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The clinical method arose within the associated frameworks of .

Answer: psychiatry and clinical psychology

The Case Study Method: One Subject at a Time

The case study method involves the study of one individual over a span of time.

It is similar to the clinical method. The difference between the the two methods

is that the subject in the case study method is not necessarily troubled.

Here is an example of the case study method. The Gestalt psychologist Max

Wertheimer and the physicist Albert Einstein were personal friends. Based on a

number of interviews with Einstein, Wertheimer studied the creative thought

processes utilized by Einstein in his formulation of the Special Theory of Relativ-

ity. Wertheimer’s observations and conclusions are the basis of one of the chapters

in his book Productive Thinking (1959).

The difference between the clinical method and the case study method is that the subject in

the case study method is not necessarily .

Answer: troubled.

The Survey Method: Large Samples from Larger

Populations

A survey attempts to take a large, general look at an aspect of behavior. Examples

of topics include sexual behavior, eating behavior, how people raise children,

spending habits, and so forth. A researcher may be interested in studying a popu-

lation. A population is a well-defined group. It need not be large. For example,

a home aquarium with ten fish is correctly said to have a population of ten. How-

ever, in practice populations are often large (e.g., the population of the United

States, the population of California, the population a particular city). Conse-

quently, it is common to conduct the survey taken on a sample of the popula-

tion. The sample should be taken at random from the population. A random

sample allows the laws of chance to operate and provides an equal opportunity

for any member of the population to be included in the sample. Members of the

population fill out questionnaires, are interviewed, or are otherwise evaluated.

This constitutes the survey.

Among the more famous surveys conducted during the twentieth century

are the Kinsey surveys of sexual behavior published about fifty years ago. Con-

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ducted by the Indiana University researcher Alfred Kinsey, the surveys, first of

males and then of females, provided valuable information concerning sexual

behavior. These studies gave a great impetus to the survey method as a way of

studying behavior.

(a) The survey attempts to take what kind of a look at an aspect of behavior?

(b) A population is .

Answers: (a) A large, general look; (b) a well-defined group.

A serious drawback of the survey method is the problem of bias in the sample.

In 1936 Alfred (“Alf”) Landon, the Republican governor of Kansas, ran for pres-

ident against Franklin Delano Roosevelt, the incumbent. It was widely expected

that Landon would win because a telephone poll conducted by a magazine called

The Liberty Digest predicted Landon’s victory. Although the survey method used

by the poll took names at random from the phone book, it appears that during the

Great Depression, with the nation plagued by 30 percent unemployment, more

Republicans than Democrats had telephones. Consequently, the survey made an

incorrect prediction.

The difficulty associated with biased sampling from a population of interest is

a general problem, one that is not limited to surveys. Most research is conducted

on samples, not populations. A researcher, no matter what research method he or

she employs, needs to assess the quality of the sample obtained.

An important drawback of the survey method is the problem of .

Answer: bias in the sample.

The Testing Method: Mental Measurements

The testing method explores human behavior by using psychological tests of

attributes such as intelligence, personality, and creativity. These tests are often

of the paper-and-pencil variety, and the subject completes the test following a

set of instructions. In some cases the test is given in interview form on a one-

to-one basis by an examiner. Individual intelligence tests are often administered

in this manner.

An example of the testing method is provided by the research of Lewis Ter-

man (1877–1956) on gifted children. Using the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale

as a research tool, Terman studied subjects with very high intelligence quotient

(IQ) scores from childhood to late adulthood. (Associates continued the study

after Terman’s death.) The research supported the hypothesis that high intelli-

gence is desirable. On the whole, gifted children had better health and lower

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divorce rates than most people. (There is more about intelligence and IQ in

chapter 10.)

(a) Identify three kinds of human attributes associated with the testing method.

(b) Children with high intelligence quotient (IQ) scores are called .

Answers: (a) Intelligence, personality, and creativity; (b) gifted.

Two problems associated with psychological testing are validity and reliabil-

ity. In order for a psychological test to be useful it needs to be both valid and reli-

able. A valid test measures what it is supposed to measure. If a test that is given to

measure the intelligence of subjects instead actually measures the individual’s

motivation to take the test, the test is invalid.

A reliable test gives stable, repeatable results. If a subject is tested twice with the

same instrument within a few days, the two scores obtained should be very close to

each other. One of the functions of the next method to be identified, the correla-

tional method, is to establish both the validity and reliability of psychological tests.

(a) A valid test measures what it is .

(b) A reliable test gives .

Answers: (a) supposed to measure; (b) stable, repeatable results.

The Correlational Method: When X Is Associated with Y

The word correlation refers to the relationship between two variables. These are

usually designated as X and Y on a graph. If scores on one variable can be used to

predict scores on the second variable, the variables are said to covary. Let’s say that

X stands for shoe size on the right foot. Y stands for shoe size on the left foot. If

the both feet are measured on one hundred subjects, it is obvious that a measure-

ment on the right foot will predict, with some variations, a measurement on the

left foot (and vice versa). This example also illustrates that a correlation does not

necessarily provide a basis to conclude that causation is present. The size of the

right foot does not cause the size of left foot. The sizes covary because they both

probably have the same genetic cause in common; they don’t cause each other.

In the above example, a positive correlation is said to exist. This means that

increases in variable X suggest increases in variable Y. On the other hand, if

increases in variable X were to suggest decreases in variable Y, a negative corre-

lation would be said to exist. Of course, in some cases there is no relationship.

Then a zero correlation is said to exist.

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(a) If scores on one variable can be used to predict scores on a second variable, the variables

are said to .

(b) If increases in variable X suggest increases in variable Y, what kind of correlation is said

to exist?

Answers: (a) covary; (b) A positive correlation.

The magnitude of a correlation is measured with the use of the correlation

coefficient, a statistical tool developed by the mathematician Karl Pearson about

one hundred years ago in association with the researcher Francis Galton. Galton

used Pearson’s tool to measure the correlation between the eminence of fathers

and that of their sons. He found that eminent fathers tended to have eminent sons.

For example, a father who was a judge might have a son who was an army gen-

eral. Obscure fathers tended to have obscure sons. Galton used this evidence to

accept the hypothesis that heredity determines a person’s abilities. The research is

flawed by the simple fact that eminent fathers are in positions to help their sons

also attain eminence. In other words, the effects of environment may be as impor-

tant as heredity in determining a person’s vocational achievement. Although Gal-

ton’s research on heredity is not taken seriously today, it did produce the very

useful tool known as the correlation coefficient.

Correlation coefficients can range from −1.00 to +1.00. A perfect negative

correlation is −1.00, and +1.00 stands for a perfect positive correlation. There

can also be correlation coefficients between these two values. For example, −.85

indicates a high negative correlation, and +.62 indicates a moderate positive

correlation.

24 PSYCHOLOGY

Trend line

Graph for a positive correlation. The trend

line shows that in general as X increases, Y

also increases.

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Earlier it was indicated that the correlational method can be used to establish

both the validity and reliability of tests. If an intelligence test has a high positive

correlation with student grades, this suggests that the test is valid. If Form A of a

psychological test has a high positive correlation with Form B of the same test, the

test is reliable.

(a) What does the correlation coefficient measure?

(b) Correlation coefficients can range from .

Answers: (a) The magnitude of a correlation; (b) −1.00 to +1.00.

The Experimental Method: A Tool with Great Power

Of all of the methods presented, the experimental method is the one that gives

a researcher the most confidence when making the decision to accept or reject

a hypothesis. The experimental method is a research tool characterized by a

control over variables, the identification of a cause (or causes), and a well-

defined measure of behavior. These aspects of the experimental method give it

great power.

Four key concepts will help you understand the experimental method: (1) the

control group, (2) the experimental group, (3) the independent variable, and

(4) the dependent variable. Definitions will be presented followed by an example

incorporating all four concepts into an experiment. The control group receives

no treatment; it is dealt with in a more or less conventional manner. It provides a

standard of comparison, a set of observations that can be contrasted with the

behavior of the experimental group.

The experimental group receives a novel treatment, a condition (or set of

conditions) that is presumed to affect behavior. It is the target group, the one that

will perhaps provide original or particularly interesting data.

(a) The experimental method is a research tool characterized by .

(b) Which group receives no treatment?

Answers: (a) a control over variables; (b) The control group.

The independent variable is one that is assigned to the subjects by the

experimenter. There will be at least two values, or measures, of this variable. It is

the variable that is thought of as a cause of behavior.

The dependent variable is a measure of the behavior of the subjects. In most

experiments, this variable can be expressed as a set of scores. The dependent vari-

able is associated with the effect of a cause. Scores make it possible to compute sta-

tistical measures and make evaluations based on the data.

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(a) The word cause is best associated with what variable?

(b) The dependent variable is a measure of .

Answers: (a) The independent variable; (b) the behavior of the subjects, an effect.

You will recall that near the beginning of this chapter a teacher named Nora

was said to have formed the hypothesis that room temperature has an effect on test

performance. Let’s say that Nora wants to do an experiment to evaluate this

hypothesis.

Nora writes the names of sixty students on a set of cards. The cards are shuf-

fled and then dealt into two groups, Group A and Group B. A coin is flipped. She

says in advance that if heads comes up, Group A will be the control group. If tails

comes up, Group B will be the control group. Heads comes up, and Group A

becomes the control group. By default, Group B is designated the experimental

group.

It is important to note that the process by which subjects are assigned to

groups is a random process, meaning all subjects have an equal chance of being

included in either group. The aim of this procedure is to cancel out the effects of

individual differences in the subjects that may have an effect on the experiment.

Such variables as age, sex, weight, intelligence, and income level are not, for the

moment, under study. A practical way to minimize the effects of such variables is

to assign subjects randomly to conditions.

The independent variable will be room temperature. Let’s say that most of the

time Nora’s students take tests in a room that is 68 degrees Fahrenheit. The con-

trol group will be tested in a room at this temperature.

Up until now Nora has been thinking that a “cool” room will have a posi-

tive effect on test performance. The time has come to define “cool” more pre-

cisely. An operational definition is required, a definition of a variable such as

“cool” in terms of its measurement operations. Nora decides that her opera-

tional definition of “cool” will be a temperature of 55 degrees Fahrenheit. The

word cool is an imprecise, subjective term. On the other hand, 55 degrees

Fahrenheit is precise and objective. The experimental group will be tested at

this temperature.

Let’s say that subjects in both groups are given the same twenty-question

multiple-choice test. Scores range from a low of 5 to a high of 20 correct. The

mean (i.e., average) score for subjects in the control group is 11. The mean score

for subjects in the experimental group is 14. On the surface, it appears that Nora

will make the decision to accept her experimental hypothesis. It appears that a

cool room does in fact facilitate test performance.

Before a firm decision can be made to accept or reject a hypothesis, a statisti-

cal evaluation of the data must be made. A difference between means is sometimes

due to chance.

26 PSYCHOLOGY

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An experiment can, of course, be much more interesting than the one

described, and there can be two or more independent variables. However, Nora’s

experiment was presented because it reveals the essentials of the experimental

method.

(a) Subjects should be assigned to groups by what kind of a process?

(b) An operational definition is a definition of a variable in terms of .

Answers: (a) A random process; (b) its measurement operations.

SELF-TEST

1. The point of view that knowledge is acquired by using the senses is called

a. rationalism

b. voluntarism

c. behaviorism

d. empiricism

2. Which one of the following is not a step associated with the scientific method?

a. Reject all operational definitions

b. Form a hypothesis

c. Gather data

d. Accept or reject the hypothesis

3. Sometimes a hypothesis is rejected that should be accepted. This is called

a. a Type I error

b. an alpha error

c. a Type II error

d. an intrinsic error

4. Naturalistic observation requires a researcher to study behavior

a. in animals only

b. as it is happening in its own setting

c. using two independent variables

d. by making sure the subjects know they are being observed

5. The behavior of Anna O. was studied with the assistance of what method?

a. The clinical method

b. Naturalistic observation

c. The experimental method

d. The correlational method

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6. A population is

a. a very large sample

b. defined by its bias

c. a subset of a sample

d. a well-defined group

7. The research of Lewis Terman on gifted children is an example of

a. the experimental method

b. the clinical method

c. the testing method

d. the validity method

8. The size of the right foot can usually be used to predict the size of the left foot.

This is an example of a

a. zero correlation

b. negative correlation

c. positive correlation

d. lack of covariance

9. In an experiment, the control group

a. receives no treatment

b. receives a novel treatment

c. is expected to provide particularly interesting data

d. is the error variance group

10. The variable that is assigned to the subjects by the experimenter is called

a. the dependent variable

b. the independent variable

c. the organismic variable

d. the congruent variable

ANSWERS TO THE SELF-TEST

1-d 2-a 3-c 4-b 5-a 6-d 7-c 8-c 9-a 10-b

ANSWERS TO THE TRUE-OR-FALSE PREVIEW QUIZ

1. True.

2. False. Naturalistic observation does not use a control group.

3. True.

4. True.

5. False. One of the advantages of the experimental method is that it provides a

researcher a way to obtain control over variables.

28 PSYCHOLOGY

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KEY TERMS

Research Methods in Psychology: Gathering Data 29

a priori information

anthropology

case study method

clinical method

control group

correlation coefficient

correlational method

dependent variable

empiricism

experimental group

experimental method

hypothesis

independent variable

naturalistic observation

negative correlation

operational definition

population

positive correlation

random process

random sample

rationalism

reliability

sample

scientific method

survey

testing method

tough-minded attitude

Type I error

Type II error

validity

zero correlation

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3The Biology of Behavior:

Is the Brain the Organ

of Mental Life?

PREVIEW QUIZ

True or False

1. TF A neurotransmitter is a chemical messenger.

2. TF The two divisions of the brain are the sympathetic division and the

parasympathetic division.

3. TF The two pituitary glands are located on top of the kidneys.

4. TF The left hemisphere of the brain tends to mediate verbal and mathe-

matical thinking.

5. TF The general adaptation syndrome is a reaction pattern associated with

stress.

(Answers can be found on page 43.)

Chapter 2 made it evident that research is based on observations—events

that can be seen and heard in the external world. A good starting point for

such observations is the biology of the organism itself. A substantial

amount of reliable data has been gathered concerning how the brain, the

nervous system, and other structures actually function.

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The Biology of Behavior: Is the Brain the Organ of Mental Life? 31

Objectives

After completing the chapter, you will be able to

• explain the way in which a neuron functions;

• describe the structure of the nervous system;

• specify some of the principal structures and functions of the brain;

• differentiate between the functions of the left and right hemispheres of the brain;

• identify the endocrine glands and their functions.

In the 1983 Steve Martin film The Man with Two Brains, a woman’s personal-

ity is changed when her own brain is removed and then replaced with a different

one. The plot is based on the assumption that the brain is the organ of mental life.

This assumption, associated with the biological viewpoint (see chapter 1), sees the

activity of the brain and nervous system as the basis of consciousness. The rela-

tionship between the brain and the mind in this way of looking at things is

roughly the same as the relationship of a piano to the melody that one hears when

the piano is played. The piano, like the brain, is a physical organ. The melody, like

the mind, is somewhat less tangible.

This chapter explores behavior from the biological point of view. Of particu-

lar interest are (1) the brain and nervous system and (2) the endocrine system.

The biological viewpoint sees the of the brain and nervous system as the basis

of consciousness.

Answer: activity.

The Neuron: The Building Block of the Nervous System

The principal functional units of the brain and the nervous system are neurons.

The neuron is a living cell with a cell wall and a nucleus. Unlike other cells of the

body, neurons specialize in transmitting messages. Of particular importance are

two structures called the dendrite and the axon. A neuron often has more than

one dendrite; dendrites are reminiscent of a root system. They act like antennas,

picking up information and sending it in the direction of the cell body. The axon

extends from the cell body like a long filament. Although there can be more than

one dendrite, there is always just one axon. The axon consistently sends informa-

tion away from the cell body, often to an adjacent neuron.

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32 PSYCHOLOGY

At the end of the axon there is an end foot, a slightly bulging structure that

releases neurotransmitters. A neurotransmitter is a chemical messenger that

allows a neuron to communicate with either other neurons or muscle fibers. The

neurotransmitter travels across a physical gap called the synaptic cleft. The func-

tional connection between, for example, two neurons is called the synapse. Note

that there is a formal distinction between a synaptic cleft and a synapse. The first

refers to a physical characteristic; the second refers to a functional characteristic. It

is common to hear people refer to the gap itself as the synapse, and this is incorrect.

In order for a neurotransmitter to work, it must find a receptor site on an

adjacent cell. The receptor site has a physical shape that matches that of the neu-

ron. A useful analogy is a key and a lock. The neurotransmitter is like the key; the

receptor site is like the lock.

(a) An axon consistently sends information .

(b) A neurotransmitter is also referred to as a .

Answers: (a) away from the cell body; (b) chemical messenger; (c) A receptor site.

Neurotransmitters have received a lot of attention in recent years. Their activ-

ity often forms the basis of biological theories of mental disorders. For example,

low levels of the neurotransmitter serotonin are associated with depression. Spe-

cific drugs called selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) increase the

amount of useable serotonin at the synapse. (Prozac is such a drug.)

For a second example, excessive activity of the neurotransmitter dopamine is

associated with schizophrenia, a mental disorder characterized by delusions. There

is evidence to suggest that chronic schizophrenic patients have too many receptor

sites for dopamine, and this causes excessive dopamine activity. It is this activity

Dendrites Cell wall Axon End foot

Synaptic cleftNucleus

Two adjacent neurons with selected structures.

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The Biology of Behavior: Is the Brain the Organ of Mental Life? 33

that induces delusions. Some of the principal antipsychotic drugs block receptor

sites for dopamine. (See the section on drug therapy in chapter 15.)

(a) Identify a neurotransmitter associated with depression.

(b) Identify a neurotransmitter associated with schizophrenia.

Answers: (a) Serotonin; (b) Dopamine.

Three basic kinds of neurons are (1) sensory, (2) association, and (3) motor.

Sensory neurons make it possible for us to be in contact with the outside world.

They are sensitive to light, sound, chemicals that induce taste sensations, and so

forth. The rods and cones in the retina of your eye are sensory neurons.

Association neurons communicate with each other. Most of the neurons in

your brain are association neurons. They allow you to think, remember, and per-

ceive. It is the rich complexity of association neurons that makes self-

consciousness possible.

Motor neurons communicate with muscle fibers, and these too are cells of

the body. Complex contractions and relaxations of muscle fibers make it possible

for us to talk, walk, and otherwise act.

(a) Sensory neurons make it possible for us to be in contact with .

(b) Association neurons communicate with .

Answers: (a) the outside world; (b) each other; (c) muscle fibers.

The brain contains about 3 billion neurons. The rest of the nervous system

contains approximately the same amount. The population of the planet Earth

is rapidly approaching 6 billion people. It is impressive to think that the quantity

of neurons you possess is roughly equivalent to the human population of our

world.

When a neuron releases neurotransmitters it is like a gun; when it “fires,” it

sends forth a spray of neurotransmitters. The formal term for “fire” is depolar-

ize. When a neuron depolarizes, it alternates from (1) a resting negative electrical

potential to (2) a positive electrical potential, and (3) returns to a negative electri-

cal potential again. This completes a cycle. In some cases a neuron can complete

2,000 to 3,000 cycles in a single second.

A nerve is a bundle of axons. Think of the axons as thin rope fibers and the

nerve as the thick rope itself. Nerves are identified as afferent or efferent. Affer-

ent nerves move toward an objective. Efferent nerves move away from a source.

The optic nerve is an afferent nerve; it carries visual messages toward the brain.

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34 PSYCHOLOGY

On the other hand, when you pick up a pen you are using efferent nerves. Mes-

sages are being carried away from the brain.

(a) When a neuron releases neurotransmitters it is either said to “fire” or to .

(b) Nerves that move away from a source are called .

Answers: (a) depolarize; (b) efferent.

The Nervous System: The Body’s Communication

Network

Neurons are not, of course, scattered at random in the body. They are organized.

This organization is called the nervous system. The nervous system is the

body’s communication network. Its function is often compared to the country’s

telephone system or the Internet. The nervous system allows any part of the

body to be in contact with any other part of the body within a fraction of a

second.

The nervous system has two main divisions. These are the central nervous

system and the peripheral nervous system. The central nervous system con-

sists of the brain and the spinal cord. The brain is the subject of the next section.

Let’s turn our attention to the peripheral nervous system.

This peripheral nervous system itself has two divisions. These are the auto-

nomic nervous system and somatic nervous system. The word autonomic is

similar to the word automatic, and it does in fact have a similar meaning. The auto-

nomic nervous system is somewhat independent or self-moving. This means it

doesn’t always have to have instructions coming from the brain. Some of its activ-

ities are said to be involuntary.

(a) The two main divisions of the nervous system are the and

the .

(b) The two divisions of the peripheral nervous system are the and the

Answers: (a) central nervous system; peripheral nervous system; (b) autonomic nervous

system; somatic nervous system.

The autonomic nervous system is involved in the regulation of such bodily

processes as digestion, blood pressure, pulse, breathing, and internal temperature.

This system has two additional divisions. These are the sympathetic division

and the parasympathetic division.

The sympathetic division is active primarily when there is an increase in

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The Biology of Behavior: Is the Brain the Organ of Mental Life? 35

autonomic activity. Excitement provides an example. When you are excited, your

blood pressure goes up, your pulse increases, and the rate of respiration rises.

These are all due to the activity of the sympathetic division. The sympathetic divi-

sion is sometimes compared to the gas pedal on a car; it makes the whole system

go forward with increased speed. (There are exceptions to the generalization

made in this paragraph.)

(a) The two divisions of the autonomic nervous system are the and the

(b) What division of the autonomic nervous system is active primarily when there is an

increase in autonomic activity?

Answers: (a) sympathetic division; parasympathetic division; (b) The sympathetic

division.

The parasympathetic division is active primarily when there is a decrease in

autonomic activity. Relaxation provides an example. When you are relaxed, your

blood pressure goes down, your pulse decreases, and your respiration rate falls.

The parasympathetic division is sometimes compared to the brakes on a car; they

can be used to make the whole system slow down. (Again, there are exceptions to

the generalization made in this paragraph.)

As you will see in chapter 6, the chapter on learning, classical conditioning

refers primarily to the activity of the autonomic nervous system.

Let’s return to the somatic division of the peripheral nervous system. The

Greek word soma means “body.” Consequently, the somatic division controls the

actions of the body. When you walk, talk, move your arms, or use your fingers,

the somatic division regulates these actions. As you will see in chapter 6, operant

conditioning refers primarily to the activity of the somatic nervous system.

(a) What division of the autonomic nervous system is active primarily when there is a

decrease in autonomic activity?

(b) The Greek word soma means .

Answers: (a) The parasympathetic division; (b) “body.”

The Brain: The CEO of the Organization

The brain is actually a part of the nervous system. As indicated earlier, the brain

and the spinal cord constitute one of the two major divisions of the nervous sys-

tem—the central nervous system. Our main concern in this section is with the

brain, not the spinal cord. However, let us note that the spinal cord, protected

by the bones of the spine, is a two-way communication highway. Sensory mes-

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36 PSYCHOLOGY

sages from the feet, the hands, and other parts of the body are sent to the brain.

Motor messages from the brain are used to move the legs, the arms, and other

parts of the body. If the spinal cord is damaged, this can greatly impair the indi-

vidual’s ability to both experience and move the body.

The brain resides at the top of the spinal cord and, as indicated, is the chief

executive officer (CEO) of the nervous system. It is traditional in studying the

brain to describe its structures and their functions. Each structure is given a name

and a location in the brain. Then the purpose of the structure is identified.

Let’s start toward the bottom of the brain and work our way up. Immediately

above the spinal cord is the brain stem. It has the obvious function of connecting

the brain to the spinal cord, and may even be thought of as an extension of the

spinal cord. Located within the brain stem is a structure called the reticular acti-

vating system (RAS). It sends forth nerves to the higher levels of the brain. The

RAS functions like both a light switch and a rheostat. When you wake up sud-

denly, the RAS has stimulated you to do so. When you fall asleep quickly, the

RAS has also induced this behavior. On the other hand, when you are drowsy, the

RAS is acting like a rheostat. It is reducing the flow of the kind of information

that makes you attentive and alert. Also, you can be overly alert—what people call

“hyper.” In this case, the flow of information to the higher levels of the brain is

excessive.

(a) The spinal cord acts as .

(b) What structure acts like both a light switch and a rheostat?

Answers: (a) a two-way communication highway; (b) The reticular activating system.

The medulla is located toward the front of the brain stem. One of its princi-

pal functions is to regulate the respiration rate. The pons, associated with the

medulla, is a bulging structure also located toward the front of the brain stem; it

resides above the medulla. It too is involved in the regulation of breathing. In

addition, it plays a role in the regulation of sleep and attention.

The cerebellum (i.e., “little brain”) is located toward the back of the brain

stem. Maintaining your sense of balance and coordinating your muscle move-

ments are functions of the cerebellum.

The hypothalamus is located just under the thalamus and above the brain

stem. (The prefix hypo means “under” or “beneath.” A few paragraphs down you

will find a reference to the thalamus.) The hypothalamus has a number of func-

tions. Of particular interest is the regulation of biological drives. For example,

both excitatory and inhibitory impulses for hunger arise from the hypothalamus.

One starts eating and then stops eating depending, to some extent, on signals from

the hypothalamus. Freud spoke of a psychological agent called the id, the con-

stellation of our primal, pleasure-oriented impulses. The hypothalamus is not the

id, because the id is a psychological concept and the hypothalamus is a physiolog-

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The Biology of Behavior: Is the Brain the Organ of Mental Life? 37

ical structure. Nonetheless, it is correct to say that to a large extent it is the activ-

ity of the hypothalamus that gives rise to the psychological processes Freud asso-

ciated with the id.

(a) One of the principal functions of the medulla is to regulate .

(b) The regulation of biological drives is associated to a large extent with what structure?

Answers: (a) respiration rate; (b) The hypothalamus.

The pituitary gland—one of the endocrine glands—is located toward the

front of the hypothalamus. It is usually called the “master gland” of the body.

This is because it plays a role in regulating the action of the other endocrine

glands. This will be discussed in the section on the endocrine system, pages

39–41.

Located just above the hypothalamus is the thalamus. One of the principal

functions of the thalamus is to act as a relay center for the sense organs. For exam-

ple, the optic nerves transmit visual information to a center in the thalamus. The

information is then relayed to a higher area in the cerebral cortex.

The cerebral cortex is the highest part of the brain. The word cortex means

“bark” or “covering.” The cortex, a large structure, does in fact sit on top of, or

cover, the lower regions of the brain. The cortex has a number of functions. It has

dedicated areas for vision, hearing, taste, touch, and smell. It has motor areas

Broca’s

area

Cortex

Thalamus

Hypothalamus

Medulla

Pons

Pituitary gland

Reticular

activating

system

Cerebellum

Brain stem

Cross section of the brain with selected structures.

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38 PSYCHOLOGY

allowing for voluntary movements. It has association areas allowing for learning,

thinking, and memory. There are two speech areas allowing for language compre-

hension and language production. For example, Broca’s area is involved prima-

rily in language production. A group of structures in the cortex called the limbic

system play important roles in our motivational and emotional lives. For exam-

ple, damage to the limbic system can be associated with anhedonia (or ahedo-

nia), an inability to experience pleasure.

(a) The “master gland” of the body is the .

(b) One of the principal functions of the thalamus is to act as .

Answers: (a) pituitary gland; (b) a relay center for the sense organs; (c) The cerebral

cortex.

The Two Hemispheres of the Brain: Does the Right Side

Know What the Left Side Is Doing?

The prior description of the brain was based on a cross-section of the brain asso-

ciated with looking at a person’s profile. On the other hand, looking at the brain

from above, one discerns two cerebral hemispheres. These two hemispheres are

connected by a structure called the corpus callosum (“thick body”). The func-

tion of the corpus callosum is to provide a way for the two hemispheres to com-

municate with each other. In the vast majority of people the corpus callosum is

intact. Consequently, sharp differences between the way the two different hemi-

spheres work are not usually evident.

However, in a very small number of people the corpus callosum has been cut

as a treatment for intractable epilepsy. It is possible in such patients to study the

different ways the two hemispheres work. It is evident from studies of subjects

with a severed corpus callosum that the right hemisphere mediates nonverbal

patterning—the kind of mental functioning required in drawing, making up a

melody, dancing, and creating visual images. The right hemisphere is sometimes

called the “romantic” hemisphere.

The left hemisphere mediates verbal and mathematical thinking—the kind

of mental functioning required in writing, talking, scientific analysis, working an

algebra problem, and so forth. The left hemisphere is sometimes called the “logi-

cal” hemisphere.

The right side of the brain does know what the left side is doing if the corpus

callosum is intact—as it usually is.

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The Biology of Behavior: Is the Brain the Organ of Mental Life? 39

(a) What structure connects the two hemispheres of the brain?

(b) What hemisphere of the brain is sometimes called the “romantic” hemisphere?

Answers: (a) The corpus callosum; (b) The right hemisphere.

The Endocrine System: Moods and Your Glands

You have a set of glands in your body that have a lot to do with your moods, your

emotional states, and your behavior in general. Working together, these glands are

called the endocrine system. The glands themselves are called endocrine

glands because they secrete their substances directly into the bloodstream with-

out ducts. (Endo means “within” or “inside.” In contrast, exocrine glands, such

as salivary or digestive glands, secrete their substances “outside” of the blood-

stream.) The substances secreted by the endocrine glands are called hormones.

These, like neurotransmitters, act as chemical messengers.

The pineal gland is a tiny gland located nearly in the center of the brain. It

is called “pineal” because it is shaped something like a pine cone. Of historical

interest is the fact that the philosopher René Descartes suggested, perhaps

because it is small and centered, that the pineal gland is the place where the soul

Pineal gland

Pituitary gland

Thyroid gland

Adrenal glands

Kidneys

Pancreas gland

Ovaries (female)

Testes (male) Gonads

Locations of the endocrine glands.

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40 PSYCHOLOGY

interacts with the body. Today’s research indicates that the pineal gland secretes a

hormone called melatonin. This hormone plays a role in controlling the bio-

logical timetable for sexual maturation. Another of its functions is to regulate the

sleep cycle.

(a) The endocrine glands secrete their substances (without ducts) directly into the

(b) The pineal gland secretes a hormone called .

Answers: (a) bloodstream; (b) melatonin.

The pituitary gland, about the size of a pea, is located in front of the hypo-

thalamus. As already noted, it is called the “master gland” because it secretes a

group of hormones that affect the action of the other glands. Among these hor-

mones there are adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH), a hormone that

acts on the adrenal glands, thyrotrophin, a hormone that acts on the thyroid

gland, and follicle-stimulating hormone, a hormone that acts on the gonads.

One of the hormones secreted by the pituitary gland is growth hormone

(GH). GH has an effect on growth and stature. People who are abnormally tall

have a pathology of the pituitary gland and are said to suffer from the disease of

giantism.

The thyroid gland is located toward the base and front of the neck. It is a rel-

atively large gland and is shaped somewhat like a butterfly. In areas of the world

where the soil is deficient in iodine, some individuals develop a disease of the thy-

roid gland called goiter. The gland can swell to the size of an orange or larger.

One of the reasons that salt is often iodized is to prevent goiter.

The principal function of thyroxin, the hormone secreted by the thyroid gland,

is to regulate metabolism, the rate at which you burn food. If not enough thyroxin

is secreted, and your metabolic rate is abnormally low, you will tend to gain weight

easily; at a behavioral level you may be sluggish and unenthusiastic. If too much thy-

roxin is secreted, and your metabolic rate is abnormally high, you will have difficulty

gaining weight; at a behavioral level you may be impulsive and hyperactive.

(a) What hormone secreted by the pituitary gland is associated with a disease such as

giantism?

(b) The principal function of the hormone thyroxin is to regulate .

Answers: (a) Growth hormone (GH); (b) metabolism.

There are two adrenal glands, and these are located on top of the kidneys.

The adrenal glands produce such hormones as the corticosteroid hormones and

epinephrine. The corticosteroid hormones regulate the way the body utilizes

such substances as glucose, salt, and water during times of stress. Epinephrine

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The Biology of Behavior: Is the Brain the Organ of Mental Life? 41

induces an increased sense of arousal and excitement. It plays an important role in

the fight-or-flight reaction, an involuntary process in which the body prepares

itself to cope with threatening situations. (The word adrenalin is synonymous

with epinephrine. However, when the word Adrenalin appears in capitalized form,

it refers to a specific drug with a trade name.)

Psychology has given increased attention to the role that the adrenal glands

play in the body’s adaptation to stress because of the work of the Canadian

researcher Hans Selye (1907–1982). Using rats as subjects, Selye discovered that

under conditions of chronic stress the body goes through a series of stages,

including resistance and eventual exhaustion, that lead to an early death. The

reaction pattern is called the general adaptation syndrome. Postmortem

examinations revealed that the adrenal glands of the subjects were damaged and

enlarged.

(a) Epinephrine induces an increased sense of .

(b) What reaction pattern is associated with chronic stress?

Answers: (a) arousal and excitement; (b) The general adaptation syndrome.

The pancreas gland is a large gland located under the stomach. One of the

hormones secreted by the pancreas is insulin. Insulin helps to regulate blood

sugar. The disease diabetes is associated with an inadequate insulin production.

The disorder chronic hypoglycemia, or low blood sugar, is, paradoxically,

aggravated when one consumes either too much dietary sugar or too many

refined carbohydrates. A person suffering from low blood sugar finds it difficult to

concentrate, feel energetic, or otherwise function well.

The gonads are the sexual glands. In females the gonads are called the

ovaries. In males the gonads are called the testes. Estrogen is one of the prin-

cipal hormones produced by the ovaries. The secondary sexual characteristics in

females, such as minimal facial hair and larger breasts, are determined by estrogen.

Testosterone is one of the principal hormones produced by the testes. The sec-

ondary sexual characteristics in males, such as lack of breast development and the

presence of facial hair, are determined by testosterone. There is also evidence to

suggest that testosterone is associated, particularly in youth, with aggressive behav-

ior. (It is important to note that both sexes produce estrogen and testosterone;

however, the relative amounts differ.)

(a) Insulin helps to regulate .

(b) Identify a hormone associated principally with the ovaries.

Answers: (a) blood sugar; (b) Estrogen; (c) Testosterone.

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42 PSYCHOLOGY

SELF-TEST

1. An axon

a. can be found in the cell body of a neuron

b. is a motor neuron

c. sends information in the direction of the cell body

d. sends information away from the cell body

2. Which one of the following is said to be a chemical messenger?

a. A cell nucleus

b. A neurotransmitter

c. A metabolic cell

d. A connector neuron

3. Informally, a neuron is said to “fire.” The formal term for “fire” is

a. signal recentering

b. depolarize

c. repolarize

d. adaptation

4. The two main divisions of the nervous system are

a. the brain and the spinal cord

b. the somatic and the parasympathetic divisions

c. the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system

d. the right hemisphere and the left hemisphere

5. What structure functions like both a light switch and a rheostat?

a. The medulla

b. The thalamus

c. The reticular activating system

d. The cerebellum

6. The hypothalamus is associated primarily with

a. the regulation of biological drives

b. abstract intelligence

c. the curiosity drive

d. motor coordination

7. The cerebral cortex is associated primarily with

a. the inhibition of respiration

b. the regulation of biological drives

c. primal impulses

d. thinking

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8. The right hemisphere of the brain tends to mediate

a. nonverbal patterning

b. verbal thinking

c. mathematical thinking

d. symbolic logic

9. What hormone is associated with the pineal gland?

a. Thyroxin

b. Melatonin

c. Growth hormone

d. Insulin

10. The ovaries belong to what larger general category of endocrine glands?

a. Stress glands

b. Adrenal glands

c. Gonads

d. Pituitary glands

ANSWERS TO THE SELF-TEST

1-d 2-b 3-b 4-c 5-c 6-a 7-d 8-a 9-b 10-c

ANSWERS TO THE TRUE-OR-FALSE PREVIEW QUIZ

1. True.

2. False. The sympathetic division and the parasympathetic division refer to the two divi-

sions of the autonomic nervous system. The two divisions of the brain are called the

right hemisphere and the left hemisphere.

3. False. There is only one pituitary gland, and it is located in the brain. The two adrenal

glands are located on top of the kidneys.

4. True.

5. True.

KEY TERMS

The Biology of Behavior: Is the Brain the Organ of Mental Life? 43

adrenal glands

adrenalin

adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH)

afferent nerves

anhedonia (or ahedonia)

association neurons

autonomic nervous system

axon

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44 PSYCHOLOGY

Broca’s area

central nervous system

cerebellum

cerebral cortex

chronic hypoglycemia

corpus callosum

corticosteroid hormones

dendrite

depolarize

dopamine

efferent nerves

end foot

endocrine glands

endocrine system

epinephrine

estrogen

exocrine glands

fight-or-flight reaction

follicle-stimulating hormone

general adaptation syndrome

giantism

goiter

gonads

growth hormone (GH)

hormones

hypothalamus

insulin

left hemisphere

limbic system

medulla

melatonin

metabolism

motor neurons

nerve

nervous system

neuron

neurotransmitter

ovaries

pancreas gland

parasympathetic division

peripheral nervous system

pineal gland

pituitary gland

pons

receptor site

reticular activating system (RAS)

right hemisphere

selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors

(SSRIs)

sensory neurons

serotonin

soma

somatic nervous system

spinal cord

sympathetic division

synapse

synaptic cleft

testes

testosterone

thalamus

thyroid gland

thyrotrophin

thyroxin

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4Sensation: Studying

the Gateways

of Experience

PREVIEW QUIZ

True or False

1. TF The word sensation refers to the raw data of experience.

2. TF The trichromatic theory of color perception hypothesizes that we

have three kinds of cones, differentially sensitive to three wavelengths

of light, in the retina of the eye.

3. TF A sound wave has the remarkable property of being able to travel

through a vacuum.

4. TF The units that make taste possible are clusters of neurons located on

the tongue called taste buds.

5. TF You have no receptor neurons in the joints of your body.

(Answers can be found on page 55.)

The study of sensation—including such processes as seeing and hearing—

grows logically from the study of the biology of behavior. Seeing, for exam-

ple, is possible because we have biological structures such as the eye and the

optic nerve. In this chapter we examine how basic sensory impressions

relate to behavior.

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Objectives

After completing this chapter, you will be able to

• differentiate among sensation, perception, and cognition;

• describe key aspects of the visual process;

• explain the trichromatic theory of color perception;

• describe key aspects of the hearing process;

• identify principal features of the processes associated with taste, the skin senses,

smell, kinesthesis, and the vestibular sense.

A whole industry can sometimes be based on a single sense. The early motion

picture industry appealed primarily to vision. Radio appeals primarily to hearing.

Today’s motion pictures and television make a combined appeal to vision and

hearing. Other senses such as taste and smell play important roles in the food

industry and the perfume industry.

It is difficult to overestimate the importance of the senses. They are our gate-

ways to experience. Without our senses we would be creatures living in solitary

confinement. We wouldn’t know the world “out there,” the world beyond the

self. Learning would be impossible because, as you will see in chapter 6, the very

definition of learning requires that we be capable of experience. Consequently,

psychology considers it important to study the process of sensation, the basic

process by which we obtain information about external reality.

Here is a useful way to think about the character of conscious experience.

Imagine three ascending steps. The first step is associated with sensation. Sensa-

tion refers to the raw data of experience. Seeing a flash of light, hearing a single

note sounded on a musical instrument, or feeling the touch of a fingertip, are all

examples of simple sensations. Instead of yourself, imagine that an infant only a

few days old is having these sensations. To the extent that they have little organi-

zation and little meaning, they are close to simple sensations.

The second step is associated with perception. Perception refers to organized

experience. If a set of notes sounded on a musical instrument takes on a particu-

lar form, and you hear a melody, you have attained the level of perception. Per-

ception is explored in chapter 5.

The third step is associated with cognition. Cognition refers to knowing.

Thinking and concept formation are processes associated with cognition. If you

perceive a melody and remember the name of the song, you have attained the

level of cognition. You know what you’re listening to. (Note that the familiar

word recognition can be broken down into “re” and “cognition,” suggesting that its

root meaning is to “know again.”) Cognition is explored in chapter 9.

46 PSYCHOLOGY

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(a) The three ascending steps of conscious experience are .

(b) Sensation refers to the .

Answers: (a) sensation, perception, and cognition; (b) raw data of experience.

Vision: Seeing Is Believing

Most people think of vision as the primary sense. We need to see in order to drive,

to read, to look at the people we love, and so forth. If asked what sense they con-

sider the most important, most students in an introductory psychology class

answer that it is vision.

In order to appreciate the visual process it is necessary first to give some atten-

tion to the stimulus that makes it possible. That stimulus is light. From the point

of view of physics, there are two ways to look at light. It can be said that light con-

sists of a set of electromagnetic waves. Or it can be said that light consists of a

stream of particles, or quanta, called photons. In either case, light travels at the

same speed—about 186,000 miles per second. For the purposes of psychology, we

will limit our description of light to the electromagnetic wave theory.

An electromagnetic wave, consisting of a system of electrical and magnetic

fields, is a unique kind of wave. It can even travel through a vacuum—without a

medium to carry it. Otherwise, communication with voyagers to the Moon or

with distant space probes would not be possible. Radio waves are one kind of

electromagnetic wave.

(a) If light is looked upon as a stream of particles, or quanta, what are the particles

called?

(b) A unique property of an electromagnetic wave is its ability to travel through

Answers: (a) Photons; (b) a vacuum.

The waves to which we give the name “light” are a narrow band of the elec-

tromagnetic spectrum. This spectrum ranges from relatively “long” radio

waves at one end of the spectrum to relatively “short” gamma rays at the other

end. In between the extremes we find the light waves. These range in length,

measured crest to crest, from 750 nanometers to 400 nanometers. (A nanometer

is one billionth of a meter.) The part of the electromagnetic spectrum we can see

is called the visible spectrum. The principal colors of the visible spectrum, also

known as the rainbow, starting at 750 nanometers, are red, orange, yellow, green,

blue, indigo, and violet. The colors always appear in the same order either in a

rainbow or when white light is broken up by a prism.

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Waves a little longer than 750 nanometers are called infra-red rays. Waves a

little shorter than 400 nanometers are called ultra-violet rays. Both of these

kinds of waves are invisible to the naked eye.

(a) The part of the electromagnetic spectrum we see is called the .

(b) Waves 750 nanometers in length are associated with what color?

Answers: (a) visible spectrum; (b) Red.

Light is necessary for vision, but it is not sufficient. In order to see it is neces-

sary to have a sense organ that can convert light waves into useful neurological

information. This organ is, of course, the eye. In the front of the eye is the

cornea, a kind of window that allows light to enter the eye. Because the cornea

has a convex shape, it also is somewhat responsible for bending light waves and

making them converge on the lens.

The lens is used to focus light waves, and it produces an inverted, or upside-

down, image on the retina. The retina is a photosensitive neurological structure.

Think of it as a target. The center of the target is called the fovea, and it plays a

dominant role in visual acuity and color vision. The outer rim of the target, the

periphery, plays an important part in signal detection and brightness vision. The

neurons in the retina are called photoreceptors because they are light sensitive.

The optic nerve conveys the retina’s activity pattern to the brain.

The two kinds of photoreceptors are the cones and the rods. They have been

given these names because of the shapes of their cell bodies. The cones are

located primarily in the fovea. The rods are located primarily in the periphery. As

already indicated, color vision is associated with the fovea, suggesting that the

cones have a lot to do with this particular quality of sensation.

(a) The retina is a photosensitive .

(b) The two kinds of photoreceptors in the retina are the .

Answers: (a) neurological structure; (b) rods and cones.

A leading theory of color vision is the trichromatic theory. This theory is

also known as the Young-Helmholtz theory in honor of the scientists who first

introduced it. The trichromatic theory hypothesizes that we have three kinds of

cones. These are differentially sensitive to three wavelengths of light: (1) 750

48 PSYCHOLOGY

Violet

Ultra-

violet

rays

Infra-red

rays

400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750

Indigo Blue Green Yellow Orange Red

The visible portion of the electromagnetic spectrum.

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nanometers, (2) 500 nanometers, and (3) 400 nanometers. The first wavelength,

750 nanometers, induces the sensation we call “red.” The second, 500 nanometers,

induces the sensation we call “green.” And 400 nanometers induces the sensation

we call “violet.” The language in the preceding sentences has been carefully cho-

sen in order to make it clear that the “color” is not in the stimulus itself (i.e., a light

wave), but is produced by the firing of a certain kind of photoreceptor.

The trichromatic theory also accounts for the sensation of colors other than the

three primary ones. The sensation of orange, for example, takes place because a wave-

length of light such as 650 nanometers will cause the simulataneous firing of some

neurons that usually fire at 750 nanometers and some that fire at 500 nanometers.

White light is sensed when all of the wavelengths arrive at the retina in a ran-

dom or scrambled fashion. This causes the simultaneous firing of all three kinds of

cones. It is often pointed out that the trichromatic theory works very well. It is

the basis upon which color television sets are constructed.

(a) A leading theory of color vision is the .

(b) White light is sensed when all of the wavelengths arrive at the retina in a .

Answers: (a) trichromatic theory; (b) random or scrambled fashion.

However, there are flaws in the trichromatic theory. For example, people who

are red-green blind, lacking the two kinds of required photoreceptors, would not

be predicted to sense yellow—yet they seem to have a normal capacity to sense

yellow. As a consequence, other theories of color perception have been proposed.

They have not received the level of acceptance of the trichromatic theory; but it

is important to recognize that this major theory may explain some, but not all, of

what is involved in the physiology of color vision.

There are three basic sensations associated with vision. First, the sensation of

hue simply indicates, as already described, that we can see a range of colors. Sec-

ond, the sensation of brightness indicates that we can see that objects are white

or gray or black. We can also see that they are in low or high illumination. Third,

the sensation of saturation indicates that we can see how richly or deeply a color

seems to soak into an object.

The three basic sensations associated with vision are .

Answer: hue, brightness, and saturation.

Hearing: The Sound of Music

If you enjoy hearing music, you appreciate the importance of the sense of hear-

ing. Also, a moment’s reflection helps us to realize that hearing is the primary way

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in which we overcome social isolation. It is by talking to each other, a behavior

that requires hearing, that we visit with family and friends. If one cannot hear, it

is important to learn skills such as lip reading and signing.

Like vision, the sense of hearing can be better understood by studying the

stimulus that makes it possible. This stimulus is the sound wave. A sound wave

requires a medium such as air or water. (The word sonar is associated with a sound

wave in water.) Let’s give our attention to a sound wave that uses air as its

medium. First, there must be a vibrating source in order to get a sound wave

going. An example of such a source is a guitar string. Another example is a human

vocal cord. The vibrations emanating from the source set up a traveling wave of

compressions, alternating with partial vacuums, in the air. The compressions strike

the eardrum somewhat like a series of hammer blows. The frequency of a sound

wave is measured with a unit called the hertz (Hz). One hertz is equal to one

cycle per second. The greater the number of cycles per second, the higher the

experienced pitch.

The intensity of a sound wave is measured with a unit called the decibel (dB).

The greater the decibel level, the louder the sound.

(a) The unit of measurement called the hertz (Hz) measures .

(b) The unit of measurement called the decibel (dB) measures .

Answers: (a) the frequency of a sound wave; (b) the intensity of a sound wave.

In order to experience the sensation of sound, it is necessary to have a func-

tioning ear. These are the principal structures and functions of the ear. The

eardrum, already mentioned, is also known as the tympanic membrane. Its

vibrations induce a series of events. The motion of the tympanic membrane is

conveyed to a structure called the oval window. The conveyance of the motion

is made possible by the motion of three linked bones called the malleus (“ham-

mer”), the incus (“anvil”), and the stapes (“stirrup”).

Vibrations of the oval window in turn set up vibrations within a fluid con-

tained in the cochlea, a bony structure reminiscent of a snail shell. A nervous sys-

tem structure within the cochlea called the basilar membrane plays a role in

hearing similar to the role that the retina plays in vision. The auditory nerve

conveys the basilar membrane’s activity pattern to the brain.

There are three basic sensations associated with hearing. First, pitch is the

ability to hear sounds ranging from low to high. Second, loudness is associated

with the magnitude of a sound. Third, timbre refers to the quality of a tone. In

general, the quality of a note played on a piano has more timber, or “richness,”

than a note of the same pitch played on a flute.

(a) The eardrum is also known as the .

50 PSYCHOLOGY

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(b) What structure plays a similar role in hearing to the role that the retina plays in vision?

Answers: (a) tympanic membrane; (b) The basilar membrane; (3) pitch, loudness, and

timbre.

Taste: “This Is Too Salty”

The stimuli that control much of the sense of taste are various chemical com-

pounds such as those associated with salt, sugar, or lemon juice. The units that

make taste possible are clusters of neurons located on the tongue called taste

buds. The taste buds respond in such a way that they produce four basic taste sen-

sations. These sensations are quite familiar. They are known as sweet, salty, bitter,

and sour.

All tastes and taste names refer to combinations of these sensations in various

patterns. How can there be many flavors if there are only four basic taste sensa-

tions? Think of the four sensations as a kind of alphabet. There are twenty-six let-

ters in the standard English alphabet. Nonetheless, we have many thousands of

words. Similarly, the four sensations are able to produce many flavors.

Taste buds are gathered in specific areas of the tongue. For example, the taste

buds that produce the sensation of sweetness are located near the tip of the tongue.

It is estimated that we have about 10,000 taste buds.

It should also be noted that the sense of taste interacts with other senses such

as smell, vision, and touch. The aroma of a soup, the look of a steak, and differ-

ences in texture on the tongue all change our taste impressions.

(a) Taste buds, located on the tongue, are .

(b) The four basic taste sensations are .

Answers: (a) clusters of neurons; (b) sweet, salty, bitter, and sour.

Touch: Of Pain and Pressure

It is common to refer to touch as one of the basic senses. It is more accurate, how-

ever, to speak of the skin senses, basic experiences associated with different kinds

of receptor neurons located in the skin. There are four skin senses: (1) light touch,

(2) deep touch, (3) temperature, and (4) pain. The sensation of light touch can

be induced by placing very little pressure on the surface of the skin or by slowly

stroking the skin. You are aware that you are being touched even if your eyes are

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closed. Neurons located near the surface of the skin are the ones that give us the

sensation of light touch.

Deep touch can be induced by placing substantial pressure on the surface of

the skin. If someone shakes your hand too tightly or grips your arm with force,

you will experience deep touch. Deep touch is also known as the sensation of

pressure. Neurons located well below the surface of the skin are the ones that give

us the sensation of deep touch.

(a) The four skin senses are .

(b) What skin sense can be induced by placing substantial pressure on the surface of the

skin?

Answers: (a) light touch, deep touch, temperature, and pain; (b) Deep touch.

Temperature is induced by variations in the amount of heat being conducted

to or away from the skin. When heat is being conducted toward the skin, we usu-

ally experience an increase in warmth. For example, the surrounding air temper-

ature might be raised by turning on a furnace, and heat will be conducted toward

the skin. When heat is being conducted away from the skin, we usually experi-

ence an increase in cold. For example, your bare feet will usually feel cold on a tile

surface. This is because the skin of your feet makes such good contact with the

hard surface that heat is carried away from your body. Two basic kinds of neurons

for temperature are “hot” receptors and “cold” receptors.

Pain is a skin sense induced by tissue damage. A hard blow to the body or

being cut by a knife will usually cause pain. Be clear that the kind of pain being

described here is not the only type of pain. But the kind of pain associated with

the skin is called cutaneous pain. Neurons in the skin that can detect tissue damage

are the ones that give us this particular pain sensation.

(a) When heat is being conducted away from the skin we usually experience an

increase in .

(b) What skin sense is induced by tissue damage?

Answers: (a) cold; (b) Pain.

Smell: The Nose Knows

You may think to yourself, “Someone in this room is wearing a perfume that I

can’t stand!” How do you know? You can’t see the perfume. You can’t hear the

perfume. But you, with your sense of smell, know.

The sense of smell allows us to detect the presence of some, but not all, air-

borne chemical substances. The sense of smell is also known as olfaction. The

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receptor organ that makes the sense of smell possible is called the olfactory

epithelium, and it is located high in the nose. It is to smell what the retina is to

vision. Several kinds of neurons differentially sensitive to chemicals in gaseous

forms induce the various smell sensations.

The exact number and kind of basic smell sensations, unlike the four basic

taste sensations, are somewhat debatable. Nonetheless, it is possible to identify a

number of elemental sensations. Putrid is one of them; it is the smell of something

rotting or decomposing. Blossoms and blooms have a floral odor. A smell that is

sharp or acrid, such as that produced by burning food, is said to be pungent. Cin-

namon or cloves are said to have a smell that is spicy. The wood and bark of the

camphor tree have a penetrating, fragrant odor. Camphor is also obtained by syn-

thesis and is used in some medicines. The odor is described simply as camphoric.

(a) The sense of smell is also known as .

(b) The receptor organ that makes smell possible is called the .

Answers: (a) olfaction; (b) olfactory epithelium.

Kinesthesis: Can You Touch the Tip of Your Nose

with Your Eyes Closed?

If you can touch the tip of your nose with your eyes closed, as most people can, you

have an intact sense of kinesthesis. Kinesthesis, also known as proprioception,

is the capacity to know the position in space of various parts of your body. (The

term proprioception is related to the word “property.” Your body belongs to you—

it’s your property.) Close your eyes and lift or lower a single finger. You know

where it is at all times. When you walk you can sense the position of your legs even

if you’re not looking at them. Pianists and dancers rely heavily on kinesthesis.

The receptor neurons for kinesthesis are located in the connective tissue sur-

rounding the body’s joints as well as within the joints themselves.

(a) Kinesthesis is also known as .

(b) Kinesthesis is the capacity to know the position in space of .

Answers: (a) proprioception; (b) various parts of your body.

The Sense of Balance: Walking in an Upright Position

The sense of balance informs you that you are walking in an upright position. What

you are sensing is the relationship of your body, and in particular your head, to the

Earth’s gravitational field. The sense of balance is made possible by receptor neurons

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located in the semicircular canals. Located in the inner ear, the canals are tubular

bones filled with fluid. The movement of this fluid stimulates the firing of receptor

neurons within the canals, and the information is transmitted to the brain.

The sense of balance is also known as the vestibular sense. A vestibule is a

small antechamber or passageway. This is one way to describe the semicircular

canals, important components of the apparatus involved in the sense of balance.

(a) The sense of balance is also known as the .

(b) The sense of balance is made possible by receptor organs located in the .

Answers: (a) vestibular sense; (b) semicircular canals.

SELF-TEST

1. Sensation refers to

a. organized experience

b. thinking and concept formation

c. meaningful knowledge

d. the raw data of experience

2. The waves to which we give the name “light” are a narrow band of

a. the electromagnetic spectrum

b. radio waves

c. ultra-violet waves

d. infra-red waves

3. The trichromatic theory proposes that we have

a. three kinds of optic nerves

b. a triad of lenses

c. three kinds of cones

d. three kinds of rods

4. A sound wave

a. can travel through outer space

b. cannot travel through water

c. has frequency, but not amplitude

d. requires a medium such as air or water

5. What structure in the ear is similar in function to the eye’s retina?

a. The basilar membrane

b. The auditory nerve

c. The tympanic membrane

d. The oval window

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6. The four basic taste sensations are

a. sweet, salty, bitter, and hot

b. sweet, bitter, burned, and salty

c. sour, acid, sweet, and mint

d. sweet, salty, bitter, and sour

7. One of the following is not a skin sense.

a. Light touch

b. Incongruent pleasure

c. Deep touch

d. Temperature

8. The receptor organ that makes smell possible is called the

a. vestibular membrane

b. olfactory epithelium

c. odor membrane

d. synaptic epithelium

9. What sense makes it possible for you to touch the tip of your nose with your

eyes closed?

a. The vestibular sense

b. The cardiovascular sense

c. Kinesthesis

d. Synthesis

10. The vestibular sense lets you know when

a. a signal is present

b. a figure is perceived against a ground

c. you are walking upright

d. you have a subliminal perception

ANSWERS TO THE SELF-TEST

1-d 2-a 3-c 4-d 5-a 6-d 7-b 8-b 9-c 10-c

ANSWERS TO THE TRUE-OR-FALSE PREVIEW QUIZ

1. True.

2. True.

3. False. An electromagnetic wave, not a sound wave, has the remarkable property of

being able to travel through a vacuum.

4. True.

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5. False. Receptor organs in both the connective tissue surrounding the body’s joints as

well as within the joints themselves make possible the sense of kinesthesis, the capacity

to know the position in space of various parts of your body.

KEY TERMS

56 PSYCHOLOGY

auditory nerve

basilar membrane

brightness

cochlea

cognition

cones

cornea

decibel (dB)

deep touch

electromagnetic spectrum

electromagnetic wave

fovea

hertz (Hz)

hue

incus

infra-red rays

kinesthesis

lens

light touch

loudness

malleus

olfaction

olfactory epithelium

optic nerve

oval window

pain

perception

periphery

photons

photoreceptors

pitch

proprioception

retina

rods

saturation

semicircular canals

sensation

skin senses

stapes

taste buds

temperature

timbre

trichromatic theory

tympanic membrane

ultra-violet rays

vestibular sense

vestibule

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5Perception: Why Do Things

Look the Way They Do?

PREVIEW QUIZ

True or False

1. TF In the study of perception, a distinction can be made between the

geographical world and the psychological world.

2. TF Figure-ground perception is always stable and never reversible.

3. TF Research suggests that there are innate, or inborn, organizing tenden-

cies in perception.

4. TF Learning appears to play no part in perception.

5. TF Clairvoyance is another name for psychokinesis.

(Answers can be found on page 70.)

The link between sensation and perception is clear. Perception is possible

because we have sensations. The raw data of experience—sensations—

become organized wholes at the level of perception. We experience a world

of objects—trees and songs—not flashes of light and random bits of sound.

In this chapter you will learn how this organization arises.

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Objectives

After completing this chapter, you will be able to

• state the Gestalt laws of perception;

• describe the role that learning plays in perception;

• explain what illusions teach us about perception;

• explain how both binocular vision and monocular cues play a role in depth per-

ception;

• discuss some of issues associated with the topic of extrasensory perception.

Kurt Koffka (1886–1941), one of the founders of Gestalt psychology, said that

the great question of perception is: “Why do things look the way they do?”

At first the question seems almost silly. We are tempted to answer, “Because

things are they way they are.” It would seem that tall things look tall because they

are tall. And distant things look distant because they are distant. On the other

hand, why does the Moon look larger just above the horizon than it does when

it’s overhead? It hasn’t gotten any bigger, or any closer. And, if a series of discon-

nected dots are arranged in the pattern of, say, the letter F, it looks like the letter,

not a bunch of disconnected dots—which, it could be argued, it actually is.

You learned in the last chapter that visual images on your retina are upside-

down. Nonetheless, you perceive them as right side up. At the level of sensation, it’s

an inverted world. At the level of perception, the world doesn’t look inverted at all.

Koffka’s question does not have to be limited to the sense of vision. The same

question could be adapted to the other senses. The principles set forth in this

chapter, largely in connection with vision, can be readily applied to perception in

general.

Sensation, as indicated in chapter 4, is the raw data of experience. Percep-

tion, on the other hand, is the organization and the meaning we give to primi-

tive information. It can be said with some degree of confidence that we use

sensory information to create a psychological world.

Returning to Koffka, he said that there is a distinction between the geo-

graphical world and the psychological world. The geographical world is the

actual world “out there,” the world as defined and described by physics. The psy-

chological world is the world “in here,” the world as experienced by the sub-

ject. Although common sense usually says it’s the so-called “real world” or

physical world that determines our behavior, it can be argued that common sense

isn’t sufficiently analytical. Reflection suggests that we behave in terms of what

we perceive to be true, not necessarily in terms of what is actually true.

If ice is thin in the physical world, and it is solid in your psychological world, you

are likely to skate on it. And, of course, you may make a serious mistake as a result.

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In sum, it can be argued that we act to a large extent in terms of our perceptions.

And it is for this reason that the study of perception is a basic one in psychology.

(a) Perception is the and the meaning we give to primitive information.

(b) Koffka made a distinction between the geographical world and the world.

Answers: (a) organization; (b) psychological.

The Gestalt Laws: Is Our Perception of the World

Due to Inborn Organizing Tendencies?

Imagine that you are looking up and you see a single bird flying in the sky. The

bird is a figure, a well-defined perceptual object tending to stand out. The sky is

ground (or background), the perceptual field that surrounds the figure. This is

figure-ground perception. One of the features of this kind of perception is that

the figure is usually smaller than the ground and tends to be seen as coming for-

ward from the ground. Other examples include seeing a button on a blouse, a

book on a table, or a car on the road.

It can be argued that this kind of perception, the ability to distinguish a figure

from a field, is an inborn organizing tendency. We aren’t taught to do it. We prob-

ably start doing it spontaneously early in infancy. An infant reaching for a milk

bottle suggests to us that he or she perceives the bottle as a perceptual object, a fig-

ure in a field. Figure-ground perception is probably the most fundamental organ-

izing tendency we possess.

Keep in mind once again that perception does not necessarily reflect the struc-

ture of the world itself. For example, a word printed in black ink on a white page

is perceived as slightly in front of the white surface. We are tempted to think that

this is because the word is “on” the page. But imagine that a black piece of paper

is covered with a stencil. The entire page is inked white, with the exception of the

word. Now, from a physical point of view, the white ink is on the black surface.

Nonetheless, unless carefully studied, the word, emerging in black, will be per-

ceived as slightly forward and on the page.

perception is probably the most fundamental organizing tendency we

possess.

Answer: Figure-ground.

Various illusions demonstrate that figure-ground perception is reversible

under some conditions. The example of the word on a page and the illusions all

strongly suggest that figure-ground perception is a mental construction, not nec-

essarily a fact about the physical world.

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Max Wertheimer, as you will recall from chapter 1, is the father of Gestalt psy-

chology. Adding to figure-ground perception, Wertheimer proposed a set of sup-

plemental inborn organizing tendencies, or Gestalt laws. (The Gestalt laws are

also traditionally called innate tendencies, which simply means “inborn.” The

words innate and inborn can be used interchangeably.)

First, proximity refers to the nearness of the elements that make up a per-

ception. If four ink dots on a piece of paper are arranged in the form of a square,

this Gestalt (i.e., organized whole) will, of course, be perceived to be a square. Let

assume that two figures are drawn. Figure A has dots that are one inch apart. Fig-

ure B has dots that are three inches apart. Figure A will give a stronger impression

of being a square than will Figure B.

When you look at stars in the sky and perceive constellations, it is because of

the law of proximity. The “nearness” of some stars to each other creates clusters

that we can easily imagine to be objects such as a dipper, a hunter, or a lion.

(a) Various illusions demonstrate that figure-ground perception is under

some conditions.

(b) What organizing tendency refers to the nearness of the elements that make up a per-

ception?

Answers: (a) reversible; (b) Proximity.

Second, similarity refers to characteristics that elements have in common.

Let’s say that the word airplane is printed on a page in a single color of ink. Imag-

ine that the same word is printed on a different page with its letters randomly

appearing in black, red, and green. The second word is more difficult to perceive

as a whole word, as a perceptual object, than is the first word. Similarity of the ele-

ments helps to make a perceptual object a coherent whole.

If a moth is dark gray and it lands on a tree with dark gray bark, it will be dif-

ficult to perceive the moth at all. This is because its similarity to the bark makes it,

from a perceptual point of view, a part of the bark. However, if a light gray moth

lands on the same tree, it will be easy to pick the moth out as a figure.

Third, closure is the tendency to fill in gaps in information and make a per-

ceptual object into a complete whole. Imagine that an arc of 340 degrees is drawn

on a piece of paper. Although at a sensory level this is an arc, you will tend to per-

ceive it as a broken circle, as a coherent whole with a defect. (An unbroken circle

has 360 degrees.) A newspaper photograph made up of nothing but disconnected

dots is nonetheless perceived as a picture of people or things. Again, the principle

of closure is at work.

Fourth, common fate exists when all of the elements of a perceptual object

move or act together. (Their simultaneous activity is, in a sense, a “common

fate.”) When this happens, the perceptual object is quickly organized into a figure

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and is easily discriminated from a ground. For example, a polar bear with white

fur surrounded by snow is more easily seen as a bear when it is moving than when

it is stationary. Other organizing tendencies exist; however, the ones presented

make clear the role that they appear to play in perception.

(a) What organizing tendency refers to characteristics that elements of perception have in

common?

(b) The tendency to fill in gaps in information and make a perceptual object into a complete

whole is called .

Answers: (a) Similarity; (b) closure; (c) move or act together.

Learned Aspects of Perception: Is the Infant’s World

a Buzzing, Blooming Confusion?

William James said that the infant’s world is “a buzzing, blooming, confusion.”

There are flashes of light, noises, pressure on the skin, and so forth. But do they

have any organization? Are patterns perceived? Or is there just a lot of random

sensory activity? One gets the impression from James’s comment that the infant,

at least temporarily, inhabits a chaotic psychological world. We have seen from

the exposition of the Gestalt laws that this is probably not completely correct.

Innate organizing tendencies either immediately or very quickly help the infant

to stabilize perceptions and introduce some sort of order into whatever is hap-

pening.

Nonetheless, it is important to appreciate that learning also plays a role in per-

ception. The Gestalt laws may play a primary role, but learning certainly plays a

secondary, and important, role.

Let’s say that a simple melody is played on the piano in the presence of

Tina, a two-week-old infant. Assume that Tina has had little or no experience

with hearing music. Does she now actually perceive a melody in somewhat the

same way that you perceive it? Or does she just hear a lot of disconnected

tones? You can put yourself in Tina’s position to some extent by imagining

yourself listening to the music of another country, one that uses a tonal scale

and patterns of harmony that are unfamiliar to you. When you first hear a song,

it may seem to have little or no pattern. However, hearing it two or three times

will help you to perceive the pattern. To the extent that you, or Tina, can hear

any pattern at all on the first presentation, it is probably due to the Gestalt laws.

The sharpening of perception on repeated presentations can be attributed to

learning.

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(a) William James’s suggestion that the infant’s world is a “buzzing, blooming, confusion”

gives the impression that the infant, at least temporarily, inhabits a psy-

chological world.

(b) The sharpening of a perception on repeated presentations of a stimulus can be attrib-

uted to .

Answers: (a) chaotic; (b) learning.

One way to explain this sharpening of perception is to suggest that patterns of

stimulation set off chain reactions in neurons located, let us say, in the association

areas of the brain’s cortex. Each time a given stimulus is presented, the same set of

neurons fire. The research of the Canadian psychologist Donald O. Hebb suggests

that repeated firings form a cell assembly, a stable group of neurons that are used

over and over by the brain to create a representation of the external pattern. A pat-

tern can, of course, be quite complex. If this is so, a given cell assembly may rep-

resent only a portion of a pattern. Hebb called a set of cell assemblies grouped

together to form a larger pattern a phase sequence.

The existence of cell assemblies helps account for a memory of patterns and

perceptual objects. When you hear a melody or recognize something you have

seen before, it is quite possibly because an established cell assembly is firing.

Learning also plays a role in perception because we are conscious beings who

attach labels to perceptual objects. This brings us to the cognitive hypothesis in

perception, the hypothesis that we not only perceive, but know what we are per-

ceiving. If you see a friend and think, “There’s Erin,” or hear a song and think,

“That’s ‘God Bless America’ by Irving Berlin,” then you have increased the acuity

of your perceptual world. Cognitive learning, learning in which consciousness

plays an important role, is an important aspect of the perceptual process. There is

more about learning in general and cognitive learning in particular in chapter 6.

(a) According to Hebb, a cell assembly is a stable group of .

(b) The hypothesis that we not only perceive, but know we perceive is called the

Answers: (a) neurons; (b) cognitive hypothesis.

Illusions: What Do They Teach Us about Perception?

An illusion is a false perception, a perception that does not fit an objective

description of a stimulus situation. An illusion is usually associated with a partic-

ular sense. Consequently, there are optical illusions, auditory illusions, and so

forth. Illusions tend to be remarkably stable. They affect most normal observers in

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the same way. For example, for almost all of us the Moon is perceived to be larger

when low and near the horizon than when it is high and overhead.

It is important to distinguish the concept of an illusion from a delusion and a hal-

lucination. A delusion is a false belief. If Ray, a schizophrenic mental patient,

believes that he has an eye with X-ray vision on the back of his head, this is a delu-

sion. A hallucination is a perception created by the individual. It has no relationship

to reality at all. If Ray sees and hears an invisible companion that nobody else can see

or hear, this is a hallucination. Illusions are thought to be normal and experienced by

most of us. Delusions and hallucinations are thought to be abnormal and experienced

in an idiosyncratic fashion. (There is more about abnormal behavior in chapter 14.)

(a) An illusion is a .

(b) A delusion is a .

Answers: (a) false perception; (b) false belief; (c) perception.

Illusions teach us that perceptions are, to some extent, created by the brain and nerv-

ous system, that we are not passive observers of our world. Let’s return to figure-

ground perception. We perceive the relationship between a figure and its associated

ground as being a fact about the world itself. But is it? The vase-faces illusion can

be perceived in two different ways. (See the illustration on page 64.) It can be seen as

a vase. Or it can be seen as two profiles facing each other. When seen as a vase, this

becomes figure and tends to stand forward a little in perception. The faces disappear

and become absorbed into a receding ground. When seen as two faces, these become

figure, and both tend to stand forward a little in perception. The vase disappears and

becomes absorbed into a receding ground. These two different perceptual alterna-

tions will take place for most observers on a predictable basis. Also, it is impossible to

simultaneously perceive both organizations. All of this suggests that figure and ground

are organizing tendencies linked to perception, not facts about the external world.

How can the vase-faces illusion be explained? Here is one approach. The vase-

faces drawing is said to be ambiguous, meaning that it can be perceived in more

than one way. The process of attention, characterized by a tendency to focus on

some stimuli and ignore others, determines that one organization will be tem-

porarily favored over another. Let us say that the first organization favored is the

vase. The region of the brain being stimulated by the vase organization becomes

satiated (“overfilled”) with the vase organization. It spontaneously rejects it for a

second organization, one that is briefly refreshing. The satiation hypothesis

suggests that the brain tends to reject excessive stimulation of one kind and tends

to seek novel stimulation of another kind. Ambiguity, attention, and satiation are

factors that all work together to produce the fluctuations in perception that take

place when one experiences the vase-faces illusion.

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(a) Illusions teach us that we are not of our world.

(b) A drawing that can be perceived in more than one way is said to be .

Answers: (a) passive observers; (b) ambiguous.

Returning to the Moon illusion, why does the Moon appear larger on the

horizon than when it’s overhead? The illusion is a variation of the Ponzo illu-

sion, an illusion associated with linear perspective. Parallel lines, like those associ-

ated with railroad tracks or the sides of a roadway, appear to converge as they

approach the horizon. At the horizon itself they meet, and this is called the van-

ishing point. If in a drawing two objects of the same size are simultaneously

placed so that the first object is far from the horizon and the second one is near

the horizon, the second object will be perceived as being larger than the first one.

This is because, in a drawing, the retinal size of both objects is the same. However,

the second object seems to be larger than it is in terms of comparisons we auto-

matically make with other objects near the horizon.

Note that in everyday perception the Ponzo illusion does not occur. This is

because the retinal size of an object near the horizon is smaller than that of an

object closer to you. When the size of an image projected on the retina shrinks

with distance, the apparent size of the object remains the same. This is a percep-

tual phenomenon called size constancy. For example, an approaching friend first

seen when twenty feet away and then when closer to you appears to be the same

size. However, in the case of the Moon illusion, the size of the Moon’s image pro-

64 PSYCHOLOGY

The vase-faces illusion.

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jected on your retina is about the same size when it is near the horizon and when

it’s “far” from it (when it’s overhead). As the Moon orbits our planet, its actual

distance from the Earth doesn’t change significantly. Consequently, the conditions

of the Ponzo illusion are met.

What we learn from illusions is that the world appears to us the way it does

not only because it actually is the way it is. We also interpret sensory information,

transforming it into a constructed perceptual, or psychological, world. And it is

our perception of the world that determines much of our behavior.

(a) The Moon illusion is a variation of the .

(b) An object five feet away may look the same size as an object ten feet away. This is an

example of .

Answers: (a) Ponzo illusion; (b) size constancy.

Depth Perception: Living in a Three-dimensional World

One of the fascinating questions of perception is this one: Why do we perceive a

world of rounded shapes, of near and far things, of depth instead of a flat world

with one surface? A second, related question is: How is this accomplished?

A given eye’s retina is basically a surface, not a cube. (Although the eye itself

is a three-dimensional “ball,” the surface of the retina is not.) Think of the infor-

mation on the surface of the retina as having some similarity to an oil painting

made on a flat canvas. Note that it is possible to perceive depth in a landscape

painting made on a flat canvas.

Depth perception is made possible by various cues, signals or stimuli that pro-

vide an observer with information. Depth perception is made possible by cues

arising from binocular vision and monocular vision.

Binocular vision is vision with two eyes. The principal cue for depth per-

ception associated with binocular vision is retinal disparity. The pupils of the

eyes are about three inches apart. This gives the right eye a somewhat different

view of a scene than the one obtained with the left eye. Notice that although you

sense two images, you only perceive one. (This is another example of the differ-

ence between sensation and perception.) This is sometimes called the zipper

function of the brain, the capacity of the visual portion of the cortex to integrate

two images into a meaningful whole. The whole image, in part because of retinal

disparity, appears to be three-dimensional.

(a) Binocular vision is vision with .

(b) The principal cue for depth perception arising from binocular vision is .

Answers: (a) two eyes; (b) retinal disparity.

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Monocular vision is vision with one eye. If a person is deprived of binocu-

lar vision, then he or she can still perceive depth with the assistance of monocular

cues. (Although the loss of the use of an eye impairs depth perception, it does not

destroy it completely.) Monocular cues are available to one eye. These are the

kinds of cues that give a landscape painting depth. Although you normally look at

such a painting with both eyes open, in this case depth perception is not arising

because of retinal disparity. Close one eye and look at the painting. The percep-

tion of depth will remain.

A first monocular cue is linear perspective, the tendency of parallel lines to

seem to converge as they approach the horizon. Linear perspective was referred to

earlier in connection with the Moon illusion. A second monocular cue is inter-

position, a cue created when one object blocks some portion of another object.

If a person is standing in front of a tree, and the tree is partly blocked, it is easy to

see that the tree is behind, not in front of, the person.

A third monocular cue is shadows. Shadows are differences in illumination

gradients. These tend to help us see rounded surfaces as convex or concave. A

fourth monocular cue is texture gradient. A texture gradient is perceived when

we can see less detail in far away objects than those that are closer to us. Such a

gradient appears spontaneously when we look at a field strewn with rocks.

A fifth monocular cue is motion parallax, the tendency when moving for-

ward fairly rapidly to perceive differential speeds in objects that are passing by and

in those that are being approached. For example, in a traveling car, nearby tele-

phone poles approach rapidly and then flash by. Look down the road. The tele-

phone poles seem to be approaching slowly. If you can see telephone poles very

far away, they seem to be almost stationary.

All of these monocular cues work together to enhance depth perception.

(a) Monocular vision is vision with .

(b) The tendency of parallel lines to seem to converge as they approach the horizon is

called .

Answers: (a) one eye; (b) linear perspective; (c) Motion parallax.

Extrasensory Perception: Is It Real?

The novel Slan by A. E. van Vogt has become a science-fiction classic. First serialized

in the magazine Astounding Science Fiction in 1940, the story relates the adventures of

a boy with telepathic powers and his conflicts with nontelepathic adversaries. Telepa-

thy has become a staple of science fiction and is taken for granted as a power of the

mind in many novels and films. But is it real?

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Before we address the fact or fiction of telepathy, let’s explore the phenome-

non as if it were real. This will permit us to understand more accurately what peo-

ple mean when they use words such as telepathy.

Telepathy belongs to a larger category of phenomena called extrasensory

perception. Extrasensory perception, or ESP, is the capacity to be aware of exter-

nal events without the use of one of the conventional senses such as vision or hear-

ing. ESP is referred to as the sixth sense, but as you learned in chapter 4, there are

at least seven readily identified senses. ESP should more accurately be called the

eighth sense.

There are three kinds of extrasensory perception: (1) precognition, (2) telepa-

thy, and (3) clairvoyance. Precognition is the power to know what will happen

in the future. Living almost five hundred years ago, the French physician and

astrologer Nostradamus is one of the more famous individuals in history pur-

ported to have had precognitive powers.

(a) Identify the three kinds of extrasensory perception.

(b) Precognition is the power to know what will happen in the .

Answers: (a) Precognition, telepathy, and clairvoyance; (b) future.

Telepathy is the power to send and receive mental messages. The ability to

read the minds of people who can’t read yours is also considered to be a telepathic

power. A spy with this ability would have a useful psychological tool. In the first

half of the twentieth century Upton Sinclair, author of The Jungle and a defeated

candidate for governor of California, conducted telepathic experiments with his

wife and published a book called Mental Radio.

Clairvoyance is the power to have visions and “see” something out of the

range of normal vision. (The word clairvoyance has French roots meaning “clear

seeing.”) Some clairvoyants are asserted to be able to give medical readings and

visualize an illness in another person in the same way that an X-ray machine can.

A person who can combine the two powers of precognition and clairvoyance is

thought to be able to both predict and visualize future events. The term seer

implies an ability to combine these powers.

(a) The power to send and receive mental messages is called .

(b) The word vision is associated with what kind of ESP?

Answers: (a) telepathy; (b) Clairvoyance.

Although not a form of ESP, there is another power often associated with it.

This is psychokinesis or PK. Psychokinesis is the power to move objects using

only energy transmitted by the mind. In the movie The Empire Strikes Back, the

hero Luke Skywalker lifts a small spaceship out of the muck of a bog with PK. A

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gambler who believes in PK believes he can give the dice a mental nudge as

they’re rolling and influence the numbers that come up.

All four of the phenomena mentioned above are combined into a general class

of mental abilities called psi powers, powers of the mind that are thought to tran-

scend the conventional laws of physics and our ordinary understanding of natural

science. Psi powers are sometimes also called “wild talents.”

(a) The power to move objects using only the energy of the mind is called .

(b) What kind of powers are called “wild talents” such as ESP and PK?

Answers: (a) psychokinesis (PK); (b) Psi powers.

Do psi powers, ESP and PK, actually exist? If one were to make a decision

on anecdotal evidence alone, then one would accept the reality of these pow-

ers. There are many stories and personal experiences that relate vivid and seem-

ingly convincing events that tempt skeptical observers to become believers.

However, anecdotes and personal experiences are hardly the stuff of science.

They can’t be verified. They are difficult or impossible to replicate. Often the

only witness is one individual. When the number of subjects in a study is only

one, the study has no reliability and can’t be generalized. Consequently, won-

derful stories aren’t sufficient evidence in favor of the hypothesis that ESP and

PK are real.

On the other hand, experimental science has explored psi powers. Joseph B.

Rhine (1895–1980), working at Duke University, conducted many experiments on

ESP and PK. He called the study of such phenomena parapsychology. Telepathy

experiments were conducted with the aid of a set of twenty-five cards called Zener

cards. There are five symbols and these are each repeated five times. PK experi-

ments often involved the tossing of dice because probable outcomes could be accu-

rately stated. Rhine’s research favors accepting the hypothesis that psi powers are

real. Others such as Charles T. Tart, using the experimental method, have obtained

results that are similar to Rhine’s.

On the other hand, many psychologists remain unconvinced. They point out

that there are flaws in the methodology of the various parapsychological experi-

ments. Also, it should be noted that such experiments do not consistently sup-

port the reality of psi powers. Skeptics assert that when parapsychological

experiments are well designed and tightly controlled, many of the positive results

fade away.

It is not possible at this time to make a simple statement saying that psychol-

ogy either accepts psi abilities as real or rejects them as false. It can be asserted that

many psychologists—perhaps most—are unwilling to accept the reality of these

phenomena. They don’t believe that the data are sufficiently convincing.

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(a) Rhine called the study of such phenomena as ESP and PK .

(b) Many psychologists—perhaps most—are to accept the reality of psi

powers.

Answers: (a) parapsychology; (b) unwilling.

SELF-TEST

1. According to Koffka, the actual world “out there,” the world as defined by

physics is

a. the phenomenal world

b. the geographical world

c. the psychological world

d. the subjective world

2. The capacity to see a bird in the sky is an example of

a. the Ponzo illusion

b. a cell assembly working

c. a monocular cue

d. figure-ground perception

3. One of the following is not a Gestalt law.

a. Proximity

b. Similarity

c. The cognitive hypothesis

d. Closure

4. What hypothesis states that we not only perceive, but also know what we are

perceiving?

a. The cognitive hypothesis

b. The sensory hypothesis

c. The motor-neuron hypothesis

d. The Wertheimer-Koffka hypothesis

5. An illusion is

a. a false belief

b. a kind of hallucination

c. the same thing as a delusion

d. a false perception

6. The vase-faces drawing is said to be ambiguous, meaning that

a. its borders are fuzzy

b. it can be perceived in more than one way

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c. it can be perceived in one way only

d. it does not meet the criterion of subjectivity

7. The Moon illusion

a. is caused by large changes in the Moon’s distance from the Earth

b. provides a good example of size constancy

c. provides a case in which size constancy breaks down

d. violates figure-ground perception

8. The principal depth perception cue associated with binocular vision is

a. linear perspective

b. texture gradient

c. motion parallax

d. retinal disparity

9. One of the following is not a kind of extrasensory perception.

a. Psychokinesis

b. Precognition

c. Telepathy

d. Clairvoyance

10. What is the status of psi powers in psychology as a science?

a. Psi powers are proven facts

b. No one has done experiments on psi powers

c. The reality of psi powers is still open to question

d. Telepathy is real, but clairvoyance is not

ANSWERS TO THE SELF-TEST

1-b 2-d 3-c 4-a 5-d 6-b 7-c 8-d 9-a 10-c

ANSWERS TO THE TRUE-OR-FALSE PREVIEW QUIZ

1. True.

2. False. Figure-ground perception is sometimes unstable and reversible (e.g., the vase-

faces illusion).

3. True.

4. False. For example, learning often sharpens our perception.

5. False. Clairvoyance is the power to “see” something out of the normal range of vision.

Psychokinesis is the power to move objects using only energy transmitted by the mind.

70 PSYCHOLOGY

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KEY TERMS

Perception: Why Do Things Look the Way They Do? 71

ambiguous

attention

binocular vision

cell assembly

clairvoyance

closure

cognitive hypothesis

cognitive learning

common fate

delusion

extrasensory perception (ESP)

figure

figure-ground perception

geographical world

Gestalt laws

ground (or background)

hallucination

illusion

innate tendencies

interposition

linear perspective

monocular cues

monocular vision

motion parallax

parapsychology

perception

phase sequence

Ponzo illusion

precognition

proximity

psi powers

psychokinesis (PK)

psychological world

retinal disparity

satiation hypothesis

shadows

similarity

size constancy

telepathy

texture gradient

vanishing point

vase-faces illusion

Zener cards

zipper function

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PREVIEW QUIZ

True or False

1. TF Learning is a more or less permanent change in behavior, or a behav-

ioral tendency, as a result of experience.

2. TF A conditioned reflex is an inborn response pattern.

3. TF Operant behavior is characterized by actions that have no meaning for

an organism, and, consequently, no consequences.

4. TF Observational learning takes place when an individual acquires behav-

ior by watching the behavior of a second individual.

5. TF There is no such thing as short-term memory.

(Answers can be found on page 88.)

As indicated in the previous chapter, the perceptual world is a world of

objects that form the basis of our organized experience. Consequently, this

organization also provides the first stepping stone for the learning process.

In order to learn it is essential to experience the world “out there” and

respond to it. In this chapter you will find out how we acquire behavioral

patterns through experience.

6Learning: Understanding

Acquired Behavior

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Learning: Understanding Acquired Behavior 73

Objectives

After completing this chapter, you will be able to

• describe the principal aspects of the learning process;

• identify basic concepts in classical conditioning;

• explain the process of operant conditioning;

• give an example of the important role that consciousness plays in learning;

• specify the most important aspects of the memory process.

Think of ways to use the word learned in a sentence, using yourself as a subject

of the sentence. Here are some examples collected from psychology students:

“I learned to drive a car.”

“I learned quite a bit of Italian when I was stationed in Italy for two years.”

“Little by little I have learned to hate my business partner.”

“I learned a lot on the streets where I grew up.”

“I learned to be a more loving, understanding person after I got married.”

“I learned good table manners when I was a child.”

“I learned to smoke by hanging out with friends who smoked.”

The above examples of the ways students think about the learning process

reveal that learning takes place under many conditions and in many situations.

Although learning takes place in school, it is clear that much—perhaps most—

learning goes on outside of the classroom. Indeed, the learning process affects

almost everything we do.

Learning is a more or less permanent change in behavior, or a behavioral ten-

dency, as a result of experience. There are several points to be made about this def-

inition. First, learning is “more or less” permanent. This suggests that although

learning tends to resist change once it is acquired, it sometimes does change.

Learning can be forgotten. Learning is sometimes subject to a process known as

extinction (to be explained later). Also, what has been learned can sometimes be

shaped or modified. So learning is far from permanent.

Second, the term behavioral tendency indicates that learning is sometimes

dormant, that it does not reflect itself in immediate action. This phenomenon is

called latent learning and it too will be discussed later.

Third, note the focus on the word experience in the definition. In order to

learn it is necessary to receive information. This is done through our sense organs.

Imagine an infant born without vision or hearing. It would be terribly difficult for

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74 PSYCHOLOGY

that infant to learn and develop normal intelligence. If the infant had no sense of

touch or smell or balance, then learning would be next to impossible.

Learning is a more or less permanent change in behavior, or a behavioral tendency, as a

result of .

Answer: experience.

Classical Conditioning: Responding to Signals

Imagine that you are reading a menu in a restaurant and your mouth begins to

water. Is this an example of classical conditioning? Yes, it is. You were not born

with a tendency to salivate when looking at a menu. This is behavior acquired

through experience, and, consequently, a kind of learning. Salivating to words on

paper is a conditioned reflex.

Classical conditioning was the first kind of learning to be studied experimen-

tally. The pioneer researcher into classical conditioning was Ivan Pavlov

(1849–1936), a Russian physiologist. Classical conditioning is characterized by

the capacity of a previously neutral stimulus to elicit a reflex. If a dog is trained to

salivate each time that it hears a tone of a specific frequency, then the tone is the

previously neutral stimulus and the act of salivating is the reflex. Pavlov achieved

his results primarily with a number of dogs that were trained to patiently cooper-

ate with the researcher while being restrained in harnesses in the laboratory.

There are four basic terms, all closely related, that you need to learn as the

foundation stones of your understanding of classical conditioning. These are (1)

the unconditioned stimulus, (2) the conditioned stimulus, (3) the unconditioned

reflex, and (4) the conditioned reflex.

The unconditioned stimulus is a stimulus that has an inborn power to elicit

a reflex. Food in the mouth is such a stimulus. The physiology of the body is such

that when salivary glands are stimulated by food, saliva will flow.

(a) Classical conditioning is characterized by the capacity of a stimulus to

elicit a reflex.

(b) The unconditioned stimulus is a stimulus that has an power to elicit a

reflex.

Answers: (a) previously neutral; (b) inborn.

The conditioned stimulus is created by the learning process. It acquires a

power that is sometimes (not always) similar to that of the unconditioned stimu-

lus. If a tone precedes food in the mouth a number of times, then the tone may

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Learning: Understanding Acquired Behavior 75

acquire the power to elicit saliva. If a dog salivates when it hears a tone, then the

tone is a conditioned stimulus. It can be argued that the dog has associated the

tone with food and that the tone has become a signal conveying the meaning that

food is coming soon. Indeed, this is one of the important meanings that Pavlov

gave to classical conditioning. He thought of conditioned stimuli as signals.

The unconditioned reflex is an inborn response pattern. A dog has an

inborn tendency to salivate when food is placed in its mouth. Salivating under

these conditions is an unconditioned reflex. The word response is sometimes used

in place of the word reflex. This usage, although common, is somewhat imprecise.

A response to a stimulus is a behavior pattern that suggests a higher level of

organization and complexity than that associated with a reflex. Salivating when

reading a menu’s description of a hamburger is a reflex. Ordering the item and

asking that the meat be well done is a response.

A conditioned reflex is a learned response pattern. If a dog salivates to a

tone, then the elicited flow of saliva is a conditioned reflex.

(a) What stimulus acquires a power that is sometimes (not always) similar to the uncondi-

tioned stimulus?

(b) The unconditioned reflex is an response pattern.

and than that associated with a reflex.

Answers: (a) The conditioned stimulus; (b) inborn; (c) organization; complexity.

Several important features of classical conditioning should be noted. First, the

word conditioning implies a kind of learning that does not require reflection and

reasoning. The learning takes place primarily through a process of association.

Infants are capable of classical conditioning. If a baby’s mouth begins to make

sucking motions when a milk bottle is in view, then the sucking motions are con-

ditioned reflexes.

Second, as indicated above, classical conditioning is not limited to dogs and

animals. Although Pavlov used dogs as research subjects, the results of his research

can be generalized to human beings.

Third, conditioned reflexes are involuntary. They are outside of the con-

scious control of the subject.

There are various behavioral patterns associated with classical conditioning.

Three of these are extinction, stimulus generalization, and discrimination.

Extinction takes place when the conditioned stimulus is presented a number of

times without the unconditioned stimulus. If a conditioned dog is presented with

a tone, it will salivate. However, if the tone is presented without food a sufficient

number of times, the tone will cease to elicit the conditioned reflex. The dog has,

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76 PSYCHOLOGY

in effect, unlearned the conditioned reflex. Extinction should not be confused with

forgetting. Extinction is an active process that is designed to eliminate a condi-

tioned reflex. The process of actively extinguishing a conditioned reflex is taken

advantage of in desensitization therapy (see chapter 15).

(a) The word conditioning implies a kind of learning that does not require

and .

(b) Outside of the conscious control of the subject, conditioned reflexes are said to be

times without the unconditioned stimulus?

Answers: (a) reflection; reasoning; (b) involuntary; (c) Extinction.

Stimulus generalization occurs when a stimulus that is similar to an orig-

inal conditioned stimulus elicits a conditioned reflex. For example, let’s say that

a dog is trained to salivate to a pitch that is the equivalent of middle C on the

piano. If a pitch the equivalent of D, a note that is close to C, is sounded, the dog

will also salivate. As the pitch goes higher, there may be some salivation. If the

pitch gets high enough, salivation will stop. This is discrimination, the subject’s

ability to tell the difference between an original conditioned stimulus and other

stimuli.

In a classical experiment, Rosalie Raynor, an assistant to John B. Watson,

trained a child to be afraid of a white rat. In subsequent testing, the child, known

in the research literature as Little Albert, showed fear reactions (conditioned

reflexes) when he saw a different white rat, a Santa Claus mask (with white fur),

or a rolled-up white terrycloth dishtowel. This research provides an example of

stimulus generalization in a human being.

(a) What phenomenon occurs when a stimulus that is similar to an original conditioned

stimulus elicits a conditioned reflex?

(b) A subject’s ability to tell the difference between an original conditioned stimulus and

other stimuli is called .

Answers: (a) Stimulus generalization; (b) discrimination.

Trial-and-Error Learning: Taking a Rocky Road

It is instructive to note that one of the most popular books on writing ever pub-

lished is called Trial and Error by the novelist Jack Woodford. It sold many copies

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Learning: Understanding Acquired Behavior 77

over a number of years, and communicated to would-be authors that the only

way to learn to write was by taking the rocky road of learning by making one’s

own mistakes.

The first kind of learning to be studied experimentally in the United States was

trial-and-error learning. Edward L. Thorndike (1874–1949) first studied maze

learning in baby chickens (with the assistance and approval of William James). Later

he studied the escape behavior of cats from puzzle boxes. The cats had to learn to

pull a string that released a latch connected to a door. The cats learned to pull the

string, but only very gradually. They showed no sudden burst of insight or com-

prehension. Thorndike concluded that the learning was a robotlike process con-

trolled primarily by its outcomes. If a specific behavior helped a cat to escape, that

behavior was retained by the cat. Thorndike called this process stamping in,

meaning that an action that is useful is impressed upon the nervous system.

What stamps in a response, according to Thorndike, is satisfaction. The cat

that escapes from a puzzle box is rewarded with food. Thorndike called the ten-

dency to retain what is learned because satisfactory results are obtained the law of

effect. Thorndike’s law of effect is the forerunner of what today is usually known

as the process of reinforcement (see the next section).

(a) If a specific behavior helps a cat to escape from a puzzle box, this behavior is retained by

the cat. Thorndike called this process .

(b) Thorndike’s law of effect is the forerunner of what today is usually known as the

process of .

Answers: (a) stamping in; (b) reinforcement.

Operant Conditioning: How Behavior Is Shaped by Its

Own Consequences

Operant behavior is characterized by actions that have consequences. Flick a

light switch and the consequence is illumination. Saw on a piece of wood and the

consequence is two shorter pieces of wood. Tell a joke and the consequence is

(sometimes) the laughter of others. Work hard at a job all week and the conse-

quence is a paycheck. In each of these cases the specified action “operates” on the

environment, changes it in some way.

It was B. F. Skinner (1904–1990) who applied the term operant to the kind

of behaviors described above. He saw that operant behavior is both acquired and

shaped by experience. Consequently, he identified it as a kind of learning. In

addition, he also categorized it as a form of conditioning because he believed that

such concepts as consciousness and thinking are not necessary to explain much

(perhaps most) operant behavior.

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78 PSYCHOLOGY

Skinner, long associated with Harvard, invented a device called the operant

conditioning apparatus; its informal name is the Skinner box. Think of the

apparatus as something like a candy machine for animals such as rats and

pigeons. A rat, for example, learns that it can obtain a pellet of food when it

presses a lever. If the pellet appears each time the lever is pressed, the rate of

lever pressing will increase. Lever pressing is operant behavior (or simply an oper-

ant.) The pellet is a reinforcer. A reinforcer is a stimulus that has the effect of

increasing the frequency of a given category of behavior (in this case, lever

pressing).

(a) Operant behavior is characterized by actions that have .

(b) The formal term for a Skinner box is the .

Answers: (a) consequences; (b) operant conditioning apparatus.

The concept of reinforcement plays a big part in Skinner’s way of looking at

behavior. Consequently, it is important to expand on the concept. Note in the

above definition that a reinforcer is understood in terms of its actual effects. It is to

be distinguished from a reward. A reward is perceived as valuable to the individ-

ual giving the reward, but it may not be valued by the receiving organism. In the

case of a reinforcer, it is a reinforcer only if it has some sort of payoff value to the

receiving organism. By definition, a reinforcer has an impact on operant behavior.

Its function is always to increase the frequency of a class of operant behaviors.

One important way to categorize reinforcers is to refer to them as positive and

negative. A positive reinforcer has value for the organism. Food when you are

hungry, water when you are thirsty, and money when you’re strapped for cash all

provide examples of positive reinforcers.

(a) The function of a reinforcer is always to the frequency of a class of oper-

ant behaviors.

(b) A has value for the organism.

Answers: (a) increase; (b) positive reinforcer.

A negative reinforcer has no value for the organism. It does injury or is nox-

ious in some way. A hot room, an offensive person, and a dangerous situation all

provide examples of negative reinforcers. The organism tends to either escape

from or avoid such reinforcers. The operant behavior takes the subject away from

the reinforcer. Turning on the air conditioner when a room is hot provides an

example of operant behavior designed to escape from a negative reinforcer. Note

that the effect of the negative reinforcer on behavior is still to increase the fre-

quency of a class of operants. You are more likely to turn on an air conditioner

tomorrow if you have obtained relief by doing so today.

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Learning: Understanding Acquired Behavior 79

It is also important to note that a negative reinforcer is not punishment. In the

case of punishment, an operant is followed by an adverse stimulus. For example, a

child sasses a parent and then gets slapped. Getting slapped comes after the child’s

behavior. In the case of a negative reinforcer, the adverse stimulus is first in time.

Then the operant behavior of escape or avoidance follows.

(a) Operant behavior takes a subject from a negative reinforcer.

(b) In the case of punishment, an operant is by an adverse stimulus.

Answers: (a) away; (b) followed.

Another important way to classify reinforcers is to designate them as having

either a primary or a secondary quality. A primary reinforcer has intrinsic value

for the organism. No learning is required for the worth of the reinforcer to exist.

Food when you are hungry and water when you are thirsty are not only positive

reinforcers, as indicated above, they are also primary reinforcers.

A secondary reinforcer has acquired value for the organism. Learning is

required. Money when you’re strapped for cash is a positive reinforcer, as indi-

cated above, but it is a secondary one. You have to learn that cash has value. An

infant does not value cash, but does value milk. A medal, a diploma, and a trophy

all provide examples of secondary reinforcers.

(a) A has intrinsic value for an organism.

(b) A has acquired value for an organism.

Answers: (a) primary reinforcer; (b) secondary reinforcer.

One of the important phenomena associated with operant conditioning is

extinction. Earlier, we discussed how extinction takes place when the conditioned

stimulus is presented a number of times without the unconditioned stimulus.

Extinction also takes place when the frequency of a category of operant responses

declines. If, using the operant conditioning apparatus, reinforcement is withheld

from a rat, then lever pressing for food will decline and eventually diminish to

nearly zero. The organism has learned to give up a given operant because it no

longer brings the reinforcer.

Both animal and human research on extinction suggest that it is a better way

to “break” bad habits than is punishment. If a way can be found to eliminate the

reinforcer (or reinforcers) linked to a behavior pattern, the behavior is likely to

be given up. Punishment tends to temporarily suppress the appearance of an

operant, but extinction has not necessarily taken place. Consequently, the

unwanted operant has “gone underground,” and may in time surface as an

unpleasant surprise. Also, punishment is frustrating to organisms and tends to

make them more aggressive.

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80 PSYCHOLOGY

(a) Extinction takes place when the frequency of a category of operant responses

(b) Punishment is frustrating to organisms and tends to make them more .

Answers: (a) declines; (b) aggressive.

Another important phenomenon associated with operant conditioning is the

partial reinforcement effect, the tendency of operant behavior acquired under

conditions of partial reinforcement to possess greater resistance to extinction than

behavior acquired under conditions of continuous reinforcement. Let’s say that rat

1 is reinforced every time it presses a lever; this rat is receiving continuous rein-

forcement. Rat 2 is reinforced every other time it presses a lever; this rat is receiv-

ing partial reinforcement. Both rats will eventually acquire the lever-pressing

response. Now assume that reinforcement is withheld for both rats. The rat that

will, in most cases, display greater resistance to extinction is rat 2. Skinner was sur-

prised by this result. If reinforcement is a kind of strengthening of a habit, then rat

1, receiving more reinforcement, should have the more well-established habit.

And it should demonstrate greater resistance to extinction than rat 2.

Nonetheless, the partial reinforcement effect is a reality, and Skinner became

interested in it. He and his coworkers used many schedules of reinforcement to

study the partial reinforcement effect. In general, it holds for both animals and

human beings that there is indeed a partial reinforcement effect. Random rein-

forcement is determined by chance, and is, consequently, unpredictable. If

behavior is acquired with random reinforcement, it exaggerates the partial rein-

forcement effect. Skinner was fond of pointing out that random payoffs are asso-

ciated with gambling. This explains to some extent why a well-established

gambling habit is hard to break.

(a) Operant behavior acquired under conditions of partial reinforcment tends to possess

greater resistance to than behavior acquired under conditions of con-

tinuous reinforcement.

(b) What kind of reinforcement is determined by chance?

Answers: (a) extinction; (b) Random reinforcement.

Assume that an instrumental conditioning apparatus contains a light bulb.

When the light is on, pressing the lever pays off. When the light is off, pressing

the lever fails to bring forth a reinforcer. Under these conditions, a trained exper-

imental animal will tend to display a high rate of lever pressing when the light is

on and ignore the lever when the light is off. The light is called a discrimina-

tive stimulus, meaning a stimulus that allows the organism to tell the difference

between a situation that is potentially reinforcing and one that is not. Cues used

to train animals, such as whistles and hand signals, are discriminative stimuli.

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Learning: Understanding Acquired Behavior 81

Skinner notes that discriminative stimuli control human behavior, too. A fac-

tory whistle communicating to workers that it’s time for lunch, a bell’s ring for a

prizefighter, a school bell’s ring for a child, and a traffic light for a driver are all

discriminative stimuli. Stimuli can be more subtle than these examples. A lover’s

facial expression or tone of voice may communicate a readiness or lack of readi-

ness to respond to amorous advances.

Skinner asserts that in real life both discriminative stimuli and reinforcers auto-

matically control much of our behavior.

A stimulus that allows the organism to tell the difference between a situation that is poten-

tially reinforcing and one that is not is called a .

Answer: discriminative stimulus.

Consciousness and Learning: What It Means to Have

an Insight

Although classical and operant conditioning play a large part in both animal and

human learning, it is generally recognized by behavioral scientists that these two

related processes give an insufficient account of the learning process, particularly

in human beings. Consequently, it is important to identify at least four additional

aspects of learning. These are (1) observational learning, (2) latent learning, (3)

insight learning, and (4) learning to learn.

Observational learning takes place when an individual acquires behavior

by watching the behavior of a second individual. Albert Bandura, a principal

researcher associated with observational learning, identified important features

of this particular process. The second individual is a model, and either inten-

tionally or unintentionally demonstrates behavior. If the observer identifies with

the model and gains imaginary satisfaction from the model’s behavior, then

this is vicarious reinforcement. Vicarious reinforcement is characterized by

imagined gratification. Psychologically, it acts as a substitute for the real thing.

Let’s say that Jonathan admires a particular tennis star. When the star wins an

important tournament, Jonathan is ecstatic. This emotional state is a vicarious

reinforcer.

It should be noted that the concept of watching a model is very general. Read-

ing a mystery novel and identifying with the detective is a kind of observational

behavior. The thrills associated with the hero’s adventures are vicarious thrills.

(a) What kind of learning takes place when an individual acquires behavior by watching the

behavior of a second individual?

(b) A either intentionally or unintentionally demonstrates behavior.

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82 PSYCHOLOGY

Answers: (a) Observational learning; (b) model; (c) Vicarious reinforcement.

Social learning theory, associated with Bandura’s research, states that much

of our behavior in reference to other people is acquired through observational

learning. Let’s say that Carol is a fifteen-year-old high school student. She is on

the fringe of a group of adolescent females who admire a charismatic eighteen-

year-old named Dominique. Dominique smokes, uses obscenities, and brags

about her sexual exploits. Carol observes Dominique and obtains a lot of vicari-

ous reinforcement from Dominique’s behavior. If Carol begins to imitate

Dominique’s behavior, then social learning has taken place.

Both prosocial behavior and antisocial behavior can be acquired through

observational learning. Prosocial behavior is behavior that contributes to the

long-run goals of a traditional reference group such as the family or the popula-

tion of the nation (see chapter 16). If an individual admires one or both parents,

then the parents may be taken as role models. Many adolescents and young adults

acquire attitudes and personal habits that resemble those of their parents. If one is

patriotic and ready to defend one’s nation during time of war, it is quite likely that

the individual is taking important historical figures such as presidents and generals

as role models.

Antisocial behavior is behavior that has an adverse impact on the long-run

goals of a traditional reference group. From the point of view of Carol’s parents,

if Carol begins to act like Dominique, then Carol’s behavior is antisocial.

(a) What theory states that much of our behavior in reference to other people is acquired

through observational learning?

(b) is behavior that contributes to the long-run goals of a traditional

reference group.

traditional reference group.

Answers: (a) Social learning theory; (b) Prosocial behavior; (c) Antisocial behavior.

Latent learning is a second kind of learning in which consciousness

appears to play a large role. Pioneer research on latent learning is associated with

experiments conducted by the University of California psychologist Edward C.

Tolman and his associates. Let’s say that a rat is allowed to explore a maze with-

out reinforcement. It seems to wander through the maze without any particular

pattern of behavior. It is probably responding to its own curiosity drive, but no

particular learning appears to be taking place. Let’s say that after ten such oppor-

tunities, reinforcement in the form of food in a goal box is introduced. The rat,

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Learning: Understanding Acquired Behavior 83

if it is typical, will quickly learn to run the maze with very few errors. Its learn-

ing curve is highly accelerated compared to that of a rat that has not had an ear-

lier opportunity to explore the maze. This is because the first rat was actually

learning while it was exploring. The function of reinforcement in this case is to

act as an incentive, a stimulus that elicits and brings forth whatever learning the

organism has acquired.

Note that the learning was actually acquired when the rat was exploring.

Therefore learning was taking place without reinforcement. Such learning is called

latent learning, meaning learning that is dormant and waiting to be activated.

Let’s say that Keith is an adolescent male. For years his mother has forced him,

with no particular reinforcement, to make his bed and hang up his clothes neatly.

But Keith has, from his mother’s point of view, been a slow learner. He does both

tasks poorly. He enlists in the army shortly after his eighteenth birthday. In basic

training he makes his bed and hangs up his clothes neatly. He has been told that

he will obtain his first weekend pass only if he performs various tasks properly.

The fact that Keith shows a very rapid learning curve under these conditions pro-

vides an example of latent learning. He was learning under his mother’s influence,

but he wasn’t motivated to bring the learning forth.

The process of latent learning calls attention to the learning-performance

distinction. Learning is an underlying process. In the case of latent learning it is

temporarily hidden. Performance is the way in which learning is displayed in

action. Only performance can actually be observed and directly measured.

(a) is learning that is dormant and waiting to be activated.

(b) is the way in which learning is displayed in action.

Answers: (a) Latent learning; (b) Performance.

Insight learning is a third kind of learning in which consciousness appears to

play a major role. Groundbreaking research on insight learning was conducted by

Wolfgang Köhler, one of the principal Gestalt psychologists. One of Köhler’s

principal subjects was an ape named Sultan. Sultan was presented with two short

handles that could be assembled to make one long tool, a kind of rake. An orange

was placed outside of Sultan’s cage and it was beyond the reach of either handle.

Sultan spent quite a bit of time using the handles in useless ways. He seemed to be

making no progress on the problem.

Then one day Sultan seemed to have a burst of understanding. He clicked

together the handles and raked in the orange. Köhler called this burst of under-

standing an insight, and defined it as a sudden reorganization of a perceptual

field. Originally, Sultan’s perceptual field contained two useless handles. With

insight, Sultan’s perceptual field contained a long rake. The conscious mental

process that brings a subject to an insight is called insight learning.

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84 PSYCHOLOGY

A burst of understanding associated with the sudden reorganization of a perceptual field is

called an .

Answer: insight.

Insight learning is also important for human beings. Let’s say that a child in

grammar school is told that pi is the ratio of the circumference of a circle to the

diameter, and that a rounded value for pi is 3.14. The child memorizes the defi-

nition, but the definition has little meaning. If, on the other hand, the child is

encouraged to measure the diameters and the circumferences of cans, pie tins, and

wheels using a string and a ruler, the child may acquire the insight that round

items are always about three times bigger around than they are across. Acquiring

an insight is more satisfying than just memorizing material. Also, insights tend to

resist the process of forgetting.

Harry Harlow, a former president of the American Psychological Associa-

tion, using rhesus monkeys as subjects, discovered a phenomenon called learning

sets. Assume that a monkey is given a discrimination problem. It is required to

learn that a grape, used as a reinforcer, is always to be found under a small cir-

cular container instead of a square one. The learning curve is gradual, and a

number of trials are required before learning is complete. A second similar

problem is given. The discrimination required is between containers with two

patterns, a crescent moon and a triangle. The learning curve for the second

problem is more accelerated than the learning curve for the first problem. By

the time a fourth or a fifth similar problem is given, the monkey is able to solve

the problem in a very few trials. The monkey has acquired a learning set, an

ability to quickly solve a given type of problem. The underlying process is called

learning to learn.

Human beings also acquire learning sets. A person who often solves crossword

puzzles tends to get better and better at working them. A mechanic who has

worked in the automotive field for a number of years discovers that it is easier and

easier to troubleshoot repair problems. A college student often finds that advanced

courses seem to be easier than basic courses. All of these individuals have learned

to learn.

An acquired ability to quickly solve a given type of problem is called a .

Answer: learning set.

Memory: Storing What Has Been Learned

What would life be like without memory? You would have no personal history.

You would have no sense of the past—what you had done and what your child-

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Learning: Understanding Acquired Behavior 85

hood was like. Learning would be a meaningless concept, because learning implies

retention. You will recall that the definition of learning includes the idea that

learning is more or less permanent.

Memory is a process that involves the encoding, storage, and retrieval of cog-

nitive information. Let’s explore these three related processes one by one. Encod-

ing is a process characterized by giving an informational input a more useful

form. Let’s say that you are presented with the letters TCA. They seem meaning-

less. You are told that the letters represent an animal that meows. You think, “The

animal is a cat.” You have just transformed the informational input TCA into

CAT, and it has become more useful to you. The use of symbols, associations, and

insights are all examples of human encoding.

The use of a mnemonic device, a cognitive structure that improves both

retention and recall, is a special case of encoding. Let’s say that in a physics class

you are asked to memorize the colors of the rainbow in their correct order—red,

orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet. You can use the name Roy G. Biv

as a mnemonic device, using the first letter of each color.

(a) is a process characterized by giving an informational input a more

useful form.

(b) The use of the name Roy G. Biv to remember the colors of the rainbow is an example

of a .

Answers: (a) Encoding; (b) mnemonic device.

Storage refers to the fact that memories are retained for a period of time. A

distinction is made between short-term memory and long-term memory. Short-

term memory, also known as working memory, is characterized by a tempo-

rary storage of information. If you look up a telephone number, hold it in at the

conscious level of your mind for a few minutes, use it, and then promptly forget

it, you are employing the short-term memory process. Long-term memory is

characterized by a relatively stable, enduring storage of information. The capacity

to recall much of your own personal history and what you learned in school pro-

vide examples of the long-term memory process.

If short-term memory is impaired, as it is in some organic mental disorders

(see chapter 14), then this interferes with the capacity to form new long-term

memories.

(a) refers to the fact that memories are retained for a period of time.

(b) Short-term memory is also known as .

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86 PSYCHOLOGY

Answers: (a) Storage; (b) working memory; (c) Long-term memory.

Retrieval of cognitive information takes place when a memory is removed

from storage and replaced in consciousness. Three phenomena are of particular

interest in connection with the retrieval process: recall, recognition, and repression.

Recall takes place when a memory can be retrieved easily by an act of will. You

see a friend and think, “There’s Paula.” You have recalled the name of your friend.

Recognition takes place when the retrieval of a memory is facilitated by the

presence of a helpful stimulus. A multiple-choice test that provides four names,

one of them being the correct answer, is an example of an instructional instru-

ment that eases the path of memory. The item to be remembered is right there in

front of you.

Repression takes place when the ego, as a form of defense against a psycho-

logical threat, forces a memory into the unconscious domain. This is a psychoan-

alytical concept, and it was proposed by Freud. He suggested that memories

associated with emotionally painful childhood experiences are likely to be

repressed (see chapter 13).

(a) takes place when a memory can be retrieved easily by an act of will.

(b) takes place when the retrieval of a memory is facilitated by the presence

of a helpful stimulus.

threat, forces a memory into the unconscious domain.

Answers: (a) Recall; (b) Recognition; (c) Repression.

SELF-TEST

1. The unconditioned reflex is

a. a kind of behavior acquired by experience

b. always associated with voluntary behavior

c. a learned response pattern

d. an inborn response pattern

2. What takes place when the conditioned stimulus is presented a number of

times without the unconditioned stimulus?

a. Forgetting

b. Extinction

c. Discrimination

d. Stimulus generalization

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Learning: Understanding Acquired Behavior 87

3. Thorndike said that when satisfactory results are obtained there is a tendency

to retain what has been learned. He called this tendency the

a. law of effect

b. principle of reinforcement

c. principle of reward

d. law of positive feedback

4. Operant behavior is characterized by

a. actions that have no meaning

b. its inability to be affected by reinforcement

c. its conscious nature

d. actions that have consequences

5. What principle is associated with the phrase greater resistance to extinction?

a. The law of effect

b. The total reinforcement effect

c. The partial reinforcement effect

d. The pleasure-pain effect

6. Vicarious reinforcement is characterized by

a. primary gratification

b. imagined gratification

c. extinction

d. the discriminative stimulus

7. What did Köhler define as the sudden reorganization of a perceptual field?

a. Operant conditioning

b. Classical conditioning

c. Insight

d. Extinction

8. The concept of a learning set is associated with what underlying process?

a. Spontaneous inhibition

b. The law of effect

c. Learned optimism

d. Learning to learn

9. The use of a mnemonic device is a special case of

a. encoding

b. short-term memory

c. antagonistic stimuli

d. involuntary conditioning

10. Which one of the following is not associated with the memory process of

retrieval?

a. Recall

b. Recognition

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88 PSYCHOLOGY

c. Cognitive inhibition

d. Repression

ANSWERS TO THE SELF-TEST

1-d 2-b 3-a 4-d 5-c 6-b 7-c 8-d 9-a 10-c

ANSWERS TO THE TRUE-OR-FALSE PREVIEW QUIZ

1. True.

2. False. A conditioned reflex is a learned response pattern.

3. False. Operant behavior is characterized by actions that have consequences for an

organism.

4. True.

5. False. Short-term memory is an important aspect of the memory process.

KEY TERMS

antisocial behavior

behavioral tendency

classical conditioning

conditioned reflex

conditioned stimulus

conditioning

discrimination

discriminative stimulus

encoding

experience

extinction

incentive

insight

insight learning

involuntary

latent learning

law of effect

learning

learning set

learning to learn

learning-performance distinction

long-term memory

memory

mnemonic device

model

negative reinforcer

observational learning

operant

operant behavior

operant conditioning apparatus (Skin-

ner box)

partial reinforcement effect

positive reinforcer

primary reinforcer

prosocial behavior

random reinforcement

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Learning: Understanding Acquired Behavior 89

recall

recognition

reinforcer

repression

response

retrieval

reward

secondary reinforcer

short-term memory

social learning theory

stamping in

stimulus generalization

storage

trial-and-error learning

unconditioned reflex

unconditioned stimulus

vicarious reinforcement

working memory

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7Motivation: Why Do We Do

What We Do?

PREVIEW QUIZ

True or False

1. TF Biological drives are regulated by a principle known as hyperstatic

integration.

2. TF General drives, unlike biological drives, are not inborn.

3. TF The need for autonomy is a motive to do what one wants to do.

4. TF According to Freud, all motives are conscious.

5. TF The need for self-actualization is the need to maximize one’s talents

and potentialities.

(Answers can be found on page 105.)

Chapter 6 emphasized the point of view that much of our behavior is

determined by what we have learned. Another factor that determines much

of our behavior is motivation. Motives can be thought of as the forces

behind our actions. Learning and motivation have a close relationship.

They interact. For example, a motive may impel an action, but learning

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Motivation: Why Do We Do What We Do? 91

directs the way it is expressed. In this chapter you will discover the signifi-

cant role that motivation plays in behavior.

Objectives

After completing this chapter, you will be able to

• define the concept of motivation;

• list and describe the principal biological drives;

• specify the characteristics of the general drives;

• identify some of the principal acquired motives;

• explain the nature of unconscious motives;

• define the concept of self-actualization;

• explain the importance of the will to meaning.

Human beings spend most of their time during the day engaged in actions.

They drive cars, raise children, have vocations, spend time with hobbies, go on

vacations, gamble, take unnecessary risks, play, and so forth. Why do we do what

we do? This is the great question associated with the subject of motivation.

The word motivation is related to words such as motor, motion, and emotion.

(Emotion is discussed in chapter 8.) All of these words imply some form of activ-

ity, some kind of movement. And this is one of the principal features of life—a

kind of restless movement that appears to arise from sources within the organism.

These sources are called motives.

A motive is a state of physiological or psychological arousal that is assumed to

play a causal role in behavior. Physiological arousal refers to such states as hunger

and thirst. Psychological arousal refers to motives such as the need for achieve-

ment. The two factors, physiological and psychological, of course interact. For

example, a biological drive such as sex tends to interact with a psychological

motive such as the need to be loved.

It is important to note that from the point of view of psychology as a science, a

motive is an intervening variable. An intervening variable is a variable used to

explain behavior. It is assumed to reside within the organism and “intervene”

between stimulus and response. An intervening variable can’t be seen or otherwise

directly observed. It is inferred from studying behavior. If we see someone buying a

sandwich in a snack bar, we may infer that the individual is hungry. However, he or

she may in fact be buying the sandwich for a friend. The important point is that when

we act as investigators of the behavior of others, we do not experience their motives.

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92 PSYCHOLOGY

(a) The word motivation is related to words such as motor, motion, and emotion. All of

these words imply some form of activity, some kind of .

(b) From the point of view of psychology as a science, a motive is an .

Answers: (a) movement; (b) intervening variable.

Biological Drives: The Need for Food and Water

We would not do anything at all if we were not alive. That is why in some sense it

can be argued that the root cause of all behavior can be traced to a group of biolog-

ical drives. Biological drives are inborn drives, and their principal feature is that

they impel us to attend to our tissue needs, to maintain ourselves as organisms. The

basic theme associated with biological drives is survival. We would die fairly quickly

if we did not follow the dictates of our biological drives on a fairly regular basis.

The biological drives are familiar. The following are frequently specified:

hunger, thirst, sleep, temperature, oxygen hunger, pain, and sex. Note that if the

word hunger appears without an adjective in front of it, then the word refers to the

hunger for food. Also note how any of the biological drives can act as a motive.

For example, if your temperature level is such that you feel cold, you might be

motivated to put a coat on.

Most of the drives direct us toward a stimulus. We seek food if we are hungry.

We seek water if we are thirsty. Pain is unlike the other drives in this particular

regard. Pain directs us away from a stimulus. It motivates us to escape from the

source of the pain.

Sex also has a unique status among the biological drives. The general theme

of the biological drives, as already noted, is survival. Usually we think of this as

the survival of the individual. However, in the case of sex, survival is generalized

beyond the individual. The long-run purpose of sex is to assure the survival of

the species.

(a) Biological drives are drives.

(b) The basic theme associated with biological drives is .

Answers: (a) inborn; (b) survival; (c) away.

An important physiological process associated with the biological drives is

homeostasis. Homeostasis is a physiological process characterized by a tendency

for biological drives to maintain themselves at optimal levels of arousal. The term

homeostasis was introduced in the 1920s by the physiologist Walter B. Cannon, and

it can be roughly translated as “an unchanging sameness.”

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Motivation: Why Do We Do What We Do? 93

The hunger drive provides an example of how homeostasis works. If your

blood sugar is low, you will feel hungry. You will be motivated to seek food and

eat. If you eat an appropriate amount of food, your blood sugar will gradually

rise to an optimal level. On the other hand, if you happen to overeat, your blood

sugar will rapidly rise to an overly high level. Under these circumstances, your

pancreas will secrete extra insulin, returning your blood sugar from its overly

high level to a lower one. The body’s goal is to maintain blood sugar at an opti-

mal level.

Hormones, secretions of the endocrine glands, also play a role in mediating the

activity of the biological drives. We have already seen in chapter 3 how the hor-

mone melatonin is involved in the regulation of sleep. It was also noted in the same

chapter that the estrogen hormones and testosterone are associated with the sexual

drive.

Biological drives play a significant role in the learning process. Drive reduc-

tion theory states that when an action pays off in such a way that it reduces the

tension associated with a biological drive in a state of arousal, then that action is

reinforced. It is reinforcing for a hungry rat in an operant conditioning apparatus

to obtain food by pressing a lever. This principle can be readily generalized to

some human behavior. A hunter’s learned actions provide an example. These may

include how to load a particular kind of gun or the skills involved in tracking a

specific animal. If the ultimate goal of a series of actions is food, water, escape

from pain, sexual gratification, or another biological drive, then the drive reduc-

tion principle may operate to shape learned behavior.

(a) Homeostasis is a physiological process characterized by a tendency for biological drives

to maintain themselves at levels of arousal.

(b) Drive reduction theory states than when an action pays off in such a way that it reduces

the tension associated with a biological drive in a state of arousal, then that action is

Answers: (a) optimal; (b) reinforced.

General Drives: Looking for New Experiences

General drives, like biological drives, are inborn. Unlike biological drives,

they do not appear to operate on the principle of homeostasis. Three general

drives of particular interest are the curiosity drive, the activity drive, and the

affectional drive.

The curiosity drive urges us to seek novel stimulation, to look for new

experiences. The drive is active in infants. Present an infant with a familiar rattle.

The infant may show a little interest, and then put the rattle aside. Present the

infant with a second, unfamiliar rattle. Interest will be renewed. The renewed

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94 PSYCHOLOGY

interest is explained by the curiosity drive. The different color or the different

shape of the novel rattle elicits attention. The curiosity drive is activated by

change of stimulation.

The need for stimulation is a profound one. Sensory deprivation research

brings this point into bold relief. Sensory deprivation exists when vision, hear-

ing, and the other senses are forced to operate with little or no information aris-

ing from the external world. Volunteer subjects deprived of light, sound, and

other information to the senses often report sensory hallucinations. Some see fly-

ing fireballs. Others hear strange music. Some have out-of-body experiences. All

of this suggests that it is necessary to have a flow of stimulation in order to main-

tain perceptual stability.

And change of stimulation, sought by the curiosity drive, has a greater value

than constant stimulation. The same note played over and over and over again is

experienced as boring. A series of notes played in different pitches and with time

variations becomes an interesting melody.

(a) Like biological drives, general drives are also .

(b) The curiosity drive is activated by .

little or no information arising from the external world?

Answers: (a) inborn; (b) change of stimulation; (c) Sensory deprivation.

The curiosity drive may also play a role in risk-taking behavior, behavior

in which individuals unnecessarily place themselves in physical jeopardy. Exam-

ples of such behavior include sky diving, hang gliding, hot air ballooning, driv-

ing over the speed limit, and so forth. One interpretation of such behavior is to

hypothesize that some individuals have self-destructive tendencies. And it is

possible that such tendencies may play an important role in the behavior. A sec-

ond interpretation of risk-taking behavior is to hypothesize that some individ-

uals are somewhat bored with their day-to-day lives, lives that do not include

enough change of stimulation. Risk-taking behavior is one way of increasing

the level of stimulation, increasing central nervous system arousal, and experi-

encing excitement.

A second general drive to be identified is the activity drive, one that urges

us to make motor movements even when our biological drives are satisfied. A

rat that is not hungry, thirsty, nor otherwise in biological need can be placed in

a wheeled cage. If it runs, the cage will spin. And the rat will run for no partic-

ular reason other than to run. Infants display a certain amount of restless

motion. If an adult is forced to sit and wait for a long time in a physician’s office,

it is likely that the individual will cross and uncross his or her legs, get up and

walk around, step outside for a few minutes, and so forth. The movement is an

end in itself.

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Motivation: Why Do We Do What We Do? 95

(a) is behavior in which individuals unnecessarily place themselves in

physical jeopardy.

(b) What drive urges us to make motor movements even when our biological drives are

satisfied?

Answers: (a) Risk-taking behavior; (b) The activity drive.

A third general drive to be identified is the affectional drive, the need for

the kind of emotional nurturance that helps to sustain a sense of well-being and

an optimistic attitude toward life. The research psychologist Harry Harlow, a for-

mer president of the American Psychological Association, deprived a group of

rhesus monkeys of their biological mothers. He raised the monkeys in social iso-

lation. He discovered that, deprived of mother love, many of the monkeys dis-

played behavior somewhat similar to infantile autism, a pathological condition

characterized by a lack of interest in others, self-destructiveness, and a preoccupa-

tion with rigid, self-oriented behavior.

The psychoanalyst Erik Erikson, an important personality theorist, theorized

that the first stage of psychosocial development is trust versus mistrust (see

chapter 13). If an infant develops a sense of trust during the first two years of life,

this positive foundation will have a beneficial impact on future personality devel-

opment. If an infant develops a sense of mistrust during the first two years of life,

this negative foundation will have an adverse impact on future personality devel-

opment. A major factor in the development of a sense of trust is the meeting of

an infant’s need for affection.

(a) What drive is characterized by the need for the kind of emotional nurturance that helps

to sustain a sense of well being?

(b) What pathological condition is characterized by a lack of interest in others, self-

destructiveness, and a preoccupation with rigid, self-oriented behavior?

Answers: (a) The affectional drive; (b) Infantile autism; (c) Trust versus mistrust.

Acquired Motives: Exploring the Need to Achieve

Acquired motives are motives in which learning plays a large role. This does not

mean that acquired motives do not have underpinnings in biological and general

drives. However, these drives have been modified by experience, and express

themselves in ways that are unique to the individual. One way to look at acquired

motives is to think of them as somewhat stable, persistent behavioral tendencies.

Quite a bit is known about a person if one is familiar with the pattern of that per-

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96 PSYCHOLOGY

son’s acquired motives. These motives are also sometimes called social motives,

meaning they affect the way we relate to other people.

First, the need for achievement is a motive to reach one’s goals. All social

motives can be thought of as ranging from high to low. A person with a high need

for achievement is likely to be ambitious, strive to make a success of a business, or

earn academic recognition. A person with a low need for achievement may lack

ambition, be unconcerned about financial reward, and have very few dreams or

aspirations.

(a) Acquired motives are motives in which plays a large role.

(b) Because they impact on the way in which we relate to other people, acquired motives

are sometimes called motives.

a high .

Answers: (a) learning; (b) social; (c) need for achievement.

Second, the need for autonomy is a motive to do what one wants to do

without too much regard for what others expect. The need is reflected in phrases

such as “do your own thing” or “I’m doing it my way.” A person with a high need

for autonomy is likely to pursue a pathway in life that is self-defined. A person

with a low need for autonomy often feels that he or she is the victim of the

demands of others.

Third, the need for order is a motive that urges the individual to impose

organization on the immediate environment. A person with a high need for order

is likely to keep good records, have important papers neatly filed, dislike clutter in

the home, and so forth. A person with a low need for order doesn’t seem to mind

a certain amount of disorganization in the immediate environment. Neatness does

not have a high priority.

Fourth, the need for affiliation is a motive to associate with others. A per-

son with a high need for affiliation is likely to have a lot of friends, socialize fre-

quently, and dislike being alone. A person with a low need for affiliation will

have a few carefully selected friends, not be attracted to parties, and seek time

alone.

(a) The need for is a motive to do what one wants to do.

(b) The need for is a motive that urges the individual to impose organization

on the immediate environment.

Answers: (a) autonomy; (b) order; (c) affiliation.

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Motivation: Why Do We Do What We Do? 97

Fifth, the need for dominance is a motive to control the behavior of others.

A person with a high need for dominance will seek positions of authority in the

workplace or to be the principal decision maker in a marriage. A person with a low

need for dominance will tend to be somewhat submissive and often overly agreeable.

Sixth, the need for exhibition is a motive to be noticed by others. A person

with a high need for exhibition is likely to talk loudly, dress in novel ways, or

otherwise call attention to himself or herself. A person with a low need for exhi-

bition is likely to be somewhat retiring and conforming when relating to others.

Seventh, the need for aggression is a motive to engage in conflict or to hurt

others. A person with a high need for aggression may inflict physical harm on

others by hitting, cutting, or shooting. However the need for aggression can also

be expressed in psychological terms. A person with a high need for aggression is

likely to be insulting and to make demeaning remarks. A person with a low need

for aggression is likely to avoid conflict whenever possible and to avoid hurting the

feelings of others.

There are other acquired motives. The list above is representative, not

exhaustive.

Although the acquired motives were presented in terms of high and low needs,

many people, perhaps most, do not manifest the extremes. It is possible to have a

moderate need for achievement, a moderate need for autonomy, and so forth.

(a) The need for is a motive to control the behavior of others.

(b) The need for is a motive to be noticed by others.

Answers: (a) dominance; (b) exhibition; (c) aggression.

Unconscious Motives: Hidden Reasons for Our Behavior

Sigmund Freud, the father of psychoanalysis, believed that motives can be

unconscious. Unconscious motives may operate outside of the control of the

ego, the “I” of the personality. Freud asserted that there is a force in the mind

called repression. Repression is an ego defense mechanism characterized by an

involuntary tendency to shove mental information that threatens the integrity

and stability of the ego down to an unconscious psychological domain (see

chapter 13).

If Freud is correct, the reasons for human behavior are often obscure to the

individual. People act on impulse, do things they regret, and often muddle

through life. Some individuals appear to have only the murkiest of notions why

they make certain choices and take certain turns in life. Freud’s way of looking at

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98 PSYCHOLOGY

human motivation is particularly useful when one is trying to explain why people

do self-defeating things.

The two kinds of motives that tend to be repressed are forbidden sexual desires

and forbidden aggressive urges. Note the importance of the word forbidden. A

desire for sex with one’s spouse would not qualify as a forbidden sexual desire.

However, if Conrad, a married man, desires sex with his wife’s sister, then this is

likely to violate his moral code and to become repressed. Conrad finds himself, for

example, becoming hostile to his wife’s sister. He tells his wife that he doesn’t like

her sister and wishes she wouldn’t visit so often. His wife can’t understand why he

has so much animosity toward her sister.

The explanation for the animosity lies in an ego defense mechanism called

reaction formation (see chapter 13). A reaction formation reinforces the repres-

sion. By acting hostile toward a woman he is attracted to, the husband keeps her

at a distance, alienates her, and protects himself against his repressed sexual desire.

The behavior is, of course, self-defeating because he is undermining the quality of

his relationship with his wife and a relative.

(a) According to Freud, what force in the mind creates unconscious motives?

(b) The two kinds of motives that tend to be unconscious are forbidden desires

and forbidden urges.

Answers: (a) Repression; (b) sexual; aggressive.

One of the problems with unconscious motives is that they may lead to act-

ing out, behavior in which the unconscious motives gain temporary ascendancy

over the defense mechanism of repression. For example, Conrad has had one

drink too many at a New Year’s Eve party. He finds himself kissing or touching

his wife’s sister in an inappropriate way. She is furious, tells Conrad’s wife, and

Conrad’s marriage is threatened. The next day, sober, he says he can’t understand

“what took possession of me.”

Here is an example of how a forbidden aggressive urge can cause a problem in

living. Linette, a mother of three children and a full-time homemaker, is married

to Eric, an insurance broker. Eric is an authoritarian husband. He is demanding

and controlling and has very little regard for Linette’s feelings. She feels taken for

granted. In terms of her religious tradition and her concept of how a good wife

should behave, she does not allow herself the luxury of hostile feelings toward Eric

at a conscious level. Her frustrations induce her to feel aggressive toward Eric, but

her code of conduct is such that she needs to repress her wish to give him a piece

of her mind or refuse to be the sweet person she usually tries to be. The repressed

hostility takes its toll. She suffers from a moderate, chronic depression. When she

is cooking, she burns food “by accident.” She is an unenthusiastic sex partner.

According to Freud, forbidden sexual impulses and forbidden aggressive urges

play a significant role in self-defeating behaviors. Actions that seem paradoxical

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Motivation: Why Do We Do What We Do? 99

and superficially unexplainable can be understood by examining the way in which

repressed motives express themselves in devious ways.

(a) What term describes behavior in which the unconscious motives gain temporary ascen-

dancy over the defense mechanism of repression?

(b) Linette burns her husband’s food “by accident.” This may be an example of .

Answers: (a) Acting out; (b) repressed hostility.

Self-Actualization: Becoming the Person

You Were Meant to Be

Abraham Maslow, author of Toward a Psychology of Being and a principal advocate

of the humanistic viewpoint in psychology, presented a large-canvas description of

human motivation. This description is known as Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.

Cognitive needs

Esteem needs

Love and belongingness needs

Safety needs

Physiological needs

The need for

self-actualization

The need for

self-actualization

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.

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100 PSYCHOLOGY

According to Maslow, human needs can be ranked in terms of “lower needs” and

“higher needs.”

Imagine a pyramid in six layers. The needs ascend from the lower needs at the

base of the pyramid to the higher needs at the apex. The first layer of the pyramid

represents physiological needs. These are the need for food, water, and so forth.

These are associated with the biological drives, already discussed toward the

beginning of the chapter.

The second layer of the pyramid represents safety needs. These include the

need for shelter, protection from injury, and so forth. Safety needs are reflected in

such individual behaviors as wearing a seat belt and such social behaviors as organ-

izing a police force.

(a) The first layer of a pyramid structured according to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs repre-

sents needs.

(b) The second layer of the pyramid represents needs.

Answers: (a) physiological; (b) safety.

The third layer of the pyramid represents love and belongingness needs.

These include the need for affection, the need to love, and the need to be loved.

Love and belongingness needs are reflected in such behaviors as joining a club,

forming friendships, getting married, and having children. The importance of

love and belongingness needs is evident in many popular songs. They frequently

focus on the elation one feels when a love relationship is going well or the despair

one feels when such a relationship is going badly.

The fourth layer of the pyramid represents esteem needs. These include

the need to be esteemed by others and self-esteem. The need to be esteemed by

others is reflected in behaviors such as seeking a higher rank within an organi-

zation or working for a prestigious award or degree. Self-esteem is the sense of

value that one feels about oneself. It is a kind of inner psychological ranking.

Low self-esteem is associated with depression and a pessimistic outlook on life.

High self-esteem is associated with a positive mood and an optimistic outlook

on life.

The fifth layer of the pyramid represents cognitive needs. Cognitive needs

include the need for mental stimulation, the need to use one’s intelligence, and

the need to exercise creative abilities. Cognitive needs are reflected in such behav-

iors as reading a book, writing a story, working a crossword puzzle, taking a class,

solving a problem, and so forth.

(a) The third layer of the Maslow pyramid represents and needs.

(b) The fourth layer of the pyramid represents needs.

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Motivation: Why Do We Do What We Do? 101

Answers: (a) love; belongingness; (b) esteem; (c) cognitive.

The sixth and top layer of the pyramid represents the need for self-

actualization. Of all the needs, this is the one that is primarily associated with

the thinking and research of Maslow. Maslow hypothesized that this need is

inborn. Also, it is emergent, meaning that it only becomes a pressing need when

the other lower needs are relatively satisfied. The need for self-actualization is the

need to maximize one’s talents and potentialities. It is sometimes informally

phrased as “the need to become the person you were meant to be.”

The need for self-actualization is reflected in such behaviors as working

toward success in a vocational field or seeking way of life that represents one’s own

idea of personal fulfillment. There is no field of work or style of life that can be

specified, because the individual’s choice and perception are of particular impor-

tance. For one person, self-actualization might mean the pursuit of an acting

career. For another person, self-actualization might mean becoming a parent. The

important thing, according to Maslow, is that the individual discovers what is right

for himself or herself.

Maslow’s research suggested that many, perhaps most, people are not self-

actualizing. The price paid for a failure to be self-actualizing is a sense of disap-

pointment in life and in oneself.

(a) The sixth layer of the Maslow pyramid represents the need for .

(b) The need for self-actualization is the need to maximize one’s and

Answers: (a) self-actualization; (b) talents; potentialities.

On the other hand, if one is in fact self-actualizing, there are important psy-

chological rewards associated with the process. First, one will tend to experience

both a general sense of psychological health and a pleasant day-to-day emotional

tone. Second, the individual will from time to time have peak experiences.

These are moments or joy or ecstasy when a hurdle is overcome, a task is com-

pleted, or a goal is reached.

Note that a person is not referred to as self-actualized, but as self-actualizing.

Maslow is talking about the process of becoming, not an end state. Self-actualization

as a process can be a rich source of psychological reward for most of one’s life.

Maslow makes a distinction between deficiency motivation and being motiva-

tion. Deficiency motivation refers to those needs lowest on the hierarchy. We

need to overcome deficiency states such as hunger, thirst, and danger in order to

move upward toward the higher levels. Being motivation tends to be associated

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102 PSYCHOLOGY

with the higher levels, particularly with the need for self-actualization. The theme

of being motivation is growth.

(a) Peak experiences are moments of or .

(b) What kind of motivation refers to needs lowest on Maslow’s hierarchy?

Answers: (a) joy; ecstasy; (b) Deficiency motivation; (c) Being motivation.

The Search for Meaning: Looking for the Why of Life

It would seem that self-actualization is the greatest height that can be reached by

human motivation, and from reading Maslow’s writings one would get that dis-

tinct impression. Nonetheless, it can be argued that there is one motivational level

extending above self-actualization. The existential psychiatrist Viktor Frankl,

author of Man’s Search for Meaning, argues that the highest level for human beings

is the will to meaning, the need for life to make sense and to have a purpose in

the larger scheme of things.

Frankl asserts that the will to meaning is inborn, that it is a real psychological

and emotional need. If a person lives a meaningful life, then that life will be full

and rewarding. If a person lives a meaningless life, then that life will be empty and

pointless. Frankl calls this adverse mental and emotional state the existential vac-

uum. One of its principal characteristics is demoralization, the conviction that

nothing has any value and that nothing is worth doing.

Some of Frankl’s assertions about the importance of our search for meaning

arise from his own experiences in a Nazi concentration camp. Although he was a

prisoner himself, he did not forget that he was a physician and a psychiatrist. He

felt it was his responsibility to give comfort and aid to his fellow prisoners when-

ever possible. This became his reason for living, and he credits it with his ability to

survive under extremely harsh conditions. He argues that when a human being

has a reason for existence, he or she can often tolerate a high level of pain and frus-

tration. It is instructive to note that the original title of Man’s Search for Meaning

was From Death Camp to Existentialism.

(a) Frankl argues that the highest level of motivation for human beings is the .

(b) The term used to identify an empty and pointless life is the .

Answers: (a) will to meaning; (b) existential vacuum.

How is meaning fulfilled? Frankl argues that the will to meaning orients

itself toward values, perceived aspects of the world that seem to have worth or

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Motivation: Why Do We Do What We Do? 103

importance to other individuals or to humanity in general. This may seem very

exalted, but in practice it can be very basic. Being fair and decent in one’s deal-

ings with friends and relatives is an example of a value. Raising one’s children

in a loving way is another example. For most people, meaning can readily be

found in living traditional social roles—being an effective teacher, parent, nurse,

auto mechanic, loving partner, and so forth. Note that in all of these social roles

there is some service or contribution to others. The will to meaning reaches

beyond the self.

For some people, humanity in general is served by the will to meaning. When

we think of great authors, scientists, or leaders, we see that their contributions to

life extend beyond an immediate family to the larger human family. But the basic

theme is the same—a concern with the welfare of others.

Frankl argues that values do not have to be invented. They need to be discov-

ered. He says that a person suffering from an existential vacuum is like a person in

a room with the lights out. The individual thinks that there is no furniture in the

room because he or she can’t see it. Then the lights are turned on and the furni-

ture becomes visible. Values, like the pieces of furniture in the room, are real and

present. But they have to be discovered by the light of human consciousness in

order for the individual to have a meaningful life.

(a) Values are perceived aspects of the world that seem to have or

to other individuals or to humanity in general.

(b) Frankl argues that values do not have to be invented. Instead, they need to be

Answers: (a) worth; importance; (b) discovered.

SELF-TEST

1. From the point of view of psychology as a science a motive is

a. a dependent variable

b. an independent variable

c. a radical variable

d. an intervening variable

2. A physiological process characterized by a tendency for biological drives to

maintain themselves at optimal levels of arousal is called

a. homeostasis

b. metamotivation

c. hyperstatic integration

d. heterostasis

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104 PSYCHOLOGY

3. Which of the following is clearly associated with the curiosity drive?

a. The need to escape from pain

b. The need for affiliation

c. The search for meaning in life

d. The tendency to seek novel stimulation

4. Which of the following is a motive to associate with others?

a. The need for dominance

b. The need for exhibition

c. The need for aggression

d. The need for affiliation

5. According to Freud, what force in the mind is responsible for the creation of

unconscious motives?

a. Repression

b. Ego inhibition

c. Superego excitation

d. Homeostasis

6. Which one of the following is associated with cognitive needs?

a. Seeking a higher rank within an organization

b. Working a crossword puzzle

c. Looking for love

d. Searching for shelter

7. Self-actualization is most closely linked to which of the following?

a. Feeling hungry

b. Maximizing potentialities

c. Seeking novel stimulation

d. Wanting affection

8. What does Maslow call moments of joy or ecstasy experienced when a hurdle

is overcome, a task is completed, or a goal is reached?

a. Hedonic experiences

b. Transcendental experiences

c. Peak experiences

d. Summit experiences

9. Frankl argues that the highest level of motivation for human beings is the

a. will to meaning

b. need for transcendental experience

c. wish to become one with the All

d. desire to exercise the will to power

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Motivation: Why Do We Do What We Do? 105

10. If a person lives a meaningless life, then that life will be empty and pointless.

Frankl calls this mental and emotional state

a. major depressive episode

b. bipolar disorder

c. the existential vacuum

d. biochemical depression

ANSWERS TO THE SELF-TEST

1-d 2-a 3-d 4-d 5-a 6-b 7-b 8-c 9-a 10-c

ANSWERS TO THE TRUE-OR-FALSE PREVIEW QUIZ

1. False. Biological drives are regulated by a principle known as homeostasis.

2. False. General drives, like biological drives, are inborn.

3. True.

4. False. According to Freud, some motives are unconscious.

5. True.

KEY TERMS

acquired motives

acting out

activity drive

affectional drive

being motivation

biological drives

change of stimulation

cognitive needs

curiosity drive

deficiency motivation

drive reduction theory

emergent

esteem needs

existential vacuum

general drives

hierarchy of needs

homeostasis

infantile autism

intervening variable

love and belongingness needs

motivation

motive

need for achievement

need for affiliation

need for aggression

need for autonomy

need for dominance

need for exhibition

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106 PSYCHOLOGY

need for order

need for self-actualization

peak experiences

physiological needs

reaction formation

repression

risk-taking behavior

safety needs

self-esteem

sensory deprivation

social motives

trust versus mistrust

unconscious motives

values

will to meaning

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8Emotions: Riding Life’s

Roller Coaster

107

PREVIEW QUIZ

True or False

1. TF The pleasant-unpleasant aspect of emotions is associated with the point

of view, proposed by the philosopher Aristotle, known as hedonism.

2. TF The James-Lange theory proposes that feelings cause our actions.

3. TF Chronic stress appears to have no long-run effect on general health.

4. TF Type A behavior is associated with heart attacks and cardiovascular dis-

ease.

5. TF An approach-approach conflict exists when an individual perceives the

same goal in both positive and negative terms.

(Answers can be found on page 118.)

The story of motivation does not begin and end with the motives discussed in

chapter 7. Emotions are also part of the story of motivation. The very word

emotion contains “motion” in it. (Whenever we act we are, so to speak,

in motion.) In this chapter you will find out how emotions can double as

motives and also the way in which emotions add color and dimension to life.

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Objectives

After completing this chapter, you will be able to

• define the concept of emotions;

• identify the two basic psychological dimensions of emotions;

• describe the three aspects of all emotions;

• explain the three basic theories of emotions;

• specify how chronic stress affects general health;

• state the conditions of the four basic kinds of psychological conflict.

What would life be like without emotions?

In some ways life would be better. We would not experience the distress asso-

ciated with anger, fear, and depression. We would never be in a bad mood. There

would be no unhappiness.

On the other hand, without emotions there would be no joy, laughter, or

excitement. We would never know the pleasure of a good mood. There would be

no happiness.

Emotions give life much of its dimension and depth. Although emotions can

sometimes diminish the quality of existence, they also often enrich life. The ups

and downs associated with our emotional states give life something of the quality

of a roller-coaster ride. Some people live a wild emotional life characterized by

extreme highs and lows. Others lead a more rational emotional life—the highs

and lows are not too extreme. But we all ride life’s emotional roller coaster in one

way or another. Consequently, emotions merit study and have an important place

in psychology.

Emotions: What Are They?

The word emotion is a contraction of two words: exit and motion. The ancient Greeks

believed that the smiles and the frowns associated with such states as happiness or

sadness indicated that the soul was coming out of the body and revealing itself. It was

making an “exit motion.” This became “e-motion” or simply “emotion.”

An emotion is, at the physiological level, a disruption in homeostatic base-

lines. There are changes in heart rate, respiration rate, and blood pressure. These

are fluctuations in arousal. At the psychological level, these physiological changes

are experienced as either greater excitement or increased calmness. Human beings

also experience these changes as either pleasant or unpleasant.

(a) The word emotion is a contraction of what two words? and

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(b) An emotion is, at the physiological level, a disruption in baselines.

Answers: (a) Exit; motion; (b) homeostatic.

It is evident from the above that there are two basic psychological dimensions

to emotions: excitement-calm and pleasant-unpleasant. The pleasant-unpleasant

dimension of emotions is identified as hedonic tone. The concept of hedo-

nism, as presented by the philosopher Aristotle, was a motivational concept.

Hedonism is the point of view that we approach stimulus situations that are pleas-

ant and avoid situations that are unpleasant.

The two dimensions of emotions generate four categories of emotions: (1)

excitement-pleasant, (2) excitement-unpleasant, (3) calm-pleasant, and (4) calm-

unpleasant. All of the many words that we use to describe emotions can be read-

ily placed in one of these categories. Words such as happy, joy, and ecstasy belong

in category 1. Words such as anger, fear, and rage belong in category 2. Words such

as relaxed, blissful, and tranquil belong in category 3. Words such as sad, melancholy,

and depressed belong in category 4.

(a) What are the two basic psychological dimensions of emotions? and

(b) Proposed by Aristotle, what is the philosophical viewpoint that we approach stimulus sit-

uations that are pleasant and avoid situations that are unpleasant?

Answers: (a)Excitement-calm; pleasant-unpleasant; (b) Hedonism; (c) Four.

Emotions: Riding Life’s Roller Coaster 109

Excitement

Calm

Pleasant Unpleasant

Arousal

Hedonic tone

The two basic dimensions of emotions.

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There are three aspects to all emotions: (1) cognitive, (2) physiological, and (3)

behavioral. The cognitive aspect of emotions refers to what one is thinking

when one feels an emotion. Thoughts such as “What a wonderful day,” “I hate

him,” and “I think we’re going to crash” are likely to either induce emotional

states or be associated with them.

The physiological aspect of emotions refers to the disruption of homeo-

static baselines. As already indicated, emotions are associated with either increased

or decreased arousal. Fear is associated with increased arousal. Depression is asso-

ciated with decreased arousal.

The behavioral aspect of emotions refers to what people do when they feel

an emotion, what actions they take. Fear might induce a person to run away, if pos-

sible, from the stimulus source that is causing fear. If a person can’t run, he or she

might shake and tremble. If the fear is being caused by a threat from a menacing per-

son, one might plead, turn over a purse or wallet, or beg for mercy. On the other

hand, an emotion such as depression might induce a particular person to sit in a chair

and mope. Another person in response to depression might go on an eating binge.

(a) What one is thinking when one feels an emotion is what aspect of emotions?

(b) Disruption of homeostatic baselines refers to what aspect of emotions?

Answers: (a)Cognitive; (b) Physiological; (c) Behavioral.

Theories of Emotion: Explaining the Process

There are three principal theories of emotion that attempt to explain the general

emotional process: (1) the James-Lange theory, (2) the Cannon-Bard theory, and

(3) the cognitive appraisal theory.

The James-Lange theory was proposed independently by two men,

William James in the United States and Carl Lange in Denmark. The theory states

that an emotion can be induced by an action. The following example is based on

observations made by James. Let’s say that you see a bear in a forest. Common

sense tells you that if you run away, the action of running is motivated by fear. On

the other hand, according to James, common sense tells only half of the story. It

is equally true that running makes you feel fear. At first presentation this does not

seem reasonable. On the other hand, reflection suggests that the act of running has

the effect of increasing arousal. If you were simply to get up now and run in place

for two or three minutes, you would increase your pulse and heart rate; there

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would be increased arousal. Under the condition of running away from the bear,

the act of running intensifies fear by increasing arousal.

If there is anything to the James-Lange theory, then one can influence one’s

feeling to some extent by willing one’s actions. The familiar advice to walk, not

run, when there is a fire in a public place conforms to the James-Lange theory. It

is widely recognized that the act of running, by increasing arousal, will cause fear

to escalate into panic.

In the musical play The King and I, Anna’s young son confesses to her that

he is afraid to enter Siam. Anna tells him that one of the tricks she uses to con-

quer fear is to whistle a happy tune. She says that by acting brave, he might

become as brave as he’s making believe he is. Again, the James-Lange theory is

at work. An action is inducing a change in an emotional state. Fear is being

turned into bravery.

(a) The James-Lange theory states that an emotion can be induced by an .

(b) The act of running has the effect of increasing one’s state of .

Answers: (a) action; (b) arousal.

The Cannon-Bard theory, also known as the thalamic theory, is based on

the collaboration of the two researchers Walter B. Cannon and Philip Bard. The

Cannon-Bard theory recognizes that the brain’s thalamus is a relay station. When

information comes in from the senses and arrives at the thalamus, the information

is simultaneously sent up to the cortex and down to the spinal cord. This means

that we become conscious of the cause of an emotion at the same time that our

body is preparing to deal with it by making changes in physiological arousal.

Returning to the bear-in-the-forest example, the Cannon-Bard theory says

that you are becoming aroused, and physiologically prepared to run, at the same

time that you are able to think, “That’s a bear!” This saves the individual precious

time in an emergency.

(a) The Canon-Bard theory is also known as the .

(b) According to the Cannon-Bard theory, when information comes in from the senses and

arrives at the thalamus, the information is sent up to the cortex and down

to the spinal cord.

Answers: (a) thalamic theory; (b) simultaneously.

Proposed by the researcher Stanley Schachter, the cognitive appraisal the-

ory, also known as the labeling-of-arousal hypothesis, states that a person’s

self-labeling of a state of arousal converts that state into a specific emotion. Let’s

say that Earl is driving, has taken a wrong turn, and is lost in an unfamiliar area of

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a big city. His pulse increases, his mouth feels dry, his muscles increase their ten-

sion. All of this is involuntary. He is experiencing increased arousal. He asks him-

self, “What’s going on? Why is my pulse faster?” Let’s say he thinks, “I’m afraid.”

By defining his state of arousal in this way, he clearly feels fear. On the other hand,

let’s say that he was to take a different cognitive approach. He’s a person who

often seeks adventure. He answers the questions posed above by thinking, “I’m

getting a kick out of this. It’s a kind of bang to be challenged.” By defining his

state of arousal in terms of a more positive outlook, he might be “having fun”—

a positive emotional state—instead of experiencing fear. The hedonic tone, the

sense that a state of arousal is pleasant or unpleasant, is often associated with the

label that we assign to the state of arousal.

It is not necessary to make a distinct choice among the theories in order to

determine which one is right and which one is wrong. All three theories have

some degree of validity and help us to explain emotional states.

According to the cognitive appraisal theory, a person’s of a state of arousal

converts that state into a specific emotion.

Answer: self-labeling.

Stress and Health: Wear and Tear Takes Its Toll

It is widely recognized that increases in arousal tend to be associated with stress. A

formal distinction is made between a stressor and stress. A stressor refers to the

source, or cause, of stress. The loss of a job, an argument with a spouse, a conflict

situation, excessive cold or heat, and a physical threat are examples of stressors.

Stress refers to wear and tear on the body. Chronic stress takes a toll. The body

loses some of its resiliance, its ability to bounce back.

Let’s say that you take a small piece of metal and fold it back and forth. A crack

appears in the metal after a number of foldings. Each act of folding is a stressor.

The crack is the stress.

(a) What term is used to refer to the source, or cause, of stress?

(b) What term is used to refer to wear and tear on the body?

Answers: (a) Stressor; (b) Stress.

You will recall from chapter 3 that the Canadian researcher Hans Selye

(1907–1982) did a substantial amount of research on stress. Rats were subjected to

such stressors as excessive cold, excessive heat, and high-pitched whistles. Also,

the stressors were chronic in nature. They became a constant part of the animal’s

environment. Under such conditions, the organism is forced to adapt, and Selye

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developed a set of observations about the organism’s behavior under such condi-

tions. This set of observations is called the general adaptation syndrome

(GAS), a pattern that describes how an organism responds under conditions that

induce chronic stress. There are three stages in the general adaptation syndrome:

(1) The alarm reaction, (2) the stage of resistance, and (3) the stage of exhaustion.

The alarm reaction is characterized by an increase in arousal and general

alertness. The pulse and respiration rates increase and the blood vessels of the stri-

ated muscles narrow. The organism prepares itself to deal with a threat. The alarm

reaction is the individual’s response to a novel stressor.

(a) What is the name of the pattern that describes how an organism responds under condi-

tions that induce chronic stress?

(b) The reaction is the individual’s response to a novel stressor.

Answers: (a) The general adaptation syndrome; (b) alarm.

The stage of resistance is characterized by reduced agitation and excite-

ment. This stage represents an organism’s response to a stressor that has become

chronic. The individual learns to live with the stressor. During the stage of resist-

ance, the organism seems to have adapted to adverse conditions. Learning and

reproduction are possible.

The stage of exhaustion is associated with illness and death. The death is a

premature one. Postmortem examinations of rats subjected to chronic stressors

revealed that their adrenal glands were swollen. They had adapted at great physio-

logical cost. During the stage of resistance, the adrenal glands had pumped out

excessive amounts of their hormones and had overtaxed themselves.

(a) What stage of the general adaptation syndrome is characterized by reduced agitation

and excitement?

(b) What stage of the general adaptation syndrome is characterized by illness and death?

Answers: (a) The stage of resistance; (b) The stage of exhaustion.

The importance of the general adaptation syndrome has not been lost on

physicians and psychologists. Research suggests that human beings, like Selye’s

rats, are also subject to the damaging effects of chronic stressors. Research on life

change units and Type A behavior reveal the important role that stress plays in

human illness.

Life change units (LCUs) refers to stressors arising from events in a per-

son’s life that require adaptation. The two researchers who pioneered the general

approach are R. H. Rahe and T. H. Holmes. Studying a large group of subjects,

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they developed a measuring device called the Social Readjustment Rating

Scale (SRRS). The scale, based on the perceptions of subjects, assigns weighted

values to life changes. The maximum value is 100, and this is assigned to the

death of a spouse. Getting married has a value of 50. Loss of a job has a value of

47. Being given a traffic ticket has a value of 11. There are a number of similar

items on the scale. If a person collects 150 or more LCUs within a two-year

period, there is a high likelihood that he or she will experience a distinct health

problem.

(a) What is the name of the measuring device that employs life change units (LCUs)?

(b) Too many LCUs accumulated within a relatively brief time span is associated with what

kind of problem?

Answers: (a) The Social Readjustment Rating Scale; (b) A health problem.

The Type A behavior pattern is characterized by hostility and impatience.

Research conducted by the cardiologists Meyer Friedman and Ray H. Rosenman

strongly supports the hypothesis that individuals who display this pattern are more

prone than people in general to heart attacks and cardiovascular disease.

The contrasting pattern is called the Type B behavior pattern, and it is

characterized by an absence of general hostility and a willingness to allow events

to take place at their own rate. As might be expected, individuals who manifest

the Type B pattern are less prone to heart disease than individuals who manifest

the Type A pattern.

The existence of the Type A pattern suggests that behavior can itself be a source

of stress. Human beings are capable of self-induced stress, wear and tear on the

body generated by their own thoughts, choices, attitudes, and actions. The Roman

philosopher Cicero, writing about two thousand years ago, foreshadowed modern

research on stress when he said, “To live long it is necessary to live slowly.”

(a) What behavior pattern is characterized by hostility and impatience?

(b) Human beings are capable of stress, wear and tear on the body generated

by their own thoughts, attitudes, and actions.

Answers: (a) The Type A behavior pattern; (b) self-induced.

Conflict: Making Difficult Choices

Conflict is an important source of stress. Psychological conflict exists when

we are forced to make difficult choices in life. According to the social psy-

chologist Kurt Lewin, there are four basic ways to categorize conflict situations:

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(1) the approach-approach conflict, (2) the avoidance-avoidance conflict, (3) the

approach-avoidance conflict, and (4) the double approach-avoidance conflict.

The approach-approach conflict exists when an individual is presented

with two desirable alternatives, but only one alternative can be obtained. Desir-

able alternatives are termed positive goals. A mild example of an approach-

approach conflict is selecting a birthday card for a friend or relative. Let’s say that

Olympia is trying to pick a birthday card for her husband. She’s narrowed her

options down to two cards, but is having a hard time making a final selection.

She’s in an approach-approach conflict.

An approach-approach conflict might seem to induce relatively low stress.

After all, the individual has at least two good choices. But such a conflict can in

some cases induce quite a bit of stress. Eighteen-year-old Kirk has been accepted

at two leading colleges. They are in different parts of the country. The selection

he finally makes will have great long-run significance. He is in an intense

approach-approach conflict.

(a) exists when we are forced to make difficult choices in life.

(b) What kind of conflict exists when an individual is presented with two desirable alterna-

tives, but only one alternative can be obtained?

Answers: (a) Psychological conflict; (b) An approach-approach conflict; (c) positive.

An avoidance-avoidance conflict exists when the individual wants to

either escape from or avoid two undesirable alternatives. Undesirable alternatives

are termed negative goals. The central problem with this kind of conflict is that

moving away from one negative goal takes one in the direction of the other neg-

ative goal. Nineteen-year-old Nancy is in her first year of college. She doesn’t like

academic work, is barely passing, and is thinking of dropping out. On the other

hand, if she drops out, her parents have indicated they won’t support her. She’ll

have to take a low-paying, unskilled job. If she stays in school, she’ll be unhappy.

If she takes a low-paying job, she’ll be unhappy. She tells her best friend, “I’m

between a rock and a hard place.”

Associated with the research of the anthropologist Gregory Bateson, a term

sometimes used to identify an avoidance-avoidance conflict is a double bind. A

double bind is a no-win situation. Whatever the individual does, there is a sense

of failure or loss.

(a) What kind of conflict exists when the individual wants to escape from or avoid two

undesirable alternatives?

(b) Undesirable alternatives are termed goals.

Answers: (a) An avoidance-avoidance conflict; (b) negative.

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An approach-avoidance conflict exists when an individual perceives the

same goal in both positive and negative terms. Glen is in love with Margaret and

is thinking about marrying her. He sees her as beautiful, warm, and sexually desir-

able. On the other hand, Glen’s parents are opposed to Margaret. They point out

to him that she has a different religious affiliation than that of Glen and his par-

ents. Margaret takes her religion seriously. So do Glen and his parents. The two

religions are based on different assumptions. Glen’s parents tell him that they don’t

see how he can ever have a happy marriage with Margaret. If Glen and Margaret

have children, Margaret will want to raise them in her religious tradition. Glen

will want to raise them in his.

When Glen is away from Margaret, he thinks about her constantly. He misses

her, and often decides that he’ll propose marriage no matter what the conse-

quences. When he’s actually with her, the words associated with the marriage

proposal won’t leave his mouth. He gets cold feet at the last minute. One of the

characteristics of approach-avoidance conflicts is that the approach tendency tends

to gain strength when the positive aspect of the goal seems momentarily out of

reach. Conversely, the avoidance tendency tends to gain strength when in the

presence of the goal; under these conditions the negative factors tend to loom

large.

An individual caught in an approach-avoidance conflict often experiences a

sustained period of emotional conflict before a final decision is made.

(a) What kind of conflict exists when an individual perceives the same goal in both positive

and negative terms?

(b) An approach tendency tends to when the positive aspect of a goal seems

momentarily out of reach.

Answers: (a) An approach-avoidance conflict; (b) gain strength.

A double approach-avoidance conflict exists when an individual simulta-

neously perceives two goals in both positive and negative terms. This conflict is a

more complex version of the singular approach-avoidance conflict. Let’s say that

Pamela is on a diet. She’s having lunch in a restaurant. She is thinking about

ordering either a burger with fries or a salad with broiled chicken. Goal 1, the

burger and fries, is the more appealing choice to Pamela from the point of view

of taste and general appeal. On the other hand, the negative aspect is that the

combination will have too many calories and she’ll be cheating on her diet. Goal

2, the salad with broiled chicken, is the more appealing choice to Pamela from the

point of view of caloric content. On the other hand, the negative aspect is that she

is weary of salad and wants to have a treat.

Pamela’s dilemma presents a fairly mild version of the double approach-

avoidance conflict. However, such conflicts can be quite intense. Imagine that

Glen’s parents introduce him to Naomi. She and her parents are recent arrivals in

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the neighborhood, and they practice the same religion as Glen and his parents.

Naomi is young, pretty, and interested in Glen. He takes her out on a couple of

dates. He finds himself attracted to her, but not nearly as attracted as he is to Mar-

garet. By introducing Glen to Naomi, Glen’s parents have thrust him into a dou-

ble approach-avoidance conflict.

What kind of a conflict exists when an individual simultaneously perceives two goals in both

positive and negative terms?

Answer: A double approach-avoidance conflict.

SELF-TEST

1. The word emotion is a contraction of the two words

a. evaluation and motor

b. exit and motion

c. emission and movement

d. escape and mobile

2. The two basic psychological dimensions of emotion are

a. excitement-calm and low arousal–high arousal

b. extraversion-introversion and pleasant-unpleasant

c. homeostasis-alpha and homeostasis-beta

d. excitement-calm and pleasant-unpleasant

3. Which one of the following is not a basic aspect of emotions?

a. The cognitive aspect

b. The formal-logical aspect

c. The physiological aspect

d. The behavioral aspect

4. The James-Lange theory of emotion states that

a. emotions are illusions

b. all emotions stem from unconscious motives

c. an emotion can be induced by an action

d. emotions are the motives for almost all actions

5. The cognitive appraisal theory of emotion states that

a. the brain’s thalamus is a relay station

b. we become conscious of the cause of an emotion at the same time that

our body is preparing to deal with it

c. emotions are metaphysical concepts

d. a person’s self-labeling of a state of arousal converts that state into a spe-

cific emotion

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6. Which one of the following is not a stage of the general adaptation syn-

drome (GAS)?

a. The alarm reaction

b. The stage of resistance

c. The stage of frustration

d. The stage of exhaustion

7. The concept of life change units (LCU’s) is associated with which of the fol-

lowing?

a. The Social Readjustment Scale

b. The Wechsler Psychosocial Stressor Inventory

c. The Lewin Cognitive Test

d. The Selye Stress Test

8. The Type A behavior pattern is characterized by

a. hostility and impatience

b. a hedonistic attitude toward life

c. learned optimism

d. an absence of hostility and a willingness to allow events to take place at

their own pace

9. In the analysis of psychological conflict, undesirable alternatives are termed

a. positive goals

b. negative goals

c. neutral attributes

d. orienting functions

10. What kind of a conflict exists when the individual wants to either escape from

or avoid two undesirable alternatives?

a. An approach-approach conflict

b. An approach-avoidance conflict

c. A double approach-avoidance conflict

d. An avoidance-avoidance conflict

ANSWERS TO THE SELF-TEST

1-b 2-d 3-b 4-c 5-d 6-c 7-a 8-a 9-b 10-d

ANSWERS TO THE TRUE-OR-FALSE PREVIEW QUIZ

1. True.

2. False. The James-Lange theory of emotions proposes that an emotion can be induced by

an action.

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3. False. According to the general adaptation syndrome, chronic stress can have an

adverse effect on general health.

4. True.

5. False. An approach-approach conflict exists when an individual is presented with two

desirable alternatives.

KEY TERMS

Emotions: Riding Life’s Roller Coaster 119

alarm reaction

approach-approach conflict

approach-avoidance conflict

avoidance-avoidance conflict

behavioral aspect of emotions

Cannon-Bard theory

cognitive appraisal theory

cognitive aspect of emotions

double approach-avoidance conflict

double bind

emotion

general Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

hedonic tone

hedonism

James-Lange theory

labeling-of-arousal hypothesis

life change units (LCUs)

negative goals

physiological aspect of emotions

positive goals

psychological conflict

self-induced stress

Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS)

stage of exhaustion

stage of resistance

stress

stressor

thalamic theory

Type A behavior pattern

Type B behavior pattern

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120

PREVIEW QUIZ

True or False

1. TF The philosopher Aristotle said that the human being is the thinking

animal.

2. TF Concepts put the world of experience into mental boxes.

3. TF A heuristic approach to solving a problem is the same thing as using a

formula to solve the problem.

4. TF Functional fixedness is a kind of mental set that helps you to solve

problems.

5. TF The core of the creative process is rational, logical thought.

(Answers can be found on page 135.)

The last chapter made note of the fact that every emotion has a cognitive

aspect. We not only feel, but we also think when we experience an emo-

tion. In fact, thinking plays a role in almost all of our actions. This chapter

is designed to further your understanding of the thinking process.

9Thinking: Exploring

Mental Life

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Thinking: Exploring Mental Life 121

Objectives

After completing this chapter, you will be able to

• define thinking;

• specify three basic kinds of mental concepts;

• describe various strategies for solving problems;

• explain how mental sets can present obstacles to solving problems;

• distinguish between logical thinking and logical errors;

• state the core feature of the creative process.

When you think about a bird, you tend to concentrate on its ability to fly. The

bird could be said to be the “flying animal.” When you think about a fish, you

tend to concentrate on its ability to swim. The fish could be said to be the “swim-

ming animal.” Similarly, when you think about human beings, one thing in par-

ticular seems to stand out—our ability to think. The philosopher Aristotle said

that the human being is the thinking animal.

The philosopher René Descartes tried to find a bedrock for his own philo-

sophical viewpoint. He mistrusted much learning and doubted the truth of much

so-called knowledge. He asked himself what he could be certain of. His answer

was that he was certain he existed. And how was he certain that he existed?

Because he was thinking. He reasoned, “I think, therefore I am.” And this became

the starting point for his philosophical reflections.

More recently, William James, the founding personality of a school of psy-

chology called functionalism, defined psychology as the science of mental life.

And this is close to the commonsense view of psychology. Most people think of

it in this way. It is the science of the mind; and the concept of the mind includes

both our conscious awareness and our ability to think.

(a) The philosopher Aristotle said that the human being is the .

(b) The philosopher Descartes said that the fact that he was a thinking being made him con-

fident that he .

Answers: (a) thinking animal; (b) existed; (c) science of mental life.

Note in the paragraphs above that not only thinking was implied, but think-

ing about thinking. That’s what we will be doing in this chapter. The process of

thinking about thinking is called metathought. Although we take for granted

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122 PSYCHOLOGY

that we can do it, a moment’s reflection suggests how unusual an ability it is.

Even if it is granted, as seems to some degree reasonable, that certain animals

such as dolphins and chimpanzees can think, it is doubtful that they engage in

metathought. They probably don’t think, as we do, about the nature of thought

itself.

As indicated above, the study of thinking has a long and respectable tradition

in both philosophy and psychology.

Before we proceed with its study, let’s define thinking. Thinking is a mental

process characterized by the use of symbols and concepts to represent both inner

and outer reality. A symbol is a word, mark, sign, drawing, or object that stands

for something else. Consequently, the word dog is a symbol that stands for an

actual dog. Concepts are defined below.

(a) Thinking about thinking is called .

(b) Thinking is a mental process characterized by the use of and

to represent both inner and outer reality.

is called .

Answers: (a) metathought; (b) symbols; concepts; (c) a symbol.

Forming Concepts: Putting the World into Mental Boxes

A concept is a mental category. A basic tool of thought, it is a way in which we

organize and simplify information. Concepts put the world of experience into

mental boxes. Let’s say you see a bowl of fruit containing an assortment of

lemons and oranges. You see only two kinds of fruit. You don’t feel over-

whelmed by information. However, it is clear that no one lemon is exactly like

any other lemon. And no one orange is exactly like any other orange. The con-

cepts of lemons and of oranges simplify things for us. The concept of lemons

includes these attributes: a yellow skin, elongated shape, and somewhat sour

taste. The concept of oranges includes these attributes: orange-colored, round,

and sweet. Differences between individual lemons and oranges are obscured

when we employ the two concepts. And this is the functional value of the con-

cepts. There are three basic kinds of concepts: (1) conjunctive, (2) disjunctive,

and (3) relational.

A conjunctive concept strings together perceived attributes. A conjunction in

grammar has the function of joining words and phrases. Similarly, a conjunctive

concept joins attributes to make a perceptual whole. The concept of a lemon is

conjunctive because to most of us a lemon is an object that has a yellow skin and

an elongated shape and a somewhat sour taste.

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Thinking: Exploring Mental Life 123

To a child, forming the concept of a dog, a dog “is” an animal with some or

all of these attributes: it barks and bites and has fur and a tail and four legs.

(a) A concept is a mental .

(b) Concepts help us to organize and simplify .

Answers: (a) category; (b) information; (c) joins; whole.

Note that when a child is acquiring the concept of a dog, there may be a

period of confusion. Let’s say that three-year-old Tammy is visiting an aquarium

with her parents. An entertaining show is put on with seals. Tammy calls them

“doggies” because they bark. The parents explain that seals are not dogs. If asked

why, they might answer, “Because they don’t have legs the way dogs do.”

As is evident from the above, concepts are formed by both positive and nega-

tive exemplars. A positive exemplar is an object or an idea that fits the concept,

that can be contained within it. A negative exemplar is an object or an idea that

does not fit the concept, that cannot be contained within it. For Tammy, her pet

dog at home is a positive exemplar of the concept “dog.” The seal at the aquar-

ium is a negative exemplar of the concept “dog.” However, it is a positive exem-

plar of the concept “seal” or “aquatic animal.” (Without an adjective before it, the

word exemplar means “a typical example.”)

(a) An object or idea that fits a given concept, that can be contained within it, is called called

(b) An object or idea that does not fit a given concept, that can not be contained within it,

is called .

Answers: (a) a positive exemplar; (b) a negative exemplar.

A disjunctive concept treats perceived attributes in either-or terms. The

classic example of a disjunctive concept is a strike in baseball. A strike is either a ball

that goes through the strike zone and is not swung at or a ball that is swung at and

missed, even if it’s outside of the strike zone. Let’s say that forty-year-old Carl

says, “I will drink any kind of wine except muscatel or port.” If he refuses a glass

of wine at a friend’s house, it is possible to reflect that the host must have offered

Carl either muscatel or port. “Wines that Carl won’t drink” is, in this case, a dis-

junctive concept.

A relational concept treats perceived attributes in terms of some connection

between objects or ideas such as “more than,” “less than,” “bigger than,” “more

beautiful than,” and so forth. A concept such as “cheapskate” is a relational con-

cept. Nolan is a regular customer for breakfast in a family restaurant in a small

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124 PSYCHOLOGY

town. He always leaves a twenty-five-cent tip even though 15 percent of his

breakfast check comes to about one dollar. Ogden is also a regular customer for

breakfast. He always leaves a three-dollar tip. Both Nolan and Ogden are success-

ful businessmen. The servers in the restaurant refer to Nolan as a “cheapskate” and

to Ogden as a “big spender.” The two concepts are relational because they arise

from the fact that Ogden’s tip is more than Nolan’s.

(a) A disjunctive concept treats perceived attributes in terms.

(b) What kind of a concept treats perceived attributes in terms of some connection between

object or ideas such as “more than,” or “less than”?

Answers: (a) either-or; (b) Relational.

Solving Problems: What Is the Square Root of 12?

It is a fair question to ask: Why do we think at all? A good answer to the question

is: One of the reasons we think is in order to solve problems.

Human beings lead complex lives. We have all kinds of problems to solve.

Every day is filled with challenges. And it is necessary to think clearly and effec-

tively if one is to be successful in meeting the problems and challenges of life.

Two basic ways to solve problems are to employ either (1) algorithms or

(2) heuristic approaches. An algorithm is a formula. If followed carefully, it

will always solve the problem. Formulas in math books are algorithms. So are

recipes in cookbooks and step-by-step instructions for operating a microwave

oven.

Let’s say that you are given this problem: What is the square root of 12? You

will probably turn to a calculator. You enter 12, push the square-root button, and

the answer appears on the screen. In a sense, you haven’t solved the problem. The

calculator has solved the problem for you. It has the formula built into it. And

even if you have forgotten the formula, it is possible for you to obtain the right

answer. If you don’t have a calculator, you can look up the square root in a table

in the appendix of a mathematics book. Again, you are relying on an algorithm

that you may or may not know.

(a) One of the reasons we think is in order to .

(b) A recipe in a cookbook is an example of an .

Answers: (a) solve problems; (b) algorithm.

Let’s say that you decide to figure out the square root of 12 without a calcu-

lator or a book. What would you do? Some might remember the formula they

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Thinking: Exploring Mental Life 125

were taught in school. They might apply it and obtain the square root. Others

might say, “I forgot the formula. I can’t get the answer.” This response betrays an

excessive reliance on algorithms to solve math problems. Even if the formula is

forgotten, the problem can be solved.

Solving a problem without a formula involves the use of heuristic

approaches. Heuristic approaches employ principles, rules-of-thumb, and

insights to solve problems. A heuristic approach is based on the attitude “I can

solve this problem even if I can’t solve it in an elegant way.” Returning to the

search for the square root of 12, it is necessary to ask oneself this question:

“What is a square root?” As most adults know, it is the number that when mul-

tiplied by itself will generate the squared number. For example, 3 ×3 =9; the

square root of 9 is 3. Once this is clearly seen, it should be possible to discover

the square root of 12 without an algorithm. One can do it by trial and error. Try

multiplying 4 ×4. The product is 16. Obviously the square root of 12 must be

between 3 and 4. It has to be a decimal fraction. Try multiplying 3.5 ×3.5. The

product is 12.25. The answer isn’t 12, but it’s close. One can close in on the

answer by multiplying numbers somewhat smaller than 3.5. As already noted, a

heuristic approach is not an elegant, efficient way to solve a problem. But it will

get the job done, and should not be scorned. On the contrary, it is often essen-

tial to use heuristic approaches to solve problems when formulas are either not

available or forgotten.

(a) Solving a problem without a formula involves the use of approaches.

(b) Heuristic approaches employ principles, , and insights to solve prob-

lems.

Answers: (a) heuristic; (b) rules-of-thumb.

A particular kind of heuristic approach is a means-end analysis. A means-end

analysis is characterized by identifying a goal and then finding a way in which the

goal can be obtained. Questions such as: “Where is this going?” and “How will I

get there?” are associated with a means-end analysis.

For example, let’s say that you are buying a home and are told by a broker

that the payments are only $1,200 a month. This sounds good, and you might

sign on the dotted line. Or, you might make a means-end analysis. You ask the

broker, “How long will it take to pay off the house if I stick to the payment

schedule?” You are told it will take thirty years. You reply that you have a goal.

You want to pay off the house in twenty years. The broker explains that if you

will pay $1,400 a month, following a different payment schedule, you can

accomplish your goal. You have now been provided with the means—the

way—to obtain your goal. It is up to you to decide if you can afford the larger

payments.

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126 PSYCHOLOGY

What kind of heuristic approach is characterized by identifying a goal and then finding a

way in which the goal can be obtained?

Answer: A means-end analysis.

If possible, it is desirable to be systematic when there is a problem to be

solved. This is particularly true if the problem involves a project that will require

a span of time involving days or even weeks. When an orderly approach to solv-

ing a problem is taken, psychologists have identified five important steps. These

are (1) definition of the problem, (2) preparation, (3) incubation, (4) illumina-

tion, (5) and verification. This general approach can be applied to many prob-

lems. Usually a problem can be stated in question form. Examples include:

“How do I get a weed-free lawn?” “How do you raise a child to have high self-

esteem?” “How do you study effectively for examinations?” and “How do you

lose weight?”

Assume that Laura, a thirty-three-year-old engineer, wife, and mother of two

children, wants to lose some weight. It’s a problem because she’s been trying to

lose weight off and on for a couple of years without much success. She decides to

use her training as an engineer to solve her problem. So she takes a systematic

approach. First, she defines the problem in a precise way. She decides that she

will stop vaguely saying, “I want to lose some weight.” Instead she asks the ques-

tion, “How can I lose ten pounds in the next five weeks?”

What is the first step in systematic problem solving?

Answer: Defining the problem.

Second, she prepares to lose weight by gathering information. She obtains

two books on nutrition, a third book on the psychology of weight control, and a

fourth book on breaking habits. She takes notes on key points in the books.

Third, she lets the information incubate before she takes action. She

reflects on what she has learned. She feels a little bit overwhelmed and confused

by contradictory information in the books she has read. She thinks, “I’ll just

sleep on all of this stuff for a while and let my subconscious mind bring things

together.”

Fourth, illumination arrives in about a week. She feels she has new insights

about weight control. She sees that she needs to stay away from fad diets. She

decides that she has been eating too many refined carbohydrates and excessive

amounts of saturated fat. She writes an eating plan for herself, one that she

believes she can follow.

Fifth, Laura begins to eat in accordance with her plan. She verifies that the

plan is working—or not working—by weighing herself in the morning every

other day.

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Thinking: Exploring Mental Life 127

(a) What step in systematic problem solving involves reflection on what one has learned?

(b) What step in systematic problem solving is associated with insight?

Answers: (a) Incubation; (b) Illumination.

Obstacles to Solving Problems: Mental Sets Can

Cause Difficulties

The path of problem solving is often a rocky road. There are obstacles that can

interfere with obtaining a solution. Two of the principal obstacles are mental sets

and functional fixedness.

A mental set is a subconscious determining tendency. It is there, a part of our

cognitive processes, but sometimes its content doesn’t enter consciousness. In

principle a mental set can either help you solve a problem or interfere with the

discovery of a solution. Of principal interest is the way in which a mental set can

interfere. However, before we proceed, let’s first look at the way in which a men-

tal set can help you solve a problem.

Let’s say that you are given ten simple arithmetic problems. You are told to

add and obtain sums. With the first problem or two you are consciously instruct-

ing yourself to add. Perhaps by the third problem you are adding without telling

yourself “I need to add these numbers.” The action of obtaining sums is now

determined by a mental set to add. As you can see, this is somewhat helpful. It

gives you less to think about and juggle at a conscious level.

(a) A mental set is a subconscious

(b) In principle a mental set can either help you solve a problem or with the

discovery of a solution.

Answers: (a) determining tendency; (b) interfere.

Here are two problems in which mental sets are likely to interfere with obtain-

ing a solution. Problem 1: You are an elevator operator in the Empire State Build-

ing. Seven people get on the elevator in the lobby. Four get off at the fifth floor.

Two get on at the twenty-first floor. Three get off at the twenty-seventh floor.

What is the elevator operator’s name?

Problem 2: When an airliner crashes on the border between the United States

and Canada where do they bury the survivors?

The answer to Problem 1 is your own name. The problem starts, “You are an

elevator operator . . .” The answer to Problem 2 is that survivors—who are

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128 PSYCHOLOGY

alive—are not buried. If you had any difficulty with either problem it is because of

mental sets. In Problem 1 the mental set is that this is an arithmetic problem. In

Problem 2 the mental set is that this is a problem associated with international law.

In both cases a mental set was created by implication, not by an explicit state-

ment. Consequently, a mental set that interferes with obtaining a solution contains

a false assumption, a belief that is not correct.

A mental set can be given by nature. Consider the Wright brothers attempt-

ing to invent the airplane. They had to break the mental set that wings must flap.

Birds do not have stationary wings like airplanes.

(a) A mental set that interferes with obtaining a solution contains a .

(b) The idea that wings have to flap is an example of a mental set given by .

Answers: (a) false assumption; (b) nature.

Functional fixedness exists when there is a need to use a tool or familiar

object in a novel way and one can’t perceive the novel way. Let’s say that a car-

penter needs a plumb line in order to erect a perpendicular two-by-four piece of

wood. He or she can’t find the line in the tool box. Carpenter A might leave the

job and drive somewhere to obtain a plumb line. Carpenter B might improvise a

plumb line by tying a pair of pliers to the end of a string. Carpenter A, who has

both string and a pair of pliers, is displaying functional fixedness because he or she

can only think of using the pliers for gripping, not as a weight.

Functional fixedness is really a special case of mental set. There is often a men-

tal set that a tool is designed for one and only one purpose. And this fixes the

user’s attention on that and only that particular function of the tool.

exists when there is a need to use a tool in a novel way and one can’t perceive

the novel way.

Answer: Functional fixedness.

Logical Thinking: How We Reason

In order to think effectively, it is necessary to think in a logical manner. Logical

thinking is thinking that employs valid reasoning to reach a correct conclusion.

Logical thinking is the foundation of rational thought, thought that fits the real

world and allows us to function well in it. There are two basic kinds of reasoning

involved in logical thinking: inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning.

Inductive reasoning is characterized by making observations and gathering

information until a general conclusion is reached. It is the basic method of sci-

ence. About 500 years ago the astronomer Nicholas Copernicus made observa-

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Thinking: Exploring Mental Life 129

tions that led him to formulate the heliocentric theory of the solar system. About

150 years ago the botanist Gregor Mendel raised sweet peas, studied the charac-

teristics of their flowers, and formulated his theory of heredity.

When a detective gathers clues and reaches the conclusion that the butler

murdered the millionaire, the sleuth is using inductive logic. (When Dr. Watson

asks Sherlock Holmes how he reached a conclusion, Holmes answers, “Deduc-

tion, my dear Watson. Merely deduction.” Strictly speaking, he was using induc-

tion, not deduction.)

Inductive reasoning also appears frequently in everyday life. Harold makes a

series of observations about his car. It’s using too much gas, it’s pulling to the left,

it’s overheating, it’s squeaking too much, and the brakes are mushy. He concludes

that it’s overdue for servicing. Or perhaps he concludes that he needs a new car.

Rowena makes a series of observations about her fifteen-year-old daughter, Geor-

gia. Her grades are falling, she is spending more time than usual talking secretively

on the phone with one of her friends, she is dressing very carefully for school, she

is reading romance novels, and she seems unusually dreamy-eyed. Perhaps

Rowena, using inductive reasoning, reaches the conclusion that Georgia is devel-

oping an interest in adolescent males.

(a) Logical thinking is thinking that employs to reach a correct conclusion.

(b) What kind of reasoning is characterized by making observations and gathering informa-

tion until a general conclusion is reached?

Answers: (a) valid reasoning; (b) Inductive reasoning.

Deductive reasoning is reasoning in which a conclusion follows from a

premise. The underlying structure of deductive reasoning is if-then. Such reasoning

allows for predictions, and it is often the next step taken after inductive reasoning

is employed. Sherlock Holmes tells Dr. Watson, “If the butler is really the mur-

derer, then if we hide in the closet we should see him sneak into Jillian’s bedroom

when the clock strikes midnight.” Rowena thinks, “If Georgia is getting interested

in boys, then it won’t be long before she will be asking me if she can go on a date.”

According to Freud, there is a kind of thinking employed at the unconscious

level of the mind that is overly primitive. It is neither inductive nor deductive.

Freud called this kind of thinking predicate thinking. It is also called paleolog-

ical thought, meaning “old” thought. It is presumably the kind of thinking used

by primitive, prescientific people and by preschool children. According to Freud,

when two sentences have identical predicates (i.e., “first parts”) the objects or peo-

ple in the sentences become associated in an illogical manner. Here is an example:

1. Automobile make X is driven by beautiful people.

2. Automobile make X is the kind of car I drive.

3. Therefore I am a beautiful person.

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130 PSYCHOLOGY

(a) What kind of reasoning is characterized by a conclusion that follows from a premise?

(b) According to Freud, what kind of thinking is neither inductive nor deductive?

Answers: (a) Deductive reasoning; (b) Predicate thinking (or paleological thought).

Predicate thinking is not the only way in which thinking can be led

astray. Logical errors are common. Such errors include (1) overgeneralization,

(2) false analogy, (3) appeal to authority, (4) arguing in circles, and (5) attack on

character.

Overgeneralization, also known as hasty generalization, takes place

when we reach a conclusion that goes substantially beyond the facts that inspire it.

Nelson owns stock in ten different companies. The prices on two of his stocks

decline by 40 percent. He begins telling friends, “I think there’s going to be

another Great Depression.” Melinda’s husband, Clark, forgets their wedding

anniversary. The next day Melinda is on the phone telling her best friend, “I don’t

think Clark loves me anymore.”

An analogy consists of the observation that two basically dissimilar things

have some resemblance to each other. A false analogy exists when the compar-

ison between two things is inappropriate. Books on anatomy and physiology often

point out that the eye is like a camera. The eye has a lens like a camera. The film

in the camera is like the retina; they are both light sensitive. The lens of a camera

produces an inverted image on the film; the lens of the eye produces an inverted

image on the retina. The eye-camera analogy is a useful one. On the other hand,

let’s say that Colby, who grew up on a ranch, compares his car to a horse. “The

darn thing gets balky like a horse. Feeding it gas is like feeding a horse hay. It’s get-

ting old the way horses do.” However, if one day we hear that Colby in a fit of

anger shot the car because the darn thing refused to run, then we would recog-

nize that Colby was employing a false analogy.

(a) What kind of logical error takes place when we reach a conclusion that goes substan-

tially beyond the facts that inspire it?

(b) What kind of a logical error takes place when the comparison between two things is

inappropriate?

Answers: (a) Overgeneralization (or hasty generalization); (b) False analogy.

Appeal to authority is characterized making by a reference to a respected

person, believed to be well informed, when one’s own logic or reasoning is weak.

Nadine tells her friend Kitty, who eats no green vegetables, that she should eat more

broccoli, peas, and spinach. Kitty asks, “Why?” Nadine says, “Because Dr. Genius

says so in his book Green Food for a Green Mind.” Although Dr. Genius may know

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Thinking: Exploring Mental Life 131

what he’s talking about, in some cases an authority may be a pseudo-authority or

give bad advice. It would have been far better if Nadine could have answered Kitty

by saying, “Green foods contain folic acid, an important component of good nutri-

tion. Also, vegetables have a lot of fiber, and this promotes regularity.”

Arguing in circles takes place when one’s premise contains the conclusion

that one wants to reach. Edgar tells his girlfriend Janet, “I love you.” Janet asks,

“Why do you love me?” Edgar says, “I don’t know. Just because I do.” Janet

presses. “But why do you?” Edgar, sweating and a little confused, says, “Because

you’re so lovable!” It would have been a better answer if Edgar could have said,

“Because I like your personality and your sense of humor.” Or, “Because you’re

more fun to be with than anyone I’ve ever met.” His actual answer, based on a cir-

cular argument, was empty of any real meaning.

Attack on character picks out a negative attribute of another person and

uses this attribute to discredit other aspects of the person’s behavior. Kathleen is

thinking about taking her car for repairs to Jake, a local auto mechanic. Mabel, a

friend, tells Kathleen that she shouldn’t take her car to Jake. “Why?” asks Kath-

leen. “Because I hear he cheats on his wife,” says Mabel. Obviously, Jake’s mari-

tal behavior has nothing to do with his ability to repair cars.

(a) Making a reference to a respected person, believed to be well informed, when one’s own

logic or reasoning is weak is called .

(b) What logical error takes place when one’s premise contains the conclusion that one

wants to reach?

Answers: (a) appeal to authority; (b) Arguing in circles; (c) Attack on character.

Creative Thinking: The Importance of Originality

Creative thinking is an important factor in writing poems, books, and songs. It is

also plays an important role in advancing human understanding in fields of study

such as physics, biology, and psychology. Inventions from the airplane to the auto-

mobile have required creative thinking. However, creative thinking should not be

associated only with such exalted areas of activity such as literature, invention, and

science. It is possible to speak of creative cooking, creative gardening, creative

child rearing, creative decorating, and so forth. It is clear that creative thinking

often has a place in everyday life.

The core feature of the creative process is divergent thinking, thinking that

follows new pathways and explores alternative possibilities. Thomas Alva Edison

(1847–1931) provides an example of a person who manifested quite a bit of diver-

gent thought. When he was a child, one of his teachers thought that he was men-

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132 PSYCHOLOGY

tally retarded because his answers to questions were so odd, deviant, and unex-

pected. He is well known for improving the electric light bulb. However, he also

invented wax paper and the phonograph. When he died he had patented 1,150

inventions, a record for American inventors that still stands.

Divergent thinking often involves breaking mental sets. The example of the

Wright brothers realizing that wings don’t have to flap has already been given.

Divergent thinking also involves combining familiar elements in new combina-

tions. Dumbo the flying elephant combines the familiar image of an elephant and

its large ears with the also familiar image of a bird flying and flapping its wings.

The cartoon character that results doesn’t exist in the real world, but has enter-

tained both adults and children for years.

(a) The core feature of the creative process is .

(b) Divergent thinking often involves breaking .

Answers: (a) divergent thinking; (b) mental sets; (c) new combinations.

Convergent thinking, in contrast to divergent thinking, follows conven-

tional thought pathways. It is the core feature in rational thought, thought that

employs both inductive and deductive logic. Intelligence (see chapter 10) requires

convergent thinking. When a student is asked to answer a multiple-choice test, he

or she employs convergent thinking. There is thought to be one and only one best

answer to a given question.

The Gestalt psychologist Max Wertheimer asserted that productive thinking,

high-quality creative thinking, combines both divergent and convergent thinking

in a functional way. Wertheimer and Albert Einstein were personal friends. In his

book Productive Thinking, Wertheimer explores how Einstein arrived at the Special

Theory of Relativity. It is clear that divergent thinking was required, because in the

theory it is possible for space to warp and time to slow down. Both of these con-

cepts were radical departures from standard concepts of physics held in the early

part of the twentieth century. On the other hand, convergent thinking was also

required, because Einstein employed a large base of theory and knowledge that

made his own theory both reasonable and acceptable to scientists in general.

(a) What kind of thinking follows conventional thought pathways?

(b) Wertheimer said that what kind of thinking combines both divergent and convergent

thinking in a functional way?

Answers: (a) Convergent thinking; (b) Productive thinking.

It is possible to evaluate the quality of creative thinking by three criteria:

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Thinking: Exploring Mental Life 133

(1) productivity, (2) originality, and (3) flexibility. Leo Tolstoy (1828–1910),

author of War and Peace and Anna Karenina, is generally thought to be one of the

world’s greatest authors. Why? Let’s employ the three criteria. First, Tolstoy was

extremely productive. He wrote many books, short stories, and essays. He left

behind a large body of work.

Second, he was highly original. War and Peace broke the ground for a now-

familiar kind of book, the war novel. Anna Karenina was one of the first great

romantic tragedies presented in the form of a novel. It pioneered today’s tearjerk-

ers and soap operas. Although the patterns are familiar today, they were highly

original when Tolstoy first presented them. In general, his stories and essays often

presented characters and ideas from unusual perspectives.

Third, Tolstoy was unusually flexible. As already indicated, he expressed his

ideas in several forms. Also, he changed his philosophy of life from an egocentric

one to a selfless one, and wrote extensively about the shift in his viewpoint. As you

can see, Tolstoy receives high marks on all three criteria.

(a) Tolstoy wrote many books, short stories, and essays. This example is associated with what

criterion used to evaluate creative thinking?

(b) Tolstoy’s works often presented characters and ideas from unusual perspectives. This exam-

ple is associated with what criterion used to evaluate creative thinking?

Answers: (a) Productivity; (b) Originality.

SELF-TEST

1. The process of thinking about thinking is called

a. cognitive existentialism

b. symbolic production

c. functional reflection

d. metathought

2. What kind of a concept strings together perceived attributes?

a. A relational concept

b. A disjunctive concept

c. An iconic concept

d. A conjunctive concept

3. Which of the following identifies an object or an idea that fits a concept, that

can be contained within it?

a. Positive exemplar

b. Negative exemplar

c. Bipolar exemplar

d. Transformational exemplar

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134 PSYCHOLOGY

4. Step-by-step instructions for operating a microwave oven provide an exam-

ple of

a. a heuristic approach

b. a means-end analysis

c. an algorithm

d. an insight analysis

5. Let’s say you figure out the square root of 12 without a formula. Instead, you

rely on your understanding of the concept of a square root. What kind of a

problem-solving approach are you using?

a. An algorithm

b. A heuristic approach

c. A means-end analysis

d. An operant reflection

6. Which of the following correctly defines a mental set?

a. A conscious conditioned reflex

b. An unconscious wish

c. A subconscious determining tendency

d. A false negative

7. What exists when there is a need to use a tool or familiar object in a novel way

and one can’t perceive the novel way?

a. Cognitive slippage

b. Mental facilitation

c. Functional fixedness

d. Transformational perception

8. What kind of reasoning is characterized by making observations and gathering

information until a general conclusion is reached?

a. Inductive reasoning

b. Deductive reasoning

c. If-then reasoning

d. Relational reasoning

9. Deductive reasoning is reasoning in which

a. a premise follows from a conclusion

b. a premise follows from a hyperpremise

c. a conclusion follows from a metaconclusion

d. a conclusion follows from a premise

10. What is the core feature of the creative process?

a. Convergent thinking

b. Divergent thinking

c. Congruent thinking

d. Reliable facts

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Thinking: Exploring Mental Life 135

ANSWERS TO THE SELF-TEST

1-d 2-d 3-a 4-c 5-b 6-c 7-c 8-a 9-d 10-b

ANSWERS TO THE TRUE-OR-FALSE PREVIEW QUIZ

1. True.

2. True.

3. False. Heuristic approaches employ principles, rules-of-thumb, and insights to solve

problems.

4. False. It is correct that functional fixedness is a type of mental set. However, functional

fixedness exists when there is a need to use a tool or familiar object in a novel way and

one can’t perceive the novel way. Consequently, such fixedness interferes with solving

a problem.

5. False. The core feature of the creative process is divergent thinking.

KEY TERMS

algorithm

analogy

appeal to authority

arguing in circles

attack on character

concept

conjunctive concept

convergent thinking

deductive reasoning

definition of the problem

disjunctive concept

divergent thinking

false analogy

false assumption

flexibility

functional fixedness

hasty generalization

heuristic approaches

illumination

incubation

inductive reasoning

logical thinking

means-end analysis

mental set

metathought

negative exemplar

originality

overgeneralization

paleological thought

positive exemplar

predicate thinking

preparation

productive thinking

productivity

rational thought

relational concept

symbol

thinking

verification

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136

PREVIEW QUIZ

True or False

1. TF The concept of intelligence is associated with the ability to think

clearly and to function effectively in the environment.

2. TF The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale is based on the performance

method of measuring intelligence.

3. TF Information, or general knowledge, is not associated with intelligence.

4. TF An intelligence quotient (IQ) score of 100 is evidence of superior

intelligence.

5. TF A valid test is one that measures what it is supposed to measure.

(Answers can be found on page 152.)

Thinking, the subject matter of the previous chapter, plays a significant role

in intelligence. Indeed, as the subtitle of this chapter suggests, rational

thought is at the core of intelligence. We will now examine the concept of

intelligence and the ways in which it can be measured.

10 Intelligence: In Pursuit

of Rational Thought

and Effective Action

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Intelligence: In Pursuit of Rational Thought and Effective Action 137

Objectives

After completing this chapter, you will be able to

• define intelligence;

• describe the approach of the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale;

• specify key features of the Wechsler Intelligence Scales;

• explain the concept of an intelligence quotient (IQ);

• compare and contrast the concepts of validity and reliability in psychological

testing.

Consider how you might use the word intelligent in a short sentence. Here

are some answers that were obtained from members of an introductory psy-

chology class:

“I want to marry an intelligent person.”

“Is there intelligent life on Earth?”

“I want to raise intelligent children.”

“To be intelligent is both a curse and a blessing.”

“It’s difficult to make intelligent decisions.”

“I always have the feeling that that my friends are more intelligent than I am.”

“I’m intelligent when it comes to math, but not in my way of relating to other

people.”

As you can see from these statements, the concept of intelligence is a perva-

sive one entering into most aspects of behavior and life.

Although the concept of intelligence is as familiar, in a way, as an old shoe, it

has a quality of mystery about it. Familiarity should not breed contempt in this

case. We shouldn’t be confident that we really understand intelligence until we

explore its more important features.

Intelligence: What Is It?

Intelligence is the global ability of the individual to think clearly and to function

effectively in the environment. This definition of intelligence is based on the

thinking and writing of the clinical psychologist David Wechsler (1896–1981),

author of the widely used Wechsler Intelligence Scales. (There will be more about

the Wechsler Scales later.)

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138 PSYCHOLOGY

If we examine the definition clearly, several important points emerge. First,

intelligence is, to some extent, global. This means that it has a general quality that

has an impact on many facets of life. When we think of someone as “smart,” we

expect him or her to be a smart businessperson, a smart parent, a smart student,

and so forth. (Subsequently we will reexamine the global, or general, nature of

intelligence and compare it with specific mental abilities.)

Second, intelligence is associated with the ability to think clearly. This means

the ability to use both inductive and deductive logic in an appropriate manner.

The core feature of intelligence, unlike creativity, is the ability to employ con-

vergent thinking, defined in chapter 9 as the ability to think along conventional

pathways. When a question is asked on an intelligence test, there is only one best

answer. Consequently, intelligence tests measure convergent thinking. When one

learns the basic information associated with a trade or profession, one is required

to learn well-established facts and principles.

(a) Intelligence is the global ability of the individual to think and to function

in the environment.

(b) The core feature of intelligence, unlike creativity, is the ability to employ what kind of

thinking?

Answers: (a) clearly; effectively; (b) Convergent thinking.

Third, intelligence implies the ability to function effectively in the environment. A

person with normal intelligence has survival skills. He or she can get things done

correctly—everything from pumping gas to cooking a meal. The word environ-

ment includes almost any aspect of an individual’s surrounding world. Therefore,

it includes the social environment, the world of other people. A person with

normal intelligence is able to get along reasonably well with others.

Note that the definition of intelligence says nothing about heredity and envi-

ronment. The concept of intelligence, in and of itself, is a functional one. It refers

to what a person can do. The question of how heredity and environment con-

tribute to intelligence is, of course, an important one, and is treated in a later sec-

tion in this chapter.

Returning to the global aspect of intelligence, in the first decade of the twen-

tieth century the British researcher Charles Spearman concluded that there is a

general factor running through all aspects of intelligence. He called this general

factor g. Spearman also recognized that there were specific mental abilities,

and he called this factor s.

(a) The word includes almost any aspect of an individual’s surrounding world.

(b) The concept of intelligence is a one. It refers to what a person can do.

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Intelligence: In Pursuit of Rational Thought and Effective Action 139

intelligence. He called this factor .

Answers: (a) environment; (b) functional; (c) general; g.

Interested in the nature of specific mental abilities, the American researcher

Louis Thurstone made a factor analysis of intelligence tests in the 1930s. Fac-

tor analysis is a mathematical tool that allows a researcher to pull meaningful

clusters out of a set of data. Based on his analysis, Thurstone concluded that

there are at least nine primary mental abilities. These include (1) inductive rea-

soning, (2) deductive reasoning, (3) word fluency, (4) speed of perception,

(5) verbal comprehension, (6) verbal fluency, (7) memory, (8) spatial visualiza-

tion, and (9) mathematics.

More recently, the research psychologist Howard Gardner has suggested that

we speak of multiple intelligences in preference to global intelligence. Taking

this approach, one kind of intelligence may be more or less independent of

another kind of intelligence. An example of what Gardner means is kinesthetic

intelligence, the ability to comprehend the position of one’s body in space. Such

intelligence is important in athletic performance and dancing.

(a) What kind of analysis did Thurstone make of intelligence tests?

(b) Gardner has suggested that we speak of in preference to global

intelligence.

Answers: (a) A factor analysis; (b) multiple intelligences.

It is possible to bring together the concept of a general ability with the con-

cept of specific abilities. The general factor, or g, is like the palm of a hand. It can

be small or large. The specific abilities are like the fingers of a hand, and they can

vary in length. This allows for many possibilities. Kurt has an unusually high level

of general intelligence, but finds it difficult to comprehend mathematical con-

cepts. Rita has an average level of general intelligence; however, she makes her liv-

ing as a sculptor, and she displays an unusually high level of ability in the area of

spatial visualization.

As you can see, it is difficult to pin intelligence down and say with any kind of

finality what it is. This in part is due to the fact that intelligence has the status of a

hypothetical construct. In science, a hypothetical construct is “constructed” by

the mind of the scientist in order to explain a set of facts. In physics, the concept

of an electromagnetic field is sometimes said to be such a construct. Science freely

employs hypothetical constructs. Intelligence as experienced by you is not, of

course, hypothetical. However, intelligence as measured by a psychologist with an

intelligence test is hypothetical. The intelligence has to be inferred from scores, and

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140 PSYCHOLOGY

there is room for error whenever one makes an inference. (See the section on

validity and reliability on pages 145–147.)

(a) It is possible to bring together the concept of a general ability with the concept of

abilities.

(b) In scientific terms, intelligence has the status of a construct.

Answers: (a) specific; (b) hypothetical; (c) inferred.

The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale: Intelligent Is

as Intelligent Does

One of the first people to attempt to measure intelligence in an objective manner

was the English scientist Sir Francis Galton (1822–1911). Working somewhat over

one hundred years ago, he used the biometric method, meaning he tried to

measure intelligence directly by evaluating such physiological measures as strength

of grip and perceptual-motor speed. He found that there was little correlation

between these measures and intelligence. Discouraged, he discontinued his

research in this particular area of human behavior.

Only a few years after Galton abandoned the effort to measure intelligence,

Alfred Binet, director of the psychological laboratory at the Sorbonne in Paris,

was asked by France’s Minister of Public Instruction to devise a way to detect sub-

normal intelligence. The aim was to give extra instruction and assistance to chil-

dren with cognitive problems.

Binet, working in collaboration with the scientist Theodore Simon, published

the Binet-Simon Scale in 1905. This was the first modern intelligence test, and

today’s tests still use its basic method—the performance method. In brief, the

subject is asked to demonstrate the existence of intelligence by giving answers to

questions. Correct answers reflect the existence of intelligence. Informally, the

Binet-Simon Scale was based on the premise that intelligence is as the intelli-

gent individual does.

(a) What method did Galton use in his unsuccessful attempt to measure intelligence?

(b) What method did Binet and Simon use in their successful attempt to measure intelli-

gence?

Answers: (a) The biometric method; (b) The performance method.

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Intelligence: In Pursuit of Rational Thought and Effective Action 141

The Binet-Simon Scale established a measure called mental age, or MA. Men-

tal age is determined by comparing one subject’s score on the Binet-Simon Scale

with the scores of a group of subjects of the same age. Let’s say that a group of nine-

year-old subjects is able, on average, to answer fifteen questions correctly on the

Scale. If seven-year-old Alice is able to answer fifteen questions correctly, her men-

tal age is nine even though her chronological age is seven. Binet and Simon expected

mental age to rise over time, and it does. In view of the fact that mental age is a

changeable number, this created a problem. (The way in which this problem was

solved with the concept of an intelligence quotient, or IQ, will be discussed later.)

The Binet-Simon Scale was translated into English by the Stanford psycholo-

gist Lewis Terman. In 1916, only eleven years after Binet and Simon published

their test, the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale (SBIS) was published in the

United States. The SBIS became a popular way in which to measure intelligence,

and it is still used today in revised form.

One of the questions that interested Terman was: Do highly intelligent children

do, overall, better in life than children of normal intelligence? In order to answer

the question, Terman started a longitudinal study, a research project that meas-

ures behavior over a span of time. In this case, the Stanford project, carried on after

Terman’s death, continued for more than seventy years. The results are clear. On

the whole, highly intelligent children grew into highly intelligent adults. They

fared better in general in all aspects of life. They had better health, fewer divorces,

and better mental and emotional adjustment than subjects with average intelli-

gence. This result should not be surprising. If intelligence is to mean anything at all

as a concept, it must mean that it has value to the individual and society. As already

indicated in the definition of intelligence, the ability to think clearly and to func-

tion effectively is part and parcel of what it means to be intelligent.

(a) What measure, abbreviated MA, is associated with the Binet-Simon Scale?

(b) Terman translated the Binet-Simon Scale into English and called it .

study?

Answers: (a) Mental age; (b) the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale (SBIS); (c) A longitu-

dinal study.

The Wechsler Scales: Comparing Verbal Intelligence

and Performance Intelligence

Working for a number of years as the chief psychologist for the Bellevue Psychi-

atric Hospital in New York City, David Wechsler conducted a substantial amount

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142 PSYCHOLOGY

of research on intelligence. His work culminated in a set of highly regarded intel-

ligence tests called collectively the Wechsler Scales. There are three individual

tests, and in revised editions they are still used today. The three tests are: (1) the

Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI), (2) the

Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC), and (3) the Wechsler

Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS).

The Wechsler Scales have a clear-cut advantage over the Stanford-Binet Scale.

The Stanford-Binet measures general intelligence without regard to specific men-

tal abilities. The Wechsler Scales recognize that there are different kinds of intelli-

gence. Two in particular are emphasized: verbal intelligence and performance

intelligence. Verbal intelligence includes such abilities as word fluency, abstract

reasoning, and mathematical ability. Performance intelligence includes such

abilities as visualization, the perception of the relationship of parts to a whole, and

the capacity to relate well to other people. As a consequence, it is possible to

obtain two separate IQ scores, a verbal IQ and a performance IQ. The two IQ

scores can be combined for an overall IQ score.

(a) What does the abbreviation WAIS stand for?

(b) What two kinds of intelligence are clearly identified in the Wechsler Scales?

Answers: (a) Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale; (b) Verbal intelligence and perform-

ance intelligence.

The following description is based on the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale.

Not only is the Scale divided into two large areas, it is also subdivided into a set of

eleven subtests, six under the Verbal Scale and five under the Performance Scale.

Keep in mind that the word scale is used because sets of questions proceed from

easy to difficult. Evaluation is based on how high the subject can climb on the lad-

der of psychological difficulty. Here is the breakdown:

The Verbal Scale: Each of the following tests consists of a group of questions

designed to assess a different area.

Information: level of general knowledge.

Comprehension: ability to understand questions and grasp concepts.

Arithmetic: capacity to grasp and employ mathematical concepts.

Similarities: ability to employ abstract thought.

Digit Span: tasks designed to measure attention span.

Vocabulary: grasp of the meaning of words.

The Performance Scale: Each of the following tests is a set of tasks designed to

assess a different area.

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Intelligence: In Pursuit of Rational Thought and Effective Action 143

Digit Symbol: mental flexibility and ability to employ arbitrary symbols.

Picture Completion: ability to detect the missing parts of an organized whole

(i.e., a Gestalt).

Block Design: ability to relate a printed pattern to a physical construction.

Picture Arrangement: ability to comprehend the “before and after” aspect of

time. Also useful in evaluating the subject’s level of social intelligence.

Object Assembly: ability to place parts in a correct relationship to a whole.

Under optimal conditions, a trained psychologist administers the Wechsler

Adult Intelligence Scale to a given to a subject on an individual basis. The results

of the test, when properly scored and evaluated, provide a clear picture of the

individual’s level of cognitive functioning at both a general level and at the level

of specific mental abilities.

(a) The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale consists of a set of how many subtests?

(b) What subtest in the Verbal Scale is designed to assess the subject’s ability to understand

questions and grasp concepts?

of words?

(d) What subtest in the Performance Scale is designed to assess the subject’s mental flexibil-

ity and ability to employ arbitrary symbols?

(e) What subtest in the Performance Scale is designed to assess the subject’s ability to relate

a printed pattern to a physical construction?

Answers: (a) Eleven; (b) Comprehension; (c) Vocabulary; (d) Digit Symbol; (e) Block Design.

The Concept of an Intelligence Quotient: Following

the Bell-Shaped Curve

As already noted, the concept of mental age (MA) is of limited value because it is

unstable. As one’s chronological age (CA) increases, so does one’s mental age.

Consequently, a German psychologist named William Stern suggested that a ratio

based on the comparison of mental age with chronological age would tend to be

relatively stable. Stern proposed the following formula:

IQ =

ᎏ

×100

IQ stands for intelligence quotient. The IQ is a quotient because it is the

result of a division process.

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144 PSYCHOLOGY

MA stands for mental age.

CA stands for chronological age

CA is divided into MA and multiplied by 100. Stern suggested the multiplication

step be employed with the aim of getting rid of decimals in the final quotient. For

example, instead of an IQ being reported as 1.15, it is reported as 115.

Let’s say that Irwin has a CA of 9 and an MA of 9; 9 ÷9 =1. Multiply 1 by

100 and the product is 100. Consequently Irwin’s IQ score is 100. This is a nor-

mal, or average, IQ. This makes sense in view of the fact that the average child of

9 years old will also have a mental age of 9. Let’s say Irwin is tested again when he

is 11 years old. His MA is now 11. A CA of 11 divided into an MA of 11 is 1. So

Irwin’s IQ is still 100.

Let’s say that Lana has a CA of 8 and an MA of 10; 10 ÷8 =1.25. Multiply by

100 and Lana’s IQ score is 125, above normal.

Let’s say that Jeffrey has a CA of 9 and an MA of 8; 8 ÷9 =.89. Multiply by

100 and Jeffrey’s IQ score is 89, below normal.

(a) Stern suggested that a based on the comparison of mental age with

chronological age would tend to be relatively .

(b) What is the formula for IQ?

Answers: (a) ratio; stable; (b) IQ =

ᎏ

×100.

Research has demonstrated that the IQ score is a random variable, meaning a

variable distributed according to the laws of chance. This means that in a large

sample of scores the scores will tend to take on a bell-shaped distribution. This

distribution, well studied by statisticians, goes by three names: (1) the bell-shaped

curve, (2) the normal curve, and (3) the Gaussian curve. The third name is in

honor of the nineteenth-century German mathematician Karl Friedrich Gauss,

who first studied the curve’s properties. Applying the curve to IQ scores, seven

categories emerge. These are summarized in the accompanying table.

IQ scores

70 80 90 100 110 120 130

A large sample of IQ scores tends to display a bell-shaped distribution.

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Intelligence: In Pursuit of Rational Thought and Effective Action 145

(a) Research has demonstrated that the IQ score is a variable.

(b) What are the two other names of the bell-shaped curve?

classification?

(d) What percent of subjects fall within an IQ score of 130 or above, the Very Superior clas-

sification?

Answers: (a) random; (b) The normal curve and the Gaussian curve; (c) 50 percent;

(d) 2.2 percent.

Validity and Reliability: Two Big Problems in Any Kind

of Testing

Let’s say that a confused auto mechanic gets certain important wires crossed on

the display panel in your car. You are driving merrily along and your gas gauge

reads “Full.” However, soon you are forced to pull over to the side of the road.

Your car has overheated and it’s also out of gas. What has gone wrong? The gas

gauge, unfortunately, was giving information on temperature, not fuel in the tank.

Under these conditions, the gas gauge had lost its validity as a measuring instru-

ment. Interestingly, it was functioning in a reliable manner. It was reliably giving

you the wrong information! As you can see, validity and reliability, although

related, are not the same thing.

Validity and reliability are important aspects of any kind of measurement and

testing. Intelligence tests are—like gauges, clocks, and rulers—measuring instru-

ments. Consequently, before they can be used to measure intelligence with any

degree of confidence, their validity and reliability must be assessed.

A valid test is one that measures what it is supposed to measure. If an intelli-

gence test really does in fact measure intelligence, then it is valid. But how can one

ascertain that the test is valid? Just because the questions in a test seem valid does

IQ Categories

IQ Classification Percent

130 and above Very Superior 2.2

120–129 Superior 6.7

110–119 Bright Normal 16.1

90–109 Normal (or Average) 50.0

80–89 Dull Normal 16.1

70–79 Borderline 6.7

69 and below Cognitively Deficient 2.2

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146 PSYCHOLOGY

not mean they actually are. This kind of validity is called face validity, meaning

that the questions have a surface appearance of validity.

(a) Like gauges, clocks, and rulers, intelligence tests are what kind of instruments?

(b) A test is one that measures what it is supposed to measure.

Answers: (a) Measuring instruments; (b) valid.

In order to evaluate the validity of an intelligence test, it is necessary to com-

pare test scores with an outside criterion. An outside criterion is a measurement

instrument that is independent of the intelligence test being evaluated. A useful

outside criterion is grade point average. If intelligence means anything at all, then

students with high IQ scores should have high grade point averages. In research,

this relationship is evaluated with a statistical tool called the correlation coeffi-

cient, a measure of the magnitude of the relationship between two variables (see

chapter 2). If the correlation between IQ scores and grade point average is high,

then it seems reasonable to conclude that the intelligence test in question has

validity. The higher the correlation coefficient, the more valid the test is consid-

ered to be.

Other outside criteria that can be used are teacher ratings and evaluations

made by parents.

(a) An criterion is a measurement instrument that is independent of the

intelligence test being evaluated.

(b) What statistical tool is used to evaluate the magnitude of the relationship between two

variables?

Answers: (a) outside; (b) The correlation coefficient.

A reliable test is one that gives stable, repeatable results. Let’s say that you

use a certain thermometer to take the temperature of family members when an

illness is suspected. In most cases, the thermometer will be reliable. You can

depend on it.

An intelligence test has to be carefully assessed for reliability. This is also

accomplished with the use of the correlation coefficient. Let’s say that a 100-

question test is split into two versions, Form A and Form B. The original 100

questions are randomly assigned to two forms. Form A has 50 questions. Form

B has 50 questions. The two tests are administered, for example, one week apart

to the same group of children. If Sheila obtains an IQ score of 119 on Form A,

she should obtain a score close to 119 on Form B. However, if she obtains 119

on Form A and 87 on Form B, the reliability of the test is in question. Com-

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Intelligence: In Pursuit of Rational Thought and Effective Action 147

paring paired scores for each child in the group, a high score on Form A should

predict a high score on Form B. And a low score on Form A should predict a

low score on Form B. If these predictions aren’t obtained, then the test is not

reliable.

A test is one that gives stable, repeatable results.

Answer: reliable.

The two related factors of validity and reliability generate four possibilities

for any kind of measuring instrument. The instrument may be (1) neither valid

nor reliable, (2) valid, but not reliable, (3) reliable, but not valid, (4) both valid

and reliable. This fourth happy circumstance is the one we usually associate

with rulers, clocks, and thermometers. These are the primary measuring instru-

ments of physics. They are some of the reasons why it has such a high status as

a science.

In psychology, both personality tests and intelligence tests are forced to deal

with the mutual problems of validity and reliability. Fortunately, with the use of

the correlation coefficient applied to large sets of scores, a reasonable level of

validity and reliability can be obtained. The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale and

the Wechsler Scales have been subjected to a substantial amount of scrutiny and

evaluation. On the whole, they are considered to be both valid and reliable meas-

uring instruments.

The two related factors of validity and reliability generated how many possibilities for any

kind of measuring instrument?

Answer: Four.

The Interaction of Heredity and Environment: How They

Exert Joint Effects

What is the primary determinant of intelligence? Is it heredity? Is it environment?

Or, is it possible that the best answer can’t be given in either-or terms?

The topic under discussion in this section is sometimes called the nature-

nurture controversy, and it has a long history in philosophy, biology, and psy-

chology. Nature refers to heredity; the primary characteristic of nature, or

heredity, is the potential to reach a given level of intelligence. Nurture, on the

other hand, refers to environment; the primary characteristic of nurture, or envi-

ronment, is its capacity to bring forth, in the case of intelligence, the maximum

cognitive potential that an individual has. Or, conversely, environment has the

capacity to inhibit and restrict that potential.

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148 PSYCHOLOGY

(a) The word refers to heredity.

(b) The primary characteristic of heredity is the to reach a given level of intel-

ligence.

Answers: (a) nature; (b) potential; (c) nurture.

Let’s say that a mother and a father insist that their two sons have had the

“same” environment. Both were loved, ate the same kind of food, and received

the same kind of cognitive stimulation. Now thirty-year-old Kendrick has a

Ph.D. in physics. His brother, twenty-seven-year-old Mark, is an insurance bro-

ker. The parents say that since early childhood Kendrick has had a brilliant,

unusual mind. Mark has always appeared to have normal intelligence. The par-

ents are convinced that the difference in the cognitive functioning of their two

sons is intrinsic, something that is built in to the two individuals. This general

line of reasoning tends to support the importance of heredity. It can be argued

that the individual differences in the two brothers have a genetic basis. Although

siblings do have many genes in common, there is still plenty of room for unique

genetic patterns.

A strong advocate of the importance of environment in shaping intelligence is

likely to point out that, strictly speaking, the two brothers didn’t have the same

environment. That is why the word same appeared with quotes around it in the

above paragraph. It is possible to suggest, as the pioneer psychotherapist Alfred

Adler did, that a first child and a second child have, by definition, different envi-

ronments. The first child lives for a time as an only child. The second child always

lives in a world with a sibling. It is possible to hypothesize that a first child often

receives, for a time, more attention and affection than a second child is likely to

receive.

In spite of the Adlerian birth-order argument, when individuals are raised in

the same home and with the same parents, variations in intelligence tend to sup-

port the genetic hypothesis.

(a) Individual differences in intelligence in siblings who have had highly similar environ-

ments are likely to have what kind of a basis?

(b) According to Adler, a first child and a second child have, by definition, envi-

ronments.

Answers: (a) A genetic basis; (b) different.

The fictional tale Tarzan of the Apes is a reflection of the genetic hypothesis.

Tarzan, after all, develops the intelligence of a human being even though he’s

raised in an environment of ape intelligence. However, as indicated, Tarzan is a

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Intelligence: In Pursuit of Rational Thought and Effective Action 149

fictional character. Children raised by animals or in deprived circumstances are

called feral children. When such children are discovered, they seldom display

adequate cognitive functioning. A famous case is that of the wild boy of the for-

est of Aveyron in France. Discovered at the age of seven and studied by the

nineteenth-century physician Jean-Marc-Gaspard Itard, the boy, given the name

Victor, never did attain normal intelligence. Similar studies of feral children

support Itard’s research findings. So, in spite of the story of Tarzan, it appears

that early experiences have to be within the context of a human social environ-

ment in order to bring out the individual’s genetic potentiality.

A substantial body of research suggests that a stimulus-rich environment

will make a large difference in measurable intelligence. A stimulus-rich environ-

ment, for human beings, is one that provides a great deal of affection along with

mental stimulation of a verbal and symbolical nature. A child who is played with

spontaneously, exposed to the printed word, provided with challenging toys, and

encouraged to express himself or herself is likely to automatically maximize his or

her genetic potentiality.

(a) The fictional tale of Tarzan of the Apes reflects what hypothesis as an explanation of

intelligence?

(b) Children raised by animals or in deprived circumstances are called chil-

dren.

affection along with mental stimulation of a verbal and symbolical nature.

Answers: (a) The genetic hypothesis; (b) feral; (c) stimulus-rich.

We can see that in a best-case scenario the function of the environmental fac-

tor is to elicit, or bring forth, the genetic potential of the child. It can’t put that

potential there, but it can help make it reach its highest and best level.

The concept of an interaction, a formal mathematical concept, is useful at this

point. An interaction occurs when two (or more) variables affect each other in a

complex way. In contrast, the relationship between two variables is said to be addi-

tive when they don’t affect each other’s value. For example, 3 ×3 =9. The rela-

tionship between the numbers is interactive because the whole (the product) is

more than the sum of its parts. On the other hand, 3 +3 =6. In this case the rela-

tionship between the numbers is additive because the whole (the sum) is the sum

of its parts.

Loosely speaking, a kind of “magic” occurs when there is an interaction.

Something is produced that is not “in” the original variables. So it is with intelli-

gence. It is very difficult to say, when there is an interaction, that one factor is of

greater importance than another factor. It is the joint effects of the two factors

working together that produce a result. In the case of intelligence, the nature-

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150 PSYCHOLOGY

nurture controversy is something of a false issue. The correct formula for under-

standing intelligence is this one:

Heredity ¥Environment = Intelligence

(The multiplication sign is used to symbolize an interaction.)

The answer to the heredity-environment debate should not be given in

either-or terms. The answer should be given in both-and terms. Both heredity and

environment, interacting, play important roles in determining intelligence.

(a) An occurs when two (or more) variables affect each other in a complex

way.

(b) What is the correct formula for understanding intelligence?

Answers: (a) interaction; (b) Heredity ×Environment =Intelligence.

SELF-TEST

1. One of the following is not a primary characteristic of intelligence:

a. The ability to think clearly

b. Eccentric thinking

c. Convergent thinking

d. Functioning effectively in the environment

2. In behavioral science, intelligence has the status of

a. a hypothetical construct

b. a psychological atom

c. a transcendental force

d. an interim operant

3. What method was employed by Binet and Simon to measure intelligence?

a. The biometric method

b. The perceptual-motor method

c. The performance method

d. The physiological method

4. A research project that measures behavior over a span of time is called a

a. discontinuity study

b. gradient study

c. longitudinal study

d. continuity study

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Intelligence: In Pursuit of Rational Thought and Effective Action 151

5. Which of the following is the correct formula for the intelligence quotient (IQ)?

a. IQ =MA ×CA +100

b. IQ =CA +MA ×3.14

c. IQ =MA +MA/100

d. IQ =MA/CA ×100

6. An IQ score in the range 110 to 119 is associated with what classification?

a. Very Superior

b. Superior

c. Bright Normal

d. Normal (or Average)

7. A test that measures what it is supposed to measure is said to be

a. consistent

b. reliable

c. valid

d. congruent

8. A test that gives stable, repeatable results is said to be

a. authentic

b. reliable

c. valid

d. systematic

9. The inborn potential to reach a given level of intelligence is associated prima-

rily with which of the following?

a. Nature

b. Nurture

c. Environment

d. Reinforcement

10. The correct formula for understanding intelligence is which of the following?

a. Heredity ×Environment =Intelligence

b. Heredity +Environment =Intelligence

c. Nature ×Heredity =Intelligence

d. Nurture ×Environment =Intelligence

ANSWERS TO THE SELF-TEST

1-b 2-a 3-c 4-c 5-d 6-c 7-c 8-b 9-a 10-a

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152 PSYCHOLOGY

ANSWERS TO THE TRUE-OR-FALSE PREVIEW QUIZ

1. True.

2. True.

3. False. There is an information subtest in the Wechsler Intelligence Scales.

4. False. An intelligence quotient (IQ) score of 100 is associated with normal, or average,

intelligence.

5. True.

KEY TERMS

bell-shaped curve (normal curve, or

Gaussian curve)

Binet-Simon Scale

biometric method

chronological age (or CA)

convergent thinking

correlation coefficient

environment

face validity

factor analysis

feral children

general factor (or g)

hypothetical construct

intelligence

intelligence quotient (or IQ)

interaction

kinesthetic intelligence

longitudinal study

mental age (or MA)

multiple intelligences

nature

nature-nurture controversy

nurture

outside criterion

performance intelligence

performance method

potential

reliable test

social environment

specific mental abilities (or s)

Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale (SBIS)

stimulus-rich environment

valid test

verbal intelligence

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children

(WISC)

Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of

Intelligence (WPPSI)

Wechsler Scales

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11 Developmental Psychology:

How Children Become

Adults

153

PREVIEW QUIZ

True or False

1. TF If a fertilized egg contains an XX chromosome pattern, the resulting

infant will be a female.

2. TF According to Freud, the five stages of psychosexual development are:

(1) oral, (2) anal, (3) phallic, (4) latency, and (5) genital.

3. TF In psychosocial development, the stage of identity versus role confu-

sion is associated with old age.

4. TF Cognitive development focuses primarily on the emotional adjust-

ment of the child.

5. TF An authoritarian parent tends to be easygoing, overly agreeable,

detached, and easily manipulated by the child or adolescent.

(Answers can be found on page 172.)

The previous chapter examined the concept of intelligence. The ways in

which children develop the kinds of mental skills associated with reasoning

and human intelligence are among the principal concerns of developmental

psychology.

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OBJECTIVES

After completing this chapter, you will be able to

• define developmental psychology;

• describe fetal development;

• explain Freud’s theory of psychosexual development;

• specify key features of Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development;

• identify the four stages in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development;

• identify the three levels in Kohlberg’s theory of moral development;

• describe the two basic dimensions of parental style.

A familiar proverb states, “As the twig is bent, so grows the tree.” Meant to

apply as a metaphor to the raising of children, this saying contains within it an

entire justification for the study of developmental psychology. Every adult was

once a child, and the adult was shaped and formed by experiences during child-

hood. Psychologists as far apart in many of their assumptions and conclusions as

Sigmund Freud and John Watson subscribed to the general view that in order to

understand adult behavior it is necessary to study child behavior.

The contemporary approach to developmental psychology expands the con-

cept of development well past childhood and adolescence. There are also devel-

opmental stages associated with adulthood. This will be evident when Erik

Erikson’s theory of development is presented later in this chapter.

Developmental psychology is the study of the growth and maturation of

the individual over an extended span of time. Child psychology is a subset of

developmental psychology. It concerns itself primarily with the study of the

individual from birth to the beginning of adolescence (usually around the age of

twelve or thirteen). Adolescent psychology is also a subset of developmental

psychology. It concerns itself primarily with the study of the individual from the

beginning of adolescence to its end (usually around the age of eighteen). Some-

times child psychology refers loosely to both child and adolescent psychology.

(a) Developmental psychology is the study of the and of the

individual over time.

(b) Child psychology is a of developmental psychology.

Answers: (a) growth; maturation; (b) subset; (c) subset.

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Biological Aspects of Development: From Fertilized Egg

to Infant

Freud said, “Biology is destiny.” Although Freud is usually thought of as a psy-

chologist, not a biologist, his early academic love was the study of biology. He

was trained as a biologist before he became a medical doctor. Freud’s statement

recognizes that, although learning and experience shape behavior, much of our

behavior is based on a foundation of genetic givens. For example, if a fertilized

egg contains an XX chromosome pattern, the individual will become a female.

If the fertilized egg contains an XY pattern, the individual will become a male.

The fact that one is a female or a male will be an important determining factor

in countless behaviors from birth to death. For a second example, let’s say that

a fertilized egg contains three chromosomes where normally there is a twenty-

first pair of chromosomes. This is a chromosomal anomaly known as trisomy

21. The individual will suffer from Down’s syndrome, a pattern characterized

by mental retardation and poor health. Freud’s view that biology is destiny has

much to recommend it. (A chromosomal anomaly is an abnormal chromo-

some pattern.)

(a) Freud said, “Biology is .”

(b) If a fertilized egg contains an XX chromosome pattern, the individual will

become a .

in the individual?

Answers: (a) destiny; (b) female; (c) Down’s syndrome.

The individual begins when a given sperm and a given ovum unite. Provided

by the father, the sperm, or more completely spermatozoon, is a highly mobile

cell with a tail. Provided by the mother, the ovum is a single egg cell. Both the

sperm and the ovum contain twenty-three single chromosomes. When the egg is

fertilized, there will be twenty-three pairs of chromosomes. Meiosis is the process

that reduces pairs of chromosomes to the individual chromosomes found in either

the sperm or the ovum. Mitosis, on the other hand, is the process that allows a

cell to reproduce itself. This process starts with twenty-three pairs of chromo-

somes, and all twenty-three pairs are replicated. It is mitosis that makes possible

the growth of the individual from one cell, the fertilized egg, to billions of cells.

(a) A more complete name for the sperm is the .

(b) Provided by the mother, the is a single egg cell.

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(d) What is the process that reduces pairs of chromosomes to individual chromosomes?

(e) What is the process that allows a cell to reproduce itself?

Answers: (a) spermatozoon; (b) ovum; (c) single; (d) Meiosis; (e) Mitosis.

A chromosome is a rodlike structure that contains genes. A chromosome is

so named because it is capable of picking up a dye, making the structure visible

under a microscope. Chromo refers to color, and soma refers to body. Thus a chro-

mosome is a “colored body.”

A gene is the basic unit of heredity. It is made up of strands of deoxyri-

bonucleic acid (DNA), a complex organic molecule with the unique ability to

replicate itself. It is the genes that do all of the active work associated with hered-

itary influence. The relationship of a chromosome to a group of genes is similar to

the relationship of a ship to its crew. The chromosome is the ship. The genes are

the members of the crew.

(a) A rod-like structure containing genes is called what?

(b) A gene is the basic unit of .

Answers: (a) A chromosome; (b) heredity; (c) deoxyribonucleic acid.

There are four stages associated with conception and birth: (1) zygote, (2)

embryo, (3) fetus, and (4) neonate. When a sperm and an ovum unite to form a

fertilized egg, the new being is called a zygote. The stage of the zygote lasts for

one week. During this stage the zygote develops rapidly from a single cell to a

large group of cells. A zygote may be imagined as a ball of cells without differen-

tiation.

From one week to seven weeks, the new being is called an embryo. As the

cells continue to divide and replicate themselves, some differentiation begins to

take place. Three basic embryonic layers emerge: (1) ectoderm, (2) mesoderm,

and (3) endoderm. The ectoderm is the outer layer of cells, and it will become

the sense organs, skin, and nervous system. The mesoderm is the middle layer of

cells, and it will become the heart, bones, and muscles. The endoderm is the

internal layer of cells, and it will become the stomach, intestines, and lungs.

(a) When a sperm and an ovum unite to form a fertilized egg the new being is

called a .

(b) From one week to seven weeks, the new being is called an .

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(d) The is the middle layer of embryonic cells.

(e) The is the internal layer of embryonic cells.

Answers: (a) zygote; (b) embryo; (c) ectoderm; (d) mesoderm; (e) endoderm.

From seven weeks to birth, the new being is called a fetus. Fetal development

is rich and complex. The cells continue to divide, and they become specialized in

their structures and functions. Brain cells (neurons), skin cells, hair cells, fat cells,

and many other kinds of cells form. The head, limbs, fingers and toes, and other

features of the body appear. In the typical case, the stage of the fetus lasts a little

over seven months, making the total time from conception to birth about nine

months.

At birth the new being is called a neonate. Neo means “new.” And nate means

“birth.” Thus the word neonate simply means “newborn.” If the neonate loses

weight after birth, then he or she is not referred to as an infant until birth weight

has been regained. The word infant is from Latin roots meaning “without

speech.”

(a) From seven weeks to birth, the new being is called a .

(b) At birth the new being is called a .

Answers: (a) fetus; (b) neonate; (c) infant.

Freud’s Theory of Psychosexual Development:

From the Oral to the Genital Stage

The infant is on the threshold of continuing biological and psychological devel-

opment. Our principal concern in this and future sections of this chapter is with

psychological development. Freud’s theory of development has been highly influ-

ential. First proposed about eighty years ago, it has had a large impact on the way

in which both psychologists and parents have thought about sexual development

in children. It has also influenced child-rearing practices.

According to Freud, there are five stages in psychosexual development. Psy-

chosexual development refers to the development of a sexual identity, attitudes

toward sexual behavior, and emotional reactions to sexual stimuli. Sexual devel-

opment, in Freud’s view, is much more than biological. Identity, attitudes, and

emotional reactions are psychological in nature. That is why Freud used the term

psychosexual instead of simply sexual to refer to the kind of development he wanted

to study.

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The five stages of psychosexual development are: (1) oral, (2) anal, (3) phallic,

(4) latency, and (5) genital. In order to appreciate Freud’s theory, it is necessary to

introduce a concept he employed called libido. Libido is thought of as psycho-

sexual energy, and Freud hypothesized that it is invested in different zones of the

body during the various stages of psychosexual development. These zones, or

areas, of the body are called the erogenous zones, and they are associated with

sexual pleasure. The principal erogenous zones are the oral, anal, and genital areas

of the body.

(a) The term refers to the development of a sexual identity, attitudes toward

sexual behavior, and emotional reactions to sexual stimuli.

(b) Freud thought of as psychosexual energy.

Answers: (a) psychosexual development; (b) libido; (c) erogenous.

The oral stage lasts for about two years (infancy). During this stage the infant

obtains a substantial amount of pleasure from sucking, biting, chewing, and so

forth.

The anal stage lasts for about one or two years (the stage of the toddler).

During the anal stage the toddler obtains a substantial amount of pleasure from, at

times, withholding fecal matter and, at other times, expelling it. Note that this

stage coincides with the time at which most children are toilet trained.

The phallic stage lasts for about three years (the stage of the preschooler).

During the phallic stage the preschooler, according to Freud, obtains a substan-

tial amount of pleasure from self-stimulation of the phallus. The phallus in the

male is the penis. In the female it is the clitoris. The phallic stage ends at about

the age of six.

(a) What psychosexual stage is associated with infancy?

(b) What psychosexual stage coincides with the time at which most children are toilet

trained?

Answers: (a) The oral stage; (b) The anal stage; (c) penis; clitoris.

The latency stage lasts for about six years. It begins at age six or seven and

ends at age twelve or thirteen. In effect, it ends when puberty begins. The libido

has migrated from the oral to the anal to the phallic zone. Now it goes under-

ground and becomes, to surface appearance, dormant. The libido goes under-

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ground not because of a lack of biological maturation, but because of psychologi-

cal conflict. Freud suggested that the child has a certain amount of dawning sexual

desire and tends to make the parent of the opposite sex the focus of this desire.

However, due to moral development, guilt sets in and the libido goes into hiding.

It is repressed to an unconscious level.

The emotional conflict associated with the child’s forbidden wish to seek sex-

ual expression with a parent is called the Oedipus complex. Freud was inspired

to coin this term from his familiarity with the Greek tragedy Oedipus Rex (i.e.,

“Oedipus, the King”) written by the dramatist Sophocles around 400 B.C. In the

play, Oedipus inadvertently kills his own father and unknowingly marries his own

mother. Writing in German in Austria, Freud used the term Oedipus complex to

refer to either males or females. Later authors, writing in the United States, some-

times use the term Oedipus complex to refer to males and Electra complex to

refer to females. (Electra is also a Greek play. Written by the dramatist Euripides,

also around 400 B.C., it bears some resemblance to Oedipus Rex.)

(a) According to Freud, during the latency stage the libido is repressed to an

level.

(b) What name did Freud give to the emotional conflict associated with a child’s forbidden

sexual wish during the latency stage?

conflict during the latency stage?

Answers: (a) unconscious; (b) The Oedipus complex; (c) The Electra complex.

The genital stage begins at twelve or thirteen and continues throughout

adulthood. With puberty, biological maturation can no longer be denied. The

repression lifts and the individual becomes intensely conscious of sexual interest.

Libido makes a final shift from the phallus to a more general interest in the oppo-

site sex. In normal development, the individual transfers sexual interest away from

the parent and toward potential partners who are not members of the family.

Freud’s outline suggests that much can go wrong with sexual development.

There can be too much excitation and arousal associated with one of the stages. Or,

conversely, there can be too much inhibition, punishment, or emotional injury asso-

ciated with one of the stages. Freud indicated that either too much excitation or too

much inhibition can induce a fixation of libido, meaning the libido is to some

extent “stuck” in one particular erogenous zone. According to Freud, such fixations

may play a role in various problems and maladaptive behaviors, including overeat-

ing, constipation, pedophilia, exhibitionism, fetishism, and sexual dysfunctions.

Freud’s theory is, as are all theories, a set of concepts, not a set of facts. Freud’s

theory has received its share of criticism. For example, research suggests that

although self-stimulation of the phallus is relatively common in children, it is not,

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as Freud thought, a behavior pattern demonstrated by almost all children. The

psychoanalyst Karen Horney, one of Freud’s advocates, rejected the biological

sexuality of the Oedipus complex. Instead, Horney suggested that, for example, a

male child is often jealous of the position of power and importance the father has

with the mother. The male child has a forbidden wish to take the father’s place,

not so much as a sexual rival, but as a psychological one.

(a) During what stage does the libido make a final shift from the phallus to a more general

interest in the opposite sex?

(b) Freud indicated that either too much excitation or too much inhibition can induce a

of libido in one particular zone.

Oedipus complex.

Answers: (a) The genital stage; (b) fixation; erogenous zone; (c) biological sexuality.

Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development: From Trust

to Integrity

Erik Erikson (1902–1994) was personally trained by Freud, and maintained

respect for Freud’s theory. However, he expanded Freud’s concept of psychosex-

ual development to include psychosocial development. Psychosocial develop-

ment refers to the characteristic ways in which the individual learns to respond to

other people. The term social world is often used to refer to the constellation of

other human beings in our environment—parents, siblings, teachers, friends,

sweethearts and lovers, husbands and wives, and coworkers. This is the world

addressed by Erikson’s theory.

According to Erikson, there are eight stages in psychosocial development:

(1) trust versus mistrust, (2) autonomy versus shame and guilt, (3) initiative versus

guilt, (4) industry versus inferiority, (5) identity versus role confusion, (6) intimacy

versus isolation, (7) generativity versus self-absorption, and (8) integrity versus

despair.

In each stage the first attribute mentioned is a positive, or desirable, personal-

ity trait. The second attribute is a negative, or undesirable, personality trait. Trust,

for example, is positive. Mistrust is negative. At each stage of development, the

individual is challenged by life to form the positive trait.

(a) The characteristic ways in which the individual learns to respond to other people is asso-

ciated with what kind of development?

(b) The term is often used to refer to the constellation of other human beings

in our environment.

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desirable, personality trait.

Answers: (a) Psychosocial development; (b) social world; (c) positive.

Trust versus mistrust is associated with infancy (birth to two years old). An

infant with a sense of trust tends to thrive and expects good things to happen.

Conversely, an infant with a sense of mistrust sometimes displays a failure to thrive

syndrome. A lack of interest in the surrounding world and poor health, associated

with mistrust, are characteristics of infantile depression. Affection, displayed in

the form of loving attention, tends to foster the trait of trust. Lack of affection

tends to foster the trait of mistrust. These last two statements concerning affection

tend to apply to future stages as well. In general, affection and positive reinforce-

ment tend to bring forth the positive traits.

Autonomy versus shame and doubt is associated with toddlerhood (two

to three years old). A toddler with a sense of autonomy will be interested in

exploring the immediate world and display an interest in novel stimulation. A

certain amount of self-direction will emerge. Conversely, a toddler with a sense

of shame and doubt will tend to hold back, to seem shy, and to lack self-

confidence.

(a) An infant with a sense of tends to thrive and expects good things to

happen.

(b) A lack of interest in the surrounding world and poor health are characteristics of

and to lack .

Answers: (a) trust; (b) infantile depression; (c) shame; self-confidence.

Initiative versus guilt is associated with the preschool period (three to six

years old). A preschooler with a sense of initiative will be likely to start a project

and see it through to completion. For example, four-year-old Rosalyn says, “I’m

going to color all of the pictures in my coloring book.” Conversely, a preschooler

with a sense of guilt is hesitant, does not seek challenges, and holds back when an

opportunity for self-expression presents itself.

Industry versus inferiority is associated with middle childhood (six to

twelve years old). A child with a sense of industry will show an interest in school,

study, complete homework, agree to do reasonable chores, and in general display

responsible behavior. A child with a sense of inferiority will avoid studying,

homework, and chores. The child obtains no satisfaction from these activities,

particularly if the child often obtains poor grades or receives too much parental

criticism.

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(a) A preschooler with a sense of will be likely to start a project and see it

through to completion.

(b) A child with a sense of will avoid studying, homework, and chores.

Answers: (a) initiative; (b) inferiority.

Identity versus role confusion is associated with adolescence (twelve to

eighteen years old). An adolescent with an identity has a sense of direction in life.

He or she already thinks in terms of a particular vocational area, has fairly well-

defined plans for the future, and a high level of self-esteem. Although goals are

not yet attained, they seem clearly desirable and possible. Conversely, an adoles-

cent suffering from role confusion imagines no particular pathway in life and

dreams of no well-shaped future. On the contrary, the future seems obscure and

formless.

Intimacy versus isolation is associated with young adulthood. This starts

when adolescence is over, usually around the age of eighteen. However, in prac-

tice, young adulthood may be deferred for a number of years until an identity

has been attained. The present stage and the future stages to be discussed will

not be identified with particular years. A young adult with the capacity for inti-

macy is able to form a close emotional bond with another person, often a mar-

riage partner. Intimacy exists when two people genuinely recognize the

importance of each other’s thoughts and feelings. Informally, they can “be

themselves” with each other, and do not have to put on an act. Conversely, iso-

lation exists when an individual treats another individual like a thing, an object

to be manipulated and taken advantage of. The term I-thou relationship is

sometimes used to characterize intimacy; the term I-it relationship is used to

characterize isolation.

(a) An adolescent with an has a sense of direction in life.

(b) The term relationship is sometimes used to characterize intimacy.

Answers: (a) identity; (b) I-thou.

Generativity versus self-absorption is associated with adulthood. An adult

with the trait of generativity is capable of productive work. Usually he or she will

spend many years employed in a vocation or a well-defined social role (e.g., par-

ent). Generativity is linked to giving something of value to the world. The adult

with this trait contributes in some way to the welfare of others. Conversely, an

adult with the trait of self-absorption is concerned only with his or her own wel-

fare. Taking, not giving, is the theme of the person’s life. He or she is, in essence,

a sort of parasite.

Integrity versus despair is associated with old age. An older person with the

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trait of integrity can face approaching death with a certain amount of acceptance.

There is relative peace of mind because the individual is convinced that his or her

life was spent well, that it had meaning. An older person in a state of despair has a

sense of desperation as life draws to its inevitable end. There is very little peace of

mind because the individual is thinking that he or she needs a second chance, an

opportunity to get life right.

Although the individual has very little control over the first few stages of life,

with adolescence and adulthood there is greater self-consciousness. There is a

growth in the ability to reflect and think. Consequently, the individual bears some

responsibility for the self-fashioning of the later stages.

(a) An adult with the trait of is capable of productive work.

(b) An adult with the trait of is concerned only with his or her own welfare.

tain amount of acceptance.

Answers: (a) generativity; (b) self-absorption; (c) integrity.

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development: From Magical

Thinking to Logical Thinking

The section on Erikson’s theory concluded with a comment on the ability to

reflect and think. Jean Piaget (1896–1980), often recognized as the foremost child

psychologist of the twentieth century, made the growth of the child’s ability to

think his particular domain of investigation.

Piaget, working primarily at Geneva University in Switzerland, began his

investigations into the workings of the child’s mind because of an interest in

epistemology. Epistemology, a branch of philosophy, is the study of knowing.

Piaget wanted to discover how we come to know what we know. Or, more

accurately, he wanted to discover how we come to think we know what we

think we know.

The method that Piaget used to study the child’s mind is called the phenom-

enological method. The phenomenological method is characterized by asking

a child a series of carefully worded questions that direct the child’s attention to

particular details of the child’s immediate world. The child’s responses reveal the

way in which the he or she thinks about the world. Piaget’s investigations suggest

that there are four stages of cognitive development, the development of the

way in which the child thinks. Informally, cognitive development may be thought

of as the “growth of the mind.”

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(a) , a branch of philosophy, is the study of knowing.

(b) The method, used by Piaget, is characterized by asking a child a series of

carefully worded questions.

thinks.

Answers: (a) Epistemology; (b) phenomenological; (c) Cognitive.

According to Piaget, there are four stages of cognitive development: (1) the

sensorimotor stage, (2) the preoperational stage, (3) the concrete operations stage,

and (4) the formal operations stage.

The sensorimotor stage is associated with infancy (birth to two years old).

During this stage the infant has consciousness, but not self-consciousness. He or

she is, of course, aware of the environment. There are reflexes. A stimulus induces

a patterned, predictable motor response. This provides a clue to the term sensori-

motor and why Piaget chose it. The infant senses the world and, without reflection

or analysis, acts in response to his or her impressions.

In the older infant there is even a certain amount of intentional behavior. But

the infant does not know that he or she exists in the same way that an older child

or an adult knows that he or she exists. There is no way to establish these asser-

tions beyond doubt, because a verbal interview with an infant is impossible. How-

ever, an infant acts as if self-consciousness is absent. For example, one-year-old

James is shown his reflection in a mirror. He is curious, of course, and reaches out

to touch the reflection. But he does not seem to know that he is seeing himself.

There appears to be no sense of recognition. A postage stamp is lightly stuck to

his forehead. He touches it in the mirror, but doesn’t peel it off of his forehead.

Tested again, when he is a little over two years old, James immediately recognizes

that the stamp is on his own forehead, and, using the mirror, peels it off. He has

developed self-consciousness, a characteristic not of infancy, but of the next stage.

(a) During the sensorimotor stage the infant senses the world and, without or

, acts in response to his or her impressions.

(b) During the sensorimotor stage the infant has consciousness, but not .

Answers: (a) reflection; analysis; (b) self-consciousness.

The preoperational stage is associated with toddlerhood and the preschool

age (two to seven years old). The term preoperational is used to suggest that during

this stage the child has not yet grasped the concept of cause and effect. Instead, the

child tends to think in magical terms. Magical thinking is characterized by an

absence of the recognition of the importance of the laws of nature. Four-year-old

Daniel sees no problem when a magician instructs a carpet to fly.

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Two additional characteristics of the preoperational stage are anthropomor-

phic thinking and egocentrism. Anthropomorphic thinking is characterized

by a tendency to explain natural events in terms of human behavior. Conse-

quently, leaves turn various colors in the fall because Jack Frost paints them. The

huffing and puffing of an invisible giant is the cause of a windy day.

Egocentrism is a tendency to perceive oneself as existing at the center of the

universe. Everything revolves around the self. Consequently, five-year-old

Danielle, when riding in a car at night with her parents, asks, “Why is the Moon

following us?” Two days later Danielle falls and scrapes her knee. She believes that

her mother can feel the pain. Six-year-old Edward thinks that people in a foreign

country on the other side of the world are upside down. He reasons that if the

world is round, and we’re right side up, then they have to be upside down. If an

adult tells Edward that the people are right side up, he will be confused.

(a) The term preoperational is used to suggest that during this stage the child has not yet

grasped the concept of and .

(b) What kind of thinking is characterized by a tendency to explain natural events in terms

of human behavior?

universe.

Answers: (a) cause; effect; (b) Anthropomorphic thinking; (c) Egocentrism.

The concrete operations stage is associated with middle childhood (seven

to twelve years old). The child at this stage can think in terms of cause and effect.

However, most of the thinking is “concrete,” meaning that cognitive processes at

this stage deal well with what can be seen or otherwise experienced, not with

abstractions. For example, eight-year-old Jack can easily understand that 3 +7 =

10 because, if necessary, this can be demonstrated with physical objects such as

pennies or chips. On the other hand, Jack can’t grasp that x +8 =11 in problem

1, and that x +8 =24 in problem 2. If Jack is told that x is a variable, and that it

can have more than one numerical value in different problems, he will have a hard

time appreciating this fact. In brief, Jack can understand arithmetic, but he can’t

understand algebra.

During the stage of concrete operations, children are usually interested in how

clocks work, how measurements are made, and why this causes that to happen.

They often like to assemble things. A game such as Monopoly, with its play

money, property deeds, and tokens, is attractive.

The formal operations stage is associated with adolescence and adult-

hood. (Adolescence begins at twelve or thirteen years old). The formal opera-

tions stage is characterized by the ability to think in abstract terms. The

adolescent and adult can understand algebra. Subjects such as philosophy, with its

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various viewpoints on life, become accessible. Not only thinking, but thinking

about thinking is possible. This is called metathought. It is what we are doing

in this section of the book.

Formal operational thought makes it possible to use both inductive and

deductive logic (discussed in chapter 9). The adult can reflect, analyze, and rethink

ideas and viewpoints. This kind of thought opens up avenues of mental flexibility

not available to children.

Piaget’s theory presents a blueprint for cognitive development that captures the

spectrum of thinking from its primitive beginning to its most sophisticated level.

(a) Cognitive processes associated with the concrete operations stage deal well with what

can be seen or otherwise experienced, not with .

(b) A child functioning at the concrete operations stage can understand arithmetic, but will

usually have a difficult time understanding .

(d) Formal operational thought makes it possible to use both and

logic.

Answers: (a) abstractions; (b) algebra; (c) metathought; (d) inductive; deductive.

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development: From a Power

Orientation to Living by Principles

Lawrence Kohlberg, a developmental psychologist associated with Harvard Uni-

versity, has drawn from Piaget’s theory of cognitive development and applied it to

moral development. Moral development is the development of the individual’s

sense of right and wrong. A high level of moral development is built on a foun-

dation of cognitive development. But, of course, more is involved.

Prior to Kohlberg’s actual research with subjects, theories of moral develop-

ment were based largely on speculation. The philosophers Plato and Immanuel

Kant believed that the moral sense is inborn, that it is a given of the human mind.

On the other hand, the philosophers Aristotle and John Locke assumed that moral

development requires learning and experience. Kohlberg’s approach tends to

favor the learning hypothesis. Human beings acquire a moral sense by learning to

think clearly, by the example of role models, and by social reinforcement.

(a) Moral development is the development of the individual’s sense of and

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(b) The philosophers Plato and Immanuel Kant believed that the moral sense is

requires and .

Answers: (a) right; wrong; (b) inborn; (c) learning; experience.

According to Kohlberg, there are three principal levels of moral develop-

ment: (1) the premoral level, (2) the conventional level, and (3) the principled

level. (There are six stages associated with the three levels, two stages to

each level. The differences between the stages are subtle, and they will not be

specified.)

The premoral level is associated with early childhood (from about two to

seven years old). The theme of this level is power orientation, meaning that to

a child thinking at this level, “might makes right.” The parents are seen as “right”

because they are bigger and stronger than the child. Five-year-old Kenneth is con-

sidering whether or not he should steal a one-dollar bill from his mother’s purse.

His hesitation, if there is any, is based on the fear of being caught, not on guilt. He

is amoral, meaning that he has no actual moral sense, no internal feeling that he

is wrong to do something that is forbidden.

(a) According to Kohlberg, there are how many principal levels of moral development?

(b) Thinking that “might makes right” is what kind of an orientation to morality?

ing of guilt.

Answers: (a) Three; (b) A power orientation; (c) amoral.

The conventional level is associated with late childhood and adolescence

(seven to eighteen years old). Also, many, probably most, adults continue to oper-

ate at the conventional level, never progressing to the principled level. The theme

of the conventional level is “law and order.” Right is right because human beings

have codes of conduct and written laws. Fifteen-year-old Sally identifies with her

family. The family has a certain religion, certain attitudes, and well-defined

notions of what is and is not socially acceptable behavior. Sally doesn’t question

the family’s values. She doesn’t examine or challenge them. She is operating at the

conventional level. Thirty-four-year-old Kelvin pays his taxes, has earned an hon-

orable discharge from the army, and thinks of himself as a “good citizen.” Kelvin,

like Sally, is operating at the conventional level.

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The principled level is associated with a relatively small percentage of adults.

These are people who think for themselves about what is right and wrong. They

are not chaotic in their thought processes. They are logical and clear sighted. In

certain cases, they may decide that a law or a group of laws are unjust, and they

may rebel. The founding fathers of the United States, men such as George Wash-

ington and Thomas Jefferson, fall in this last category. Saints, great leaders, and

prophets also fall in the principled category.

It is clear that not all adults outgrow even the first level, the premoral level.

Dictators who rule by brute force, who punish in accordance with their personal

whims, operate at the premoral level.

(a) The theme of the conventional level of moral development is “ and

.”

(b) Saints, great leaders, and prophets are associated with what level of moral develop-

ment?

Answers: (a) law; order; (b) The principled level.

Parental Style: Becoming an Effective Parent

Whether it be psychosexual, psychosocial, cognitive, or moral, development is

greatly influenced what parents say and do. The general approach taken toward

child rearing by a parent is called parental style. Research conducted by devel-

opmental psychologists such as Stanley Coopersmith and Diane Baumrind, both

affiliated with the University of California, suggests that there are two primary

dimensions of parental style. These are: (1) authoritarian-permissive and (2)

accepting-rejecting.

The authoritarian-permissive dimension consists of bipolar opposites. At

the one extreme, parents who manifest an authoritarian style are highly con-

trolling, demanding, possessive, and overprotective. At the other extreme, parents

who manifest a permissive style are easygoing, overly agreeable, detached, and

easily manipulated by the child or adolescent. Such parents tend to avoid setting

well-defined limits on behavior.

(a) There are how many primary dimensions of parental style?

(b) Parents who manifest an style are highly controlling, demanding, posses-

sive, and overprotective.

and easily manipulated.

Answers: (a) Two; (b) authoritarian; (c) permissive.

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The accepting-rejecting dimension also consists of bipolar opposites. At

the one extreme, parents who manifest an accepting style provide the child with

unconditional love, meaning that love is not withdrawn when a child’s behav-

ior is unacceptable. The child is loved for being himself or herself, and affection

does not stop just because the parent is sometimes disappointed in something the

child has done. There is much confusion about this particular point. Uncondi-

tional love does not mean unconditional acceptance of all behavior. It is possible

to reject unacceptable behavior without rejecting the whole person.

Parents who manifest a rejecting style provide the child with either condi-

tional love or no love at all. Conditional love is characterized by providing the

tokens of love (e.g., kisses, hugs, and praise) only when they have been earned by

certain behaviors such as getting good grades, doing chores, and being polite. A

parent who provides no love seldom, if ever, brings forth demonstrations of love

in either words or actions. The child acquires the impression that the parent

wishes he or she had never been born.

(a) Love that is not withdrawn when a child’s behavior is unacceptable is called

love.

(b) Parents who manifest a rejecting style provide the child with either love

or no love at all.

Answers: (a) unconditional; (b) conditional.

The two dimensions generate five distinct categories of parental style:

(1) authoritarian-accepting, (2) permissive-accepting, (3) authoritarian-rejecting,

Developmental Psychology: How Children Become Adults 169

Accepting

Rejecting

Authoritarian Permissive

Accepting-rejecting

dimension

Authoritarian-

permissive

dimension

The two dimensions of parental style.

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(4) permissive-rejecting, and (5) democratic-accepting. The first four styles are all

flawed, and each of them is likely to generate difficulties in the child’s adjustment

to life. The fifth style is the optimal style. The word democratic is used to indi-

cate an optimal midpoint on the authoritarian-permissive dimension. Parents who

manifest a democratic style give a child real options. The child is allowed to make

choices and important decisions. However, the democratic parent also sets realistic

limits. If the child’s choices are unacceptable and likely to create eventual problems

for the child, then the democratic parent draws a line and is capable of being firm.

Research suggests that a parent who manifests a democratic-accepting style

tends to induce optimal social behaviors in the child. This style tends to nurture the

intelligence, creativity, emotional adjustment, and self-esteem of the child.

(a) The two dimensions of parental style generate how many distinct categories of parental

style?

(b) The democratic-accepting style is the parental style.

Answers: (a) Five; (b) optimal.

SELF-TEST

1. The basic unit of heredity is the

a. chromosome

b. gene

c. trisomy 21 pattern

d. ribonucleic acid (RNA) anomaly

2. From seven weeks to birth, the new being is called

a. a fetus

b. an embryo

c. a zygote

d. a neonate

3. According to Freud’s usage, psychosexual energy is referred to as

a. libido

b. erotic ambivalence

c. metabolism

d. genital potency

4. The Oedipus complex is associated with what psychosexual stage?

a. The oral stage

b. The anal stage

c. The genital stage

d. The latency stage

170 PSYCHOLOGY

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5. A toddler with a particular positive psychosocial trait will be interested in

exploring the immediate world and display an interest in novel stimulation.

What is this trait?

a. Autonomy

b. Identity

c. Intimacy

d. Generativity

6. An older person with a particular positive psychosocial trait can face approach-

ing death with a certain amount of acceptance. What is this trait?

a. Generativity

b. Isolation

c. Identity

d. Integrity

7. What method did Piaget use to study the child’s mind?

a. The experimental method

b. The survey method

c. The phenomenological method

d. The correlational method

8. Magical thinking, anthropomorphic thinking, and egocentrism are associated

with what stage of cognitive development?

a. Trust versus mistrust

b. The sensorimotor stage

c. The formal operations stage

d. The preoperational stage

9. What level of moral development is associated with a law and order orienta-

tion?

a. The premoral level

b. The preconventional level

c. The conventional level

d. The principled level

10. Research suggests that a parent who manifests what style tends to induce opti-

mal social behaviors in the child?

a. Authoritarian-accepting

b. Democratic-accepting

c. Permissive-accepting

d. Authoritarian-rejecting

Developmental Psychology: How Children Become Adults 171

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ANSWERS TO THE SELF-TEST

1-b 2-a 3-a 4-d 5-a 6-d 7-c 8-d 9-c 10-b

ANSWERS TO THE TRUE-OR-FALSE PREVIEW QUIZ

1. True.

2. True.

3. False. In psychosocial development, the stage of identity versus role confusion is associ-

ated with adolescence.

4. False. Cognitive development focuses primarily on the way the child thinks.

5. False. An authoritarian parent tends to be highly controlling, demanding, possessive,

and overprotective.

KEY TERMS

172 PSYCHOLOGY

accepting style

accepting-rejecting dimension

adolescent psychology

amoral

anal stage

anthropomorphic thinking

authoritarian style

authoritarian-permissive dimension

autonomy versus shame and doubt

child psychology

chromosomal anomaly

chromosome

cognitive development

concrete operations stage

conditional love

conventional level

democratic

deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

developmental psychology

Down’s syndrome

ectoderm

egocentrism

Electra complex

embryo

endoderm

epistemology

erogenous zones

fetus

fixation of libido

formal operations stage

gene

generativity versus self-absorption

genital stage

I-it relationship

I-thou relationship

identity versus role confusion

industry versus inferiority

infant

infantile depression

initiative versus guilt

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Developmental Psychology: How Children Become Adults 173

integrity versus despair

intimacy versus isolation

latency stage

libido

magical thinking

meiosis

mesoderm

metathought

mitosis

moral development

neonate

Oedipus complex

oral stage

ovum

parental style

permissive style

phallic stage

phenomenological method

power orientation

premoral level

preoperational stage

principled level

psychosexual development

psychosocial development

rejecting style

sensorimotor stage

social world

sperm (or spermatozoon)

trisomy 21

trust versus mistrust

unconditional love

zygote

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174

12 Sex and Love: Are You

in the Mood?

PREVIEW QUIZ

True or False

1. TF Some individuals are capable of multiple orgasms.

2. TF Sexual dysfunctions always have a biological basis.

3. TF Impotence is a somewhat out-of-date term for male erectile disorder.

4. TF Fetishism refers to sexual contact between a human being and an ani-

mal.

5. TF The concept of romantic love is an outgrowth of ancient Greek tradi-

tions associated with the teachings of the philosopher Plato.

(Answers can be found on page 189.)

Development, the subject matter of chapter 11, leads the individual to

both biological and psychological maturation. And with maturation there

arrives an interest in both sex and love. In this chapter we explore many

aspects of these important topics.

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Sex and Love: Are You in the Mood? 175

Objectives

After completing this chapter, you will be able to

• describe the human four-stage sexual response cycle;

• identify the principal female sexual dysfunctions;

• identify the principal male sexual dysfunctions;

• identify dysfunctions that affect either sex;

• specify various kind of sexual variance;

• explain the concepts of intimacy and romantic love.

A popular song of the 1930s was titled “I’m in the Mood for Love.” Although

seventy years have elapsed since that particular song was a hit, the concept of

“being in the mood” is still associated with sex and love. More often than not, it

requires a receptive frame of mind as well as a particular attitude in order to be

excited by a given partner.

The sexual drive, as we have seen in earlier chapters, has its roots in biological

factors. However, it often interacts with romantic love, which is dominated by psy-

chological factors. Together, sex and love play important roles in human behavior.

Songwriters are aware of this point. Every other popular song is about either the

wonderful aspects of being in love or the sadness associated with the loss of love.

The purpose of this chapter is to explore the psychology of sexual behavior.

Unfortunately, although sexual behavior is a natural aspect of behavior in general,

there are many ways in which sexual behavior can be both maladaptive and unsat-

isfying. Even “doing what comes naturally” requires a certain amount of learning

and understanding.

(a) The concept of “being in the mood” is still associated with and

(b) Unfortunately, although sexual behavior is a natural aspect of behavior in general, there

are many ways in which sexual behavior can be both and .

Answers: (a) sex; love; (b) maladaptive; unsatisfying.

The Orgasm: The Peak of Sexual Pleasure

It is generally acknowledged that the orgasm is the peak of sexual pleasure. How-

ever, the orgasm itself is a part of a four-stage sexual response cycle. Using physi-

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ological recording devices and motion picture cameras, the physician William H.

Masters and the psychologist Virginia E. Johnson studied the actual sexual

responses of volunteer subjects. Their trailblazing book, Human Sexual Response,

was published in 1966, and summarizes the results of their investigations. Until

the publication of this book and associated articles by the same authors in scien-

tific journals, very little factual information was available concerning the physio-

logical facts associated with the sexual response cycle.

Here are the four stages of the sexual response cycle: (1) excitement, (2)

plateau, (3) orgasm, and (4) resolution. Excitement is characterized by increases

in blood pressure, pulse, and respiration rate. The individual is highly responsive

to erotic stimulation. This varies greatly, of course, from person to person, and is

largely a matter of individual differences, perception, and sexual preferences. In

males, the penis becomes erect. In females, the clitoris swells in size. In general,

there is an intensified flow of blood to the genital area.

During the stage of plateau, prior increases in physiological activity are main-

tained at a more or less constant level. In males, the penis becomes somewhat

larger. In females, the clitoris retracts a little. The variation in the time associated

with the plateau stage is considerable. The stage can last two minutes, twenty min-

utes, or more. Some of this is under the control of the individual. Plateau can be

shortened or increased based on voluntary responses, responses that aim to dimin-

ish or amplify the momentary intensity of erotic stimulation.

(a) The first stage of the sexual response cycle is characterized by increases in blood pres-

sure, pulse, and respiration rate. What is this stage called?

(b) In the second stage of the sexual response cycle, prior increases in physiological activity

are maintained at a more or less constant level. What is this stage called?

Answers: (a) Excitement; (b) Plateau.

The orgasm is an involuntary response in both sexes. Although it can be

induced by sexual behavior, it cannot be directly willed. Brief in duration, it

is experienced as intensely pleasurable. Blood pressure and similar measures

increase in intensity. In the male, there is an ejaculation accomplished by com-

pressor muscles in the penis. In the female, there are waves of contractions in

the pubococcygeus (PC) muscle, a muscle surrounding the channel of the

vagina.

During the stage of resolution the individual becomes temporarily unre-

sponsive to sexual stimulation. Stimulation that had erotic value only a few min-

utes ago has no capacity to induce excitement. Blood pressure and other

physiological measures decline. The duration of the stage of resolution varies from

individual to individual. For some individuals in some instances, it may last for

only a few minutes. For others, the duration may be twenty minutes, an hour or

two, or longer.

176 PSYCHOLOGY

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(a) The third stage of the sexual response cycle is associated with the peak of sexual pleas-

ure. What is the third stage called?

(b) What muscle in the female surrounds the channel of the vagina?

ily unresponsive to sexual stimulation. What is the fourth stage called?

Answers: (a) Orgasm; (3) The pubococcygeus (PC) muscle; (3) Resolution.

One of the important findings associated with the Masters and Johnson

research is that some individuals are capable of multiple orgasms. Multiple

orgasms take place when a person has an orgasm, remains excited (or possibly

experiences the resolution stage very briefly), and has at least one more orgasm. It

is necessary to speak of the sexes separately when discussing multiple orgasms.

Women have substantially greater multiorgasmic capacity than do men. Women

who have second and even third orgasms report them to be more pleasurable than

the first orgasm. It is estimated that about 15 percent of women sometimes have

multiple orgasms.

Men who have a second orgasm within a brief span of time report it to be less

pleasurable than the first orgasm. Unlike women, very few men will be capable of,

or interested in seeking, a third orgasm without a well-defined resolution stage. It

is estimated that about 7 percent of men sometimes have multiple orgasms. (In the

case of multiple orgasms, the percentage estimates for both sexes are somewhat

unreliable. The data are based primarily on the responses of subjects to question-

naires and interviews.)

Returning to the first and second stages, excitement and plateau, it is

important to note that when sexual intercourse—without self-imposed delay-

ing tactics—is the primary stimulus used to induce orgasm, the average male

takes about two to four minutes to achieve an orgasm. Under similar condi-

tions, the average female takes about ten to twenty minutes. This is an impor-

tant difference in male and female sexual response, and it provides useful

information to couples. In general, it is preferable for the female to attain

orgasm before the male.

In the case of masturbation, both males and females can often attain orgasm

within two to four minutes.

(a) Which sex has greater multiorgasmic capacity?

(b) Men who have a second orgasm within a brief span of time report it to be

pleasurable than the first orgasm.

usually takes longer to achieve an orgasm?

Answers: (a) Women; (b) less; (c) Women.

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Female Sexual Dysfunctions: When Sex Is Not

Satisfactory

A sexual dysfunction exists when the sexual response cycle manifests one of its

stages in an abnormal, unsatisfactory manner. The word dysfunction means, loosely,

“working wrong.” The various sexual dysfunctions are characterized by such

problems as lack of sexual desire, inability to become sexually excited, inability to

attain an orgasm, and other related problems. Either sex can be troubled with a

sexual dysfunction.

There are three sexual dysfunctions associated primarily with females: (1) female

sexual arousal disorder, (2) female orgasmic disorder, and (3) vaginismus. Female

sexual arousal disorder exists when the female does not respond to the kind of

stimulation that is otherwise expected to induce excitement. An older term for this

disorder, now considered to be obsolete, is frigidity. The female may herself be

either surprised or distressed by the inability of her partner’s efforts to bring forth

the first stage of the sexual response cycle.

(a) A sexual dysfunction exists when the sexual response cycle manifests one of its stages in

an , unsatisfactory manner.

(b) What disorder exists when the female does not respond to the kind of stimulation that

is otherwise expected to induce excitement?

Answers: (a) abnormal; (b) Female sexual arousal disorder; (b) Frigidity.

Female orgasmic disorder exists when the female is seldom, or never, able

to attain an orgasm during sexual activity. A female suffering from the disorder

often experiences a normal level of excitement. This leads to a prolonged plateau

period, and then excitement subsides without the satisfaction of an orgasm. The

individual feels she was on the verge of an orgasm, but it can’t seem to be trig-

gered. Females regularly report the experiences associated with the disorder to be

frustrating and disconcerting.

Vaginismus exists when the muscle associated with the vaginal entrance

cramps, making entry into the channel both difficult and painful.

The causal factors associated with the female disorders include poor health,

chronic fatigue, hormonal imbalances, anxiety, feelings of guilt and shame, disgust

with sexual activity, fear of pregnancy, an unresolved Oedipus complex, emotional

conflicts, boredom with a particular partner, and hostility toward a particular partner.

The factors both overlap and interact. When physicians and therapists treat a sexual

disorder, the individual history of a particular patient must be taken into account.

There is no one general, sweeping explanation for a particular person’s suffering.

178 PSYCHOLOGY

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Sex and Love: Are You in the Mood? 179

(a) What disorder exists when the female is seldom, or never, able to attain an orgasm dur-

ing sexual activity?

(b) What disorder exists when the muscle associated with the vaginal entrance cramps, mak-

ing entry into the channel both difficult and painful?

Answers: (a) Female orgasmic disorder; (b) Vaginismus.

Male Sexual Dysfunctions: Men Can Have Problems Too

From a cultural point of view, there has been a tendency to look upon men as sex

machines. But men are not always smooth-running machines. They are not

robots. Like women, they too have health problems and emotional conflicts. Con-

sequently, it is possible to identify male sexual dysfunctions. There are three sex-

ual dysfunctions associated primarily with males: (1) male erectile disorder, (2)

premature ejaculation, and (3) male orgasmic disorder. Male erectile disorder

exists when the male is either unable to attain an erection at all or is unable to

attain an erection that is sufficient to complete an act of sexual intercourse. An

older term for this disorder, now considered to be somewhat out of date, is impo-

tence, meaning “lack of power.”

(a) What disorder exists when the male is either unable to attain an erection at all or is

unable to attain an erection sufficient to complete an act of sexual intercourse?

(b) What is an older, somewhat out-of-date term for the above disorder?

Answers: (a) Male erectile disorder; (b) Impotence.

Premature ejaculation exists when the span of time between excitement

and orgasm is overly brief. There is no precise definition of “overly brief.” In gen-

eral, if a male attains his orgasm before a female is able to attain hers, both the

duration and the outcome of sexual intercourse are considered to be unsatisfac-

tory to both participants.

Male orgasmic disorder exists when the male is unable, after both excite-

ment and a sustained period of plateau, to attain an orgasm. This dysfunction is

also known as retarded ejaculation.

The causal factors listed earlier in connection with female dysfunctions also

apply to male sexual dysfunctions.

(Although for convenience of exposition, heterosexual relations were

assumed in the above presentation, the dysfunctions also apply to homosexual

relations.)

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180 PSYCHOLOGY

(a) What male dysfunction exists when the span of time between excitement and orgasm is

overly brief?

(b) Male orgasmic disorder is also known as .

Answers: (a) Premature ejaculation; (b) retarded ejaculation.

Dysfunctions Affecting Either Sex: When Desire

Is Absent

There are three dysfunctions that affect either sex. These are: (1) hypoactive sexual

desire disorder, (2) sexual aversion disorder, and (3) dyspareunia. Hypoactive sex-

ual desire disorder exists when the individual’s desire for sex is absent. He or she

neither fantasizes about sexual relations nor seeks sexual contact as a goal. A term

frequently used in psychoanalysis and psychiatry for this condition is loss of libido.

Psychosexual energy is simply not present. In the vast majority of cases, hypoactive

sexual desire disorder is preceded by a sustained period of normal sexual desire.

Sexual aversion disorder exists when the individual finds the thought of

sexual relations revolting, disgusting, or nauseating. The individual may think of

sexual intercourse as “dirty” or “messy.” One woman in psychotherapy told her

therapist, “I can’t stand the thought of a man slobbering over me.” Sexual aver-

sion disorder may be present from early adolescence. Or, in other cases, it may fol-

low a sustained period of normal sexual attraction.

Dyspareunia exists when sexual intercourse is painful. In the case of females,

vaginismus, already noted, can be a factor in dyspareunia. In the case of males,

thickening of the fibrous connective tissue within the penis, which induces the

erect penis to bend at an angle, can be a cause of dyspareunia. In either sex, gen-

ital infections, often associated with sexually transmitted diseases, can play a role

in dyspareunia.

Again, the set of causal factors already specified in association with specific

female and male dysfunctions plays a role in general dysfunctions that affect

either sex.

(a) What disorder exists when the individual’s desire for sex is absent?

(b) What term frequently used in psychoanalysis and psychiatry is associated with absence of

sexual desire?

disgusting, or nauseating?

(d) What dysfunction exists when sexual intercourse is painful?

Answers: (a) Hypoactive sexual desire disorder; (b) Loss of libido; (c) Sexual aversion

disorder; (d) Dyspareunia.

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Sex and Love: Are You in the Mood? 181

Sexual Variance: Of Fetishes and Voyeurism

The term sexual variance is used to characterize sexual behaviors that are statis-

tically deviant. This means only that these are behaviors that most people do not

engage in. Statistical variance does not necessarily imply pathology, meaning

sickness. A person who exhibits a form of sexual variance may be emotionally

troubled or suffer from a mental disorder, but not necessarily.

The classical term for the behaviors identified in this section is paraphilias.

This term comes from Greek roots meaning, roughly, “love on the edge” or

“love on the borderline.” This term is still employed widely in both psychiatry

and general psychology. Here are the principal paraphilias, or kinds of sexual

variance, that will be identified in this section: (1) bestiality, (2) exhibitionism,

(3) fetishism, (4) incest, (5) masochism, (6) pederasty, (7) pedophilia, (8) sadism,

(9) sodomy, (10) transsexualism, (11) transvestic fetishism (transvestism), and

(12) voyeurism. A discussion of the relationship between homosexual behavior

and sexual variance will be included toward the end of the section.

Bestiality refers to sexual contact between a human being and an animal.

Another term for this kind of behavior is zoophilia. Although about 2 to 3 per-

cent of females and about 6 to 8 percent of males report at least one sexual con-

tact with an animal, overall sexual contact with animals tends to be low—probably

less than 1 percent.

(a) The term is used to characterize sexual behaviors that are statistically

deviant.

(b) What is the classical term for behaviors that might be called “love on the edge” or “love

on the borderline”?

and

Answers: (a) sexual variance; (b) Paraphilias; (c) Bestiality; zoophilia.

Exhibitionism is characterized by sexual excitement associated with the vol-

untary exposure of one’s body, including the genitals. The large majority of exhi-

bitionism is associated with the self-exposure of a male to a female stranger. A

common pattern is exhibition with simultaneous masturbation.

Fetishism is characterized by the use of an inanimate object such as a stock-

ing, a pair of underwear, or a shoe as a sexual stimulus. A person who manifests

fetishism finds the object capable of inducing sexual excitement. A relatively com-

mon practice is to masturbate in association with the object.

Incest refers to sexual relations with a close relative such as a parent or a sib-

ling. The most common form of incest is between siblings. The next most com-

mon is father and daughter. The least common is mother and son. Although a

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182 PSYCHOLOGY

sexual relationship between, for example, a stepfather and a stepdaughter does not

qualify as biological incest, it may qualify as psychological incest, meaning that

the emotional aspects of the behavior resemble those associated with incest in

general. It is the forbidden aspect of incest that formed the core of Freud’s con-

cept of the Oedipus complex (see chapter 11).

(a) What paraphilia is characterized by sexual excitement associated with the voluntary

exposure of one’s body?

(b) is characterized by the use of an inanimate object as a sexual stimulus.

Answers: (a) Exhibitionism; (b) Fetishism; (c) Incest.

Masochism refers to extracting sexual pleasure from physical or psychologi-

cal pain. The term masochism is derived from the writings of the nineteenth-

century Austrian novelist Leopold V. Sacher-Masoch. A person with masochistic

tendencies sometimes requires physical pain or insults as a condition for reaching

an orgasm. Masochism is somewhat more common in women than in men.

Pederasty refers to homosexual relations between an adult male and a prepu-

bertal male. Sometimes the term us used to refer to male homosexual relations in

general; however, this is not correct. Also, pederasty carries the implication that

anal intercourse is a component of the sexual behavior. Pederasty is related to

pedophilia (see below).

Pedophilia is characterized by the sexual attraction of an adult to a prepu-

bertal child. Although the term can be used to apply to an adult who engages in

fantasies containing children, it is more commonly applied to adults who act upon

their desires. An adult who manifests pedophilia is sometimes referred to as a

pedophile. The novel Lolita by Vladimir Nabokov takes pedophilia as its core

element.

(a) Masochism refers to extracting sexual pleasure from physical or psychological

(b) refers to homosexual relations between an adult male and a prepubertal

male.

Answers: (a) pain; (b) Pederasty; (c) Pedophilia.

Sadism refers to inflicting psychological or physical pain on another person

in association with sexual gratification. The term sadism is derived from the liter-

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Sex and Love: Are You in the Mood? 183

ary works of the eighteenth-century author Donatien Alphonse François, the

Marquis de Sade. He described sexual relations that included general abuse of a

partner, including insults, chaining, and whippings. It should be noted that a sex-

ual relationship can be sado-masochistic, meaning that one partner manifests

primarily sadistic tendencies and the other partner manifests primarily masochis-

tic tendencies. Such a relationship is often relatively stable because each partner

meets the other one’s needs.

Sodomy refers to sexual practices thought by a given society or culture to be

in violation of natural behavior patterns. The term comes from the biblical city

Sodom, a community that was removed from the face of the Earth because of the

wickedness of its inhabitants. In practice, the term sodomy is usually used to refer

to the practice of anal intercourse. Less frequently, sodomy is used to make a ref-

erence to bestiality.

Transsexualism is characterized by a strong desire to become a person of the

opposite sex. The individual is unhappy with his or her own biological gender,

and often fantasizes about the emotional and sexual gratification that would be

obtainable if only it were possible to experience a transformation of body and self.

The American Psychiatric Association’s diagnostic manual (see chapter 14) classi-

fies transsexualism as a gender identity disorder. The term gender identity dis-

order refers to a state of dissatisfaction with one’s own biological gender, and,

consequently, has approximately the same meaning as transsexualism. The word

disorder carries the somewhat stronger implication of mental or emotional pathol-

ogy, because depression and suicidal tendencies are sometimes linked to a gender

identity conflict. Transsexualism is relatively rare. It appears with somewhat

greater frequency in males than in females. Treatment consists of psychotherapy

and, more infrequently, sex reassignment surgery.

(a) refers to inflicting psychological or physical pain on another person in

association with sexual gratification.

(b) refers to sexual practices thought by a given society or culture to be in vio-

lation of natural behavior patterns.

sex.

Answers: (a) Sadism; (b) Sodomy; (c) Transsexualism.

Transvestic fetishism (transvestism) is characterized by dressing in the

clothing of the opposite sex (i.e., cross-dressing). (The root “vest” refers to

clothing.) A person who manifests transvestic fetishism finds cross-dressing to be

sexually exciting. This kind of fetishism should not be confused with transsex-

ualism. Transvestic fetishism usually has a heterosexual orientation, and the indi-

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vidual who practices it does not have a desire to become a member of the oppo-

site sex.

Voyeurism is characterized by using a visual stimulus as a primary way to

induce sexual excitement. Examples of visual stimuli include a photograph, a

videotape, or an actual person. A common practice is to masturbate in association

with the stimulus. If a partner is present, masturbation may take the place of sex-

ual intercourse. A certain amount of gratification in connection with looking is

standard sexual practice. However, if an individual usually prefers visual stimula-

tion over physical contact, then the individual is manifesting voyeurism. Secret

viewing is frequently a component of voyeurism.

A number of factors enter into explanations of the various kinds of sexual

variance. These include the kind of biological and psychosocial factors earlier

identified in connection with the sexual dysfunctions. There is no one general

explanation for a particular individual’s sexual variance. A general factor, or a set

of general factors, has to be combined with the person’s particular learning his-

tory. Individual differences in behavior are just that, individual.

(a) is characterized by dressing in the clothing of the opposite sex.

(b) is characterized by using a visual stimulus as a primary way to induce sex-

ual excitement.

Answers: (a) Transvestic fetishism (transvestism); (b) Voyeurism.

Homosexual behavior is no longer listed as a kind of sexual variance or para-

philia. In older editions of the American Psychiatric Association’s diagnostic

manual, it was listed. In the current manual, it is not.

Homosexual behavior is characterized by sexual relations with a member of

the same sex. The term can be applied to both male and female behavior. How-

ever, lesbianism refers exclusively to female homosexual behavior. (The term is

derived from Lesbos, a Greek island. It is legend that in the sixth century B.C. the

writer Sappho and her followers, residents of the island, practiced homosexual

behavior.)

Conservative estimates suggest that about 4 percent of males and about 2 per-

cent of females are exclusively homosexual. A much larger percentage have had an

occasional homosexual experience.

(a) behavior is characterized by sexual relations with a member of the same

sex.

(b) refers exclusively to female homosexual behavior.

Answers: (a) Homosexual; (b) Lesbianism.

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Sex and Love: Are You in the Mood? 185

Intimacy: What Is This Thing Called Love?

As indicated in chapter 11, intimacy is a psychosocial stage. It refers to emotional

closeness between partners, an I-thou relationship in contrast to an I-it relation-

ship. It is generally believed that in order to have intimacy in a marriage a prereq-

uisite is to be in love with one’s partner. Consequently, an examination of the

concept of romantic love, and ideas related to it, will shed a certain amount of

light on sexual behavior in a long-term relationship.

Unlike many of the world’s cultures, our culture links sexual behavior, partic-

ularly within the institution of marriage, to romantic love. Romantic love is a

mental and emotional state characterized by moments of joy and the idealization

of one’s partner. In her book Love and Limerence, the psychologist Dorothy Ten-

nov uses the term limerence to identify the distinctive pattern of thoughts and

emotions associated with being in love. These include daydreaming about the

beloved one, the desire to have love returned, and the wish to spend a lot of time

in the other person’s presence. We use phrases such as “falling in love” to suggest

that the state of being in love is somewhat involuntary.

The concept of romantic love is an outgrowth of the Middle Ages tradition of

chivalry, a set of ideas and customs associated with knighthood. The knight was

expected to pay courtly love to a noblewoman. This involved writing poems and

jousting in tournaments with the fair lady’s handkerchief tied to a lance. The lady was

often unattainable, and sexual desire was unrequited. The present-day concept of

courting a woman is obviously derived from the days when knighthood was in flower.

(a) Romantic love is a mental and emotional state characterized by moments of

and the of one’s partner.

(b) What term does the psychologist Dorothy Tennov use to identify the distinctive pattern

of thoughts and emotions associated with being in love?

Answers: (a) joy; idealization; (b) Limerence; (b) chivalry.

It is only in relatively recent centuries, and primarily in the Western world,

that the concept of romantic love has been tied to actual marriage. The problem

is that romantic love has a certain tendency to fade after a marriage settles down

and children become members of the family. True, there may be romantic

moments, but one cannot expect a steady state of limerence to endure day after

day for years. Romantic love is replaced with conjugal love, a state of deep affec-

tion, mutual respect, and shared responsibilities. The partner is loved and there is

intimacy. And it is necessary to be more or less satisfied with conjugal love if one

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186 PSYCHOLOGY

is to have a stable marriage. If there is a demand for romantic love, then this may

play a role in a desire to have an affair or seek a divorce.

An increased understanding of the above point can be attained by referring to

the idealization-frustration-demoralization syndrome. The syndrome was first iden-

tified about fifty years ago by the communication specialist Wendell Johnson in his

book People in Quandaries. The idealization-frustration-demoralization (IFD)

syndrome is a common interpersonal pattern, often destructive to marriages. The

first stage, idealization, is characterized by a tendency to project on the partner, or

potential partner, special attributes such as unusually good looks, great intelligence,

outstanding creative ability, and so forth. She is a sort of Cinderella; he is a sort of

Prince Charming. The stage of idealization is clearly linked to romantic love.

(a) In a stable marriage, romantic love is replaced with love.

(b) What is the name of the IFD syndrome stage characterized by a tendency to project on

the partner, or potential partner, special attributes?

Answers: (a) conjugal love; (b) Idealization.

The second stage of the IFD syndrome, frustration, emerges when the unreal-

istic expectations set up by the first stage cannot be met. One person lets the other

one down in both big and small ways. Little by little illusions fall away and the

partner is seen clearly, psychological warts and all.

The third stage, demoralization, is characterized by the conviction that the rela-

tionship is hopeless, that even valiant efforts to improve the relationship are

doomed to failure. It is at this point that one member of a couple may seek an

affair, a separation, or a divorce.

Johnson’s basic message is clear. People should enter relationships with their

eyes wide open. They should avoid idealization and an excessive attachment to the

concept of romantic love. Granted, given our culture, a certain amount of

romance is appropriate. However, idealization with its unrealistic expectations sets

up the members of a couple for a fall.

(a) What is the name of the IFD syndrome stage that emerges when the unrealistic expecta-

tions set up by the first stage cannot be met?

(b) What is the name of the IFD syndrome stage characterized by the conviction that the

relationship is hopeless?

Answers: (a) Frustration; (b) Demoralization.

The psychologist John Gottman has conducted a substantial amount of

research into the interpersonal patterns associated with marriage. He has discov-

ered four behavioral tendencies that tend to undermine the stability of a marriage,

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Sex and Love: Are You in the Mood? 187

and he calls these the “Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse.” The first horseman is

criticism. The worst kind of criticism of a partner involves hostile remarks about

the other person’s personality. Statements such as “You’re lazy,” “You’re incon-

siderate,” “You’re dumb,” “You’re wasteful,” and so forth sting and injure the tar-

get person’s self-esteem. Instead, a criticism should be specific about a behavior.

Instead of saying “You’re lazy,” a partner can say “You didn’t throw out the trash”

or “You haven’t mowed the lawn.”

Contempt exists when a partner is treated with little or no respect. If one

person offers a thought or idea, the other one laughs at it or does not take it seri-

ously. Sometimes scorn is conveyed in a nonverbal manner with a sneer or by

turning one’s eyes upward.

Defensiveness involves not accepting the value or correctness of a partner’s

complaints. The defensive partner can see no right in what the other person has

said. Instead, extensive rationalizations are produced. These are designed to show

that failures and lack of responsible behavior should be tolerated. An overly defen-

sive partner cannot seem to simply say, when appropriate, “You’re right. I was

wrong. I made a mistake.”

Withdrawal refers to emotional withdrawal. A partner manifesting with-

drawal refuses to communicate in a meaningful fashion. He or she retreats into

emotional isolation, placing a kind of psychological shell, an invisible barrier,

around the self. A partner who is reaching out, who is trying to make contact,

feels barred from entry into the other person’s personal world.

Research suggests that individuals who make a conscious effort to avoid the four

horsemen can improve both the quality and stability of a long-term relationship.

Intimacy is nurtured by understanding the concepts presented in this section.

And, in turn, intimacy itself nurtures the positive aspects of a sexual relationship.

(a) Gottman identified four behavioral tendencies that tend to undermine the stability of a

marriage. Name the tendency that exists when a partner is treated with little or no

respect.

(b) Name the tendency identified by Gottman that exists when a partner retreats into emo-

tional isolation.

Answers: (a) Contempt; (b) Withdrawal.

SELF-TEST

1. Which of the following is not a stage of the four-stage sexual response cycle?

a. Excitement

b. Plateau

c. Orgasm

d. Homeostasis

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2. Which of the following is a correct statement?

a. Women have substantially greater multi-orgasmic capacity than do men.

b. Men have substantially greater multi-orgasmic capacity than do women.

c. Neither sex is capable of multiple orgasms.

d. Freud proved that the concept of multiple orgasms is a myth.

3. What dysfunction exists when the female does not respond to the kind of stim-

ulation that is otherwise expected to induce excitement?

a. Female orgasmic disorder

b. Vaginismus

c. Female sexual arousal disorder

d. Sexual aversion disorder

4. What disorder exists when the female is seldom, or never, able to attain an

orgasm during sexual activity?

a. Inhibited orgasmic disorder

b. Frigidity

c. Female orgasmic disorder

d. Dysfunctional orgasmic excitation

5. The older term impotence is associated with what disorder?

a. Premature ejaculation

b. Male erectile disorder

c. Male orgasmic disorder

d. Male resolution disorder

6. Male orgasmic disorder is also known as

a. excitement disorder

b. facilitated orgasmic response

c. transvestic inhibition

d. retarded ejaculation

7. What paraphilia is characterized by the use of an inanimate object such as a

stocking or a shoe as a sexual stimulus?

a. Fetishism

b. Pedophilia

c. Sadism

d. Masochism

8. What paraphilia refers to extracting sexual pleasure from physical pain?

a. Pederasty

b. Masochism

c. Pedophilia

d. Transvestism

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9. What term refers exclusively to female homosexual behavior?

a. Gender identity disorder

b. Transsexualism

c. Lesbianism

d. XX-oriented fetishism

10. What term does the psychologist Dorothy Tennov use to identify the distinc-

tive pattern of thoughts and emotions associated with being in love?

a. Conjugal love

b. Limerence

c. Idealization

d. Transcendental ecstasy

ANSWERS TO THE SELF-TEST

1-d 2-a 3-c 4-c 5-b 6-d 7-a 8-b 9-c 10-b

ANSWERS TO THE TRUE-OR-FALSE PREVIEW QUIZ

1. True.

2. False. A sexual dysfunction may have a primarily biological basis or a primarily psycho-

logical basis.

3. True.

4. False. Fetishism is characterized by the use of an inanimate object as a sexual stimulus.

5. False. The concept of romantic love is an outgrowth of the Middle Ages tradition of

chivalry.

KEY TERMS

Sex and Love: Are You in the Mood? 189

bestiality

conjugal love

contempt

courtly love

criticism

defensiveness

dyspareunia

excitement

exhibitionism

female orgasmic disorder

female sexual arousal disorder

fetishism

Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse

frigidity

gender identity disorder

homosexual behavior

hypoactive sexual desire disorder

idealization-frustration-demoralization

(IFD) syndrome

impotence

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190 PSYCHOLOGY

incest

lesbianism

limerence

loss of libido

male erectile disorder

male orgasmic disorder

masochism

multiple orgasms

orgasm

paraphilias

pathology

pederasty

pedophile

pedophilia

plateau

premature ejaculation

psychological incest

pubococcygeus (PC) muscle

resolution

retarded ejaculation

romantic love

sadism

sado-masochistic

sexual aversion disorder

sexual dysfunction

sexual variance

sodomy

transsexualism

transvestic fetishism (transvestism)

vaginismus

voyeurism

withdrawal

zoophilia

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13 Personality: Psychological

Factors That Make You

an Individual

191

PREVIEW QUIZ

True or False

1. TF Only you have your particular personality.

2. TF Extraverts tend to be outgoing and friendly.

3. TF According to Freud, there are four parts to the human personality: (1)

the id, (2) the ego, (3) the superego, and (4) the collective uncon-

scious.

4. TF An inferiority complex is a group of highly realistic ideas about the

self.

5. TF The Rorschach test consists of ten inkblots.

(Answers can be found on page 210.)

Chapter 12 presented important aspects of sexual behavior. Sex plays a

role in human identity and is an important part of any individual’s per-

sonality. However, the human personality encompasses much more than

sexual behavior. This chapter explores some of the important traits and

processes that help us to describe and understand the human personality.

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Objectives

After completing this chapter, you will be able to

• define personality;

• describe several type-trait theories;

• explain key aspects of Freud’s theory of personality;

• explain key aspects of neo-Freudian theories of personality;

• specify how operant conditioning and observational learning affect the shaping

of the personality;

• understand the role that consciousness plays in the self-shaping of the person-

ality;

• describe three important personality tests.

How Does Your Personality Affect Your Behavior?

Your personality plays a role in almost everything that you do. If you are familiar

with someone’s personality, you can often predict how he or she will be likely to

act in a particular situation. If, for example, you think of Alex as studious, then

you will automatically predict that he will prepare conscientiously for his upcom-

ing final examination in a college course.

A workable definition of personality is that it is the constellation of traits

unique to the individual. Your personality is like a psychological fingerprint. Only

you have your particular personality.

The word trait, as used above, refers to your relatively stable behavioral dis-

positions. However, your personality is somewhat more than your traits. Your

personality also consists of the ego, the conscious “I” at the center of the per-

sonality. Also, your personality contains the self, the personality as viewed from

within, as you yourself experience it. These points will be elaborated in later

sections.

Although physical appearance can be a basis for interpersonal attraction, it is

also true that one person will often want to get to know another person because

of that person’s personality. Like another’s face or figure, we often find another’s

personality appealing or unappealing. Relationships, including marriages, often

stand or fall on the basis of the way in which two people react to each other’s per-

sonalities. These are some of the reasons why psychologists believe that the study

of personality is important.

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(a) A workable definition of personality is that it is the constellation of unique

to the individual.

(b) The is the conscious “I” at the center of your personality.

Answers: (a) traits; (b) ego.

Your Traits: Are You Introverted or Extroverted?

The philosopher Aristotle was thought to have wisdom. The conqueror Attila the

Hun is remembered for his aggressiveness. The physicist Marie Curie was recog-

nized to be unusually persistent. In Charles Dickens’s A Christmas Carol, the char-

acter Scrooge is known for being stingy. In Margaret Mitchell’s Gone With the

Wind, Scarlett O’Hara is admired for her courage.

Wisdom, aggressiveness, persistence, stinginess, and courage are all traits of

personality. In psychology, type-trait theories are attempts to provide consistent

descriptions of personality. Psychologists presenting these theories, theories based

on observations and personality tests, are somewhat like mapmakers. Mapmakers

may or may not understand the geological processes that create islands, continents,

and mountains, but they try to present an accurate picture of what they find. Sim-

ilarly, type-trait theorists may or may not comprehend the underlying processes

that account for a trait or a set of traits, but they try to present an accurate picture

of what they discover.

theories are attempts to provide consistent descriptions of personality.

Answer: Type-trait.

A very early type-trait theory was the one presented by Hippocrates, who was

often identified as the father of medicine, about 400 B.C. According to Hip-

pocrates, there are four personality types: (1) sanguine, (2) choleric, (3) melan-

cholic, and (4) phlegmatic. The dominant trait of a sanguine personality is

optimism. The dominant trait of a choleric personality is irritability. The domi-

nant trait of a melancholic personality is depression. The dominant trait of a

phlegmatic personality is sluggishness.

Hippocrates believed that one’s personality is influenced by the balance of

humors in the body. In physiology, the word humor refers to any functioning

fluid of the body. Hippocrates asserted that a person with a sanguine personality

has a lot of the humor blood. A person with a choleric personality has a lot of the

humor yellow bile. A person with a melancholic personality has a lot of the humor

black bile. A person with a phlegmatic personality has a lot of the humor phlegm.

Hippocrates’s humor theory of personality is not taken seriously today. How-

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ever, he is credited for being a fairly astute observer of human behavior. The four

types, if not entirely accurate, do have some interest and value. Present-day usage

such as “being in a good humor” can be traced back to the thinking of Hip-

pocrates.

(a) According to Hippocrates, what humor, or body fluid, is associated with the sangine per-

sonality?

(b) According to Hippocrates, what humor, or body fluid, is associated with the melancholic

personality?

Answers: (a) Blood; (b) Black bile.

Another classical personality theory, one that bears some resemblance to Hip-

pocrates’s theory, was proposed about sixty years ago by the physiologist William

H. Sheldon. Sheldon suggested that there are three basic body types: (1) endo-

morph, (2) mesomorph, and (3) ectomorph. The body types are innately deter-

mined during the stage of the embryo. The adult’s body is shaped by varying

amounts of endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm (see chapter 11). An endo-

morph tends to have a soft, flabby body. The endomorph will tend to be placid

and lazy and to seek fun for fun’s sake. A mesomorph tends to have a firm, mus-

cular body. The mesomorph will tend to be assertive and ambitious and to seek

action for action’s sake. An ectomorph tends to have a thin, frail body. The ecto-

morph will tend to be shy, tense, and nervous.

Sheldon recognized that many, perhaps most, people are not pure types. Con-

sequently, in his research he rated subjects on the three dimensions of the body

and assigned them a somatotype. The somatotype is a profile that reflects an

individual’s particular pattern of body tissue. Although Sheldon collected quite a

bit of data to support his approach to the study of personality, research by others

has provided only weak support for his viewpoint.

(a) According to Sheldon, what body type tends to be thin and frail?

(b) According to Sheldon, what body type goes with such traits as placid and lazy?

tissue.

Answers: (a) The ectomorph; (b) The endomorph; (c) somatotype.

One of the most famous type-trait theories of personality is the one proposed

in the early part of the twentieth century by the Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung, one

of Freud’s early associates. Jung said that two basic personality types are the intro-

vert and the extrovert. The introvert favors behaviors such as thinking, reading,

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reflecting, meditating, creative writing, remembering, composing music, day-

dreaming, and spending time alone. These behaviors are associated with a general

trait called introversion. As Jung explained it, introversion is characterized by a flow

of libido toward the inner world. (Jung used the term libido to mean psychological

energy.)

The extravert (also, extrovert) favors behaviors such as talking, going to

motion pictures, taking trips, seeking financial success, exploration, being physi-

cally active, and spending time with a fairly large circle of friends. These behaviors

are associated with a general trait called extraversion. Extraversion is characterized

by a flow of libido toward the outer world.

Jung recognized that introverts and extraverts reflect a bipolar trait, a trait

that exists on a continuum with logical opposites. The trait, correctly named, is

introversion-extraversion.

A given person is not necessarily a pure type. The ambivert is an individual

who displays a mixture of both introverted and extraverted behaviors.

Jung believed that the tendency to be an introvert or an extravert is primarily

inborn, a part of one’s biologically determined disposition. Jung himself was an

introvert. This is reflected in the title of his autobiography, Memories, Dreams, and

Reflections. By Jung’s own admission, the inner life was more important to him

than the outer life.

(a) According to Jung, the favors behaviors such as thinking, reading, medi-

tating, and daydreaming.

(b) Jung recognized that introverts and extraverts reflect a trait, a trait that

exists on a continuum with logical opposites.

extraverted behaviors.

Answers: (a) introvert; (b) bipolar; (c) ambivert.

A well-regarded, contemporary type-trait theory is the researcher Raymond

B. Cattell’s sixteen personality factor theory. Based on his statistical analysis of

various personality tests, Cattell concluded that there are sixteen factors, or clus-

ters of related bipolar traits, that describe the human personality. One of the bipo-

lar traits, or factors, is reserved-outgoing, which corresponds closely to Jung’s

introversion-extraversion trait.

A second bipolar trait is affected by feelings–emotionally stable. A per-

son manifesting the first extreme of the trait will tend to be deeply hurt by a crit-

icism, become depressed easily, and experience emotional states vividly. A person

manifesting the opposite extreme of the trait will seldom experience prolonged

states of anger, anxiety, or depression. To such a person, life is lived in a relatively

placid manner.

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A third bipolar trait is humble-assertive. A person manifesting the first

extreme of the trait will tend to be passive, easily controlled by others, and lack

self-confidence in social relationships. A person manifesting the opposite

extreme of the trait will tend to be a leader, influence others, and have quite a bit

of self-confidence in social relationships. Cattell’s map of the human personality

continues in this manner until, as already indicated, sixteen bipolar traits are

identified.

(a) According to Cattell’s research, how many factors describe the human personality?

(b) A person tends to be deeply hurt by a criticism and becomes depressed easily. Another

person tends to seldom experience prolonged states of anxiety or depression. What

bipolar trait is associated with these two extremes?

Answers: (a) Sixteen; (b) Affected by feelings–emotionally stable.

Freud’s Theory: The Three Faces of You

As earlier noted, type-trait theories are of interest primarily because of their

descriptive powers, not because of the explanations they offer for the existence

of personality traits. On the other hand, Freud’s theory of personality is of inter-

est primarily because it focuses on the processes involved in the expression and

shaping of the human personality. Freud’s theory, proposed in the early part of

the twentieth century, has been highly influential, particularly among psy-

chotherapists.

According to Freud, there are three parts to the human personality: (1) the id,

(2) the ego, and (3) the superego. The id is inborn, and it is present at birth. It is

the psychological expression of the biological drives such as hunger, thirst, the

need for sleep, and so forth. The word id is derived from Latin, and means simply

“it.” In other words, the “it” of the human personality is not uniquely individual.

It is impersonal and roughly similar in all of us. The id is present in the infant, and

Freud said it follows the pleasure principle, indicating that the id seeks relief

from hunger, thirst, and other irritating states. Although the id is present at birth,

it never departs. It is as much a part of the adult personality as the personality of

the child.

The ego emerges with experience. It arises because of various frustrations and

the need to cope with the world as it is, not as it is wished to be. The word ego is

also derived from Latin, and means simply “I.” The ego, or the “I” of the per-

sonality, follows the reality principle, suggesting that the ego helps the individ-

ual tolerate frustration and devise ways around obstacles to gratification. The ego

takes form around the age of two or three. Like the id, it too will become a part

of the adult personality.

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(a) According to Freud, what part of the personality is inborn and present at birth?

(b) The ego helps the individual tolerate frustration. The ego follows what principle?

Answers: (a) The id; (b) The reality principle.

The superego emerges last. It reflects the influence of the family. The family

is usually the agent that represents the values and norms of a larger culture to a

growing child. This includes the family’s religious beliefs and its participation in

the rules and laws of a given nation. If a child identifies with the family, the super-

ego will be introjected, meaning that it will become an integral part of the indi-

vidual’s personality.

Feelings of guilt arise when the demands of the superego are violated. This makes

a reference to the conscience, one of the aspects of the superego. The conscience

acts as a kind of inner police officer, guiding the individual in the direction of con-

forming to social expectations. The superego is relatively well established around the

age of seven. Like the id and the ego, it is also a part of the adult personality.

Another aspect of the superego is the ego ideal, an image that sets forth what

one should do with one’s life in terms of a vocation, family responsibilities, and

long-term goals. The ego ideal, being a part of the superego, reflects the wishes of

the parents. It should be noted that Freud’s concept of the ego ideal is not the

same as Maslow’s concept of self-actualization. When one actualizes the ego ideal,

one becomes what the parents wish for. When one actualizes the self, one

becomes what one was meant to be. Of course, these two goals are not necessar-

ily in conflict. But sometimes they are.

(a) If a child identifies with the family, the superego will be .

(b) What aspect of the superego reflects the wishes of the parents and is associated with

long-term goals?

Answers: (a) introjected; (b) The ego ideal.

Of particular importance in Freud’s personality theory is the concept of ego

defense mechanisms. Ego defense mechanisms are involuntary mental acts

designed to protect the ego from the “slings and arrows of outrageous fortune.”

In other words, they act as shields, protecting us from some of the emotional pain

and damage that can arise from coping with life. In view of the fact that it is nec-

essary to have a strong, functional ego in order to deal with reality, it is under-

standable that the ego tends to develop a protective system.

Seven of the ego defense mechanisms are (1) denial of reality, (2) repression,

(3) projection, (4) identification, (5) fantasy, (6) rationalization, and (7) reaction

formation. Denial of reality takes place when the individual thinks, “This isn’t

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so. This can’t be happening.” Examples include refusing to believe that the car is

out of gas, that one has a serious illness, or that a cherished dream will never come

true. Denial is a primitive mechanism, often used by toddlers and preschoolers.

Four-year-old Oscar is told the family can’t go on a picnic because it is raining.

He looks out the window and says, “It’s going to stop pretty soon.” The observa-

tion may be made without any objective evidence that the sky is clearing.

Repression takes place when the ego pushes down unpleasant features of

one’s psychological world to an unconscious level. These typically consist of

painful childhood memories and forbidden wishes associated with sexual and

aggressive behavior. It is repression that defines the contents of the mind’s uncon-

scious domain (see chapter 1).

(a) Involuntary mental acts protecting us from some of the emotional pain and damage

than can arise from coping with life are called .

(b) What mental process is involved when the ego pushes down unpleasant features of one’s

psychological world to an unconscious level?

Answers: (a) ego defense mechanisms; (b) Repression.

Projection takes place when the ego perceives in the outer world what is

actually the reflection of the contents of the unconscious domain. For example,

Edith has a substantial amount of repressed hostility toward others. Polite and

highly moral, she is unable to acknowledge her aggressive impulses. Instead, she

believes that others take advantage of her and that they have designed little plots

against her.

Identification takes place when the ego attaches itself to a person perceived

to have a desirable attribute such as power, status, or unusual ability. For example,

forty-seven-year-old Percy is an English teacher in a high school. His ambition is

to write and sell science-fiction novels. He has read and reread the autobiography

of the famous science-fiction author Isaac Asimov, In Memory Yet Green. Percy

draws inspiration from Asimov’s life, and derives an impression that he himself is

talented as a creative writer when he mentally associates himself with Asimov.

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Fantasy takes place when the ego imagines successes or accomplishments that

are not presently obtainable in actual day-to-day living. For example, nineteen-

year-old Faith has a crush on a male coworker. She sometimes daydreams that she

is his bride or that they are on a honeymoon cruise. The kind of emotional grat-

ification associated with fantasy is called vicarious gratification, meaning sub-

stitute gratification.

Rationalization takes place when the ego provides a rational-sounding rea-

son for a failure or a transgression. Diana receives an F on an algebra test. She

rationalizes by thinking, “The questions were unfair. And the teacher didn’t give

us enough time to study.” Grant is on a diet, and eats a candy bar one afternoon.

He rationalizes by thinking, “I was feeling faint. My blood sugar must have been

low. I needed something to keep going.” A rationalization may have little or no

basis in reality, and not be rational at all. However, its superficial logic is a balm to

the threatened ego.

Reaction formation is characterized by converting a repressed wish into its

psychological opposite at the conscious level. Prudence has a history of abusing

food. Now on strict diet, she counts every calorie and seems to be afraid to eat.

She has put herself temporarily into a kind of psychological prison in order to

contain her desire to overeat. The desire is not gone. It is has been banished to an

unconscious level. The reaction formation helps her to block off her forbidden

impulse. Another example of reaction formation is associated with Conrad in

chapter 7. Conrad is hostile toward his wife’s sister. The hostility, a reaction for-

mation, helps him to repress a forbidden sexual wish.

The defense mechanisms overlap to some extent. For example, identification,

as explained above, contains elements of fantasy.

(a) takes place when the ego attaches itself to a person perceived to have

some particularly desirable attribute.

(b) The kind of emotional gratification associated with fantasy is called .

ure or transgression.

Answers: (a) Identification; (b) vicarious gratification; (c) Rationalization.

Other Psychodynamic Theories: Is There a Collective

Unconscious Mind?

Freud’s general approach to the study of personality is said to be psychodynamic.

A psychodynamic theory assumes that the personality is a field of forces that are

sometimes in opposition. For example, the energy of the id is often opposed to

the energy of the superego. The id may say, “Go. Do it!” The superego may say,

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“Don’t. That’s not right.” Also, as already indicated, the ego defense mechanism

called repression populates the unconscious domain with forbidden wishes.

Freud’s theory of personality is sweeping and addresses a broad spectrum of

behavior. It was the first relatively modern theory of personality, and has had a

great influence on most of the important theories generated during the twentieth

century. Neo-Freudians are theorists who think along the lines of Freud’s gen-

eral tradition (neo means “new”). However, they may take issue with specific

aspects of Freud’s theory. Three eminent neo-Freudians identified in the next sec-

tion are Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, and Karen Horney.

(a) A theory assumes that the personality is a field of forces.

(b) Theorists who think along the lines of Freud’s general tradition are called .

Answers: (a) psychodynamic; (b) neo-Freudians.

Carl Jung (1875–1961) was referred to in the context of type-trait theories.

He was the one who proposed the introversion-extraversion dimension of per-

sonality. Jung was a Swiss psychiatrist, and in the early years of psychoanalysis was

one of Freud’s close associates. Jung agreed with Freud’s concept of an uncon-

scious domain, but asserted that Freud’s way of looking at the unconscious aspects

of the personality was limited. Jung theorized that there is a deeper unconscious

layer than the one that Freud envisioned. Jung called this deeper layer the collec-

tive unconscious. According to Jung, the collective unconscious consists of the

human race’s stored experiences over the centuries. He called these stored expe-

riences archetypes, meaning first, or early, patterns. Archetypes for human

beings are similar to the concept of instincts in animals. Inborn, the archetypes

determine and direct much of our behavior.

An example of an archetype is the Hero. (It is a convention of Jungian theory

to capitalize an archetype.) If an individual tends to identify his or her ego with

the Hero, then that person will tend to be courageous, have a spirit of adventure,

be concerned for the welfare of unfortunate people, and so forth.

(a) According to Jung, the consists of the human race’s stored experiences

over the centuries.

(b) Jung called first or early patterns .

identifies his or her ego with the inborn pattern that Jung called the .

Answers: (a) collective unconscious; (b) archetypes; (c) Hero.

Another example of an archetype is the Martyr. If an individual tends to iden-

tify his or her ego with the Martyr, then that person will be self-sacrificing and self-

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punishing, and tend to seek opportunities for others to be abusive to them. It is clear

that in some cases identification with this archetype can have adverse consequences.

One of the important archetypes is the Self. If an individual tends to iden-

tify his her or ego with the Self, then that person will take a life pathway of per-

sonal discovery. Life will have a sense of purpose or mission. If successful, toward

the end of life the individual will feel fulfilled, complete. Jung called this process

self-realization, and it anticipated Maslow’s concept of self-actualization (see

chapter 7).

The notion of a collective unconscious mind is controversial. The belief that

there can be inherited memories tends to be rejected by American psychology.

Nonetheless, a number of personality theorists and psychotherapists have found it

useful to think in terms of archetypes. Jung’s concept of the collective uncon-

scious mind is not dead in American psychology. However, it has been relegated

to a borderline status.

(a) If an individual tends to identify his or her ego with the , then that person

will take a life pathway of personal discovery.

(b) If an individual tends to identify his or her ego with the , then that person

will be self-sacrificing.

Answers: (a) Self; (b) Martyr; (c) controversial.

Alfred Adler (1870–1937), like Jung, was one of Freud’s early coworkers.

Both Freud and Adler lived in Vienna. Adler was working as an ophthalmologist

when he read Freud’s The Interpretation of Dreams. Inspired by Freud’s book, he

contacted Freud, and became a psychoanalyst. Eventually Adler broke with Freud

and followed his own theoretical inclinations.

One of the main causes of the break with Freud was Adler’s insistence that the

will to power is just as influential in psychological development as the sexual drive.

The will to power is an inborn drive to become effective and competent. (Adler

obtained the concept of the will to power from the teachings of the philosopher

Friedrich Nietzsche.) If the will to power is frustrated, as it often is, this sets up

the conditions for an inferiority complex. An inferiority complex is a group of

related ideas that may or may not be realistic about the self. An inferiority com-

plex tends to contribute to feelings of inadequacy, incompetence, depression, anx-

iety, and chronic anger.

In order to cope with an inferiority complex, the individual often uses an ego

defense mechanism called compensation. Compensation, as defined by Adler, is the

capacity of the personality to convert a psychological minus into a sort of plus. For

example, twenty-four-year-old Julian is five feet four inches tall. He has an inferior-

ity complex about his stature. He was a champion runner in high school. He volun-

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teers for hazardous duty in the Army. Using the defense mechanism of compensation,

he is out to prove to himself and the world that he is just as big a man as men who are

physically larger. The novel What Makes Sammy Run? by Budd Schulberg presents a

powerful story based on what has been called the “little big man phenomenon.”

Inferiority complexes tend to be specific. One can have an inferiority com-

plex associated with mathematical ability, athletic capacity, social skills, musical tal-

ent, appearance, and so forth. It is possible to have more than one inferiority

complex. It is important to realize that an inferiority complex does not mean that

a person is inferior. It is a component of one’s self-image. Inferiority complexes

are, according to Adler, important features of the human personality.

(a) According to Adler, the is an inborn drive to become effective and com-

petent.

(b) An is a group of related ideas that may or may not be realistic about the

self.

chological minus into a sort of plus.

Answers: (a) will to power; (b) inferiority complex; (c) Compensation.

Karen Horney (1885–1952) was trained in psychoanalysis in Germany, and was

one of the principal founders of psychoanalysis in the United States. Although she

accepted the broad general outlines of Freudian theory, she revised certain aspects

of it. She believed that Freud had been much too literal in his presentation of the

Oedipus complex (see chapter 11). Her argument was that a child’s wish to possess

the parent of the opposite sex was psychological and emotional, not particularly

sexual. For example, five-year-old Joel craves the same status and importance in his

mother’s eyes as that enjoyed by his father. Envious, he has the forbidden wish to

take over the father’s general position. He represses the wish to an unconscious

level, and this is the basis of the Oedipus complex. In general, Horney replaced

much of Freud’s emphasis on the id and its biological foundations as central aspects

of personality with an emphasis on the importance of learning and culture.

The overall impact of the theories of Jung, Adler, and Horney has been to

enrich psychology’s general understanding of important processes involved in the

formation of the human personality.

(a) Horney believed that Freud had been much to literal in his presentation of the

(b) Horney tended to place an emphasis not on biological factors, but on and

Answers: (a) Oedipus complex; (b) learning; culture.

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Learned Aspects of Personality: The Effects

of Experience

As already noted, Horney recognized the importance of learning in shaping the

personality. Two learning processes of particular importance in personality devel-

opment are operant conditioning and observational learning. The general impor-

tance of these processes was identified primarily by learning theorists such as B. F.

Skinner and Albert Bandura (see chapter 6).

Operant conditioning takes place when behavior is shaped by reinforcers.

Reinforcers increase the probability of occurrence of a given class of behavior.

Applying the process of operant conditioning to the shaping of a personality, let’s

assume that Kimberly is raised in a show business family. Both of her parents are

talkative and friendly. From an early age, they applaud Kimberly when she sings,

dances, or acts. Later, they approve of most of her friends, and encourage her to

have a rich social life. Kimberly is being reinforced for extraversion, and it is no

surprise that this trait is dominant in her adult personality.

Conversely, let’s assume that Leona is raised in a quiet, scholarly family. Both

of her parents are reflective and people of few words. From an early age, they

approve of Leona when she is quiet and doesn’t interrupt adult activities. They

sometimes say, “Children should be seen and not heard.” Similar parental behav-

iors suggest that Leona is being reinforced for introversion, and, again, it is no sur-

prise that the trait is dominant in her adult personality.

(a) takes place when behavior is shaped by reinforcers.

(b) Reinforcers increase the of occurrence of a given class of behavior.

Answers: (a) Operant conditioning; (b) probability.

Of course, reinforcement interacts with inborn disposition. If introversion-

extraversion is an inborn tendency, as Jung suggested, then this complicates the

above picture. If an individual has in innate tendency to be an introvert, and intro-

version is reinforced, then the individual’s adult personality is likely to be highly

introverted. On the other hand, if an individual has an innate tendency to be an

extravert, and extraversion is reinforced, then the individual’s adult personality is

likely to be highly extraverted.

But let’s assume that an individual’s innate tendency is to be an introvert and

that extraversion is reinforced. Then development will be somewhat strained, and

the adult personality is likely to be conflicted. He or she may be an extravert on

the surface with a deeper yearning to express introverted tendencies. The actor

John Barrymore, once known as “the great profile,” appears to present such a

case. Raised in a show business family and encouraged to be a performer, he

dreamed of a quieter life and had a substantial talent for drawing and painting. His

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abuse of alcohol and self-destructive tendencies are detailed in the biography

Goodnight, Sweet Prince by his friend, the author Gene Fowler.

Observational learning takes place when an individual imitates the be-

havior of a role model. For example, Martha admires her mother, a physician.

Martha observes from childhood through adolescence her mother’s dedication

to medicine and her concern for patients. Wanting to be like her mother,

Martha enters medical school when she is twenty-two years old. Her adult per-

sonality displays the traits of dedication and concern originally modeled by her

mother.

As with operant conditioning, if one’s innate disposition is in opposition to

the behavior of a model, then there may be internal conflict.

It is clear that the learning process plays a significant role in the acquisition of

a personality.

(a) Assume that an individual’s innate tendency is to be an introvert and that extraversion is

reinforced. Then development will be somewhat strained, and the adult personality is

likely to be .

(b) takes place when an individual imitates the behavior of a role model.

Answers: (a) conflicted; (b) Observational learning.

The Conscious Individual: The Self-Shaping

of the Personality

The individual is, of course, shaped by powerful forces, the kinds of forces

already described in this chapter. However, it is possible to shift the emphasis

from a generally reactive process to a proactive one. A proactive behavioral

process focuses on the role played by consciousness in the acquisition of per-

sonality. The humanistic viewpoint (see chapter 1) recognizes that the indi-

vidual can think, reflect, and decide. Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers, two of

the principal advocates of the humanistic viewpoint, called attention to the idea

that an adult does not have to be a pawn of fate, a plaything of genetic tenden-

cies and childhood experiences. Instead, consciousness can be used as a self-

shaping tool.

Maslow believed that the process of self-actualization was to some extent

under the control of one’s will. A person can choose to take the kinds of actions

that will help him or her to maximize talents and potential. Maslow asserted that

human beings have a great capacity for autonomy, the power to control and

direct one’s own life.

(a) A behavioral process focuses on the role played by consciousness in the

acquisition of personality.

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(b) The viewpoint recognizes that the individual can think, reflect, and

decide.

to control and direct one’s own life.

Answers: (a) proactive; (b) humanistic; (c) autonomy.

Rogers placed an emphasis on the self-concept, the way in which one per-

ceives one’s own personality. The self-concept exists in contrast to the ideal self,

the way one would like to be. If the self-concept and the ideal self are far apart,

then a state of incongruence exists. Incongruence tends to induce depression

and anxiety. Like Maslow, Rogers believed that the individual has some control

over the status of the self. Rogers employed these concepts as important aspects of

his approach to psychotherapy (see client-centered therapy in chapter 15).

The humanistic viewpoint attempts to put the individual in the psychological

driver’s seat. It asserts that a human being’s personality doesn’t just happen. The

individual, to some extent, creates his or her own personality.

(a) Rogers placed an emphasis on the , the way in which one perceives one’s

own personality.

(b) The self-concept exists in contrast to the , the way one would like to be.

Answers: (a) self-concept; (b) ideal self; (c) incongruence.

Personality Tests: “Can That Silly Inkblot Test Really Tell You

Anything about People?”

Personality tests are measuring instruments used primarily for two purposes: to

conduct research on the nature of personality and to make evaluations of person-

ality useful in counseling and clinical settings.

Three specific personality tests will be described in this section: (1) the

Rorschach test, (2) the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), and (3) the Min-

nesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI).

The Rorschach test consists of ten inkblots with bilateral symmetry (i.e., the

right half of each inkblot is the mirror image of the left half ). There are ten cards,

five in black and white and five with some color. The cards are always shown in

the same order. The key instruction is, “Tell me what you see, or are able to imag-

ine to be there, in each card.” First published in 1921, the test was developed by

the Swiss psychoanalyst Hermann Rorschach.

The Rorschach test is called a projective test, a test in which it is assumed

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that what the subject says he or she perceives the blots to be are in fact reflections

of unconscious motives. The subject is “projecting” the unconscious on the

inkblots. The fact that the inkblots are ambiguous stimuli, stimuli that can be

perceived in two or more ways, suggests that whatever structure is given to the

blots is provided by the subject.

The Rorschach test is able to measure such aspects of personality as

introversion-extraversion, repressed motives, emotional stability, creativity, and

even, to some extent, intelligence. A substantial amount of clinical data suggests

that in fact the test can tell quite a bit about people.

(a) The test consists of ten inkblots with bilateral symmetry.

(b) The Rorschach test is called a test, a test in which it is assumed that what

the subject says he or she perceives the blots to be are in fact reflections of unconscious

motives.

Answers: (a) Rorschach; (b) projective; (c) Ambiguous.

The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) also consists of a set of cards,

nineteen with pictures and one blank. Like the Rorschach, the TAT is a projec-

tive test. The pictures portray people, sometimes in situations with others and

sometimes alone. The pictures can be interpreted in two or more ways, and so

are considered to be ambiguous stimuli. The key instructions are, “Tell me a

story about what you see in this card. The story should have a beginning, a mid-

dle, and an end. Also, tell me what the person or people are thinking and feel-

ing.” In the case of the blank card, the subject is asked to first imagine a picture.

First published in 1938, the TAT was developed by the Harvard psychologist

Henry A. Murray.

The word apperception means “subconscious perception.” You will recall

that in psychoanalytical theory the subconscious, or preconscious, level is closer to

actual consciousness than is the unconscious level.

An analysis of a subject’s stories tends to reveal his or her primary motivational

dispositions. A profile with highs and lows emerges, revealing motivational levels

associated with such psychological needs as achievement, power, affiliation, and

self-abasement (see chapter 7).

(a) What test consists of a set of nineteen cards with pictures and one blank card?

(b) The word means “subconscious perception.”

Answers: (a) The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT); (b) apperception.

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The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) is a self-

reporting, paper-and-pencil test with a group of 550 statements. One of three

responses can be given to the statements: True, False, or Cannot say. The MMPI

is a standardized, objective test, not a projective test. It can be scored by machine,

and is a highly reliable measuring instrument. First published in 1942, the MMPI

was developed by research psychologists at the University of Minnesota.

The following statements are designed to convey an impression of what the

items on the MMPI are like. However, they are not items on the actual test.

1. My mother and father were very kind and loving.

2. I suffer terribly from constipation.

3. If you don’t use people, then they’ll use you.

4. I’ve lost interest in sex.

5. I often have conversations with the living dead.

6. Everybody’s out to get me.

7. In many ways I am an undiscovered genius.

As odd as the questions seem, research has shown similar questions to be valid

and useful.

(a) What test is a self-reporting, paper-and-pencil test with a group of 550 statements?

(b) The MMPI is a standardized, test, not a projective test.

and useful.

Answers: (a) The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI); (b) objective;

The aim of the MMPI is to provide results in terms of clinical scales, meas-

ures of pathological (i.e., “sick”) aspects of the personality. The instrument is

highly useful to clinical psychologists and psychiatrists.

There are ten clinical scales associated with the MMPI. A subject can have a

high or low score on each scale. Above a designated level, a high score on a given

scale is considered to be sign of pathology.

The ten clinical scales yielded by the MMPI are listed below. Only brief

descriptions of the scales are given because this material will be covered in more

detail in chapter 14.

1. Hypochondriasis. This scale measures excessive preoccupation with one’s

health.

2. Depression. As its name indicates, this scale measures depression.

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3. Hysteria. This scale measures a tendency to develop conversion disorders in

which anxiety is converted into a physical symptom such as paralysis.

4. Psychopathic deviation. This scale measures a tendency to violate moral

standards and codes of conduct without feelings of guilt.

5. Masculinity-femininity. This scale measures the subject’s tendency to have

interests generally associated the interests of members of the opposite sex.

6. Paranoia. This scale measures a tendency to mistrust other people.

7. Psychasthenia. This scale measures a tendency to develop neurotic reac-

tions.

8. Schizophrenia. This scale measures a tendency to have delusions and dis-

torted thoughts.

9. Hypomania. This scale measures a tendency to become overly emotional

and excessively excited.

10. Social introversion. This scale measures a tendency to withdraw from other

people.

The three personality tests presented in this section are published in current

editions. Available to personality researchers and mental health professionals, they

are standardized, and have been evaluated for both validity and reliability.

(a) The aim of the MMPI is to provide results in terms of scales.

(b) What MMPI scale measures excessive preoccupation with one’s health?

(d) What MMPI scale measures a tendency to have delusions and distorted thoughts?

Answers: (a) clinical; (b) Hypochondriasis; (c) Hysteria; (d) Schizophrenia.

SELF-TEST

1. A workable definition of personality is that it is

a. the synchronicity of the id and the ego

b. the sum of the archetypes of the collective unconscious

c. the interaction of the ego ideal and the superego

d. the constellation of traits unique to the individual

2. Which one of the following is not a personality type identified by Hippocrates?

a. Mesomorph

b. Sanguine

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c. Choleric

d. Melancholic

3. According to Jung, an extravert tends to favor which of the following behav-

iors?

a. Meditating

b. Daydreaming

c. Exploration

d. Spending time alone

4. According to Freud, what part of the personality follows the pleasure principle?

a. The ego

b. The id

c. The superego

d. The conscience

5. What ego defense mechanism is characterized by the ego pushing down

unpleasant features of one’s psychological world to an unconscious level?

a. Projection

b. Repression

c. Fantasy

d. Identification

6. According to Jung, the collective unconscious contains

a. personal repressed memories

b. the introjected superego

c. archetypes

d. the transcendental ego

7. According to Adler, if the will to power is frustrated, this sets up the conditions

for

a. an inferiority complex

b. an Oedipus complex

c. a martyr complex

d. a perpetual youth complex

8. Let’s say that Kimberly receives reinforcers in the form of praise and applause

for extraverted behavior, and that a series of such reinforcers shapes her per-

sonality. What learning process is taking place in this case?

a. Superego gratification

b. Social inhibition

c. Identification with an archetype

d. Operant conditioning

Personality: Psychological Factors That Make You an Individual 209

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9. Maslow believed that the process of self-actualization is to some extent under

the control of one’s will. He asserted that human beings have a great capacity

for

a. expressing the curiosity drive

b. frustrating themselves

c. autonomy

d. letting the id control their lives

10. The Rorschach test is a test in which it is assumed that what the subject says he

or she perceives the blots to be are in fact reflections of unconscious motives.

Accordingly, the Rorschach is

a. an objective test

b. a machine-scored test

c. an invalid test

d. a projective test

ANSWERS TO THE SELF-TEST

1-d 2-a 3-c 4-b 5-b 6-c 7-a 8-d 9-c 10-d

ANSWERS TO THE TRUE-OR-FALSE PREVIEW QUIZ

1. True.

2. True.

3. False. According to Freud, there are three, not four, parts to the human personality: (1)

the id, (2) the ego, and (3) the superego.

4. False. An inferiority complex is a group of related ideas that may or may not be realis-

tic about the self.

5. True.

KEY TERMS

210 PSYCHOLOGY

affected by feelings–emotionally stable

ambiguous stimuli

ambivert

apperception

archetypes

autonomy

bipolar trait

choleric

clinical scales

collective unconscious

compensation

conscience

denial of reality

depression

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Personality: Psychological Factors That Make You an Individual 211

ectomorph

ego

ego defense mechanisms

ego ideal

endomorph

extravert (also, extrovert)

factors

fantasy

Hero

humanistic viewpoint

humble-assertive

humor

hypochondriasis

hypomania

hysteria

ideal self

identification

incongruence

inferiority complex

introjected

introversion-extraversion

introvert

Martyr

masculinity-femininity

melancholic

mesomorph

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality

Inventory (MMPI)

neo-Freudians

observational learning

operant conditioning

paranoia

personality

personality tests

phlegmatic

pleasure principle

proactive behavioral process

projection

projective test

psychasthenia

psychodynamic theory

psychopathic deviation

rationalization

reaction formation

reality principle

reinforcers

repression

reserved-outgoing

Rorschach test

sanguine

schizophrenia

self

Self

self-concept

self-realization

sixteen personality factor theory

social introversion

somatotype

superego

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

trait

type-trait theories

vicarious gratification

will to power

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212

PREVIEW QUIZ

True or False

1. TF Deviation from a given norm or standard is the only criterion needed

in order to determine whether a behavior pattern is or is not patho-

logical.

2. TF Psychiatrists and clinical psychologists classify and diagnose mental

disorders with the aid of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental

Disorders, fourth edition.

3. TF Anxiety disorders are characterized by a core of delusions.

4. TF Schizophrenia is characterized by the presentation to others of two or

more selves.

5. TF The antisocial personality disorder is characterized by a lack of guilt

feelings.

(Answers can be found on page 228.)

14 Abnormal Psychology:

Exploring Mental Disorders

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Abnormal Psychology: Exploring Mental Disorders 213

As suggested by your study of the tests in the last chapter, the human per-

sonality is not always stable. People often display eccentricities and mal-

adaptive traits. This chapter provides information that will help you

recognize and understand abnormal behavior.

Objectives

After completing this chapter, you will be able to

• define abnormal behavior;

• specify the criteria associated with pathological aspects of abnormal behavior;

• explain how mental disorders are classified;

• describe the principal mental disorders;

• identify the various viewpoints used to explain abnormal behavior.

Such motion pictures as Spellbound, The Snake Pit, One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s

Nest, and Girl, Interrupted all focus on mental health problems. Almost every issue

of a daily newspaper has an article on depression, anxiety, schizophrenia, and

other disorders. There are many commercials on television for prescription drugs

designed to treat these conditions. Clearly, a substantial amount of popular atten-

tion is directed toward mental disorders.

And abnormal behavior is a major public health problem. Depression is some-

times called the common cold of mental disability. Chronic anxiety in the form of

persistent worry is approximately as common as depression. About 1 percent of

adults suffer from schizophrenia, a severe mental disorder. This percentage trans-

lates into a figure approaching 2 million people in the United States alone. Con-

servatively, about one in ten adults have some kind of definable mental health

problem.

The toll on job performance and family life is considerable. Consequently, it

is of value to have some reliable information about abnormal behavior. This chap-

ter defines abnormal behavior and describes some of the major pathological syn-

dromes associated with it. The next chapter presents various kinds of therapy used

to treat mental disorders.

(a) Depression is sometimes called the of mental disability.

(b) Approximately what percent of adults suffer from schizophrenia?

Answers: (a) common cold; (b) 1 percent.

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214 PSYCHOLOGY

Defining Abnormal Behavior: It Takes More

than Deviation

Abnormal behavior is behavior that deviates from a given norm or standard of

behavior. If the average adult in the United States takes five baths or showers a

week, and Tom takes twenty-one, then Tom’s behavior is abnormal. The defini-

tion presented above is strictly statistical. It does not imply pathology (i.e., “sick-

ness”). If Tom is a salesman, sweats a lot, and wants to be presentable to others, he

may actually find it necessary to bathe twenty-one times a week. On the other

hand, Tom may suffer from irrational anxiety about his body odor. The showers

may represent compulsive behavior used to reduce anxiety. In this case, it is possi-

ble that Tom suffers from an obsessive-compulsive anxiety disorder.

Abnormal behavior is behavior that from a given norm or standard of behav-

ior.

Answer: deviates.

It takes more than deviation alone for a behavior pattern to be considered

pathological. Additional criteria help mental health professionals to identify the

presence of a mental disorder. First, there is almost always suffering associated

with a mental disorder. Often it is the self that suffers. Depression, anxiety, and

confusion are miserable mental and emotional states. On the other hand, some-

times it is others that suffer. For example, a person with an antisocial personality

disorder may, without feeling guilty, manipulate and use another person (see

pp. 223–224, on personality disorders).

Second, pathological behavior is often self-defeating. Self-defeating behav-

ior is behavior that provides momentary gratification with an excessive long-term

cost. Examples include overspending, chronic procrastination, and compulsive

gambling.

Third, pathological behavior is often self-destructive. Self-destructive

behavior tends to injure the body. Examples include overeating, drug abuse, self-

inflicted injuries, and irrational risk-taking.

Fourth, pathological behavior is salient. Salient behavior is behavior that

stands out. It tends to be striking and conspicuous. Examples include a person

wearing three sweaters on a summer day or someone holding a conversation with

an invisible companion. Sometimes the word vivid is used for this particular crite-

rion of pathology.

Fifth, pathological behavior is illogical behavior. An observer of the behav-

ior thinks, “What this person is doing right now makes no sense.” In some

instances the victim of a mental disorder recognizes the nonsensical aspect of a

thought or a behavior. The suffering individual thinks, “What I’m doing now is

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Abnormal Psychology: Exploring Mental Disorders 215

irrational. I know that saying magic words to myself won’t protect me from injury,

but I can’t seem to control myself.”

Other criteria of pathology could be specified. However, these five are suffi-

cient to establish that it takes more than statistical abnormality to think of a behav-

ior pattern as a sign of a mental disorder.

(a) Depression and anxiety are miserable mental and emotional states. This suggests that

there is almost always associated with a mental disorder.

(b) Chronic procrastination and compulsive gambling are examples of behavior.

Answers: (a) suffering; (b) self-defeating; (c) salient.

Classifying Mental Disorders: Clusters of Signs

and Symptoms

Although the term mental disorder was used earlier, it has not yet been defined. A

mental disorder is a disorder characterized by both abnormal behavior and the

presence of pathological signs and symptoms. This definition consolidates what

has already been said. A distinction needs to be made between a sign and a symp-

tom. A sign is something that is evident to others. It is external. For example,

moping, making incomprehensible statements, and wearing filthy clothes are signs

to others that a friend or relative may have a problem.

A symptom is something that the individual himself or herself experiences.

It is internal. For example, feeling depressed, anxious, or confused are symptoms

the self perceives as distressing. A cluster of signs and symptoms is called a syn-

drome. Psychiatrists and clinical psychologists use recognizable syndromes as the

primary basis for classifying and diagnosing mental disorders.

(a) A mental disorder is a disorder characterized by both abnormal behavior and the pres-

ence of signs and symptoms.

(b) A cluster of signs and symptoms is called a .

Answers: (a) pathological; (b) syndrome.

The handbook used in actual clinical practice is called the Diagnostic and Sta-

tistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fourth edition (DSM-IV), and it is published by

the American Psychiatric Association. DSM-IV uses a five-axis system to classify

disorders. (The word axis is used to mean a core area of importance and concern).

Axis 1 refers to clinical syndromes. As already indicated, these are clusters of

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216 PSYCHOLOGY

signs and symptoms that allow a mental health professional to say that a given indi-

vidual is suffering from a particular mental disorder. It is the most important of the

five axes. The bulk of this chapter will identify these clinical syndromes. They

include anxiety disorders, mood disorders, and others.

Axis 2 refers to personality disorders. A personality disorder may or may not be

present. However, if one does exist, it often complicates the clinical syndrome.

Axis 3 refers to medical conditions. If a person’s health is poor, this may compli-

cate treatment. For example, a schizophrenic patient with diabetes needs a special

diet along with psychiatric treatment.

Axis 4 refers to psychosocial problems. These are problems relating to others and

the patient’s life situation. An unhappy marriage, loss of a job, and similar diffi-

culties need to be evaluated in connection with the clinical syndrome.

Axis 5 refers to a global assessment. This consists of a broad, general assessment

of how well the patient had been functioning in everyday life before the appear-

ance of a mental disorder. The mental health worker makes an appraisal on a 100-

point scale. A score of 100 or 90 represents superior functioning. A score of 20 or

30 represents poor functioning.

The five axes provide mental health professionals with a comprehensive pic-

ture of the status of a given individual’s mental disorder.

(a) DSM-IV uses a system with how many axes to classify mental disorders?

(b) Axis 1 in the DSM-IV system refers to .

Answers: (a) Five; (b) clinical syndromes; (c) psychosocial problems.

Anxiety Disorders: Suffering from Chronic Worry

This section and several to follow identify mental disorders in terms of their major

clinical syndromes (axis 1). The primary goal is to describe the principal signs and

symptoms of these disorders. Explanations for these deviant actions will be

reserved for the last section of the chapter.

Anxiety disorders are disorders characterized by a core of irrational fear.

Anxiety itself is experienced as a kind of psychological fire alarm. The individual

thinks, “Something terrible is going to happen!” Freud distinguished between

neurotic anxiety and rational anxiety. Neurotic anxiety is irrational, and it is the

kind of anxiety that plays a significant role in the anxiety disorders. Rational

anxiety is identical to realistic fear.

Four types of anxiety disorders will be identified: (1) generalized anxiety dis-

order, (2) phobic disorders, (3) obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), and

(4) post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).

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Abnormal Psychology: Exploring Mental Disorders 217

Generalized anxiety disorder is characterized by vague feelings of appre-

hension. This is called free-floating anxiety. There are psychological storm

clouds for no apparent reason, and there is chronic worry that goes on and on

seemingly without end. The anxiety, or worry, seems to follow the person any-

where and everywhere without rhyme or reason. The victim feels powerless to

escape from the anxiety.

(a) What disorders are characterized by a core of irrational fear?

(b) Associated with generalized anxiety disorder, vague feelings of apprehension are

called anxiety.

Answers: (a) Anxiety disorders; (b) free-floating.

Phobic disorders are characterized by feelings of apprehension with a rela-

tively definable source. The principal kinds of phobic disorders are (1) specific

phobias, (2) social phobia, and (3) agoraphobia. Specific phobias involve the fear

of an object or situation. A fear of animals is called zoophobia; a fear of heights

is called acrophobia; and a fear of confined places is called claustrophobia.

Social phobia is characterized by a fear of the opinions of other people. The

victim does not want to be judged or overly visible. This phobia often manifests itself

as pathological shyness, shyness that is so severe that it interferes with daily living.

Agoraphobia is characterized by a fear of leaving the home or a familiar ter-

ritory. A person who will not venture out of the house has a severe case of agora-

phobia. A person who is afraid to travel more than five or ten miles out of a small

town has a moderate case of agoraphobia.

Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is characterized by ideas that

induce anxiety, and rituals that in turn reduce that anxiety. For example, Abra-

ham, a man who has no history of heart disease, may think, “Today I will die of a

heart attack.” Then he decides that if he mentally recites the word abracadabra

three times, the feared event won’t happen. Eventually he becomes psychologi-

cally addicted to the ritual, and it becomes a behavioral pattern that he finds dif-

ficult to give up.

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is characterized by anxiety and

related symptoms following a genuinely threatening experience. A person lives

through an awful earthquake, a devastating fire, military combat, a rape, or other

extremely upsetting event. This is followed by such symptoms as general fearful-

ness, nightmares, depression, an inability to relax, and so forth.

(a) phobias involve the fear of an object or situation.

(b) is characterized by a fear of leaving the home or a familiar territory.

reduce that anxiety.

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218 PSYCHOLOGY

Answers: (a) Specific; (b) Agoraphobia; (c) Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD).

Somatoform Disorders: When the Body Is Involved

Somatoform disorders are disorders in which anxiety is converted into a bod-

ily symptom. Soma is a Greek root meaning “body.” Consequently, in a somato-

form disorder, anxiety takes a somatic, or bodily, form. Four types of somatoform

disorders will be identified: (1) somatization disorder, (2) hypochondriacal disor-

der, (3) pain disorder, and (4) conversion disorder.

It is important to realize in all of the following disorders that the causal factors

associated with the disorders are primarily psychological and emotional. The per-

son does not have a physical illness. However, the person’s symptoms resemble a

physical illness.

Somatization disorder is characterized by various complaints. Opal says she

suffers from diarrhea and bloating. Newton says his joints creak like old hinges.

Ramona says her muscles twitch for no reason. Sometimes the individual has

related sexual dysfunctions (see chapter 12).

Hypochondriacal disorder (or hypochondriasis) is characterized by irra-

tional worry about one’s health. Peggy has had two headaches in one week and

starts to think she’s getting cancer of the brain. Ivan for no particular reason fears

that he has diabetes. People who suffer from hypochondriasis often take excessive

numbers of vitamin pills or visit a string of physicians in a vain search for a non-

existent illness.

(a) Somatoform disorders are disorders in which anxiety is converted into a

symptom.

(b) Hypochondriacal disorder (or hypochondriasis) is characterized by irrational worry about

one’s .

Answers: (a) bodily; (b) health.

Pain disorder is characterized by sustained painful sensations. Kristen says

that her back aches all the time. Ernest says that he suffers from frequent stomach

cramps. Renee says her bones ache. Physicians can find no organic basis for the

pain in any of these cases, and yet it cannot be said that the pain is not felt. Pain is

personal and private, a symptom, and an outside observer is in no position to deny

its subjective reality.

Conversion disorder is characterized, in most cases, by symptoms resem-

bling a neurological problem such as paralysis, inability to control a limb or limbs,

or loss of the capacity to see or hear. These are called pseudoneurological

symptoms, symptoms that are false signs of a neurological disorder. The older

term for conversion disorder is hysteria, and it is still sometimes used. Ancient

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Abnormal Psychology: Exploring Mental Disorders 219

Greek physicians thought that the victim’s symptoms were caused by a “wander-

ing uterus” and that the condition affected only women. (Hyster is the Greek

word for uterus.)

Conversion disorder occupies a unique place in the history of psychology. Anna

O., the first psychoanalytic patient, suffered from it. You will recall from chapter 2

that Josef Breuer and Sigmund Freud published Studies on Hysteria in 1895.

(a) Symptoms that are false signs of a neurological disorder are called symp-

toms.

(b) An older term for conversion disorder is .

Answers: (a) pseudoneurological; (b) hysteria.

Dissociative Disorders: Loss of Identity

Dissociative disorders are disorders in which the individual experiences either

a loss of identity or a distortion in the sense of self. Four types of dissociative dis-

orders will be specified: (1) psychogenic amnesia, (2) psychogenic fugue, (3) dis-

sociative identity disorder, and (4) despersonalization disorder.

Psychogenic amnesia is characterized by a loss of personal memories. (The

word amnesia means “without memory.”) As a consequence, one’s sense of iden-

tity is destroyed. Ambrose does not remember his name. He is unable to recall his

date of birth, the fact that he is married, that he is the father of two children, that

he is an accountant by profession, and so forth. The condition is called psychogenic

because it has its origin, or genesis, in psychological and emotional factors.

Pyschogenic fugue is characterized by running away from a home territory.

The individual with this condition suffers from amnesia and also takes flight. The

word fugue has the same root as fugitive. The victim of psychogenic fugue is, in a

sense, a fugitive from himself. Roberta, like Ambrose above, has lost her sense of

identity. In addition, she finds herself in a strange city, wandering the streets in a

confused state, not knowing how she arrived in this particular place.

(a) disorders are disorders in which the individual experiences either a loss of

identity or a distortion in the sense of self.

(b) amnesia is characterized by a loss of personal memories.

Answers: (a) Dissociative; (b) Psychogenic; (c) Psychogenic fugue.

Dissociative identity disorder (DID) is characterized by the presentation

to others of two or more selves. The older name for this condition is multiple

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220 PSYCHOLOGY

personality disorder. In the book The Three Faces of Eve, and the film of the

same name, Eve’s original self splits into two selves, Eve White and Eve Black.

Eve White is polite, organized, and moral. Eve Black is bratty, spoiled, and

immoral. Eve White is called the superior personality, the personality that most

closely resembles the normal, socialized one. Eve Black is called the inferior per-

sonality, the personality that is wild and carefree and resembles the Freudian id.

Since the publication of this famous case history there have been a number of sim-

ilar books published. Clinical psychology and psychiatry accept the reality of DID.

Popular reports suggest, incorrectly, that the condition is common. Psychiatry

looks upon the condition as rare.

Depersonalization disorder is characterized by a disturbance in the way in

which the individual perceives the self. The troubled person may imagine that he

or she is ugly, looks bloated, possesses legs that are too short, or has an excessively

loud voice. These perceptions are unsettling. Sometimes victims of the disorder

have an out-of-body experience, an experience in which it seems that the self

is somehow walking or floating outside of the physical body.

(a) What is an older name for dissociative identity disorder (DID)?

(b) disorder is characterized by a disturbance in the way in which the individ-

ual perceives the self.

Answers: (a) Multiple personality disorder; (b) Depersonalization.

The Mood Disorders: Emotional Ups and Downs

Mood disorders are characterized by significant variations in emotional states.

Mood is experienced as positive or negative. A positive mood is associated with

feeling well and optimistic thinking. A negative mood is associated with fatigue

and pessimistic thinking. Mood is an involuntary reaction; it cannot be directly

willed.

Four mood disorders will be identified: (1) dysthymia, (2) major depressive

disorder, (3) cyclothymia, and (4) bipolar disorder.

Dysthymia is characterized by mild, relatively persistent depression. Depres-

sion refers to a negative mood state. As already indicated, such a state is associated

with fatigue and pessimistic thinking. Dys means something is wrong or “bad.”

The root thymia means “mood” in Greek. An older term for dysthymia is neu-

rotic depression.

Major depressive episode is characterized by severe, highly persistent

depression. Lack of appetite, chronic fatigue, moving slowly, and sleep distur-

bances are symptoms of this disorder. The victim may think about suicide. The

disorder is in fact associated with an increased risk of actual suicide.

Both dysthymia and major depressive episode are classified as unipolar dis-

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Abnormal Psychology: Exploring Mental Disorders 221

orders, disorders that display only one emotional direction. In the case of these

disorders, that direction is negative.

(a) What mood disorder is characterized by mild, relatively persistent depression?

(b) What mood disorder is characterized by severe, highly persistent depression?

Answers: (a) Dysthymia; (b) Major depressive episode.

Cyclothymia is a characterized by excessive mood swings. The individual is

“high” and then “low.” The mood swings, although significant, are not overly

striking. The high mood is called hypomania, a condition that is not as severe as

out-and-out mania (see below).

Bipolar disorder is characterized by severe, highly disruptive mood swings.

The individual is “higher than a kite” and then “lower than low.” The mood

swings are dramatic. The high mood is called mania. Mania is a state of unrealis-

tic elation associated with wild, irrational ideas and a general loss of self-control.

Errol, in a state of mania, tells all his friends that he is going to write a best-selling

novel and discover a cure for cancer in the next month. An older term for bipo-

lar disorder is manic-depressive disorder.

Both cyclothymia and bipolar disorder are classified as bipolar disorders, disorders

that display first one and then a second emotional direction. Although positive

moods are experienced in connection with these disorders, they are nonetheless

basically kinds of depression. This is because the positive moods are not enduring.

They are fragile and can be thought of as shams masking the underlying depression.

(a) What disorder is characterized by significant, but not overly striking, mood swings?

(b) What is an older term for bipolar disorder?

Answers: (a) Cyclothymia; (b) Manic-depressive disorder.

The Psychotic Disorders: Suffering from Delusions

Psychotic disorders are disorders characterized by a loss of touch with reality.

The primary distinguishing features are the presence of delusions and cognitive

distortions. Delusions are false beliefs, ideas about the world that most people

think are impossible or absurd. A person with a delusion may think he or she is

two centuries old, a visitor from an alien civilization, able to walk through walls,

or possessed of incredible telepathic powers. Cognitive distortions are thoughts

that are illogical or irrational. Frequently psychotic disorders are accompanied by

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222 PSYCHOLOGY

hallucinations. Hallucinations are false perceptions. The victim may see some-

one who isn’t there, hear voices, or smell nonexistent odors.

Two types of psychotic disorders will be identified: schizophrenia and delu-

sional disorder.

Schizophrenia is a psychotic disorder that fits all of the criteria specified

above. A schizophrenic patient suffers from delusions and cognitive distortions.

The term schizophrenia was coined by Eugen Bleuler, the psychiatrist who trained

Carl Jung. Schiz means “split”; phrenia refers to the head. Loosely, a schizophrenic

condition refers to a “head” or “mind” that has split away from reality. (It does not

mean two or more personalities.) An older term for schizophrenia is dementia

praecox, meaning madness with an early, or youthful, onset. Indeed, signs and

symptoms of schizophrenia often appear in adolescence.

Schizophrenia takes on several shapes. Consequently, it is possible to divide

the disorder into categories: (1) paranoid type, (2) catatonic type, (3) disorganized

type, and (4) undifferentiated type. The paranoid type is characterized by delu-

sions or mistrust and suspicion. Kendra says her food has been poisoned. Clay says

his thoughts are being recorded by the CIA.

The catatonic type is characterized by mutism and odd postures. Mutism

refers to an unwillingness to speak. Clive has not spoken for ten days. He spends

his time in a boxer’s fighting stance.

(a) disorders are disorders characterized by a loss of touch with reality.

(b) A schizophrenic patient suffers from and distortions.

Answers: (a) Psychotic; (b) delusions; cognitive; (c) The paranoid type.

The disorganized type is characterized by silliness and completely inappro-

priate behavior. Dorothy giggles whenever she is spoken too, eats all food with her

hands, and urinates anywhere. An older term for this condition is hebephrenic

schizophrenia. Hebes is the Greek god of youth. The general idea is that the

individual has regressed to an infantile level.

The undifferentiated type is a diagnostic category used when the patient is

schizophrenic, but displays behaviors that overlap with the earlier described cate-

gories. In other words, no clear pattern emerges.

Delusional disorder, not a kind of schizophrenia, is a psychotic disorder

characterized by an organized, systematic delusional system. An older term for

this disorder is paranoia. Delusional disorder is not to be confused with schizo-

phrenia, paranoid type (see above). The difference between the two disorders is

that in delusional disorder the false ideas form a coherent whole. In schizophrenia

they do not. People with delusional disorder can be very convincing. Sometimes

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Abnormal Psychology: Exploring Mental Disorders 223

they can attract followers. Julius says that he is a visitor to the Earth from an alien

world and has come to spread a message of peace. He has written pamphlets and

a history of his world, and he has drawn detailed interstellar maps. Everything he

says fits together. The points he makes are consistent. If his initial premise is

granted, that he is an alien, then he seems to be rational.

(a) What is an older name for the disorganized type of schizophrenia?

(b) What disorder, not a kind of schizophrenia, is characterized by an organized, systematic

delusional system?

Answers: (a) Hebephrenic schizophrenia; (b) Delusional disorder.

The Personality Disorders: Making Others Suffer

Personality disorders are characterized by maladaptive behavioral traits. The

individual’s persistent way of coping with the world is, in the long run, ineffective

and self-defeating. It is important to understand that a personality disorder does

not, on the surface, appear to be any kind of mental illness. The individual is not

necessarily suffering from chronic anxiety or depression. Also, the individual is

not psychotic. Often, there is not a great deal of personal suffering associated with

these disorders. There is sometimes a tendency for the individual with a personal-

ity disorder to inflict suffering on others.

Three kinds of personality disorders will be identified: (1) narcissistic, (2)

antisocial, and (3) obsessive-compulsive. A narcissistic personality disorder

is characterized by self-absorption. The individual is in love with himself or

herself. Such people are described as vain and selfish. They are often overly

preoccupied with their appearance. They tend to be cold and lacking in

sympathy.

(a) What disorders are characterized by maladaptive behavioral traits?

(b) What disorder is characterized by self-absorption?

Answers: (a) Personality disorders; (b) Narcissistic personality disorder.

The antisocial personality disorder is characterized by a lack of guilt feel-

ings. People with this disorder can lie, cheat, steal, and manipulate others without

remorse. The word antisocial doesn’t mean they are unfriendly. Often, they have a

superficial charm. They are antisocial in the sense that they refuse to conform to

society’s conventions, to its standards and norms of behavior.

The obsessive-compulsive personality disorder is characterized by per-

fectionism. People with this disorder want order in the environment. Everything

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224 PSYCHOLOGY

must be in its place. Things must be done on schedule. Tasks must be completed

without flaw or error. Such individuals find it difficult to just let up a little and

enjoy life. The obsessive-compulsive personality disorder should not be confused

with a disorder presented earlier, the obsessive-compulsive disorder. The person-

ality disorder, as already indicated, is characterized by a need for perfection. On

the other hand, the anxiety disorder is characterized by a need to reduce the anx-

iety generated by obsessive ideas.

(a) The personality disorder is characterized by a lack of guilt feelings.

(b) The personality disorder is characterized by perfectionism.

Answers: (a) antisocial; (b) obsessive-compulsive.

The Organic Mental Disorders: When the Nervous System

Itself Has Pathology

Organic mental disorders are characterized by constellations of signs and

symptoms that suggest there is actual damage to the brain and nervous system.

This damage may be caused by a genetic tendency, a toxic agent, a vitamin defi-

ciency, or an infection. In brief, the nervous system itself has pathology (i.e., is

“sick”).

Three organic mental disorders will be identified: (1) alcohol amnestic disor-

der, (2) dementia of the Alzheimer’s type, and (3) general paresis. In all three dis-

orders a certain degree of dementia is present. The term dementia refers to loss of

intellectual capacity.

Alcohol amnestic disorder is characterized primarily by memory difficul-

ties. It was noted earlier that the word amnesia means “without memory.” Unlike

psychogenic amnesia, the memory problems associated with alcohol amnestic dis-

order are general, not specific to the individual’s sense of identity. The disorder

was first studied by the Russian neurologist Sergei Korsakoff over one hundred

years ago. An older name for the condition is Korsakoff’s psychosis. Alcohol

abuse tends to induce a deficiency of thiamine, a B-complex vitamin. Some of

the impairment associated with alcohol amnestic disorder is reversible with vita-

min therapy. On the other hand, some of the impairment is due to the loss of neu-

rons linked to the toxic effects of alcohol. Impairment associated with destroyed

neurons is not reversible.

(a) mental disorders are characterized by constellations of signs and symp-

toms that suggest there is actual damage to the brain and nervous system.

(b) What is an older name for alcohol amnestic disorder?

Answers: (a) Organic; (b) Korsakoff’s psychosis.

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Abnormal Psychology: Exploring Mental Disorders 225

Dementia of the Alzheimer’s type is characterized by a progressive decline

in mental functioning. The ability to remember, learn, understand ideas, make

decisions, and control one’s muscles is lost. In the latter stages of the disorder the

victim becomes weak and emaciated. In clinical work, the term dementia of the

Alzheimer’s type is somewhat preferred over the more popular term Alzheimer’s

disease, because an actual diagnosis based on signs and symptoms alone is difficult.

On the other hand, a post-mortem examination can determine if the degeneration

of neurons in the brain in fact follows the pattern of the actual disease. This pattern

includes tangles of fibers within nerve cells, the loss of nerve cells within certain

areas of the brain, and amyloid plaques. Amyloid plaques are excessive protein

deposits between nerve cells. The syndrome was first studied by the German neu-

rologist Alois Alzheimer in the early part of the twentieth century.

General paresis is characterized by both dementia and paralysis. It is linked

to syphilis, a sexually transmitted disease. The primary cause of the disorder is

destruction of the brain and nervous system by the corkscrew-shaped bacterium

that causes syphilis.

(a) Dementia of the type is characterized by a progressive decline in mental

functioning.

(b) What organic mental disorder is linked to syphilis?

Answers: (a) Alzheimer’s; (b) General paresis.

Viewpoints: Ways to Explain Abnormal Behavior

When an individual’s behavior is abnormal and pathological, as it is in the case of

the mental disorders, one of the first questions that comes to mind is why. We are

curious and want an explanation of the deviant actions.

For centuries, a popular explanation of aberrant behavior was demonology,

the view that Satan’s agents had taken possession of the troubled person’s soul.

This explanation is not the one favored by psychology and psychiatry. Instead,

these fields of study tend to subscribe to viewpoints based on an understanding

of natural law. Five such viewpoints will be identified: (1) biological, (2) psycho-

dynamic, (3) learning, (4) humanistic, and (5) sociocultural.

The biological viewpoint assumes that pathological behavior is caused by

an organic factor. A genetic tendency, a biochemical imbalance, a brain injury, or

an infection can all play roles in mental disorders. For example, there is much

evidence to support the hypothesis that schizophrenia is a biogenetic disorder,

one that is strongly influenced by a genetic tendency. This genetic tendency is

probably the principal cause of a difficulty in the way in which the brain employs

dopamine, one of the nervous system’s neurotransmitters (see chapter 3).

The psychodynamic viewpoint assumes that pathological behavior arises

because of repressed emotional conflicts. For example, Theresa, a highly tradi-

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226 PSYCHOLOGY

tional, conventional woman, suffers from agoraphobia. Her conscious fear of leav-

ing her home territory is a cover, a mask over a forbidden wish. She is angry with

her husband and is filled with buried resentments. The forbidden wish is a desire

to take flight from the marriage.

(a) The viewpoint assumes that pathological behavior is caused by an organic

factor.

(b) The viewpoint assumes that pathological behavior arises because of

repressed emotional conflicts.

Answers: (a) biological; (b) psychodynamic.

The learning viewpoint assumes that pathological behavior is a maladaptive

response to an adverse experience (or a set of related experiences). For example,

Quentin suffers from claustrophobia. When he was a preschooler, his mother used

to punish him by locking him in a dark closet for an hour or two at a time. His

phobia can be understood as a kind of conditioned reflex (see chapter 6).

The humanistic viewpoint assumes that pathological behavior is a response

to an inability to become self-actualizing. For example, Joan suffers from chronic

depression. When she was an adolescent she displayed talent in creative writing

and won several high-school short story contests. She dreamed of a career as a

novelist. Today, she is divorced with three children, and works as a checker in a

discount store. One of the factors in her depression is the frustration associated

with her inability to make the most of her talents.

The sociocultural viewpoint assumes that pathological behavior is a mal-

adaptive response to large, inescapable forces and events arising from the social

world, the world of other people. Such forces include war, economic depression,

overcrowded housing, a totalitarian government, and so forth. For example, fifty-

seven-year-old Lloyd is suffering from a major depressive episode and often thinks

of suicide. Once he was worth more than two million dollars in stock. Major

reverses in the economy, combined with some impulsive, ill-considered decisions

on his part, wiped out his fortune.

It is not necessary to make a choice among the viewpoints and decide which

viewpoint is the correct one. The viewpoints overlap and are not mutually exclu-

sive. Often the factors associated with two or more viewpoints may interact. In

appropriate cases, any of the viewpoints may be useful and applicable.

(a) The viewpoint assumes that pathological behavior is a maladaptive

response to an adverse experience (or a set or related experiences).

(b) The viewpoint assumes that pathological behavior is a response to an

inability to become self-actualizing.

Answers: (a) learning; (b) humanistic.

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Abnormal Psychology: Exploring Mental Disorders 227

SELF-TEST

1. One of the following is not a criterion that helps mental health professionals

to identify the presence of a mental disorder.

a. Suffering

b. Self-destructive behavior

c. Creative behavior

d. Illogical behavior

2. Axis 1 of DSM-IV refers to

a. psychosocial problems

b. medical conditions

c. global assessment of functioning

d. clinical syndromes

3. One of the chief features of a generalized anxiety disorder is

a. highly specific fears

b. free-floating anxiety

c. magical rituals

d. post-traumatic stress

4. Pseudoneurological symptoms tend to be associated with

a. hypochondriacal disorders

b. obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)

c. pain disorder

d. conversion disorder

5. The presentation of two or more selves is associated with

a. psychogenic fugue

b. dissociative identity disorder (DID)

c. depersonalization disorder

d. schizophrenia

6. Unrealistic elation associated with wild, irrational ideas and a general loss of

self-control describes what state?

a. The euphoria syndrome

b. Blissful ecstasy

c. Mania

d. Dysthymia

7. Delusions are

a. false beliefs

b. false perceptions

c. valid cognitive content

d. reliable sensations

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228 PSYCHOLOGY

8. Self-absorption is a distinguishing feature of

a. obsessive-compulsive disorder

b. narcissistic personality disorder

c. organic mental disorders

d. anxiety disorders

9. An older name for alcohol amnestic disorder is

a. dementia of the Alzheimer’s type

b. general paresis

c. Korsakoff’s psychosis

d. Psychogenic dementia

10. The observation that a genetic tendency can play a part in a mental disorder is

associated primarily with what viewpoint?

a. The biological viewpoint

b. The psychodynamic viewpoint

c. The learning viewpoint

d. The humanistic viewpoint

ANSWERS TO THE SELF-TEST

1-c 2-d 3-b 4-d 5-b 6-c 7-a 8-b 9-c 10-a

ANSWERS TO THE TRUE-OR-FALSE PREVIEW QUIZ

1. False. It takes more than deviation alone for a behavior pattern to be considered patho-

logical. The chapter lists five additional criteria.

2. True.

3. False. Anxiety disorders are characterized by a core of irrational fear.

4. False. Dissociative identity disorder (DID), not schizophrenia, is characterized by the

presentation to others of two or more selves.

5. True.

KEY TERMS

abnormal behavior

acrophobia

agoraphobia

alcohol amnestic disorder

Alzheimer’s disease

amyloid plaques

antisocial personality disorder

anxiety disorders

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Abnormal Psychology: Exploring Mental Disorders 229

axis

biogenetic disorder

biological viewpoint

bipolar disorder

catatonic type

chronic worry

claustrophobia

cognitive distortions

conversion disorder

cyclothymia

delusional disorder

delusions

dementia of the Alzheimer’s type

dementia praecox

demonology

depersonalization disorder

disorganized type

dissociative disorders

dissociative identity disorder (DID)

dopamine

dysthymia

free-floating anxiety

general paresis

generalized anxiety disorder

hallucinations

hebephrenic schizophrenia

humanistic viewpoint

hypochondriacal disorder

(or hypochondriasis)

hysteria

illogical behavior

inferior personality

Korsakoff’s psychosis

learning viewpoint

major depressive episode

mania

manic-depressive disorder

mental disorder

mood disorders

multiple personality disorder

narcissistic personality disorder

negative mood

neurotic anxiety

neurotic depression

obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)

obsessive-compulsive personality

disorder

organic mental disorders

out-of-body experience

pain disorder

paranoia

paranoid type

pathological shyness

personality disorders

phobic disorders

positive mood

post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

psuedoneurological symptoms

psychodynamic viewpoint

psychogenic amnesia

psychogenic fugue

psychotic disorders

rational anxiety

salient behavior

schizophrenia

self-defeating behavior

self-destructive behavior

sign

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230 PSYCHOLOGY

social phobia

sociocultural viewpoint

somatization disorder

somatoform disorders

specific phobias

superior personality

symptom

syndrome

thiamine

undifferentiated type

unipolar disorders

zoophobia

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15 Therapy: Helping

Troubled People

231

PREVIEW QUIZ

True or False

1. TF The literal meaning of the term psychotherapy is “healing of the mind”

or “healing of the self.”

2. TF The main way that Freud explored the unconscious roots of mental-

emotional problems was with the “digging” tool of operant condi-

tioning.

3. TF Client-centered therapy is based on the assumption that the troubled

person has powerful inner resources, resources that will help the indi-

vidual think and feel better.

4. TF Behavior therapy is based on the assumption that mental and emo-

tional problems often arise because of repressed memories and forbid-

den wishes.

5. TF Antipsychotic agents are drugs that treat mental disorders character-

ized by chronic anxiety.

(Answers can be found on page 245.)

As you learned in chapter 14, suffering is usually associated with various

mental disorders. Mental health professionals seek ways to alleviate this

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suffering. This chapter presents ways in which therapy—both psychological

and biological—can help troubled people cope with life.

Objectives

After completing this chapter, you will be able to

• define therapy;

• distinguish between psychologically based therapies and biologically based ther-

apies;

• specify some principal features of psychoanalysis;

• describe key aspects of client-centered therapy;

• identify central concepts associated with behavior therapy;

• explain the basic assumption underlying cognitive-behavior therapy;

• state the value of group therapy;

• list basic kinds of psychiatric drugs.

Mental disorders are far from hopeless conditions. Gone are the days when

mental patients were written off as outcasts and lost members of the human race.

Today there are treatments. The treatments have varying degrees of effectiveness.

Sometimes a given treatment provides dramatic relief. More often, a particular

patient will recover slowly, and treatment becomes a prolonged process.

Treatment for mental disorders is given in the form of various kinds of ther-

apy. Therapy consists of procedures that aim to either cure sick people or allevi-

ate their suffering. The term is applied to general medicine as well as to clinical

psychology and psychiatry. In the mental health field there are two basic cate-

gories of therapy: psychologically based therapies and biologically based therapies.

Psychologically based therapies begin with the assumption that mental disor-

ders are caused by emotional conflicts, maladaptive learning, cognitive errors, or

similar behavioral processes. These therapies recognize that the suffering individ-

ual may be free of organic pathology, that there is often nothing objectively wrong

with the brain and nervous system.

Psychotherapy is the general term applied to any kind of psychologically

based therapy. A presentation of various kinds of psychotherapy constitutes a prin-

cipal portion of this chapter. The literal meaning of the term psychotherapy is

“healing of the mind” or “healing of the self.”

Biologically based therapies begin with the assumption that mental dis-

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orders are caused by actual pathology of the brain and nervous system. These ther-

apies recognize that the suffering individual often has a genetic tendency toward a

disorder, an imbalance in neurotransmitters, a hormone problem, an infection, or

similar difficulties at a biological level.

Drug therapy is the most common form of biologically based therapy. It is

characterized by the prescription of certain chemical agents that have been shown

to either eliminate or reduce the severity of symptoms associated with various

mental disorders.

(a) What therapies are based on the assumption that mental disorders are caused by emo-

tional conflicts, maladaptive learning, cognitive errors, or similar behavioral processes?

(b) What therapies are based on the assumption that mental disorders are caused by actual

pathology of the brain and nervous system?

Answers: (a) Psychologically based therapies; (b) Biologically based therapies.

Psychodynamic Therapy: Exploring Unconscious Roots

Psychodynamic therapy is any kind of psychotherapy that attempts to reduce

suffering by exploring the unconscious roots of a mental-emotional problem. Psy-

chodynamic therapy has its origins in Freud’s psychoanalysis. Accordingly, a

description of the psychoanalytic process follows.

Free association is the principal “digging” tool used by psychoanalysis.

Free association consists of saying anything that comes to mind without a con-

cern for logic or the appropriateness of the content. In classical psychoanalysis,

this is accomplished while reclining on a couch. The aim of free association is to

dredge up from the unconscious level a fund of information that can be discussed

and understood, with the help of the therapist, at a conscious level. In the last

fifteen or twenty minutes of a fifty-minute session, the patient sits up and inter-

pretations are made of the memories and ideas obtained by free association.

An interpretation consists of making sense of content that has been repressed

at the unconscious level. Usually the therapist makes the interpretation, but there

is room for discussion. The patient should play an active role in modifying the

interpretation. If a patient accepts an interpretation that has important meaning,

then the patient often experiences an insight, a sudden burst of understanding. It

is believed that insights into the self have therapeutic power.

Interpretations are also made of slips of the tongue, dreams, and various kinds

of transference. Slips of the tongue are speech errors that reveal a forbidden

wish. According to Freud, there are no “innocent” errors. They all have uncon-

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scious meaning. For example, a wife says to her husband, just before retiring to

bed, “I want to kill you.” The husband is taken aback. The wife, abashed, says,

“Honey, I don’t know why I said that. I meant to say I want to kiss you.” The

interpretation in this case is that, at the level of the id, there is substantial hostility

toward the husband. Slips of the tongue are sometimes called Freudian slips.

(Not all psychologists agree that every slip of the tongue has an unconscious

meaning. There are probably so-called Watsonian slips also, errors made because

of a conflict of speech habits.)

(a) What kind of therapy attempts to reduce suffering by exploring the unconscious roots of

a mental-emotional problem?

(b) What is the principal “digging” tool used by psychoanalysis?

unconscious level.

(d) According to Freud, are speech errors that reveal a forbidden wish.

Answers: (a) Psychodynamic therapy; (b) Free association; (c) interpretation; (d) slips of

the tongue.

The interpretation of dreams is a central feature of psychoanalytic therapy.

Freud said that dreams are “the royal road to the unconscious.” He asserted that a

dream has two levels. The manifest level is the surface of the dream. It is what is

presented to the dreaming subject and what is remembered when the individual

wakes up. The latent level is the concealed aspect of the dream, its meaning. This

contains a forbidden wish. The manifest level is often cast in symbolic form. The

symbols cloak or disguise the hidden content of the dream. Like slips of the

tongue, the interpretation of a dream is likely to reveal either repressed hostility or

a repressed sexual impulse. For example, a fifty-year-old married man dreams that

a young man meets a beautiful stranger in an unfamiliar city and has sexual rela-

tions with her. An interpretation might suggest that the young man symbolizes

the dreamer’s youthful nature. The forbidden wish is perhaps a desire to have sex

outside of the marriage.

Patient-initiated transference exists when the patient projects onto the ther-

apist feelings obtained from an unconscious level. There are two kinds of patient-

initiated transference. A positive transference occurs when the patient sees the

therapist in glowing, magical terms. The therapist is a wonder worker; he or she

can do no wrong. Sometimes that patient develops a crush on the therapist and

thinks he or she is in love.

A negative transference occurs when the patient sees the therapist in nega-

tive, derogatory terms. The therapist is a jerk; his or her interpretations are stupid.

A negative transference often forms toward the completion of therapy when the

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patient is trying to become autonomous and less dependent on the therapist. In

both of the above kinds of transference, the therapist needs to interpret the trans-

ference in terms of unconscious desires. The therapist’s aim should be to help the

patient attain greater self-understanding.

Therapist-initiated transference is called countertransference. This takes

place when the therapist develops a crush on the patient and thinks that he or she

is in love. In such an instance, it is the therapist’s ethical responsibility to avoid act-

ing on his or her feelings. Often the therapist needs to reassign to case to a differ-

ent professional person.

The general aim of psychoanalysis is to make accessible and comprehensible to

the conscious mind information that has been creating emotional problems at an

unconscious level.

(a) The level of a dream is its concealed aspect, its meaning.

(b) A occurs when the patient sees the therapist in glowing, magical terms.

Answers: (a) latent; (b) positive transference.

Client-Centered Therapy: A Humanistic Approach

Client-centered therapy is based on the assumption that the troubled person

has powerful inner resources, resources that will help the individual think and

feel better. Note that the word patient is avoided, and instead the word client is

used. This is done in order to downplay the identification of a therapy-seeker as

a sick person. The originator of client-centered therapy is Carl Rogers, a former

president of the American Psychological Association. Rogers believed, in com-

mon with Maslow, that human beings have an inborn tendency to be self-

actualizing. It is this tendency that must be tapped in order for the client to

improve.

Unlike psychodynamic therapy, client-centered therapy does not attempt to

explore the unconscious level. Instead, all work is done in face-to-face interviews

at a conscious level. The therapy is a sort of intelligent discussion between the

therapist and the client.

Rogers believed that most of us have an ideal self, a person we would like to

become. We also have a self-concept, an image of the way we are. In the case of

troubled people, the self-concept is unsatisfactory in relation to the ideal self. This

state is known as incongruence. Client-centered therapy helps the client resolve

the gap between the self-concept and the ideal self. When the gap is largely

closed, there is a state of congruence. In such a state an individual is less likely to

suffer from depression and anxiety.

In order to nurture a personal growth process, client-centered therapy

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employs a number of well-defined techniques and principles. Five of these will be

identified below.

First, the therapy should be non-directive. The therapist should not tell the

client what to do or try to make decisions for him or her. Indeed, an older name

for client-centered therapy was non-directive therapy. Assume that Agatha is

thinking of leaving her husband. She says, “He’s been cheating on me again.

What do you think? Do you think I should leave him?” The therapist does not

answer, “Yes, I think so. He’s no good for you.” Nor does the therapist answer,

“No, I don’t think so. I believe you need to keep your marriage intact.” Instead,

the therapist might say something such as, “Let’s explore the pros and cons

together. Maybe I can help you evaluate your feelings. Then you can make a deci-

sion that is right for you.”

(a) According to Rogers, in the case of troubled people, the self-concept is unsatisfactory in

relation to the ideal self. This state is known as .

(b) An older name for client-centered therapy was therapy.

Answers: (a) incongruence; (b) non-directive.

Second, the therapy should create a condition of unconditional positive

regard. This means that the client needs to be respected as a person even if he or

she speaks of moral lapses or irresponsible behavior. The aim of the therapy is to

help, not to judge, the client.

Third, the therapy should employ active listening. The therapist gives the

client high-quality verbal feedback. The therapist needs, from time to time, to

summarize what the client has been saying. The therapist’s remarks should help

the client to recognize powerful feelings and persistent attitudes. Nodding and

being agreeable is not active listening; it is passive listening. Although the therapist

should not give direction, he or she should assist the client in his or her process of

greater self-understanding.

Fourth, the therapist should be capable of empathy. Empathy exists when the

therapist can readily imagine what it would be like to experience life as the client

experiences it. The therapist, to some extent, shares the perceptual and emotional

world of the troubled person. When empathy exists, the client tends to feel

understood, that he or she and the therapist are “on the same wavelength.”

Fifth, the therapist must be genuine. He or she should not be merely doing a

job. Instead, the therapist must see the practice of psychotherapy as a high calling

and really care about the client’s long-run welfare.

(a) What three-word term does client-centered therapy use to indicate that a client

should be respected even if he or she speaks of moral lapses or irresponsible behavior?

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(b) High-quality verbal feedback is called listening.

as the client experiences it?

Answers: (a) Unconditional positive regard; (b) active; (c) Empathy.

Behavior Therapy: A “Bad” Habit Can Be Modified

Behavior therapy is based on the assumption that mental and emotional prob-

lems often consist of learned maladaptive responses. The key word here is learned.

Behavior therapy is inspired by the work of such researchers as Ivan Pavlov, John

Watson, and B. F. Skinner (see chapter 6). Informally, learned maladaptive

responses are what people call bad habits. They are “bad” in the sense that they do

not serve the long-run interests of the individual.

Let’s examine two kinds of behavior therapy. First, systematic desensitiza-

tion is based on principles of classical conditioning. It takes advantage of the

process that Pavlov called extinction, the unlearning of a conditioned reflex. Sys-

tematic desensitization is of particular value in the treatment of phobic disorders.

Originated by Joseph Wolpe, a psychiatrist, systematic desensitization assumes that

irrational fears tend to decrease little by little with continued exposure to a fearful

stimulus. Of course, the fearful stimulus needs to be presented in a safe environ-

ment, helping the patient to learn that there is nothing in reality to fear, that the

fear is in fact nothing more than a “fear of fear itself.”

For example, Gabrielle is a thirty-two-year-old married woman who is afraid

to drive a car. She has never operated a motor vehicle and is so fearful that she

won’t even take a driver training class. She and the therapist draw up a list of fear-

ful situations associated with driving. A “weak” situation is sitting in the driver’s

seat of a parked car with the motor running. A “strong” situation is driving on a

freeway. When they are rank ordered, such a list is called a hierarchy of fears.

Starting with the weak situation, the therapist presents a series of guided fan-

tasies, word pictures that induce anxiety. Repeated exposure to the imagined sit-

uations reduces actual fear. In time, Gabrielle takes a driver training class and

eventually obtains a driver’s license.

Fearful stimuli can also be presented, when safe, in real life. This is called in

vivo desensitization.

(a) Behavior therapy is based on the assumption that mental and emotional problems often

consist of maladaptive responses.

(b) Systematic desensitization takes advantage of the process that Pavlov called

, the unlearning of a conditioned reflex.

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fantasies.

Answers: (a) learned; (b) extinction; (c) guided.

Second, behavior modification is based on principles of operant condition-

ing. Behavior modification is of particular value in the treatment of maladaptive

behaviors that involve actions with consequences. Examples of such behaviors are

alcohol abuse, other drug abuse, frequent overeating, chronic procrastination, and

self-destructive behaviors. Behavior modification is also used in mental hospitals

to shape the behavior of difficult, disturbing patients in more cooperative direc-

tions. A token economy exists when patents can exchange tokens, earned for

desirable behavior, for something of greater value such as a piece of pie or an

opportunity to do something particularly interesting.

The basic idea of behavior modification is to reinforce desirable, adaptive

behavior and to withhold reinforcement for undesirable, maladaptive behavior.

When behavior modification is used in voluntary, self-referred therapy, the

patient and the therapist discuss self-control strategies, strategies that help the

patient take control of his or her personal environment in such a manner that mal-

adaptive behavior is in time extinguished.

The principles involved in behavior therapy are identical to those presented in

the context of chapter 6, the chapter on learning. The behavior therapist makes a

practical application of these principles to the problems of both mildly troubled

people and people with mental disorders.

(a) Behavior modification is based on principles of conditioning.

(b) The basic idea of behavior modification is to desirable, adaptive behavior.

Answers: (a) operant; (b) reinforce.

Cognitive-Behavior Therapy: How Thinking Affects

Emotions and Actions

Cognitive-behavior therapy refers to any approach to therapy that helps the

patient to think more rationally in order to bring emotional states under better

control. Two kinds of cognitive-behavior therapy will be identified.

Rational-emotive behavior therapy (REBT) operates on the assumption

that irrational thoughts induce inappropriate anxiety, depression, and anger.

Albert Ellis, a New York psychologist, originated REBT. He explicitly credits

the ancient philosophy of stoicism for some of his inspiration. Stoicism taught

that it is not events in themselves that make us suffer but the way we evaluate

them.

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REBT teaches patients an A-B-C-D system of emotional self-control. For

example, Patrick is prone to chronic anxiety. He is driving in his car and hears a

knocking sound. According to Ellis, this is point A, or the activating event. It is

not the actual sound (A), but what Patrick thinks about A that induces anxiety. He

thinks, “The engine is going to explode!” This is point B, the belief. In this case

the belief is irrational because it is an overgeneralization. Patrick is jumping to an

unwarranted conclusion. Patrick feels apprehensive. His heart is pounding. His

mouth is dry. This is point C, the consequence of the belief. Point C in the system

always refers to an emotional consequence. At this point, without therapy, Patrick

usually stops. He suffers.

However, with therapy Patrick learns to introduce point D, a dispute of his

belief. He says to himself, “I’m overgeneralizing. It’s ridiculous to think that the

engine is going to explode just because it’s knocking. There are all kinds of

things that make an engine knock. I’ll just slow down and pull into the next gas

station to check things out.” Although disputing his irrational belief may not

eliminate all of Patrick’s anxiety, it will modulate it and place it within accept-

able bounds.

As indicated above, the same A-B-C-D system can also be applied to depres-

sion and anger.

(a) Cognitive-behavior therapy refers to any approach to therapy that helps the patient to

think more in order to bring emotional states under better control.

(b) Rational-emotive behavior therapy (REBT) teaches patients an system of

emotional self-control.

Answers: (a) rationally; (b) A-B-C-D.

Cognitive therapy takes the same view of the relationship between thought

and emotion as does REBT. Aaron Beck, a psychiatrist, originated cognitive ther-

apy. Beck speaks of automatic thoughts, thoughts that appear at a conscious

level without intention or the use of will. They are just a part of our thinking, and

they are unbidden. As described by Beck, they are very similar to Ellis’s concept

of irrational thoughts.

Automatic thoughts tend to be illogical. They are said to be cognitive dis-

tortions, ways of thinking that tend to make the suffering person look upon the

world incorrectly and unrealistically. As in REBT, the patient is encouraged to

reflect on automatic thoughts and find ways to bring them under voluntary con-

trol. This is done primarily by an analysis of the thoughts themselves. Often, such

an analysis reveals their absurdity.

In both REBT and cognitive therapy the therapist coaches the patient in ways

to improve the quality of his or her thought processes.

It is not necessary to decide which kind of therapy is the best one. Many psy-

chotherapists use multi-modal therapy, a general approach recognizing that all of

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the approaches have their use and place in the treatment of troubled people. In

multi-modal therapy, the specific kind of therapy employed depends on the needs of

the patient and the type of mental or emotional problem presented to the therapist.

(a) Beck speaks of thoughts, thoughts that appear at a conscious level with-

out intention or the use of will.

(b) Many psychotherapists use therapy, a general approach recognizing that

all of the approaches have their use and place in the treatment of troubled people.

Answers: (a) automatic; (b) multi-modal.

Group Therapy: Encountering Others

Group therapy, as its name clearly suggests, is therapy conducted in group set-

tings. A typical group ranges from five to seven in number. The therapist acts as a

facilitator, an individual who mediates between members of the group, allows

everyone a chance to participate, and keeps the group on track. Any of the prior

kinds of therapy specified can be conducted in a group setting.

Group therapy arose during World War II, over fifty years ago. There was a

need to treat large numbers of patients suffering from battle fatigue, an inability

to continue active service because of adverse emotional reactions to the stress of

combat. (This same condition was called shell shock in World War I and post-

traumatic stress disorder [PTSD] in the Vietnam War and later conflicts.) Trained psy-

chotherapists were in short supply in military psychiatric wards. Out of necessity,

clinical psychologists and psychiatrists began to see patients in groups. Group

therapy was found to be highly effective. The patients learned from each other,

shared feelings, and helped each other heal. Group therapy remains a principal

way in which to make psychotherapy accessible to a large number of sufferers. It

is used frequently in both mental hospitals and private practice settings.

In the 1960s a trend arose called the human potential movement. The

basic idea of the movement was to go beyond using a group approach to heal the

sick. Instead, the group structure was used to help a relatively normal person

exceed his or her present level of mental and emotional development. To a large

extent, the movement was based on Maslow’s principle of self-actualization.

Groups that aim at fostering one’s potentialities and personal growth are called

encounter groups. In an encounter, one human being meets another human

being in an authentic manner without sham or pretense. At an informal level,

members of the group “get real” with each other. The atmosphere of the group

creates a kind of psychological mirror that allows the individual to see the self in

a more reality-oriented way. Encounter groups were very popular in the 1960s

and 1970s. Their popularity has ebbed, but they are still used.

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(a) In group therapy, the therapist acts as a , an individual who mediates

between members of the group, allows everyone a chance to participate, and keeps the

group on track.

(b) Group therapy during World War II was often used to treat what condition related to the

stress of combat?

groups.

Answers: (a) facilitator; (b) Battle fatigue; (c) encounter.

Drug Therapy: A Revolution in Psychiatry

Drug therapy has revolutionized psychiatry in the past forty years. Before the advent

of effective psychiatric drugs in the 1960s, one of the principal treatments used with

severely disturbed mental patients—patients with disorders such as schizophrenia or

major depressive episode—was electroconvulsive therapy. Electroconvulsive ther-

apy (ECT) passes a mild electric current through the frontal lobes of the brain,

inducing a seizure similar to a grand mal seizure in epilepsy. The therapy is some-

times effective; research suggests that it temporarily increases the level of certain of

the nervous system’s neurotransmitters, particularly norepinephrine. Although ECT

is still sometimes employed, it has by and large given way to drug therapy.

Four categories of psychiatric drugs are: (1) antipsychotic agents, (2) antianxiety

agents, (3) antidepressent agents, and (4) mood-stabilizing agents.

Antipsychotic agents are drugs that treat mental disorders characterized by

a loss of touch with reality. The principal disorder treated with antipsychotic

agents is schizophrenia. Delusions, hallucinations, and agitation tend to be either

eliminated or reduced in intensity when patients use antipsychotic agents. The

term major tranquilizers is sometimes also employed to classify these drugs.

One of the ways in which antipsychotic agents work is by regulating the activity

of the neurotransmitter dopamine.

Psychiatric drugs, like drugs in general, have a generic name and a trade name.

Only the trade name of the drug is capitalized. A trade name for chlorpromazine

is Thorazine. A trade name for haloperidol is Haldol. A trade name for clozapine

is Clozaril. There are a number of other antipsychotic agents.

Antianxiety agents are used to treat the irrational anxiety associated with

such disorders as generalized anxiety disorder, phobic disorder, and obsessive-

compulsive disorder (OCD). Patients who take the agents usually report that they

have fewer problems with chronic worry and related symptoms. These drugs have

a sedative-hypnotic action. They lower central nervous system arousal. The term

minor tranquilizers is sometimes employed to classify these drugs.

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One of the ways in which some of the antianxiety agents work is by induc-

ing muscle relaxation. Such relaxation has been found to be antagonistic to

anxiety.

A trade name for diazepam is Valium. A trade name for meprobamate is

Miltown. A trade name for alprazolam is Xanax. There are a number of other

antianxiety agents.

(a) What kind of therapy passes a mild electric current through the frontal lobes of the

brain?

(b) agents are drugs that treat mental disorders characterized by a loss of

touch with reality.

Answers: (a) Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT); (b) Antipsychotic; (c) Minor tranquilizers.

Antidepressant agents are used to treat such mental disorders as dysthymia

and major depressive disorder. The three basic types of antidepressants are (1) tri-

cyclic agents, (2) monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors, and (3) selective serotonin

reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). The three types work in somewhat different ways. The

tricyclic agents and the MAO inhibitors regulate the activity of the neurotransmit-

ter norephinephrine, and to some extent serotonin. The SSRIs, as their name indi-

cates, selectively regulate the activity of the neurotransmitter serotonin.

A trade name for imipramine, a tricyclic agent, is Tofranil. A trade name for

phenelzine, an MAO inhibitor, is Nardil. A trade name for fluoxetine, an SSRI, is

Prozac.

Mood-stabilizing agents are used primarily to treat cyclothymia and bi-

polar disorder. Strictly speaking, antidepressant agents also have the effect of sta-

bilizing mood. However, the term mood-stabilizing agents is reserved for drugs that

treat disorders in which emotional states such as mania alternate with emotional

states such as depression.

Lithium carbonate, a natural mineral salt, is the best known mood-

stabilizing agent. Its way of working is not completely understood. However, it

does appear to regulate the activity of certain neurotransmitters and promote

desirable changes in the ways in which some neurons function.

Trade names for lithium carbonate include Carbolith and Lithotabs.

Psychiatric drugs are treatments, not cures, for mental disorders. They help a

troubled person live with a chronic problem. The principal aim associated with

their use is long-term management of a mental disorder.

Also, psychiatric drugs have potentially toxic side effects. That is why all of

them are prescription drugs and should be administered under the watchful eye of

a medical doctor familiar with their various actions. All psychiatrists are medical

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doctors. Clinical psychologists have doctoral degrees in psychology, not medicine.

Consequently, in most states they cannot prescribe drugs of any kind.

(a) The three basic kinds of antidepressant agents are tricyclic agents, monoamine oxidase

(MAO) inhibitors, and .

(b) Mood-stabilizing agents are used primarily to treat cyclothymia and

disorder.

Answers: (a) selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs); (b) bipolar; (c) Lithium

carbonate.

SELF-TEST

1. What therapies are based on the assumption that mental disorders are caused

by emotional conflicts, maladaptive learning, cognitive errors, or similar behav-

ioral processes?

a. Psychologically based therapies

b. Biologically based therapies

c. Drug therapies

d. Hormone therapies

2. What is the principal “digging” tool used by psychoanalysis?

a. The interpretation of dreams

b. The interpretation of slips of the tongue

c. Unmasking of the ego defense mechanisms

d. Free association

3. According to Freud, what aspect of a dream contains a forbidden wish?

a. The manifest level

b. The latent level

c. The conscious content

d. Its ego-oriented features

4. What feature of client-centered therapy is associated with the concept that

the client needs to be respected as a person even if he or she speaks of moral

lapses or irresponsible behavior?

a. Empathy

b. Congruence of the two selves

c. Unconditional positive regard

d. Active listening

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5. Behavior modification is based on

a. biological assumptions

b. principles of operant conditioning

c. Freudian theory

d. the recovery of repressed information

6. Albert Ellis originated rational-emotive behavior therapy (REBT). He explicitly

credits what ancient philosophy for some of his inspiration?

a. Stoicism

b. Empiricism

c. Hedonism

d. Determinism

7. Aaron Beck speaks of automatic thoughts. These are very similar to Ellis’s con-

cept of

a. repressed memories

b. activating events

c. irrational thoughts

d. involuntary perceptions

8. Groups that aim at fostering one’s potentialities and personal growth are

called

a. Jungian self-realization groups

b. encounter groups

c. psychoanalytic groups

d. actualization-orientation groups

9. What drugs treat mental disorders characterized by a loss of touch with reality?

a. Antianxiety agents

b. Antidepressent agents

c. Mood-stabilizing agents

d. Antipsychotic agents

10. Which of the following drugs is associated primarily with the treatment of

bipolar disorder?

a. Lithium carbonate

b. Haloperidol

c. Chlorpromazine

d. Diazepam

ANSWERS TO THE SELF-TEST

1-a 2-d 3-b 4-c 5-b 6-a 7-c 8-b 9-d 10-a

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ANSWERS TO THE TRUE-OR-FALSE PREVIEW QUIZ

1. True.

2. False. The main way that Freud explored the unconscious roots of mental-emotional

problems was with the “digging” tool of free association.

3. True.

4. False. Behavior therapy is based on the assumption that mental and emotional prob-

lems often arise because of learned maladaptive responses.

5. False. Antipsychotic agents are drugs that treat mental disorders characterized by a loss

of touch with reality.

KEY TERMS

Therapy: Helping Troubled People 245

A-B-C-D system

activating event

active listening

antianxiety agents

antidepressant agents

antipsychotic agents

automatic thoughts

battle fatigue

behavior modification

behavior therapy

biologically based therapies

client-centered therapy

cognitive distortions

cognitive therapy

cognitive-behavior therapy

congruence

countertransference

drug therapy

electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)

empathy

encounter

encounter groups

extinction

facilitator

free association

Freudian slips

genuine

grand mal seizure

group therapy

guided fantasies

hierarchy of fears

human potential movement

ideal self

incongruence

interpretation

in vivo desensitization

latent level

lithium carbonate

major tranquilizers

manifest level

minor tranquilizers

mood-stabilizing agents

multi-modal therapy

negative transference

non-directive

non-directive therapy

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246 PSYCHOLOGY

positive transference

post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

psychodynamic therapy

psychologically based therapies

psychotherapy

rational-emotive behavior therapy

(REBT)

self-concept

self-control strategies

shell shock

slips of the tongue

stoicism

systematic desensitization

therapy

token economy

transference

unconditional positive regard

Watsonian slips

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16 Social Psychology:

Interacting with Other

People

247

PREVIEW QUIZ

True or False

1. TF Social psychology is the systematic study of how exchanges with other

people in our environment influence our thoughts, feelings, and

actions.

2. TF Personality traits play almost no role in interpersonal attraction.

3. TF In the art of persuasion, a one-sided argument is usually more effec-

tive than a two-sided argument.

4. TF The social phenomenon known as bystander apathy suggests that peo-

ple in the city are cold and unfeeling and that people in a small town

are warm and understanding.

5. TF Cognitive dissonance is a mental state created when opposed ideas

exist simultaneously at a conscious level.

(Answers can be found on page 260.)

Psychology is to a large extent the study of thoughts, feelings, and actions.

Nonetheless, much of our behavior takes place in the context of either a

relationship or a reaction to other people. Social psychology, the subject of

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this chapter, recognizes the importance that others play in determining our

behavior.

Objectives

After completing this chapter, you will be able to

• define social psychology;

• identify six important aspects of interpersonal attraction;

• describe the four key components making up an attitude;

• discuss the factors involved in the art of persuasion;

• specify the processes that induce conformity;

• explain the three ways in which human beings reduce cognitive dissonance.

You will recall from chapter 9 that Aristotle called the human being the think-

ing animal. The human being could just as well be called the social animal. (The Social

Animal is, indeed, the title of a book by the research psychologist Elliot Aaronson.)

A moment’s reflection reveals that much human behavior occurs in group set-

tings: the family, school, club, church, military unit, and so forth. These group set-

tings automatically imply interactions with other people. The way in which we

interact with others such as our friends, parents, siblings, and coworkers affects our

moods and much of what we do.

All of us are immersed in a sort of sea of other human beings. This is what

was referred to in the context of Erik Erikson’s developmental theory as the

social world (see chapter 11). And although we all seek isolation and escape

from the social world from time to time, few of us would want to become per-

manent hermits.

In order to examine the full spectrum of human behavior it is essential to

explore social behavior, behavior that involves interactions with other people.

Social psychology, the subject matter of this chapter, is the systematic study of

how exchanges with these others in our environment influence our thoughts,

feelings, and actions.

(a) Social behavior is behavior that involves with other people.

(b) Social psychology is the systematic study of how exchanges with others in our environ-

ment influence our , feelings, and .

Answers: (a) interactions; (b) thoughts; actions.

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Interpersonal Attraction: Who Likes Whom, and Why?

The social dyad is a group consisting of two people. It is the basic unit of social

behavior. The dyad is a common element in dating behavior, marriage, and the

formation of friendships. Consequently a study of the dyad and the factors

involved in its formation is an important aspect of social psychology. Interper-

sonal attraction exists between two people when they make, or wish to make,

more approach responses than avoidance responses to each other. It is this, the

presence of an interpersonal attraction, that leads to the spontaneous formation of

dyads. Informally, we say that two people are “drawn” to each other or that some

kind of “magnetism” exists.

It should be noted that attraction is not necessarily interpersonal. It is inter-

personal only if the attraction is mutual. If Gerald has a crush on Lauren, and if

Lauren does not share Gerald’s feelings, then the attraction is unilateral, not

interpersonal. The concepts presented below can be understood in the framework

of either unilateral or interpersonal attraction. Six aspects of interpersonal attrac-

tion will be explored.

First, physical appearance plays an important role in interpersonal attraction.

Beverly thinks, “Gilbert is so good-looking.” Gilbert thinks, “Beverly is so beau-

tiful.” Obviously, these perceptions play an important part in their interpersonal

attraction. The word perception needs to be stressed. Females other than Beverly

may not perceive Gilbert as good-looking. Males other than Gilbert may not per-

ceive Beverly as beautiful. An old saying states, “Beauty is in the eye of the

beholder.” The perception of physical appearance itself is affected by a number of

factors, including the ones identified below.

Second, personality traits are a set of factors. It is sometimes said that opposites

attract. In the case of personality, there seems to be an element of truth in the

assertion. There is likely to be an interpersonal attraction between an extravert

and an introvert. The extravert has an audience, and the introvert is more com-

fortable listening than talking. There is also likely to be an interpersonal attraction

between a dominating person and a submissive one. The dominating person has

someone to boss, and the submissive person wants to be told what to do. The

principle at work here is called reciprocity, which consists of an exchange that

has value for both individuals.

(a) The social dyad is a group consisting of people.

(b) attraction exists between two people when they make, or wish to make,

more approach responses than avoidance responses to each other.

her attraction to him?

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(d) When it appears under certain circumstances that opposites in personality do in fact

seem to attract each other, what principle appears to be at work?

Answers: (a) two; (b) Interpersonal; (c) Physical appearance; (d) Reciprocity.

Third, interests are sets of factors. If Arthur is interested in reading science-

fiction novels, and if Herman is also interested in reading such novels, this may

form a partial basis for a friendship. Mutual interests that people have in music,

movies, decorating, travel, sports, and cooking provide additional examples of

subjects that may bring people together. Does this contradict the observation that

opposites attract? No, not if this observation is limited, as it was above, to person-

ality traits. In the case of interests, it seems that another saying is applicable: “Birds

of a feather flock together.”

Fourth, the matching hypothesis states that interpersonal attraction is fos-

tered when two people see themselves as relatively similar in intelligence, stature,

ambition, and other personal characteristics. A woman who perceives herself as

very bright will look for a very bright male. A man who is short will generally be

attracted to a relatively short woman, not to a statuesque one. An individual who

wants to become a big financial success will tend to be attracted to similarly ambi-

tious people, not those with a low level of financial aspiration.

(a) Both Arthur and Herman like to read science-fiction novels. They like each other. In this

case, what factor appears to be playing a role in interpersonal attraction?

(b) The hypothesis states that interpersonal attraction is fostered when two

people see themselves as relatively similar in personal characteristics.

Answers: (a) Interests; (b) matching.

Fifth, the ratio of gains to losses is a factor. Elliot Aronson, referred to earlier,

developed the gain-loss theory of interpersonal attraction. A gain is a per-

ceived benefit; for example, one’s self-esteem might rise after receiving a compli-

ment. A loss is a perceived detriment; for example, one’s self-esteem might fall

after receiving a criticism. Let’s say that Rebecca gives compliments freely and fre-

quently to Sophia. Rebecca is never critical. A different friend, Susan, gives com-

pliments to Sophia somewhat less frequently and with more restraint. Sometimes

she gives a little negative feedback. Who will Sophia be more attracted to?

According to the gain-loss theory, she will tend to be more attracted to Susan.

Sophia places more value on Susan’s compliments than on Rebecca’s. Susan’s

statements of praise seem thoughtful, and, consequently, when given they tend to

raise Sophia’s self-esteem more than the ones given by Rebecca. Sophia tends to

think of Susan as genuine and authentic. Sophia suspects that Rebecca is an insin-

cere fake.

Sixth, according to attribution theory, we are prone to explain the behav-

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ior of other human beings by attributing motives to them. We don’t know for sure

that these motives exist. We infer them from behavior, and then project them into

the other person’s inner world. For example, Murphy sits next to Trudy in a col-

lege class. Whenever Murphy speaks to Trudy, she is friendly and responsive. He

begins to make attributions. “She likes me.” Or, “She wants me to ask her out.”

Murphy’s attraction to Trudy is intensified by these attributions. The attributions

may or may not be correct. If they are correct, then asking Trudy for a date will

be a rewarding experience. If they are incorrect, then asking Trudy for a date will

be an embarrassing experience.

There are, of course, other factors involved in interpersonal attraction. How-

ever, the ones identified account for much of the variability in who likes whom.

(a) What theory of interpersonal attraction suggests that under certain conditions we might

perceive another person as an insincere fake?

(b) When we infer motives from behavior, we are making an .

Answers: (a) The gain-loss theory; (b) attribution.

Attitudes: Exploring Psychological Positions

President Franklin Delano Roosevelt said, “I hate war.” Mary, a mother says, “I’m

pro-life. I can’t stand the idea of abortion.” Ralph says, “I think it’s great that I

can make business calls from my cell phone when I’m eating lunch.”

All of the above statements reveal the presence of attitudes. An attitude is a

relatively stable disposition to think, feel, or act in either a positive or negative

manner in response to certain kinds of situations, people, or objects. When an

attitude reflects in any way on the behavior of other individuals or groups, it is

called a social attitude. The way in which we think about war, abortion, and the

use of cell phones in public places provide examples of social attitudes.

There are four components to an attitude: (1) evaluative, (2) cognitive, (3)

affective, and (4) behavioral.

The evaluative component refers to the fact that an attitude is said to be

either positive or negative. Ralph has a positive attitude toward the use of cell

phones in public places. Someone else may have a negative attitude toward the

same behavior.

(a) When an attitude reflects in any way on the behavior of other individuals or groups it is

called a attitude.

(b) The component of an attitude refers to the fact that an attitude is said to

be either positive or negative.

Answers: (a) social; (b) evaluative.

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The cognitive component refers to what an individual thinks in association

with a particular attitude. Amanda has a positive attitude toward the use of nuclear

reactors to generate electricity. She thinks, “If we want to live in the modern

world, we need plenty of power. Nuclear reactors provide it.” Preston has a neg-

ative attitude toward nuclear reactors. He thinks, “If we want to live in a safer

world, a world without radioactive fallout, we should start generating more elec-

tricity with wind turbines.”

The affective component refers to whatever emotions are triggered by a

particular attitude. Richard has a positive attitude toward the potential entry of his

nation into a particular war. When he hears a military band, his heart begins to

race. He gets goose bumps. He is filled with pride in his country. John has a neg-

ative attitude toward the same war. When he hears military music or sees a parade,

he sometimes feels depressed, and sometimes he feels angry.

The behavioral component refers to the action that an individual takes in

connection with a particular attitude. Returning to Amanda, when she hears that

a new nuclear plant is being proposed in her county of residence, she writes to the

members of the board of supervisors encouraging them to vote in favor of zoning

changes that will make construction possible. On the other hand, Preston carries

signs in a protest march designed to block the building of a new nuclear power

plant. He writes letters to the governor of the state begging him to interfere with

the construction of the plant.

(a) The component of an attitude refers to what an individual thinks in asso-

ciation with a particular attitude.

(b) The component of an attitude refers to whatever emotions are triggered

by a particular attitude.

in connection with a particular attitude.

Answers: (a) cognitive; (b) affective; (c) behavioral.

The Art of Persuasion: Toward the Changing of Attitudes

Special interest groups, political parties, certain corporations, lobbying organ-

izations, advertising agencies, and powerful individuals often have an interest

in changing widely held attitudes. Consequently, a great deal of thought has

been given to the art of persuasion, an application of the factors that can to

some extent induce a change of attitude in either a target individual or a target

audience.

It is often effective to make an appeal to authority. A reference can be made

to a physician, scientist, attorney, psychologist, or other professional person. The

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authority, in order to be effective, should be credible. What he or she says should

be easy to believe. This is why the authority figure often has a degree and or a lot

of experience in a field of study associated with the attitude.

(a) The art of refers to an application of the factors that can to some extent

induce a change in attitude.

(b) Let’s say that a speechmaker quotes a famous scientist in order to support a point being

made in the presentation. This approach represents an appeal to .

Answers: (a) persuasion; (b) authority.

An appeal to reason is also often used. The agent of persuasion sets forth

facts and makes a logical, rational appeal. A speechmaker says, “If we don’t raise

taxes, then we won’t be able to repair roads and bridges.” This is an appeal based

on deductive logic (see chapter 9 and the section on logic.)

An appeal to reason can be made in the form of a one-sided or a two-sided

argument. A one-sided argument sets forth only the favorable aspects of a given

attitude. For example, a speechmaker states some of the reasons to raise taxes, but

offers no reasons for keeping them at current levels.

A two-sided argument sets forth both the favorable and unfavorable aspects

of a given attitude. For example, a speechmaker states some of the reasons to raise

taxes. Then he or she offers a few reasons to keep them at current levels, and con-

cludes with reasons to raise them. A certain appearance of balance and fairness has

been given. However, the speechmaker has given primary emphasis to reasons to

raise taxes. A two-sided argument is generally more persuasive than a one-sided

argument.

Third, an emotional appeal is often persuasive. Such an appeal bypasses

reason and logic. Lester has a negative attitude toward organized charities. He

says, “They’re a bunch of rip-off artists.” Then he sees a television presentation

featuring a child named Gloria in a wheelchair. Gloria, only seven, speaks of the

pain and suffering associated with a specific disease. Lester finds himself writing

a check to the charity that sponsored her appearance. His attitude toward one

particular organized charity has moved, perhaps only temporarily, from negative

to positive.

Fourth, the mood of the target person or audience is a factor in attitude

change. Flora, a retired schoolteacher, has a negative attitude toward health

maintenance organizations (HMOs). She is invited to a free brunch for senior

citizens given by a particular HMO. After Flora and the group are well fed, a

speaker warms up the audience with jokes. Finally, the speaker gets down to

brass tacks and begins to use some of the methods of persuasion already identi-

fied above. Flora finds herself wavering. She begins to find the thought of join-

ing this particular HMO appealing. Flora’s good mood helps to induce an

attitude change.

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(a) A argument sets forth only the favorable aspects of a given attitude.

(b) An appeal bypasses reason and logic.

an audience.

Answers: (a) one-sided; (b) emotional; (c) mood.

Conformity and Social Influence: Reacting to Other People

If you are invited to a formal dinner party, how do you know which fork to pick

up for the shrimp cocktail and which fork to use for the green salad? One way to

find out is to wait until two or three people have started eating. Then simply do

what they do. It is safe in this situation to conform to what others do.

A familiar proverb recommends: “When in Rome do as the Romans do.”

Again, the basic idea is that there is safety in conformity.

Conformity in social behavior exists when one individual makes an effort

to match his or her behavior to the behavior of other members of a reference

group. Conformity is at odds with the need for autonomy. Autonomy exists

when one individual takes voluntary action that may or may not conform to

group behavior. Autonomy is represented in expressions such as: “I’m going to

do it my way,” “I’ve got to take my own pathway,” or “I’m determined to think

for myself.”

In order to have law and order as well as an organized society, it appears nec-

essary to have some degree of social conformity. Total lack of conformity suggests

public chaos. From the point of view of the family, school, religious organization,

military organization, and similar groups, it is necessary that individuals display

prosocial behavior, behavior that fosters the long-run interests of a given group.

Antisocial behavior, on the other hand, undermines the long-run interests of a

group.

(a) in social behavior exists when one individual makes an effort to match his

or her behavior to the behavior of other members of a reference group.

(b) behavior fosters the long-run interests of a given group.

Answers: (a) Conformity; (b) Prosocial.

Certain factors play a significant role in determining behavior that encourages

an individual to conform to the behavior of a given group. First, the perceived

ambiguity of a situation makes social influence more effective. Social influence

is the impact on one person’s thinking and perception that arises from the behav-

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ior and opinions of one or more other people. Velma is an eighteen-year-old

high-school graduate. She’s thinking of taking a full-time clerical job with a local

insurance broker. Alternatively, she’s thinking of going full-time to the local com-

munity college while working part time. Both options seem equally attractive to

her. The situation is ambiguous because she can easily see her near-future activity

in two ways. Velma’s best friend, Wanda, tells Velma all of the reasons why she

thinks it’s a good idea to go to a community college instead of taking on a regu-

lar job. The social influence exerted by Wanda resolves Velma’s doubts, and she

decides to go to the community college.

The social psychologist Muzafer Sherif did a series of experiments on social

influence over sixty years ago. In a typical experiment, Maxwell, a subject, is

brought alone into a dark room. There is a pinpoint of light. It is stationary. How-

ever, with no frame of reference, it appears to be moving. This is called the auto-

kinetic effect, and it is due to slight involuntary movements of the eyeballs. The

movements are random. The subject is allowed to believe that the perceived

movement is in fact objective, actual movement, though he is unable to identify

any particular pattern of motion.

Two additional people are brought into the room. They seem to be subjects,

but they are not; they are working with the researcher. They engage Maxwell in

discussion. The discussion leads the two new “subjects” to say, “The light is mov-

ing in a clockwise circle.” This is not their perception, it’s just what they have

already agreed to say. Soon Maxwell perceives the light to be moving in a clock-

wise circle.

When Maxwell is interviewed later, he seems to be convinced that he actually

saw the light moving clockwise. It appears that social influence affected his actual

perception. Again, it is the ambiguity of a situation that makes social influence

particularly powerful.

(a) The perceived of a situation makes social influence more effective.

(b) A stationary pinpoint of light in a dark room, without a frame of reference, appears to

be moving. This is called the effect.

Answers: (a) ambiguity; (b) autokinetic.

Second, obedience, a tendency to conform to the requests of an authority

figure, plays a role in conformity. If a nurse asks you to undress for a medical

examination, you usually do. If a teacher asks you to sit in a particular place, you

probably will. If a judge pounds a gavel and requests order, the courtroom gener-

ally quiets down.

A series of important experiments on obedience was reported by the psy-

chologist Stanley Milgram in his book Obedience to Authority. Here is a descrip-

tion of a typical experiment. Sylvia believes that she is an assistant to a research

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psychologist. The research psychologist, an impressive authority with a Ph.D.

and a white coat, explains that a subject will be administered electric shocks as

a part of a learning experiment. When the subject makes a mistake, he or she

will be given increasing levels of painful shock. The subject is not actually being

shocked; he or she is acting. The whole setup is a sham. Nonetheless, Sylvia is

convinced that she is turning dials that cause pain. Reluctantly, she is willing,

with the encouragement of the researcher, to administer very high levels of

shock.

Milgram found that a majority of subjects were willing to inflict high levels of

shock on protesting “learners.” The interpretation of the subjects’ behavior was

not that they were latent sadists or had excessive repressed hostility. No, they were

conforming, responding to an authority figure. The key factor was, as indicated,

simply obedience.

(a) is a tendency to conform to the requests of an authority figure.

(b) Milgram found that subjects, when requested to do so by an authority figure, are often

willing to administer high levels of to another person.

Answers: (a) Obedience; (b) shock.

Third, balance theory suggests that human beings have a need for balance, a

state of equilibrium, in their relationships to both objects and other people. For

example, three female friends want to select a motion picture to see. Alice wants

to go see picture A. Becky and Carla want to go see picture B. A state of imbal-

ance exists, and there is a certain amount of social discomfort. A state of balance

will be restored among the friends only if they all agree to go see or to avoid a cer-

tain picture.

It is most likely that Alice, in order to restore balance, will agree to go see pic-

ture B. However, if Alice is very stubborn, balance can also be restored if both

Becky and Carla agree to go see picture A. Because of a psychological need for

balance, human beings often conform to the wishes of others.

theory suggests that human beings have a need for a state of equilibrium in

their relationships to both objects and other people.

Answer: Balance.

Fourth, the diffusion hypothesis suggests that we are less likely to con-

form to social expectations if we perceive ourselves as carrying only an insignif-

icant portion of an overall responsibility to act. Let’s say that among eight

brothers and sisters one sister, Janna, dies. A single mother, she leaves a three-

year-old child, Luke. Who will take Luke in and give him a home? If none of

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the siblings really want to take on the responsibility of raising Luke, each of

them will expect one of the others to do it. Perhaps no one will act, or they will

be very slow to do so.

On the other hand, let’s imagine a different scenario. Janna has only a sister

and no brothers. Now Janna’s sister feels the entire responsibility to raise Luke.

She experiences tremendous pressure to come through and do the socially

expected thing. Consequently, she responds and takes Luke into her home.

The diffusion hypothesis is usually used to explain bystander apathy, a ten-

dency of individuals to do nothing to help out in a crisis if there are a lot of other

people around. For example, if someone collapses and seems to be having a heart

attack on a busy city street, many people will walk by and glance at the victim

without doing anything. On the other hand, if the same thing happens in a small

town, the witnesses to the person’s plight are much more likely to come forward

and render aid. The interpretation of this behavior is not that people in the city

are cold and unfeeling and that people in a small town are warm and understand-

ing. The explanation is in terms of the diffusion hypothesis. A person in the city

may think, “Someone else will help. And I’m already late for work.” A person in

a small town may think, “I better give a hand. There’s no one else to help.”

Bystander apathy represents a failure to conform to social expectations. But the

logic of the diffusion hypothesis lends itself to also explaining, as indicated above,

conformity.

(a) The hypothesis suggests that we are less likely to conform to social expec-

tations if we perceive ourselves as carrying only an insignificant portion of an overall

responsibility to act.

(b) is a tendency of individuals to do nothing to help out in a crisis if there are

a lot of other people around.

Answers: (a) diffusion; (b) Bystander apathy.

Cognitive Dissonance Theory: The Square Peg Can’t Fit

in the Round Hole

Social behavior can often be explained in terms of a need to reduce cognitive dis-

sonance. Cognitive dissonance is a mental state created when opposed ideas

exist simultaneously at a conscious level. Idea A is, so to speak, like a square peg.

Idea B is like a round hole. The two ideas are mutually exclusive and can’t be fit

together. Nonetheless, they coexist, at least for a time. And this produces a state

of mental and emotional discomfort. The concept of cognitive dissonance was

proposed by the social psychologist Leon Festinger.

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Let us say that Louise is embroiled in a tumultuous love affair with Harry.

Idea A is, “I can’t live without Harry.” Louise genuinely sees a future without

Harry as meaningless. Idea B is, “I don’t think he’s good for me.” Louise is con-

vinced that Harry is selfish and abusive. There is a basic need to reduce cogni-

tive dissonance. As long as dissonance is allowed to continue, she is in a state of

misery.

According to Festinger, there are three ways in which human beings reduce

dissonance: (1) a change in behavior, (2) a change in one of the ideas, and (3) the

addition of a new idea.

In the case of Louise, a change in behavior can take place in one of several ways.

She may begin to date other men in order to prove to herself that she can live

without Harry. Or she may impulsively move to a new area, miles away from

Harry, again trying to prove she isn’t completely dependent. Or she may take a

complete opposite tack. She may impulsively marry Harry, trying to set aside her

misgivings about him.

Louise can change one of her ideas. She does a lot of thinking and makes lengthy

entries in a personal journal. She changes idea A and concludes that “there are a

lot of fish in the sea” and that Harry is just one of many potential partners. Or,

conversely, she changes idea B and concludes that Harry isn’t selfish and abusive

at all. She has been misinterpreting his behavior. It is she that is wrong in her eval-

uations and perceptions.

Louise can add a new idea. She decides that what Harry needs is the right kind

of nurturing. He is like a little boy waiting to grow up. If they were to marry, she

would guide him and help him grow toward maturity and responsibility. With this

new idea in mind, she can proceed to either marry Harry or continue the rela-

tionship.

Any one of the three approaches described above can be used to reduce disso-

nance. The theory of cognitive dissonance can be generalized to many situations.

Gavin believes in the Commandment that says “Thou shalt not kill.” He also

believes that he should defend his country during time of war, and this may

require the killing of others. Denise believes that in order to be a good mother to

her children, she needs to devote all of her time to homemaking. She also believes

that she wants to have a career as a magazine editor. As is evident, we often face

situations that induce cognitive dissonance.

(a) is a mental state created when opposed ideas exist simultaneously at a

conscious level.

(b) Let’s say that Louise begins to date other men in order to prove to herself that she can

live without Harry. She is attempting to reduce dissonance by a .

Answers: (a) Cognitive dissonance; (b) change in behavior.

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SELF-TEST

1. What exists between two people when they make, or wish to make, more

approach responses than avoidance responses to each other?

a. Bilateral attention

b. Unilateral attraction

c. Interpersonal attraction

d. Narcissistic attraction

2. According to the matching hypothesis, one of the following is correct.

a. A woman who perceives herself as very bright will look for a bright male.

b. A man who is short will generally be attracted to statuesque women.

c. An individual who wants to become a big financial success will tend to be

attracted to people without ambition.

d. A man who perceives himself as very bright will look for a woman of

slightly below average intelligence.

3. Sophia is more attracted to her friend Susan than to her friend Rebecca. Susan

gives compliments to Sophia sparingly and with restraint. Rebecca gives com-

pliments to Sophia freely and frequently. What theory explains Sophia’s

greater attraction to Susan?

a. The paradoxical theory of interpersonal attraction

b. The gain-gain theory of interpersonal attraction

c. The gain-loss theory of interpersonal attraction

d. The win-win theory of interpersonal attraction

4. What component of an attitude refers to the fact that an attitude is said to be

either positive or negative?

a. The reactive component

b. The variability component

c. The polarization component

d. The evaluative component

5. An appeal to authority, in order to be effective, should be

a. information oriented

b. credible

c. scientific

d. statistical

6. An emotional appeal is often persuasive. Such an appeal

a. bypasses reason and logic

b. is effective because it uses metalogic

c. is said to be “cognitive” in its effects

d. trades on the self-actualization process

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7. Which of the following is at odds with conformity?

a. The need for achievement

b. The need for autonomy

c. The need for order

d. The need for affiliation

8. The autokinetic effect, associated with ambiguity in perception, has been used

to study

a. psychopathic deviation

b. antisocial behavior

c. the structure of social dyads

d. social influence

9. What hypothesis suggests that we are less likely to conform to social expecta-

tions if we perceive ourselves carrying only an insignificant portion of an over-

all responsibility to act?

a. The diffusion hypothesis

b. The exclusion hypothesis

c. The density hypothesis

d. The credibility hypothesis

10. What mental state is created when opposed ideas exist simultaneously at a

conscious level?

a. Affective helplessness

b. Cognitive dissonance

c. Affective congruence

d. Cognitive congruence

ANSWERS TO THE SELF-TEST

1-c 2-a 3-c 4-d 5-b 6-a 7-b 8-d 9-a 10-b

ANSWERS TO THE TRUE-OR-FALSE PREVIEW QUIZ

1. True.

2. False. Personality traits play an important role in interpersonal attraction.

3. False. In the art of persuasion, a two-sided argument is usually more effective than a

one-sided argument.

4. False. The social phenomenon known as bystander apathy is explained by the diffusion

hypothesis. This hypothesis suggests that we are less likely to conform to social expec-

tations if we perceive ourselves as carrying only an insignificant portion of an overall

responsibility to act.

5. True.

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KEY TERMS

Social Psychology: Interacting with Other People 261

affective component

ambiguity

antisocial behavior

appeal to authority

appeal to reason

art of persuasion

attitude

attribution theory

autokinetic effect

autonomy

balance theory

behavioral component

bystander apathy

cognitive component

cognitive dissonance

conformity

diffusion hypothesis

emotional appeal

evaluative component

gain-loss theory of interpersonal

attraction

interpersonal attraction

matching hypothesis

mood

obedience

one-sided argument

prosocial behavior

reciprocity

social attitude

social behavior

social dyad

social influence

social psychology

social world

two-sided argument

unilateral attraction

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263

INDEX

Aaronson, Elliot, 248

A-B-C-D system, rational-emotive

behavior therapy, 239

abnormal behavior

defined, 214–215

viewpoints on, 225–226

abnormal psychology, 212–230

anxiety disorders, 216–218

classification of mental disorders,

215–216

dissociative disorders, 219–220

mood disorders, 220–221

organic mental disorders, 224–225

personality disorders, 223–224

psychotic disorders, 221–223

public health problem, 213

somatoform disorders, 218–219

accepting-rejecting dimension,

parental style, 169

achievement, need for, acquired

motives, 96

acquired motives, 95–97

acrophobia, anxiety disorders, 217

acting out, unconscious motivation,

action

behavior, psychology definition, 2

emotion, 110–111

social psychology, 248

activating event, rational-emotive

behavior therapy, 239

active listening, client-centered ther-

apy, 236

activity drive, 94

Adler, Alfred, 200, 201–202

adolescent psychology, defined,

154

adrenal glands, function of, 40–41

adrenalin, function of, 41

adrenocorticotrophic hormone

(ACTH), function of, 40

affected by feelings-emotionally sta-

ble, bipolar traits, sixteen per-

sonality factor theory, 195

affectional drive, 95

affective component, social attitude,

252

afferent nerves, function of, 33

affiliation, need for, acquired

motives, 96

aggression

ego defense mechanisms, 198

need for, acquired motives, 97

testosterone, 41

agoraphobia, anxiety disorders, 217

alarm reaction, 113

alcohol amnestic disorder, organic

mental disorders, 224

algorithm, thinking, 124–125

Alzheimer’s disease, organic mental

disorders, 225

ambiguity

perception, 63

social psychology, 254

ambiguous stimuli, Rorschach test,

206

ambiversion, personality theory, 195

American Psychiatric Association

(APA), 183, 184, 215

American Psychological Association

(APA), 7, 84, 95, 235

amnesia

alcohol amnestic disorder, 224

psychogenic, dissociative disorders,

219

amorality, moral development, 167

amyloid plaques, Alzheimer’s disease,

225

anal intercourse

pederasty, 182

sodomy, 183

analogy, logical thinking, 130

anal stage, psychosexual develop-

ment, 158

anhedonia (ahedonia), limbic system,

animals

affectional drive, 95

experimental psychology, 12

insight learning, 83

latent learning, 82–83

psychology definition, 2

anthropology, behavior, 20

anthropomorphic thinking, cognitive

development, 165

antianxiety agents, 241–242

antidepressant agents, 242

antipsychotic agents, 241

antiquity, 2–3, 4, 108, 109, 218–219

antisocial behavior

learning, consciousness and, 82

social psychology, 254

antisocial personality disorder, 223

anxiety, chronic, extent of, 213

anxiety disorders, abnormal psychol-

ogy, 216–218

apathy, of bystander, social psychol-

ogy, 257

appeal to authority

logical thinking, 130–131

persuasion, 252–253

appeal to emotion, persuasion, 253

appeal to reason, persuasion, 253

apperception, Thematic Appercep-

tion Test (TAT), 206

approach-approach conflict, 115

approach-avoidance conflict, 116

a priori information, scientific

method, 18

archetypes, collective unconscious,

personality theory, 200–201

arguing in circles, logical thinking,

131

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Aristotle, 2, 109, 166, 193, 248

art of persuasion, social psychology,

252–254

Asimov, Isaac, 198

association neurons, function of, 33

attack on character, logical thinking,

131

attention, functionalism, 6

attention process, perception, 63

Attila the Hun, 193

attitudes

change of, persuasion, 252–254

social psychology, 251–252

attraction, interpersonal, social psy-

chology, 249–251

attribution theory, interpersonal

attraction, 250–251

auditory nerve, hearing, 50

authoritarian-permissive dimension,

parental style, 168

authority, appeal to

logical thinking, 130–131

persuasion, 252–253

autism, infantile, affectional drive, 95

autokinetic effect, social psychology,

255

automatic thoughts, cognitive ther-

apy, 239

autonomic nervous system, function

of, 34–35

autonomy

conscious individual, 204

need for, acquired motives, 96

social psychology, 254

autonomy versus shame, psychosocial

development, 161

avoidance-avoidance conflict, 115

axis, mental disorder classification,

215–216

axon, 30, 33

bad habits, behavior therapy, 237

balance, sensation, 53–54

balance theory, social psychology,

256

Bandura, Albert, 81, 82, 203

Bard, Philip, 111

Barrymore, John, 203–204

basilar membrane, hearing, 50

battle fatigue, group therapy, 240

Baumrind, Diane, 168

B-complex vitamins, organic mental

disorders, 224

Beck, Aaron, 239

behavior

abnormal, defined, 214–215

behaviorism, 7

biology and, 30–44 (See also

biology)

personality and, 192–193

psychology definition, 2

social psychology, 248

study of, 8–11

behavioral aspect, emotion, 110

behavioral component, social atti-

tude, 252

behavioral tendency, learning, 73

behavior control, psychology goals,

3–4

behaviorism, classical schools, 7

behavior modification, behavior

therapy, 238

behavior therapy, 237–238

bell-shaped curve, intelligence test-

ing, 144

belongingness, hierarchy of needs,

100

Berlin, Irving, 62

bestiality

sexual variance, 181

sodomy, 183

bias, survey method, 22

bile, humors, type-trait theories, 193

Binet, Alfred, 140

Binet-Simon Scale, 140–141

binocular vision, depth perception, 65

biogenetic disorder, schizophrenia,

225

biological drives

Freudian personality theory, 196

motive, 92–93

sexuality, 175

biologically based therapies,

described, 232–233

biological viewpoint

abnormal behavior, 225

behavior, 9

biology, 30–44

brain, 35–39

endocrine system, 39–41

nervous system, 34–35

neurons, 30–34

reproductive, developmental psy-

chology, 155–157

biometric method, intelligence test-

ing, 140

bipolar disorder, mood disorders, 221

bipolar trait, personality theory, 195

bitter taste, 51

black bile, humors, type-trait theo-

ries, 193

Bleuler, Eugen, 222

blood, humors, type-trait theories,

193

Broca’s area, function of, 38

brain

depth perception, 65

function of, 35–38

hemispheres of, 38–39

neurons in, 33

thalamic theory, emotion, 111

brain stem, function of, 36

Breuer, Josef, 8, 20, 219

brightness

structuralism, 5

vision, 49

bystander apathy, social psychology,

257

camphoric smell, 53

Cannon, Walter B., 92, 111

Cannon-Bard theory (thalamic the-

ory), emotion, 111

case study method, research methods,

Cattell, Raymond B., 195–196

cell assembly, perception, 62

central nervous system, function of,

cerebellum, function of, 36

cerebral cortex, function of, 37–38

change of stimulation, curiosity

drive, 94

character, attack on, logical thinking,

131

child psychology, defined, 154

chivalry, courtly love, 185

choleric personality, 193

chromosomal anomaly, reproductive

biology, 155

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chromosomes, reproductive biology,

155–157

chronic anxiety, extent of, 213

chronic hypoglycemia, described, 41

chronic worry, anxiety disorders, 217

chronological age, intelligence test-

ing, 143–144

Cicero, 114

clairvoyance, extrasensory percep-

tion, 67

classical conditioning, learning,

74–76

classical schools, 4–8

behaviorism, 7

functionalism, 5–6

Gestalt psychology, 6–7

psychoanalysis, 7–8

structuralism, 4–5

client-centered therapy, 235–237

clinical method, research methods,

20–21

clinical psychology, defined, 12

clinical syndromes, mental disorder

classification, 215–216

clitoris, sexual response cycle, 176

closure, perception, 60

cochlea, hearing, 50

cognition

consciousness, 46

emotion, 110

psychology definition, 3

cognitive appraisal theory, emotion,

111–112

cognitive-behavior therapy, 238–240

cognitive component, social attitude,

252

cognitive development, developmen-

tal psychology, 163–166

cognitive dissonance theory, social

psychology, 257–258

cognitive distortion

cognitive therapy, 239

psychotic disorders, 221–222

cognitive hypothesis, perception, 62

cognitive learning, perception, 62

cognitive needs, hierarchy of needs,

100

cognitive processes, behavior, psy-

chology definition, 2

cognitive therapy, 239–240

cognitive viewpoint, behavior, 10

cold, touch sensation, 52

collective unconscious, personality

theory, 200–201

color

structuralism, 5

vision, 47–49

common fate, perception, 60–61

compensation, Adlerian psychology,

201–202

concept, defined, 122

concept formation, thinking,

122–124

concrete operations stage, cognitive

development, 165

conditional love, parental style,

169–170

conditioned reflex

experimental psychology, 12

learning, 75

conditioned stimulus, learning, 74–75

conditioning

learning, 75–76

operant, learning, 77–81

cones, vision, 48

conflict

emotion, 114–117

incongruence, conscious individ-

ual, 205

personality formation, learning,

203–204

conformity, social psychology,

254–257

confusion versus identity, psycho-

social development, 162

congruence, client-centered therapy,

235

conjugal love, marriage, 185–186

conjunctive concept, thinking,

122–123

conscience, Freudian personality the-

ory, 197

conscious individual, personality,

204–205

consciousness

behaviorism, 7

learning and, 81–84

psychology definition, 3

steps in, 46

structuralism, 5

contempt, marriage instability, 187

control group, experimental method,

conventional level, moral develop-

ment, 167

convergent thinking

creative thinking, 132

intelligence, 138

conversion disorder, abnormal psy-

chology, 218–219

Coopersmith, Stanley, 168

Copernicus, Nicholas, 128–129

cornea, vision, 48

corpus callosum, brain hemispheres,

correlational method, research meth-

ods, 23–25

correlation coefficient

correlational method, 24

intelligence testing, 146

corticosteroid hormones, function

of, 40–41

counseling psychologist, defined,

countertransference, psychodynamic

therapy, 235

courtly love, intimacy, 185

creative thinking, 131–133

criticism, marriage instability, 187

cross-dressing, sexual variance,

183–184

culture, sociocultural viewpoint, 11

Curie, Marie, 193

curiosity drive, 93–94

cyclothymia, mood disorders, 221

data

psychology definition, 2

scientific method, 18, 19

decibel (dB), hearing, 50

deductive reasoning, logical thinking,

129

deep touch sensation, 52

defense mechanisms

compensation, Adlerian psychol-

ogy, 201–202

Freudian personality theory,

197–199

psychoanalysis, 8

unconscious motivation, 98

Index 265

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266 Index

defensiveness, marriage instability,

187

deficiency motivation, hierarchy of

needs, 101

delusion

perception, 63

psychotic disorders, 221–223

delusional disorder, psychotic disor-

ders, 222–223

dementia of the Alzheimer’s type,

organic mental disorders,

225

dementia praecox, psychotic disor-

ders, 222

democratic style, parental style, 170

demonology, abnormal behavior,

225

demoralization, idealization-frustra-

tion-demoralization (IFD)

syndrome, 186

dendrite, neurons, 30

denial of reality, ego defense mecha-

nisms, 197–198

deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), repro-

ductive biology, 156

dependent variable, experimental

method, 25

depersonalization disorder, dissocia-

tive disorders, 220

depolarization, neurons, 33

depression

biological viewpoint, 9

cognitive viewpoint, 10

extent of, 213

infantile, psychosocial develop-

ment, 161

melancholic personality, 193

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality

Inventory (MMPI), 207

mood disorders, 220–221

depth perception, 65–66

Descartes, René, 39, 121

description, psychology goals, 3

despair versus integrity, psychosocial

development, 162–163

developmental psychologist, defined,

developmental psychology, 153–173

defined, 154

Erikson’s theory, 160–163

Freudian theory, 157–160

Kohlberg’s theory, 166–168

parental style, 168–170

Piaget’s theory, 163–166

reproductive biology, 155–157

deviation, abnormal behavior, 214

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of

Mental Disorders (DSM-IV),

215–216

Dickens, Charles, 193

diffusion hypothesis, social psychol-

ogy, 256–257

discrimination, learning, 76

discrimination stimulus, operant con-

ditioning, 80

disjunctive concept, thinking, 123

disorganized type schizophrenia, psy-

chotic disorders, 222

dissociative disorders, 219–220

dissociative identity disorder (DID),

219–220

divergent thinking, creative thinking,

131–132

divorce, romantic love, 186

dominance, need for, acquired

motives, 97

dopamine

neurotransmitters, 32–33

schizophrenia, 225

double approach-avoidance conflict,

116–117

double bind, conflict, 115

Down’s syndrome, 9, 155

dream analysis, psychodynamic ther-

apy, 234

drive reduction theory, 93

drives. See biological drives; forces

drug therapy, described, 233,

241–243

dyspareunia, sexual dysfunction,

180

dysthymia, mood disorders, 220

ear

hearing, 50

semicircular canals, balance, 54

ear drum, hearing, 50

eclecticism, viewpoints, 11

ectoderm, reproductive biology, 156

ectomorph, personality theory, 194

Edison, Thomas Alva, 131–132

efferent nerves, function of, 33

ego

Freudian personality theory, 196,

197

psychoanalysis, 8

egocentrism, cognitive development,

165

ego defense mechanisms, Freudian

personality theory, 197–199.

Psychology: A Self Teaching Guide Psychology English

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