that contains little or no oxygen enters the right
side of the heart and is pumped to the lungs. The blood
picks up oxygen in the lungs when you breathe. The
oxygen-rich blood then goes to the left side of the heart
and is pumped from the heart’s blood vessels, called the
arteries, to all other parts of the body. The heart and
your body’s vital organs need this constant supply of
oxygen-rich blood.
Cardiovascular disease is an abnormal condition that
affects the heart and blood vessels. An estimated 80
million Americans suffer from some form of the disease.
It remains the number one killer in the United States
and is a major cause of disability. The most common
conditions caused by cardiovascular disease include
coronary heart disease, also known as coronary artery
disease, and stroke, also called a brain attack.
Coronary heart disease occurs when the arteries that
supply blood to the heart muscle harden and narrow.
This process is called atherosclerosis. The damage occurs
gradually, as cholesterol and fatty deposits called plaque
build up on the inner artery walls (Fig. 2-2). As this

Left Atrium

Right Atrium

Left Ventricle
Right Ventricle

Unblocked

Partially
blocked

Completely
blocked

FIGURE 2-2 Build-up of fatty materials on the inner walls of the arteries
reduces blood flow to the heart muscle and may cause a heart attack.

build-up worsens, the arteries become narrower. This
reduces the amount of blood that can ﬂow through
them and prevents the heart from getting the blood and
oxygen it needs. If the heart does not get blood containing
oxygen, it will not work properly. Coronary heart disease
accounts for about half of the greater than 800,000
adults who die each year from cardiovascular disease.
When the heart is working normally, it beats evenly
and easily, with a steady rhythm. When damage to the
heart causes it to stop working effectively, a person
can experience a heart attack or other damage to the
heart muscle. A heart attack can cause the heart to
beat in an irregular way. This may prevent blood from
circulating effectively.
When the heart does not work properly, normal
breathing can be disrupted or stopped. A heart attack
also can cause the heart to stop beating entirely. This
condition is called cardiac arrest. The number one
cause of heart attack and cardiac arrest in adults is
coronary heart disease. Other signiﬁcant causes of
cardiac arrest are non-heart related (e.g., poisoning
or drowning).

HEART ATTACK
FIGURE 2-1 The heart is separated into right and left halves.
Blood that contains little or no oxygen enters the right side of
the heart and is pumped to the lungs. The blood picks up
oxygen in the lungs when you breathe. The oxygen-rich blood
then goes to the left side of the heart and is pumped to all parts
of the body.

First Aid/CPR/AED

Participant’s Manual

When blood ﬂow to the heart muscle is reduced, people
experience chest pain. This reduced blood ﬂow usually
is caused by coronary heart disease. When the blood and
oxygen supply to the heart is reduced, a heart attack
may result.

What to Look For
A heart attack can be indicated by common signals. Even
people who have had a heart attack may not recognize
the signals, because each heart attack may not show
the same signals. You should be able to recognize the
following signals of a heart attack so that you can give
prompt and proper care:
■

Chest pain, discomfort or pressure. The most
common signal is persistent pain, discomfort
or pressure in the chest that lasts longer than
3 to 5 minutes or goes away and comes back.
Unfortunately, it is not always easy to distinguish
heart attack pain from the pain of indigestion, muscle
spasms or other conditions. This often causes people
to delay getting medical care. Brief, stabbing pain or
pain that gets worse when you bend or breathe deeply
usually is not caused by a heart problem.

The pain associated with a heart attack can range
from discomfort to an unbearable crushing
sensation in the chest.

The person may describe it as pressure, squeezing,
tightness, aching or heaviness in the chest.
Many heart attacks start slowly as mild pain
or discomfort.
Often the person feels pain or discomfort in the
center of the chest (Fig. 2-3).
The pain or discomfort becomes constant.
It usually is not relieved by resting, changing
position or taking medicine.
Some individuals may show no signals at all.

■

Discomfort in other areas of the upper body in
addition to the chest. Discomfort, pain or pressure
may also be felt in or spread to the shoulder, arm,
neck, jaw, stomach or back.
■ Trouble breathing. Another signal of a heart attack
is trouble breathing. The person may be breathing
faster than normal because the body tries to get the
much-needed oxygen to the heart. The person may
have noisy breathing or shortness of breath.
■ Other signals. The person’s skin may be pale or
ashen (gray), especially around the face. Some people
suffering from a heart attack may be damp with sweat
or may sweat heavily, feel dizzy, become nauseous or
vomit. They may become fatigued, lightheaded or lose
consciousness. These signals are caused by the stress
put on the body when the heart does not work as it
should. Some individuals may show no signals at all.
■ Differences in signals between men and women. Both
men and women experience the most common signal
for a heart attack: chest pain or discomfort. However,
it is important to note that women are somewhat more
likely to experience some of the other warning signals,
particularly shortness of breath, nausea or vomiting,
back or jaw pain and unexplained fatigue or malaise.
When they do experience chest pain, women may have
a greater tendency to have atypical chest pain: sudden,
sharp but short-lived pain outside of the breastbone.

When to Call 9-1-1
Remember, the key signal of a heart attack is persistent
chest pain or discomfort that lasts more than 3 to 5
minutes or goes away and comes back. If you suspect the
person is having a heart attack based on his or her signals,
call 9-1-1 or the local emergency number immediately. A
person having a heart attack probably will deny that any
signal is serious. Do not let this inﬂuence you. If you think
the person might be having a heart attack, act quickly.

What to Do Until Help Arrives
It is important to recognize the signals of a heart attack
and to act on those signals. Any heart attack might lead
to cardiac arrest, but prompt action may prevent further
damage to the heart. A person suffering from a heart
attack, and whose heart is still beating, has a far better
chance of living than does a person whose heart has
stopped. Most people who die of a heart attack die within
2 hours of the ﬁrst signal. Many could have been saved if
people on the scene or the person having the heart attack
had been aware of the signals and acted promptly.

FIGURE 2-3 Heart attack pain or pressure is
often felt in the center of the chest. It may spread
to the shoulder, arm, neck or jaw.

Many people who have heart attacks delay seeking care.
Nearly half of all heart attack victims wait for 2 hours
or more before going to the hospital. Often they do not
realize they are having a heart attack. They may say the
signals are just muscle soreness, indigestion or heartburn.
CHAPTER

Cardiac Emergencies and CPR

FOCUS ON PREVENTION

CORONARY HEART DISEASE
Recognizing a heart attack and getting the necessary
care at once may prevent a person from going into
cardiac arrest. However, preventing a heart attack
in the first place is even more effective. There is
no substitute for prevention.

Besides gender, ethnicity also plays an important
role in determining the risk for heart disease. African
Americans and Native Americans have higher rates of
heart disease than do other U.S. populations. A family
history of heart disease also increases your risk.

Heart attacks usually result from disease of the
heart and blood vessels. Although a heart attack
may seem to strike suddenly, many people’s lifestyles
are gradually putting their hearts in danger.
Because coronary heart disease develops slowly,
some individuals may not be aware of it for
many years. Fortunately, it is possible to slow
the progression of the disease by making lifestyle
changes.

Reducing Risk Factors
There are some risk factors that can be reduced.
Cigarette smoking, a poor diet, uncontrolled high
blood cholesterol or high blood pressure, being
overweight and lack of regular exercise all increase
your risk of heart disease. When you combine one
risk factor, like smoking, with others, such as high
blood pressure and lack of exercise, your risk of
heart attack is much greater.

Many things increase a person’s chances of
developing coronary heart disease. These are called
risk factors. Some of them cannot be changed.
For instance, although more women than men die
each year from coronary heart disease in the
United States, heart disease generally affects
men at younger ages than it does women.

By taking steps to control your risk factors, you can
improve your chances for living a long and healthy
life. Remember, it is never too late.

Early treatment with certain medications—including
aspirin—can help minimize damage to the heart after
a heart attack. To be most effective, these medications
need to be given within 1 hour of the start of heart
attack signals.
If you suspect that someone might be having a heart
attack, you should:
■
■

■
■

■

Call 9-1-1 or the local emergency number immediately.
Have the person stop what he or she is doing and rest
comfortably (Fig. 2-4). This will ease the heart’s need
for oxygen. Many people experiencing a heart attack
ﬁnd it easier to breathe while sitting.
Loosen any tight or uncomfortable clothing.
Closely watch the person until advanced medical
personnel take over. Notice any changes in the
person’s appearance or behavior. Monitor the
person’s condition.
Be prepared to perform CPR and use an AED, if
available, if the person loses consciousness and stops
breathing.
Ask the person if he or she has a history of heart
disease. Some people with heart disease take
First Aid/CPR/AED

Participant’s Manual

The best way to deal with a heart attack or cardiac
arrest is to prevent it. Begin to reduce your risk of
heart disease today.

prescribed medication for chest pain. You can help by
getting the medication for the person and assisting
him or her with taking the prescribed medication.
■ Offer aspirin, if medically appropriate and local
protocols allow, and if the patient can swallow and
has no known contraindications (see the following
section). Be sure that the person has not been

FIGURE 2-4 Comforting the person helps to reduce anxiety and
eases some of the discomfort.

told by his or her health care provider to avoid
taking aspirin.
■ Be calm and reassuring. Comforting the person helps
to reduce anxiety and eases some of the discomfort.
■

Talk to bystanders and if possible the person to get
more information.

■

Do not try to drive the person to the hospital yourself.
He or she could quickly get worse on the way.

Giving Aspirin to Lessen Heart Attack
Damage
You may be able to help a conscious person who is
showing early signals of a heart attack by offering him or
her an appropriate dose of aspirin when the signals ﬁrst
begin. However, you should never delay calling 9-1-1
or the local emergency number to do this. Always call
for help as soon as you recognize the signals of a heart
attack. Then help the person to be comfortable before
you give the aspirin.
If the person is able to take medicine by mouth, ask:
■

Are you allergic to aspirin?
■ Do you have a stomach ulcer or stomach disease?
■ Are you taking any blood thinners, such as warfarin
(Coumadin™)?
■ Have you ever been told by a doctor to avoid
taking aspirin?
If the person answers no to all of these questions, you
may offer him or her two chewable (81 mg each) baby
aspirins, or one 5-grain (325 mg) adult aspirin tablet
with a small amount of water. Do not use coated aspirin
products or products meant for multiple uses such as for
cold, fever and headache. You also may offer these doses
of aspirin if the person regains consciousness while you
are giving care and is able to take the aspirin by mouth.
Be sure that you offer only aspirin and not Tylenol®,
acetaminophen or nonsteroidal anti-inﬂammatory
drugs (NSAIDs), such as ibuprofen, Motrin®, Advil®,
naproxen and Aleve®.

CARDIAC ARREST
Cardiac arrest occurs when the heart stops beating or
beats too ineffectively to circulate blood to the brain
and other vital organs. The beats, or contractions, of the
heart become ineffective if they are weak, irregular or
uncoordinated, because at that point the blood no longer
ﬂows through the arteries to the rest of the body.
When the heart stops beating properly, the body cannot
survive. Breathing will soon stop, and the body’s organs
will no longer receive the oxygen they need to function.
Without oxygen, brain damage can begin in about

4 to 6 minutes, and the damage can become irreversible
after about 10 minutes.
A person in cardiac arrest is unconscious, not breathing
and has no heartbeat. The heart has either stopped
beating or is beating weakly and irregularly so that
a pulse cannot be detected.
Cardiovascular disease is the primary cause of cardiac
arrest in adults. Cardiac arrest also results from
drowning, choking, drug abuse, severe injury, brain
damage and electrocution.
Causes of cardiac arrest in children and infants include
airway and breathing problems, traumatic injury, a hard
blow to the chest, congenital heart disease and sudden
infant death syndrome (SIDS).
Cardiac arrest can happen suddenly, without any of
the warning signs usually seen in a heart attack. This is
known as sudden cardiac arrest or sudden cardiac death
and accounts for more than 300,000 deaths annually
in the United States. Sudden cardiac arrest is caused by
abnormal, chaotic electrical activity of the heart (known
as arrhythmias). The most common life-threatening
abnormal arrhythmia is ventricular ﬁbrillation (V-ﬁb).

Cardiac Chain of Survival
CPR alone may not be enough to help someone survive
cardiac arrest. Advanced medical care is needed as
soon as possible. A person in cardiac arrest will have
the greatest chance of survival if you follow the four
links in the Cardiac Chain of Survival:
1.

Early recognition and early access to the
emergency medical services (EMS) system.
The sooner someone calls 9-1-1 or the local
emergency number, the sooner EMS personnel
will take over.
2. Early CPR. CPR helps supply blood containing
oxygen to the brain and other vital organs. This
helps to keep the person alive until an AED is
used or advanced medical care is provided.
3. Early deﬁbrillation. An electrical shock, called
deﬁbrillation, may help to restore an effective
heart rhythm.
4. Early advanced medical care.
EMS personnel provide more advanced medical
care and transport the person to a hospital.
For each minute that CPR and deﬁbrillation are delayed,
the chance for survival is reduced by about 10 percent.
In the Cardiac Chain of Survival, each link of the chain
depends on, and is connected to, the other links. Taking
quick action by calling 9-1-1 or the local emergency
number, starting CPR immediately and using an AED,
if one is available, makes it more likely that a person
in cardiac arrest will survive. Remember, you are the
CHAPTER

Cardiac Emergencies and CPR

ﬁrst link in the Cardiac Chain of Survival. By acting
quickly, you can make a positive difference for someone
experiencing a cardiac emergency.

What to Look For
The main signals of cardiac arrest in an adult, a child
and an infant are unconsciousness and no breathing.
The presence of these signals means that no blood
and oxygen are reaching the person’s brain and other
vital organs.

by an AED is needed. This shock disrupts the heart’s
electrical activity long enough to allow the heart to
spontaneously develop an effective rhythm on its
own. Without early CPR and early deﬁbrillation, the
chances of survival are greatly reduced. (Using an AED is
discussed in detail in Chapter 3.)

CPR for Adults
To determine if an unconscious adult needs CPR, follow
the emergency action steps (CHECK—CALL—CARE)
that you learned in Chapter 1.
■

When to Call 9-1-1

■

Call 9-1-1 or the local emergency number immediately
if you suspect that a person is in cardiac arrest or you
witness someone suddenly collapse.

■

What to Do Until Help Arrives
Perform CPR until an AED is available and ready to use
or advanced medical personnel take over.

Early CPR and Defibrillation
A person in cardiac arrest needs immediate CPR and
deﬁbrillation. The cells of the brain and other important
organs continue to live for a short time—until all of the
oxygen in the blood is used.
CPR is a combination of chest compressions and
rescue breaths. When the heart is not beating, chest
compressions are needed to circulate blood containing
oxygen. Given together, rescue breaths and chest
compressions help to take over for the heart and lungs.
CPR increases the chances of survival for a person in
cardiac arrest.
In many cases, however, CPR alone cannot correct
the underlying heart problem: deﬁbrillation delivered

FIGURE 2-5 Position yourself so that your shoulders are directly over
your hands.

First Aid/CPR/AED

Participant’s Manual

CHECK the scene and the injured or ill person.

CALL 9-1-1 or the local emergency number.
CHECK for breathing for no more than 10 seconds.
■ Quickly CHECK for severe bleeding.
■

If the person is not breathing, give CARE by
beginning CPR.

For chest compressions to be the most effective, the
person should be on his or her back on a ﬁrm, ﬂat
surface. If the person is on a soft surface like a sofa
or bed, quickly move him or her to a ﬁrm, ﬂat surface
before you begin.
To perform CPR on an adult:
■

Position your body correctly by kneeling beside
the person’s upper chest, placing your hands in the
correct position, and keeping your arms and elbows
as straight as possible so that your shoulders are
directly over your hands (Fig. 2-5). Your body position
is important when giving chest compressions.
Compressing the person’s chest straight down will
help you reach the necessary depth. Using the correct
body position also will be less tiring for you.
■ Locate the correct hand position by placing the heel
of one hand on the person’s sternum (breastbone)
at the center of his or her chest (Fig. 2-6). Place

FIGURE 2-6 Locate the correct hand position by placing the heel of
one hand on the person’s sternum (breastbone) in the center of the
person’s chest.

■

Give 30 chest compressions. Push hard, push fast
at a rate of at least 100 compressions per minute.
Note that the term “100 compressions per minute”
refers to the speed of compressions, not the number
of compressions given in a minute. As you give
compressions, count out loud, “One and two and
three and four and ﬁve and six and…” up to
30. Push down as you say the number and come up
as you say “and.” This will help you to keep a steady,
even rhythm.

■

FIGURE 2-7 Place your other hand directly on top of
the first hand. Try to keep your fingers off of the chest
by interlacing them or holding them upward.

your other hand directly on top of the ﬁrst hand
and try to keep your ﬁngers off of the chest by
interlacing them or holding them upward (Fig. 2-7).
If you feel the notch at the end of the sternum,
move your hands slightly toward the person’s head.
If you have arthritis in your hands, you can give
compressions by grasping the wrist of the hand
positioned on the chest with your other hand
(Fig. 2-8). The person’s clothing should not
interfere with ﬁnding the proper hand position or
your ability to give effective compressions. If it does,
loosen or remove enough clothing to allow deep
compressions in the center of the person’s chest.

Give compressions by pushing the sternum
down at least 2 inches (Fig. 2-9, A). The downward
and upward movement should be smooth, not
jerky. Push straight down with the weight of
your upper body, not with your arm muscles.
This way, the weight of your upper body will
create the force needed to compress the chest.
Do not rock back and forth. Rocking results in
less-effective compressions and wastes muchneeded energy. If your arms and shoulders
tire quickly, you are not using the correct
body position.
■ After each compression, release the pressure on
the chest without removing your hands or changing
hand position (Fig. 2-9, B). Allow the chest to
return to its normal position before starting the
next compression. Maintain a steady down-and-up
rhythm and do not pause between compressions.
Spend half of the time pushing down and half
of the time coming up. When you press down, the
walls of the heart squeeze together, forcing the
blood to empty out of the heart. When you come
up, you should release all pressure on the chest,
but do not take hands off the chest. This allows
the heart’s chambers to ﬁll with blood between
compressions.

FIGURE 2-8 If you have arthritis in your hands, you
can give compressions by grasping the wrist of the
hand positioned on the chest with your other hand.

FIGURE 2-9, A–B To give chest compressions: A, Push straight down
with the weight of your body. B, Release, allowing the chest to return
to its normal position.

CHAPTER

Cardiac Emergencies and CPR

■

Once you have given 30 compressions, open the
airway using the head-tilt/chin-lift technique and give
2 rescue breaths. Each rescue breath should last about
1 second and make the chest clearly rise.
Open the airway and give rescue breaths, one
after the other.
Tilt the head back and lift the chin up.

Pinch the nose shut then make a complete seal
over the person’s mouth.

Blow in for about 1 second to make the chest
clearly rise.

■

Continue cycles of chest compressions and rescue
breaths. Each cycle of chest compressions and rescue
breaths should take about 24 seconds. Minimize the
interruption of chest compressions.

If Two Responders Are Available
If two responders trained in CPR are at the scene, both
should identify themselves as being trained. One should
call 9-1-1 or the local emergency number for help while
the other performs CPR. If the ﬁrst responder is tired
and needs help:
■

The ﬁrst responder should tell the second responder
to take over.
■ The second responder should immediately take over
CPR, beginning with chest compressions.

When to Stop CPR
Once you begin CPR, do not stop except in one of these
situations:
■

You notice an obvious sign of life, such as
breathing.
■ An AED is available and ready to use.
■ Another trained responder or EMS personnel take
over (Fig. 2-10).

FIGURE 2-11 Monitor breathing until help arrives.

■

You are too exhausted to continue.
■ The scene becomes unsafe.
If at any time you notice that the person is breathing,
stop CPR. Keep his or her airway open and continue
to monitor the person’s breathing and for any changes
in the person’s condition until EMS personnel take
over (Fig. 2-11).

Cardiac Emergencies in Children
and Infants
It is rare for a child or an infant to initially suffer
a cardiac emergency. Usually, a child or an infant
has a respiratory emergency ﬁrst and then a cardiac
emergency develops.
Causes of cardiac arrest in children and infants
include:
■

Airway and breathing problems.

■

Traumatic injury or an accident (e.g., motor-vehicle
collision, drowning, electrocution or poisoning).
■ A hard blow to the chest.
■

Congenital heart disease.
■ Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS).
If you recognize that a child or an infant is not breathing,
begin CPR.

CPR for Children and Infants

FIGURE 2-10 Perform CPR until an AED becomes available and is
ready to use or EMS personnel take over. Courtesy of Terry Georgia.

First Aid/CPR/AED

Participant’s Manual

Follow the emergency action steps (CHECK—
CALL—CARE) to determine if you will need to
perform CPR for a child or an infant. The principles
of CPR (compressing the chest and giving rescue
breaths) are the same for children and infants as for
adults. However, the CPR techniques are slightly
different since children’s and infants’ bodies
are smaller.

FOCUS ON PREPAREDNESS

ADVANCE DIRECTIVES
Your 85-year-old grandfather is living with your
family. He has a terminal illness and is frequently
in the hospital.
One afternoon, you go to his room to give him
lunch. As you start to talk to him, you realize that he
is unconscious. You check for breathing. He is not
breathing. What should you do?
No one but you can answer that question. No one
can advise you. No one can predict the outcome of
your decision. You alone must decide whether or not
to give your grandfather CPR.
Endless questions race through your mind.
Can I face the fact I am losing someone I love?
Should I always try to perform CPR? What would
his life be like after resuscitation? What would my
grandfather want? Your mind tells you to perform
CPR, yet your heart says no.
It is important to realize that it is okay to withhold
CPR when a terminally ill person is dying. Nature
takes its course, and in some cases people feel they
have lived full lives and are prepared for death.

Advance Directives
Fortunately, this type of heart-wrenching, last-second
decision sometimes can be avoided if loved ones
talk to each other in advance about their preferences
regarding lifesaving treatments.
Instructions that describe a person’s wishes about
medical treatment are called advance directives.
These instructions make known a person’s intentions
while he or she is still capable of doing so and are
used when the person can no longer make his or her
own health-care decisions.
As provided by the Federal Patient Self-Determination
Act, adults who are admitted to a hospital or a healthcare facility or who receive assistance from certain
organizations that receive funds from Medicare and
Medicaid have the right to make fundamental choices
about their own care. They must be told about their
right to make decisions about the level of life support
that would be provided in an emergency situation.
They are supposed to be offered the opportunity to
make these choices at the time of admission.

Conversations with relatives, friends or health care
providers while the person is still capable of making
decisions are the most common form of advance
directives. However, because conversations may not
be recalled accurately or may not have taken into
account the illness or emergency now facing the
person, the courts consider written directives to
be more reliable.
Two examples of written advance directives are
living wills and durable powers of attorney for health
care. The types of health-care decisions covered by
these documents vary by state. Talking with a legal
professional can help to determine which advance
directive options are available in your state and
what they cover.
If a person establishes a living will, directions for
health care would be in place before he or she
became unable to communicate his or her wishes.
Instructions that can be included in this document
vary from state to state. A living will generally allows
a person to refuse only medical care that “merely
prolongs the process of dying,” such as resuscitating
a person with a terminal illness.
If a person has established a durable power of
attorney for health care, the document would
authorize someone else to make medical decisions
for that person in any situation in which the person
could no longer make them for him- or herself.
This authorized person is called a health care
surrogate or proxy. This surrogate, with the
information given by the person’s health care
provider, may consent to or refuse medical
treatment on the person’s behalf.

Do Not Resuscitate or Do Not
Attempt Resuscitation
A doctor could formalize the person’s preferences
by writing Do Not Resuscitate (DNR) or Do Not
Attempt Resuscitation (DNAR) orders in his or her
medical records. Such orders would state that if the
person’s heart or breathing stops, he or she should
not be resuscitated. DNR/DNAR orders may be
covered in a living will or in the durable power of
attorney for health care.
(Continued )

CHAPTER

Cardiac Emergencies and CPR

FOCUS ON PREPAREDNESS

(Continued )

Appointing someone to act as a health care
surrogate, along with writing down your instructions,
is the best way to formalize your wishes about
medical care. Some of these documents can be
obtained through a personal physician, attorney or
various state and health care organizations. A lawyer
is not always needed to execute advance directives.
However, if you have any questions concerning
advance directives, it is wise to obtain legal advice.

Discuss the document with all parties so that they
understand the intent of all requests. Keep these
documents updated.

Talk in Advance
Copies of advance directives should be provided
to all personal physicians, family members and the
person chosen as the health care surrogate. Tell
them which documents have been prepared and
where the original and other copies are located.

Knowing about living wills, durable powers of
attorney for health care and DNR/DNAR orders
can help you prepare for difficult decisions. For
more information about your rights and the options
available to you in your state, contact a legal
professional.

CPR for a Child
If during the unconscious check you ﬁnd that the child
is not breathing, place the child face-up on a ﬁrm, ﬂat
surface. Begin CPR by following these steps:
■

Locate the proper hand position on the middle
of the breastbone as you would for an adult
(Fig. 2-12, A). If you feel the notch at the end of
the sternum, move your hands slightly toward the
child’s head.

■

Position your body as you would for an adult,
kneeling next to the child’s upper chest, positioning

Keep in mind that advance directives are not limited
to elderly people or people with terminal illnesses.
Advance directives should be considered by anyone
who has decided on the care he or she would like to
have provided. An unexpected injury or illness could
create a need for decisions at any time.

your shoulders over your hands and keeping your
arms and elbows as straight as possible.
■ Give 30 chest compressions. Push hard, push fast
to a depth of about 2 inches and at a rate of at least
100 compressions per minute. Lift up, allowing the
chest to fully return to its normal position, but keep
contact with the chest.
■ After giving 30 chest compressions, open the airway
and give 2 rescue breaths (Fig. 2-12, B). Each rescue
breath should last about 1 second and make the chest
clearly rise. Use the head-tilt/chin-lift technique to
ensure that the child’s airway is open.

FIGURE 2-12, A–B To perform CPR on a child: A, Locate the proper hand position in the center of the child’s chest by placing 2 hands on the center
of the child’s chest. B, After giving 30 chest compressions, open the airway and give 2 rescue breaths.

First Aid/CPR/AED

Participant’s Manual

Continue cycles of 30 chest compressions and 2 rescue
breaths. Do not stop CPR except in one of these
situations:

■

If at any time you notice the child begin to breathe,
stop CPR, keep the airway open and monitor breathing
and for any changes in the child’s condition until EMS
personnel take over.

Give 30 chest compressions using the pads of
these ﬁngers to compress the chest. Compress
the chest about 1½ inches. Push hard, push fast
(Fig. 2-13, A). Your compressions should be
smooth, not jerky. Keep a steady rhythm.
Do not pause between each compression.
When your ﬁngers are coming up, release pressure
on the infant’s chest completely but do not let your
ﬁngers lose contact with the chest. Compress at a rate
of at least 100 compressions per minute.
■ After giving 30 chest compressions, give 2 rescue
breaths, covering the infant’s mouth and nose
with your mouth (Fig. 2-13, B). Each rescue
breath should last about 1 second and make the
chest clearly rise.

CPR for an Infant

Continue cycles of 30 chest compressions and 2
rescue breaths. Do not stop CPR except in one of these
situations:

■

You ﬁnd an obvious sign of life, such as
breathing.

■

An AED is ready to use.
■ Another trained responder or EMS personnel
take over.
■ You are too exhausted to continue.
■

The scene becomes unsafe.

If during your check you ﬁnd that the infant is not
breathing, begin CPR by following these steps:

■

Find the correct location for compressions.
Keep one hand on the infant’s forehead to
maintain an open airway. Use the pads of two
or three ﬁngers of your other hand to give chest
compressions on the center of the chest, just
below the nipple line (toward the infant’s feet).
If you feel the notch at the end of the infant’s
sternum, move your ﬁngers slightly toward the
infant’s head.

■
■
■

You ﬁnd an obvious sign of life, such as
breathing.
An AED is ready to use.
Another trained responder or EMS personnel take
over.
You are too exhausted to continue.
The scene becomes unsafe.

If at any time you notice the infant begin to breathe,
stop CPR, keep the airway open and monitor breathing
and for any changes in the infant’s condition until EMS
personnel take over.

FIGURE 2-13, A–B To perform CPR on an infant: A, Place the pads of two or three fingers in the center of the infant’s chest and compress the chest
about 1½ inches. B, Give 2 rescue breaths, covering the infant’s mouth and nose with your mouth.

CHAPTER

Cardiac Emergencies and CPR

If Chest Does Not Rise
with Rescue Breaths

Continuous Chest Compressions
(Hands-Only CPR)

If the chest does not rise with the initial rescue breath,
retilt the head before giving the second breath. If the
second breath does not make the chest rise, the person
may be choking. After each subsequent set of chest
compressions and before attempting breaths, look
for an object (Fig 2-14, A-B) and, if seen, remove it.
Continue CPR.

If you are unable or unwilling for any reason to perform
full CPR (with rescue breaths), give continuous chest
compressions after checking the scene and the person
and calling 9-1-1 or the local emergency number
(Fig 2-15, A-B). Continue giving chest compressions
until EMS personnel take over or you notice an obvious
sign of life, such as breathing.

B
FIGURE 2-14, A–B After each subsequent set of chest compressions
and before attempting breaths, look for an object and, if seen, remove
it. Note: Do not attempt to remove an object if you do not see one.
A, Adult. B, Infant.

First Aid/CPR/AED

Participant’s Manual

B
FIGURE 2-15, A–B A, Check the person. B, Give chest compressions.

TABLE 2-1

CPR SKILL COMPARISON

Adult

Child

HAND POSITION

Two hands in center
of chest (on lower half of
sternum)

Two or three ﬁngers
in center of chest
(on lower half of
sternum, just below
nipple line)

CHEST COMPRESSIONS

At least 2 inches

About 2 inches

About 11⁄2 inches

RESCUE BREATHS

Until the chest clearly
rises (about 1 second per
breath)

CYCLE

30 chest compressions
and 2 rescue breaths

RATE

30 chest compressions in
about 18 seconds
(at least 100
compressions
per minute)

Skill Components

PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER
Cardiac emergencies are life threatening. Every day
someone will have a heart attack or go into cardiac
arrest. These cardiac emergencies usually happen
in the home. If you know the signals of a heart
attack and cardiac arrest, you will be able to respond

Infant

immediately. Call 9-1-1 or the local emergency
number and give care until help takes over. If the
person is in cardiac arrest, perform CPR. Use an
AED if one is available. These steps will increase
the chances of survival for the person having
a cardiac emergency.

CHAPTER

Cardiac Emergencies and CPR

SKILL SHEET

CPR—ADULT
NO BREATHING

AFTER CHECKING THE SCENE AND THE INJURED OR ILL PERSON:

GIVE 30 CHEST COMPRESSIONS
Push hard, push fast in the center of the chest at
least 2 inches deep and at least 100 compressions
per minute.
TIP: The person must be on a firm, flat surface.

GIVE 2 RESCUE BREATHS
■
■
■
■
■

Tilt the head back and lift the chin up.
Pinch the nose shut then make a
complete seal over the person’s mouth.
Blow in for about 1 second to make the
chest clearly rise.
Give rescue breaths, one after the other.
If chest does not rise with the initial rescue breath,
retilt the head before giving the second breath.
If the second breath does not make the chest rise, the
person may be choking. After each subsequent set of
chest compressions and before attempting breaths, look for an object and, if seen, remove it.
Continue CPR.

DO NOT STOP
Continue cycles of CPR. Do not stop except in one of these situations:
■ You find an obvious sign of life, such as breathing.
■ An AED is ready to use.
■ Another trained responder or EMS personnel take over.
■ You are too exhausted to continue.
■ The scene becomes unsafe.
TIP: If at any time you notice an obvious sign of life, stop
CPR and monitor breathing and for any changes in condition.

WHAT TO DO NEXT
■

USE AN AED AS SOON AS ONE IS AVAILABLE.

First Aid/CPR/AED

Participant’s Manual

SKILL SHEET

CPR—CHILD
NO BREATHING

AFTER CHECKING THE SCENE AND THE INJURED OR ILL CHILD:

GIVE 30 CHEST COMPRESSIONS
Push hard, push fast in the center of the chest about
2 inches deep and at least 100 compressions per minute.
TIP: The child must be on a firm, flat surface.

GIVE 2 RESCUE BREATHS
■
■
■
■
■

WHAT TO DO NEXT
■

USE AN AED AS SOON AS ONE IS AVAILABLE.

CHAPTER

Cardiac Emergencies and CPR

SKILL SHEET

CPR—INFANT
NO BREATHING

AFTER CHECKING THE SCENE AND THE INJURED OR ILL INFANT:

GIVE 30 CHEST COMPRESSIONS
Push hard, push fast in the center of the chest about
1½ inches deep and at least 100 compressions
per minute.
TIP: The infant must be on a firm, flat surface.

GIVE 2 RESCUE BREATHS
■
■
■
■
■

Tilt the head back and lift the chin up to a
neutral position.
Make a complete seal over the infant’s
mouth and nose.
Blow in for about 1 second to make the
chest clearly rise.
Give rescue breaths, one after the other.
If chest does not rise with the initial rescue breath,
retilt the head before giving the second breath.
If the second breath does not make the chest rise, the
infant may be choking. After each subsequent set of chest compressions and before attempting
breaths, look for an object and, if seen, remove it. Continue CPR.

WHAT TO DO NEXT
■

USE AN AED AS SOON AS ONE IS AVAILABLE.
First Aid/CPR/AED

Participant’s Manual

CHAPTER

AED

udden cardiac arrest occurs when the heart suddenly stops beating normally because of abnormal electrical
activity of the heart. Every year in the United States more than 300,000 people die of sudden cardiac arrest.
Sudden cardiac arrest can happen to anyone, anytime without warning but usually occurs in adults. Most
cardiac arrests happen in the home. Therefore, knowing how to activate the emergency medical services (EMS)
system, perform CPR and use an automated external deﬁbrillator (AED) could help you save a life—most likely
someone you love.

This chapter further discusses the third link in the Cardiac Chain of Survival: early deﬁbrillation, including what
it is and how it works in the case of life-threatening abnormal electrical activity of the heart. You also will read
about the steps to follow when using an AED. This knowledge will give you the conﬁdence to give care to anyone
who experiences sudden cardiac arrest.

CHAPTER

AED

WHEN THE HEART
SUDDENLY FAILS
The heart’s electrical system sends out signals that tell
the heart to pump blood. These signals travel through
the upper chambers of the heart, called the atria, to the
lower chambers, called the ventricles.
When the heart is normal and healthy, these electrical
signals cause the ventricles to squeeze together, or
contract. These contractions force blood out of the heart.
The blood then circulates throughout the body. When
the ventricles relax between contractions, blood ﬂows
back into the heart. The pause that you notice between
heart beats when taking a person’s pulse are the pauses
between contractions.
If the heart is damaged by disease or injury, its electrical
system can be disrupted. This can cause an abnormal
heart rhythm that can stop the blood from circulating.
The most common abnormal heart rhythm that causes
sudden cardiac arrest occurs when the ventricles simply
quiver, or ﬁbrillate, without any organized rhythm.
This condition is called ventricular ﬁbrillation (V-ﬁb).
In V-ﬁb, the electrical impulses ﬁre at random, creating
chaos and preventing the heart from pumping and
circulating blood. The person may suddenly collapse
unconscious, and stop breathing.
Another abnormal rhythm found during sudden
cardiac arrest is ventricular tachycardia, or V-tach.
With V-tach, the electrical system tells the ventricles
to contract too quickly. As a result, the heart cannot
pump blood properly. As with V-ﬁb, during V-tach
the person may collapse, become unconscious and
stop breathing.
In many cases, V-ﬁb and V-tach can be corrected by
an electrical shock delivered by an AED. AEDs are
portable electronic devices that analyze the heart’s
rhythm and deliver an electrical shock, known as
deﬁbrillation, which helps the heart to re-establish
an effective rhythm (Fig. 3-1). For each minute that
CPR and deﬁbrillation are delayed, the person’s
chance for survival is reduced by about 10 percent.
However, by learning how to perform CPR and use
an AED, you can make a difference before EMS
personnel take over.

FIGURE 3-1 There are several types of AEDs.

guidelines provided by the facility’s medical director
or EMS system, when using an AED. Be thoroughly
familiar with the manufacturer’s operating instructions.
Also, be familiar with maintenance guidelines for the
device that you will be using.

AED PRECAUTIONS
When operating an AED, follow these general
precautions:
■

Do not use alcohol to wipe the person’s chest dry.
Alcohol is ﬂammable.
■ Do not use an AED and/or pads designed for adults
on a child younger than 8 years or weighing less than
55 pounds unless pediatric AED pads speciﬁc to the
device are not available.
■ Do not use pediatric AED pads on an adult or on a
child older than 8 years, or on a person weighing
more than 55 pounds. AEDs equipped with
pediatric AED pads deliver lower levels of energy
that are considered appropriate only for children

USING AN AED
When a cardiac arrest in an adult occurs, call 9-1-1 or
local emergency number and begin CPR immediately.
Also, use an AED as soon as it is available and ready to
use (Fig. 3-2). If CPR is in progress, do not interrupt
until the AED is turned on and the deﬁbrillation pads
are applied. Always follow local protocols, which are
46

First Aid/CPR/AED

Participant’s Manual

FIGURE 3-2 Defibrillation may help the heart to re-establish an
effective heart rhythm.

and infants up to 8 years old or weighing less than
55 pounds.
■ Do not touch the person while the AED is
analyzing. Touching or moving the person may
affect analysis.
■ Before shocking a person with an AED, make sure
that no one is touching or is in contact with the person
or any resuscitation equipment.

operation. Most AEDs can be operated by following
these simple steps:
■

Do not touch the person while the device is
deﬁbrillating. You or someone else could be shocked.
■ Do not deﬁbrillate someone when around
ﬂammable or combustible materials, such as gasoline
or free-ﬂowing oxygen.

Turn on the AED.
■ Expose the person’s chest and wipe the bare chest
dry with a small towel or gauze pads. This ensures
that the AED pads will stick to the chest properly.
■ Apply the AED pads to the person’s bare, dry chest.
(Make sure to peel the backing off each pad, one at a
time, to expose the adhesive surface of the pad before
applying it to the person’s bare chest.) Place one pad
on the upper right chest and the other pad on the left
side of the chest (Fig. 3-3, A).
■ Plug the connector into the AED, if necessary.

■

Do not use an AED in a moving vehicle. Movement
may affect the analysis.
■ The person should not be in a pool or puddle of water
when the responder is operating an AED.
■ Do not use an AED on a person wearing a
nitroglycerin patch or other medical patch on the
chest. With a gloved hand, remove any patches from
the chest before attaching the device.
■

Do not use a mobile phone or radio within 6 feet
of the AED. Radiofrequency interference (RFI)
and electromagnetic interference (EMI), as well as
infrared interference, generated by radio signals can
disrupt analysis.

HOW TO USE AN
AED—ADULTS
Different types of AEDs are available, but all are
similar to operate and have some common features,
such as electrode (AED or defibrillation) pads, voice
prompts, visual displays and/or lighted buttons to
guide the responder through the steps of the AED

Let the AED analyze the heart rhythm (or push the
button marked “analyze,” if indicated and prompted
by the AED). Advise all responders and bystanders to
“stand clear” (Fig. 3-3, B). No one should touch the
person while the AED is analyzing because this could
result in faulty readings.

■

If the AED advises that a shock is needed:
{ Make sure that no one, including you, is touching
the person.
{ Say, “EVERYONE, STAND CLEAR.”
{ Deliver the shock by pushing the “shock” button,
if necessary. (Some models can deliver the
shock automatically while others have a “shock”
button that must be manually pushed to deliver
the shock.)
■ After delivering the shock, or if no shock is advised:
{ Perform about 2 minutes (or 5 cycles) of CPR.
{ Continue to follow the prompts of the AED.
If at any time you notice an obvious sign of life, such as
breathing, stop performing CPR and monitor the person’s
breathing and any changes in the person’s condition.

FIGURE 3-3, A–B To use an AED on an adult: Turn on the AED. A, Apply the pads to the person’s bare, dry chest. Place one pad on the upper right
chest and the other pad on the left side of the chest. B, Advise everyone to “stand clear” while the AED analyzes the heart rhythm. Deliver a shock by
pushing the shock button if indicated and prompted by the AED.

CHAPTER

AED

HOW TO USE AN AED—
CHILDREN AND INFANTS
While the incidence of cardiac arrest is relatively
low compared with adults, sudden cardiac arrest
resulting from V-ﬁb does happen to young children
and infants. However, most cases of cardiac arrest
in children and infants are not sudden and may be
caused by:
■

Airway and breathing problems.
Traumatic injuries or accidents (e.g., motor-vehicle
collision, drowning, electrocution or poisoning).
■ A hard blow to the chest.
■

■

Congenital heart disease.
■ Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS).
Use an AED as soon as it is available, ready to use and
is safe to do so. However, as you learned in the Cardiac
Chain of Survival, in a cardiac emergency, you should
always call 9-1-1 or the local emergency number ﬁrst.
AEDs equipped with pediatric AED pads can deliver
lower levels of energy considered appropriate for
children and infants up to 8 years of age or weighing
less than 55 pounds. Use pediatric AED pads and/or
equipment if available. If pediatric-speciﬁc equipment
is not available, use an AED designed for adults on
children and infants. Always follow local protocols (i.e.,
guidelines provided by the facility’s medical director
or EMS) and the manufacturer’s instructions. Follow
the same general steps and precautions that you would
when using an AED on an adult in cardiac arrest.
■

Turn on the AED.
■ Expose the child’s or infant’s chest and wipe it dry.
■ Apply the pediatric pads to the child’s or infant’s bare,
dry chest. Place one pad on the child’s upper right

chest and the other pad on the left side of the chest.
Make sure that the pads are not touching. If the
pads risk touching each other, such as with a small
child or an infant, place one pad in the middle of
the child’s or infant’s chest and the other pad on
the child’s or infant’s back, between the shoulder
blades (Fig. 3-4, A–B).
■ Plug the connector into the AED, if necessary.
■

Let the AED analyze the heart rhythm (or push the
button marked “analyze,” if indicated and prompted
by the AED). Advise all responders and bystanders to
“Stand clear.” No one should touch the child or infant
while the AED is analyzing because this could result
in faulty reading.
■ If the AED advises that a shock is needed:
{ Make sure that no one, including you, is touching
the child or infant.
{ Say, “EVERYONE, STAND CLEAR.”
{
■

Deliver the shock by pushing the “shock” button,
if necessary.

After delivering the shock, or if no shock is advised:
{ Perform about 2 minutes (or 5 cycles) of CPR.
{ Continue to follow the prompts of the AED.

If at any time you notice an obvious sign of life,
such as breathing, stop performing CPR and monitor
breathing and for any changes in the child’s or
infant’s condition.

SPECIAL AED SITUATIONS
Some situations require you to pay special attention
when using an AED. These include using AEDs
around water and on people with implantable devices,
transdermal patches, hypothermia, trauma and jewelry
or body piercings. Or, you may need to determine what

FIGURE 3-4, A–B A, Place one pediatric pad on the upper right chest and the other pad on the left side of the chest. B, If the pads risk touching
each other, place one on the chest and the other on the back of the child or infant.

First Aid/CPR/AED

Participant’s Manual

to do if local protocols or the AED’s instructions differ
from those you have learned. Familiarize yourself with
these situations as much as possible so that you know
how to respond appropriately, should the situation arise.
Always use common sense when using an AED and
follow the manufacturer’s recommendations.

AEDs Around Water
If the person is in water, remove him or her from the
water before deﬁbrillation. A shock delivered in water
could harm responders or bystanders. Once you have
removed the person from the water, be sure there are
no puddles of water around you, the person or the
AED. Remove wet clothing to place the pads properly,
if necessary. Dry the person’s chest and attach the
AED pads.
If it is raining, take steps to make sure that the person
is as dry as possible and sheltered from the rain.
Ensure that the person’s chest is wiped dry. Do not
delay deﬁbrillation when taking steps to create a dry
environment. AEDs are safe when all precautions and
manufacturer’s operating instructions are followed, even
in rain and snow. Avoid getting the AED or deﬁbrillation
pads wet.

Pacemakers and Implantable
Cardioverter-Defibrillators
Some people whose hearts are weak, beat too slowly,
skip beats or beat in a rhythm that is too fast may have
had a pacemaker implanted. These small, implantable
devices are usually located in the area below the person’s
left collar bone, although they can be placed elsewhere.
Typically they feel like a small lump under the skin.
Other people may have an implantable cardioverterdeﬁbrillator (ICD), a miniature version of an AED. ICDs
automatically recognize and restore abnormal heart
rhythms. Sometimes a person’s heart beats irregularly,
even if the person has a pacemaker or ICD.
If the implanted device is visible or you know that the
person has one, do not place the deﬁbrillation pads
directly over the device (Fig. 3-5). This may interfere
with the delivery of the shock. Adjust pad placement if
necessary and continue to follow the AED instructions.
If you are not sure whether the person has an implanted
device, use the AED if needed. It will not harm the
person or responder.
The responder should be aware that it is possible to
receive a mild shock if an implantable ICD delivers a
shock to the person during CPR. However, this risk
of injury to responders is minimal, and the amount of
electrical energy involved is low. Follow any special
precautions associated with ICDs but do not delay in
performing CPR and using an AED.

FIGURE 3-5 Look for an ICD before defibrillation. Courtesy of Ted Crites.

Transdermal Medication Patches
Some people have a patch on their skin that
automatically delivers medication through the skin,
called a transdermal medication patch. A common
medication patch is the nitroglycerin patch, which
is used by people with a history of cardiac problems.
Because a responder can absorb medication through
the skin, remove patches with a gloved hand before
deﬁbrillation. Nicotine patches used to stop smoking
look similar to nitroglycerin patches. Do not waste time
trying to identify patches. Instead remove any patch
that you see on the person’s chest with a gloved hand.
Never place AED electrode pads directly on top of
medication patches.

Hypothermia
Hypothermia is a life-threatening condition in which the
entire body cools because its ability to keep warm fails.
Some people who have experienced hypothermia have
been resuscitated successfully, even after prolonged
exposure to the cold. If the person is not breathing,
begin CPR until an AED becomes readily available.
Follow local protocols as to whether you should use
an AED in this situation.
If the person is wet, remove wet clothing and dry his or
her chest. Attach the AED pads. If a shock is indicated,
deliver it, following the instructions of the AED.
If the person still is not breathing, continue CPR and
protect the person from further heat loss. Follow local
protocols as to whether additional shocks should
be delivered. Do not withhold CPR or deﬁbrillation
to re-warm the person. Be careful not to unnecessarily
shake a person who has experienced hypothermia as
this could result in V-ﬁb.

Trauma
If a person is in cardiac arrest as a result of traumatic
injuries, you still can use an AED. Administer
deﬁbrillation according to local protocols.
CHAPTER

AED

Chest Hair
Some men have excessive chest hair that may interfere
with AED pad-to-skin contact, although it’s a rare
occurrence. Since time is critical in a cardiac arrest
situation and chest hair rarely interferes with pad
adhesion, attach the pads and analyze the heart’s
rhythm as soon as possible. Press ﬁrmly on the pads to
attach them to the person’s chest.
If you get a “check pads” or similar message from the
AED, remove the pads and replace them with new ones.
The pad adhesive may pull out some of the chest hair,
which may solve the problem. If you continue to get
the “check pads” message, remove the pads, shave the
person’s chest where the pads should be placed, and
attach new pads to the person’s chest. (There should
be spare deﬁbrillation pads and a safety razor included
in the AED kit.) Be careful not to cut the person while
shaving the chest, as cuts and scrapes can interfere
with rhythm analysis.

Metal Surfaces
It is safe to deliver a shock to a person in cardiac arrest
when he or she is lying on a metal surface, such as
bleachers, as long as appropriate safety precautions
are taken. Speciﬁcally, care should be taken that
deﬁbrillation electrode pads do not contact the
conductive (metal) surface and that no one is touching
the person when the shock button is pressed.

Jewelry and Body Piercings
You do not need to remove jewelry and body piercings
when using an AED. Leaving them on the person will
do no harm. Taking time to remove them will delay
giving the ﬁrst shock. Therefore, do not delay the
use of an AED to remove jewelry or body piercings.
However, do not place the AED pads directly over
metallic jewelry or body piercings. Adjust AED pad
placement if necessary.

OTHER AED PROTOCOLS
Other AED protocols, such as delivering three shocks
and then performing CPR, are neither wrong nor
harmful to the person. However, improved methods,
based on scientiﬁc evidence, make it easier to coordinate
performing CPR and using the AED. Follow the
instructions of the AED device you are using.

AED MAINTENANCE
For deﬁbrillators to perform properly, they must be
maintained like any other machine. AEDs require
minimal maintenance. They have a variety of self-

First Aid/CPR/AED

Participant’s Manual

testing features. However, it is important to be
familiar with any visual or audible warning prompts
on the AED that warn of malfunction or a low
battery. Read the operator’s manual thoroughly and
check with the manufacturer to obtain all necessary
information regarding maintenance.
In most cases, if the machine detects any malfunction,
contact the manufacturer. You may need to return
the device to the manufacturer for service. Although
AEDs require minimal maintenance, it is important to
remember the following:
■

Follow the manufacturer’s speciﬁc recommendations
and your facility’s schedule for periodic equipment
checks, including checking the batteries and
deﬁbrillation pads.

■

Make sure that the batteries have enough energy for
one complete rescue. (A fully charged backup battery
should be readily available.)
■ Make sure that the correct deﬁbrillation pads are in
the package and are properly sealed.
■ Check any expiration dates on deﬁbrillation pads and
batteries and replace as needed.
■

After use, make sure that all accessories are replaced
and that the machine is in proper working order.
■ If at any time the machine fails to work properly
or warning indicators are recognized, stop using it
and contact the manufacturer immediately. If the
AED stops working during an emergency continue
performing CPR until EMS personnel take over.

PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER
Sudden cardiac arrest is a life-threatening emergency
that happens when the heart suddenly stops beating or
circulating blood because of abnormal electrical activity
of the heart. You must act quickly to help. For a person
to survive cardiac arrest, responders must recognize
the cardiac emergency, call 9-1-1 immediately, perform
CPR and use an AED as soon as one becomes available.
These actions will keep blood containing oxygen ﬂowing
throughout the body, stop the abnormal heart rhythm
and ensure that advanced medical care arrives as quickly
as possible. The sooner the EMS system is activated,
CPR is started and a deﬁbrillation shock from an AED
is delivered, the greater are the chances for survival. By
following the four links of the Cardiac Chain of Survival
you can help save a life.

SKILL SHEET

AED—ADULT OR CHILD
OLDER THAN 8 YEARS OR WEIGHING MORE THAN 55 POUNDS
NO BREATHING
TIP: Do not use pediatric AED pads or equipment on an adult or
on a child older than 8 years or weighing more than 55 pounds.
AFTER CHECKING THE SCENE AND THE INJURED OR ILL PERSON:

TURN ON AED
Follow the voice and/or visual prompts.

WIPE BARE CHEST DRY
TIP: Remove any medication patches with a gloved hand.

ATTACH PADS

PLUG IN CONNECTOR,
IF NECESSARY

Continued on next page
CHAPTER

AED

SKILL SHEET continued
STAND CLEAR
Make sure no one, including you, is touching the person.
■ Say, “EVERYONE STAND CLEAR.”

ANALYZE HEART RHYTHM
Push the “analyze” button, if necessary. Let the AED analyze the heart rhythm.

DELIVER SHOCK
IF A SHOCK IS ADVISED:
■ Make sure no one, including you, is touching the person.
■ Say, “EVERYONE STAND CLEAR.”
■ Push the “shock” button, if necessary.

PERFORM CPR
After delivering the shock, or if no shock is advised:
■ Perform about 2 minutes (or 5 cycles) of CPR.
■ Continue to follow the prompts of the AED.

TIPS:

•

If at any time you notice an obvious sign of life, stop CPR
and monitor breathing and for any changes in condition.

•

If two trained responders are present, one should perform
CPR while the second responder operates the AED.

First Aid/CPR/AED

Participant’s Manual

SKILL SHEET

AED—CHILD AND INFANT
YOUNGER THAN 8 YEARS OR WEIGHING LESS THAN 55 POUNDS
NO BREATHING

TIP: When available, use pediatric settings or pads when caring for children and infants.
If pediatric equipment is not available, rescuers may use AEDs configured for adults.
AFTER CHECKING THE SCENE AND THE INJURED OR ILL CHILD OR INFANT:

TURN ON AED
Follow the voice and/or visual prompts.

WIPE BARE CHEST DRY

ATTACH PADS
If the pads risk touching each other, use the
front-to-back pad placement.

PLUG IN CONNECTOR,
IF NECESSARY

Continued on next page
CHAPTER

AED

SKILL SHEET continued
STAND CLEAR
Make sure no one, including you, is touching
the child or infant.
■ Say, “EVERYONE STAND CLEAR.”

ANALYZE HEART RHYTHM
Push the “analyze” button, if necessary. Let the AED analyze the heart rhythm.

DELIVER SHOCK
IF A SHOCK IS ADVISED:
■ Make sure no one, including you,
is touching the child or infant.
■ Say, “EVERYONE STAND CLEAR.”
■ Push the “shock” button.

PERFORM CPR
After delivering the shock, or if no shock is advised:
■ Perform about 2 minutes (or 5 cycles) of CPR.
■ Continue to follow the prompts of the AED.
TIPS:

•

If at any time you notice an obvious sign of life, stop CPR
and monitor breathing and for any changes in condition.

•

If two trained responders are present, one should perform
CPR while the second responder operates the AED.

First Aid/CPR/AED

Participant’s Manual

CHAPTER

Breathing Emergencies

CHAPTER

Breathing Emergencies

BACKGROUND
The human body needs a constant supply of oxygen
to survive. When you breathe through your mouth and
nose, air travels down your throat, through
your windpipe and into your lungs. This pathway
from the mouth and nose to the lungs is called
the airway.
As you might imagine, the airway, mouth and nose are
smaller in children and infants than they are in adults
(Fig. 4-1, A–B). As a result, they can be blocked more
easily by small objects, blood, ﬂuids or swelling.
In a breathing emergency, air must reach the lungs. For
any person, regardless of age, it is important to keep the
airway open when giving care.

Once air reaches the lungs, oxygen in the air is
transferred to the blood. The heart pumps the blood
throughout the body. The blood ﬂows through the blood
vessels, delivering oxygen to the brain, heart and all
other parts of the body.
In some breathing emergencies the oxygen supply to the
body is greatly reduced, whereas in others the oxygen
supply is cut off entirely. As a result, the heart soon stops
beating and blood no longer moves through the body.
Without oxygen, brain cells can begin to die within 4 to
6 minutes (Fig. 4-2). Unless the brain receives oxygen
within minutes, permanent brain damage or death
will result.
It is important to recognize breathing emergencies
in children and infants and act before the heart stops
beating. Frequently, an adult’s heart stops working
(known as cardiac arrest) because of heart disease.
However, children and infants usually have healthy
hearts. When the heart stops in a child or infant, it
usually is the result of a breathing emergency.
No matter what the age of the person, trouble breathing
can be the ﬁrst signal of a more serious emergency,
such as a heart problem. Recognizing the signals of
breathing problems and giving care often are the keys
to preventing these problems from becoming more
serious emergencies.

Nose
Mouth
Tongue
Epiglottis

If the injured or ill person is conscious, he or she
may be able to indicate what is wrong by speaking or
gesturing to you and may be able to answer questions.
However, if you are unable to communicate with a

Trachea
FIGURE 4-1, A A child’s airway

Nose
Mouth
Tongue
Epiglottis
Trachea

FIGURE 4-1, B An adult’s airway

First Aid/CPR/AED

FIGURE 4-2 Time is critical in breathing emergencies.

Participant’s Manual

person, it can be difﬁcult to determine what is wrong.
Therefore, it is important to recognize the signals of
breathing emergencies, know when to call 9-1-1 or the
local emergency number and know what to do until help
arrives and takes over.

RESPIRATORY DISTRESS
AND RESPIRATORY ARREST
Respiratory distress and respiratory arrest are types
of breathing emergencies. Respiratory distress is a
condition in which breathing becomes difﬁcult. It is
the most common breathing emergency. Respiratory
distress can lead to respiratory arrest, which occurs
when breathing has stopped.
Normal breathing is regular, quiet and effortless. A person
does not appear to be working hard or struggling when
breathing normally. This means that the person is not
making noise when breathing, breaths are not fast and
breathing does not cause discomfort or pain. However, it
should be noted that normal breathing rates in children
and infants are faster than normal breathing rates in
adults. Infants have periodic breathing, so changes in
breathing patterns are normal for infants.
You usually can identify a breathing problem by
watching and listening to the person’s breathing and by
asking the person how he or she feels.

Causes of Respiratory Distress
and Respiratory Arrest
Respiratory distress and respiratory arrest can be caused by:
■

Choking (a partially or completely obstructed airway).
Illness.
■ Chronic conditions (long-lasting or frequently
recurring), such as asthma.
■ Electrocution.
■

■
■

Irregular heartbeat.
Heart attack.

■

Injury to the head or brain stem, chest, lungs or
abdomen.
■ Allergic reactions.
■ Drug overdose (especially alcohol, narcotic painkillers,
barbiturates, anesthetics and other depressants).
■

Poisoning.
■ Emotional distress.
■ Drowning.

when a trigger, such as exercise, cold air, allergens or
other irritants, causes the airway to swell and narrow.
This makes breathing difﬁcult.
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
(CDC) estimate that in 2005, nearly 22.2 million
Americans were affected by asthma. Asthma is more
common in children and young adults than in older
adults, but its frequency and severity is increasing
in all age groups in the United States. Asthma is the
third-ranking cause of hospitalization among those
younger than 15 years.
You often can tell when a person is having an asthma
attack by the hoarse whistling sound that he or
she makes while exhaling. This sound, known as
wheezing, occurs because air becomes trapped in
the lungs. Trouble breathing, shortness of breath,
tightness in the chest and coughing after exercise are
other signals of an asthma attack. Usually, people
diagnosed with asthma prevent and control their
attacks with medication. These medications reduce
swelling and mucus production in the airways. They
also relax the muscle bands that tighten around
the airways, making breathing easier. For more
information on asthma, see Chapter 10.

Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a
long-term lung disease encompassing both chronic
bronchitis and emphysema. COPD causes a person
to have trouble breathing because of damage to the
lungs. In a person with COPD, the airways become
partly blocked and the air sacs in the lungs lose their
ability to ﬁll with air. This makes it hard to breathe
in and out. There is no cure for COPD, and it worsens
over time.
The most common cause of COPD is cigarette
smoking, but breathing in other types of lung
irritants, pollution, dust or chemicals over a long
period also can cause COPD. It usually is diagnosed
when a person is middle aged or older. It is the
fourth-ranking cause of death in the United States
and a major cause of illness.
Common signals of COPD include:
■
■
■
■

Asthma
Asthma is the inﬂammation of the air passages that
results in a temporary narrowing of the airways that
carry oxygen to the lungs. An asthma attack happens

■

Coughing up a large volume of mucus.
Tendency to tire easily.
Loss of appetite.
Bent posture with shoulders raised and lips pursed to
make breathing easier.
A fast pulse.

■

Round, barrel-shaped chest.
■ Confusion (caused by lack of oxygen to the brain).

CHAPTER

Breathing Emergencies

Emphysema
Emphysema is a type of COPD. Emphysema is a disease
that involves damage to the air sacs in the lungs. It is a
chronic (long-lasting or frequently recurring) disease
that worsens over time. The most common signal of
emphysema is shortness of breath. Exhaling is extremely
difﬁcult. In advanced cases, the affected person may
feel restless, confused and weak, and even may go into
respiratory or cardiac arrest.

Bronchitis
Bronchitis is an inﬂammation of the main air passages
to the lungs. It can be acute (short-lasting) or chronic.
Chronic bronchitis is a type of COPD. To be diagnosed
with chronic bronchitis, a person must have a cough
with mucus on most days of the month for at least
3 months.
Acute bronchitis is not a type of COPD; it develops after
a person has had a viral respiratory infection. It ﬁrst
affects the nose, sinuses and throat and then spreads to
the lungs. Those most at risk for acute bronchitis include
children, infants, the elderly, people with heart or lung
disease and smokers.
Signals of both types of bronchitis include:
■
■
■
■
■
■

Chest discomfort.
Cough that produces mucus.
Fatigue.
Fever (usually low).
Shortness of breath that worsens with activity.
Wheezing.

Additional signals of chronic bronchitis include:
■

Ankle, feet and leg swelling.
Blue lips.
■ Frequent respiratory infections, such as colds or
the ﬂu.
■

Hyperventilation
Hyperventilation occurs when a person’s breathing
is faster and more shallow than normal. When this
happens, the body does not take in enough oxygen to
meet its demands. People who are hyperventilating feel
as if they cannot get enough air. Often they are afraid
and anxious or seem confused. They may say that
they feel dizzy or that their ﬁngers and toes feel numb
and tingly.
Hyperventilation often results from fear or anxiety
and usually occurs in people who are tense and
nervous. However, it also can be caused by head
injuries, severe bleeding or illnesses, such as high
fever, heart failure, lung disease and diabetic
58

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Participant’s Manual

emergencies. Asthma and exercise also can trigger
hyperventilation.
Hyperventilation is the body’s way of compensating
when there is a lack of enough oxygen. The result is
a decrease in carbon dioxide, which alters the acidity of
the blood.

Allergic Reactions
An allergic reaction is the response of the immune
system to a foreign substance that enters the body.
Common allergens include bee or insect venom,
antibiotics, pollen, animal dander, sulfa and some
foods such as nuts, peanuts, shellﬁsh, strawberries and
coconut oils.
Allergic reactions can cause breathing problems. At ﬁrst
the reaction may appear to be just a rash and a feeling
of tightness in the chest and throat, but this condition
can become life threatening. The person’s face, neck and
tongue may swell, closing the airway.
A severe allergic reaction can cause a condition called
anaphylaxis, also known as anaphylactic shock.
During anaphylaxis, air passages swell and restrict a
person’s breathing. Anaphylaxis can be brought on
when a person with an allergy comes into contact with
allergens via insect stings, food, certain medications or
other substances. Signals of anaphylaxis include a rash,
tightness in the chest and throat, and swelling of the
face, neck and tongue. The person also may feel dizzy or
confused. Anaphylaxis is a life-threatening emergency.
Some people know that they are allergic to certain
substances or to insect stings. They may have learned to
avoid these things and may carry medication to reverse
the allergic reaction. People who have severe allergic
reactions may wear a medical identiﬁcation (ID) tag,
bracelet or necklace.

Croup
Croup is a harsh, repetitive cough that most commonly
affects children younger than 5 years. The airway
constricts, limiting the passage of air, which causes the
child to produce an unusual-sounding cough that can
range from a high-pitched wheeze to a barking cough.
Croup mostly occurs during the evening and nighttime.
Most children with croup can be cared for at home using
mist treatment or cool air. However, in some cases, a
child with croup can progress quickly from respiratory
distress to respiratory arrest.

Epiglottitis
Epiglottitis is a far less common infection than croup
that causes severe swelling of the epiglottis. The
epiglottis is a piece of cartilage at the back of the tongue.

When it swells, it can block the windpipe and lead to
severe breathing problems. Epiglottitis usually is caused
by infection with Haemophilus inﬂuenzae bacteria.
The signals of epiglottitis may be similar to croup, but
it is a more serious illness and can result in death if the
airway is blocked completely.
In the past, epiglottitis was a common illness in children
between 2 and 6 years of age. However, epiglottitis in
children has dropped dramatically in the United States
since the 1980s when children began routinely receiving
the H. inﬂuenzae type B (Hib) vaccine.
For children and adults, epiglottitis begins with a high
fever and sore throat. A person with epiglottitis may
need to sit up and lean forward, perhaps with the chin
thrust out in order to breathe. Other signals include
drooling, difﬁculty swallowing, voice changes, chills,
shaking and fever.
Seek medical care immediately for a person who may
have epiglottitis. This condition is a medical emergency.

FIGURE 4-3 A person who is having trouble breathing may breathe
more easily in a sitting position.

■

If the person is conscious, check for other
conditions.

■

Remember that a person having breathing problems
may ﬁnd it hard to talk. If the person cannot talk,
ask him or her to nod or to shake his or her head
to answer yes-or-no questions. Try to reassure
the person to reduce anxiety. This may make
breathing easier.

■

If bystanders are present and the person with
trouble breathing is having difﬁculty answering
your questions, ask them what they know about the
person’s condition.

■

If the person is hyperventilating and you are sure
whether it is caused by emotion, such as excitement
or fear, tell the person to relax and breathe slowly.
A person who is hyperventilating from emotion may
resume normal breathing if he or she is reassured
and calmed down. If the person’s breathing still
does not slow down, the person could have a serious
problem.

What to Look For
Although breathing problems have many causes, you
do not need to know the exact cause of a breathing
emergency to care for it. You do need to be able to
recognize when a person is having trouble breathing or
is not breathing at all. Signals of breathing emergencies
include:
■

Trouble breathing or no breathing.
■ Slow or rapid breathing.
■ Unusually deep or shallow breathing.
■ Gasping for breath.
■

Wheezing, gurgling or making high-pitched noises.

■

Unusually moist or cool skin.

■

Flushed, pale, ashen or bluish skin.

■

Shortness of breath.

■

Dizziness or light-headedness.

■

Pain in the chest or tingling in the hands, feet or lips.

■

Apprehensive or fearful feelings.

When to Call 9-1-1
If a person is not breathing or if breathing is too fast, too
slow, noisy or painful, call 9-1-1 or the local emergency
number immediately.

What to Do Until Help Arrives
If an adult, child or infant is having trouble breathing:
■

Help the person rest in a comfortable position. Usually,
sitting is more comfortable than lying down because
breathing is easier in that position (Fig. 4-3).

If an adult is unconscious and not breathing, the
cause is most likely a cardiac emergency. Immediately
begin CPR starting with chest compressions.
If an adult is not breathing because of a respiratory
cause, such as drowning, or drug overdose, give
2 rescue breaths after checking for breathing and
before quickly scanning for severe bleeding and
beginning CPR.
Remember, a nonbreathing person’s greatest need is for
oxygen. If breathing stops or is restricted long enough,
a person will become unconscious, the heart will stop
beating and body systems will quickly fail.
If a child or an infant is unconscious and not breathing,
give 2 rescue breaths after checking for breathing
and before quickly scanning for severe bleeding and
beginning CPR.

CHAPTER

Breathing Emergencies

CHOKING
Choking is a common breathing emergency. It occurs
when the person’s airway is partially or completely
blocked. If a conscious person is choking, his or her airway
has been blocked by a foreign object, such as a piece of
food or a small toy; by swelling in the mouth or throat; or
by ﬂuids, such as vomit or blood. With a partially blocked
airway, the person usually can breathe with some trouble.
A person with a partially blocked airway may be able to
get enough air in and out of the lungs to cough or to make
wheezing sounds. The person also may get enough air
to speak. A person whose airway is completely blocked
cannot cough, speak, cry or breathe at all.

Causes of Choking in Adults
Causes of choking in an adult include:
■

Trying to swallow large pieces of poorly chewed
food.

■

Drinking alcohol before or during meals. (Alcohol
dulls the nerves that aid swallowing.)
■ Wearing dentures. (Dentures make it difﬁcult
to sense whether food is fully chewed before it
is swallowed.)
■

Eating while talking excitedly or laughing, or eating
too fast.
■ Walking, playing or running with food or objects in
the mouth.

Causes of Choking in Children
and Infants
Choking is a common cause of injury and death in
children younger than 5 years. Because young children
put nearly everything in their mouths, small, nonfood
items, such as safety pins, small parts from toys and
coins, often cause choking. However, food is responsible
for most of the choking incidents in children.
The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP)
recommends that young children not be given hard,
smooth foods such as raw vegetables. These foods
must be chewed with a grinding motion, which is
a skill that children do not master until 4 years of
age; therefore, children may attempt to swallow
these foods whole. For this same reason, the AAP
recommends not giving children peanuts until they
are 7 years of age or older.
The AAP also recommends that young children not be
given round, ﬁrm foods such as hot dogs and carrot
sticks unless they are chopped into small pieces no
larger than ½ inch. Since choking remains a signiﬁcant
danger to children younger than 5 years, the AAP further
recommends keeping the following foods, and other
items meant to be chewed or swallowed, away from
young children:
■

Hard, gooey or sticky candy
Grapes
■ Popcorn
■

FOCUS ON PREVENTION

CHOKING IN CHILDREN AND INFANTS
■

■
■

■

Supervise mealtimes for young children
and infants.
Do not let children eat while playing or running.
Teach children to chew and swallow food
before talking or laughing.
Do not give chewing gum to young children.
Do not give young children smooth, hard food
such as peanuts and raw vegetables.
Do not give young children round, firm
foods such as hot dogs and carrot sticks
unless chopped into pieces ½ inch
or smaller.
Do not allow small children to play with
un-inflated balloons. (The U.S. Consumer

First Aid/CPR/AED

Participant’s Manual

Product Safety Commission recommends
keeping these away from children younger than
8 years of age.)
■
Keep small objects such as safety pins, small
parts from toys and coins away from small
children.
■
Make sure that toys are too large to be
swallowed.
■
Make sure that toys have no small parts that
could be pulled off.
If you are unsure whether an object is safe for young
children, test it by trying to pass it through a toilet
paper roll. If it fits through the 1¾-inch diameter roll,
it is not safe for young children.

■

Chewing gum
■ Vitamins
Although food items cause most of the choking injuries
in children, toys and household items also can be
hazardous. Balloons, when broken or un-inﬂated, can
choke or suffocate young children who try to swallow them.
According to the Consumer Product Safety Commission
(CPSC), more children have suffocated on non-inﬂated
balloons and pieces of broken balloons than any other type
of toy. Other nonfood items that can cause choking include:
■

Baby powder.
■ Objects from the trash, such as eggshells and pop-tops
from beverage cans.
■

Safety pins.
Coins.
■ Marbles.
■ Pen and marker caps.
■

■

FIGURE 4-4 Clutching the throat with one or
both hands is universally recognized as a signal
for choking.

Small button-type batteries.

What to Look For
Signals of choking include:
■
■
■
■
■
■
■

Coughing, either forcefully or weakly.
Clutching the throat with one or both hands (Fig. 4-4).
Inability to cough, speak, cry or breathe.
Making high-pitched noises while inhaling or noisy
breathing.
Panic.
Bluish skin color.
Losing consciousness if blockage is not removed.

When to Call 9-1-1
If the person continues to cough without coughing up the
object, have someone call 9-1-1 or the local emergency
number. A partially blocked airway can quickly become
completely blocked.

A person whose airway is completely blocked cannot
cough, speak, cry or breathe. Sometimes the person may
cough weakly or make high-pitched noises. This tells you
that the person is not getting enough air to stay alive.
Act at once! If a bystander is available, have him or her
call 9-1-1 or the local emergency number while you begin
to give care.

What to Do Until Help Arrives
Caring for a Conscious Choking Adult
or Child
If the choking person is coughing forcefully, let him or
her try to cough up the object. A person who is getting
enough air to cough or speak is getting enough air to
breathe. Stay with the person and encourage him or her
to continue coughing.

FIGURE 4-5, A–B If a conscious adult has a completely blocked airway: A, Give back blows. B, Then give abdominal thrusts.

CHAPTER

Breathing Emergencies

FIGURE 4-5, C–D If a conscious child has a completely blocked airway: C, Give back blows. D, Then give abdominal thrusts, as you
would for an adult.

A conscious adult or child who has a completely blocked
airway needs immediate care. Using more than one
technique often is necessary to dislodge an object and
clear a person’s airway. A combination of 5 back blows
followed by 5 abdominal thrusts provides an effective
way to clear the airway obstruction (Fig. 4-5, A–D).
To give back blows, position yourself slightly behind the
person. Provide support by placing one arm diagonally
across the chest and bend the person forward at the
waist until the upper airway is at least parallel to the
ground. Firmly strike the person between the shoulder
blades with the heel of your other hand.
To give abdominal thrusts to a conscious choking adult
or child:

giving back blows and abdominal thrusts. Using too
much force may cause internal injuries.
A person who has choked and has been given back blows,
abdominal thrusts and/or chest thrusts to clear the airway
requires a medical evaluation. Internal injuries and
damage to the airway may not be evident immediately.

Special Situations in Caring for the
Conscious Choking Adult or Child
Special situations include:
■

A large or pregnant person. If a conscious
choking person is too large for you to reach around,
is obviously pregnant or is known to be pregnant,
give chest thrusts instead (Fig. 4-6). Chest thrusts

■

Stand or kneel behind the person and wrap your arms
around his or her waist.
■ Locate the navel with one or two ﬁngers of one hand.
Make a ﬁst with the other hand and place the thumb
side against the middle of the person’s abdomen, just
above the navel and well below the lower tip of the
breastbone.
■

Grab your ﬁst with your other hand and give quick,
upward thrusts into the abdomen.

Each back blow and abdominal thrust should be a
separate and distinct attempt to dislodge the obstruction.
Continue sets of 5 back blows and 5 abdominal thrusts
until the object is dislodged; the person can cough
forcefully, speak or breathe; or the person becomes
unconscious. For a conscious child, use less force when
62

First Aid/CPR/AED

Participant’s Manual

FIGURE 4-6 Give chest thrusts to a choking person who is obviously
pregnant or known to be pregnant or is too large for you to reach around.

FIGURE 4-7, A–B If you are alone and choking; A, Bend over and
press your abdomen against any firm object, such as the back of a
chair. B, Or, give yourself abdominal thrusts by using your hands, just
as you would do to another person.

for a conscious adult are like abdominal thrusts,
except for the placement of your hands. For chest
thrusts, place your ﬁst against the center of the
person’s breastbone. Then grab your ﬁst with your
other hand and give quick thrusts into the chest.
■ Being alone and choking. If you are alone
and choking, bend over and press your abdomen
against any ﬁrm object, such as the back of a chair,
a railing or the kitchen sink (Fig. 4-7, A). Do not
bend over anything with a sharp edge or corner
that might hurt you, and be careful when leaning
on a rail that is elevated. Alternatively, give yourself
abdominal thrusts, using your hands, just as if you
were administering the abdominal thrusts to another
person (Fig. 4-7, B).
■ A person in a wheelchair. For a choking person in
a wheelchair, give abdominal thrusts (Fig. 4-8).

Caring for a Conscious Choking Infant

FIGURE 4-8 For a choking person in a wheelchair,
give abdominal thrusts.

back blows with the heel of your hand between
the shoulder blades (Fig. 4-9, B). Each back blow
should be a separate and distinct attempt to dislodge
the object.
■ Maintain support of the infant’s head and neck by
ﬁrmly holding the jaw between your thumb and
foreﬁnger.

If you determine that a conscious infant cannot cough,
cry or breathe, you will need to give a combination of
5 back blows followed by 5 chest thrusts.
To give back blows:
■

Position the infant face-up on your forearm.
Place one hand and forearm on the child’s back,
cradling the back of the head, and one hand
and forearm on the front of the infant. Use your
thumb and fingers to hold the infant’s jaw while
sandwiching the infant between your forearms.

{

Turn the infant over so that he or she is face-down
along your forearm (Fig. 4-9, A).
■ Lower your arm onto your thigh so that the infant’s
head is lower than his or her chest. Then give 5 ﬁrm

B
FIGURE 4-9, A–B A , To give back blows, position the
infant so that he or she is face-down along your forearm.
B, Give 5 firm back blows with the heel of your hand while
supporting the arm that is holding the infant on your thigh.

CHAPTER

Breathing Emergencies

■

To give chest thrusts:
■

Place the infant in a face-up position.
{ Place one hand and forearm on the child’s back,
cradling the back of the head, while keeping your
other hand and forearm on the front of the infant.
Use your thumb and ﬁngers to hold the infant’s
jaw while sandwiching the infant between your
forearms (Fig. 4-10, A).
{ Turn the infant onto his or her back.
■ Lower your arm that is supporting the infant’s back
onto your opposite thigh. The infant’s head should
be lower than his or her chest, which will assist in
dislodging the object.
■ Place the pads of two or three ﬁngers in the center of
the infant’s chest just below the nipple line (toward
the infant’s feet).

Use the pads of these ﬁngers to compress the
breastbone. Compress the breastbone 5 times about
11⁄2 inches and then let the breastbone return to its
normal position. Keep your ﬁngers in contact with the
infant’s breastbone (Fig. 4-10, B).

Continue giving sets of 5 back blows and 5 chest thrusts
until the object is forced out; the infant begins to cough
forcefully, cry or breathe on his or her own; or the infant
becomes unconscious.
You can give back blows and chest thrusts effectively
whether you stand, kneel or sit, as long as the infant
is supported on your thigh and the infant’s head is
lower than the chest. If the infant is large or your
hands are too small to adequately support it, you
may prefer to sit.
Use less force when giving back blows and chest
thrusts to an infant than for a child or an adult.
Using too much force may cause internal
injuries.

Caring for a Conscious Choking Adult or
Child Who Becomes Unconscious
If the adult or child becomes unconscious, carefully
lower him or her to the ground and begin CPR, starting
with compressions. (See pages 42 and 43.)

Caring for a Conscious Choking
Infant Who Becomes Unconscious

If the infant becomes unconscious, carefully place him
or her on a ﬁrm, ﬂat surface and begin CPR, starting
with compressions. (See page 44.)

PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER

B
FIGURE 4-10, A–B A , To give chest thrusts, sandwich the infant
between your forearms. Continue to support the infant’s head. B, Turn
the infant onto his or her back keeping the infant’s head lower than the
chest. Give 5 chest thrusts.

First Aid/CPR/AED

Participant’s Manual

In a breathing emergency, seconds count so it is
important to act at once. Breathing emergencies
include respiratory distress, respiratory arrest
and choking. Look for signals that indicate a
person is having trouble breathing, is not
breathing or is choking. When you recognize
that an adult, a child or an infant is having
trouble breathing, is not breathing or is choking,
call 9-1-1 or the local emergency number
immediately. Then give care for the condition
until help arrives and takes over. You could
save a life.

SKILL SHEET

CONSCIOUS CHOKING—ADULT
CANNOT COUGH, SPEAK OR BREATHE

AFTER CHECKING THE SCENE AND THE INJURED OR ILL PERSON,
HAVE SOM EONE CALL 9-1-1 AND GET CONSENT.

GIVE 5 BACK BLOWS
Bend the person forward at the waist and give 5 back
blows between the shoulder blades with the heel of
one hand.

GIVE 5 ABDOMINAL THRUSTS
■

■
■

Place a fist with the thumb side against the
middle of the person’s abdomen, just above
the navel.
Cover your fist with your other hand.
Give 5 quick, upward abdominal thrusts.

CONTINUE CARE
Continue sets of 5 back blows and 5 abdominal thrusts
until the:
■ Object is forced out.
■ Person can cough forcefully or breathe.
■ Person becomes unconscious.

WHAT TO DO NEXT
■
■

IF PERSON BECOMES UNCONSCIOUS—CALL 9-1-1, if not already done.
Carefully lower the person to the ground and begin CPR, starting with compressions.

CHAPTER

Breathing Emergencies

SKILL SHEET

CONSCIOUS CHOKING—CHILD
CANNOT COUGH, SPEAK OR BREATHE

TIP: Stand or kneel behind the child, depending on his or her size.
AFTER CHECKING THE SCENE AND THE INJURED OR ILL CHILD, HAVE SOM EONE
CALL 9-1-1 AND GET CONSENT FROM THE PARENT OR GUARDIAN, IF PRESENT.

GIVE 5 BACK BLOWS
Bend the child forward at the waist and give 5 back
blows between the shoulder blades with the heel
of one hand.

GIVE 5 ABDOMINAL THRUSTS
■

■
■

Place a fist with the thumb side against the
middle of the child’s abdomen, just above
the navel.
Cover your fist with your other hand.
Give 5 quick, upward abdominal thrusts.

CONTINUE CARE
Continue sets of 5 back blows and 5 abdominal
thrusts until the:
■ Object is forced out.
■ Child can cough forcefully or breathe.
■ Child becomes unconscious.

WHAT TO DO NEXT
■
■

IF CHILD BECOMES UNCONSCIOUS—CALL 9-1-1, if not already done.
Carefully lower the child to the ground and begin CPR, starting with compressions.

First Aid/CPR/AED

Participant’s Manual

SKILL SHEET

CONSCIOUS CHOKING—INFANT
CANNOT COUGH, CRY OR BREATHE

AFTER CHECKING THE SCENE AND THE INJURED OR ILL INFANT, HAVE SOMEONE
CALL 9-1-1 AND GET CONSENT FROM PARENT OR GUARDIAN, IF PRESENT.

GIVE 5 BACK BLOWS
Give firm back blows with the heel of one hand between
the infant’s shoulder blades.

GIVE 5 CHEST THRUSTS
Place two or three fingers in the center of the infant’s chest
just below the nipple line and compress the breastbone
about 1½ inches.
TIP: Support the head and neck securely when giving
back blows and chest thrusts. Keep the head lower
than the chest.

CONTINUE CARE
Continue sets of 5 back blows and 5 chest thrusts until the:
■ Object is forced out.
■ Infant can cough forcefully, cry or breathe.
■ Infant becomes unconscious.

WHAT TO DO NEXT
■
■

IF INFANT BECOMES UNCONSCIOUS—CALL 9-1-1, if not already done.
Carefully place the infant on a firm, flat surface, and begin CPR, starting with compressions.

CHAPTER

Breathing Emergencies

CHAPTER

5
Sudden Illness

f a person suddenly becomes ill, it is important to respond quickly and effectively. When illness happens
suddenly it can be hard to determine what is wrong and what you should do to help.

In this chapter you will read about the signals of sudden illnesses including fainting, seizures, stroke, diabetic
emergencies, allergic reactions, poisoning and substance abuse. This chapter also discusses how to care for speciﬁc
sudden illnesses, even if you do not know the exact cause.

First Aid/CPR/AED

Participant’s Manual

SUDDEN ILLNESS

When to Call 9-1-1

It usually is obvious when someone is injured and
needs care. The person may be able to tell you what
happened and what hurts. Checking the person also
gives you clues about what might be wrong. However,
when someone becomes suddenly ill, it is not as easy
to tell what is physically wrong. At times, there are no
signals to give clues about what is happening. At other
times, the signals only conﬁrm that something is wrong,
without being clear as to what is wrong. In either case,
the signals of a sudden illness often are confusing.
You may ﬁnd it difﬁcult to determine if the person’s
condition is an emergency and whether to call 9-1-1 or
the local emergency number.

Call 9-1-1 or the local emergency for any of the following
conditions:

What to Look For
When a person becomes suddenly ill, he or she usually
looks and feels sick. Common signals include:
■

■
■

■

Changes in level of consciousness, such as feeling
lightheaded, dizzy, drowsy or confused, or becoming
unconscious.
Breathing problems (i.e., trouble breathing or no
breathing).
Signals of a possible heart attack, including persistent
chest pain, discomfort or pressure lasting more than
a few minutes that goes away and comes back or
that spreads to the shoulder, arm, neck, jaw, stomach
or back.
Signals of a stroke, including sudden weakness on one
side of the face (facial droop); sudden weakness, often
on one side of the body; sudden slurred speech or
trouble forming words; or a sudden, severe headache.
Loss of vision or blurred vision.
Signals of shock, including rapid breathing, changes
in skin appearance and cool, pale or ashen
(grayish) skin.
Sweating.

■

Unconsciousness or altered level of consciousness
Breathing problems
■ No breathing
■
■

Chest pain, discomfort or pressure lasting more
than 3 to 5 minutes that goes away and comes back
or that radiates to the shoulder, arm, jaw, neck,
stomach or back
■ Persistent abdominal pain or pressure
■ Severe external bleeding (bleeding that spurts or
gushes steadily from a wound)
■ Vomiting blood or passing blood
■

Severe (critical) burns
■ Suspected poisoning
■ Seizures
■

Stroke
Suspected or obvious injuries to the head, neck or spine
■ Painful, swollen, deformed areas (indicates possible
broken bone) or an open fracture
■

With some sudden illnesses, you might not be sure
whether to call 9-1-1 or the local emergency number for
help. Sometimes the signals come and go. Remember,
if you cannot sort out the problem quickly and easily or
if you have any doubts about the severity of the illness,
make the call for help.

What to Do Until Help Arrives

■

Although you may not know the exact cause of the
sudden illness, you should still give care. Initially
you will care for the signals and not for any speciﬁc
condition. In the few cases in which you know that
the person has a medical condition, such as diabetes,
epilepsy or heart disease, the care you give may be
slightly different. This care may involve helping the
person take medication for his or her speciﬁc illness.

■

Care for sudden illnesses by following the same general
guidelines as you would for any emergency.

■
■

■

Persistent abdominal pain or pressure.
■ Nausea or vomiting.
■

Diarrhea.
Seizures.

Look around the area for clues that might tell you what
is wrong with the person. This may help you to ﬁnd out
what the person was doing when the illness started.
For example, if someone working in a hot environment
suddenly becomes ill, it would make sense to conclude
that the illness resulted from the heat. If someone
suddenly feels ill or acts strangely and is attempting
to take medication, the medication may be a clue as to
what is wrong. For example, the person may need the
medication for a heart condition and is trying to take it
to avoid a medical emergency.

■
■
■

■
■
■
■

Do no further harm.
Check the scene for safety, and then check the person.
First care for life-threatening conditions such as
unconsciousness; trouble breathing; no breathing;
severe bleeding; severe chest pain; or signals of a stroke,
such as weakness, numbness or trouble with speech.
Help the person to rest comfortably.
Keep the person from getting chilled or overheated.
Reassure the person because he or she may be
anxious or frightened.
Watch for changes in consciousness and breathing.
CHAPTER

Sudden Illness

■

If the person is conscious, ask if he or she has any
medical conditions or is taking any medication.

a fainting spell by lying down or sitting with his or her
head level with the knees.

■

Do not give the person anything to eat or drink unless
he or she is fully conscious, is able to swallow and
does not show any signals of a stroke.
■ If the person vomits and is unconscious and lying
down, position the person on his or her side so that
you can clear the mouth.
■ If you know the person is having a severe allergic
reaction or a diabetic emergency, assist the person
with his or her prescribed medication, if asked.

SPECIFIC SUDDEN
ILLNESSES
Some sudden illnesses may be linked with chronic
conditions. These conditions include degenerative
diseases, such as heart and lung diseases. There may be
a hormone imbalance, such as in diabetes. The person
could have epilepsy, a condition that causes seizures.
An allergy can cause a sudden and sometimes dangerous
reaction to certain substances. When checking a person,
look for a medical identiﬁcation (ID) tag, bracelet,
necklace or anklet indicating that the person has a
chronic condition or allergy.
Having to deal with a sudden illness can be frightening,
especially when you do not know what is wrong. Do
not hesitate to give care. Remember, you do not have
to know the cause to help. Signals for sudden illnesses
are similar to other conditions and the care probably
involves skills that you already know.

Fainting
One common signal of sudden illness is a loss of
consciousness, such as when a person faints. Fainting
is a temporary loss of consciousness. When someone
suddenly loses consciousness and then reawakens, he
or she may simply have fainted.

When to Call 9-1-1
Call 9-1-1 or the local emergency number when
in doubt about the condition of a person who has
fainted. It is always appropriate to seek medical care
for fainting.

What to Do Until Help Arrives
Lower the person to the ground or other ﬂat surface
and position him or her on his or her back, lying ﬂat.
Loosen any tight clothing, such as a tie or collar
(Fig. 5-1). Check that the person is breathing. Do not
give the person anything to eat or drink. If the person
vomits, roll him or her onto one side.

Seizures
When the normal functions of the brain are disrupted
by injury, disease, fever, infection, metabolic
disturbances or conditions causing a decreased oxygen
level, a seizure may occur. The seizure is a result of
abnormal electrical activity in the brain and causes
temporary, involuntary changes in body movement,
function, sensation, awareness or behavior.

Epilepsy
Epilepsy is a chronic seizure condition. Almost
3 million Americans have some form of epilepsy.
The seizures that occur with epilepsy usually can be
controlled with medication. Still, some people with
epilepsy who take seizure medication occasionally
have seizures. Others who go a long time without
a seizure may think that the condition has gone
away and stop taking their medication, thus putting
themselves at risk for another seizure.

Fainting occurs when there is an insufﬁcient supply
of blood to the brain for a short period of time. This
condition results from a widening of the blood vessels in
the body. This causes blood to drain away from the brain
to the rest of the body.
Fainting usually is not harmful. The person usually
recovers quickly with no lasting effects. However, what
appears to be a simple case of fainting actually may be
a signal of a more serious condition.

What to Look For
A person who is about to faint often becomes pale,
begins to sweat and then loses consciousness and
collapses. A person who feels weak or dizzy may prevent
70

First Aid/CPR/AED

Participant’s Manual

FIGURE 5-1 To care for a person who has fainted, place the person
on his or her back lying flat and loosen any restrictive clothing, such as
a tie or collar.

Febrile Seizures
Young children and infants may be at risk for febrile
seizures, which are seizures brought on by a rapid
increase in body temperature. They are most common
in children younger than 5 years.
Febrile seizures often are caused by infections of the ear,
throat or digestive system and are most likely to occur
when a child or an infant experiences a rapid rise in
temperature. A child or an infant experiencing a febrile
seizure may experience some or all of the signals
listed below.

What to Look For
Signals of seizures include:
■

A blank stare.
■ A period of distorted sensation during which the
person is unable to respond.
■ Uncontrolled muscular contractions, called
convulsions, which last several minutes.
A person with epilepsy may experience something called
an aura before the seizure occurs. An aura is an unusual
sensation or feeling, such as a visual hallucination; strange
sound, taste or smell; or an urgent need to get to safety. If
the person recognizes the aura, he or she may have time to
tell bystanders and sit down before the seizure occurs.
Febrile seizures may have some or all of the following
signals:
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■

Sudden rise in body temperature
Change in consciousness
Rhythmic jerking of the head and limbs
Loss of bladder or bowel control
Confusion
Drowsiness
Crying out
Becoming rigid
Holding breath
Upward rolling of the eyes

Although it may be frightening to see someone
unexpectedly having a seizure, you should remember
that most seizures last only for a few minutes and the
person usually recovers without problems.

When to Call 9-1-1
Call 9-1-1 or the local emergency number if:
■

The seizure lasts more than 5 minutes.
The person has multiple seizures with no signs of
slowing down.
■ The person appears to be injured or fails to regain
consciousness after the seizure.
■

■

The cause of the seizure is unknown.
■ The person is pregnant.
■ The person has diabetes.
■ The person is a young child or an infant and
experienced a febrile seizure brought on by a high fever.
■

The seizure takes place in water.
The person is elderly and could have suffered a stroke.
■ This is the person’s ﬁrst seizure.
■

If the person is known to have occasional seizures,
you may not have to call 9-1-1 or the local emergency
number. He or she usually will recover from a seizure in
a few minutes.

What to Do Until Help Arrives
Although it may be frightening to watch, you can easily
help to care for a person having a seizure. Remember
that he or she cannot control the seizure. Do not try
to stop the seizure. General principles of managing
a seizure are to prevent injury, protect the person’s
airway and make sure that the airway is open after the
seizure has ended.
Do not hold or restrain the person. Do not put anything
in the person’s mouth or between the teeth. People
having seizures rarely bite their tongues or cheeks with
enough force to cause signiﬁcant bleeding; however,
some blood may be present.
Make sure that the environment is as safe as possible
to prevent injury to the person who is having a seizure.
Remove any nearby furniture or other objects that may
injure the person.
Give care to a person who has had a seizure the same
way you would for an unconscious person. When the
seizure is over, make sure that the person’s airway
is open. Usually, the person will begin to breathe
normally. If there is ﬂuid in the person’s mouth,
such as saliva, blood or vomit, roll him or her on one
side so that the ﬂuid drains from the mouth. If the
child or infant has a febrile seizure, it is important to
immediately cool the body by giving a sponge bath
with lukewarm water.
The person may be drowsy and disoriented or
unresponsive for a period of time. Check to see if he
or she was injured during the seizure. Be comforting
and reassuring. If the seizure occurred in public, the
person may be embarrassed and self-conscious. Ask
bystanders not to crowd around the person. He or she
may be tired and want to rest. Stay on the scene with
the person until he or she is fully conscious and aware
of the surroundings.
For more information on epilepsy, visit the Epilepsy
Foundation at epilepsyfoundation.org.

CHAPTER

Sudden Illness

Stroke
Stroke is the third-leading killer and a leading cause
of long-term disability in the United States. Nearly
800,000 Americans will have a stroke this year.
A stroke, also called a brain attack, is caused when
blood ﬂow to a part of the brain is cut off or when there
is bleeding into the brain. Strokes can cause permanent
brain damage, but sometimes the damage can be
stopped or reversed.
A stroke usually is caused by a blockage in the arteries
that supply blood to the brain. Once the blood ﬂow is
cut off, that part of the brain starts to “suffocate” and
die unless the blood ﬂow can be restored. Blockages can
be caused by blood clots that travel from other parts of
the body, like the heart, or they can be caused by slow
damage to the arteries over time from diseases such as
high blood pressure and diabetes.
In a small percentage of strokes there is bleeding into
the brain. This bleeding can be from a broken blood
vessel or from a bulging aneurysm that has broken open.
There is no way to tell the type of stroke until the person
gets to an emergency room and undergoes a thorough
medical evaluation.
A mini-stroke is when a person has the signals of a stroke,
which then completely go away. Most mini-strokes get
better within a few minutes, although they can last several
hours. Although the signals of a mini-stroke disappear
quickly, the person is not out of danger at that point.
In fact, someone who has a mini-stroke is at very high
risk of having a full stroke within the next 2 days.

Risk Factors
The risk factors for stroke, meaning things that make a
stroke more likely, are similar to those for heart disease.
Some risk factors are beyond one’s control, such as age,
gender and family history of stroke or cardiovascular
disease. Other risk factors can be controlled through diet,
changes in lifestyle or medication. With a history of high
blood pressure, previous stroke or mini-stroke, diabetes
or heart disease one’s chances of a stroke increases.

High Blood Pressure
Uncontrolled high blood pressure is the number one
risk factor for stroke. If you have high blood pressure,
you are approximately seven times more likely to have a
stroke compared with someone who does not have high
blood pressure.
High blood pressure puts added pressure on arteries
and makes them stiffer. The excess pressure also
damages organs, including the brain, heart and kidneys.
Even mildly elevated blood pressure can increase one’s
risk of a stroke.

First Aid/CPR/AED

Participant’s Manual

High blood pressure is the most important of the
controllable risk factors. Have your blood pressure
checked regularly and if it is high, follow the advice of
your health care provider about how to lower it. Often,
high blood pressure can be controlled by losing weight,
changing diet, exercising routinely and managing stress.
If those measures are not sufﬁcient, your health care
provider may prescribe medication.

Diabetes
Diabetes is a major risk factor for stroke. If you have
been diagnosed with diabetes, follow the advice of
your health care provider about how to control it. If
uncontrolled, the resulting elevated blood sugar levels
can damage blood vessels throughout the body.

Cigarette Smoking
Cigarette smoking is another major risk factor of
stroke. Smoking is linked to heart disease and cancer,
as well as to stroke. Smoking increases blood pressure,
damages blood vessels and makes blood more likely
to clot. If you smoke and would like to quit, many
techniques and support systems are available to help,
including seeking help from your health care provider
and local health department.
The beneﬁts of quitting smoking begin as soon as you
stop, and some of the damage from smoking actually
may be reversible. Approximately 10 years after a
person has stopped smoking, his or her risk of stroke
is about the same as the risk for a person who has
never smoked. Even if you do not smoke, be aware
that inhaling smoke from smokers can harm your
health. Avoid long-term exposure to cigarette smoke
and protect children from this danger as well.

Diet
Diets that are high in saturated fats and cholesterol can
increase your risk of stroke by causing fatty materials to
build up on the walls of your blood vessels. Foods high in
cholesterol include egg yolks and organ meats, such as liver
and kidneys. Saturated fats are found in beef, lamb, veal,
pork, ham, whole milk and whole-milk products. Limiting
your intake of these foods can help to prevent stroke.

Preventing Stroke
You can help prevent stroke if you:
■

Control your blood pressure.
■ Quit smoking.
■ Eat a healthy diet.
■ Exercise regularly. Regular exercise reduces your
chances of stroke by strengthening the heart and
improving blood circulation. Exercise also helps in
weight control.

■

Maintain a healthy weight. Being overweight increases
the chance of developing high blood pressure, heart
disease and fat deposits lining the arteries.
■ Control diabetes.

What to Look For
As with other sudden illnesses, looking or feeling ill, or
behaving in a strange way, are common, general signals
of a stroke or mini-stroke. Other speciﬁc signals of
stroke have a sudden onset, including:
■

Weakness or numbness of the face, arm or leg.
This usually happens on only one side of the body.
■ Facial droop or drooling.
■ Trouble with speech. The person may have
trouble talking, getting words out or being
understood when speaking and may have trouble
understanding.
■

Loss of vision or disturbed (blurred or dimmed)
vision in one or both eyes. The pupils may be of
unequal size.

■

Sudden severe headache. The person will not know
what caused the headache and may describe it as
“the worst headache ever.”
■ Dizziness, confusion, agitation, loss of consciousness
or other severe altered mental status.
■ Loss of balance or coordination, trouble walking or
ringing in the ears.
■ Incontinence.

Think FAST for a Stroke
For a stroke, think FAST, which stands for the
following:
■

Face: Weakness, numbness or drooping on one side
of the face. Ask the person to smile. Does one side of
the face droop (Fig. 5-2, A)?

■

Arm: Weakness or numbness in one arm. Ask
the person to raise both arms. Does one arm drift
downward (Fig. 5-2, B)?
■ Speech: Slurred speech or difﬁculty speaking. Ask the
person to repeat a simple sentence (e.g., Ask the person
to say something like, “The sky is blue.”) Are the words
slurred? Can the person repeat the sentence correctly?
■ Time: Try to determine when the signals began. If the
person shows any signals of stroke, time is critical.
Call 9-1-1 or the local emergency number right away.
The FAST mnemonic is based on the Cincinnati
Pre-Hospital Stroke Scale. This scale originally was
developed for EMS personnel in 1997. The scale was
designed to help EMS personnel to identify strokes in
the ﬁeld. The FAST method for public awareness has
been in use in the community in Cincinnati, Ohio, since
1999. Researchers at the University of North Carolina
validated it in 2003 as an appropriate tool for helping
lay persons to recognize and respond quickly to the
signals of stroke.
By paying attention to the signals of stroke and reporting
them to your health care provider, you can prevent
damage before it occurs. Experiencing a mini-stroke
is the clearest warning that a stroke may occur. Do not
ignore its stroke-like signals, even if they disappear
completely within minutes or hours.

When to Call 9-1-1
Call 9-1-1 or the local emergency number immediately
if you encounter someone who is having or has had a
stroke, if you see signals of a stroke or if the person had
a mini-stroke (even if the signals have gone away). Note
the time of onset of signals and report it to the call taker
or EMS personnel when they arrive.
In the past, a stroke usually caused permanent
brain damage. Today, new medications and medical

FIGURE 5-2, A–B Signals of stroke include A, facial drooping, and B, weakness on one side of the body.

CHAPTER

Sudden Illness

procedures can limit or reduce the damage caused
by stroke. Many of these new treatments must be
given quickly to be the most helpful. It is important
for the person to get the best care as quickly as
possible.

What to Do Until Help Arrives
Note the time that the signals started. If the person
is unconscious, make sure that he or she has an open
airway and care for life-threatening conditions. If ﬂuid
or vomit is in the person’s mouth, position him or her
on one side to allow ﬂuids to drain out of the mouth.
Remove any material from the mouth with a ﬁnger
if the person is unconscious. Stay with the person
and monitor breathing and for any changes in the
person’s condition.
If the person is conscious, check for non-life-threatening
conditions. A stroke can make the person fearful and
anxious. Often, he or she does not understand what has
happened. Offer comfort and reassurance. Have the
person rest in a comfortable position. Do not give him
or her anything to eat or drink.

Diabetic Emergencies
A total of 23.6 million people in the United States
(7.8% of the population) have diabetes. Among this
group, more than 5 million people are unaware that
they have the disease. Diabetes was the seventhleading cause of death listed on U.S. death certiﬁcates
in 2006. Altogether, diabetes contributed to 233,619
deaths in 2005. Diabetes is likely to be underreported
as a cause of death. Overall, the risk for death among
people with diabetes is about twice that of people
without diabetes.
The American Diabetes Association deﬁnes diabetes
as the inability of the body to change sugar (glucose)
from food into energy. This process is regulated by
insulin, a hormone produced in the pancreas. Diabetes
can lead to other medical conditions such as blindness,
nerve disease, kidney disease, heart disease and
stroke.
The cells in your body need glucose (sugar) as a source
of energy. The cells receive this energy during digestion
or from stored forms of sugar. The sugar is absorbed
into the bloodstream with the help of insulin. Insulin
is produced in the pancreas. For the body to properly
function, there has to be a balance of insulin and sugar.
People who have diabetes may become suddenly ill
because there is too much or too little sugar in their
blood.
There are two major types of diabetes: Type I and
Type II diabetes.

First Aid/CPR/AED

Participant’s Manual

Type I diabetes, formerly called juvenile diabetes,
affects about 1 million Americans. This type of
diabetes, which usually begins in childhood, occurs
when the body produces little or no insulin. People
with Type I diabetes must inject insulin into their
bodies daily and are therefore considered to be
insulin-dependent. Type I diabetes is a chronic disease
that currently has no cure.
The exact cause of Type I diabetes is not known.
Warning signals include:
■

Frequent urination.

■

Increased hunger and thirst.

■

Unexpected weight loss.

■

Irritability.

■

Weakness and fatigue.

Type II diabetes is the most common type, affecting
about 90 to 95 percent of people with diabetes. This
condition usually occurs in adults but also can occur
in children. With Type II diabetes, the body makes
insulin but not enough to meet the body’s needs or
the body becomes resistant to the insulin produced.
Since Type II diabetes is a progressive disease, people
with this type of diabetes eventually may need to use
insulin.
People from certain racial and ethnic backgrounds
are known to be at greater risk for diabetes. Type II
diabetes is more common among African-Americans,
Latinos, Asians, certain Native Americans and Paciﬁc
Islanders. Although genetics and other factors increase
risk for diabetes, being overweight or obese also is a
risk factor for developing the disease in adults and
children.
People with Type II diabetes often do not experience
any warning signals. Possible warning signals of Type II
diabetes include:
■

Any signals of Type I diabetes.

■

Frequent infections, especially involving the skin,
gums and bladder.

■

Blurred vision.

■

Numbness in the legs, feet and ﬁngers.

■

Cuts or bruises that are slow to heal.

■

Itching.

People with diabetes should monitor their exercise
and diet. Self-monitoring for blood sugar levels is a
valuable tool. Insulin-dependent diabetics also must
monitor their use of insulin. If the person with diabetes
does not control these factors, he or she can have
a diabetic emergency.

Insulin
Sugar

Sugar

Insulin

HYPERGLYCEMIA

HYPOGLYCEMIA

FIGURE 5-3 Hypoglycemia and hyperglycemia are diabetic emergencies that result from an imbalance between
sugar and insulin within the body.

A diabetic emergency is caused by an imbalance between
sugar and insulin in the body (Fig. 5-3). A diabetic
emergency can happen when there is:
■

Too much sugar in the blood (hyperglycemia):
Among other causes, the person may not have taken
enough insulin or the person is reacting adversely to a
large meal or a meal that is high in carbohydrates.
■ Too little sugar in the blood (hypoglycemia): The
person may have taken too much insulin, eaten too little
food, or overexerted him- or herself. Extremely low
blood sugar levels can quickly become life threatening.

What to Look For
Signals of a diabetic emergency include:
■

■

Changes in the level of consciousness.
Changes in mood.
Rapid breathing and pulse.
Feeling and looking ill.
Dizziness and headache.

■

Confusion.

■
■
■

■

You cannot ﬁnd any form of sugar immediately. Do
not spend time looking for it.

What to Do Until Help Arrives
You may know the person is a diabetic or the person
may tell you he or she is a diabetic. Often diabetics
know what is wrong and will ask for something with
sugar in it. They may carry some form of sugar with
them in case they need it.
If the diabetic person is conscious and able to swallow,
and advises you that he or she needs sugar, give sugar
in the form of several glucose tablets or glucose paste, a
12-ounce serving of fruit juice, milk, nondiet soft drink
or table sugar dissolved in a glass of water (Fig. 5-4).
Most fruit juices and nondiet soft drinks have enough
sugar to be effective. If the problem is too much sugar,
this amount of sugar will not cause further harm.
Diabetics also may carry glucagon, which they can
self-administer to counter hypoglycemia. People who
take insulin to control diabetes may have injectable
medication with them to care for hyperglycemia.

When to Call 9-1-1
Always call 9-1-1 or the local emergency number if:
■

The person is unconscious or about to lose
consciousness. In this situation, do not give the person
anything by mouth. After calling 9-1-1 or the local
emergency number, care for the person in the same
way you would care for an unconscious person. This
includes making sure the person’s airway is clear of
vomit, checking for breathing and giving care until
advanced medical personnel take over.
■ The person is conscious but unable to swallow.
(In this case, do not put anything, liquid or solid,
into the person’s mouth.)
■ The person does not feel better within about
5 minutes after taking some form of sugar.

FIGURE 5-4 If the person having a diabetic emergency is
conscious and able to swallow, give him or her sugar, preferably
glucose tablets or in liquid form.

CHAPTER

Sudden Illness

For more information about diabetes, contact the
American Diabetes Association at 1-800-DIABETES, go
to diabetes.org or visit the National Diabetes Education
Program website at ndep.nih.gov. For speciﬁc
information about Type I diabetes, contact the Juvenile
Diabetes Foundation at 1-800-533-CURE or at jdrf.org.

Allergic Reactions
Allergic reactions are caused by over activity of the
immune system against speciﬁc antigens (foreign
substances). People with allergies are especially sensitive
to these antigens. When their immune systems overreact
to the antigens it is called an allergic reaction.
Antigens that often cause allergic reactions in at-risk
people include the following:
■

Bee or insect venom
Antibiotics
■ Pollen
Animal dander
Latex
■ Sulfa drugs
■

Certain foods (e.g., tree nuts, peanuts, shellﬁsh and
dairy products)

People who know that they are severely allergic to certain
substances or bee stings may wear a medical ID tag,
necklace or bracelet.

What to Look For
Allergic reactions can range from mild to severe. An
example of a mild reaction is an itchy skin rash from
touching poison ivy. Severe allergic reactions can cause
a life-threatening condition called anaphylaxis (also
called anaphylactic shock). Anaphylaxis usually occurs
suddenly. It happens within seconds or minutes after
contact with the substance. The skin or area of the body
that comes in contact with the substance usually swells
and turns red. Other signals include the following:
■

Hives
■ Itching
■ Rash
■

Weakness
Nausea
■ Stomach cramps
■
■

Vomiting
Dizziness
■ Trouble breathing (including coughing and wheezing)
■

Trouble breathing can progress to a blocked airway as
the lips, tongue, throat and larynx (voice box) swell.
Low blood pressure and shock may accompany
these reactions. Death from anaphylaxis may
First Aid/CPR/AED

Call 9-1-1 or the local emergency number if the person:
■

Has trouble breathing.
■ Complains of the throat tightening.
■ Explains that he or she is subject to severe
allergic reactions.
■ Is unconscious.

What to Do Until Help Arrives
If you suspect anaphylaxis and have called 9-1-1 or the
local emergency number, follow these guidelines for
giving care:
Monitor the person’s breathing and for any
changes in the person’s condition.
2. Give care for life-threatening emergencies.

■

When to Call 9-1-1

■

happen quickly because the person’s breathing is
restricted severely.

Participant’s Manual

3. Check a conscious person to determine:
{ The substance (antigen) involved.
{ The route of exposure to the antigen.
{ The effects of the exposure.
4. Assist the person with using an epinephrine autoinjector, if available and state or local regulations
allow.
5. Assist the person with taking an antihistamine,
if available.
6. Document any changes in the person’s condition
over time.
For more information on anaphylaxis, see Chapter 11.

POISONING
A poison is any substance that causes injury, illness
or death if it enters the body. In 2008, Poison Control
Centers (PCCs) received more than 2.4 million calls
having to do with people who had come into contact
with a poison. Over 93 percent of these poisonings took
place in the home. Fifty percent (1.2 million) involved
children younger than 6 years. Poisoning deaths in
children younger than 6 years represented about 2
percent of the total deaths from poisoning. The 20- to
59-year-old age group represented about 76 percent of
all deaths from poisoning.
In recent years there has been a decrease in child
poisonings. This is due partly to child-resistant packaging
for medications. This packaging makes it harder for
children to get into these substances. The decrease also is a
result of preventive actions by parents and others who care
for children. At the same time, there has been an increase
in adult poisoning deaths. This increase is linked to an
increase in both suicides and drug-related poisonings.

Types of Poisoning
A person can be poisoned by swallowing poison, breathing
it, absorbing it through the skin and by having it injected
into the body.

Swallowed Poisons
Poisons that can be swallowed include foods, such
as certain mushrooms and shellﬁsh; an overdose of
drugs, such as sleeping pills, tranquilizers and alcohol;
medications, such as a high quantity of aspirin; household
items, such as cleaning products and pesticides; and
certain plants. Many substances that are not poisonous
in small amounts are poisonous in larger amounts.
Combining certain substances can result in poisoning,
although if taken by themselves they might not cause harm.

Inhaled Poisons
A person can be poisoned by breathing in (inhaling) toxic
fumes. Examples of poisons that can be inhaled include:
■

Gases, such as:
Carbon monoxide from an engine or car exhaust.

{

Carbon dioxide from wells and sewers.
{ Chlorine, found in many swimming pools.
■ Fumes from:
{ Household products, such as glues and paints.
■ Drugs, such as crack cocaine.
{

Absorbed Poisons
Poisons that can be absorbed through the skin come from
many sources including plants, such as poison ivy, poison
oak and poison sumac, and fertilizers and pesticides.

Injected Poisons
Injected poisons enter the body through the bites or
stings of insects, spiders, ticks, some marine life, snakes
and other animals or through drugs or medications
injected with a hypodermic needle.

What to Look For
How will you know if someone who is ill has been
poisoned? Look for clues about what has happened. Try to
get information from the person or from bystanders. As you
check the scene, be aware of unusual odors, ﬂames, smoke,
open or spilled containers, an open medicine cabinet or an
overturned or a damaged plant. Also, notice if the person is
showing any of the following signals of poisoning:
■

Nausea and vomiting
■ Diarrhea
■

Chest or abdominal pain
■ Trouble breathing
■ Sweating
■ Changes in consciousness

■

Seizures
■ Headache
■ Dizziness
■ Weakness
■

Irregular pupil size
■ Burning or tearing eyes
■ Abnormal skin color
■

Burns around the lips, tongue or on the skin

You also may suspect a poisoning based on information
from or about the person. If you suspect someone has
swallowed a poison, try to ﬁnd out:
■

The type of poison.

■

The quantity taken.
When it was taken.
■ How much the person weighs.
■

This information can help you and others to give the
most appropriate care.

When to Call 9-1-1
For life-threatening conditions (such as if a person
is unconscious or is not breathing or if a change in
the level of consciousness occurs), CALL 9-1-1 or
local emergency number. If the person is conscious
and alert, CALL the National Poison Control Center
(PCC) hotline at 1-800-222-1222 and follow the
advice given.

What to Do Until Help Arrives
After you have checked the scene and determined that
there has been a poisoning, follow these general care
guidelines:
■

Remove the person from the source of poison if the
scene is dangerous. Do this only if you are able to
without endangering yourself.
■ Check the person’s level of consciousness and
breathing.
■

Care for any life-threatening conditions.
■ If the person is conscious, ask questions to get more
information.
■ Look for any containers and take them with you to the
telephone.
■ Call the National Poison Control Center Hotline at
1-800 222-1222.
■

Follow the directions of the Poison Control Center.

If the person becomes violent or threatening, move to
safety and wait for help to arrive. Do not give the person
anything to eat or drink unless medical professionals
tell you to do so. If you do not know what the poison
was and the person vomits, save some of the vomit.
The hospital may analyze it to identify the poison.
CHAPTER

Sudden Illness

FOCUS ON PREVENTION

POISONING
Use common sense when handling substances that
could be harmful, such as chemicals and cleaners.
Use them in a well-ventilated area. Wear protective
clothing, such as gloves and a facemask.
Use common sense with your own medications.
Read the product information and use only as
directed. Ask your health care provider or pharmacist
about the intended effects, side effects and possible
interactions with other medications that you are
taking. Never use another person’s prescribed
medications. What is right for one person often is
wrong for another.

hazardous waste collection program. You may be
able to take your expired and unused medications to
your pharmacy or another location for disposal.
The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
website maintains a list of some of the medications
that should be flushed down the toilet. These
medications are especially dangerous to humans
and pets. One dose could cause death if taken by
someone other than the person for whom it was
prescribed. Flushing these medications avoids any
chance that children or pets would ingest them
accidentally.

According to the FDA, any possible risk to people
and the environment from flushing these few
medications is small. The FDA maintains that the
risk is outweighed by the possibility of someone
accidentally ingesting these medications, which
could be life threatening.

Over time, expired medications can become less
effective and even toxic to humans if consumed.
Dispose of out-of-date or unused medications
properly by following the guidelines below.

Most medications should be thrown away in the
household trash and not flushed down the toilet.
Follow these steps to maintain safety and protect
the environment from unnecessary exposure to
medications:
1. Pour the medication out of its original container
into a sealable plastic bag.
2. Mix the medication with something that will
hide the medication or make it unpleasant (e.g.,
coffee grounds or kitty litter).
3. Seal the plastic bag.
4. Throw the plastic bag into your household
trash.
5. Remove and destroy all personal
information and medication information
(prescription label) from the medication
container. Recycle or throw away the
medication container.
Another option is to check if your state or local
community has a community-based household

FIGURE 5-5 Always supervise young children closely,
especially in areas where common, but poisonous, household
items are stored.

(Continued )

First Aid/CPR/AED

Participant’s Manual

FOCUS ON PREVENTION

(Continued )

Most child poisonings take place when a parent or
guardian is watching a child.
Follow these guidelines to guard against poisoning
emergencies in children:
■

■

Always supervise children closely, especially
in areas where poisons are commonly stored,
such as kitchens, bathrooms and garages.
Keep children out of your work area when you
are using potentially harmful substances.
Consider all household or drugstore products
to be potentially harmful.
Read all labels of products you use in your
home. Look for these words on bottles
and packages: “Caution,” “Warning,”
“Poison,” “Danger” or “Keep Out of Reach
of Children.”
Be careful when using and storing household
products with fruit shown on the labels.
Children may think that they are okay
to drink.

■

Remove all medications and medical supplies
from bags, purses, pockets, shelves, unlocked
cabinets and drawers.
Keep all medications, medical supplies and
household products locked away, well out of
the reach of children and away from food and
drinks.
Install special child safety locks to keep
children from opening cabinets.
Use childproof safety caps on all medications,
chemicals and cleaning products.
Never call medicine “candy” to get a child to
take it, even if it has a pleasant candy flavor.
Keep products in their original containers with
the original labels in place.
Use poison symbols to identify dangerous
substances and teach children the meaning of
the symbols.
Dispose of outdated or unused medications
and household products as recommended (see
above for appropriate disposal of medications).

FOCUS ON PREPAREDNESS

POISON CONTROL CENTERS
There are 60 regional PCCs across the United
States. These centers are dedicated to helping
people deal with poisons. Medical professionals staff
PCCs. These professionals give free, 24-hour advice
to callers. PCC staff have access to information
about most poisonous substances. They also can
tell you what to do if a poisoning happened or is
suspected.
If you think a person has been poisoned and the
person is conscious, call the National Poison Control
Center hotline at 1-800-222-1222 first. When you
call this number, your call is automatically routed
to your regional PCC based on the area code
from which you called. The regional PCC staff

then will tell you what care to give. They also will
tell you whether you should call 9-1-1 or the local
emergency number.
In 2008, PCCs answered over 2.4 million calls
about poisonings. In over 70 percent of the cases,
the caller was able to get the help needed without
having to call 9-1-1 or the local emergency number,
or go to the hospital or health care provider. PCCs
help reduce the workload of the EMS personnel and
safely reduce the number of emergency room visits.
Be prepared: Keep the telephone number of the
National Poison Control Center hotline posted by
every telephone in your home or office!

CHAPTER

Sudden Illness

Special Care Considerations
Toxic Fumes
It is often difﬁcult to tell if a poisoning victim has
inhaled toxic fumes. Toxic fumes come from a variety of
sources. They may have an odor or be odor-free. When
someone breathes in toxic fumes, the person’s skin may
turn pale or ashen, which indicates a lack of oxygen.
If it is safe for you to do so, get the person to fresh air.
Anyone who has inhaled toxic fumes needs fresh air as
soon as possible.

■

Changes in consciousness, including loss of
consciousness.

■

Slurred speech or poor coordination.
■ Moist or ﬂushed skin.
■ Chills, nausea or vomiting.
■

Dizziness or confusion.
Irregular pulse.
■ Abnormal breathing.
■

When to Call 9-1-1

Chemicals

Call 9-1-1 or the local emergency number if the person:

In the case of poisoning with dry chemicals, such as lime,
brush off the dry chemicals with gloved hands or a cloth.
Carefully remove any contaminated clothing but avoid
contaminating yourself or others. Then ﬂush the area
thoroughly with large amounts of water. Be careful not
to get any of the chemicals in your eyes or the eyes of the
person or of bystanders.

■

If the poisoning resulted from wet chemicals coming
into contact with the skin, ﬂush the affected area with
large amounts of cool water (Fig. 5-6). Have someone
else call 9-1-1 or the local emergency number. Keep
ﬂushing the area until EMS personnel arrive.

Substance Abuse
People in our society abuse numerous drugs and other
substances. This substance abuse causes a wide range of
psychological and physical effects.

What to Look For
Signals of possible substance abuse include:
■

Behavioral changes not otherwise explained.
Sudden mood changes.
■ Restlessness, talkativeness or irritability.
■

Is unconscious, confused or seems to be losing
consciousness.
■ Has trouble breathing or is breathing irregularly.
■

Has persistent chest pain or pressure.
Has pain or pressure in the abdomen that does
not go away.
■ Is vomiting blood or passing blood.
■ Has a seizure, severe headache or slurred speech.
■

■

Acts violently.

Also call 9-1-1 or the local emergency number if you
are unsure what to do or you are unsure about the
seriousness of the problem.

What to Do Until Help Arrives
If you think that a person took an overdose or has
another substance abuse problem requiring medical
attention or other professional help, you should check
the scene for safety and check the person. If you have
good reason to suspect that a substance was taken,
call the National Poison Control Center Hotline at
1-800-222-1222 and follow the call taker’s directions.
In general, to care for the person, you should:
■

Try to learn from others what substances may have
been taken.
■ Calm and reassure the person.
■ Keep the person from getting chilled or overheated to
minimize shock.

PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER

FIGURE 5-6 If poisons such as wet chemicals get on the skin, flush
the affected area with large amounts of cool water.

First Aid/CPR/AED

Participant’s Manual

When a person becomes ill suddenly, it can be
frightening to that person, to you and to other
bystanders. It may be difﬁcult to determine what is
causing the sudden illness, and you might not know
what care to give. However, if you have learned the
general signals as well as the signals of speciﬁc sudden
illnesses, you can give care conﬁdently and quickly.

CHAPTER

Environmental Emergencies

isease, illness and injury are not the only causes of medical emergencies. Much of our environment appears to
be relatively harmless. A weekend outing can bring you closer to the joys of nature: animals, mountains, rivers,
blue skies. But it also can expose you to disease-carrying insects, other biting or stinging creatures and rapid
changes in the weather. Whereas many environmental emergencies can be avoided, even with the best prevention
efforts, emergencies do occur.

In this chapter you will discover how to prevent heat-related illnesses and cold-related emergencies, as well as bites and
stings from insects, spiders and other animals. You also will ﬁnd information on how to avoid contact with poisonous
plants and how to avoid being struck by lightning. In addition, you will read about when to call for help and how to give
care until help arrives.

CHAPTER

Environmental Emergencies

HEAT-RELATED ILLNESSES
AND COLD-RELATED
EMERGENCIES
Exposure to extreme heat or cold can make a person
seriously ill. The likelihood of illness also depends
on factors such as physical activity, clothing, wind,
humidity, working and living conditions, and a person’s
age and state of mind (Fig. 6-1).
Once the signals of a heat-related illness or cold-related
emergency begin to appear, a person’s condition can
quickly worsen. A heat-related illness or cold-related
emergency can result in death. If you see any of the
signals, act quickly.
People at risk for heat-related illness or a cold-related
emergency include those who work or exercise outdoors,
elderly people, young children and people with health
problems. Also at risk are those who have had a
heat-related illness or cold-related emergency in the
past, those with medical conditions that cause poor
blood circulation and those who take medications to
eliminate water from the body (diuretics).
People usually try to get out of extreme heat or cold
before they begin to feel ill. However, some people do
not or cannot. Athletes and those who work outdoors
often keep working even after they begin to feel ill.
People living in buildings with poor ventilation, poor
insulation or poor heating or cooling systems are at
increased risk of heat-related illnesses or cold-related
emergencies. Often they might not even recognize that
they are in danger of becoming ill.

FIGURE 6-2 Lightly stretching the muscle and gently massaging the
area, along with having the person rest and giving electrolyte- and
carbohydrate-containing fluids, usually is enough for the body to
recover from heat cramps.

What to Look For
Heat cramps are painful muscle spasms. They usually
occur in the legs and abdomen. Think of them as a
warning of a possible heat-related illness.

What to Do
To care for heat cramps, help the person move to
a cool place to rest. Give an electrolyte- and
carbohydrate-containing ﬂuid such as a commercial
sports drink, fruit juice or milk. Water also may be
given. Lightly stretch the muscle and gently massage
the area (Fig. 6-2). The person should not take salt
tablets. They can worsen the situation.
When cramps stop, the person usually can start activity
again if there are no other signals of illness. He or she
should keep drinking plenty of ﬂuids. Watch the person
carefully for further signals of heat-related illness.

Heat-Related Illness
Heat cramps, heat exhaustion and heat stroke are
conditions caused by overexposure to heat, loss of
ﬂuids and electrolytes.

Heat Cramps
-9˚

Heat cramps are the least severe of the heat-related
illnesses. They often are the ﬁrst signals that the body
is having trouble with the heat.

9˚

32˚

FIGURE 6-1 Exposure to extreme heat or cold can make a person seriously ill.

First Aid/CPR/AED

Participant’s Manual

Heat Exhaustion

Heat Stroke

Heat exhaustion is a more severe condition than heat
cramps. It often affects athletes, ﬁreﬁghters, construction
workers and factory workers. It also affects those who
wear heavy clothing in a hot, humid environment.

Heat stroke is the least common but most severe
heat-related illness. It usually occurs when people
ignore the signals of heat exhaustion. Heat stroke
develops when the body systems are overwhelmed
by heat and begin to stop functioning. Heat stroke
is a serious medical emergency.

What to Look For
Signals of heat exhaustion include cool, moist, pale,
ashen or ﬂushed skin; headache; nausea; dizziness;
weakness; and exhaustion.

What to Do
When a heat-related illness is recognized in its early
stages, it usually can be reversed. Get the person out of
the heat. Move the person to a cooler environment with
circulating air. Loosen or remove as much clothing as
possible and apply cool, wet cloths, such as towels or
sheets, taking care to remoisten the cloths periodically
(Fig. 6-3). Spraying the person with water and fanning
also can help.
If the person is conscious and able to swallow, give
him or her small amounts of a cool ﬂuid such as
a commercial sports drink or fruit juice to restore
ﬂuids and electrolytes. Milk or water also may be given.
Do not let the conscious person drink too quickly.
Give about 4 ounces of ﬂuid every 15 minutes. Let the
person rest in a comfortable position and watch carefully
for changes in his or her condition. The person should
not resume normal activities the same day.
If the person’s condition does not improve or he or she
refuses ﬂuids, has a change in consciousness or vomits,
call 9-1-1 or the local emergency number, as these are
indications that the person’s condition is getting worse.
Stop giving ﬂuids and place the person on his or her side
to keep the airway open. Watch for signals of breathing
problems. Keep the person lying down and continue
to cool the body any way you can (see What to Do Until
Help Arrives).

What to Look For
Signals of heat stroke include extremely high body
temperature, red skin that can be either dry or
moist; changes in consciousness; rapid, weak pulse;
rapid, shallow breathing; confusion; vomiting;
and seizures.

When to Call 9-1-1
Call 9-1-1 or the local emergency number immediately.
Heat stroke is a life-threatening emergency.

What to Do Until Help Arrives
■

■

■
■

■

Preferred method: Rapidly cool the body by
immersing the person up to the neck in cold water,
if possible.
OR
Douse or spray the person with cold water.
Sponge the person with ice water-doused towels
over the entire body, frequently rotating the cold,
wet towels.
Cover with bags of ice.
If you are not able to measure and monitor the
person’s temperature, apply rapid cooling methods for
20 minutes or until the person’s condition improves.
Give care according for other conditions found.

Cold-Related Emergencies
Frostbite and hypothermia are two types of coldrelated emergencies.

Frostbite
Frostbite is the freezing of body parts exposed to the
cold. Severity depends on the air temperature, length
of exposure and the wind. Frostbite can result in the
loss of ﬁngers, hands, arms, toes, feet and legs.

What to Look For

FIGURE 6-3 When you recognize a heat-related illness, get the
person out of the heat, loosen or remove clothing and apply cool, wet
cloths, such as towels or sheets. Spraying the person with water and
fanning also can be effective.

The signals of frostbite include lack of feeling in the
affected area, swelling and skin that appears waxy, is
cold to the touch or is discolored (ﬂushed, white, yellow
or blue). In more serious cases, blisters may form and
the affected part may turn black and show signs of deep
tissue damage.
CHAPTER

Environmental Emergencies

When to Call 9-1-1
Call 9-1-1 or the local emergency number for more
serious frostbite or seek emergency medical help as soon
as possible.

What to Do Until Help Arrives
To care for frostbite, handle the area gently. Remove
wet clothing and jewelry, if possible, from the affected
area. Never rub a frostbitten area. Rubbing causes
further damage to soft tissues. Do not attempt to
rewarm the frostbitten area if there is a chance that it
might refreeze or if you are close to a medical facility.
For minor frostbite, rapidly rewarm the affected part
using skin-to-skin contact such as with a warm hand.
To care for a more serious injury, gently soak it in water
not warmer than about 105° F (Fig. 6-4, A). If you do not
have a thermometer, test the water temperature yourself.
If the temperature is uncomfortable to your touch, it is
too warm. Keep the frostbitten part in the water until
normal color returns and it feels warm (20 to 30 minutes).
Loosely bandage the area with a dry, sterile dressing
(Fig. 6-4, B). If ﬁngers or toes are frostbitten, place
cotton or gauze between them. Do not break any blisters.
Take precautions to prevent hypothermia. Monitor the
person’s condition, and if you see that the person is going
into shock, give care accordingly. Do not give ibuprofen
or other nonsteroidal anti-inﬂammatory drugs (NSAIDs)
when caring for frostbite.

The air temperature does not have to be below
freezing for people to develop hypothermia. This is
especially true if the person is wet or if it is windy.
Elderly people in poorly heated homes can develop
hypothermia. The homeless, the ill and young
children also are at risk.
Certain conditions can more easily lead to hypothermia,
including:
■

Ingestion of substances that interfere with the body’s
ability to regulate temperature (such as alcohol, other
drugs and certain medications).

■

Any medical condition that impairs circulation, such
as diabetes or cardiovascular disease.

■

Prolonged exposure to cold, wet and/or windy
conditions or wet clothing.

What to Look For
Signals of hypothermia include the following:
■
■
■
■
■

Shivering
Numbness
Glassy stare
Indifference
Loss of consciousness

Shivering that stops without rewarming is a sign that
the person’s condition is worsening. He or she needs
immediate medical care.

Hypothermia
In a hypothermic condition, the entire body cools
because its ability to keep warm is failing. The person
will die if not given the proper care.

When to Call 9-1-1
Call 9-1-1 or the local emergency number immediately
for any case of hypothermia.

100 - 105 °F

FIGURE 6-4, A–B To care for more serious frostbite: A, Warm the area gently by soaking the affected part in water not warmer than 105˚ F. Keep the
frostbitten part in the water until normal color returns and it feels warm (20–30 minutes). B, Loosely bandage the area with a dry, sterile dressing.

First Aid/CPR/AED

Participant’s Manual

What to Do Until Help Arrives
To care for hypothermia, start by caring for life-threatening
conditions (see below). Make the person comfortable.
Gently move the person to a warm place. Remove wet
clothing and dry the person. Put on dry clothing. Warm the
body gradually by wrapping the person in blankets and
plastic sheeting to hold in body heat (Fig. 6-5). Also, keep
the head covered to further retain body heat.
If you are far from medical care, position the person
near a heat source or apply heat pads or other heat
sources to the body, such as containers ﬁlled with
warm water. Carefully monitor any heat source to
avoid burning the person. Keep a barrier, such as a
blanket, towel or clothing, between the heat source
and the person.
If the person is alert, give warm liquids that do not
contain alcohol or caffeine. Alcohol can cause heat
loss and caffeine can cause dehydration. Do not
warm the person too quickly, such as by immersing
the person in warm water. Check breathing and
monitor for any changes in the person’s condition and
care for shock.
In cases of severe hypothermia, the person may be
unconscious. Breathing may have slowed or stopped.
The body may feel stiff because the muscles became
rigid. Check for breathing for no more than 10 seconds.
If the person is not breathing, perform CPR. Continue
to warm the person until emergency medical services
(EMS) personnel take over. Be prepared to use an
automated external deﬁbrillator (AED), if available.

Preventing Heat-Related Illnesses
and Cold-Related Emergencies
In general, you can prevent illnesses caused by
overexposure to extreme temperatures. To prevent
heat-related illnesses and cold-related emergencies,
follow these guidelines:
■

Do not go outdoors during the hottest or coldest
part of the day.

■

Change your activity level according to the temperature.
Take frequent breaks.
■ Dress appropriately for the environment.
■
■

Drink large amounts of ﬂuids.

BITES AND STINGS
People are bitten and stung every day by insects, spiders,
snakes, animals and marine life. Most of the time,
these bites and stings do not cause serious problems.
However, in rare circumstances, certain bites and stings
can cause serious illness or even death in people who are
sensitive to the venom.

Insect Stings
Most of the time, insect stings are harmless. If the
person is allergic, an insect sting can lead to anaphylaxis,
a life-threatening condition.

What to Look For
Signals of an insect sting include:
■

Presence of a stinger.
■ Pain.
■ Swelling.
■ Signals of an allergic reaction.

What to Do
If someone is stung by an insect:
■

Remove any visible stinger. Scrape it away from the skin
with a clean ﬁngernail or a plastic card, such as a credit
card, or use tweezers (Fig. 6-6). In the case of a bee sting,
if you use tweezers, grasp the stinger, not the venom sac.
■ Wash the site with soap and water.
■

Cover the site and keep it clean.
Apply a cold pack to the area to reduce pain and swelling.
■ Call 9-1-1 if the person has any trouble breathing
or for any other signals of anaphylaxis.
■

Tick-Borne Diseases
FIGURE 6-5 For hypothermia, warm the body
gradually by wrapping the person in blankets or
putting on dry clothing and moving him or her to a
warm place. Courtesy of Canadian Red Cross.

Humans can get very sick from the bite of an infected
tick. Some of the diseases spread by ticks include Rocky
Mountain spotted fever, Babesia infection, ehrlichiosis
and Lyme disease.
CHAPTER

Environmental Emergencies

FOCUS ON PREVENTION

LAYER YOUR WAY TO WARMTH
As long as seasonal changes and cold climates
exist, preventing cold-related emergencies, such
as hypothermia, remains important when we work
or play outside.
The best way to ensure your comfort and
warmth outdoors is to layer your clothing.
The first layer, called the base layer, is next to
your skin. The base layer helps to regulate your
body temperature by moving perspiration away
from your skin. This is important because if
perspiration gets trapped inside your clothes,
you can become chilled rapidly, which can lead
to hypothermia.
Thermal underwear makes a good base layer for
cold weather. The fabrics that are best at moving
sweat away from the skin (also called wicking) are
silk, merino wool and certain synthetics. Cotton is
not a good choice because it traps moisture rather
than wicking it away.
The job of the middle layer is insulation.
This layer keeps you warm; it helps you retain
heat by trapping air close to your body. Natural
fibers, such as wool and goose down, are excellent
insulators. So is synthetic fleece. Vests, jackets and

tights are examples of clothing that can be worn
for insulation.
The shell or outer layer protects you from wind,
rain or snow. For cold weather, the shell layer
should be both waterproof and “breathable.”
This will keep wind and water from getting inside
of the other two layers while allowing perspiration
to evaporate. The shell also should be roomy enough
to fit easily over the other layers without restricting
your movement.
One of the other advantages of layering is that you
can make quick adjustments if the weather changes
or you change your activity level. You can take
clothes off when you become too warm and put
them back on if you get cold.
In addition to layering your clothes, to stay warm in
cold weather you also should wear:
■
A hat.
■
A scarf or knit mask that covers your face
and mouth.
■
Sleeves that are snug at the wrist.
■
Mittens (they are warmer than gloves).
■
Water-resistant boots.

Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever
Rocky Mountain spotted fever is a bacterial
infection spread by wood ticks in the western
United States, dog ticks in the eastern United
States, and other ticks in the southern United
States. Rocky Mountain spotted fever occurs
mostly in the spring and summer, and most
cases occur in children.

What to Look For
Signals of Rocky Mountain spotted fever
usually appear between 2 and 14 days after a
tick bite.
Initial signals of Rocky Mountain spotted
fever include the following:
FIGURE 6-6 If someone is stung by an insect, scrape the stinger away from the skin
with a clean fingernail or a plastic card, such as a credit card.

First Aid/CPR/AED

Participant’s Manual

■

Fever
■ Nausea

■

Vomiting
■ Muscle aches or pain
■ Lack of appetite
■ Severe headache
Later signals include:
■

Rash: The spotted rash usually starts a few days after
fever develops. It ﬁrst appears as small spots on the
wrists and ankles. It then spreads to the rest of the
body. However, about one-third of persons infected
with the illness do not get a rash.

■

Abdominal pain.
■ Joint pain.
■ Diarrhea.

Ehrlichiosis
Most cases of infection with the bacteria ehrlichia in
humans are caused by bites by an infected Lone Star
tick, and occur mainly in the southern, eastern and
south-central United States.

What to Look For
Many people with ehrlichiosis do not become ill.
Some develop only mild signals that are seen
5 to 10 days after an infected tick bit the person.
Initial signals include the following:
■

Fever

■

Headache
Fatigue
■ Muscle aches
■

When to Seek Medical Care
Call a health care provider if the person develops
signals of Rocky Mountain spotted fever after a tick bite.
The health care provider is likely to prescribe antibiotics.
In most cases, the person will recover fully. If left
untreated, complications of Rocky Mountain spotted
fever can be life threatening.

Babesia Infection
Babesia also called Babesiosis is a protozoa infection
spread by deer ticks and black-legged ticks. It is more
common during warm months, and most cases happen
in the northeast and upper Midwest regions of the
United States.

What to Look For
Many people infected with Babesia have no apparent
symptoms. Some people may have ﬂu-like symptoms,
such as:
■
■

Fever
Sweats

■

Chills
■ Body aches and headaches
■ No appetite
■

Nausea

■

Fatigue

Others infected with Babesia develop a type of anemia
that can cause jaundice and dark urine. In some people,
the disease can be life threatening if untreated. The elderly
and persons with no spleen, a weak immune system or a
serious health condition are the most susceptible.

When to Seek Medical Care
If a person develops any of the signals described above,
he or she should seek medical care. Most people with
signals of the disease can be treated successfully with
prescription medications.

Other signals that may develop include the following:
■

Nausea

■

Vomiting
■ Diarrhea
■

Cough
Joint pains
■ Confusion
■ Rash (in some cases)
■

When to Seek Medical Care
If the person becomes ill with any of the above
signals described, he or she should seek medical
care. Ehrlichiosis is treated with antibiotics.

Lyme Disease
Lyme disease is spreading throughout the United States.
Although it is most prevalent on the east coast and
the upper Midwest, cases of Lyme disease have been
reported in all 50 states.
Lyme disease is spread by the deer tick and black-legged
tick, which attaches itself to ﬁeld mice and deer. Deer
ticks are tiny and difﬁcult to see (Fig. 6-7). They are
much smaller than the common dog tick or wood tick.
They can be as small as a poppy seed or the head of a
pin. Adult deer ticks are only as large as a grape seed.
Because of the tick’s tiny size, its bite usually is painless.
Many people who develop Lyme disease cannot recall
having been bitten.
The tick is found around branches and in wooded
and grassy areas. Like all ticks, it attaches itself to any
warm-blooded animal with which it comes into direct
contact, including humans. Deer ticks are active
any time the temperature is above about 45° F.
However, most cases of infection happen between
May and late August, when ticks are most active and
CHAPTER

Environmental Emergencies

FIGURE 6-7 Deer ticks are tiny and difficult to see. © iStockphoto
.com/Martin Pietak.

people spend more time outdoors. Recent studies
indicate that the tick must remain embedded in human
skin for about 36 to 48 hours to transmit the disease.
More information on Lyme disease may be available
from your local or state health department, the
American Lyme Disease Foundation (aldf.com), or the
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)
(cdc.gov/features/lymedisease/).

What to Look For
The ﬁrst signal of infection may appear a few days
or a few weeks after a tick bite. In 80 to 90 percent
of all cases of Lyme disease, a rash starts as a small
red area at the site of the bite. It may spread up to
7 inches across (Fig. 6-8). In fair-skinned people,
the center may be a lighter color with the outer edges
red and raised. This sometimes gives the rash a
bull’s-eye appearance. In some individuals, the
rash may appear to be solid red. In dark-skinned
people, the area may look black and blue, like a bruise.
The rash may or may not be warm to the touch and
usually is not itchy or painful. If a rash does appear,
it will do so in about 1 to 2 weeks and may last for about
3 to 5 weeks. Some people with Lyme disease never
develop a rash.
Other signals of Lyme disease include fever, headache,
weakness, and joint and muscle pain. These signals
are similar to signals of ﬂu and can develop slowly.
They might not occur at the same time as the rash.
Lyme disease can get worse if it is not treated.
Signals can include severe fatigue; fever; a stiff,
aching neck; tingling or numbness in the ﬁngers and
toes; and facial paralysis.
In its advanced stages Lyme disease may cause
painful arthritis; numbness in the arms, hands
or legs; severe headaches; long- or short-term
memory loss; confusion; dizziness; and problems
88

First Aid/CPR/AED

Participant’s Manual

FIGURE 6-8 A person with Lyme disease may develop a rash.
© iStockphoto.com/Heike Kampe.

in seeing or hearing. Some of these signals could
indicate problems with the brain or nervous system.
Lyme disease may also cause heart problems such as
an irregular or rapid heartbeat.

When to Seek Medical Care
If rash or ﬂu-like signals develop, the person should
seek medical care immediately. A health care provider
usually will prescribe antibiotics to treat Lyme disease.
Antibiotics work quickly and effectively if taken as soon
as possible. Most people who get treated early make
a full recovery. If you suspect Lyme disease, do not delay
seeking treatment. Treatment time is longer and less
effective when the person has been infected for a long
period of time.

Preventing Tick-borne Diseases
Follow the guidelines presented in Focus on
Prevention: How to Beat Those Little Critters in
this chapter for general tips on how to prevent contact
with, and bites from, ticks when you are in wooded
or grassy areas.
To prevent tick-borne illnesses, always check for ticks
immediately after outdoor activities. Most experts
believe that the longer the tick stays attached to the skin,
the greater the chances are of infection. Therefore, check
for ticks at least once daily after having been outdoors.
Quickly remove any ticks that you ﬁnd before they
become swollen with blood.
Wash all clothing. Be sure to check pets because they can
carry ticks into the house, where they can then attach
themselves to people or other pets. Pets also can develop
signals of tick-borne diseases.
If you ﬁnd a tick embedded in a person’s skin, it must
be removed. With a gloved hand, grasp the tick with
ﬁne-tipped and pointed tweezer that has a smooth inside

Preventing West Nile Virus
The easiest and best way to avoid WNV is to prevent
mosquito bites. Speciﬁcally, you can:

FIGURE 6-9 Remove a tick by pulling slowly, steadily
and firmly with fine-tipped tweezers.

surface. Get as close to the skin as possible. Pull slowly,
steadily and ﬁrmly with no twisting (Fig. 6-9).
■

Do not try to burn off the tick.

■

Do not apply petroleum jelly or nail polish
to the tick.

Put the tick in a container or jar with rubbing alcohol
to kill it. Clean the bite area with soap and water and an
antiseptic. Apply an antibiotic ointment if it is available
and the person has no known allergies or sensitivities to
the medication. Encourage the person to seek medical
advice because of the risk of contracting a tick-borne
disease. If you cannot remove the tick, have the person
seek advanced medical care.

Mosquito-Borne Illness:
West Nile Virus
West Nile virus (WNV) is passed on to humans
and other animals by mosquitoes that bite them after
feeding on infected birds. Recently, WNV has been
reported in some mild climate areas of North America
and Europe.
WNV cannot be passed from one person to another.
Also, no evidence supports that humans can acquire
the disease by handling live or dead birds infected with
WNV. However, it is still a good idea to use disposable
gloves when handling an infected bird. Contact your
local health department for instructions on reporting
and disposing of the bird’s body.
For most people, the risk of infection by WNV is very
low. Less than 1 percent of people who are bitten
by mosquitoes develop any signals of the disease.
In addition, relatively few mosquitoes actually carry
WNV. People who spend a lot of time outdoors are
at a higher risk for catching the disease. Only about
1 in every 150 people who are infected with WNV will
become seriously ill.

■

Use insect repellents containing DEET
(N, N-diethyl-meta-toluamide) when you
are outdoors. Follow the directions on the
package (see Focus on Prevention: Repelling
Those Pests).

■

Consider staying indoors at dusk and dawn, when
mosquitoes are most active. If you have to be outdoors
during these times, use insect repellent and wear long
sleeves and pants. Light-colored clothing can help you
to see mosquitoes that land on you.

■

Make sure you have good screens on your windows
and doors to keep mosquitoes out.
■ Get rid of mosquito breeding sites by emptying
sources of standing water outside of the home,
such as from ﬂowerpots, buckets and barrels.
Also, change the water in pet dishes and replace
the water in bird baths weekly, drill drainage holes
in tire swings so that water drains out and keep
children’s wading pools empty and on their sides
when they are not being used.
For more information, visit cdc.gov/westnile or call the
CDC public response hotline at (888) 246-2675 (English),
(888) 246-2857 (Español) or (866) 874-2646 (TTY).
Source: CDC.gov and redcross.org

What to Look For
Most people infected with WNV have no signals.
Approximately 20 percent develop mild signals,
such as fever and aches, which pass on their own.
The risk of severe disease is higher for people 50 years
and older.
People typically develop signals of WNV between 3 and
14 days after an infected mosquito bites them. Signals of
WNV include the following:
■

High fever
Headache
■ Neck stiffness
■ Confusion
■ Coma
■

■

Tremors
Convulsions
■ Muscle weakness
■
■

Vision loss
Numbness
■ Paralysis
■

These signals may last several weeks. In some cases,
WNV can cause fatal encephalitis, which is a swelling
of the brain that leads to death.
CHAPTER

Environmental Emergencies

FOCUS ON PREVENTION

HOW TO BEAT THOSE LITTLE CRITTERS
You can prevent bites and stings from insects,
spiders, ticks or snakes by following these guidelines
when you are in wooded or grassy areas:
■
■
■

■
■

■

Wear long-sleeved shirts and long pants.
Tuck your pant legs into your socks or boots.
Use a rubber band or tape to hold pants
against socks so that nothing can get
under clothing.
Tuck your shirt into your pants.
Wear light-colored clothing to make it easier
to see tiny insects or ticks.
When hiking in woods and fields, stay in
the middle of trails. Avoid underbrush and
tall grass.
If you are outdoors for a long time, check
yourself several times during the day.
Especially check in hairy areas of the body
like the back of the neck and the scalp line.

■

■
■

■

Inspect yourself carefully for insects or
ticks after being outdoors or have someone
else do it.
Avoid walking in areas where snakes are
known to live.
If you encounter a snake, look around for
others. Turn around and walk away on the
same path on which you came.
Wear sturdy hiking boots.
If you have pets that go outdoors, spray
them with repellent made for that type of pet.
Apply the repellent according to the label and
check your pet for ticks often.
If you will be in a grassy or wooded area
for a long time or if you know that the
area is highly infested with insects or ticks,
consider using a repellent. Follow the
directions carefully.

When to Seek Care
If you develop signals of severe WNV illness, such
as unusually severe headaches or confusion, seek
medical attention immediately. Pregnant women
and nursing mothers are encouraged to talk to their
doctors if they develop signals that could indicate
WNV. There is no speciﬁc treatment for WNV
infection or a vaccine to prevent it. In more severe
cases, people usually need to go to the hospital, where
they will receive intravenous ﬂuids, assistance with
breathing and nursing care.

Spider Bites and Scorpion
Stings
Few spiders in the United States can cause serious
illness or death. However, the bites of the black
widow and brown recluse spiders can, in rare cases,
kill a person (Fig. 6-10, A–B). Another dangerous
spider is the northwestern brown, or hobo,
spider.

FIGURE 6-10, A–B Bites from A, the black widow spider and B, the brown recluse
spider can make a person very sick. Fig. A © iStockphoto.com/Mark Kostich,
Fig. B Image © Miles Boyer, 2010, Used under license from Shutterstock.com.

First Aid/CPR/AED

Participant’s Manual

Widow spiders can be black, red or brown.
The black widow spider is black with a
reddish hourglass shape on the underside
of its body and is the most venomous of the
widow spiders. The brown recluse spider
(also known as the violin or ﬁddleback
spider) has a distinctive violin-shaped
pattern on the back of its front body
section.
These spiders prefer dark, out-of-the-way
places. Examples of places where these
spiders live include wood, rock and brush
piles; dark garages; and attics. People often
are bitten on their arms and hands when
reaching into these places.

FOCUS ON PREVENTION

REPELLING THOSE PESTS
Insect repellent is used to keep away pests such as
mosquitoes and ticks that sting and bite. DEET is
the active ingredient in many insect repellents. Insect
repellents that contain DEET are available in many
different forms, including sprays, lotions and liquids.
Using repellent with DEET is safe for most people.
However, it is important to follow label directions
and take proper precautions (see below).
The amount of DEET in insect repellents ranges
from less than 10 percent to over 30 percent.
The more DEET that a product contains, the
longer it will protect from mosquito and tick bites.
For example, an insect repellent containing about
24 percent DEET provides about 5 hours of
protection.
Products with 10 percent DEET are as safe
as products with 30 percent DEET when used
properly. Precautions to follow when using products
containing DEET include:
■

■

Apply products that contain DEET only once
a day.
Do not use DEET on infants under 2 months
of age.
Do not use a product that combines sunscreen
with a DEET-containing insect repellent.
Sunscreens wash off and need to be
reapplied often. DEET does not wash off with
water. Repeating applications may increase

absorption of the chemical and cause possible
toxic effects.
Before using insect repellent, check the label
carefully for the list of ingredients. If you are unsure
whether the product is safe for you and your family
to use, ask your health care provider. Use caution
when considering insect repellents to be used by
pregnant women, infants and children.
If you use a repellent, follow these general rules:
Keep all repellents out of the reach of children.
To apply repellent to the face, first spray it on
your hands and then apply it from your hands
to your face. Avoid sensitive areas, such as the
lips and eyes.
■
Never use repellents on an open wound or
irritated skin.
■
Use repellents sparingly. One application will
last 4 to 8 hours. Heavier or more frequent
applications do not increase effectiveness.
■
If you suspect that you are having a reaction to
a repellent, wash the treated skin immediately
and call your health care provider.
■
Never put repellents on children’s hands.
They may put them in their eyes or mouth.
For current information about pesticides, contact the
National Pesticide Information Center at npic.orst.
edu or at (800) 858-7378.
■
■

Scorpions live in dry regions such as the southwestern
United States and Mexico. They live under rocks,
logs and the bark of certain trees (Fig. 6-11). They are
most active at night. Like spiders, only a few species
of scorpions have a sting that can cause death. It is
difﬁcult to distinguish highly poisonous scorpions from
nonpoisonous scorpions. Therefore, all scorpion stings
should be treated as medical emergencies.

What to Look For
Signals of spider bites depend on the amount of poison,
called venom, injected and the person’s sensitivity to
the venom. Most spider bites heal with no adverse
effects or scarring. Signals of venomous spider bites
can seem identical to those of other conditions and
therefore can be difﬁcult to recognize. The only way

FIGURE 6-11 A scorpion. © iStockphoto.com/John Bell.

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Environmental Emergencies

to be certain that a spider has bitten a person is to have
witnessed it.
The bite of the black widow spider is the most painful
and deadly of the widow spiders, especially in very
young children and the elderly. The bite usually causes
an immediate sharp pinprick pain, followed by a dull
pain in the area of the bite. However, the person often
does not know that he or she has been bitten until he or
she starts to feel ill or notices a bite mark or swelling.
Other signals of a black widow spider bite include:
■

Rigid muscles in the shoulders, chest, back and
abdomen.

■

Restlessness.
■ Anxiety.
■ Dizziness.
■

Headache.
■ Excessive sweating.
■ Weakness.
■

Drooping or swelling of the eyelids.

The bite of the brown recluse spider may produce little
or no pain initially. Pain in the area of the bite develops
an hour or more later. A blood-ﬁlled blister forms under
the surface of the skin, sometimes in a target or bull’seye pattern. Over time, the blister increases in size and
eventually ruptures, leading to tissue destruction and a
black scab.
The hobo spider also can produce an open, slow-healing
wound.
General signals of spider bites and scorpion stings
may include:
■

A mark indicating a possible bite or sting.
Severe pain in the sting or bite area.
■ A blister, lesion or swelling at the entry site.
■ Nausea and vomiting.
■

■

Stiff or painful joints.

■

Chills or fever.
■ Trouble breathing or swallowing or signs
of anaphylaxis.
■

Sweating or salivating profusely.
■ Muscle aches or severe abdominal or back pain.
■ Dizziness or fainting.
■

Chest pain.
■ Elevated heart rate.
■ Infection at the site of the bite.

widow spider or brown recluse spider, stung by a
scorpion or if the person has any other life-threatening
conditions.

What to Do Until Help Arrives
If the person has been bitten by a venomous spider
or stung by a scorpion:
■

Wash the wound thoroughly.

■

Apply an antibiotic ointment, if the person has
no known allergies or sensitivities to the medication,
to prevent infection.

■

Bandage the wound.
■ Apply an ice or cold pack to the site to reduce pain
and swelling.
■ Encourage the person to seek medical attention.
Children and older adults may need antivenin to
block the effects of the spider’s venom.
■ If you transport the person to a medical facility,
keep the bitten area elevated and as still
as possible.

Venomous Snake Bites
Snakebites kill few people in the United States. Of the
estimated 7000 people bitten annually, fewer than
5 die (Fig. 6-12, A–D). Most snakebites occur near the
home, not in the wild. Rattlesnakes account for most
snakebites, and most of the deaths from snakebites in
the United States. Most deaths occur because the bitten
person has an allergic reaction, is in poor health or
because too much time passes before he or she receives
medical care.

What to Look For
Signals of a possibly venomous snakebite include:
■

A bite mark.
■ Pain.
■

When to Call 9-1-1
If the bite is from a venomous snake such as a
rattlesnake, copperhead, cottonmouth or coral
snake call 9-1-1 or the local emergency number
immediately.

What to Do Until Help Arrives
To care for a venomous snake bite:
■

When to Call 9-1-1
Call 9-1-1 or the local emergency number immediately
if you suspect that someone has been bitten by a black
92

First Aid/CPR/AED

Participant’s Manual

Swelling.

Wash the wound.
■ Apply an elastic (pressure immobilization) bandage
to slow the spread of venom through the lymphatic
system by following these steps:

B
A
A

FIGURE 6-12, A–D Venomous snakes found in the United Statics include A, rattlesnake (Image © Audrey Snider-Bell, 2010 Used under
license from Shutterstock.com). B, copperhead (© iStockphoto.com/Jake Holmes), C, cottonmouth (Image © Leighton Photography &
Imaging, 2010 Used under license from Shutterstock.com), and D, coral snake (© iStockphoto.com/Mark Kostich).

Check for feeling, warmth and color of the
limb and note changes in skin color and
temperature.
{ Place the end of the bandage against the skin and
use overlapping turns.
{ The wrap should cover a long body section,
such as an arm or a calf, beginning at the point
farthest from the heart. For a joint, such as the
knee or ankle, use ﬁgure-eight turns to support
the joint.
{ Check above and below the injury for feeling,
warmth and color, especially ﬁngers and toes,
after you have applied an elastic roller bandage.
By checking before and after bandaging, you may
be able to tell if any tingling or numbness is from
the elastic bandage or the injury.
{ Check the snugness of the bandaging—a ﬁnger
should easily, but not loosely, pass under the
bandage.
{ Keep the injured area still and lower than the
heart. The person should walk only if absolutely
necessary.
■ Do not apply ice.
■ Do not cut the wound.
{

■

Do not apply suction.

■

Do not apply a tourniquet.
■ Do not use electric shock, such as from a car battery.

Animal Bites
The bite of a domestic or wild animal can cause infection
and soft tissue injury. The most serious possible result
is rabies. Rabies is transmitted through the saliva of
diseased animals such as skunks, bats, raccoons, cats,
dogs, cattle and foxes.
Animals with rabies may act strangely. For example, those
that are usually active at night may be active in the daytime.
A wild animal that usually tries to avoid people might
not run from you. Rabid animals may drool, appear to be
partially paralyzed, or act aggressively or strangely quiet.
If not treated, rabies is fatal. Anyone bitten by an animal
that might have rabies must get medical attention.
Treatment for rabies includes a series of vaccine injections
to build up immunity that will help ﬁght the disease.
If an animal bites someone, try to get the person away
from the animal without putting yourself in danger. Do
not try to stop, hold or catch the animal. Do not touch
a pet that may have come in contact with the animal’s
saliva without using or wearing some form of protection
like disposable gloves.
CHAPTER

Environmental Emergencies

■

Control any bleeding.
■ Apply an antibiotic ointment to a minor wound,
if the person has no known allergies or sensitivities
to the medication, and cover the wound with a
dressing.

What to Look For
Signals of an animal bite include:
■

A bite mark.

■

Bleeding.

■

When to Call 9-1-1
Call 9-1-1 or the local emergency number if the wound
is bleeding seriously or you suspect the animal might
have rabies.

Marine Life Stings
The stings of some forms of marine life are not only
painful, but they can make you sick, and in some
parts of the world, can kill you (Fig. 6-13, A–D).
The side effects include allergic reactions that can cause
breathing and heart problems, as well as paralysis and
death. The lifeguards in your area should know the
types of jellyﬁsh that may be present.

If possible, try to remember the animal’s appearance
and where you last saw it. When you call 9-1-1 or the
local emergency number, the call taker will direct the
proper authorities, such as animal control, to the scene.

What to Do Until Help Arrives

What to Look For

To care for an animal bite:
■

Control bleeding ﬁrst if the wound is bleeding seriously.

■

Do not clean serious wounds. The wound will be
cleaned at a medical facility.

■

Watch for signals of infection.

Signals of marine life stings include:
■

Possible puncture marks.

■

Pain.
■ Swelling.
■ Signs of a possible allergic reaction.

If bleeding is minor, wash the wound with soap and
water then irrigate with clean running tap water.

B
A

FIGURE 6-13, A–D The painful sting of some marine animals can cause serious problems: A, stingray (© iStockphoto.com/Dia Karanouh);
B, Bluebottle jellyfish/Portuguese man-of-war (© iStockphoto.com/Mark Kostich); C, sea anemone (© iStockphoto.com/Omers); D, jellyfish (Image
© Johan1900, 2010 Used under license from Shutterstock.com).

First Aid/CPR/AED

Participant’s Manual

When to Call 9-1-1
Call 9-1-1 or the local emergency number if the
person does not know what stung him or her, has
a history of allergic reactions to marine-life stings,
is stung on the face or neck, or starts to have
trouble breathing.

What to Do Until Help Arrives
If you encounter someone who has a marine-life sting:
■

Get a lifeguard to remove the person from the
water as soon as possible. If a lifeguard is not
available, use a reaching assist, if possible (see
Chapter 1). Avoid touching the person with your
bare hands, which could expose you to the stinging
tentacles. Use gloves or a towel when removing
any tentacles.
■ If you know the sting is from a jellyﬁsh, irrigate the
injured part with large amounts of vinegar as soon
as possible for at least 30 seconds. This can help
to remove the tentacles and stop the injection of
venom. Vinegar works best to offset the toxin, but
a baking soda slurry also may be used if vinegar is
not available.
■ If the sting is known to be from a bluebottle jellyﬁsh,
also known as a Portuguese man-of-war, use ocean
water instead of vinegar. Vinegar triggers further
envenomation.

■

Do not rub the wound, apply a pressure
immobilization bandage or apply fresh water or
other remedies because this may increase pain.
■ Once the stinging action is stopped and tentacles
removed, care for pain by hot-water immersion.
Have the person take a hot shower if possible for at
least 20 minutes. The water temperature should be
as hot as can be tolerated (non-scalding) or about
113° F if the temperature can be measured.
■

If you know the sting is from a stingray, sea urchin
or spiny fish, flush the wound with tap water.
Ocean water also may be used. Keep the injured
part still and soak the affected area in non-scalding
hot water (as hot as the person can stand) for at
least 20 minutes or until the pain goes away. If
hot water is not available, packing the area in hot
sand may have a similar effect if the sand is hot
enough. Then carefully clean the wound and apply
a bandage. Watch for signals of infection and
check with a health care provider to determine if a
tetanus shot is needed.

POISONOUS PLANTS
Every year, millions of people suffer after coming
into contact with poisonous plants such as poison
ivy, poison sumac and poison oak (Fig. 6-14, A–C).

FIGURE 6-14, A–C A, poison ivy (Image © Tim Mainiero, 2010 Used under license from Shutterstock.com);
B, poison sumac (Courtesy of www.poison-ivy.org); C, poison oak (Image © Dwight Smith, 2010 Used under
license from Shutterstock.com).

CHAPTER

Environmental Emergencies

You often can avoid or limit the irritating effects of
touching or brushing against poisonous plants by
following these steps:

■

Postpone activities immediately, and not wait
for rain to begin. Thunder and lightning can strike
without rain.

■

Remove exposed clothing and wash the exposed area
thoroughly with soap and water as soon as possible
after contact.
■ Wash clothing exposed to plant oils since the oils can
linger on fabric. Wash your hands thoroughly after
handling exposed clothing. Wash your hands after
touching exposed pets.

■

Watch cloud patterns and conditions for signs of an
approaching storm.

■

Designate safe locations and move or
evacuate to a safe location at the ﬁrst sound
of thunder. Every 5 seconds between the ﬂash
of lightning and the sound of thunder equals
1 mile of distance.

■

Where possible, quickly ﬁnd shelter in a substantial
building (not a carport, open garage or covered patio),
or in a fully enclosed metal vehicle, such as a hardtop
car (not a convertible), truck or van, with the windows
completely shut.

■

Use the 30-30 rule where visibility is good and
there is nothing obstructing your view of the
thunderstorm. When you see lightning, count the
time until you hear thunder. If that time is
30 seconds or less, the thunderstorm is within
6 miles. Seek shelter immediately. The threat of
lightning continues for a much longer period than
most people realize. Wait at least 30 minutes after
the last clap of thunder before leaving shelter.
If inside during a storm, keep away from windows.
Injuries may occur from ﬂying debris or glass if
a window breaks.

■

Stay away from plumbing, electrical equipment and
wiring during a thunderstorm.

■

Do not use a corded telephone or radio transmitter
except for emergencies.

■

If there is a tornado alert, go to the basement of the
lowest interior level of a building.

Put a paste of baking soda and water on the area
several times a day if a rash or weeping sore begins to
develop. Calamine lotion and antihistamines, such as
Benadryl®, may help to dry up the sores.
■ See a health care provider if the condition gets worse
or involves areas of the face or throat that could
affect breathing. He or she may decide to give antiinﬂammatory drugs, such as corticosteroids or other
medications, to relieve discomfort.

LIGHTNING
Every year, lightning causes more deaths in the United
States than any other weather hazard, including
blizzards, hurricanes, ﬂoods, tornadoes, earthquakes
and volcanic eruptions. The National Weather Service
(NWS) estimates that lightning kills nearly 100 people
annually and injures about 300 others.
Lightning travels at speeds of up to 300 miles per second.
Anything tall—a tower, tree or person—can become a
path for the electrical current. A lightning strike can
throw a person through the air, burn off clothes and
cause the heart to stop beating. The most severe lightning
strikes carry up to 50 million volts of electricity. This
is enough electricity to light 13,000 homes. Lightning
can “ﬂash” over a person’s body or it can travel through
blood vessels and nerves to reach the ground.
If a person survives a lightning strike, he or she may
act confused. The person may describe the episode
as getting hit on the head or hearing an explosion.

In a lightning storm, reach safety by following these
guidelines:
■

Move downhill.

■

Do not stay in a meadow or any other
wide-open space.

■

Seek uniform cover, such as low rolling hills or trees
of about the same size.

■

If you are boating or swimming, get to land and move
away from the shore.

■

Avoid all of the following:

Prevent Lightning Injuries
What to do before a possible lightning storm:
■

Pick campsites that meet safety precautions.
■ Know local weather patterns, especially in summertime.
■

Plan turnaround times (the amount of time you need
to get back) in lightning-prone areas, based on your
research, and stick to the plan.

During thunderstorms, use common sense to prevent
being struck by lightning. If a thunderstorm threatens,
the NWS advises people to:

First Aid/CPR/AED

Participant’s Manual

Metal
{ Anything connected to electrical power
{ High places and high objects such as
tall trees
{ Open places
{

Damp, shallow caves and tunnels
{ Overhangs
{ Flood zones
{

■

Unconsciousness
■ Dazed, confused behavior
■ Trouble breathing
■ No breathing
■

Burn marks on the skin or other open wounds
■ Muscle, bone or joint injuries such as fractures
or dislocations

When to Call 9-1-1
Call 9-1-1 immediately if a person is struck
by lightning.
FIGURE 6-15 If lightning strikes and you cannot get inside, squat or
sit in a tight body position, preferably on insulating material such as a
sleeping pad or life jacket. Courtesy of the Canadian Red Cross.

Even if the person seems to have recovered soon after
the incident, advanced medical care still is necessary
because serious problems can develop later.

What to Do Until Help Arrives
Places obviously struck by lightning in the past
{ Long conductors, such as fences
{

If lightning is striking nearby when people are outside,
they should assume a safe position:
■
■
■
■

■

Squat or sit in a tight body position on insulating
material such as a sleeping pad or a life jacket (Fig. 6-15).
Take off any metal-framed packs and toss hiking poles
away from the group.
Do not lie down; instead, try to make as little contact
with the ground as possible.
If you feel your hair stand on end or your skin get
tingly, cover your ears with your hands, close your
eyes and get your head close to your knees.
Avoid squatting or sitting close to other people.
Maintain a minimum distance of at least 15 feet
between people. Keep everyone in sight if possible.

Lightning Injuries
Lightning injuries are serious and can be fatal. Being
struck by lightning can cause cardiac and pulmonary
arrest, neurological problems, blindness, deafness, burns,
bone fractures, loss of hearing, eyesight and trauma.

What to Look For
When checking a person struck by lightning, look the
person over from head to toe in the front and back for
any of the following signals:

■

Immediately perform CPR if needed.

■

Give care for any injuries as needed including care
for thermal burns.

■

Be ready to care for other conditions, such as
hypothermia in a wet, injured person.

PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER
Outdoor activities in all kinds of weather are healthy
and fun, but environmental emergencies can occur.
Children and adults become seriously injured, and
even die, from heat stroke, hypothermia, snakebites
and lightning strikes.
The good news is that you can prevent environmental
emergencies most of the time. Be prepared for all kinds
of weather and situations before you head out to hike,
swim, ski or camp. Know how to dress appropriately,
what precautions to take and what to do if a situation
becomes uncertain.
Even with excellent preparation, emergencies still
happen. Know the signals—especially the early ones—of
environmentally caused illnesses. This will allow you
to make quick decisions for yourself or others. Quick
decisions about when to call 9-1-1 and when to seek
medical care can mean the difference between life and
death in an environmental emergency!

CHAPTER

Environmental Emergencies

CHAPTER

7
Soft Tissue Injuries

oft tissue injuries happen to children and adults of all ages. They can be minor, serious or life threatening.
Examples of minor soft tissue injuries include scrapes, bruises and mild sunburns. Examples of serious soft
tissue injuries include large cuts that require stitches and partial-thickness burns. Life-threatening soft tissue
injuries include stab wounds to the abdomen, lacerations that cause serious bleeding and full-thickness burns.

This chapter discusses the signals of soft tissue injuries, including closed wounds, open wounds and burns. You will
read about the differences between major wounds and minor wounds and between different types of burns. In addition,
you will learn when to call 9-1-1 or the local emergency number and how to give care.

First Aid/CPR/AED

Participant’s Manual

into the surrounding tissues, causing the
area to swell and change color.
Hair

A more serious closed wound can
be caused by a violent force hitting
the body. This type of force can injure
larger blood vessels and deeper layers
of muscle tissue, which may result
in heavy bleeding beneath the skin
and damage to internal organs.

Skin

Epidermis
Dermis

What to Look For
Nerves

Subcutaneous
layer

■

Glands
Fatty tissue

FIGURE 7-1 The soft tissues include the layers of skin, fat and muscle.

WOUNDS
Soft tissues are the layers of skin and the fat and muscle
beneath the skin’s outer layer (Fig. 7-1). An injury to the
soft tissue commonly is called a wound. Any time the soft
tissue is damaged or torn, the body is threatened. Injuries
may damage the soft tissue at or near the skin’s surface or
deep in the body. Severe bleeding can occur at the skin’s
surface or beneath, where it is harder to detect. Germs can
enter the body through the wound and cause infection.
Wounds usually are classiﬁed as either closed or open.
In a closed wound, the skin’s surface is not broken;
therefore, tissue damage and any bleeding occur below
the surface. In an open wound, the skin’s surface is
broken, and blood may come through the tear in the skin.

Signals of internal bleeding include:

■

Tender, swollen, bruised or hard areas
of the body, such as the abdomen.
■ Rapid, weak pulse.
■

Skin that feels cool or moist or looks
pale or bluish.
■ Vomiting blood or coughing up blood.
■ Excessive thirst.
■ An injured extremity that is blue or
extremely pale.

Altered mental state, such as the person becoming
confused, faint, drowsy or unconscious.

When to Call 9-1-1
Call 9-1-1 or the local emergency number if:
■
■
■
■
■
■

A person complains of severe pain or cannot
move a body part without pain.
You think the force that caused the injury was great
enough to cause serious damage.
An injured extremity is blue or extremely pale.
The person’s abdomen is tender and distended.
The person is vomiting blood or coughing up blood.
The person shows signals of shock or becomes
confused, drowsy or unconscious.

Fortunately, most of the bleeding you will encounter
will not be serious. In most cases it usually stops by
itself within a few minutes with minimal intervention.
The trauma may cause a blood vessel to tear causing
bleeding, but the blood at the wound site usually clots
quickly and stops ﬂowing. Sometimes, however, the
damaged blood vessel is too large or the pressure in
the blood vessel is too great for the blood to clot, then
bleeding can be life threatening. This can happen with
both closed and open wounds.

Closed Wounds
The simplest closed wound is a bruise. A bruise develops
when the body is bumped or hit, such as when you bump
your leg on a table or chair (Fig. 7-2). The force of the blow
to the body damages the soft tissue layers beneath the skin.
This causes internal bleeding. Blood and other ﬂuids seep

FIGURE 7-2 The simplest closed wound is a bruise, which develops
when the body is bumped or hit. Courtesy of Ted Crites.

CHAPTER

Soft Tissue Injuries

What to Do Until Help Arrives
Many closed wounds, like bruises, do not require special
medical care. To care for a closed wound, you can apply an
ice pack to the area to decrease bleeding beneath the skin.
Applying cold also can be effective in helping to control
both pain and swelling (Fig. 7-3). Fill a plastic bag with
ice and water or wrap ice in a wet cloth and apply it to the
injured area for periods of about 20 minutes. Place a thin

barrier between the ice and bare skin. Remove the ice
and wait for 20 minutes before reapplying. If the person
is not able to tolerate a 20–minute application, apply the
ice pack for periods of 10 minutes on and off. Elevating
the injured part may help to reduce swelling; however,
do not elevate the injured part if it causes more pain.
Do not assume that all closed wounds are minor injuries.
Take the time to ﬁnd out whether more serious injuries
could be present.
With all closed wounds, help the person to rest
in the most comfortable position possible. In
addition, keep the person from getting chilled
or overheated. It also is helpful to comfort and
reassure the person. Be sure that a person with an
injured lower extremity does not bear weight on it
until advised to do so by a medical professional.

Open Wounds
In an open wound, the break in the skin can be as
minor as a scrape of the surface layers or as severe
as a deep penetration. The amount of bleeding
depends on the location and severity of the injury.
The four main types of open soft tissue wounds are
abrasions, lacerations, avulsions and punctures.

Abrasions
FIGURE 7-3 Apply ice to a closed wound to help control pain and swelling.

Abrasions are the most common type of open
wound (Fig. 7-4). They usually are caused by
something rubbing roughly against the skin.
Abrasions do not bleed much. Any bleeding that
occurs comes from capillaries (tiny blood vessels).
Dirt and germs frequently have been rubbed into
this type of wound, which is why it is important
to clean and irrigate an abrasion thoroughly with
soap and water to prevent infection.
Other terms for an abrasion include a scrape, a
rug burn, a road rash or a strawberry. Abrasions
usually are painful because scraping of the outer
skin layers exposes sensitive nerve endings.

Lacerations

FIGURE 7-4 Abrasion

100

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FIGURE 7-5 Laceration

Participant’s Manual

A laceration is a cut in the skin, which commonly
is caused by a sharp object, such as a knife,
scissors or broken glass (Fig. 7-5). A laceration
also can occur when a blunt force splits the
skin. Deep lacerations may cut layers of fat and
muscle, damaging both nerves and blood vessels.
Bleeding may be heavy or there may be none at
all. Lacerations are not always painful because
damaged nerves cannot send pain signals to the
brain. Infection can easily occur with lacerations
if proper care is not given.

What to Do Until Help Arrives
Give general care for all open wounds.
Speciﬁc care depends on whether the
person has a minor or a major open wound.

General Care for Open Wounds
General care for open wounds includes
controlling bleeding, preventing infection
and using dressings and bandages.

Preventing Infection
When the skin is broken, the best initial
defense against infection is to clean the
area. For minor wounds, after controlling
any bleeding, wash the area with soap and
water and, if possible, irrigate with large
amounts of fresh running water to remove
debris and germs. You should not wash
more serious wounds that require medical
attention because they involve more
extensive tissue damage or bleeding and it
is more important to control the bleeding.
FIGURE 7-6 Avulsion

FIGURE 7-7 Puncture

Avulsions
An avulsion is a serious soft tissue injury. It happens
when a portion of the skin, and sometimes other soft
tissue, is partially or completely torn away (Fig. 7-6).
This type of injury often damages deeper tissues,
causing signiﬁcant bleeding. Sometimes a violent
force may completely tear away a body part, including
bone, such as a ﬁnger. This is known as an amputation.
With amputations, sometimes bleeding is easier
to control because the tissues close around the vessels
at the injury site. If there is a violent tearing, twisting
or crushing of the extremity, the bleeding may be hard
to control.

Sometimes even the best care for a soft
tissue injury is not enough to prevent
infection. You usually will be able to
recognize the early signals of infection.
The area around the wound becomes swollen and red
(Fig. 7-8). The area may feel warm or throb with pain.
Some wounds discharge pus. Serious infections may
cause a person to develop a fever and feel ill. Red streaks
may develop that progress from the wound toward the
heart. If this happens, the infected person should seek
immediate professional medical attention.
If you see any signals of infection, keep the area clean, soak
it in clean, warm water and apply an antibiotic ointment
if the person has no known allergies or sensitivities to the
medication. Change coverings over the wound daily.

Punctures
Punctures usually occur when a pointed object,
such as a nail, pierces the skin (Fig. 7-7). A gunshot
wound is a puncture wound. Puncture wounds do
not bleed much unless a blood vessel has been injured.
However, an object that goes into the soft tissues
beneath the skin can carry germs deep into the body.
These germs can cause infections—sometimes serious
ones. If the object remains in the wound, it is called an
embedded object.

When to Call 9-1-1
Call 9-1-1 or the local emergency number immediately
for any major open or closed wound.

FIGURE 7-8 The area around an infected wound becomes swollen
and red. Image © Fedor Kondratenko, 2010 Used under license from
Shutterstock.com.

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FIGURE 7-9 Wounds to the face could cause scarring and therefore
often require stitches. © iStockphoto.com/Angie Kohler.

FIGURE 7-10 Dressings are placed directly on the wound to absorb
blood and prevent infection.

Determining if the Person Needs Stitches

Using Dressings and Bandages

It can be difﬁcult to judge when a wound requires
stitches. One rule of thumb is that a health care provider
will need to stitch a wound if the edges of skin do not fall
together, the laceration involves the face or when any
wound is over 1⁄2 inch long (Fig. 7-9).

All open wounds need some type of covering to help
control bleeding and prevent infection. These coverings
commonly are referred to as dressings and bandages,
and there are many types.

Stitches speed the healing process, lessen the chances of
infection and minimize scarring. They should be placed
within the ﬁrst few hours after the injury. The following
major injuries often require stitches:
■

Bleeding from an artery or uncontrolled bleeding.

■

Wounds that show muscle or bone, involve joints,
gape widely, or involve hands or feet.

■

Wounds from large or deeply embedded objects.

■

Wounds from human or animal bites.
Wounds that, if left unstitched, could leave
conspicuous scars, such as those on the face.

■

Dressings are pads placed directly on the wound to
absorb blood and other ﬂuids and to prevent infection.
To minimize the chance of infection, dressings should
be sterile. Most dressings are porous, allowing air to
circulate to the wound to promote healing. Standard
dressings include varying sizes of cotton gauze,
commonly ranging from 2 to 4 inches square (Fig. 7-10).
Larger dressings are used to cover very large wounds
and multiple wounds in one body area. Some dressings
have nonstick surfaces to prevent them from sticking to
the wound.
An occlusive dressing is a bandage or dressing that
closes a wound or damaged area of the body and

FOCUS ON PREVENTION

TETANUS
Tetanus is a severe infection that can result
from a puncture or a deep cut. Tetanus is
a disease caused by bacteria. These bacteria
produce a powerful poison in the body.
The poison enters the nervous system and can
cause muscle paralysis. Once tetanus reaches
the nervous system, its effects are highly
dangerous and can be fatal. Fortunately, tetanus
often can be successfully treated with medicines
called antitoxins.

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One way to prevent tetanus is through
immunizations. All of us need to have a shot to
protect against tetanus. We also need a booster shot
at least every 10 years. Check with your health care
provider to learn whether you need a booster shot if
either of the following happens:
■
Your skin is punctured or cut by an object that
could carry infection, such as a rusty nail.
■
You are bitten by an animal.

FIGURE 7-11 Occlusive dressings are designed to close a wound
or damaged area of the body and prevent it from being exposed to
the air or water.

prevents it from being exposed to the air or water
(Fig. 7-11). By preventing exposure to the air, occlusive
dressings help to prevent infection. Occlusive dressings
help to keep in place medications that have been applied
to the affected area. They also help to keep in heat,
body ﬂuids and moisture. Occlusive dressings are
manufactured but can be improvised. An example of
an improvised occlusive dressing is plastic wrap secured
with medical tape. This type of dressing can be used
for certain chest and abdominal injuries.
A bandage is any material that is used to wrap or cover
any part of the body. Bandages are used to hold dressings
in place, to apply pressure to control bleeding, to protect
a wound from dirt and infection, and to provide support
to an injured limb or body part (Fig. 7-12). Any bandage
applied snugly to create pressure on a wound or an injury
is called a pressure bandage.

FIGURE 7-12 Bandages are used to hold dressings in place, control
bleeding, protect wounds and provide support to an injured limb or
body part.

FIGURE 7-13 Adhesive compress

You can purchase many different types of bandages,
including:
■

Adhesive compresses, which are available in assorted
sizes and consist of a small pad of nonstick gauze
on a strip of adhesive tape that is applied directly
to minor wounds (Fig. 7-13).
■ Bandage compresses, which are thick gauze
dressings attached to a bandage that is tied in
place. Bandage compresses are specially designed to
help control severe bleeding and usually come
in sterile packages.
■ Roller bandages, which are usually made of gauze or
gauze-like material (Fig. 7-14). Roller bandages are
available in assorted widths from 1⁄2 to 12 inches
(1.3–30.5 cm) and in lengths from 5 to 10 yards.
A narrow bandage would be used to wrap a hand or
wrist. A medium-width bandage would be used

FIGURE 7-14 Roller bandage

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FIGURE 7-15, A–D To apply a roller bandage: A, Start by securing the bandage in place. B, Use overlapping turns to cover
the dressing completely. C, Tie or tape the bandage in place. D, Check the fingers or toes for feeling, warmth and color.

for an arm or ankle. A wide bandage would be
used to wrap a leg. A roller bandage generally is
wrapped around the body part. It can be tied or
taped in place. A roller bandage also may be used to
hold a dressing in place, secure a splint or control
external bleeding.
Follow these general guidelines when applying
a roller bandage:
■

Check for feeling, warmth and color of the area below
the injury site, especially ﬁngers and toes, before and
after applying the bandage.
■ Elevate the injured body part only if you do not
suspect that a bone has been broken and if doing
so does not cause more pain.
■ Secure the end of the bandage in place with a
turn of the bandage. Wrap the bandage around
the body part until the dressing is completely
covered and the bandage extends several inches
beyond the dressing. Tie or tape the bandage in
place (Fig. 7-15, A–C).
■ Do not cover ﬁngers or toes. By keeping these
parts uncovered, you will be able to see if the
bandage is too tight (Fig. 7-15, D). If ﬁngers or
toes become cold or begin to turn pale, blue or
ashen, the bandage is too tight and should be
loosened slightly.

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■

Apply additional dressings and another bandage if
blood soaks through the ﬁrst bandage. Do not remove
the blood-soaked bandages and dressings. Disturbing
them may disrupt the formation of a clot and restart
the bleeding.

Elastic roller bandages, sometimes called elastic wraps,
are designed to keep continuous pressure on a body
part (Fig. 7-16). Elastic bandages are available in 2-,
3-, 4- and 6-inch widths. As with roller bandages, the

FIGURE 7-16 Elastic roller bandage

ﬁrst step in using an elastic bandage is to select the
correct size of the bandage: a narrow bandage is used
to wrap a hand or wrist; a medium-width bandage is
used for an arm or ankle and a wide bandage is used
to wrap a leg.
When properly applied, an elastic bandage may control
swelling or support an injured limb, as in the care for
a venomous snakebite. However, an improperly
applied elastic bandage can restrict blood ﬂow, which
is not only painful but also can cause tissue damage if
not corrected.
To apply an elastic roller bandage:
■

Check the circulation of the limb beyond where you
will be placing the bandage by checking for feeling,
warmth and color.
■ Place the end of the bandage against the skin and use
overlapping turns (Fig. 7-17, A).
■ Gently stretch the bandage as you continue
wrapping (Fig. 7-17, B). The wrap should cover a
long body section, like an arm or a calf, beginning
at the point farthest from the heart. For a joint like

a knee or an ankle, use ﬁgure-eight turns to support
the joint.
■

Check the snugness of the bandaging—a ﬁnger
should easily, but not loosely, pass under
the bandage.
■ Always check the area above and below the injury
site for feeling, warmth and color, especially
ﬁngers and toes, after you have applied an elastic
roller bandage. By checking both before and
after bandaging, you will be able to tell if any
tingling or numbness is from the bandaging or
the injury.

Specific Care Guidelines for Minor
Open Wounds
In minor open wounds, such as abrasions, there is only
a small amount of damage and minimal bleeding.
To care for a minor open wound, follow these general
guidelines:
■

■
■

■

Use a barrier between your hand and the wound.
If readily available, put on disposable gloves and place
a sterile dressing on the wound.
Apply direct pressure for a few minutes to control
any bleeding.
Wash the wound thoroughly with soap and water.
If possible, irrigate an abrasion for about 5 minutes
with clean, warm, running tap water.
Apply an antibiotic ointment to a minor wound if
the person has no known allergies or sensitivities
to the medication.
Cover the wound with a sterile dressing and
a bandage or with an adhesive bandage to keep
the wound moist and prevent drying.

Specific Care Guidelines for Major
Open Wounds
A major open wound has serious tissue damage and
severe bleeding. To care for a major open wound,
you must act at once. Follow these steps:
■

B
FIGURE 7-17, A–B A, To apply an elastic bandage: Place
the bandage against the skin and use overlapping turns. B,
Gently stretch the bandage as you continue wrapping. The
wrap should cover a long body section, like an arm or a calf,
beginning at the point farthest from the heart.

Put on disposable gloves. If you suspect that
blood might splatter, you may need to wear eye
and face protection.
■ Control bleeding by:
{ Covering the wound with a dressing and ﬁrmly
pressing against the wound with a gloved hand
until the bleeding stops.
{ Applying a pressure bandage over the dressing
to maintain pressure on the wound and to
hold the dressing in place. If blood soaks
through the bandage, do not remove the
blood-soaked bandages. Instead, add more

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dressings and bandages and apply additional
direct pressure.
■

Continue to monitor the person’s condition.
Observe the person closely for signals that may
indicate that the person’s condition is worsening,
such as faster or slower breathing, changes in skin
color and restlessness.
■ Care for shock. Keep the person from getting chilled
or overheated.
■ Have the person rest comfortably and provide
reassurance.
■ Wash your hands immediately after giving care, even
if you wore gloves.

Using Tourniquets When Help Is Delayed
A tourniquet is a tight band placed around an arm
or leg to constrict blood vessels in order to stop
blood ﬂow to a wound. Because of the potential for
adverse effects, a tourniquet should be used only
as a last resort in cases of delayed care or situations
where response from emergency medical services
(EMS) is delayed, when direct pressure does not
stop the bleeding or you are not able to apply
direct pressure.
For example, a tourniquet may be appropriate if
you cannot reach the wound because of entrapment,
there are multiple injuries or the size of the wound
prohibits application of direct pressure. In most areas,
application of a tourniquet is considered to be a skill
at the emergency medical technician (EMT) level or
higher and requires proper training. There are several
types of manufactured tourniquets available and
are preferred over makeshift (improvised) devices.
For a manufactured tourniquet, always follow the
manufacturer’s instructions.
In general, the tourniquet is applied around the
wounded extremity, just above the wound. The tag
end of the strap is routed through the buckle, and the
strap is pulled tightly, which secures the tourniquet in
place. The rod (windlass) then is twisted to tighten the
tourniquet until the bright-red bleeding stops. The rod
then is secured in place (Fig. 7-18, A–B). The tourniquet
should not be removed in the prehospital setting once
it is applied. The time that the tourniquet was applied
should be noted and recorded and then given to
EMS personnel.
Blood pressure cuffs sometimes are used as a
tourniquet to slow the ﬂow of blood in an upper
extremity. Another technique is to use a bandage
that is 4 inches wide and six to eight layers deep.
Always follow local protocols when the use of a
tourniquet is considered.

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B
FIGURE 7-18, A–B When applying a tourniquet: A, Twist the rod to
tighten until bright-red bleeding stops. B, Secure it in place.

Hemostatic Agents
Hemostatic agents generally are substances that speed
clot formation by absorbing the excess moisture caused
by the bleeding. Hemostatic agents are found in a
variety of forms, including treated sponge or gauze pads
and powder or granular forms. The powder or granular
forms are poured directly on the bleeding vessel, then
other hemostatic agents, such as gauze pads, are used
in conjunction with direct pressure.
Over-the-counter versions of hemostatic bandages are
available in addition to hemostatic agents intended for
use by professional rescuers. Some are more effective
than others. However, because some types present
a risk of further injury or tissue damage, the routine
use of hemostatic agents in ﬁrst aid settings is not
recommended.

BURNS
Burns are a special kind of soft tissue injury. Like other
types of soft tissue injury, burns can damage the top
layer of skin or the skin and the layers of fat, muscle and
bone beneath.

FIGURE 7-19, A–C The three classifications of burns are A, superficial burns, B, partial-thickness burns and C, full-thickness burns. Courtesy of
Alan Dimick, M.D., Professor of Surgery, Former Director of UAB Burn Center.

Burns are classiﬁed by their depth. The deeper the
burn, the more severe it is. The three classiﬁcations of
burns are as follows: superﬁcial (sometimes referred to as
ﬁrst degree) (Fig. 7-19, A), partial thickness (sometimes
referred to as second degree) (Fig. 7-19, B) and full
thickness (sometimes referred to as third degree)
(Fig. 7-19, C). Burns also are classiﬁed by their source:
heat (thermal), chemical, electrical and radiation (such as
from the sun).

making the skin appear wet; may appear mottled;
and often swells.
{ Usually heal in 3 to 4 weeks and may scar.
■

The skin may be brown or black (charred),
with the tissue underneath sometimes
appearing white, and can either be extremely
painful or relatively painless (if the burn destroys
nerve endings).
{ Healing may require medical assistance; scarring
is likely.
{

A critical burn requires immediate medical attention.
These burns are potentially life threatening, disﬁguring
and disabling. Unfortunately, it often is difﬁcult to tell if
a burn is critical. Even superﬁcial burns can be critical if
they affect a large area or certain body parts. You cannot
judge a burn’s severity by the person’s level of pain
because nerve endings may be destroyed.
Be aware that burns to a child or an infant could
be caused by child abuse. Burns that are done
intentionally to a child often leave an injury that
cannot be hidden. One example is a sharp line
dividing the burned and unburned skin such as
from scalding water in a tub. If you think you have
reasonable cause to believe that abuse has occurred,
report your suspicions to the appropriate community
or state agency. For more information on child abuse,
see Chapter 9.

What to Look For
Signals of burns depend on whether the burn is
superﬁcial, partial thickness or full thickness.
■

Superﬁcial burns:
{ Involve only the top layer of skin.

When to Call 9-1-1
You should always call 9-1-1 or the local emergency
number if the burned person has:
■

Trouble breathing.
Burns covering more than one body part or a large
surface area.
■ Suspected burns to the airway. Burns to the mouth
and nose may be a sign of this.
■

■

Burns to the head, neck, hands, feet
or genitals.
■ A full-thickness burn and is younger than 5 years
or older than 60 years.
■

A burn caused by chemicals, explosions
or electricity.

What to Do Until Help Arrives

Cause skin to become red and dry, usually
painful and the area may swell.
{ Usually heal within a week without
permanent scarring.

Care given for burns depends on the type of burn.

Partial-thickness burns:
{ Involve the top layers of skin.

■

{

■

Full-thickness burns:
{ May destroy all layers of skin and some or all
of the underlying structures—fat, muscles,
bones and nerves.

{

Cause skin to become red; usually painful;
have blisters that may open and weep clear ﬂuid,

Heat (Thermal) Burns
Follow these basic steps when caring for a heat burn:
Check the scene for safety.

■

Stop the burning by removing the person from the
source of the burn.
■ Check for life-threatening conditions.
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■

As soon as possible, cool the burn with large
amounts of cold running water, at least until pain
is relieved (Fig. 7-20, A).
■ Cover the burn loosely with a sterile dressing
(Fig. 7-20, B).
■ Take steps to minimize shock. Keep the person from
getting chilled or overheated.
■ Comfort and reassure the person.
■

Do not apply ice or ice water to any burn. Ice and
ice water can cause the body to lose heat rapidly and
further damages body tissues.

■

Do not touch a burn with anything except a clean
covering.

■

Do not remove pieces of clothing that stick to the
burned area.

■

Do not try to clean a severe burn.
Do not break blisters.
■ Do not use any kind of ointment on a severe burn.
■

When a person suffers a burn, he or she is less able to
regulate body temperature. As a result, a person who has
been burned tends to become chilled. To help maintain
body temperature and prevent hypothermia, keep the
person warm and away from drafts. Remember that
cooling a burn over a large area of the body can bring on
hypothermia. Be aware of this risk and look for signals
of hypothermia. If possible, monitor the person’s core

body temperature when cooling a burn that covers
a large area.

Chemical Burns
When caring for chemical burns it is important to
remember that the chemical will continue to burn as long
as it is on the skin. You must remove the chemical from
the skin as quickly as possible. To do so, follow these steps:
■

If the burn was caused by dry chemicals, brush off the
chemicals using gloved hands or a towel and remove any
contaminated clothing before ﬂushing with tap water
(under pressure). Be careful not to get the chemical on
yourself or on a different area of the person’s skin.

■

Flush the burn with large amounts of cool running
water. Continue ﬂushing the burn for at least
20 minutes or until EMS personnel take over.
■ If an eye is burned by a chemical, ﬂush the affected
eye with water until EMS personnel take over.
Tilt the head so that the affected eye is lower than
the unaffected eye as you ﬂush (Fig. 7-21).
■ If possible, have the person remove contaminated
clothes to prevent further contamination while you
continue to ﬂush the area.
Be aware that chemicals can be inhaled, potentially
damaging the airway or lungs.

Electrical Burns
If you encounter a person with an electrical burn,
you should:
■

Never go near the person until you are sure he or she
is not still in contact with the power source.
■ Turn off the power at its source and care for any
life-threatening conditions.
■ Call 9-1-1 or the local emergency number. Any person
who has suffered an electrical shock needs to be
evaluated by a medical professional to determine the
extent of injury.
A

B
FIGURE 7-20 A–B A, Cool a thermal burn with large amounts of cold
running water until the pain is relieved. B, Cover a thermal burn loosely
with a sterile dressing.

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FIGURE 7-21 If an eye is burned by a chemical, flush the affected
eye with water until EMS personnel take over.

■

Chemical burns can be prevented by following
safety practices around all chemicals and by following
manufacturers’ guidelines when handling chemicals.
■ Electrical burns can be prevented by following
safety practices around electrical lines and
equipment and by leaving outdoor areas when
lightning could strike.
■ Sunburn can be prevented by wearing appropriate
clothing and using sunscreen. Sunscreen should have
a sun protection factor (SPF) of at least 15.

SPECIAL SITUATIONS
FIGURE 7-22 For an electrical burn, look for entry and exit wounds
and give the appropriate care.

■

Be aware that electrocution can cause cardiac and
respiratory emergencies. Therefore, be prepared
to perform CPR or use an automated external
deﬁbrillator (AED).
■ Care for shock and thermal burns.
■ Look for entry and exit wounds and give the
appropriate care (Fig. 7-22).
■ Remember that anyone suffering from electric shock
requires advanced medical care.

Radiation Burns
Care for a radiation (sun) burn as you would for any
thermal burn (Fig. 7-23). Always cool the burn and
protect the area from further damage by keeping the
person away from the source of the burn.

Preventing Burns
■

Heat burns can be prevented by following safety
practices that prevent ﬁre and by being careful around
sources of heat.

FIGURE 7-23 Care for sunburn as you would for any thermal burn.

Certain types of wounds need special attention or care.
These types of situations include crush injury; severed
body parts (amputations); impaled objects; and injury
to the mouth, nose, lip, tooth, chest and abdomen.

Crush Injuries
A crush injury is caused by strong pressure against a body
part, often a limb. It may result in serious damage to
underlying tissue, causing bruising, bleeding, lacerations,
fractures, shock and internal injuries. Call 9-1-1 or the
local emergency number for any serious or life-threatening
condition. Care for speciﬁc injuries found and assume that
internal injuries are present. Also care for shock.

Severed Body Parts
If part of the body has been torn or cut off, call 9-1-1 or
the local emergency number, then try to ﬁnd the part and
wrap it in sterile gauze or any clean material, such as a
washcloth. Put the wrapped part in a plastic bag and seal
the bag. Keep the part cold and bag cool by placing it in a
larger bag or container of an ice and water slurry, not on
ice alone and not on dry ice, if possible, but do not freeze
(Fig. 7-24). Be sure the part is taken to the hospital with
the person. Doctors may be able to reattach it.

FIGURE 7-24 Wrap a severed body part in sterile gauze, put it in a
plastic bag and put the bag on ice.

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bleeding, other methods include applying an ice pack to
the bridge of the nose or putting pressure on the upper
lip just beneath the nose. Remember, ice should not be
applied directly to the skin since it can damage the skin
tissue. Place a cloth between the ice and the skin. Seek
medical attention if the bleeding persists or recurs or if
the person says that it is caused by high blood pressure.

Mouth Injuries
With mouth injuries, you must make sure the person is
able to breathe. Injuries to the mouth may cause breathing
problems if blood or loose teeth block the airway.
FIGURE 7-25 Place several dressings around an embedded object to
keep it from moving. Bandage the dressings in place around the object.

Embedded Objects
If an object, such as a knife or a piece of glass or metal,
is embedded in a wound, do not remove it. Place several
dressings around it to keep it from moving (Fig. 7-25).
Bandage the dressings in place around the object.
If it is only a splinter in the surface of the skin, it can be
removed with tweezers. After removing the splinter from
the skin, wash the area with soap and water, rinsing the
area with tap water for about 5 minutes. After drying
the area, apply an antibiotic ointment to the area if
the person has no known allergies or sensitivities to
the medication and then cover it to keep it clean. If the
splinter is in the eye, do not attempt to remove it. Call
9-1-1 or the local emergency number.

Nose Injuries
Nose injuries usually are caused by a blow from a
blunt object, often resulting in a nosebleed. High
blood pressure or changes in altitude also can cause
nosebleeds. In most cases, you can control bleeding
by having the person sit with the head slightly forward
while pinching the nostrils together for about 10 minutes
(Fig. 7-26). If pinching the nostrils does not control the

FIGURE 7-26 To control a nosebleed, have the person lean forward
and pinch the nostrils together until bleeding stops (about 10 minutes).

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If the person is bleeding from the mouth and you
do not suspect a serious head, neck or spinal injury,
place the person in a seated position leaning slightly
forward. This will allow any blood to drain from the
mouth. If this position is not possible, place the person
on his or her side.

Lip Injuries
For injuries that penetrate the lip, place a rolled dressing
between the lip and the gum. You can place another
dressing on the outer surface of the lip. If the tongue is
bleeding, apply a dressing and direct pressure. Applying
cold to the lips or tongue can help to reduce swelling and
ease pain.

Tooth Injuries
If a person’s tooth is knocked out, control the bleeding and
save the tooth so it may possibly be reinserted. When the
ﬁbers and tissues are torn from the socket, it is important
for the person to seek dental or emergency care as soon as
possible after the injury. Generally, the sooner the tooth is
replaced, the better the chance is that it will survive.
If the person is conscious and able to cooperate, rinse
out the mouth with cold tap water if available. You can
control the bleeding by placing a rolled sterile dressing
into the space left by the missing tooth (Fig. 7-27). Have

FIGURE 7-27 You can control the bleeding by placing a rolled sterile
dressing and inserting it into the space left by the missing tooth.

the person gently bite down to maintain pressure. To save
the tooth, place it in milk, if possible, or cool water if milk
is not available. Be careful to pick up the tooth only by the
crown (white part) rather than by the root.

Chest Injuries
The chest is the upper part of the trunk. It is shaped by
12 pairs of ribs. Ten of the pairs attach to the sternum
(breastbone) in front and to the spine in back. Two pairs,
the ﬂoating ribs, attach only to the spine. The rib cage,
formed by the ribs, the sternum and the spine, protects
vital organs, such as the heart, major blood vessels and
the lungs. Also in the chest are the esophagus, trachea
and muscles used for respiration.
Chest injuries are a leading cause of trauma deaths each
year. Injuries to the chest may result from a wide variety
of causes, such as motor vehicle crashes, falls, sports
mishaps and crushing or penetrating forces. Chest
injuries may involve the bones that form the chest cavity
or the organs or other structures in the cavity itself.
Chest wounds may be either closed or open. A closed
chest wound does not break the skin. Closed chest
wounds generally are caused by blunt objects, such as
steering wheels. Open chest wounds occur when an
object, such as a knife or bullet, penetrates the chest
wall. Fractured ribs may break through the skin to cause
an open chest injury.
Rib fractures usually are caused by direct force to
the chest.
Puncture wounds to the chest range from minor to life
threatening. Stab and gunshot wounds are examples
of puncture injuries. The penetrating object can injure
any structure or organ within the chest, including the
lungs. A puncture injury can allow air to enter the chest
through the wound. Air in the chest cavity does not allow
the lungs to function normally.

FIGURE 7-28 If the injury penetrates the rib cage, air can pass freely
in and out of the chest cavity and the person cannot breathe normally.

■

Flushed, pale, ashen or bluish skin.
Obvious deformity, such as that caused by
a fracture.
■ Coughing up blood (may be bright red or dark, like
coffee grounds).
■ Bruising at the site of a blunt injury, such as that
caused by a seat belt.
■ A “sucking” noise or distinct sound when the person
breathes.
■

Puncture wounds cause varying degrees of internal and
external bleeding. A puncture wound to the chest is a
life-threatening injury. If the injury penetrates the rib
cage, air can pass freely in and out of the chest cavity
and the person cannot breathe normally. With each
breath the person takes, you will hear a sucking sound
coming from the wound. This sound is the primary
signal of a penetrating chest injury called a sucking chest
wound (Fig. 7-28). Without proper care, the person’s
condition will worsen. The affected lung or lungs will fail
to function, and breathing will become more difﬁcult.

When to Call 9-1-1

What to Look For

Although painful, a simple rib fracture is rarely life
threatening. Give the person a blanket or pillow to hold
against the fractured ribs. Use a sling and binder to hold
the person’s arm against the injured side of the chest.
Monitor breathing.

Signals of a serious chest injury include:
■

Trouble breathing.
■ Severe pain at the site of the injury.

Call 9-1-1 or the local emergency number for any open
or closed chest wound, especially if the person has a
puncture wound to the chest. Also call if the person has
trouble breathing or a sucking chest wound, or if you
suspect rib fractures.

What to Do Until Help Arrives
Care for a chest injury depends on the type of injury.

Caring for Rib Fractures

CHAPTER

Soft Tissue Injuries

111

FIGURE 7-29, A–B A, An occlusive dressing helps keep air from entering a chest wound when the person inhales. B, Having an open corner allows
air to escape when the person exhales.

Caring for a Sucking Chest Wound
To care for a sucking chest wound, cover the wound with
a large occlusive dressing (Fig. 7-29, A–B). A piece of
plastic wrap, or a plastic bag folded several times and
placed over the wound, makes an effective occlusive
dressing. Tape the dressing in place except for one side
or corner, which should remain loose. A taped-down
dressing keeps air from entering the wound when the
person inhales, and having an open corner allows air to
escape when the person exhales. If these materials are
not available to use as dressings, use a folded cloth. Take
steps to minimize shock. Monitor the person’s breathing.

■

Organs protruding from the abdomen.
■ Rigid abdominal muscles.
■ Other signals of shock.

When to Call 9-1-1
Call 9-1-1 or the local emergency number for any serious
abdominal injury.

What to Do Until Help Arrives
With a severe open injury, abdominal organs
sometimes protrude through the wound (Fig. 7-30, A).
To care for an open wound to the abdomen, follow
these steps:

Abdominal Injury
Like a chest injury, an injury to the abdomen may be
either open or closed. Injuries to the abdomen can be
very painful. Even with a closed wound, the rupture
of an organ can cause serious internal bleeding,
resulting in shock. It is especially difﬁcult to determine
if a person has an internal abdominal injury if he or she
is unconscious.

1. Put on disposable gloves or use another barrier.
2. Carefully position the person on his or her back
with the knees bent, if that position does not
cause pain.
3. Do not apply direct pressure.

Always suspect an abdominal injury in a person who has
multiple injuries.

What to Look For

Signals of serious abdominal injury include:
■

Severe pain.

■

Bruising.
External bleeding.
■ Nausea.
■

■

Vomiting (sometimes blood).
■ Weakness.
■ Thirst.
■ Pain, tenderness or a tight feeling in the abdomen.
First Aid/CPR/AED

Apply moist, sterile dressings loosely over the
wound (clean, warm tap water can be used)
(Fig. 7-30, C).
Cover dressings loosely with plastic wrap,
if available (Fig. 7-30, D).

To care for a closed wound to the abdomen:

■

112

Do not push any protruding organs back into
the open wound.
Remove clothing from around the wound
(Fig. 7-30, B).

Participant’s Manual

While keeping the injured area still, apply cold to the
affected area to control pain and swelling.
■ Carefully position the person on his or her back with
the knees bent, if that position does not cause pain.
■ Keep the person from getting chilled or overheated.

FIGURE 7-30, A–D A, Wounds to the abdomen can cause the organs to protrude. B, Carefully remove clothing from around the
wound. C, Cover the organs loosely with a moist, sterile dressing. D, Cover the dressings loosely with plastic wrap, if available.

PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER

Serious and life-threatening soft tissue injuries are
emergencies.

For minor soft tissue injuries like scrapes, bruises and
sunburns, it is important to give quick care and take
steps to prevent infection. If you do this, these types of
wounds and burns usually heal quickly and completely.

Call 9-1-1 or the local emergency number and give
immediate care. These are crucial steps for any serious
wound or burn.

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Soft Tissue Injuries

113

SKILL SHEET

CONTROLLING EXTERNAL BLEEDING
AFTER CHECKING THE SCENE AND THE INJURED OR ILL PERSON:

COVER THE WOUND
Cover the wound with a sterile dressing.

APPLY DIRECT PRESSURE
Apply pressure until bleeding stops.

COVER DRESSING WITH BANDAGE
Check for circulation beyond the injury
(check for feeling, warmth and color).

APPLY MORE PRESSURE AND CALL 9-1-1
If bleeding does not stop:
■ Apply more dressings and bandages and continue to apply additional pressure.
■ Take steps to minimize shock.
■ CALL 9-1-1 if not already done.
TIP: Wash hands with soap and water after giving care.

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SKILL SHEET

USING A MANUFACTURED TOURNIQUET
NOTE: Always follow standard precautions and follow manufacturer’s instructions

when applying a tourniquet. Call 9-1-1 or the local emergency number.

POSITION THE TOURNIQUET
Place the tourniquet around the limb, approximately 2 inches
(about two finger widths) above the wound but not over a joint.

PULL STRAP THROUGH BUCKLE
■
■

Route the tag end of the strap through the buckle,
if necessary.
Pull the strap tightly and secure it in place.

TWIST THE ROD
Tighten the tourniquet by twisting the rod until the
flow of bleeding stops and secure the rod in place.
Do not cover the tourniquet with clothing.

RECORD TIME
Note and record the time that you applied the tourniquet and give this information to EMS personnel.
CHAPTER

Soft Tissue Injuries

115

CHAPTER

8
Injuries to Muscles, Bones
and Joints

njuries to muscles, bones and joints happen to people of all ages at home, work and play. A person may fall while
walking in the park and bruise the muscles of a leg. Equipment may fall on a worker and break bones. A skier may fall
and twist a leg, tearing muscles in the process.

These injuries are painful and make life difﬁcult, but they seldom are life threatening. However, if they are not
recognized and care is not given, they can cause serious problems. In the rare case of a head, neck or spinal injury,
lifelong disability, or even death, can result if immediate care is not given.
This chapter discusses the signals of muscle, bone and joint injuries and how to give care for these injuries. In addition,
you will read about how to recognize head, neck and spinal injuries, and how to give immediate, potentially life-saving
care in these situations.

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BACKGROUND
The body’s skeleton is made up of bones, muscles,
and the tendons and ligaments that connect them.
They give the body shape and stability. Bones and
muscles give the body shape and mobility. Tendons and
ligaments connect to muscle and bones, giving support.
They all work together to allow the body to move.

Muscles
Muscles are soft tissues. The body has over 600 muscles,
most of which are attached to bones by strong tissues
called tendons (Fig. 8-1). Unlike other soft tissues,
muscles are able to shorten and lengthen—contract
and relax. This contracting and relaxing enables the
body to move. The brain directs the muscles to move
through the spinal cord, a pathway of nerves in the
spine. Tiny jolts of electricity called electrical impulses
travel through the nerves to the muscles. They cause
the muscles to contract. When the muscles contract,
they pull at the bones, causing motion at a joint.

Injuries to the brain, spinal cord or nerves can affect
muscle control. When nerves lose control of muscles,
it is called paralysis. When a muscle is injured, a nearby
muscle often takes over for the injured one.

Bones
Approximately 200 bones in various sizes and shapes
form the skeleton (Fig. 8-2). The skeleton protects
many of the organs inside the body. Bones are hard
and dense. Because they are strong and rigid, they are
not injured easily. Bones have a rich supply of blood
and nerves. Bone injuries can bleed and usually are
painful. If care is not given for the injury, the bleeding
can become life threatening. Children have more ﬂexible
bones than adults; their bones break less easily. But if
a child sustains a fracture to a growth plate (areas of
developing cartilage near the ends of long bones), it can
affect future bone growth. Bones weaken with age. Older
adults have more brittle bones. Sometimes they break
surprisingly easily. This gradual weakening of bones is
called osteoporosis.

FRONT VIEW

BACK VIEW

Face muscles

Neck
muscles

Neck
muscles
Deltoid
Biceps

Extensors
of wrist
and
fingers

Chest
muscles

Deltoid
Back
muscles

Triceps
Extensors
of wrist
and
fingers

Abdominal
muscles
Gluteus
maximus

Quadriceps
muscles

Extensors
of foot
and toes

Groin
muscles

Hamstring
muscles

Calf
muscles
Achilles
tendon

FIGURE 8-1 The body has over 600 muscles, most of which are attached to bones by strong tissues called tendons.

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Injuries to Muscles, Bones and Joints

117

Back View

Front View
Cranium

Joints

Skull

Face

Clavicle
Scapula

Thorax

Ribs
Sternum

Spinal
column

Humerus

Thorax
Spinal
column

The ends of two or more bones coming
together at one place form a joint
(Fig. 8-3). Strong, tough bands called
ligaments hold the bones at a joint
together. All joints have a normal range
of movement in which they can move
freely, without too much stress or
strain. When joints are forced beyond
this range, ligaments stretch and tear.

Radius
Ulna
Pelvis

TYPES OF INJURIES

Coccyx
Femur

Fractures

The four basic types of injuries to
muscles, bones and joints are fractures,
dislocations, sprains and strains. They
occur in a variety of ways.

A fracture is a complete break, a chip
or a crack in a bone (Fig. 8-4). A fall,
a blow or sometimes even a twisting
movement can cause a fracture.
Fractures are open or closed. An open
fracture involves an open wound.
It occurs when the end of a bone tears
through the skin. An object that goes
into the skin and breaks the bone,
such as a bullet, also can cause an
open fracture. In a closed fracture
the skin is not broken.

Patella
Tibia
Fibula

FIGURE 8-2 Approximately 200 bones in various sizes and shapes form the skeleton.
The skeleton protects many of the organs inside of the body.

Cracked
bone

Pelvis

Broken
bone

Hip

Chipped
bone

Femur

FIGURE 8-3 The ends of two or more bones coming together at
one place form a joint.

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FIGURE 8-4 A fracture is a crack, complete break or
chip in a bone.

FOCUS ON PREVENTION

THE BREAKING POINT
Osteoporosis is a disease that causes the bones
to fracture easily. Approximately 10 million Americans
have osteoporosis, and 80 percent of these are
women. In 2005, some 2 million spine, hip, wrist and
other fractures occurred in the United States because
of osteoporosis. People usually have osteoporosis
for decades before they experience signals. People
do not usually become aware they have this “silent”
disease until after the age of 60 years.

■

The disease is caused by a decrease in calcium
content of the bones. Normal bones are hard, dense
tissues that endure great stresses. Calcium is a key
to bone growth, development and repair. When the
calcium content of bones decreases, bones become
frail and less dense. They are less able to repair
the normal damage they incur. This leaves bones,
especially hip, back and wrist, more prone to fractures.
These fractures may occur with only a little force. Some
even occur without force. The person may be taking a
walk or washing dishes when the fracture occurs.

Risk Factors
The risk of an American woman suffering a hip
fracture alone is equal to her combined risk of breast,
uterine and ovarian cancer. Some risk factors for
osteoporosis cannot be changed, including:
■
Being female.
■
Having ancestors from northern Europe, the
British Isles, Japan or China.
■
Being of an advanced age.
■
Having a family history of the disease.
■
Having a small, thin body frame.
■
Reaching menopause.
However, other risk factors can be changed; there
are steps that a person can take to lower the risk
of developing osteoporosis. These involve lifestyle
choices, including improving diet and exercise,
reducing alcohol consumption and stopping smoking.

■

Preventing Osteoporosis
Osteoporosis can begin as early as 30 years of
age. Building strong bones before age 35 years is
the key to preventing osteoporosis. To help prevent
osteoporosis, take the following steps:

Eat a Well-Balanced Diet. A diet rich in
calcium, vitamins and minerals and low in salt
is essential for bone health. Limiting caffeine
intake and avoiding a high protein diet also
are important for bone health.
As a person ages, the amount of calcium
absorbed from the diet declines, making
it more important to have an adequate
calcium intake. Calcium is necessary to
bone building and maintenance. Three to
four daily servings of low-fat dairy products
should provide enough calcium for good
bone health.
Vitamin D also is necessary because it helps
the body to absorb the calcium to strengthen
bones. Exposure to sunshine enables the body
to make vitamin D. People who do not receive
adequate exposure to the sun need to eat
foods that contain vitamin D. The best sources
are vitamin-fortified milk and fatty fish, such as
tuna, salmon and eel. When exposing yourself
to the sun, however, you should not risk a burn
or deep tan because both increase the risk of
skin cancer.
Take Vitamins and Supplements if
Necessary. People who do not take in adequate
calcium may be able to make up for the loss by
taking calcium supplements. Some are combined
with vitamin D. Before taking a calcium
supplement, consult your health care provider.
Many highly advertised calcium supplements are
ineffective because they do not dissolve in the
gastrointestinal tract and cannot be absorbed. An
insufficient intake of phosphorous, magnesium,
and vitamins K, B6 and B12 also can increase
your risk for osteoporosis. To ensure that you are
getting enough of these vitamins and minerals,
talk to your health care provider about taking a
daily multivitamin.
Exercise. Exercise also is necessary to
building strong bones. Weight-bearing exercise
increases bone density and the activity of
bone-building cells. Regular exercise may
reduce the rate of bone loss by promoting
new bone formation. It also may stimulate the
(Continued )

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Injuries to Muscles, Bones and Joints

119

FOCUS ON PREVENTION

■

(Continued )

skeletal system to repair itself. An effective
exercise program, such as aerobics, jogging
or walking, involves the weight-bearing bones
and muscles of the legs.
Stop Smoking. Smoking is bad for your
bone health since it can block your body’s ability
to absorb calcium. The chemicals in cigarettes
are bad for bone cells. Also, in women, smoking
can block the bone-protective effects of the

Closed fractures are more common, but open fractures are
more dangerous because they carry a risk of infection and
severe bleeding. In general, fractures are life threatening
only if they involve breaks in large bones such as the
thigh, sever an artery or affect breathing. Since you cannot
always tell if a person has a fracture, you should consider
the cause of the injury. A fall from a signiﬁcant height or
a motor vehicle crash could signal a possible fracture.

Dislocations
Dislocations usually are more obvious than fractures.
A dislocation is the movement of a bone at a joint away
from its normal position (Fig. 8-5). This movement

FIGURE 8-5 A dislocation is the
movement of a bone at a joint away from its
normal position.

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hormone estrogen, which can affect bone
density.
■
Avoid Too Much Alcohol. Alcohol intake
should be limited to two drinks a day. Drinking
more than this on a regular basis can reduce
bone formation. Too much alcohol also can
reduce calcium levels in the body.
If you have questions about your health and
osteoporosis, consult your health care provider.

usually is caused by a violent force tearing the ligaments
that hold the bones in place. When a bone is moved out
of place, the joint no longer functions. The displaced end
of the bone often forms a bump, a ridge or a hollow that
does not normally exist.

Sprains
A sprain is the tearing of ligaments at a joint
(Fig. 8-6). Mild sprains may swell but usually heal
quickly. The person might not feel much pain and
is active again soon. If a person ignores the signals
of swelling and pain and becomes active too soon,
the joint will not heal properly and will remain weak.
There is a good chance that it will become reinjured,
only this time more severely. A severe sprain also can
involve a fracture or dislocation of the bones at the joint.
The joints most easily injured are at the ankle, knee,
wrist and ﬁngers.

FIGURE 8-6 A sprain is the tearing of ligaments at a joint.

FIGURE 8-7 A strain is a stretching and tearing of muscles or tendons.

Strains
A strain is a stretching and tearing of muscles or
tendons (Fig. 8-7). Strains often are caused by lifting
something heavy or working a muscle too hard. They
usually involve the muscles in the neck, back, thigh or
the back of the lower leg. Some strains can reoccur,
especially in the neck and back.

What to Look For
Always suspect a severe injury when any of the following
signals are present:
■

There is pain. One of the most common signals in any
muscle, bone or joint injury is pain. The injured area
may be very painful to touch and move.
■ There is signiﬁcant bruising and swelling. The area
may be swollen and red or bruised.
■ There is signiﬁcant deformity. The area may be
twisted or strangely bent (Fig. 8-8). It may have
abnormal lumps, ridges and hollows.
■
■
■
■
■

The person is unable to use the affected part normally.
There are bone fragments sticking out of a wound.
The person feels bones grating or the person felt or
heard a snap or pop at the time of injury.
The injured area is cold, numb and tingly.
The cause of the injury suggests that it may be severe.

It can be difﬁcult to tell if an injury is to a muscle,
bone or joint. Sometimes an x-ray, computer assisted
tomography (CAT) scan or magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI) is needed to determine the extent of the injury.

When to Call 9-1-1
Call 9-1-1 or the local emergency number for the
following situations:
■

There is obvious deformity.

FIGURE 8-8 A severely injured bone or joint may appear to be
deformed.

■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■

There is moderate or severe swelling and discoloration.
Bones sound or feel like they are rubbing together.
A snap or pop was heard or felt at the time of the injury.
There is a fracture with an open wound at, or bone
piercing through, the injury site.
The injured person cannot move or use the affected
part normally.
The injured area is cold and numb.
The injury involves the head, neck or spine.
The injured person has trouble breathing.
The cause of the injury suggests that the injury
may be severe.
It is not possible to safely or comfortably move
the person to a vehicle for transport to a hospital.

What to Do Until Help Arrives
General care for injuries to muscles, bone and joints
includes following the mnemonic RICE:
■

Rest—Do not move or straighten the injured area.
Immobilize—Stabilize the injured area in the position
it was found. Splint the injured part only if the person
must be moved or transported to receive medical care
and it does not cause more pain (see Splinting an
Injury). Minimizing movement can prevent further
injury.
■ Cold—Fill a plastic bag with ice and water or wrap ice
with a damp cloth and apply ice to the injured area for
periods of about 20 minutes (Fig. 8-9). Place a thin
barrier between the ice and bare skin. If 20-minute
icing cannot be tolerated, apply ice for periods of 10
minutes. If continued icing is needed, remove the
pack for 20 minutes, and then replace it. Cold reduces
internal bleeding, pain and swelling. Do not apply heat
as there is no evidence that applying heat helps muscle,
bone or joint injuries.
■

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Injuries to Muscles, Bones and Joints

121

used for the splint (Fig. 8-11). A sling is a speciﬁc kind
of soft splint that uses a triangular bandage tied to
support an injured arm, wrist or hand.
■ Rigid splints. Padded boards, folded magazines or
newspapers, or padded metal strips that do not have
any sharp edges can serve as splints (Fig. 8-12).
■ The ground. An injured leg stretched out on the
ground is supported by the ground.

FIGURE 8-9 Applying ice can help to control swelling and reduce
pain.

■

Elevate—Elevate the injured part only if it does not
cause more pain. Elevating the injured part may help
reduce swelling.

Some injuries, such as a broken ﬁnger, may not require you
to call 9-1-1 or the local emergency number, yet they still
need medical attention. When transporting the person to a
medical facility, have someone else drive. This way you can
keep an eye on the person and give care if needed. Injuries
to the pelvis, hip or thigh can be life threatening. A person
with such an injury should not be moved unnecessarily.
Minimizing movement until EMS personnel take over can
help to prevent the injury from becoming worse.

FIGURE 8-10 An anatomic splint uses a part of the body as the
splint.

Splinting an Injury
Splinting is a method of immobilizing an injured part
to minimize movement and prevent further injury and
should be used only if you have to move or transport
the person to seek medical attention and if it does not
cause more pain. Splint an injury in the position in
which you ﬁnd it. For fractures, splint the joints above
and below the site of the injury. For sprains or joint
injuries, splint the bones above and below the site of
the injury. If you are not sure if the injury is a fracture
or a sprain, splint both the bones and joints above and
below the point of injury. Splinting materials should
be soft or padded for comfort. Check for circulation
(feeling, warmth and color) before and after splinting to
make sure that the splint is not too tight.

FIGURE 8-11 Folded blankets, towels, pillows or a triangular
bandage tied as a sling can be used as soft splints.

There are many methods of splinting, including:
■

Anatomic splints. The person’s body is the splint.
For example, you can splint an arm to the chest or an
injured leg to the uninjured leg (Fig. 8-10).
■ Soft splints. Soft materials, such as a folded blanket,
towel, pillow or folded triangular bandage, can be
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FIGURE 8-12 Commercially made rigid splints are available
(shown), but many items, such as padded boards or folded
newspapers, can be used.

After you have splinted the injury, apply ice to the
injured area. Keep the person from getting chilled or
overheated and be reassuring.

Head, Neck and Spinal Injuries
Although head, neck and spinal injuries make up only
a small fraction of all injuries, these injuries may be life
threatening or cause permanent life-altering damage.
Each year, approximately 12,000 Americans suffer
a spinal cord injury. Most are male victims with an
average age of about 40 years. The leading causes of
spinal cord injuries are motor vehicle crashes, followed
by falls, violence and sports (Fig. 8-13).
Injuries to the head, neck or spine can cause paralysis,
speech or memory problems or other disabling
conditions. These injuries can damage bone and soft
tissue, including the brain and spinal cord. Since
generally only x-rays, CAT scans or MRIs can show the
severity of a head, neck or spinal injury, you should
always care for such injuries as if they were serious.
An injury to the brain can cause bleeding inside the skull
(Fig. 8-14). The blood can build up and cause pressure,
resulting in more damage. The ﬁrst and most important
signal of brain injury is a change in the person’s level of
consciousness. He or she may be dizzy or confused or
may become unconscious.
Common Causes of Spinal Cord Injury

Other/Unknown
8.5%
Sports Injuries
7.9%
Acts of
Violence
15.0 %

FIGURE 8-14 Injuries to the head
can rupture blood vessels in the brain.
Pressure builds within the skull as blood
accumulates, causing brain injury.

The spine is a strong, ﬂexible column of small bones
that support the head and trunk (Fig. 8-15, A–C). The
spinal cord runs through the circular openings of the
small bones called the vertebrae. The
vertebrae are separated from each
other by cushions of cartilage called
disks. Nerves originating in the brain
form branches extending to various
parts of the body through openings in
the vertebrae. Injuries to the spine can
fracture vertebrae and tear ligaments. In
some cases, the vertebrae can shift and
cut or squeeze the spinal cord. This can
Vehicular
paralyze the person or be life threatening.
41.3%

What to Look For

Falls
27.3%

Source: National Spinal Cord Injury Statistical Center 2010

FIGURE 8-13 The leading causes of spinal cord injuries are motor vehicle crashes, followed
by falls, violence and sports.

CHAPTER

When you encounter an injured person,
try to determine if there is a head, neck
or spinal injury. Think about whether
the forces involved were great enough
to cause one of these injuries. Someone
may have fallen from a signiﬁcant
height or struck his or her head while
diving. He or she might have been in a
motor vehicle crash and had not been
wearing a safety belt. Maybe the person
was thrown from the vehicle. Perhaps
the person was struck by lightning, or
maybe a bullet that pierced his or her
back struck the spine. Always suspect

Injuries to Muscles, Bones and Joints

123

Nerve branches

Spinal cord

7
Cervical

C2
C3
C4
C5
C6
C7
T1

12
Thoracic

T2
T3

Intervertebral
disk

T4
T5
Vertebrae

T6
T7

a head, neck or spinal injury if a person
is unconscious and/or if his or her safety
helmet is broken.

T10

You also should suspect a head, neck or
spinal injury if the injured person:
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■

T11
T12

Was involved in a motor vehicle crash or
subjected to another signiﬁcant force.
Was injured as a result of a fall from
greater than a standing height.
Is wearing a safety helmet that is broken.
Complains of neck or back pain.
Has tingling or weakness in the
extremities.
Is not fully alert.
Appears to be intoxicated.

L1
L2

Appears to be frail or older than 65 years.
Is a child younger than 3 years with
evidence of a head or neck injury.

When to Call 9-1-1

S2
S3

While you are waiting for emergency medical
services (EMS) personnel to arrive, the best
care you can give is to minimize movement
of the person’s head, neck and spine. As
long as the person is breathing normally,
support the head and neck in the position

Sacrum
5 fused vertebrae

S4
S5

What to Do Until Help Arrives

First Aid/CPR/AED

9
Sacrum
and Coccyx

If you think a person has a head, neck
or spinal injury, call 9-1-1 or the local
emergency number.

124

5
Lumbar

Coccyx
4 fused vertebrae
FIGURE 8-15, A–C A, Vertebrae are separated by cushions of cartilage called disks.
B, The spine is divided into five regions. C, Traumatic injury to a region of the spine can
paralyze specific body parts.

Participant’s Manual

■

Temporary memory loss, especially for periods
immediately before and after the injury.

■

Brief loss of consciousness.
■ Nausea and vomiting.
■ Speech problems (patient is unable to answer
questions or obey simple commands).
■ Blurred vision or light sensitivity.
FIGURE 8-16 Place your hands on both sides of the person’s
head and support it in the position in which you found it until EMS
personnel take over.

found. Do this by placing your hands on both sides of the
person’s head in the position in which you found it. Support
the person’s head in that position until EMS personnel take
over supporting the person’s head (Fig. 8-16). If the head is
sharply turned to one side, do not move it. Support the head
and neck in the position found.
If a person with a suspected head, neck or spinal
injury is wearing a helmet, do not remove it unless
you are speciﬁcally trained to do so and it is necessary
to assess or access the person’s airway. Minimize
movement using the same manual technique you
would use if the person were not wearing headgear.
The person may become confused, drowsy or
unconscious. Breathing may stop. The person may be
bleeding. If the person is unconscious, keep the airway
open and check breathing. You should take steps to
control severe bleeding and keep the person from
getting chilled or overheated.

What to Do Until Help Arrives
To care for a person with a suspected concussion:
■

Support the head and neck in the position in which
you found it.
■ Maintain an open airway.
■ Control any bleeding and apply dressings to any
open wounds.
■

Do not apply direct pressure if there are any signs of
an obvious skull fracture.

■

If there is clear ﬂuid leaking from the ears or a wound
in the scalp, cover the area loosely with a sterile gauze
dressing.
■ Monitor the person for any changes in condition.
■ Try to calm and reassure the person. Encourage
the person to talk with you; it may prevent loss of
consciousness.

Chest Injuries
Injuries to the chest may be caused by falls, sports
mishaps or crushing or penetrating forces. Chest
injuries range from a simple broken rib to serious
life-threatening injuries.

Concussion

What to Look For

A concussion is a type of brain injury that involves
a temporary loss of brain function resulting from a
blow to the head. A person with a concussion may not
always lose consciousness. The effects of a concussion
can appear immediately or very soon after the blow
to the head and include sleep, mood and cognitive
disturbances, and sensitivity to light and noise.
However, some effects do not appear for hours or even
days and may last for several days or even longer.

Although painful, a simple broken rib rarely is life
threatening. A person with a broken rib generally
remains calm. However, a person with a broken rib
will take small, shallow breaths because normal or
deep breathing is uncomfortable or painful. The person
usually will attempt to ease the pain by supporting the
injured area with a hand or arm.

When to Call 9-1-1
Every suspected concussion should be treated
seriously—call 9-1-1 or the local emergency number.

What to Look For
Signals of a concussion include:
■

Confusion, which may last from moments to
several minutes.
■ Headache.
■

Repeated questioning about what happened.

If the injury is serious, the person will have trouble
breathing. The person’s skin may appear ﬂushed, pale
or ashen and he or she may cough up blood. Remember
that a person with a serious chest injury also may have a
spinal injury.
Broken ribs are less common in children because
children’s ribs are more ﬂexible and tend to bend rather
than break. However, the forces that can cause a broken
rib in adults can severely bruise the lung tissue of
children, which can be a life-threatening injury. Look for
signals, such as what caused the injury, bruising on the
chest and trouble breathing, to determine if a child has
potential chest injury.
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125

cause severe internal bleeding. Signals of a pelvic injury
include the following:
■

Severe pain.
■ Bruising.
■

Possible external bleeding.
Nausea.
■ Vomiting (which may include blood).
■
■

Weakness.
Thirst.
■ Tenderness or a tight feeling in the abdomen.
■
■

Possible loss of sensation in the legs or inability
to move the legs.

Be alert for the signals of shock, which could indicate
internal bleeding and/or blood loss. Signals
of shock include:
■

Nausea and vomiting
■ Restlessness or irritability.
■ Altered level of consciousness.
■
■
FIGURE 8-17 Use an object, such as a pillow or rolled blanket, to
support and immobilize the injured area.

Pale, ashen or grayish, cool, moist skin.
Rapid breathing and pulse.

When to Call 9-1-1
Call 9-1-1 or the local emergency number if you suspect
a pelvic injury.

When to Call 9-1-1
If you think that the injury is serious, involves trouble
breathing or the spine also has been injured, do not
move the person and call 9-1-1 or the local emergency
number. If the person is standing, do not have the
person lie down. Continue to watch the person and
minimize movement until EMS personnel take over.

What to Do Until Help Arrives
Because an injury to the pelvis also can involve
injury to the lower spine, it is best not to move the
person. If possible, try to keep the person lying
ﬂat. Watch for signals of internal bleeding and
take steps to minimize shock until EMS personnel
take over.

What to Do Until Help Arrives
If you suspect injured or broken ribs, have the person
rest in a position that will make breathing easier.
Binding the person’s upper arm to the chest on the
injured side will help to support the injured area and
make breathing more comfortable. You can use an
object, such as a pillow or rolled blanket, to support and
immobilize the area (Fig. 8-17). Monitor breathing and
skin condition, and take steps to minimize shock.

Pelvic Injuries
The large, heavy bones of the hip make up the pelvis.
Like the chest, injury to the pelvic bones can range from
simple to life threatening.

What to Look For
An injury to the pelvis may be serious or life threatening
because of the risk of damage to major arteries or
internal organs. Fractures of bones in this area may
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PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER
Most of the time, injuries to muscles, bones and
joints are painful but not life threatening. Be
prepared to recognize signals of these types of
injuries. The general care for a muscle, bone or
joint injury is to minimize movement of the injured
area, follow the RICE mnemonic and make sure
that the person gets medical care in a timely
manner.
Although head, neck and spinal injuries make up only
a small fraction of all injuries, these injuries may be life
threatening or cause permanent life-altering damage.
Recognizing signals of these types of injuries, calling
9-1-1 or the local emergency number and knowing
how to give proper care could save a life or prevent
further injury.

SKILL SHEET

APPLYING AN ANATOM IC SPLINT
AFTER CHECKING THE SCENE AND THE INJURED PERSON:

GET CONSENT

SUPPORT INJURED PART
Support both above and below the site of the injury.

CHECK CIRCULATION
Check for feeling, warmth and color
beyond the injury.

POSITION BANDAGES
Place several folded triangular bandages
above and below the injured body part.

Continued on next page
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127

SKILL SHEET continued
ALIGN BODY PARTS
Place the uninjured body part next to
the injured body part.

TIE BANDAGES SECURELY

RECHECK CIRCULATION
Recheck for feeling, warmth and color.
TIP: If you are not able to check warmth and color
because a sock or shoe is in place, check for feeling.

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SKILL SHEET

APPLYING A SOFT SPLINT
AFTER CHECKING THE SCENE AND THE INJURED PERSON:

GET CONSENT

SUPPORT INJURED PART
Support both above and below the site of the injury.

CHECK CIRCULATION
Check for feeling, warmth and color
beyond the injury.

POSITION BANDAGES
Place several folded triangular bandages
above and below the injured body part.

Continued on next page
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129

SKILL SHEET continued
WRAP WITH SOFT OBJECT
Gently wrap a soft object (e.g., a folded blanket or pillow)
around the injured body part.

TIE BANDAGES SECURELY

RECHECK CIRCULATION
Recheck for feeling, warmth and color.
TIP: If you are not able to check warmth and color
because a sock or shoe is in place, check for feeling.

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SKILL SHEET

APPLYING A RIGID SPLINT
AFTER CHECKING THE SCENE AND THE INJURED PERSON:

GET CONSENT

SUPPORT INJURED PART
Support both above and below the site of the injury.

CHECK CIRCULATION
Check for feeling, warmth and color
beyond the injury.

PLACE SPLINT
Place an appropriately sized rigid splint
(e.g., padded board) under the injured body part.
TIP: Place padding such as roller gauze under the
palm of the hand to keep it in a natural position.

Continued on next page
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SKILL SHEET continued
SECURE BANDAGES
Tie several folded triangular bandages above
and below the injured body part.

RECHECK CIRCULATION
Recheck for feeling, warmth and color.

TIP: If a rigid splint is used on an injured forearm, immobilize
the wrist and elbow. Bind the arm to the chest using folded
triangular bandages or apply a sling. If splinting an injured
joint, immobilize the bones on either side of the joint.

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SKILL SHEET

APPLYING A SLING AND BINDER
AFTER CHECKING THE SCENE AND THE INJURED PERSON:

GET CONSENT

SUPPORT INJURED PART
Support both above and below the site of the injury.

CHECK CIRCULATION
Check for feeling, warmth and color
beyond the injury.

POSITION SLING
Place a triangular bandage under the injured arm
and over the uninjured shoulder to form a sling.

Continued on next page
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133

SKILL SHEET continued
SECURE SLING
Tie the ends of the sling at the side of the neck.
TIP: Pad the knots at the neck and side of the binder
for comfort.

BIND WITH BANDAGE
Bind the injured body part to the chest with a folded
triangular bandage.

RECHECK CIRCULATION
Recheck for feeling, warmth and color.

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CHAPTER

Special Situations
and Circumstances

n an emergency, it is helpful to be aware of any unique needs and considerations of the person involved. For
example, children, older adults, persons with disabilities and persons who speak a different language than your own
have special needs and considerations that affect the care you give. In some emergencies, special circumstances,
such as an emergency childbirth or a hostile situation, create additional challenges. In any case, there are steps you can
take to be better prepared to respond appropriately.
In this chapter, you will explore ways to recognize and respond to special situations and circumstances. This will help
you to better understand the nature of the emergency and give appropriate, effective care.

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CHILDREN AND INFANTS
Children and infants have unique needs that require
special care. For example, checking the condition of a
conscious child or infant can be difﬁcult, especially if
the child does not know you. At certain ages, children
and infants do not readily accept strangers. Very young
children and infants cannot tell you what is wrong.

Communication
We tend to react more strongly and emotionally to a
child who is in pain or terriﬁed. In such a situation,
try hard to remain calm and avoid showing panic or
fear through your actions, speech or facial expressions.
Doing so will help both the child and concerned adults.
To help an injured or ill child, try to imagine how the
child might feel. A child is afraid of the unknown. This
includes being ill or hurt, touched by strangers and
being separated from his or her parents. Try not to
separate the child or infant from loved ones, if possible.
Often a parent will be holding a crying child or an infant,
in which case, you perform your assessment while the
adult continues to hold him or her.
How you interact with an injured or ill child or infant is
very important. You need to reduce the child’s anxiety
and panic and gain the child’s trust and cooperation,
if possible. Approach the child slowly. Your sudden
appearance may upset the child or infant. Get as close
to eye level of the child or infant as you can and keep
your voice calm (Fig. 9-1). Smile at the child. Ask the
child’s name and use it when you talk with him or her.
Talk slowly and distinctly, and use words the child will
easily understand. Ask questions that the child will be
able to answer easily. Explain to the child and the parent
what you are going to do. Reassure the child that you are
there to help and will not leave.

FIGURE 9-1 To communicate with a child, get as close to eye level
as you can.

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To be able to effectively check children and infants, it is
helpful to be aware of certain characteristics of children in
speciﬁc age groups. It also is important to communicate
effectively with parents. In addition, your care will be
more effective if you know how to address the speciﬁc
communication issues of a child with special needs.

Characteristics of Children and Infants
Children up to 1 year of age are commonly referred to
as infants. Infants younger than 6 months are relatively
easy to approach and are unlikely to be fearful of
strangers. However, older infants often show “stranger
anxiety.” They may turn away from you, cry and cling to
their parent. If the parent is calm and cooperative, ask
for his or her assistance. Try to check the infant while he
or she is held by or seated in the parent’s lap.
One- and 2-year-old children commonly are referred
to as toddlers. Toddlers may not cooperate with your
attempts to check them. They usually are concerned
about being separated from a loved one. If you reassure
the toddler that he or she will not be separated from the
parent, the toddler may be comforted. If possible, give
the toddler a few minutes to get used to you before
attempting to check him or her, and check the toddler in
the parent’s lap. A toddler also may respond to praise or
be comforted by holding a special toy or blanket.
Three- to 5-year-old children commonly are referred
to as preschoolers. Children in this age group usually
are easy to check if you make use of their natural
curiosity. Allow them to inspect items such as bandages.
Opportunities to explore can reduce children’s fears and
distract them while you are checking them and giving
care. Reassure the child that you are going to help and
will not leave him or her. Sometimes you can show what
you are going to do on a stuffed animal or doll (Fig. 9-2).
If the child is injured, he or she may be upset by seeing

FIGURE 9-2 Demonstrating first aid steps on a stuffed animal or doll
helps a child to understand how you will care for him or her.

the cut or injury, so cover it with a dressing as soon
as possible.
School-age children are between 6 and 12 years of age.
They often are more comfortable speaking with adults
and can be a good source of information concerning
what happened. Usually you can talk readily with
school-age children. However, do not expect a child
to always behave in a way that is consistent with his
or her chronological age. Be especially careful not to
“talk down” to school-age children. Let them know
if you are going to do anything that may be painful.
Children in this age group are becoming conscious of
their bodies and may not like exposure. Respect their
modesty.
Children between 13 and 18 years of age are considered
adolescents. Typically they behave more like adults
than children. Direct your questions to the adolescent
rather than to a parent but allow input from a parent.
Adolescents are modest and often react better to a
responder of the same gender.

Interacting with Parents, Guardians
and Caregivers
If the family is excited or agitated, the child is likely to
be so. When you can calm the family, the child often
will calm down as well. Remember to get consent to
give care from any adult responsible for the child when
possible. Concerned adults need your support too, so
behave as calmly as possible.

Communicating with Children Who Have
Special Health Care Needs
When communicating with children and parents,
remember to observe the whole situation and ask
questions to determine if the child has special physical
or developmental needs.
If the child has special needs, ask the parent or
caregiver if there is a list summarizing vital emergency
information such as any unique or speciﬁc care
procedures associated with the child’s condition or
allergies and other medical problems or issues.
Generally, the parents and caregivers can give you the
best information since they are the most familiar with
any medical equipment needed by the child.
When you attempt to communicate with children who
have a developmental disability, the child’s age and
developmental level may not be obvious. Do not assume
the child has a mental disability because he or she is
unable to express thoughts or words. Ask the parents
what the child is capable of understanding. Speak
directly to the child. Do not speak to the parents as if the
child is not in the room.

Observing Children and Infants
You can obtain a lot of information by observing
children or infants before actually touching them.
Look for signals that indicate changes in the level
of consciousness, trouble breathing, and apparent
injuries and conditions. Realize that the situation
may change as soon as you touch the child
or infant because he or she may become anxious
or upset.
Unlike some injured or ill adults, a child or an infant is
unlikely to try to cover up or deny how he or she feels.
A child or an infant in pain, for example, generally will
let you know that he or she hurts and will point out the
source of the pain.
Ask a young child to point to any place that hurts.
An older child can tell you the location of painful
areas. If you need to hold an infant, always support
the head when you pick up the infant. If a child
becomes extremely upset, conduct your check
from toe to head instead of head to toe. For more
information on checking a child or an infant see
Chapter 1.

Common Childhood Injuries and
Illnesses
Certain problems are unique to children, such as speciﬁc
kinds of injury and illness. The following sections
highlight some of these concerns.

Abdominal Pain
Abdominal pain in children can be the signal of a large
range of conditions. Fortunately, most are not serious
and usually go away on their own.

What to Look For
Abdominal pain accompanied by any of the following
signals could indicate that the child is suffering from a
serious condition or illness:
■

A sudden onset of severe abdominal pain or pain that
becomes worse with time
■ Excessive vomiting or diarrhea
■ Blood in the vomit or stool
■

Bloated or swollen abdomen
■ A change in the child’s level of consciousness, such as
drowsiness or confusion
■ Signals of shock

When to Call 9-1-1
Call 9-1-1 or the local emergency number if you think the
child has a life-threatening condition.
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137

What to Do Until Help Arrives
■

Help the child rest in a comfortable position.

■

Keep the child from becoming chilled or
overheated.

■

Comfort and reassure the child.
Give care based on any conditions found.

■

Child Abuse
At some point, you may encounter a situation involving
an injured child in which you have reason to suspect child
abuse. Child abuse is the physical, psychological or sexual
assault of a child resulting in injury and emotional trauma.
Child abuse involves an injury or a pattern of injuries that
do not result from an accident. Child neglect is a type
of child abuse in which the parent or guardian fails to
provide the necessary age-appropriate care to a child.

What to Look For
The signals of child abuse include:
■

An injury whose cause does not ﬁt the explanation of
the parent, guardian or caregiver.

■

Obvious or suspected fractures in a child younger
than 2 years.
Any unexplained fractures.
Injuries in various stages of healing, especially bruises
and burns.
Bruises and burns in unusual shapes, such as bruises
shaped like belt buckles or handprints or burns the
size of a cigarette tip.
Unexplained lacerations or abrasions, especially to
the mouth, lips and eyes.
Injuries to the genitalia.
Pain when the child sits down.
A larger number of injuries than is common for a
child of the same age.

■
■
■

■
■
■
■

The signals of child neglect include:

If you think you have reasonable cause to believe
that abuse has occurred, report your suspicions to a
community or state agency, such as the Department of
Social Services, the Department of Child and Family
Services or Child Protective Services.
You may be afraid to report suspected child abuse
because you do not wish to get involved or are concerned
about being sued. However, in most states, when you
make a report in good faith, you are immune from any
civil or criminal liability or penalty, even if you made
a mistake. In this instance, good faith means that you
honestly believe that abuse has occurred or the potential
for abuse exists and a prudent and reasonable person in
the same position would also honestly believe that abuse
has occurred or the potential for abuse exists. You do not
need to identify yourself when you report child abuse,
although your report will have more credibility if you do.
In some areas, certain professions are legally obligated to
report suspicions of child abuse such as daycare workers
or school employees. For more information on reporting
child abuse at your workplace, contact your supervisor.

Colic
Colic is a condition in which an otherwise healthy
infant cries more than 3 hours a day, for more than
3 days a week, between the ages of 3 weeks and 3 months.
The crying usually starts suddenly at about the same
time each day. Colic generally starts to improve at
about 6 weeks. It often disappears by the time a baby is
12 weeks old.
Causes of colic may include intestinal gas, food
sensitivity or allergy, or an immature nervous system.
A baby with colic may have a red face and tense, hard
belly because the stomach muscles tighten during
crying. A baby with colic also may clench his or her
legs, feet and ﬁsts when crying.

Giving Care

A child who looks malnourished.
■ An unsafe living environment.
■ Untreated chronic illness (e.g., a child with asthma
who has no medications).

Movement, including walking and driving in a car, may
help. White noise, such as the sound of a vacuum in the
next room or the clothes dryer, also may be helpful. You
also can hold the baby using certain techniques to help
relieve gas pain. Consult your health care provider to
rule out more serious medical conditions.

Giving Care

Conjunctivitis

When caring for a child who may have been abused or
neglected, your ﬁrst priority is to care for the child’s
injuries or illnesses. An abused child may be frightened,
hysterical or withdrawn. He or she may be unwilling
to talk about the incident in an attempt to protect the
abuser. If you suspect abuse, explain your concerns to
responding police ofﬁcers or emergency medical services
(EMS) personnel if possible.

Conjunctivitis is commonly known as “pink eye.” It is
a common childhood eye infection that is contagious.
Signals, found in one or both eyes, include redness,
swelling, itchiness, a gritty feeling, tearing and a
discharge that forms a crust during the night. Seek
care from a health care provider as soon as possible for
diagnosis. Medication is necessary when the cause of the
infection is bacterial.

■

Lack of adult supervision.

■

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Diarrhea and Vomiting
Diarrhea, or loose stools, often accompanies an
infection in children. Vomiting can be frightening for a
young child, but it is rarely a serious problem. However,
diarrhea and vomiting both can lead to dehydration.
This is more likely to occur in young children.

When to Seek Professional Medical Care
A health care provider should be contacted if:
■

Diarrhea or vomiting persists for more than a few days.

■

The child is not replacing lost liquids or cannot
retain liquids.

■

The child has not had a wet diaper in 3 or more hours
or, if older, has not had any urine output for more
than 6 hours.
■ The child has a high fever.
■

The child has bloody or black stools.
The child is unusually sleepy, drowsy, unresponsive
or irritable.
■ The child cries without tears or has a dry mouth.
■ The child has a sunken appearance to the abdomen,
eyes or cheeks, or, in a very young infant, has a
sunken soft spot at the top of the head.
■ The child has skin that remains “tented” if pinched
and released.
■

Giving Care
Remember the following when caring for children and
infants with diarrhea:
■

If the infant will not tolerate his or her normal
feedings or if a child is drinking less ﬂuid than
normal, add a commercially available oral rehydration
solution specially designed for children and infants.
■ Do not give over-the-counter anti-diarrhea
medications to children younger than 2 years. Use
these with the guidance of the health care provider in
older children.
■ Maintain the child’s normal diet. Try to limit sugar and
artiﬁcial sweeteners. In addition, encourage the child
to eat items like bananas, rice, applesauce and toast.
Remember the following when caring for children and
infants who are vomiting:
■

■

For a very young child or infant, lay the child on his or
her side so that the child does not swallow or inhale
the vomit.

Halt solid foods for 24 hours during an illness
involving vomiting and replace with clear ﬂuids, such
as water, popsicles, gelatin or an oral rehydration
solution specially designed for children and infants.
■ Introduce liquids slowly. For instance, wait 2 to 3
hours after a vomiting episode to offer the child some

cool water. Offer 1 to 2 ounces every half hour, four
times. Then alternate 2 ounces of rehydration solution
with 2 ounces of water every 2 hours.
■ After 12 to 24 hours with no vomiting, gradually
reintroduce the child’s normal diet.

Ear Infections
Ear infections are common in young children. Nearly 90
percent of young children have an ear infection at some
time before they reach school age.

What to Look For
Common signals of an ear infection include:
■

Pain. Older children can tell you that their ears hurt,
but younger children may only cry or be irritable or
tug on the affected ear.
■ Loss of appetite.
■ Trouble sleeping.
■

Fever.
■ Ear drainage.
■ Trouble hearing.

When to Seek Professional Medical Care
A health care provider should be contacted if:
■

The child’s signals last longer than a day.
You see a discharge of blood or pus from the ear. This
could indicate a ruptured eardrum.
■ The child’s signals do not improve or get worse
after he or she has been diagnosed by a health care
provider.
■

Giving Care
Pain symptoms may be treated with ibuprofen or
acetaminophen. In children younger than 2 years,
watch for sleeplessness and irritability during or after
an upper respiratory infection, such as a cold. Always
consult the child’s health care provider before giving
any over-the-counter pain relievers.

Fever
Fever is an elevated body temperature of 100.4° F
or greater. Fever indicates a problem, and in a child
or an infant, it often means there is a speciﬁc problem.
Usually these problems are not life threatening,
but some can be. A high fever in a child or an infant
often indicates some form of infection. In a young
child, even a minor infection can result in a high
fever, usually deﬁned as a temperature 103° F
and above.
Fevers that last a long time or are very high can
result in seizures. A febrile seizure is a convulsion
brought on by a fever in infants or small children. It
is the most common type of seizure in children. Most
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139

febrile seizures last less than 5 minutes and are not
life threatening. However, there are conditions where
the child may require additional care (see When to
Call 9-1-1 for more information on febrile seizures).
Immediately after a febrile seizure, it is important to
cool the body if a fever is present (see Chapter 5 for
more information on signals of and care for seizures).

What to Look For
Older children with fever will often:
■

Feel hot to the touch.
■ Complain of being cold or chilled.
■ Complain of body aches.
■

Have a headache.
■ Have trouble sleeping or sleep more than usual.
■ Appear drowsy.
■

Have no appetite.

Infants with fever will often:
■

Be upset or fussy, with frequent crying.

■

Be unusually quiet.
■ Feel warm or hot.
■ Breathe rapidly and have a rapid heart rate.
■ Stop eating or sleeping normally.

Taking a Temperature
If children or infants have any of the signals listed above,
you will need to take their temperature to determine if
they have a fever. A rectal temperature gives the most
reliable reading for children younger than 5 years.
(NOTE: Before taking a rectal temperature, child
care providers should make sure that doing so is not
prohibited by state regulations.)
For children age 5 and older, an oral temperature (in
the mouth and under the tongue) is the recommended
method. You also may take an oral temperature for
children age 3 and older.
A child’s or an infant’s temperature also can be taken in
the ear (known as the tympanic method) or under the
armpit (known as the axillary method).
Multiple types of thermometers are available. Do
not use glass thermometers, and, whenever possible,
use an electronic (digital) thermometer. Also, use a
thermometer that is speciﬁcally designed for the type
of temperature being taken. For example, do not use an
oral thermometer to take a rectal temperature. Read the
manufacturer’s directions carefully so you know how to
use the thermometer appropriately.
Always stay with a child while taking a temperature
to make sure that the child does not move so the
thermometer does not break or cause injury.
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When to Call 9-1-1
Call 9-1-1 or the local emergency number if the child or
infant has signals of life-threatening conditions, such as
unconsciousness or trouble breathing. Also, call if this
is the ﬁrst time that a child has had a febrile seizure, the
seizure lasts longer than 5 minutes or is repeated, or the
seizure is followed by a quick rise in the temperature of
the child or infant. Child care providers should follow
state or local regulations regarding emergency care
and contact procedures whenever a child in their care
becomes injured or ill.

When to Seek Professional Medical Care
A health care provider should be contacted for:
■

Any infant younger than 3 months with a fever
(100.4° F or greater).
■ Any child younger than 2 years with a high fever
(103° F or greater).
■ Any child or infant who has a febrile seizure.

Giving Care
If the child or infant has a fever, make him or her as
comfortable as possible. Encourage the child to rest.
Make sure that the child or infant is not overdressed
or covered with too many blankets. A single layer
of clothing and a light blanket usually is all that is
necessary. Make sure that the child or infant drinks clear
ﬂuids (e.g., water, juice or chicken broth) or continues
nursing or bottle-feeding to prevent dehydration.
Acetaminophen or ibuprofen may be given for a fever.
Do not give the child aspirin for fever or other signals
of ﬂu-like or other viral illness. For a child, taking
aspirin can result in an extremely serious medical
condition called Reye’s syndrome. Reye’s syndrome
is an illness that affects the brain and other internal
organs. Always consult the child’s health care provider
before giving any over-the-counter pain relievers.
If the child has a high fever, it is important to gently cool
the child. Never rush cooling down a child. If the fever
is caused a febrile seizure, rapid cooling could bring
on other complications. Instead, remove any excessive
clothing or blankets and sponge the child with lukewarm
water. Do not use an ice water bath or rubbing alcohol
to cool down the body. Both of these approaches are
dangerous. Continue caring for the child or infant with
a high fever as described above.

Foreign Objects in the Nose
If a child has an object in the nose, do not try to
remove the object. Special lighting and instruments are
necessary. It is important to go to a health care provider
for removal of the object. Also, try to calm the child and
parents as best as possible.

Injury
Injury is the number one cause of death for children in
the United States. Many of these deaths are the result of
motor-vehicle crashes. The greatest dangers to a child
involved in a motor-vehicle crash are airway obstruction
and bleeding. Severe bleeding must be controlled as
quickly as possible. A relatively small amount of blood
lost by an adult is a large amount for a child or an infant
to lose.
Because a child’s head is large and heavy in proportion
to the rest of the body, the head is the area most often
injured. A child injured as the result of force or a blow
also may have damage to the organs in the abdominal
and chest cavities. Such damage can cause severe internal
bleeding. A child secured only by a lap belt may have
serious abdominal or spinal injuries in a motor-vehicle
crash. Try to ﬁnd out what happened because a severely
injured child may not immediately show signals of injury.
To avoid needless deaths of children caused by motor
vehicle crashes, laws have been enacted requiring that
children ride in the backseat of the car in approved
safety seats or wearing safety belts (see the Appendix:
Injury Prevention and Emergency Preparedness for
detailed information on vehicle safety). As a result of
these laws, more children’s lives have been saved. You
may have to check and care for an injured child while he
or she is in a safety seat. A safety seat does not normally
pose problems while you are checking a child. Leave
the child in the seat if the seat has not been damaged.
If the child is to be transported to a medical facility for
examination, he or she often can be safely secured and
transported in the safety seat.

Meningitis
Meningitis is a disease that occurs when the tissues that
cover the brain and spinal cord become inﬂamed. It is
caused by viruses or bacteria. The bacterial form of the
disease is less common but more serious.

What to Look For
Signals of meningitis include the following:
■

Fever

■

Irritability
■ Loss of appetite
■ Sleepiness
■

In addition, older children may complain of a stiff
neck, back pain or a headache.

When to Seek Professional Medical Care
A health care provider should be contacted if a child has
been in contact with a person who has been diagnosed
with bacterial meningitis. The health care provider may
prescribe preventative antibiotics.

If the child shows any signals of meningitis, go
immediately to a health care provider. It is important
to ﬁnd out whether the illness is caused by bacteria or a
virus. Bacterial meningitis requires prompt treatment
with antibiotics.
There is no medication to treat viral meningitis.
Give supportive care for the fever and pain with
acetaminophen or ibuprofen.

Poisoning
Poisoning is one of the top 10 causes of unintentional
death in the United States for adolescents, children
and infants.
Children younger than 6 years account for half of
all exposures to poisonous substances in the United
States. Children in this age group often are poisoned by
ingesting household products or medications (typically
those intended for adults). Although children in this age
group are exposed more often than any other, only 3
percent of these cases result in death.
There has been a decrease in child poisonings in
recent years due in part to child-resistant packaging
for medications. This packaging makes it harder for
children to get into these substances. The decrease also
is a result of preventive actions taken by parents and
others who care for children. For more information on
poisoning, refer to Chapter 5.

Rashes
Young children and infants have sensitive skin. Their
skin develops rashes easily. Two common rashes in
young children and infants are heat rash and diaper rash.

Heat Rash
Heat rash is a red or pink rash that forms on any skin
covered by clothing. It is most common in infants and
looks like red dots or small pimples.
If the child or infant develops heat rash, give care by:
■

Removing or loosening clothing to cool down the
child or infant.

■

Moving the child or infant to a cool location.
Cooling the area with wet washcloths or a cool bath
and letting the skin air-dry.

■

If the area remains irritated, use calamine lotion or a
hydrocortisone cream if the child is not sensitive or
allergic to these products. Avoid ointments or other
lotions. They could further irritate the skin.

Diaper Rash
Diaper rash is another common rash in young children
and infants. When skin is wet for too long, it begins to
break down. When wet skin is rubbed, it becomes more
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FOCUS ON PREVENTION

SIDS
Infants who sleep on their stomach at night or naptime
seem to have an increased risk for SIDS. Therefore, to
help reduce the risk of SIDS:
■
Always place an infant on his or her back at
night or naptime, using a firm mattress in a
safety-approved crib or bassinet.

damaged. Moisture from a dirty diaper can harm the
skin of a toddler or infant, making it more irritated. This
causes diaper rash to develop.
Seek care from a health care provider if diaper rash:
■

Develops blisters or pus-ﬁlled sores.
■ Does not go away within 2 to 3 days.
■ Gets worse.
Give care for diaper rash in toddlers and infants by
applying a thick layer of over-the-counter zinc oxide or
petroleum jelly to the affected area. This creates a barrier
between the infant’s delicate skin and the urine or feces.
To prevent diaper rash and help it to heal:
■

Keep the area as dry as possible by changing wet or
soiled diapers immediately.
■ Clean the area with water and a soft washcloth. Avoid
wipes that can dry the child’s skin.
■ Pat the skin dry or let it air dry.
■ Keep the diaper loose so wet and soiled parts do not
rub against the skin.

Sudden Infant Death Syndrome
Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) is the sudden,
unexpected and unexplained death of a seemingly
healthy infant. In the United States, approximately
2300 infants die every year of SIDS. SIDS is the third
leading cause of death for infants between 1 month and
1 year of age. It occurs most often in infants between
4 weeks and 7 months of age. SIDS usually occurs while
the infant is sleeping.
The condition does not seem to be linked to a disease.
In addition, the cause(s) of SIDS are not yet understood.
It is not thought to be hereditary, but it does tend to
recur in families. Because of these factors, there is no
way of knowing if a child is at risk for SIDS. Sometimes
it is mistaken for child abuse because of the unexplained
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■

Make sure that there is no soft bedding, such
as pillows, blankets and bumpers, or soft toys,
such as stuffed animals, in the crib. These
items could cause suffocation.
Check the sleeping infant frequently.

death in an apparently healthy child. In addition, SIDS
sometimes causes bruise-like blotches to appear on the
infant’s body. However, SIDS is not related to child
abuse.

When to Call 9-1-1
By the time the infant’s condition has been discovered, he
or she may be in cardiac arrest. If you encounter an infant
in this condition, make sure that someone has called 9-1-1
or the local emergency number or call yourself.

What to Do Until Help Arrives
If there is no breathing, perform CPR until EMS
personnel take over, an automated external deﬁbrillator
(AED) becomes available or you see an obvious sign of
life, such as breathing.

After a SIDS Incident
An incident involving a severely ill child or infant or one
who has died can be emotionally upsetting. After such an
episode, ﬁnd someone whom you trust to talk about the
experience and express your feelings. If you continue to
be distressed, seek professional counseling. The feelings
caused by such incidents need to be dealt with and
understood or they can result in serious stress reactions.

EMERGENCY CHILDBIRTH
Words such as exhausting, stressful, exciting, fulﬁlling,
painful and scary sometimes are used to describe a
planned childbirth. A planned childbirth is one that
occurs in the hospital or at home under the supervision
of a health care provider. If you ﬁnd yourself assisting
with the delivery of a newborn, however, it probably will
not be happening in a planned situation. Therefore, your
feelings, as well as those of the expectant mother, may
be intensiﬁed by fear of the unexpected or the possibility
that something might go wrong.

Take comfort in knowing that things rarely go wrong.
Childbirth is a natural process. Thousands of children all
over the world are born without complications each day,
in areas where no medical care is available.

When to Call 9-1-1
If a woman is giving birth, call 9-1-1 or the local
emergency number immediately. Give the EMS call
taker the following important information:
■

The woman’s name, age and expected due date

■

How long she has been having labor pains
■ Whether this is her ﬁrst child

What to Do Until Help Arrives
By following a few simple steps, you can effectively assist
in the birth process while you wait for EMS personnel to
arrive. If a woman is giving birth:
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■

Talk with the woman to help her remain calm.
Place layers of clean sheets, towels or blankets under
her and over her abdomen.
Control the scene so that the woman will have privacy.
Position the woman on her back with her knees bent,
feet ﬂat and legs spread wide apart.
Avoid contact with body ﬂuids; wear disposable gloves
and protective eyewear if possible.
Remember, the woman delivers the baby, so be
patient and let it happen naturally.
The baby will be slippery; use a clean towel to receive
and hold the baby; avoid dropping the baby.
Keep the baby warm; have a clean, warm towel or
blanket handy to wrap the newborn.

CAUTIONS:
■

Do not let the woman get up or leave to ﬁnd a
bathroom (most women want to use the restroom).
■ Do not hold the woman’s knees together; this will not
slow the birth process and may complicate the birth
or harm the baby.

Normal aging brings about changes. People age at
different rates, and each person’s organs and body parts
age at different rates as well. For example, a person with
wrinkled, fragile skin may have strong bones or excellent
respiratory function.
Overall, however, body function generally declines as
we age. Some changes begin as early as age 30 years.
The lungs become less efﬁcient, so older people are at
higher risk of developing pneumonia and other lung
diseases. The amount of blood pumped by the heart
with each beat decreases, and the heart rate slows.
The blood vessels harden, causing increased work for
the heart. Hearing and vision usually decline, often
causing some degree of sight and hearing loss. Reﬂexes
become slower, and arthritis may affect joints, causing
movement to become painful.

Checking an Older Adult
The physical and mental changes associated with aging
may require you to adapt your way of communicating
and to be aware of certain potential age-related
conditions, such as hearing loss.
To check an injured or ill older adult, attempt to learn the
person’s name and use it when you speak to him or her.
Consider using “Mrs.,” “Mr.” or “Ms.” as a sign of respect.
Make sure that you are at the person’s eye level so that he
or she can see and hear you more clearly (Fig. 9-3).
If the person seems confused at ﬁrst, the confusion
may be the result of impaired vision or hearing. If he
or she usually wears eyeglasses and cannot ﬁnd them,
try to locate them. Speak slowly and clearly, and look
at the person’s face while you talk. Notice if he or she
has a hearing aid. Someone who needs glasses to see
or a hearing aid to hear is likely to be very anxious
without them. If the person is truly confused, try to
ﬁnd out if the confusion is the result of the injury or an

■

Do not place your ﬁngers in the vagina for any reason.
■ Do not pull on the baby.

OLDER ADULTS
Older adults, or the elderly, generally are considered to
be those older than 65 years. They are quickly becoming
the fastest growing age group in the United States. Since
1900, life expectancy in the United States has increased
by over 60 percent. In 1900, for example, the average life
expectancy was 46 years for men and 48 years for women.
Today, it is 75 years for men and 80 years for women. The
main explanations for the increase in life expectancy are
medical advancements and improvements in health care.

FIGURE 9-3 Speak to an elderly person at eye level so that he or
she can see and hear you more clearly.

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existing condition. Be sure to get as much information
as possible from family members or bystanders.
The person may be afraid of falling, so if he or she is
standing, offer an arm or hand. Remember that an older
person may need to move slowly.

Falls in older adults are due to slower reﬂexes, failing
eyesight and hearing, arthritis and problems such as
unsteady balance and movement. Falls frequently result
in fractures because the bones become weaker and more
brittle with age.

Try to ﬁnd out what medications the person is taking
so that you can tell EMS personnel. Look for a medical
identiﬁcation (ID) tag, bracelet or necklace that lists
the person’s name, address and medical information.
Be aware that an elderly person may not recognize the
signals of a serious condition. An elderly person also
may minimize any signals for fear of losing his or her
independence or being placed in a nursing home.

Head Injuries

Common Injuries and Illnesses
in Older Adults
Certain problems are more prevalent in older adults,
such as speciﬁc kinds of injury and illness. The following
sections discuss some of these concerns.

Confusion
Older adults are at increased risk of altered thinking
patterns and confusion. Some of this change is the result
of aging. Certain diseases, such as Alzheimer’s disease,
affect the brain, resulting in impaired memory and
thinking and altered behavior. Confusion that comes on
suddenly, however, may be the result of medication, even
a medication the person has been taking regularly. An
injured or ill person who has problems seeing or hearing
also may become confused when injured or ill. This
problem increases when the person is in an unfamiliar
environment. A head injury also can result in confusion.
Confusion can be a signal of a medical emergency. An
elderly person with pneumonia, for example, may not
run a fever, have chest pain or be coughing, but because
not enough oxygen is reaching the brain, the person
may be confused. An older person can have a serious
infection without fever, pain or nausea. An elderly
person having a heart attack may not have chest pain,
pale or ashen skin or other classic signals but may be
restless, short of breath and confused.
Depression is common in older adults. A depressed
older adult may seem to be confused initially. A person
suffering from depression also may show signals that
have no apparent cause, such as sudden shortness of
breath or chest pain. Whatever the reason for any the
confusion, be respectful and do not talk down to or treat
him or her like a child.

Falls
Older adults are at increased risk of falls. In fact,
falls are the leading cause of death from injury for
older adults.
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An older adult is at greater risk of serious head injury.
As we age, the size of the brain decreases. This decrease
results in more space between the surface of the brain and
the inside of the skull. This space allows more movement
of the brain within the skull, which can increase the
likelihood of serious head injury. Occasionally, an older
adult may not develop the signals of a head injury until
days after a fall. Therefore, unless you know the cause of a
behavior change, you should always suspect a head injury
as a possible cause of unusual behavior in an elderly
person. This is especially true if you know that the person
had a fall or a blow to the head.

Problems with Heat and Cold
An elderly person is more susceptible to extremes
in temperature. The person may be unable to feel
temperature extremes because his or her body may no
longer regulate temperature effectively. Body temperature
may change rapidly to a dangerously high or low level.
The body of an elderly person retains heat because of a
decreased ability to sweat and the reduced ability of the
circulatory system to adjust to heat. This can lead to heat
exhaustion or heat stroke.
An elderly person may become chilled and suffer
hypothermia simply by sitting in a draft or in front
of a fan or air conditioner. Hypothermia can occur at
any time of the year. People can go on for several days
suffering from mild hypothermia without realizing it.
The older person with mild hypothermia will want to
lie down frequently; however, this will lower the body
temperature even further.

Giving Care for a Heat-Related Illness
See Chapter 6 for information about caring for
heat-related illnesses.

Giving Care for a Cold-Related Emergency
See Chapter 6 for information about caring for
cold-related emergencies.

PEOPLE WITH DISABILITIES
According to the American with Disabilities Act (ADA),
a person with a disability is someone who has a physical
or mental impairment that substantially limits one
or more major life activities such as walking, talking,
seeing, hearing or learning. This includes, for example,

a blind person who cannot read information posted on
a bulletin board or a deaf person who may need a sign
language interpreter.
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)
estimates that over 33 million people in the United
States have disabilities. When giving care to people with
disabilities, communication can be a challenge. It may
be difﬁcult to ﬁnd out what has happened and what
might be wrong in an emergency situation.

Physical Disability
A person is considered to have a physical disability if
his or her ability to move (also called motor function)
is impaired. A person also is considered to have a
physically disability if his or her sensory function is
impaired. Sensory function includes all of the senses:
sight, hearing, taste, smell and touch. A person with
a physical disability may have impairments in motor
function, sensory function or both.
General hints for approaching an injured or ill person
whom you suspect may have a physical disability include:
■
■
■

■

Speak to the person before touching him or her.
Ask, “How can I help?” or “Do you need help?”
Ask for assistance and information from the person
who has the disability—he or she has been living with
the disability and best understands it. If you are not
able to communicate with the person, ask family
members, friends or companions who are available
to help.
Do not remove any braces, canes, other physical
support, eyeglasses or hearing aids. Removal of these
items may take away necessary physical support for
the person’s body.
Look for a medical ID tag, bracelet or necklace at the
person’s wrist or neck.

■

A person with a disability may have a service animal,
such as a guide or signal dog. Be aware that this animal
may be protective of the person in an emergency
situation. Allow the animal to stay with the person if
possible, which will help to reassure both of them.

Deaf and Hard of Hearing
Hearing loss is deﬁned as a partial or total loss of
hearing. Some people are born with a hearing loss.
Hearing loss also can result from an injury or illness
affecting the ear, the nerves leading from the brain to the
ear or the brain itself. You may not immediately realize
that the injured or ill person has a hearing loss. Often
the person will tell you, either in speech or by pointing
to the ear and shaking the head no. Some people carry a
card stating that they have a hearing loss. You may see a
hearing aid in a person’s ear.
The biggest obstacle you must overcome in caring for a
person with a hearing loss is communication. You will
need to ﬁgure out how to get that person’s consent to
give care, and you will need to assess the problem.
Sometimes the injured or ill person will be able to
read lips. To assist him or her, position yourself where
the person can clearly see your face. Look straight at
the person while you speak, and speak slowly. Do not
exaggerate the way you form words. Do not turn your
face away while you speak. Many people with a hearing
impairment, however, do not read lips. In these cases,
using gestures and writing messages on paper may be
the most effective way to communicate.
If you and the person know sign language, use it.
Some people who are deaf or hard of hearing have a
machine called a telecommunications device for the
deaf (TDD). You can use this device to type messages
and questions, and the person can type replies back to
you (Fig. 9-4, A–B). Many people who have a hearing

FIGURE 9-4, A–B Communicate with a person who has a hearing loss in the best way possible. A, Use sign language, lip reading or writing to
communicate. B, You may also use a telecommunications device for the deaf.

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impairment can speak, some distinctly, some not so
clearly. If you have trouble understanding, ask the
person to repeat what he or she said. Do not pretend
to understand.

Blind or Visually Impaired
Vision loss is a partial or total loss of sight. Vision loss
can have many causes. Some people are born with vision
loss. Others lose vision as a result of disease or injury.
Vision loss is not necessarily a problem with the eyes.
It can result from problems with the vision centers in
the brain.
It is no more difﬁcult to communicate verbally with a
person who has a partial or total loss of sight than with
someone who can see. You do not need to speak loudly
or in overly simple terms. The person may not be able to
tell you certain things about how an injury occurred but
usually can give an accurate account based on his or her
interpretation of sound and touch.
When caring for a person with vision loss, help to
reassure him or her by explaining what is going on
and what you are doing. If you must move a visually
impaired person who can walk, stand beside the
person and have him or her hold onto your arm.
Walk at a normal pace, alert the person to obstacles
in the way, such as stairs, and let the person know
whether to step up or down. If the person has a
service animal, try to keep them together. Ask the
person to tell you how to handle the dog or ask him
or her to do it.

Motor Impairment
A person with motor impairment is unable to move
normally. He or she may be missing a body part or have
a problem with the bones or muscles or the nerves that
control movement. Causes of motor impairment could
include stroke, muscular dystrophy, multiple sclerosis,
paralysis, cerebral palsy or loss of a limb.
Determining which problems are pre-existing and
which are the result of immediate injury or illness can
be difﬁcult. Care for all problems you detect as if they
are new.

be obvious. If you suspect that a person has a mental
impairment, approach him or her as you would any
other person in his or her age group. If the person
appears not to understand you, rephrase what you
were saying in simpler terms. Listen carefully to what
the person says. An injury or a sudden illness can be
disruptive to some individuals who have a cognitive
impairment, causing them a great deal of anxiety and
fear. Take time to explain who you are and what you
are going to do. Offer reassurance. Try to gain the
person’s trust. If a parent, guardian or caregiver is
present, ask that person to help you give care to the
person.
People with certain types of mental illness might
misinterpret your actions as being hostile. If the
scene becomes unsafe, you may need to remove
yourself from the immediate area. Call 9-1-1 or the
local emergency number and explain your concerns
about a potential psychiatric emergency. If possible,
keep track of the person’s location and what he or
she is doing. Report this information to the emergency
responders.

LANGUAGE BARRIERS
Getting consent to give care to a person with whom you
have a language barrier can be a problem. Find out if any
bystanders speak the person’s language and can help to
translate. Do your best to communicate nonverbally. Use
gestures and facial expressions. If the person is in pain,
he or she probably will be anxious to show you where
the pain is located. Watch his or her gestures and facial
expressions carefully. When you speak to the person,
speak slowly and in a normal tone. The person probably
will have no trouble hearing you.
When you call 9-1-1 or the local emergency number,
explain that you are having difﬁculty communicating
with the person and tell the call taker which language
you believe the person speaks. The EMS system
may have someone available who can help with
communication. If the person has a life-threatening
condition, such as severe bleeding, consent is
implied.

Mental Impairment
Mental, or cognitive, function includes the brain’s
capacity to reason and process information. A person
with a mental impairment has problems performing
these operations. Some types of mental impairment are
genetic. Others result from injuries or infections that
occur during pregnancy, shortly after birth or later in
life. Some causes never are determined.
In some situations, you will not be able to determine
if a person has a mental impairment; in others, it will
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CRIME SCENES AND
HOSTILE SITUATIONS
In certain situations, such as a giving care to a person
in a crime scene or an injured person who is hostile, you
will need to use extreme caution. Although your ﬁrst
reaction may be to go to the aid of a person, in these
situations you should call 9-1-1 or the local emergency
number and stay at a safe distance.

Do not enter the scene of a suicide. If you happen to be
on the scene when an unarmed person threatens suicide,
call 9-1-1 or the local emergency number. Do not argue
with the person. Remain at a safe distance.
Leave or avoid entering any area considered to be a
crime scene, such as one where there is a weapon, or the
scene of a physical or sexual assault. Call 9-1-1 or the
local emergency number and stay at a safe distance.
You may encounter a situation where there is a hostile or
angry person. A person’s rage or hostility may be caused
by the injury, pain or fear. Some individuals, afraid of
losing control, may act resentful and suspicious. Hostile
behavior also may result from the use of alcohol or
other drugs, a lack of oxygen or a medical condition.
If a person refuses your care or threatens you, remove
yourself from the situation and stay at a safe distance.
Never argue with or restrain an injured or ill person. Call
9-1-1 or the local emergency number if someone has not
already done so. Never put your own safety at risk.

Uninjured family members also may display anger.
This anger may stem from panic, anxiety or guilt. Try to
remain calm and explain what you plan to do in giving
emergency care. If possible, ﬁnd a way that family
members can help, such as by comforting the person.

PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER
It is important to be aware of the special needs
and considerations of children and infants, older
adults, people with disabilities and people who
speak a different language than your own. In rare
circumstances, you could ﬁnd yourself in a position to
give help in an emergency childbirth or help an older
person who has become suddenly ill. Knowing what to
do in these types of situations will help you to act calmly
and give the right care. Interacting and communicating
with all types of people in many different situations
will enable you to respond quickly and effectively in
an emergency.

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CHAPTER

10
Asthma

Note: The instructions for administering asthma medication found in this chapter should not be substituted for those
given by a medical professional to an individual person. Nor should these instructions be substituted for directions
given by a medical professional in consultation with a site where asthma medication will be administered. Consult a
health care professional for speciﬁc advice on the use of asthma inhalers and nebulizers.
sthma is a life-long lung disease. It affects millions of adults and children in the United States. Cases of severe
asthma and deaths from asthma are increasing. As a ﬁrst aid responder, there is a good chance that you could be
asked to help a person with a breathing emergency caused by asthma.

In this chapter, you will read about how to identify the signals of an asthma attack. This chapter also covers how to
give care to a person having an asthma attack, which includes helping the person to use an inhaler to administer
quick-relief medications.

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ASTHMA
Asthma is an illness in which certain substances or
conditions, called “triggers,” cause inﬂammation
and constriction of the airways (small tubes in the
lungs through which we breathe), making breathing
difﬁcult. Triggers of an asthma attack include exercise,
cold air, allergens or irritants, such as perfume.
In 2008, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
(CDC) estimated that over 23 million Americans were
affected by asthma. Asthma is more common in children
and young adults. However, its frequency and severity is
increasing in all age groups in the United States. Asthma
is the third-ranking cause of hospitalization among
those younger than 15 years.
People diagnosed with asthma can reduce the risk of
an attack by controlling environmental variables when
possible. This helps to limit exposure to the triggers that
can start an asthma attack.
When an attack does occur, they can use medications
and other forms of treatment. Asthma medications stop
the muscle spasm and open the airway, which makes
breathing easier.

■

Prevent infections.
■ Reduce environmental triggers.
■

Limiting Triggers in the Home
You can reduce the chances of triggering an asthma
attack at home by:
■

Keeping plants outside.
■ Washing bedclothes and pajamas weekly in hot water.
■

Using hypoallergenic covers on mattresses and
pillows.

■

Eliminating or reducing the number of carpets and
rugs.

■

Regularly steam cleaning all carpets, rugs and
upholstery.

■

Keeping the home clean and free of dust and
pests—wet dusting can be more effective than
dry dusting.

■

Not allowing, or being around, smoke.
Regularly changing the air ﬁlter in the central air
conditioning or heating unit.
Eliminating or minimizing the number of stuffed toys.
Using hypoallergenic health and beauty products.
Washing pets weekly.
Keeping pets outside of the house.

■
■
■

Asthma Triggers

■

A trigger is anything that sets off or starts an asthma
attack. A trigger for one person is not necessarily a
trigger for another. Asthma triggers include
the following:

■

■
■
■
■
■
■

Dust and smoke
Air pollution
Respiratory infections
Fear or anxiety
Perfume
Exercise

■

Plants and molds
■ Medications, such as aspirin
■ Animal dander
■

Temperature extremes
■ Changes in weather
These are only a few of the things that can trigger
asthma in people.

Preventing Asthma Attacks
Prevention is key. A person can follow these
preventative measures to reduce his or her risk of an
attack:
■

Limit triggers in the home.
■ Control emotions.

Exercise carefully.

Controlling Emotions
Certain strong emotions can trigger an asthma attack.
When you feel a strong emotion, such as anger or fear,
the following suggestions can reduce the chances that
the emotions will trigger an asthma attack:
■

Take a long deep breath in through the nose and
slowly let it out through the mouth.
■ Count to 10.
■ Talk with a family member, trusted friend or health
care provider.
■

Do a relaxing activity.

Preventing Infections
Colds and other respiratory infections can make an
asthma condition worse. One of the most common ways
to catch colds is by rubbing the nose or eyes with hands
contaminated with a cold virus. Contamination often
occurs by touching surfaces (such as doorknobs) or
objects that other people have touched.
Some ways to reduce the chances of getting a cold or
other respiratory infection include:
■

Washing hands regularly, especially after using the
restroom or shaking hands with other people and
before eating.

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149

■

Cleaning environmental surfaces, such as telephones
and counters, with a virus-killing disinfectant. The
viruses that cause colds can survive up to 3 hours on
objects such as telephones, counters and stair railings.
Disinfecting them regularly can help to prevent the
spread of colds and viruses.
■ Getting vaccinated for illnesses when a vaccine is
available, such as for inﬂuenza and whooping
cough (pertussis).
Your health care provider might have other suggestions
based on your medical history.

Reducing Environmental Triggers
Sudden changes in the weather, heavy mold or pollen
content in the air and pollution can trigger an asthma
attack. To avoid attacks brought on by triggers in
the environment:
■

Wear the right clothing for the weather conditions.
Stay indoors on days when there is a high risk of
respiratory trouble.
■ Take preventative medications, as prescribed by your
health care provider.
■

■

Stay away from places with high amounts of dirt,
smoke and other irritants.
■ Know how the weather affects your condition.
■ Talk to your health care provider about other
prevention strategies.

Exercising Carefully
Exercise-induced asthma happens during or shortly
after exercise. Having this type of asthma does not
mean one cannot or should not exercise or play sports.
It is, however, important to know what to do to
prevent an asthma attack. Things to keep in mind
when you have exercise-induced asthma include
the following:

Asthma medications are available in two forms:
long-term control and quick relief.

Long-Term Control Medications
Long-term control medications prevent or
reverse inﬂammation (swelling) in the airway.
They also help to decrease sensitivity, which helps
to keep the airways from reacting to asthma triggers.
The long-term control medicines work slowly. They
help to control asthma over many hours. They should
be taken every day whether or not signals of asthma
are present.

Quick-Relief Medications
Quick-relief or rescue medications are used to stop
an asthma attack. These medications work quickly to
relieve the sudden swelling. They lessen wheezing,
coughing and chest tightness. This allows the person
to breathe easier. They also are called short-acting
bronchodilators.

Methods of Delivery
The most common way to take long-term control and
quick-relief asthma medications is by inhaling them.
Inhalation allows the medication to reach the airways
faster and work quickly. There also are fewer side
effects.
Medications are inhaled using a metered dose
inhaler (MDI), a dry powder inhaler (DPI) or a
small-volume nebulizer (Fig. 10-1). Both long-term
and quick-relief medications also are available in pill
and liquid form. In addition, long-term medications
are available in the form of an injection given just under
the skin.

■

Take prescribed medications 30 to 60 minutes
before exercising.
■ Slowly warm up before exercising. Cool down gently
after exercising.
■

Make sure that you drink plenty of ﬂuids during
exercise.
■ Seek and follow the advice of your health care
provider.
■ If participating in organized sports, notify the coach
of your condition.

Using Medications to Control Asthma
People who have been diagnosed with asthma will
have a personalized medication plan. They should take
all medications exactly as prescribed by their health
care provider.

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FIGURE 10-1 Long-term and quick-release medications are inhaled
using an MDI, a DPI or a small-volume nebulizer.

MDI
An MDI sends a measured dose of medicine in mist
form directly into the person’s mouth. The person
gently presses down the top of the inhaler. This
causes a small amount of pressurized gas to push the
medicine out quickly. Sometimes a “spacer” is used
to control the amount of medication that is inhaled.
The medicine goes into the spacer and then the person
inhales the medication through the mouthpiece on
the spacer.

DPI
A DPI is similar to an MDI. It is a hand-held device
that delivers a dry powder form of the medication.
Some dry powders are tasteless. Others are mixed
with lactose to give them a sweet taste. The DPI is
administered by breathing in quickly to activate the
inhaler. The person does not have to press down the
top of the inhaler. DPIs may be difﬁcult for some
people to use because of the need to take in a quick,
strong breath.

Small-Volume Nebulizers
Small-volume nebulizers deliver medication in the form
of a mist. The mist is delivered over several minutes.
This is especially helpful when the person is unable to
take deep breaths. Nebulizers are commonly used for
children younger than 5 years and the elderly. They also
are used for people who have trouble using inhalers and
for those with severe asthma.

What to Look For
You often can tell when a person is having an asthma
attack by the hoarse whistling sound made while
exhaling. This sound, known as wheezing, occurs
because air becomes trapped in the lungs. Coughing
after exercise, crying or laughing are other signals that
an asthma attack could begin.
Signals of an asthma attack include:
■
■
■

Trouble breathing or shortness of breath.
Rapid, shallow breathing.

Sweating.
■ Tightness in the chest.
■ Inability to talk without stopping for a breath.
■ Feelings of fear or confusion.

FIGURE 10-2 To assist a person having an asthma attack, remain
calm and help the person to sit comfortably.

When to Call 9-1-1
Call 9-1-1 or the local emergency number if the person’s
breathing trouble does not improve in a few minutes
after using the quick-relief medication.

What to Do Until Help Arrives
Remain calm. This will help the person to remain
calm and ease breathing troubles. Help the person to
sit comfortably (Fig. 10-2). Loosen any tight clothing
around the neck and abdomen. Assist the person
with his or her prescribed quick-relief medication if
requested and if permitted by state or local regulations.

PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER
Asthma is a life-long lung disease that affects
millions of adults and children in the United States.
Asthma can be controlled. Knowing the triggers for
asthma and how to limit those triggers, and taking
prescribed medications as directed can help to prevent
an asthma attack.
It is important to be prepared to help people with
breathing emergencies caused by asthma. The ﬁrst step
is to know the signals of an asthma attack. When you
recognize the signals, act quickly and give appropriate
care. Your care could help to save the life of a person
with asthma.

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151

SKILL SHEET

ASSISTING WITH AN ASTHMA INHALER
TIP: Always obtain consent and wash your hands immediately after giving care. Read and
follow all instructions printed on the inhaler prior to administering the medication to the person.
IF THE PERSON HAS MEDICATION FOR ASTHMA, HELP HIM OR HER TAKE IT IF ASKED:

HELP PERSON SIT UP
Help the person sit up and rest in a position comfortable for breathing.

CHECK PRESCRIPTION
■
■

Ensure that the prescription is in the person’s name
and is prescribed for “quick relief” or “acute” attacks.
Ensure that the expiration date has not passed.

SHAKE INHALER

REMOVE MOUTHPIECE COVER
If an extension tube (spacer) is available, attach
and use it.

INSTRUCT PERSON TO BREATHE OUT
Tell the person to breathe out as much as possible through the mouth.
TIP: The person may use different techniques, such as
holding the inhaler two-finger lengths away from the mouth.

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SKILL SHEET
ADMINISTER MEDICATION
Have the person place his or her lips tightly around
the mouthpiece and take a long, slow breath.
■ As the person breathes in slowly, administer the
medication by quickly pressing down on the inhaler
canister, or the person may self-administer the
medication.
■ The person should continue a full, deep breath.
■ Tell the person to try to hold his or her breath for
a count of 10.
■ When using an extension tube (spacer) have the
person take 5 to 6 deep breaths through the tube
without holding his or her breath.

RECORD TIME OF ADMINISTRATION
■
■

Note the time of administration and any change in the person’s condition.
The medication may be repeated once after 1 to 2 minutes.

HAVE PERSON RINSE MOUTH
Have the person rinse his or her mouth out with water
to reduce side effects.
■ Stay with the person and monitor his or her condition
and give CARE for any other conditions.

CARE FOR SHOCK
Care for shock.
■ Keep the person from getting chilled or overheated.
■ CALL 9-1-1 or the local emergency number if trouble
breathing does not improve quickly.
TIP: These medications might take 5 to 15 minutes to
reach full effectiveness. Follow label instructions regarding
additional doses of the medication.

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153

CHAPTER

Anaphylaxis and Epinephrine
Auto-Injectors

Note: The instructions in this chapter are not a substitute for the directions given by a medical professional to an
individual person. Nor should these instructions be substituted for directions given by a medical professional in
consultation with a site where epinephrine auto-injectors will be used. Consult a health care professional for speciﬁc
advice on the use of epinephrine auto-injectors.

severe allergic reaction can bring on a condition called anaphylaxis, also known as anaphylactic
shock. Anaphylaxis can quickly cause trouble breathing. It is a life-threatening emergency that must be
recognized and cared for immediately.

In this chapter you will learn to identify the signals of anaphylaxis. You also will learn what care to give to a person
in anaphylactic shock. Part of giving care may mean helping the person use an epinephrine auto-injector.

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ANAPHYLAXIS
Every year in the United States, between 400 and
800 deaths are caused by anaphylaxis. Respond quickly
if a person is exposed to an antigen—a foreign substance
that brings on an allergic reaction. Fortunately, some
deaths can be prevented if anaphylaxis is recognized
immediately and cared for quickly.

Allergic Reactions
Allergic reactions are caused by the activity of the
immune system. The body recognizes and protects itself
from antigens by producing antibodies. These antibodies
ﬁght antigens. Antibodies are found in the liver, bone
marrow, spleen and lymph glands. When the immune
system recognizes an antigen, it releases chemicals to
ﬁght these foreign substances and eliminate them from
the body.
Antigens that cause an allergic reaction—are called
allergens. Allergic reactions range from mild to very
severe. A common mild reaction is skin irritation from
contact with poison ivy. A severe, life-threatening
reaction is swelling of the airway, trouble breathing and
an obstructed airway.

FIGURE 11-1 In anaphylaxis, air passages can swell, restricting
breathing.

these reactions. Death from anaphylaxis may happen
because the person’s breathing is severely restricted.

When to Call 9-1-1
Call 9-1-1 or the local emergency number if the person:

Some common allergens include bee or insect
venom, certain antibiotics, pollen, animal dander and
sulfa drugs.

■

Has trouble breathing.
Complains of the throat tightening.
■ Explains that he or she is subject to severe allergic
reactions.
■ Is or becomes unconscious.
■

Over 12 million people in the United States have food
allergies. Every year there are over 30,000 cases of foodrelated anaphylaxis. Certain types of food commonly
cause an allergic reaction in individuals with sensitivities
to those foods. Peanuts and tree nuts cause the most
cases of fatal and near-fatal allergic reactions to food.
Other common food allergens include cow’s milk, eggs,
seafood (especially shellﬁsh), soy and wheat.

What to Do Until Help Arrives
If you suspect anaphylaxis, and have called 9-1-1 or the
local emergency number, follow these guidelines for
giving care:

What to Look For

■

Anaphylaxis usually occurs suddenly, within seconds
or minutes after contact with the substance. The skin
or area of the body that comes in contact with the
substance usually swells and turns red (Fig. 11-1). Other
signals include the following:

■

Monitor the person’s breathing and for changes in his
or her condition.
■ Give care for life-threatening emergencies.
Check a conscious person to determine:

Difﬁculty breathing, wheezing or shortness of breath
Tight feeling in the chest and throat
■ Swelling of the face, throat or tongue

The substance (antigen) involved.
{ The route of exposure to the antigen.
{ The effects of the exposure.
If the person is conscious and is able to talk, ask:
{ What is your name?

■

Weakness, dizziness or confusion
■ Rash or hives
■ Low blood pressure

{

■

{

■
■

{

What happened?
{ How do you feel?
{ Do you feel any tingling in your hands, feet or lips?

Shock

Trouble breathing can progress to a blocked airway due
to swelling of the lips, tongue, throat and larynx (voice
box). Low blood pressure and shock may accompany
CHAPTER

Do you feel pain anywhere?
{ Do you have any allergies? Do you have prescribed
medications to take in case of an allergic reaction?
{ Do you know what triggered the reaction?
11

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155

How much and how long were you exposed?
{ Do you have any medical conditions or are you
taking any medications?
Quickly check the person from head to toe. Visually
inspect the body:
{ Observe for signals of anaphylaxis including
respiratory distress.
{ Look for a medical identiﬁcation (ID) tag, bracelet
or necklace.
Check the person’s head.
{

Look for swelling of the face, neck or tongue.
{ Notice if the person is drowsy, not alert, confused
or exhibiting slurred speech.
Check skin appearance. Look at person’s face and
lips. Ask yourself, is the skin:
{ Cold or hot?
{ Unusually wet or dry?
{

Pale, ashen, bluish or ﬂushed?
Check the person’s breathing.
{ Ask if he or she is experiencing pain during
breathing.
{ Notice rate, depth of breaths, wheezes or
gasping sounds.
{

Care for respiratory distress.
{ Help the person to rest in the most comfortable
position for breathing, usually sitting.
{ Calm and reassure the person.
■

Assist the person with using a prescribed epinephrine
auto-injector, if available and if permitted by state
regulations.
■ Document any changes in the person’s condition
over time.

Assisting with an Epinephrine Auto-Injector
People who know they are extremely allergic to
certain substances usually try to avoid them.
However, sometimes this is impossible. These people
may carry an anaphylaxis kit in case of a severe
allergic reaction.
These kits are available by prescription only.
They contain a dose (or two) of the drug epinephrine.
This drug works in the body to counteract the
anaphylactic reaction. Two injectable epinephrine
systems are available: the Epi-Pen®, which includes
one dose; and Twinject®, which includes two doses
(Fig. 11-2, A–B). The instructions provided by the
manufacturer and health care provider always

B
FIGURE 11-2, A–B A, An Epi-Pen® is preloaded with a single dose of the drug epinephrine.
B, A Twinject® is preloaded with a double dose of epinephrine.

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It should be used on a muscular area, usually
the person’s mid-outer thigh (Fig. 11-3). The
injector needs to stay in place for 10 seconds.
This allows the medication to fully empty.
When the auto-injector is removed, handle
it carefully and do not touch the needle if it
is exposed.
If a person is conscious and able to use the
auto-injector, help him or her in any way asked.
If you know that a person has a prescribed
auto-injector and is unable to administer
it him- or herself, then you may help the
person use it where allowed by state or local
laws or regulations. Remember, for a person
experiencing anaphylaxis, time is of the essence.
FIGURE 11-3 Forcefully pushing the auto-injector against the skin activates the
device. It should be used on a muscular area, usually the person’s mid-outer thigh.

should be followed when assisting someone with
their prescribed epinephrine auto-injector. A second
dose should not be given unless recommended by
advanced medical personnel or in extremely
unusual circumstances, where advanced medical
care is not available or is signiﬁcantly delayed
and signals of anaphylaxis persist after a
few minutes.
Note: Only the person having the reaction should
self-administer the second dose included with the
Twinject® injector.
An auto-injector contains a preloaded dose of
0.3 mg of epinephrine for adults or 0.15 mg of
epinephrine for children weighing 33 to 66 pounds.
The injector has a spring-loaded plunger. When
activated, it injects the epinephrine. The auto-injector
is activated when it is forcefully pushed against the skin.

Helping the Person Self-Administer
an Antihistamine

Some anaphylaxis kits also contain an
antihistamine in pill form. An antihistamine is a type of
medication. It lessens the effects of compounds released
by the body during an allergic reaction.
The person should read and follow all medication
labels. It also is important for the person to follow any
instructions given by the health care provider. Check
state and local regulations about assisting someone
with the use of prescription and over-the-counter
medications.

PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER
Anaphylaxis is a life-threatening emergency. Knowing
how to give immediate care and help someone use an
epinephrine auto-injector could mean the difference
between life and death.

CHAPTER

Anaphylaxis and Epinephrine Auto-Injectors

157

SKILL SHEET

ASSISTING WITH AN EPINEPHRINE
AUTO-INJECTOR
Determine whether the person has already taken epinephrine or antihistamine. If so, administer a second
dose only when EMS personnel are not present or delayed and if signals of anaphylaxis persist after a
few minutes. Check the label to confirm that the prescription of the auto-injector is for this person.
Check the expiration date of the auto-injector. If it has expired, DO NOT USE IT. If the medication is
visible, confirm that the liquid is clear and not cloudy. If it is cloudy, DO NOT USE IT.
NOTE: If possible, help the person self-administer the auto-injector.
TO CARE FOR A CONSCIOUS PERSON WHO IS UNABLE TO SELF-ADM INISTER
THE AUTO-INJECTOR, AND LOCAL OR STATE REGULATIONS ALLOW:

LOCATE INJECTION SITE
Locate the outside middle of one thigh to use as
the injection site.
NOTE: If injecting through clothing, press on the area
with a hand to determine that there are no obstructions
at the injection site, such as keys, coins, the side seam
of trousers, etc.

REMOVE SAFETY CAP
Grasp the auto-injector firmly in your fist,
and pull off the safety cap with your other hand.

POSITION AUTO-INJECTOR
Hold the tip (needle end) near the patient’s outer thigh so
that the auto-injector is at a 90-degree angle to the thigh.

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SKILL SHEET
ADMINISTER INJECTION
Quickly and firmly push the tip straight into
the outer thigh. You will hear a click.

HOLD IN PLACE
Hold the auto-injector firmly in place for 10 seconds,
then remove it from the thigh and massage the injection
site with a gloved hand for several seconds.

RECHECK BREATHING
Recheck the person’s breathing and observe
his or her response to the medication.

HANDLE USED AUTO-INJECTOR
CAREFULLY
Handle the used auto-injector carefully, placing it in a
safe container. Give it to EMS personnel when they arrive.

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159

APPENDIX

Injury Prevention and Emergency
Preparedness

nintentional injuries cause disability and death for thousands of people in the United States each year. These
injuries incur billions of dollars in lost wages, medical expenses, insurance, property damage and other
indirect costs.

Injuries are not always inevitable. Being prepared and following established safety precautions can reduce risk, prevent
injuries and save lives.

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INJURIES
Every year in the United States millions of people
suffer an unintentional injury. In 2007, nearly
124,000 Americans died from these injuries.
That year, unintentional injury was the leading
cause of death for people 1 to 44 years of age;
of these, motor-vehicle crashes were the number
one cause of death from unintentional injury,
followed by poisoning and falls (Fig. A-1). In 2007,
American also sustained approximately 34.3 million
nonfatal injuries that required medical attention.

■

Environmental and economic factors inﬂuence injury
rates. Living on a farm or in the city, having a home
made of wood or brick, using a speciﬁc type of heat
in your home and your local climate all affect your
degree of risk. For instance, death rates from injury
are higher in rural areas as opposed to metropolitan
areas. The death rate from injuries is twice as high in
low-income areas as in high-income areas.

■

Alcohol misuse and abuse is a signiﬁcant factor in
many injuries and fatalities, in both teenagers and
adults. In 2008, 32 percent of all motor-vehicle deaths
were alcohol related. It is estimated that a signiﬁcant
number of victims who die as a result of falls, drowning
and ﬁres were under the inﬂuence of alcohol.

Injury Risk Factors
Several factors affect a person’s risk of being injured.
These factors include age, gender, geographic location,
economic status and alcohol misuse and abuse.
■

Nonfatal injury rates remain highest among people
younger than 39 years; however, deaths from injury
are more common in people 40 years of age and older.
Also of note is this age group has the highest rate of
injuries that result in death.
■ Gender also is a signiﬁcant factor in risk of injury.
Males are at greater risk than females for any type
of injury. In general, men are about twice as likely to
suffer a fatal injury as women.

Reducing Your Risk of Injury
Statistics show that people of certain ages and gender are
injured more often than others. However, the chances of
injury have more to do with a person’s behavior. Many
injuries are preventable and result from the way people
interact with potential dangers in the environment.
Risks of an injury can be reduced by taking the
following steps:
■

Know the risk.
■ Take measures that make a difference. Change
behaviors that increase your risk of
injury and your risk injuring others.
■ Think safety. Be alert for and avoid
potentially harmful conditions or
activities that increase your risk
of injury. Take precautions, such
as wearing appropriate protective
devices, including helmets, padding
and eyewear. Always buckle up
when driving or riding in motor
vehicles.
■ Learn and use ﬁrst aid skills. There
have been dramatic improvements
in emergency medical systems
nationwide over the past decade;
however, you are the person who
often makes the difference between
life and death. Apply your ﬁrst aid
training when necessary.

FIGURE A-1 The leading causes of unintentional death in the United States in 2007.

APPENDIX

In addition to these personal steps, laws
and consumer protection regulations
have been put in place to reduce or
prevent injury. Examples include
laws on the mandatory use of safety
belts, manufacturers’ requirements to
build air bags into motor vehicles and
restrictions on the use of cell phones
while driving.

Injury Prevention and Emergency Preparedness

161

FOCUS ON PREPAREDNESS

DEVELOPING A PLAN OF ACTION
Emergencies can happen quickly. There may
not be time to consider what to do, only time to
react. You can improve your response and the
outcome of emergencies by developing a plan.
Meet with your family or household members
to gather information for an emergency
action plan.
Think about your home:
■
Style of home (e.g., mobile, high-rise
apartment, single family) and type of
construction (e.g., wood, brick)
■
Location of sleeping areas (e.g., basement,
ground floor, second floor)
■
Location of windows
■
Number and location of smoke alarms
■
Location of gasoline, solvent or paint storage
■
Number and types of locks on doors
■
Location of telephones, flashlights, fire
extinguisher and first aid kit
Think about who lives in your home:
■
Total number of people and number of people
older than 65 years or younger than 6 years
of age
■
Number of people sleeping above or below the
ground floor
■
Number of people who are unable to exit
without help

It also is important to develop a plan of action in case of
an emergency. Being prepared for an emergency before
it actually occurs will help you, and those with whom you
live, to react calmly in a stressful situation. See Focus on
Preparedness: Developing a Plan of Action above.

Vehicle Safety
Tens of thousands of people in the United States die in
motor-vehicle crashes each year. Crash injuries result in
nearly 5 million emergency department visits annually.
The economic burden of these motor-vehicle-related
deaths and injuries is signiﬁcant.
Do not drink and drive. If you are going to consume
alcohol, plan ahead to ﬁnd a ride, or take a cab or public
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Think about the types of possible emergencies that
you may face:
■
Injuries (e.g., fall or cut)
■
Illnesses (e.g., stroke or heart attack)
■
Natural disasters (e.g., tornado or earthquake)
■
Fire
Write down the list of emergencies that you could
face. Under each one write:
1.
2.

How the emergency would affect your home.
How you would like the people in your
home to react. Specifically, what would be
the responsibilities for each member of the
household in an emergency?
3. The steps you have already taken to prevent
or minimize the effect of the emergency.
4. The steps you still need to take.

Try to imagine as many situations as possible for
each emergency. Gather information from sources
such as insurance companies, your city or county
emergency management office and your police, fire
or rescue department.
When thinking about emergencies away from home:
Use the same process to decide what to do.
When you reach a decision, write it down. You now
have a personal emergency plan. Practice it. Keep
it current.
■

transportation. If you are with a group, designate a
driver who agrees not to drink on this occasion.
Do not become distracted. Doing things that take your
eyes off the road, your hands off the wheel or your mind
off of driving are distractions that can be dangerous or
even fatal. The use of electronic devices while driving,
such as talking on hand-held cell phones and text
messaging, causes thousands of collisions and highway
fatalities. Other distractions while driving include eating
and drinking; talking to passengers; reading; using
navigation systems; and operating radios and CD or
MP3 players. Many states and the District of Columbia
have enacted laws restricting the use of hand-held cell
phones and electronic devices.

When riding in a motor vehicle, always buckle up.
Although cars more often are equipped with airbags than
not, wearing a safety belt is the easiest and best way to
prevent injury in a motor-vehicle collision. Always wear a
safety belt, including a shoulder restraint, when riding in
either the front or back seat. In 49 states and the District
of Columbia, wearing a safety belt is required by law.
In 2007, safety belts saved more than 13,000 lives.
Although airbags have saved many lives, they pose
several risks to children. The amount of force during
airbag deployment can kill or severely injure children
occupying the front seat. Even when in a car seat, infants
could be at risk. An infant in a rear-facing car seat is
close to the dashboard and therefore could easily be
struck by the airbag with sufﬁcient force to cause serious
harm or even death. Always have children younger than
13 years sit in the back seat, away from airbags.

Child Safety Seats
Motor-vehicle crashes are the leading cause of
injury-related deaths for children. All 50 states and the
District of Columbia require the use of child safety seats
and child safety belts. Always have infants and children
ride in the back seat in safety seats that are approved for
the child’s weight and/or age (Fig. A-2).

Choosing the proper child safety seat to ﬁt the weight
and age of your child is only the ﬁrst step. Another
important child-safety-seat issue is making sure that
the child safety seat is installed correctly in your vehicle.
The National Highway Trafﬁc Safety Administration
(NHTSA) estimates that three out of four parents do
not properly use child restraints. It is essential to always
read the instruction manual. Every manufacturer of
child safety seats provides speciﬁc instructions about
how to use and install its seat. To make sure that you
installed your child safety seat correctly in your vehicle,
you can have it checked by professionals. Contact
NHTSA for information on ﬁnding a nearby child safety
seat inspection station.

Fire Safety
Fire safety in the home and in hotels is essential. You
should learn how to prevent ﬁres but also know what to
do in case a ﬁre does occur.

Home Fire Safety Prevention
and Preparation
In 2006, 3202 people died in unintentional ﬁres in the
United States. Approximately four of 10 deaths from
ﬁres occurring in the home occurred in homes without
smoke alarms. To prevent ﬁres:
■

Install a smoke alarm on every ﬂoor of your home.
Check the batteries once a month, and change the
batteries at least twice a year.
■ Keep ﬁre extinguishers where they are most likely to
be needed and keep matches out of children’s reach.
■

Always keep space heaters away from curtains and
other ﬂammable materials.
■ Install guards around ﬁreplaces, radiators, pipes and
wood-burning stoves.
Regardless of the cause of ﬁres, everyone needs
to know how to respond in case of ﬁre. Plan and practice
a ﬁre escape route with your family or roommates
(Fig. A-3):
■

Gather everyone together at a convenient time.
■ Sketch a ﬂoor plan of all rooms, including
doors, windows and hallways, for all ﬂoors of
the home.
■ Draw the escape plan with arrows showing two
ways, if possible, to get out of each room.
Sleeping areas are the most important, since many
ﬁres happen at night.
■

Plan to use stairs only, never an elevator.
■ Plan where everyone will meet after leaving
the building.
■ Designate who should call the ﬁre department and
from which phone.

FIGURE A-2 Infants and children always should ride in an
approved safety seat.

APPENDIX

Injury Prevention and Emergency Preparedness

163

■

Plan to leave the burning building ﬁrst and then call
from a phone nearby, if possible.

Remember and use the following guidelines to escape
from ﬁre:
■

If smoke is present, crawl low to escape. Because
smoke rises in a ﬁre, breathable air is often close to
the ﬂoor.

■

Make sure that children can open windows, go
down a ladder and lower themselves to the ground.
Practice with them. Always lower children to the
ground ﬁrst before you go out of a window.
■ Get out quickly and do not, under any circumstances,
return to a burning building.
■ If you cannot escape, stay in the room and stuff door
cracks and vents with wet towels, rags or clothing. If
a phone is available, call the ﬁre department—even
if rescuers are already outside—and inform the call
taker of your location.

Contact your local ﬁre department for additional ﬁre
safety guidelines.

Hotel Fire Safety
In addition to ﬁre safety at home, knowing how to exit
from a hotel in a ﬁre could save your life. Locate the ﬁre
exits on your ﬂoor. If you hear an alarm while in your
room, feel the door ﬁrst and do not open it if it is hot. Do
not use the elevator. If the hall is relatively smoke-free,
walk to the stairs to exit; if the hall is ﬁlled with smoke,
crawl to the exit. If you cannot get to the exit, return to
your room. Turn off the ventilation system, stuff door
cracks and vents with wet towels and call the front desk or
the ﬁre department to report the ﬁre and your location.

Safety at Home
In 2007, 44 percent of all nonfatal injuries requiring
medical attention in the United States occurred in or
around the home.

FIGURE A-3 Plan and practice a fire escape route with your family or roommates.

164

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Removing hazards and practicing good safety habits will
make your home safer. You can get a good start on this
by making a list of the needed improvements. Safety at
home is relatively simple and relies largely on common
sense. Take the following steps to make your home a
safer place:
■

■
■
■
■

■

■
■

■

■
■

Post emergency numbers near every phone. Include
9-1-1 or the local emergency number, National Poison
Control Center Hotline (1-800-222-1222), primary
health care provider, as well as any other important
numbers.
Make sure that stairways and hallways are
well lit.
Equip stairways with handrails, and use nonslip
treads or securely fastened rugs.
Secure rugs to the ﬂoor with double-sided tape.
If moisture accumulates in damp spots,
correct the cause of the problem. Clean up spills
promptly.
Keep medicines and poisonous substances
separate from each other and from food. They
should be out of reach of children and in secured
cabinets.
Keep medicines in their original containers with
safety caps.
Keep your heating and cooling systems and all
appliances in good working order. Check heating and
cooling systems annually before use.
Read and follow manufacturers’ instructions for
electrical tools, appliances and toys.
Turn off the oven and other appliances when not in
use. Unplug certain appliances, such as irons, curling
irons, coffeemakers and portable heaters, after each
use. These items can easily overheat or spark a ﬁre
when unattended.
Make sure that your home has at least one working,
easily accessible ﬁre extinguisher. Make sure that
everyone knows how to use it.
Keep ﬁrearms in the home unloaded in a locked
place, out of the reach of children. Store ammunition
separately in a locked location.
Practice safe ﬁrearms handling and safety
education.
Ensure that cords for lamps and other items are not
placed where someone can trip over them.

This list does not include all of the safety measures
needed in your home. If young children or elderly or ill
people live with you, you will need to take additional
steps, depending upon the individual characteristics
of your home.
Try crawling around your home to see it through
the eyes of an infant or a young child. You may become
APPENDIX

aware of unsuspected hazards. See Focus on
Prevention: Make Your Home Safe for Kids in this
chapter for additional safety measures geared for
young children.
For elderly people, you may need to install handrails
in the bathtub or shower and beside the toilet. You
may need a bath chair or bench. Always have a mat
with a suction base if your tub does not have built-in
nonslip strips. A safe temperature for bath water is
101° F.

Safety at Work
Most people spend approximately one-third of their day
at work. To improve safety at work, you should be aware
of the following:
■

Fire evacuation procedures
How to activate your emergency response team and
how to call 9-1-1 or the local emergency number
■ Location of the nearest ﬁre extinguisher and ﬁrst
aid kit
■

■

How to use recommended safety equipment and
how to follow safety procedures if you work in an
environment where hazards exist

■

Workplace safety training

Safety at Play
Make sports and other recreational activities safe by
always following accepted guidelines for the activity.
Before undertaking an activity that is unfamiliar to
you, such as boating, skiing or riding a motorcycle,
take lessons to learn how to perform the activity
safely. Many accidents result from inexperience.
Make sure that your equipment is in good working
order.

Bicycle Safety
Each year, approximately 500,000 people are injured
while riding a bicycle, and most bicycle accidents
happen within a mile of home.
Ninety-one percent of bicyclists killed in 2008
reportedly were not wearing helmets. The head or neck
is the most seriously injured part of the body in most
fatally injured cyclists. Children should wear a helmet
even if they are still riding along the sidewalk on
training wheels.
When cycling, always wear an approved helmet.
Look for a helmet that has been approved by the
Snell Memorial Foundation or the American
National Standards Institute (ANSI), and make
that sure the helmet is the correct size and it ﬁts
comfortably and securely. Laws on wearing bicycle
helmets, including age-speciﬁc requirements, vary
by state and county. For more information about
|

Injury Prevention and Emergency Preparedness

165

FOCUS ON PREVENTION

MAKE YOUR HOM E SAFE FOR KIDS
General Safety Precautions
Inside the Home
■
Are stairways kept clear and uncluttered?
■
Are stairs and hallways well lit?
■
Are safety gates installed at tops and bottoms
of stairways?
■
Do window and balcony doors have childproof
latches or window guards?
■
Do balconies have protective barriers to prevent
children from slipping through the bars?
■
Are guards installed around fireplaces,
radiators, hot pipes and wood-burning stoves?
■
Are sharp edges of furniture cushioned with
corner guards or other material?
■
Are safety covers placed on all unused
electrical outlets?
■
Are matches and lighters stored out of the
reach of children?
■
Are curtain cords and shade pulls wound up
and not dangling?
■
Are fire extinguishers installed where they are
most likely to be needed?
■
Is there at least one approved smoke alarm
installed and operating on each level of the
home? Are batteries changed at least every
6 months?
■
Do you have an emergency plan to use in case
of fire? Does your family practice this plan?
■
Is the water set at a safe temperature?
A setting of 120 °F or less prevents scalding
from tap water in sinks and in tubs. Let the
water run for 3 minutes before testing it.
■
If you own a firearm, is it stored in a locked
cabinet so that your child, and other
unauthorized users cannot use it?
■
Are all purses, handbags, briefcases and
similar items, including those belonging to
visitors, kept out of children’s reach?
■
Are all poisonous plants kept out of children’s
reach?
■
Is a list of emergency phone numbers posted
near telephones?

166

First Aid/CPR/AED

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■

Is a list of instructions posted near telephones
for use by children or babysitters?
Is there a first aid kit properly stocked and
stored away?
Are there working flashlights, battery-operated
radio and extra batteries available for use in
case of emergency?

Storage Areas
■
Are pesticides, detergents and other household
chemicals stored in locked cabinets and kept
out of children’s reach?
■
Are tools stored in locked cabinets or locked
storage areas out of children’s reach?
Bathrooms
■
Are the toilet seat and lid kept down when the
toilet is not in use?
■
Are cabinets equipped with safety latches and
kept closed?
■
Are all medicines in child-resistant
containers and stored in a locked medicine
cabinet?
■
Are shampoos and cosmetics stored out of
children’s reach?
■
Are razors, razor blades and other sharp
objects kept out of children’s reach?
■
Are hair dryers and other appliances stored
away from the sink, tub or toilet?
■
Does the bottom of tub or shower have non-slip
surfacing?
■
Are bathroom doors kept closed at all times?
■
Are children always watched by an adult while
in the bathroom?
Kitchens
■
Do you cook on back stove burners when
possible and turn pot handles toward the back
of the stove?
■
Are hot dishes kept away from the edges of
tables and counters?
■
Are hot liquids and foods kept out of children’s
reach?
(Continued )

FOCUS ON PREVENTION
■

■

■
■

■

(Continued )

Are knives and other sharp items kept out of
children’s reach?
Is the highchair placed away from stove and
other hot appliances?
Are matches and lighters kept out of children’s
reach?
Are all appliance cords secured and out of
children’s reach?
Are cabinets equipped with safety latches?
Are cleaning products stored in locked
cabinets out of children’s reach?
Do you test the temperature of heated food
before feeding children?

Children’s Rooms
■
Is the bed or crib placed away from radiators
and other hot surfaces?
■
Is the bed or crib placed away from curtain and
blind cords?
■
Are crib slats no more than 2 3/8 inches
apart?
■
Does the mattress fit the sides of the crib
snugly? Are toys, blankets and pillows
removed from the crib?
■
Is paint or finish on furniture and toys nontoxic?
■
Is children’s clothing, especially sleepwear,
flame resistant?
■
Does the toy box have ventilation holes? If
there is a lid, it is lightweight and removable
and has a sliding door or panel or is a hinged
lid with a support to hold it open?

helmet laws in your area, contact state or local
ofﬁcials.

Are electric cords secured and kept out of
children’s reach?
Are toys in good repair?
Are toys appropriate for children’s ages?

■

■
■

Adult Bedrooms
■
Are space heaters kept away from curtains and
flammable materials?
■
Are cosmetics, perfumes and breakable items
stored out of children’s reach?
■
Are small objects, such as jewelry, buttons and
safety pins, kept out of children’s reach?
Outside the Home
■
Are trash and recycling materials stored in
tightly covered containers?
■
Are walkways, stairs and railings in good
repair?
■
Are walkways and stairs free of toys, tools and
other objects?
■
Are sandboxes and wading pools emptied
when not in use?
■
Are nearby swimming pools completely
enclosed with a 4-ft-high self-locking,
self-latching gate or fence? Does the pool
have an alarm system?
■
Is the backyard pool separated from the home
by a fence?
■
Is playground equipment safe? Is it
assembled according to the manufacturer’s
instructions?

Foot Safety
Appropriate sport-speciﬁc footwear also is important in
preventing injuries. Shoes often are designed to perform
a particular function and provide support for certain
movements. Basketball shoes, for example, offer lateral
(side-to-side) support, and the durable, rubber soles on
hiking boots improve traction to help prevent slipping
on varied terrain.

Observe these rules of the road for bike safety:
■

Avoid roads that are busy or have no shoulder.
Wear reﬂective clothing at night.
■ Use a headlight, taillight and high-visibility strobe
lights on your bicycle wheels.
■ Keep bicycles properly maintained.
■

Swimming and Water Safety

Eye Safety

If you or a family member does not know how to swim, or
you would like to improve your swimming skills, contact
your local chapter of the American Red Cross. You can
sign up for a Red Cross swimming and water safety class.

Wear protective goggles while doing any activity in
which eyes could be injured, such as racquetball, or
using tools like electric drills or power saws.
APPENDIX

Injury Prevention and Emergency Preparedness

167

Always wear an appropriate ﬂotation device if you are
going to be in, on or around the water and do not know
how to swim. Many people who drown never intended
to be in the water. Be careful when walking beside
rivers, lakes and other bodies of water. Dangerous
undercurrents, even in shallow water, can overcome
the best of swimmers.
To prevent water-related injuries, you also should:
■

Always closely supervise children in, on or near water.
Stay within arm’s reach of them.

■

If you have a backyard pool, make sure that it is
separated from any door in your home by a fence.
The fence should completely enclose the pool. It
should be designed so that children cannot easily
climb over it. The fence should be equipped with a
self-closing, self-latching gate that cannot be easily
opened by a young child.

■

Empty and cover wading pools when not in use.
Keep toilet seat lids down when the toilet is not
being used.
■ Never drink alcohol while you drive a boat and do not
travel in a boat operated by a driver who has been
■

168

First Aid/CPR/AED

Participant’s Manual

drinking. The U.S. Coast Guard reports that alcohol is
the most common factor in fatal boating accidents.

Safety for Runners and Walkers
If you run, jog or walk, plan your route carefully and
exercise in well-lit, well-populated areas. Consider
exercising with another person. Avoid roads that do
not easily accommodate pedestrian trafﬁc. If you must
exercise outdoors after dark, wear reﬂective clothing and
run, jog or walk facing trafﬁc. Be alert for cars pulling
out at intersections and driveways.

PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER
Unintentional injuries cause disability and death for
thousands of people each year. In addition, these
injuries cost billions of dollars in lost wages, medical
expenses, insurance, property damage and other indirect
costs. Do not accept that injures will just happen. Take
safety precautions to prevent injury—while driving, in
the home, at work or at play. Be prepared. Know what to
do in case of an emergency. Preventing injury and being
prepared for an emergency can save lives!

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Additional Photo Credits
Chapter 8
Page 119, Roller blade accident
Image Copyright prodakszyn, 2010 Used under license from Shutterstock.com
Chapter 9
Page 138, Blond-haired child
Image Copyright Michael Pettigrew, 2010 Used under license from Shutterstock.com

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
American Red Cross ﬁrst aid/CPR/AED participant’s manual. — 4th ed.
p. ; cm.
First aid/CPR/AED participant’s manual
Rev. ed. of: First aid/CPR/AED for schools and the community. 3rd ed.
c2006.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-58480-479-6
1. First aid in illness and injury. 2. CPR (First aid) 3. Automated
external deﬁbrillation. I. American Red Cross. II. First aid/CPR/AED for
schools and the community. III. Title: First aid/CPR/AED participant’s
manual.
[DNLM: 1. First Aid—methods. 2. Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation—methods.
3. Electric Countershock—instrumentation. 4. Electric
Countershock--methods. WA 292]
RC86.7.C644 2011
616.02'52--dc22
2011003858
Sources

171

Index
A
Abdominal injuries, 112–113
Abdominal pain in children,
137–138
Abdominal thrusts, 62, 63
Abnormal heart rhythm, 46
Abrasions, 100, 105
Absorbed poisons, 77
Accidental deaths, 161
Action plan for emergencies, 162
Adhesive compresses, 103
Adolescents, 137. See also Children;
Infants
Adults, deﬁned, 10. See also Older
adults
Advance directives, 37–38
Advanced medical care in Cardiac
Chain of Survival, 33
AED, 19, 45–54. See also
Deﬁbrillation, see skill sheets
for adults, 46, 47
in cardiac emergencies, 34
for children, 48
maintenance of, 50
precautions in using, 46–47
special situations, 48–50
types of, 46
Aging. See Older adults
Agonal breath, 18
AIDS (acquired immune deﬁciency
syndrome), 5. See also HIV
(human immunodeﬁciency
virus)
Airbags, 163
Air in the stomach in breathing
emergencies, 20
Airway, 56
checking, 17–18
Alcohol and osteoporosis, 120
Alcohol use and abuse, 161, 162
Allergens, 155
Allergic reactions, 58, 76, 155–157
American Diabetes Association,
74, 76. See also People with
disabilities
American Lyme Disease
Foundation, 88

172

First Aid/CPR/AED

Americans with Disabilities Act
(ADA), 144–145
Anaphylactic shock, 58
allergic reactions, 155–157
assistance with an auto-injector,
156–157, 158–159
auto-injectors, 156–157,
158–159
care for, 155–157
deﬁned, 157
epinephrine and antihistamine,
156, 157
prevalence of, 155
signals of, 155
Anaphylaxis. See Anaphylactic
shock
Anatomic splints, 122
applying, 127–128
Angina pectoris. See Cardiac
emergencies
Animal bites, 5, 93–95. See also
Insect bites and stings
Ankle drag, 13–14
Antibiotics, 5
Antibodies, 155
Antigens, 76
Antihistamine, 157
Arrhythmias, 33
Arteries, 30, 72
Aspirin
in cardiac emergencies, 32–33
and children, 140
Asthma, 56, 148–153
anti-inﬂammatory medications
for, 150
asthma inhalers, 150–151,
152–153
deﬁnition of, 149
medications for, 150
prevalence of, 148
prevention, 149–150
signals of an attack, 57, 151
triggers of, 149, 150
Atherosclerosis, 30
Atria, 46
Automated external deﬁbrillation.
See AED

Participant’s Manual

Automobiles. See Motor vehicles
Avulsions, 101
B
Babesia infection, 87
Back blows and abdominal thrusts,
62, 63
Bacteria, 5. See also Disease
Bandage compresses, 103
Bandages, 103–105
Barriers to action in emergencies,
3–4
Bicycle safety, 165, 166
Bites and stings
animal, 93–94
insect, 85
insect repellents, 89, 91
marine life, 94–95
mosquito-borne illness from, 89–90
prevention of, 90
spider and scorpion, 90–92
tick-borne diseases from, 85–89
Babesia infection, 87
Ehrlichiosis, 87
Lyme disease, 87–88
prevention, 88–89
Rocky Mountain spotted fever,
86–87
venomous snake, 92–93
West Nile Virus (WNV) from, 89–90
Black widow spiders, 90, 92
Blanket drag, 13
Bleeding
checking for, 19
internal, 111
severe, 105–106, 110, 111
skill sheet for controlling
external, 114
Blindness, 146
Blood
cleaning up a spill, 7–8
in disease spreading, 5, 7–8
and HIV/AIDS, 8
Blood pressure, elevated and
stroke, 72
Blood thinners, 33
Blood vessels, 99

Body ﬂuids
in disease spreading, 5, 7–8
and HIV/AIDS, 8
Bones, 117–118. See also Muscle,
bone and joint injuries
Brain attack. See Stroke
Brain damage, 123
Breathing
checking, 18
normal, 57
Breathing barriers, protective,
19–20
Breathing emergencies, 55–67
brain damage, 123
breathing barriers, 19–20
caring for until help arrives, 55
child-prooﬁng home to prevent,
166–167
conditions causing, 57–59
and head, neck, and back
injuries, 21
mouth-to-nose breathing, 20
rescue breathing for children,
18, 19, 40–41
rescue breathing for infants,
18, 19, 40-41
respiratory distress and
respiratory arrest, 57–59
signals of, 59
special situations, 20–21
for stomas, 15, 20–21
submersion victims, 21
See also Choking emergencies;
CPR; see skill sheets
Bronchitis, 58
Bronchodilators for asthma,
150–151
Brown recluse spiders, 90, 92
Bruise, 99
Burns, 106–109
caring for, 107–108
classiﬁcation of, 107
critical burns, 107
preventing, 109
signals of, 107
types of, 107–109
Bystanders calling 9-1-1, 3, 4
C
Calcium, 119
CALL, 10–11. See also Nine-one-one
(9-1-1)
Call First or Care First?, 11
Capillaries, 100
Cardiac arrest, 29, 30–36, 33
Cardiac Chain of Survival, 33, 34

Cardiac emergencies, 29–44
and aspirin, 32–33
cardiac arrest, 33–36
in children and infants, 36,
38–39
heart attack, 30–33
heart stops beating, 33
See also AED; CPR
Cardiopulmonary resuscitation.
See CPR
Cardiovascular disease as cause of
death, 1, 2, 30, 33
CARE, 11–14
general guidelines, 11–12
transporting the victim, 11–14
Care First or Call First?, 11
Cars. See Motor vehicles
Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention (CDC), 8, 57, 88,
145, 149
CHECK, 8–10
for life-threatening conditions, 10
the scene for safety, 8–9
the victim, 10
CHECK/CALL/CARE (emergency
action steps), 8–14, 34
Checking an ill or injured person,
8–28.
airway, 17–18
breathing, 18
children, 15, 16, 136–137
circulation, 18–19
conducting interviews, 14–15
conscious person, 14–16
head-to-toe checking, 15–16
severe bleeding, 19
shock, 16–17
unconscious infant, 17
unconscious person, 17–19,
25–26
See also Emergency action steps
(CHECK/CALL/CARE)
Chemical burns, 108
Chemical poisoning, 80
Chest compressions
in CPR, 34–36
hands-only, 39
Chest injuries, 111–112, 125–126
puncture wounds, 111
rib fractures, 111
sucking chest wounds,
111, 112
Chest thrusts in choking
emergencies, 62–63, 64
Child abuse, 138
Childbirth, 142–143

Children
abdominal pain in, 137–138
breathing emergencies in, 58
cardiac emergencies in, 36, 38–39
car safety seats for, 141, 163
checking and caring for in
emergencies, 15, 16, 136–137
checking unconscious in, 27–28
child abuse, 138
choking in conscious, 61–62
communication with, 136–137
conjunctivitis in, 138
CPR for, 36, 38–39, 40–43
deﬁnition of, 10
diarrhea and vomiting in, 139
ear infections in, 139
fever in, 139–140
foreign objects in nose, 140
injuries and illnesses in, 137–142
interacting with caregivers, 137
meningitis in, 141
observing, 137
poisoning, 79, 141
preventing choking in, 60
preventing poisoning in, 78–79
rashes in, 141–142
rescue breathing for, 18, 19, 41
unconscious, 17–19, 27–28
See also Infants
Child safety seats, 141, 163
Choking emergencies, 54, 60–65
back blows and abdominal
thrusts, 62, 63
care for, 61–64
causes of, 60–61
chest thrusts in, 62–63, 64
child-prooﬁng to prevent,
166–167
in conscious adult or child, 61–62
in conscious infants, 63–64
prevention in children and
infants, 60
signals of, 61
special situations and, 62–63
universal signal of, 61
See also Breathing emergencies;
see skill sheets
Cholesterol, 30, 72
Chronic conditions, 70
Chronic obstructive pulmonary
disease (COPD), 53
Cigarette smoking, 72, 120
Circulation, checking, 18–19
Closed fractures, 118, 120
Closed wounds, 99–100
Clothes drag, 13
Index

173

Clothing for cold weather, 86
Cognitive impairment, 146
Cold-related emergencies, 83–85.
See also Heat-related
illnesses and cold-related
emergencies
Colic, 138
Common cold, 5
prevention of, 139–150
Concussion, 125
Conjunctivitis, 138
Conscious person
checking a, 14–16
choking in, 61–64
Consent to give care, 5
Convulsions, 71, 89, 139
COPD (chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease), 56
Copperhead snakes, 93
Coral snakes, 93
Coronary heart disease, 30, 32
deaths from, 33
reducing risk factors for, 32
See also Cardiovascular disease
Cottonmouth snakes, 93
Coumadin, 33
CPR, 40
for adults, 34–36, 40–42
breathing barriers for, 19–20
in cardiac emergencies, 34
chest compressions in, 34–36
for children, 36, 38–39,
40–41, 43
hands-only, 39
for infants, 36, 39, 40–41, 43
moving victim to perform, 12
two responders available, 36
when to give, 19
when to stop, 36
See also Breathing emergencies;
see skill sheets
Crime scenes and hostile situations,
146–147
Croup, 58
Crush injuries, 109
D
Deaf and hard of hearing, 145–146
Deaths
from cardiovascular disease, 1, 2,
30, 33
from diabetes, 74
from injuries, 1, 2, 160, 161
leading causes of, 1
from poisoning, 76
Deciding to act in emergencies, 3–4
174

First Aid/CPR/AED

Deer ticks, 87–88. See also Ticks
and tick-borne diseases
removing, 88–89
DEET, 89, 91
Deﬁbrillation, 33, 34, 45. See also AED
Degenerative diseases, 70
Diabetes
defnition of, 74
and stroke, 72
Diabetic emergencies, 74–76
Diaper rash, 141–142
Diarrhea in children and infants, 139
Diet
and osteoporosis, 119
and stroke, 72
Disability. See also People with
disabilities
deﬁnition of, 144
Disease
degenerative, 70
preventing transmission of, 5, 7–8
spread of, 5
See also Cardiovascular disease
Disks, 123
Dislocations, 120
Dispatchers, 4
Disposable gloves, 5
removing, 24
Distracted driving, 162
Diuretics, 82
“Do Not Resuscitate” (DNR),
37–38
DPI (dry powder inhaler), 150, 151
Dressings, 102–103, 112
Drowning, 21
Drug overdoses, 80
Dry powder inhaler (DPI), 150, 151
Durable powers of attorney for
health care, 37–38
E
Ear infections in children and
infants, 139
Ehrlichiosis, 87
Elastic roller bandages, 104–105
Elderly. See Older adults
Electrical burns, 108–109
Electrical impulses, 117
Embedded objects, 101, 110
Emergencies, 1–23. See also
Breathing emergencies;
Environmental emergencies;
Moving an ill or injured
persons
barriers to action in, 3–4
calling 9-1-1 in, 4

Participant’s Manual

deciding to act in, 3–4
developing an action plan for, 162
getting permission to give care in, 5
giving care until help arrives in, 4
Good Samaritan laws and, 4
life-threatening conditions in, 10
reaching and moving an ill or
injured person in, 11–12
recognizing, 2–3
Emergency action steps (CHECK/
CALL/CARE), 8–14
CALL, 10–11
CARE, 11–14
CHECK, 8–10
Emergency kits. See First aid kits
Emergency medical services (EMS)
system, 2, 4
Emergency moves, 11–14
ankle drag, 13–14
blanket drag, 13
clothes drag, 13
pack-strap carry, 12–13
Emergency number. See Nine-oneone (9-1-1)
Emphysema, 58
Environmental emergencies,
81–97
lightning, 96–97
poisonous plants, 95–96
See also Bites and stings;
Heat-related illnesses and
cold-related emergencies
Epiglottitis, 58–59
Epilepsy, 70
Epinephrine and antihistamine,
156, 157
Epi-Pen®, 156–157
Exercise, physical. See Physical
exercise
Eye and foot safety, 167
F
Face shields, 19. See also Breathing
barriers
Fainting, 70
FAST (face/arm/speech/time) in
stroke, 73
FDA. See also Food and Drug
Administration
Febrile seizures, 71, 139–140
Federal Communications
Commission (FCC), 21
Federal Patient Self-Determination
Act, 37
Fever in children and infants,
139–140

Fire safety, 163–164
First aid kits, 6–7
First-degree burns (superﬁcial), 107.
See also Soft tissue injuries
Food and Drug Administration
(FDA), 78
Foot safety, 167
Foreign objects, 140
Fractures, 118, 120
rib, 111
Frostbite, 83–84
G
Gloves. see Disposable gloves
Good Samaritan laws, 4
Ground splints, 122
H
Haemophilus inﬂuenzae bacteria, 55
H.A.IN.E.S. (High Arm In Endangered
Spine) position (modiﬁed),
21–22
Hair, chest and AEDs, 50
Hands-only CPR, 39
Hand washing, 7
Head, neck, and spinal injuries,
123–125
and breathing emergencies, 21
in older adults, 144
Head-tilt/chin-lift technique, 17–18
Head-to-toe checking, 15–16
Health care surrogate or proxy, 37
Hearing loss, 145–146
Heart
description and diagram of, 30
failure of, 45
See also Cardiac emergencies;
Cardiovascular disease
Heart attacks. See under Cardiac
emergencies
Heart disease. See Cardiovascular
disease; Coronary heart
disease
Heat-related illnesses and coldrelated emergencies, 82–85
clothing for cold weather, 86
cold-related emergencies, 83–85
heat-related illness, 82–83
illnesses from, 82, 83
older adults and, 144
people at risk for, 82
preventing, 85
signals of, 82, 83, 84
Heat cramps, 82
Heat exhaustion, 83
Heat rash in children and infants, 141

Heat-related illnesses, 82–83. See
also Heat-related illnesses
and cold-related emergencies
Heat stroke, 83
Heat (thermal) burns, 107–108
Helmets, bicycle, 165, 166
Hemostatic agents, 106
Hepatitis B virus (HBV), 5
Hepatitis C virus (HBC), 5
High blood pressure, 72
HIV (human immunodeﬁciency
virus), 5. See also AIDS
(acquired immune deﬁciency
syndrome)
hotline, 8
testing, 8
transmission during ﬁrst aid, 8
Home escape plan, 163–164
Home safety, 164–165
Home safety and children, 166–167
Hostile situations, 146–147
Hotel escape plan, 164
Hyperglycemia, 75
Hyperventilation, 54
Hypoglycemia, 75
Hypothermia, 84–85
and AEDs, 49
I
Illness. See also Sudden illness
common childhood
Immune system, 155
Impairment. See People with
disabilities
Implantable cardioverterdeﬁbrillator (ICD), 49
Implantable devices and AED, 49
Incident stress, 22–23
Infants
airway passages in, 56
breathing emergencies in, 56
cardiac emergencies in, 36,
38–39
car safety seats for, 141, 163
checking unconscious in, 27–28
child-prooﬁng home for, 163–167
choking in conscious, 63–64
colic in, 138
CPR for, 36, 39, 40–41, 44
deﬁnition of, 10
preventing choking in, 60
rashes in, 141–142
rescue breathing for, 18, 19, 40–41
sudden infant death syndrome
(SIDS), 142
See also Children

Infection, 101, 102
childhood ear, 139
preventing respiratory, 149–150
Inhaled poisons, 77
Inhalers, asthma, 150–151, 152–153
Injected poisons, 77
Injuries. See also Injury prevention;
Muscle, bone and joint
injuries; Soft tissue injuries
as cause of death, 1, 2, 160, 161
in children, 141
and illnesses, common childhood,
139–142
preparedness for, 6–7
risk factors for, 161–162
Injury prevention, 163–168. See
also Muscle, bone and joint
injuries; Soft tissue injuries
Insect bites and stings, 85–93. See
also Animal bites
Insect repellents, 89, 91
Insulin, 74. See also Diabetes
Insurance records, 6
Internal bleeding, 111
Interviewing an injured or ill person,
14–15
J
Jellyﬁsh, 94
Jogging safety, 168
Joints, 118. See also Muscle, bone
and joint injuries
L
Lacerations, 100
Language barriers, 146
Laryngectomee, 15
Lawsuits, 4
Lay responders, 4
Life-threatening conditions, 10
Ligaments, 118, 120
Lightning, 96–97
Lip injuries, 110
Lip reading, 145
Living wills, 37–38
Local emergency numbers, 2. See
also Nine-one-one (9-1-1)
Lyme disease, 87–88
Lyme Disease Foundation,
American, 88
M
Marine life, poisonings from, 94–95
MDI (metered dose inhaler),
150, 151
Medicaid, 37
Index

175

Medical ID tags, 6, 15–16, 58
Medical information, 6
Medicare, 37
Meningitis, 141
Mental impairment, 146
Metered dose inhaler (MDI), 150, 151
Mini-stroke, 72
Mosquitoes and West Nile Virus
(WNV), 89–90
Motor function, 146
Motor impairment, 146
Motor vehicles
crashes and children, 141
safety belts and seats in, 141, 163
safety in, 162–163
Mouth injuries, 110
Mouth-to-nose breathing, 20
Mouth-to-stoma breathing, 20–21
Muscle, bone, and joint injuries,
116–134. See skill sheets
caring for, 121–123
serious injury, signals of, 121
Muscles, 117
N
National Weather Service, 96
Nebulizer, small-volume, 150, 151
Neck injury. See Head, neck, and
spinal injuries
Nine-one-one (9-1-1).
and local emergency numbers, 6
bystanders calling, 3, 4
talking to dispatcher, 4
when to call, 4, 10–11, 16
wireless, 6.
See also CALL 9-1-1
Nitroglycerin patches and AED, 49
Non-emergency moves, 11–14
two-person seat carry, 12
walking assist, 12
Nose injuries, 110
O
Occlusive dressings, 102–103, 112
Older adults, 143–144
checking and caring for in
emergencies, 143
confusion in, 144
falls by, 144
head injuries in, 144
heat and cold problems in, 144
Open fractures, 118, 120
Open wounds, 100–106
care guidelines for, 105–106
Osteoporosis, 117, 119–120

176

First Aid/CPR/AED

Overweight, 32
Oxygen, 56
P
Pacemakers and AEDs, 49
Pack-strap carry, 12–13
Pain, abdominal, in children, 137–138
Paralysis, 117
Parents and caregivers, 137
Patch, transdermal and AEDs, 49
Pelvic injuries, 126
People with disabilities, 144–146
communicating with
children, 137
hearing loss, 145–146
mental impairment, 146
motor impairment, 146
physical disabilities, 145
vision loss, 146
Permission to give care, 5
Physical disabilities, 145
Physical exercise
asthma and, 150
coronary heart disease and, 32
osteoporosis and, 119–120
Plan of action for emergencies, 162
Plant poisonings, 95–96
Plaque, 30
Play safety, 165
Poison Control Centers, 6, 77, 79, 165
Poisoning, 76–80.
in adults, 76
from animals, 93–95
checking the scene, 77
from chemicals, 80
in children, 76, 141
deaths from, 76
general care guidelines for, 77
from plants, 95–96
poison deﬁned, 76
prevalence of, 76
preventing, 78–79
signals of, 77, 107
from substance abuse, 80
toxic fumes, 80
types of, 77
absorbed, 77
inhaled, 77
injected, 77
swallowed, 77
wet and dry chemicals, 80.
See also Bites and stings
Poison ivy, 95
Poison oak, 95
Poison sumac, 95

Participant’s Manual

Portuguese man-of-war, 94
Pregnant women, chest thrusts in
choking emergencies, 62–63
Preschoolers, 136. See also Children;
Infants
Pressure bandages, 103
Protective breathing barriers, 19–20
Protective devices, 161
Puncture wounds, 101
to the chest, 111
R
Rabies, 93–94
Radiation (sun) burns, 109
Rashes in children and infants,
141–142
Rattlesnakes, 92, 93
Reaching assists, 14
Recovery positions, 21–22
Recreation safety, 167–168
Rescue breathing
for children, 18, 19, 40–41
for infants, 18, 19, 40–41
mouth-to-nose, 20
mouth-to-stoma, 20–21
See also Breathing emergencies
Rescuer, incident stress of, 22–23
Respiratory distress and respiratory
arrest, 57–59. See also
Breathing emergencies; CPR
Resuscitation masks, 19. See also
Breathing barriers
Reye’s syndrome, 140
Rib fractures, 111–112
RICE (rest/immobilize/cold/
elevate), 121–122
Rigid splints, 122
applying, 131–132
Rocky Mountain spotted fever, 86–87
Roller bandages, 103–104
elastic, 104–105
Running safety and walking safety,
168
S
Safety. See Injury prevention
Safety belts and seats, automobile,
141, 163
Saturated fats, 72
Scene
checking for safety, 8–9
immediate danger, 9
School-age children, 137. See also
Children; Infants
Scorpions, 91

Sea anemone, 94
Second-degree burns (partial
thickness), 107. See also Soft
tissue injuries
Seizures, 70–71, 139–140
Senior citizens. See Older adults
Severe bleeding, 105–106, 110, 111
Severed body parts, 109
Shock
caring for, 16–17
signals of, 16
SIDS (sudden infant death
syndrome), 142
Sign language, 145
Skeleton, 117, 118
Skill sheets
AED—adult or child, 51–52
AED—child and infant, 51–52,
53–54
applying an anatomic splint,
127–128
applying a rigid splint, 131–132
applying a sling and binder,
133–134
applying a soft splint, 129–130
assisting with an asthma inhaler,
152–153
assisting with an epinephrine
auto-injector, 158–159
checking an injured or ill adult,
25–26
checking an unconscious or ill
child or infant, 27–28
conscious choking in adults, 65
conscious choking in children, 66
conscious choking in infants, 67
controlling external bleeding, 114
CPR for adults, 42
CPR for children, 43
CPR for infants, 44
removing gloves, 24
using a manufactured
tourniquet, 115
Smoke alarms, 163
Smoking, 72, 120
Snakes, 92–93
Soft splints, 122, 129–130
Soft tissue injuries, 98–115.
See also Injury prevention;
see skill sheets
Soft tissues deﬁnition of, 99
Special situations and
circumstances, 135–147
emergency childbirth, 142–143
children and infants, 136–141

crime scenes and hostile
situations, 146–147
language barriers, 146
older adults, 143–144
people with disabilities,
144–146
Spiders, 90–92
Spinal injury. see Head, neck, and
spinal injuries
Spine, 124
Splinting, 122–123, 127–132
Sprains, 120
Stingray, 94
Stings and bites. See Bites and
stings
Stitches, 102
Stomach, air in the, 20
Stomas, rescue breathing for, 15,
20–21
Strains, 121
Stress, incident, 22–23
Stroke, 72–74
care for, 74
FAST (face/arm/speech/time), 73
prevention of, 72–73
risk factors of, 72
signals of, 73
when to call 9-1-1 for, 73–74
Submersion victims, breathing
emergencies in, 21
Substance abuse, 80
Sucking chest wounds, 111, 112
Sudden cardiac arrest, 33
Sudden illness, 68–80. See also
Poisoning
allergic reactions, 76
caring for, 69–70
chronic conditions, 70
diabetes, 74–76
fainting, 70
preparedness for, 6–7
seizures, 70–71
signals of, 69
stroke, 72–74
when to call 9-1-1 for, 69
Sudden infant death syndrome
(SIDS), 142
Suicide, 76
Sunburn, 109
Swallowed poisons, 77
Swimming safety, 167–168
T
TDD. See Telecommunications
device for the deaf

Telecommunications device for the
deaf (TDD), 145
Temperature(s)
older adults and, 144
taking in children and infants,
140
Tendons, 117
Tetanus, 102
Thermal (heat) burns, 107–108
Thermometers, 140
Third-degree burns (full thickness),
107. See also Soft tissue
injuries
Throwing assists, 14
Thunderstorms and lightning,
96–97
Ticks and tick-borne diseases,
85–89
Babesia infection, 87
ehrlichiosis, 87
Lyme disease, 87–88
prevention of, 88–89
Rocky Mountain spotted fever,
86–87
Toddlers, 136. see also Children;
Infants
Tooth injuries, 110–111
Tourniquet, 106, 115
Toxic fumes, 80
Transdermal medication patch
and AEDs, 49
Trauma and AED, 49
Twinject®, 156–157
Two-person seat carry, 12
Types of injuries, 118–126
U
Unconscious persons, 59
checking, 17–19, 25–26
Unintentional injury deaths, 161.
See also Injury prevention;
Muscle, bone and joint
injuries; Soft tissue injuries
Universal signal for choking, 61
V
Vehicles, motor. See Motor vehicles
Vehicle safety, 162–163
Ventricles, 46
Ventricular ﬁbrillation (V-ﬁb),
33, 46
Ventricular tachycardia (V-tech), 46
Vertebrae, 123, 124
Viruses, 5. See also Disease
Vision loss, 146

Index

177

Vitamin D, 119
Vomiting
in breathing emergencies, 20
in children and infants, 139
in sudden illnesses, 70
W
Wading assists, 14
Walking assist, 12

178

First Aid/CPR/AED

Walking safety, 168
Warfarin, 33
Washing hands, 7
Water, reaching a person in, 14
Water safety, 167–168
West Nile Virus (WNV), 89–90
Wet environments and
AED, 49
Wheezing, 57, 151

Participant’s Manual

Wills, living, 37–38
Wireless (9-1-1), 6
Work safety, 165
Wounds, 99–106
closed, 99–100
open, 100–106

Products to Help You Prepare
at Home, Work and School
Visit redcrossstore.org to find first aid kits, preparedness
supplies and more.

Clockwise from top left: Deluxe Family First Aid Kit, CPR Keychain with Gloves, American
Red Cross Solarlink FR360 Eton Emergency Radio, Personal Safety Emergency Pack

American
Red Cross

Thank You for Participating in American Red Cross
First Aid/ CPR/AED Training
The important skills you learn will empower you to help save lives in emergency situations.
This participant's manual covers:
• Cardiac Emergencies and CPR • AED • Breathing Emergencies
• Sudden Illness • Injuries • and More.
American Red Cross training prepares you to help others and supports safer workplaces, schools
and communities. Plus, your course fees help your local chapter provide relief to victims of disasters
and train others to save lives.
Be sure to keep skills sharp with convenient online refreshers and renew your certification at least every
two years. Visit redcross.org to learn about other training programs.

The American Red Cross is the national leader in health and safety training and disaster
response. Each year, through its local chapters, the Red Cross:

•

Assists victims of more than 70,000 national and international disasters .

•

Teaches more than 15 million people to save lives and empowers them
to respond to disasters and other life-threatening emergencies.

•

Collects blood-the gift of life-from about 4 million donors .

•

Helps thousands of U.S. service members stay connected
to their families when they are separated by duty.
Teaches swimming and water safety to more than 2 million people and trains
over 300,000 lifeguards to protect people in and around the water.

Visit redcross.org to learn how you can support the American Red Cross.

This manual: • Has been reviewed by the American Red Cross Scientific Advisory Council
• Meets 201 0 Consensus on Science for CPR and Emergency Cardiovascular Care (ECC)
• Meets 201 0 Guidelines for First Aid.

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