SCIO EDUCTOR BRAIN WAVE OPERATION MANUAL

SCIO-EDUCTOR_-_BRAIN_WAVE_OPERATION_MANUAL manual pdf -FilePursuit

User Manual: manual pdf -FilePursuit

Open the PDF directly: View PDF .
Page Count: 145

Download
Open PDF In Browser	View PDF

SCIO/Eductor - Brain Wave
operation manual
First developed in 1985 as the EPFX this Eductor technology is a biofeedback device that also
measures the galvanic skin resistance of the person’s forehead. This allows for a soft subtle
measurement of the electro-potential followed by a safe micro-current simulant to measure
the GSR resistance. This constitutes a cybernetic –loop for measuring and then handling the
body electric. When we first developed the EEG cybernetic loop treatment in 1996 there was
a revolution in medicine to be able to measure a brain wave and through a self-guided
autofocused process the system can correct oscillation, amplitude, and wave form problems
of the brain wave. Thus this allows for a drug free treatment of brain disorders. Over 35,000
devices sold with no record of any single significant risk. All safety risk analysis show complete
safety and in hundreds of studies this type of stimulus has been shown effective.

Understanding Brainwaves to
Expand our Consciousness
Bhavika July 22, 2013 Spirituality 19
The human brain is a complex entity constantly at work, sending electrical signals, communicating,
building new neural connections and so on. This electrical activity generated by the brain, also known as
brainwaves, reflect our state of mind. Reality is not based on outside influences but is an internal process
based on our thoughts, perception and emotions. If we deepen our understanding of these brainwave
frequencies, we can control our reality.

There are five different kinds of brainwaves – Beta, Alpha, Theta, Delta and Gamma

Humans have 5 different types of brainwave that take us to different levels of consciousness . Each occur at a specific
frequency or pattern

It is completely a natural biological occurrence in every human being to experience these different states
at various times in a day, and generally one state is dominant.
Did you know that each brainwave has its own set of characteristics representing a unique state of
consciousness? Each brainwave state occur in a specific frequency range measured in cycles per second
(Hz).
Each type of brainwave played a critical role in our mental development during our childhood. And today,
they play an important role in maintaining our health and vitality as adults. Lets take a look at the different
brain wave states and the associated benefits and experiences –

Beta (12 to 30 Hz)
Beta are the brainwaves of our normal waking consciousness. It is associated with a heightened state of
alertness, logical thinking, problem-solving ability, concentration, when the mind is actively engaged in
mental activities. Like a person in active conversation, playing sports or making a presentation would be
in a Beta state. But higher Beta levels also result into stress, anxiety and restlessness.
Most people spend their waking lives in a beta state, no wonder many people experience high stress
levels in today’s world. At the same time Beta is required for effective functioning in daily life.

Brainwave frequency chart showing the different frequencies and its state of mind

Alpha – (8 to 12 Hz)
Alpha brainwaves are slower in frequency as compared to Beta, which translates to a highly relaxed state
of awareness. It is a normal brainwave pattern in people who are naturally relaxed and creative. Like you
are daydreaming, or even when one close their eyes and meditate, this frequency enhances your
imagination, memory, concentration, creativity, reduces stress so you can focus on learning and
performance.
Meditation results in increase in alpha waves, therefore many meditation and energy healing techniques
utilize an alpha brain wave for relaxation and healing. Even the use of Cannabis has been linked to an
increase in alpha waves in the brain. Children tend to have much higher levels of alpha brainwaves than
adults.

Alpha brainwaves are considered the healthiest brainwave range and 10 Hz has widely been
accepted as the “safest” brainwave frequency to train.
Listen to the Alpha Brainwave Music Theta – (4 to 7 Hz)
Theta brainwave occur during deep relaxation and meditation, light sleep or lucid dreaming including the

REM dream state. It is the realm of your subconsciousness, where the mind is capable of profound
insight, advanced intuition, healing, and oneness – in Theta state our minds can connect to the universe
and manifest life-enhacing changes.
You can also experience vivid visualizations, great inspiration and profound creativity. The lower the brain
frequency the faster the learning. Meditation or yoga is credited as being so relaxing because they induce
the mind in a trance like state where it starts generating theta waves. People tend to have paranormal,
psychic experiences when their brain is full of theta brainwaves.
Most children and teenagers have dominant theta brainwave patterns.
Listen to some Theta Meditation music Delta – (0.5 to 4 Hz)
Delta waves are the slowest in frequency but are the highest in amplitude. Observed in deep, dreamless
sleep, this frequency is the gateway to the universal mind and the collective unconscious, where
information received is otherwise unavailable at the conscious level.
Delta brainwave states have long been associated with healing, because deep sleep is necessary for
regeneration and for your body’s self-healing mechanisms! Delta waves in meditation are said to help
experienced practitioners access the unconscious mind. It is a dominant brainwave of infants (birth to 24
months) and even adults in deep sleep.
Gamma (25 to 100 Hz)
The Gamma brainwave is the fastest frequency at which the brain functions, where an individual can
experience bursts of insight or high-level information processing. Experiments on Tibetan Buddhist monks
have shown a correlation between transcendental mental states and gamma waves. When the monks
were asked to generate feelings of compassion, their brain activity went into gamma frequency in a
rhythmic, coherent manner. It is the state of being ‘in the Zone,’ the feeling that you can do anything.
Altering Brainwave states
All of us experience these brainwave frequencies at different times every day, which take us to different
levels of consciousness. Like when you are awake you are in a different brainwave state as compared to
when you are sleeping. You can alter your brainwave pattern in order to reach a desired level of
consciousness. For example if you can’t get sleep at night when you feel stressed, you can synchronize
your brainwave into the frequency that corresponds to sleep using sound.
This technique of synchronizing your brainwave frequencies to an external audio stimuli is known
asBrainwave Entrainment. As this process is continued for sometime, the brainwave is tuned to the
frequency of external sound and thus achieve the particular frequency level of that sound (alpha, theta or
delta).
But you don’t need external stimulus if you can meditate. During meditation you reach a calm and relaxed
state, this is the alpha state of consciousness. As the meditation deepens you find yourself being more
calm and focused and the brainwave level reaches to theta (and finally to delta) state.

Binaural Beats are a brain wave entrainment audio stimulus that alter your state of consciousness

Ways of Brainwave Entrainment
Binaural Beats
How can a sound with frequency lower than 20 Hz range be audible to the human ear? The answer lies in
a specialized sound known as Binaural beats. What it did was simple – playing two different frequencies
in each ear, the brain detects the difference between the two frequencies and tunes into the third ‘binaural
beat.’
So if you play 400Hz into the right ear, and 410Hz into your left ear (using stereo headphones) your brain
produces a third binaural beat pulsing at 10 Hz, which is the difference between the two tones. 10 Hz is
also equal to the alpha frequency, which brings about light relaxation, meditation, and creative thinking.
Binaural Beats shall provide you some excellent results often instantly which will help you in many ways.
Binaural Beats (Use headphones while listening)

Theta is associated with extreme relaxation, sleep or drowsiness. Generally, one feels a sense of peace and calm when the
brain kicks into theta gear.

Isochronic tones

Isochronic tones are switched on and off via predictable patterns, creating a pulse effect that is extremely effective when
used for therapeutic reasons

Isochronic are even more intense than binaural beats and considered more effective. An isochronic tone
is a single tone that turns on and off in a particular pattern. Each of the tones are distinct and are evenly
spaced to be able to create a lasting impression on the brain.

Basically our brains have to do much less work to get the same effects as binaural beats – which allows
us to feel more relaxed, get in a more powerful and peaceful meditative state and visualize better. It is
recommended to use headphones. Many people who do not respond well to binaural beats often respond
very well to isochronic tones.
However, for a permanent life-changing spiritual focus, you need to use traditional meditation methods as
your primary tools to access higher dimensions. As you know meditation can also make structural
changesto the brain in powerful and positive ways and even the people around you!
Sources:
Theta Brain Waves
Brain wave Frequencies

What are Gamma Brain Waves? How
to produce more Gamma Waves with
Meditation

Source: Overview of the four basic brain waves

Introduction
The brain consists of millions and millions of neurons. These neurons communicated with each other
via electrical impulses. Depending on the task one is doing (active thinking, sleeping, dreaming,
meditating and so on) not all neurons need to send off these electrical impulses. While there are
many neurons sending electrical impulses to one another in a task like reading or calculating, less
neurons are active in sleep, for example. This makes sense, since our brain is barely active in the
sleeping phases. Some neurons still send off electrical impulses, but these are different in amplitude
and frequency to the electrical impulses that involve an active thinking task. When one measures
these impulses with a electroencephalogram (EEG) all these impulses result into a wave. These
waves originate in the brain and are called brain waves, logically.
Let us say, in non-active thinking tasks like sleeping, these brain waves are rather slow and of a low
amplitude. In an active thinking task, these brain waves are quite fast and in a higher amplitude.
There are many different brain waves. Gamma waves are one of them and it has to be said that they
are even rather special waves!

What are Gamma Waves?
Gamma waves are typically of a high frequency and amplitude. Gamma brain waves are one of the
fastest waves that reach all parts of the brain. Their frequency is normally 40 Hz and more. It has
already been observed that people can produce gamma waves that have an amplitude of 100 Hz!
These are called "Hypergamma brain waves" and are a subtype of gamma brain waves.
They occur when millions of neurons are active at the same time and "fire" these electrical impulses
simultaneously.
Normally, people do not produce these brain waves under normal circumstances. These brain waves
were mostly found in geniuses, for example, in a professor of physics. I like to call them "the genius
brain waves". They were also observed in meditators who were practicing the loving kindness
meditation. As it seems, gamma waves either occur in very intelligent people or in those people who
experience unconditional love. It has been observed that Buddhist monks who started to practice the
loving kindness meditation almost immeditately at will produced gamma brain waves.
So, in essence, gamma brain waves occur when there is an unusually high brain activity.
Increasing gamma waves with either binaural beats or specific meditations can lead to a number of
marvellous benefits. Afterwards, I will give you some advice on how to increase gamma waves and
what to do in order to experience them more often and spontaneously.

Source: http://charispang2013.files.wordpress.com/2013/02/...

Gamma Waves with crashing waves in the background
Virtual Coffee with Gamma waves
Benefits of Gamma Waves


Better Memory



Increased Focus on tasks



Better learning: Since the brain is so super-active, people are able to learn faster
(information is processed at a much higher rate!).



A high amount of gamma waves works like an anti-depressant.



Studies have shown that a gamma brain wave therapy was successful against ADD



Bliss: People have feelings of extreme bliss.



Compassion: People tend to have a profound compassion towards other people.



Enhanced Senses: It seems that the senses work better and reality is perceived more vividly.



Works like coffee for some people.

3 ways How to increase Gamma Waves
One way to increase gamma waves is to listen to binaural beats. I recommend you to have a glass
of water next to you after you finish your session. Sometimes, it happens that you feel a bit dizzy.
Other than in the lower binaural beats I recommend you to do something that involves active thinking
like reading or learning. Normally, one would silent his mind and focus on the binaural beats (like in
theta brainwave entrainmeint for example.), but in this case you should be doing something.

Another more natural way (in my opinion) is to meditate. Most meditations are good to increase
gamma wave activity, but THE best meditation for this is the loving kindness meditation. This
meditation will not be described in this article, since it would be far too long. If you are interested in
learning more about this special meditation, please read the full how to do the loving kindness
meditation article or see the links below.

The last way I can give you from personal experience is to "recognize" their occurrence. Sometimes,
especially when you start meditating or listening to binaural beats, you will have sudden feelings of
bliss (for example) in your everyday life. This can happen in school, while watching TV, in the gym or
anywhere else. Recognize these sudden occurrences and "hold on to them" and your brain will
automatically learn that you desire these states and that they are good. Consequently, it will happen
more often in the future, which will also have positively affect your behavior towards yourself and
other people.

How long does it take to experience states of bliss?
This was a question from a user.
There is no definite answer to it, since these phenomena are quite individual. There are many
factors that are important, such as meditation, food, physical activity and so on.
Long experienced meditators are very probable to experience these states of bliss during the
gamma brainwave entrainment and for the next few hours after they stop listening to gamma
binaural beats.

People, with no meditation background, do not experience these states of bliss right after the
session (but some do!). In my case, as an unexperienced meditator, it took me 2 days until I started
to experience these feelings of bliss. They occurred quite randomly. It is important that you listen on
a daily basis to gamma binaural beats.

Personal Experience
Some time ago, I started listening to gamma binaural beats. It happened that I felt a bit dizzy and
had the need to drink something. Normally, I felt better afterwards. Also, after a 15 minutes session
where I simply focused on the mere binaural beats I felt "overwhelmed". It feels as if my brain is not
yet ready to "embrace" the entirely or to tune in into these frequencies. This didn't happen with other
binaural beats (delta, theta etc.).
When I was reading a book (for example, Faust, Ulysses and other complicated books) I was able to
focus on the text very good and my reading speed even increased slightly, while listening to gamma
binaural beats.
Another phenomenon, I was able to observe on myself, was that I was able to stay awake the whole
night without any coffee or black tea or whatsoever! Moreover, I was more awake and more focused
on learning material than with caffeine in my blood (I still recommend you to go the bed than staying
awake all nights, though).
Ever since I started recognizing these sudden feelings of bliss it started to occur more often and as I
realized I am a happier person in general!
Really good to know, what gamma waves and some further tips can do to change your life to the
better!

Gamma brain waves
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Not to be confused with gamma rays.

Gamma waves

A gamma wave is a pattern of neural oscillation in humans with a frequency between 25 and 100 Hz,[1] though
40 Hz is typical.[2]
According to a popular theory, gamma waves may be implicated in creating the unity of conscious perception
(the binding problem).[3][4][5] However, there is no agreement on the theory; as a researcher suggests:
Whether or not gamma wave activity is related to subjective awareness is a very difficult question
which cannot be answered with certainty at the present time. [6]

History
Gamma waves were initially ignored before the development of digital electroencephalography as analog
electroencephalography is restricted to recording and measuring rhythms that are usually less than 25 Hz.
[1]

One of the earliest reports on them was in 1964 using recordings of the electrical activity of electrodes

implanted in the visual cortex of awake monkeys. [7]

Linked to unity of consciousness?
History of idea[
The idea that distinct regions in the brain were being stimulated simultaneously was suggested by the
finding in 1988[2] that two neurons oscillate synchronously (though they are not directly connected) when a
single external object stimulates their respective receptive fields. Subsequent experiments by many others
demonstrated this phenomenon in a wide range of visual cognition. In particular, Francis Crick and Christof
Koch in 1990[8] argued that there is a significant relation between the binding problem and the problem of
visual consciousness and, as a result, that synchronous 40 Hz oscillations may be causally implicated in
visual awareness as well as in visual binding. Later the same authors expressed scepticism over the idea
that 40 Hz oscillations are a sufficient condition for visual awareness. [9]
A lead article by Andreas K. Engel et al. in the journal Consciousness and Cognition (1999) that argues for
temporal synchrony as the basis for consciousness, defines the gamma wave hypothesis thus:

[10]

The hypothesis is that synchronization of neuronal discharges can serve for the integration of
distributed neurons into cell assemblies and that this process may underlie the selection of
perceptually and behaviorally relevant information.

Role in attentive focus
The suggested mechanism is that gamma waves relate to neural consciousness via the mechanism
for conscious attention:
The proposed answer lies in a wave that, originating in the thalamus, sweeps the brain from front to
back, 40 times per second, drawing different neuronal circuits into synch with the precept, and thereby
bringing the precept into the attentional foreground. If the thalamus is damaged even a little bit, this
wave stops, conscious awarenesses do not form, and the patient slips into profound coma. [4]
Thus the claim is that when all these neuronal clusters oscillate together during these transient
periods of synchronized firing, they help bring up memories and associations from the visual
precept to other notions. This brings a distributed matrix of cognitive processes together to
generate a coherent, concerted cognitive act, such as perception. This has led to theories that
gamma waves are associated with solving the binding problem.[3]
Gamma waves are observed as neural synchrony from visual cues in both conscious
and subliminal stimuli.[11] This research also sheds light on how neural synchrony may
explain stochastic resonance in the nervous system.[12] They are also implicated in REM sleep,
which involves visualizations, and also during anesthesia. [6]

Contemporary research
A 2009 study published in Nature successfully induced gamma waves in mice brains.
Researchers performed this study using optogenetics (the method of combining genetic
engineering with light to manipulate the activity of individual nerve cells). The protein
channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2), which sensitizes cells to light, was genetically engineered into these
mice, specifically to be expressed in a target-group of interneurons. These fast-spiking (FS)
interneurons, known for high electrical activity, were then activated with an optical fiber and laser
—the second step in optogenetics. In this way, the cell activity of these interneurons was
manipulated in the frequency range of 8–200 Hz. The study produced empirical evidence of
gamma wave induction in the approximate interval of 25–100 Hz. The gamma waves were most
apparent at a frequency of 40 Hz; this indicates that the gamma waves evoked by FS
manipulation are a resonating brain circuit property. This is the first study in which it has been
shown that a brain state can be induced through the activation of a specific group of cells. [13]

Relation to meditation
Experiments on Tibetan Buddhist monks have shown a correlation between transcendental
mental states and gamma waves.[14][15] A suggested explanation is based on the fact that the
gamma is intrinsically localized. Neuroscientist Sean O'Nuallain suggests that this very existence
of synchronized gamma indicates that something akin to a singularity - or, to be more prosaic, a
conscious experience - is occurring.[14] This work adduces experimental and simulated data to
show that what meditation masters have in common is the ability to put the brain into a state in
which it is maximally sensitive.
As hinted above, gamma waves have been observed in Tibetan Buddhist monks. A 2004 study
took eight long-term Tibetan Buddhist practitioners of meditation and, using electrodes, monitored
the patterns of electrical activity produced by their brains as they meditated. The researchers
compared the brain activity of the monks to a group of novice meditators (the study had these
subjects meditate an hour a day for one week prior to empirical observation). In a normal
meditative state, both groups were shown to have similar brain activity. However, when the
monks were told to generate an objective feeling of compassion during meditation, their brain
activity began to fire in a rhythmic, coherent manner, suggesting neuronal structures were firing in
harmony. This was observed at a frequency of 25–40 Hz, the rhythm of gamma waves. These
gamma-band oscillations in the monk’s brain signals were the largest seen in humans (apart from
those in states such as seizures). Conversely, these gamma-band oscillations were scant in
novice meditators. Though, a number of rhythmic signals did appear to strengthen in beginner
meditators with further experience in the exercise, implying that the aptitude for one to produce
gamma-band rhythm is trainable.[16]
Such evidence and research in gamma-band oscillations may explain the heightened sense of
consciousness, bliss, and intellectual acuity subsequent to meditation. Notably, meditation is
known to have a number of health benefits: stress reduction, mood elevation, and increased life
expectancy of the mind and its cognitive functions. The current Dalai Lama meditates for four
hours each morning, and he says that it is hard work. He elaborates that if neuroscience can
construct a way in which he can reap the psychological and biological rewards of meditation
without going through the practice each morning, he would be apt to adopt the innovation. [17] The
aforementioned study in which gamma states were induced in mice may be a step in this
direction.

Opposing evidence
Many neuroscientists are not convinced of the gamma wave argument. Arguments against it
range from the possibility of mismeasurement – it has been suggested that EEG-measured
gamma waves could be in many cases an artifact of electromyographic activity [18][19] – to relations
to other neural function, such as minute eye movements [20]
However, proponents like O'Nuallain and Andreas Engel argue that gamma evidence persists
even with careful signal separation.[14][21]
Moreover, recent studies using magnetoencephalography (MEG), which does not suffer the
potential artifacts associated with EEG, have identified gamma activity associated with sensory
processing, mainly in the visual cortex.[22][23][24][25]
Bearing this theory in mind, a number of questions remain unexplained regarding details of
exactly how the temporal synchrony results in a conscious awareness or how a new percept
"calls for"[4] the synchrony, etc.

See also
Brain waves[edit]


Delta wave – (0.1 – 3 Hz)



Theta wave – (4 – 7 Hz)



Alpha wave – (8 – 15 Hz)



Mu wave – (7.5 – 12.5 Hz)



SMR wave – (12.5 – 15.5 Hz)



Beta wave – (16 – 31 Hz)



Gamma wave – (32 – 100 Hz)

References
1. ^ :a b Hughes JR (July 2008). "Gamma, fast, and ultrafast waves of the brain: their
relationships with epilepsy and behavior". Epilepsy Behav 13 (1): 25–
31. doi:10.1016/j.yebeh.2008.01.011.PMID 18439878.

2. ^ :a b Ian Gold (1999). "Does 40-Hz oscillation play a role in visual
consciousness?". Consciousness and Cognition 8 (2): 186–
195.doi:10.1006/ccog.1999.0399. PMID 10448001.

3. ^ :a b Buzsaki, György (2006). "Cycle 9, The Gamma Buzz".Rhythms of the brain. Oxford.
4. ^ :a b c Robert Pollack, The Missing Moment, 1999
5. ^ W. Singer and C.M. Gray, Visual feature integration and the temporal correlation
hypothesis. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 18 (1995), pp. 555-586

6. ^ :a b Vanderwolf CH (Feb 2000). "Are neocortical gamma waves related to
consciousness?". Brain Res 855 (2): 217–24.doi:10.1016/S0006-8993(99)023513. PMID 10677593.

7. ^ Hughes JR. (1964). Responses from the visual cortex of unanesthetized monkeys. pp. 99–
153. In: Pfeiffer CC, Smythies JR, (Eds), International review of neurobiology vol. 7,
Academic Press, New York OCLC 43986646

8. ^ Crick, F., & Koch, C. (1990b). Towards a neurobiological theory of consciousness.
Seminars in the Neurosciences v.2, 263-275.

9. ^ Crick, F., Koch, C. (2003). "Framework for consciousness". Nature Neuroscience 6 (2).
10. ^ Andreas K. Engel, Pascal Fries, Peter Koenig, Michael Brecht, Wolf Singer (1999).
"Temporal Binding, Binocular Rivalry, and Consciousness". Consciousness and
Cognition 8 (2).

11. ^ Melloni L, Molina C, Pena M, Torres D, Singer W, Rodriguez E (Mar 2007).
"Synchronization of neural activity across cortical areas correlates with conscious
perception". J Neurosci 27 (11): 2858–65.doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.462306.2007. PMID 17360907.

12. ^ Ward LM, Doesburg SM, Kitajo K, MacLean SE, Roggeveen AB (Dec 2006). "Neural
synchrony in stochastic resonance, attention, and consciousness". Can J Exp Psychol 60 (4):
319–26.doi:10.1037/cjep2006029. PMID 17285879.

13. ^ 

14. ^ :a b c O'Nuallain, Sean. "Zero Power and Selflessness: What Meditation and Conscious
Perception Have in Common". Retrieved 2009-05-30. Journal: Cognitive Sciences 4(2).

15. ^ Kaufman, Marc (January 3, 2005). "Meditation Gives Brain a Charge, Study Finds". The
Washington Post. Retrieved May 3, 2010.

16. ^ Lutz A., Greischar L.L., Rawlings N.B., Ricard M., Davidson R.J. (2004). "Long-term
meditators self-induce high apmlitude gamma synchrony during mental
practice". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 101: 16369–16373.

17. ^ "Scientific American:Meditation On Demand".
18. ^ Whitham EM, Pope KJ, Fitzgibbon SP et al. (Aug 2007). "Scalp electrical recording during
paralysis: quantitative evidence that EEG frequencies above 20 Hz are contaminated by
EMG". Clin Neurophysiol 118 (8): 1877–
88. doi:10.1016/j.clinph.2007.04.027.PMID 17574912.

19. ^ Whitham EM, Lewis T, Pope KJ et al. (May 2008). "Thinking activates EMG in scalp
electrical recordings". Clin Neurophysiol119 (5): 1166–
75. doi:10.1016/j.clinph.2008.01.024.PMID 18329954.

20. ^ Yuval-Greenberg S, Tomer O, Keren AS, Nelken I, Deouell LY (May 2008). "Transient
induced gamma-band response in EEG as a manifestation of miniature
saccades". Neuron 58 (3): 429–41.doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2008.03.027. PMID 18466752.

21. ^ Dynamic predictions: Oscillations and synchrony in top-down processing, AK Engel, P
Fries, W Singer, Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 2001

22. ^ Adjamian P, Holliday IE, Barnes GR, Hillebrand A, Hadjipapas A, and Singh KD. (2004)
Induced stimulus-dependent Gamma oscillations in visual stress. European Journal of
Neuroscience; 20: 587–592.

23. ^ Hadjipapas A., Adjamian P, Swettenham J.B., Holliday I.E., Barnes G.R. (2007). "Stimuli of
varying spatial scale induce gamma activity with distinct temporal characteristics in human
visual cortex".Neuroimage 35 (2): 518–30.

24. ^ Muthukumaraswamy SD, Singh KD (2008). "Spatiotemporal frequency tuning of BOLD and
gamma band MEG responses compared in primary visual cortex". NeuroImage 40: 1552–
1560.

25. ^ Swettenham JB, Muthukumaraswamy SD, Singh KD (2009). "Spectral properties of
induced and evoked gamma oscillations in human early visual cortex to moving and
stationary stimuli". Journal of Neurophysiology 102: 1241–1253.

EDUCTOR/SCIO
ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAM
DETECTION + CORRECTION

The EEG is generated from the inhibitory and excitatory postsynaptic potentials of the
cortical nerves. These postsynaptic potentials come together in the cortex and extend
through the skull and scalp. Neuronal action potentials have much smaller and shorter
potentials (1 millsec). Postsynaptic potentials acting at 15 to over 200 millsec. The
rhythmical activity of the EEG is a function of the postsynaptic cortical neuronal potentials
which are synchronized by the complex interactions of vast quantities of cortical cells. The
cortical neurones interact with the subcortical pacemakers. Together there is a synchronicity
that results from this interaction. Subcortical structures can send synchronizing impulses to
cortical neurones and induce wide spread synchronous rhythm changes. The system must
filter EKG activity, external pulses, eye movements, and other artefacts.
The summation of electrical potential changes in the cortex is primarily at the vertically
oriented large pyramidal cells of the cortex. The polarization and depolarization of the cells
crates electro-potentials of 100 microvolts or more. The EEG is far too complex to judge
individual neuronal activity. But it can be useful in revealing inappropriate rhythms. The
Alpha and Mu waves help to impose a regularity on the overall functions. The recruiting
response originating in the medial and intralaminar thalamus. The augmenting response
from nuclei of the lateral thalamus helps to stabilize sensory information. Sleep, relaxation,
and thought patterns have been studied to give estimates of functions of the brain wave.
Reticular formation, midbrain, limbic system and other areas of the brain have effects on the
EEG.
The most exact EEG comes the multiple pole (12-24-or 36) electrodes. The QXCI uses an
eighth pole placed on the fore head. This is for convenience not accuracy. So the results of
the test are not for ultimate diagnosis. The system is at best 85% accurate and thus can be
used as a pretest before other testing. Factors can be analyzed such as wave form,
repetition, frequency, amplitude, distribution, phase relationships, timing, persistence, and of
reactance.
The major wave forms are then presented in percent on the left in a group box. The largest
should be beta in a normal waking patient. Alpha indicates relaxation, theta consciousness,
delta sleep. If you check an area (with the check box in front of the word) the computer will
help to correct any imbalance and attempt to increase the consciousness wave form in the
patient.
On the right side there is a grid of wave and frequency disorders that the computer can
detect. In so doing the computer here does not calculate in percent as in the wave form on
the left. As the computer generates numbers ranking the arbitrary amount of the wave type
it finds. Normal wave should be the highest, normally over 40. No other number should be
within 10 points of normal. If any are within 10 points of normal or if any are greater than the
normal score, then the computer has estimated that this area of disturbance is pathologic.
To treat any such dysfunction click in the check box in front of the name of the disorder.
Then the computer will attempt to treat this area of dysfunction with harmonic bioresonance.

EPILEPTIC
Ictal patterns, hyper-arrhythmia, slow spike, multifocal independent spikes, epileptic
spindles all are detectable. These can occur in infants sometimes without any risk. Past 8
yr. these patterns can be evidence of brain hormone deficiency, injury, or other blockage of
hormonal activity.

LOCAL SLOW WAVES
Local Slow waves are less than 8 hz and appear at only one electrode. Local Slow waves
come from a structural lesion, ischemia, epileptic tendencies, serotonin deficiencies, tumor,
hemorrhages, abscesses, migraines, hypertension, or other.

AMPLITUDE DISORDERS
Here the overall battery of the brain is weak. This can be because of mineral, dehydration,
amino acid deficiency, fatty acid deficiency, or hypo-oxygenation. This can occur in brain
death, stroke, Huntingdon’s chorea, brain toxicity, or metabolic disease. Anxiety or intense
fear can also produce such a pattern.

CEREBELLAR DISORDERS
Here there is a poly spike wave set at 4-6 hz with anterior maximum. This can be from
demyleination of the CEREBELLAR area. There may be accompanying dizziness and
inability to maintain balance. Treatment should include fatty acids and proper sarcodes.

GENERALASSYMETERY
Here there is a difference in the amplitude and or phase of the waves from the two sides of
the head. Thalamic cortical lesions can cause or lesions on one side. A skull defect can
cause this pattern. Suggest cranial sacral therapy or other cranial adjustment.

INJURY
Many traumas physical or emotional can produce certain wave forms. These forms are over
synchronous for a period then non synchronous for a period. There will occur an abnormal
alpha wave that prevents total relaxation. This indicates the need for the Injury homeopathic
or other therapy for trauma.

BILATERAL SYNCH
Here slow waves (7-8 hz) are found on both sides of the head with exactly the same
occurrence. The pattern can shift location and can be detected as trains of waves on a
background of lower amplitude. They can be created by hyperventilation, drowsiness,
hypo-glycaemia, having a disorder more in the grey matter than the white matter, structural
disorders in the mesencephalon, diencephalon, or the frontal lobe. Also treat toxins,
endocrine and metabolic disease.
.
.0

DEEP BRAIN ASSYMETERY
Many conditions can affect the deep parts of the brain. Limbic, thalamic, rhineencephalon
and other areas can produce certain wave deformities that will echo on each channel and
even effect the total trivector analysis. Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, Addison's, Wilson's other

metabolic diseases can produce this pattern. Toxins such as steroids, or drugs can also do
the same.

PERSONALITY DISORDERS
The personality engram has a signature reactive field. If there are two engrams appearing
this factor can appear. There are other wave forms which can be detected from the QXCI.
These factors will need to be treated with counselling and or NLP techniques.

There is extreme evidence and an ever growing stream of research
showing how we can use electrical readings to understand the body
and then use soft safe electrical stimulation to treat and correct
functions. And this is what we at SCIO / Eductor Technology have
been doing for over 30 years.

ELECTROCARDIOGRAPH
Three pole EKG is done extensively as a pre-screen of cardiac function. Although it not as
accurate as an 8 or 12 pole test there is still some factors that a 3 pole test can suppose. To
learn more about cardiology, we recommend the natural medicine book 'CARDIOLOGY of
NATURAL MEDICINE' by Dr. Nelson. There are disorders of rhythm sometimes caused by
mineral imbalance. There are disorders of conduction sometimes caused by excess fat lack
of exercise or diet. The QXCI can detect these irregularities of heart rhythm. They will be
displayed on the screen.

Eductor 3rd Party Billing functions
Do the SOC-INDEX and CALIBRATION

Then do Go to the EEG ECG graph

Hit Start, Wait till you get a good Pre-Test screen shot, hit Stop Exit

Do the TEST, Do all therapies and then the EEG ECG Panel

Access Post Test EEG ECG After all Eductor functions are over

Do the Post Test EEG ECG screen shot

Go to the Super-Bill Page for Insurance Billing

You insurance Bill patient record package should include the following
1. SOC Index review and suggestions
2. EEG ECG Pre and Post readings
3. Dr Referral and or prescription
4. Wellness QRB Contract
5. Super Bill with ICD # and CPT#
6. Comments

EEG biofeedback in the treatment of attention deficit/ hyperactivity disorder

Alternative Medicine Review , June, 2007 by Patrick N. Friel
Abstract
Electroencephalogram (EEG) biofeedback, also known as neurofeedback, is a promising
alternative treatment for patients with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (AD/HD). EEG
biofeedback therapy rewards scalp EEG frequencies that are associated with relaxed attention,
and suppresses frequencies associated with under- or over-arousal. In large-scale clinical trials,
the efficacy of EEG biofeedback for AD/HD is comparable to that of stimulant medications.
Many different EEG biofeedback protocols for AD/HD are available. Single-channel protocols
developed by Lubar and interhemispheric protocols developed by the Othmers are widely
practiced and supported by large-scale clinical studies. (Altern Med Rev 2007;12(2):146-151)
Most RecentHealth Care Articles


Gadget Lust: Optoma Pico PK101 Pocket Projector



More Good News at Aetna; Is it Embracing Its Own Transformation?



Cigna University Offers an Easy-A Courseload... For Cost-Shifting to Consumers



Healthcare Roundup: Express Scripts Extortion Redux, WellCare Bags...



More »

Introduction
Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (AD/ HD) affects approximately 3-5 percent of schoolage children in the United States, and a majority of children diagnosed with AD/HD are treated
with medications, primarily stimulants. (1) It is estimated that 10 percent of 10-year old boys in
the United States are currently being treated with prescription stimulants. (2) Concerns about the
cardiovascular toxicity of amphetamine and methylphenidate (2) cause many patients and their
families to seek alternative therapies. Well-established alternative therapies include dietary
modifications and the administration of supplements, including vitamins, minerals,
phytonutrients, amino acids, essential fatty acids, phospholipids, and probiotics. (3) Another
alternative to drug therapy for AD/HD is electroencephalogram (EEG) biofeedback, also known
as neurofeedback, which is supported by extensive peer-reviewed literature, including large-scale
controlled clinical trials. (1,4) The purpose of this review is to summarize the evidence
supporting the use of EEG biofeedback for treatment of AD/HD.
Background
The standard scalp EEG is recorded at 19 sites. Scalp EEG frequencies are broadly associated
with various mental states, as shown in Table 1. With modern computerized systems, experts can
map scalp EEG quantitatively by using spectral analysis. Quantitative electroencephalography
(QEEG) studies demonstrate deviations from normal patterns in many neuropsychiatric
conditions, including AD/HD. (5)
Clinical EEG biofeedback originated with the observation by Sterman that cats conditioned to
produce a specific EEG frequency (SMR; sensory-motor rhythm; 12-15 hz) exhibited an elevated
seizure threshold when exposed to the convulsant agent methylhydrazine. (6) Subsequent studies
by Sterman and others, conducted from the 1970s onward, demonstrated that approximately 80
percent of patients with medically intractable epilepsy experience a clinically significant (> 50%)
reduction in seizure frequency after a course of EEG biofeedback that rewards the SMR
frequency. (7)
Patients with AD/HD exhibit characteristic surface EEG disturbances. (4) Specifically, 85-90
percent of patients with AD/HD display signs of cortical "hypoarousal,' quantitatively described
as elevated relative theta power, reduced relative alpha and beta power, and elevated theta/alpha
and theta/beta power ratios (Table 1). These patterns are typically observed over frontal and
central midline brain regions. A smaller subgroup of AD/HD patients exhibits an EEG pattern

suggestive of "hyperarousal," with greater relative beta activity, decreased relative alpha activity,
and decreased theta/beta power ratios diffusely across multiple cortical recording sites. The
hyperaroused group tends to respond poorly to stimulant medications.
Lubar et al developed EEG biofeedback protocols to inhibit cortical slowing and reward higher
frequencies in hypoaroused patients, with the goal of normalizing EEG activity in regions
thought to be responsible for attention and behavioral control. (4)
Modern EEG biofeedback systems, sold by a number of manufacturers, consist of a set of EEG
sensors and a signal transducer/amplifier, connected to a computer or computers with software
capable of analyzing the EEG signals, performing various transformations, displaying relevant
signals to the patient, and providing rewards or inhibitions in the form of visual and/or audio
feedback. The client learns to enhance desirable EEG frequencies and suppress undesirable
frequencies at the selected scalp location(s) by being rewarded (e.g., by progress in a video
game) for increasing desirable frequencies and/or reducing undesirable frequencies. Scalp
electrode placements along the sensory-motor strip (C3 and C4) and temporal lobes (T3 and T4)
are widely used. A typical neurofeedback configuration involves the patient seated in a reclining
chair, watching one video display that provides video and audio feedback, while the therapist
monitors a second video display that provides detailed, real-time data on the patient's EEG
during the session.
A typical course of EEG biofeedback therapy involves at least 20 half-hour sessions,
administered over a 6- to 12-week period. Although rates of progress vary from patient to
patient, significant benefit is often observed within the first few weeks of therapy. Accreditation
for EEG biofeedback practitioners is available through the Biofeedback Certification Institute of
America.

The effects of stimulant
therapy, EEG biofeedback, and
parenting style on the primary
symptoms of attentiondeficit/hyperactivity disorder.
Monastra VJ, Monastra DM, George S.
FPI Attention Disorders Clinic, 2102 E. Main Street, Endicott, New York 13760, USA. poppidoc@aol.com

One hundred children, ages 6-19, who were diagnosed with attention-deficit/hyperactivity
disorder (ADHD), either inattentive or combined types, participated in a study examining
the effects of Ritalin, EEG biofeedback, and parenting style on the primary symptoms of
ADHD. All of the patients participated in a 1-year, multimodal, outpatient program that
included Ritalin, parent counseling, and academic support at school (either a 504 Plan or an
IEP). Fifty-one of the participants also received EEG biofeedback therapy. Posttreatment
assessments were conducted both with and without stimulant therapy. Significant
improvement was noted on the Test of Variables of Attention (TOVA; L. M. Greenberg,
1996) and the Attention Deficit Disorders Evaluation Scale (ADDES; S. B. McCarney, 1995)
when participants were tested while using Ritalin. However, only those who had received
EEG biofeedback sustained these gains when tested without Ritalin. The results of a
Quantitative Electroencephalographic Scanning Process (QEEG-Scan; V. J. Monastra et al.,
1999) revealed significant reduction in cortical slowing only in patients who had received
EEG biofeedback. Behavioral measures indicated that parenting style exerted a significant
moderating effect on the expression of behavioral symptoms at home but not at school.

EEG Biofeedback: A Generalized
Approach to Neuroregulation
Siegfried Othmer, Susan F. Othmer, and David A. Kaiser
Publication Date:
Epilepsy
Epilepsy is listed among the most difficult conditions to address with EEG training because of the variety with which epilepsy
manifests, because of the ongoing structural deficits which may underlie the condition, and also because historically it has been the
most intractable cases which have been referred for EEG training. This historical circumstance introduces a bias into how matters
are viewed, since in fact there are many types of seizure that respond quite readily to EEG training. Since training was done at the
sensorimotor strip, and was deemed to address the motor system specifically, Sterman argued initially that the training could be
expected to be beneficial only for seizures with a predominantly motor symptomatology. Subsequently, however, a controlled study
was successfully accomplished with primarily temporal lobe or complex-partial seizures (Lantz, 1988).
The Sterman protocol was replicated for seizures in a number of laboratories and by a number of groups (See References for Table
1.) The technique failed to be acknowledged at the time, however, because of confounding issues regarding anticipated changes in
the EEG (Quy, 1979). The cat EEG had manifested a countable increase in incidence of bursts of SMR rhythmic activity with
training. The human EEG does not exhibit such bursts except during Stage 2 sleep. And whereas there was in fact an increase in
sleep spindles with training in epileptic subjects, the various studies which were intended to replicate Sterman's findings did not yield
consistent EEG changes in the waking state (Kaplan, 1975). We now understand that this is not a contradiction. The human EEG
remains more desynchronized in the waking state than the cat EEG, and observable bursts would now be considered anomalous.
Some individuals did in fact show increased amplitudes of the EEG in the SMR subsequent to long-term reinforcement; others
tended toward normalization of their EEG characteristics, which in many instances meant an overall decrease in EEG amplitudes,
even within the training band. At the relevant time, however, during the 1970's and 1980's, the lack of consistent EEG changes
accompanying the training was thought to be fatal to the hypothesis that EEG training had taken place. The behavioral benefit of
EEG biofeedback training that had been replicated in all of the studies was therefore attributed instead to non-specific factors.
Subsequent developments (in our clinical setting) extended the seizure work to absence seizures as well. These generally require
higher-frequency training of 15-18Hz in addition to the SMR-training. It is important to make the distinction that in the use of EEG
training with seizures, no claim is made that the seizure focus is in any sense extinguished or annihilated. Rather, it is claimed that
by enhancing stability conditions in the surrounding healthy brain tissue, the irritable focus will no longer as readily lead to spreading
of paroxysmal activity and hence to focal or generalized seizures. The effect of enhancing stability can often be additive to the effect
of anti-convulsant medication. It may also lead to the reduction or even elimination of such medication.
More than half of seizures occur at night, and most of these are closely associated with sleep transitions, particularly with falling
asleep and waking. This association suggests an intimate connection of seizure susceptibility with stability of arousal. Similarly,
about half of all seizures are associated with identifiable events of brain trauma. This of course suggests a connection between the
seizure susceptibility with the specific organic loss suffered in the brain injury. However, an equally compelling case can be made
that the association is in fact with arousal disregulation here as well. As already indicated in our discussion of brain injury, the
predominant symptomatology associated with such injury relates not to the specific location of injury, but to generalized function, in
particular the management of arousal. Hence, a brain with an intrinsic seizure vulnerability could simply have been pushed over the
edge by a minor head injury.
The hypothesis that efficacy for epilepsy is traceable in large measure to improved regulation of arousal comes from an unusual
quarter. A Swedish study has demonstrated some 60% seizure reduction in children by behavioral methods alone (Dahl, 1992). The
strategies typically involve deliberate changes in arousal level when the subject anticipates a seizure. As it happens, the 60%
reduction is also the average seizure reduction obtained using the Sterman protocol in the various published studies. The nexus
with arousal dysfunction helps us to address the structuralist objection that the seizure focus should be impervious to such an
intervention as EEG biofeedback. (Whether articulated or not, it is this structuralist objection that has resulted in neurologists
dismissing this technique out of hand for thirty years.) It is in fact quite sufficient to argue that only healthy brain tissue is affected by
the training in order to explain the clinical findings.
Excerpt from "Applied Neurophysiology & Brain Biofeedback"

Edited by Rob Kall, Joe Kamiya, and Gary Schwartz

EEG Biofeedback for Addictive Disorders
—The State of the Art in 2004
Author: Trudeau, David1
Source: Journal of Adult Development, Volume 12, Numbers 2-3, August 2005 , pp. 139-146(8):
This paper reviews studies of brainwave biofeedback as a therapeutic technique for substance
use disorder. This modality is attractive as a medication free, neurophysiologic, and self
actualizing treatment for a substance based, brain impaired and self-defeating disorder. Three
approaches are described and the literature for each reviewed. Alpha–theta occipital feedback
was originally employed to facilitate autosuggestion in hypnagogic states to augment standard

therapy approaches in substance abuse treatment programs and appears most suited for chronic
treatment resistant alcoholics. Beta augmentation feedback in conjunction with alpha/theta
feedback has been employed in mixed substance abuse and stimulant abuse with good results.
Individualized brainwave biofeedback based on correcting EEG abnormalities, or based on
addressing comorbid conditions is a third approach that has been described, and may be most
appropriate where confounding comorbid conditions are present. Although effectiveness in
certain hard to treat populations (conventional treatment resistant alcoholics, crack cocaine
addicts, cognitively impaired substance abusers) is promising, better-designed controlled studies
are needed.
Keywords: addictions; EEG; neurotherapy; biofeedback; alcohol abuse; stimulant abuse
Document Type: Research article

A controlled study of the effectiveness of EEG biofeedback
training on children with attention deficit hyperactivity
disorder
Journal

Journal of Huazhong University of Science and
Technology -- Medical Sciences --

Publisher

Huazhong University of Science and Technology

ISSN

1672-0733 (Print) 1993-1352 (Online)

Issue

Volume 25, Number 3 / June, 2005

DOI

10.1007/BF02828171

Pages

368-370

Subject Collection

Medicine

SpringerLink Date

Tuesday, March 11, 2008

Add to
marked
items
Add to
shopping
cart
Add to
saved items
Permissions
& Reprints
Recommen
d this
article

PDF (280.6 KB) Free Preview

Xiong Zhonggui1

, Shi Shuhua2 and Xu Haiqing1

(1) Department of Child Health, Hubei Maternal and Child Hospital, 430070 Wuhan, China
(2) Department of Maternal and Child Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College,
Huazhong University of Science and Technology, 430030 Wuhan, China
Received: 17 February 2005

Summary In order to study the treatment of the children with attention deficit
hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), the integrated visual and auditory continuous
performance test (IVA-CPT) was clinically applied to evaluate the effectiveness of
electroencephalogram (EEG) biofeedback training. Of all the 60 children with
ADHD aged more than 6 years, the effective rate of EEG biofeedback training was
91.6% after 40 sessions of EEG biofeedback training. Before and after treatment
by EEG biofeedback training, the overall indexes of IVA were significantly
improved among predominately inattentive, hyperactive, and combined subtype
of children with ADHD (P<0.001). It was suggested that EEG biofeedback training
was an effective and vital treatment on children with ADHD.

Key words children - attention deficit hyperactivity disorder - EEG
biofeedback training - effectiveness
XIONG Zhonggui, male, born in 1965, Associate Professor

EEG biofeedback or Neurofeedback

Neurofeedback (NFB), also called neurotherapy, neurobiofeedback or EEG biofeedback
(EEGBF) is a therapy technique that presents the user with realtime feedback on brainwave
activity, as measured by sensors on the scalp, typically in the form of a video display, sound or
vibration. The aim is to provide real-time information to the Central Nervous System (CNS)
as to its current activity. The CNS has two parts, PNS and ANS. Those approaches also believe
that neurofeedback training can be understood as being based on a form of operant and/or
classical conditioning. In that frame of reference, when brain activity changes in the direction
desired by the trainer directing the training, a positive "reward" feedback is given to the
individual, and if the change is in the opposite direct from what was intended, then either
different feedback is given or the provision of otherwise attained "positive" feedback is inhibited
(or blocked). These ideas can be applied in various combinations depending on the protocol
decided upon by the trainer. Rewards/Reinforcements can be as simple as a change in pitch of a
tone or as complex as a certain type of movement of a character in a video game. This experience
could be called operant conditioning for internal states even though no research has yet
demonstrated that clear operant response curves occur under those scenarios.
Nonetheless, a number of different brainwave goals have been proposed by different researchers
in the field following on these general ideas. Usually, these goals are based upon extrapolations
from research describing abnormal EEG patterns or on results from a quantitative EEG (QEEG also known as brain mapping) upon the particular client being offered neurofeedback training. A
popular goal is the increase of activity in the 12–18 Hz band (mu rhythm/ sensorimotor rhythm
(SMR)) and a decrease in the 4–8 Hz and/or 22–28 Hz bands (theta and/or beta). The most
common and well-documented use of neurofeedback is in the treatment of attention deficit
hyperactivity disorder: multiple studies have shown neurofeedback to be useful in the treatment
of ADHD [1] (Butnik 2005) (Masterpasqual et al 2003). QEEG has been ambivalent with some
studies showing that some forms of ADHD can be characterized by an abundance of slow
brainwaves and a diminished quantity of fast wave activity (Butnik 2005); however, alternative
patterns have also been described making the overall picture inconclusive at this time. Some
approaches believe that neurofeedback training is best done when it seeks to teach individuals to
produce more normalized EEG patterns that optimize their functioning.[citation needed]
Some ADHD researchers are unconvinced by these studies, including the psychiatry professor
and author of several books on ADHD, Russell Barkley. Barkely opines that neurotherapy's
effectiveness in treating ADHD can be ascribed to either uncontrolled case studies or the placebo
effect [2]. In return, neurofeedback advocates note that Barkely has received research funds and
personal remuneration from drug giant Eli Lilly and Company and other drug companies [3] [4]
[5].
Other areas where neurofeedback has been researched include treatment of substance abuse,
anxiety, depression, epilepsy, OCD, learning disabilities, Bipolar Disorder, Conduct Disorder,
anger and rage, cognitive impairment, migraines, headaches, chronic pain, autism spectrum
disorders, sleep dysregulation, PTSD and MTBI.
Other approaches to understanding and providing neurofeedback training use non-linear
dynamical control processes and joint time-frequency analyses to characterize the ongoing
dynamics of EEG during the training process itself. These approaches understand the functioning

of the CNS in a more integrated or comprehensive fashion, including the structural ideas of the
Russian neuropsychologist Luria and neuropsychiatrist Karl Pribram.
Related technologies include hemoencephalography biofeedback (HEG).

History and application
In 1924, the German psychiatrist Hans Berger connected a couple of electrodes (small round
discs of metal) to a patient's scalp and detected a small current by using a ballistic galvanometer.
During the years 1929-1938 he published 14 reports about his studies of EEGs, and much of our
modern knowledge of the subject, especially in the middle frequencies, is due to his research
(Kaiser 2005).
Berger analyzed EEGs qualitatively, but in 1932 G. Dietsch applied Fourier analysis to seven
records of EEG and became the first researcher of what later is called QEEG (quantitative EEG).
(Kaiser 2005)
Later, Joe Kamiya popularized neurofeedback in the 1960s when an article[1] about the alpha
brain wave experiments he had been conducting was published in Psychology Today in 1968.
Kamiya’s experiment had two parts. In the first part, a subject was asked to keep his eyes closed
and when a tone sounded to say whether he thought he was in alpha. He was then told whether
he was correct or wrong. Initially the subject would get about fifty percent correct, but some
subjects would eventually develop the ability to distinguish between states and be correct a
highly significant percentage of the time. In the second part of the study, subjects were asked to
go into alpha when a bell rang once and not go into the state when the bell rang twice. Once
again some subjects were able to enter the state on command. Others, however, could not control
it at all. Nevertheless, the results were significant and very attractive. Alpha states were
connected with relaxation, and alpha training had the possibility to alleviate stress and stressrelated conditions. Neurofeedback appealed greatly to the social movements of the 1960s as
well, when altered states were a lifestyle. For example, in 1973 Elmer Green took a portable
psychophysiological lab to India to study Eastern holy men, all of whom possessed the incredible
ability to control their heart rate, blood flow, and other autonomic functions, all of whom
generated alpha waves continuously while doing so, according to Green’s EEG.[citation needed]
Despite these highly dramatic and compelling claims, the universal correlation of high alpha
density to a subjective experience of calm cannot be assumed. Visuomotor activity seems to be
of primary importance in alpha neurofeedback, and the ability to generate alpha with the eyes
open and the lights on could develop different skills and results than if the procedure were
carried out in total darkness or with the eyes closed.[citation needed] Alpha states do not seem to have
the universal stress-alleviating power indicated by early observations.[2] However, this is not
cause to reject the concept of biofeedback entirely. Many other biofeedback treatments have
emerged, since Kamiya’s alpha experiments.
At one point, Martin Orne and others challenged the claim that alpha biofeedback actually
involved the training of an individual to voluntarily regulate brainwave activity.[3] James Hardt
and Joe Kamiya, then at UC San Francisco's Langley Porter Neuropsychiatric Institute published

a paper, [4] proving the efficacy of EEG biofeedback training, and that it was not just related to
visuo/motor eyes open or closed factors.
In the late sixties and early seventies, Barbara Brown, one of the most effective popularizers of
Biofeedback, wrote several books on biofeedback, making the public much more aware of the
technology. The books included New Mind New Body, with a foreword from Hugh Downs, and
Stress and the Art of Biofeedback. Brown took a creative approach to neurofeedback, linking
brainwave self regulation to a switching relay which turned on an electric train.
The work of Barry Sterman, Joel F. Lubar and others has indicated a high efficacy for beta
training, involving the role of sensorimotor rhythmic EEG activity.[5] This training has been used
in the treatment of epilepsy [6][7], attention deficit disorder and hyperactive disorder,[8] and other
mood disorders[citation needed]. The sensorimotor rhythm (SMR) is rhythmic activity between 12 and
16 hertz that can be recorded from an area near the sensorimotor cortex. SMR is found in waking
states and is very similar if not identical to the sleep spindles that are recorded in the second
stage of sleep. Studies have shown that enhancement of sensorimotor activity through operant
conditioning designed to increase SMR is an anticonvulsant process and is therefore an effective
treatment for epilepsy. (citation needed)
For example Sterman has shown that both monkeys and cats who had undergone SMR training
had elevated thresholds for the convulsant chemical monomethylhydrazine. These studies
indicate that SMR is associated with an inhibitory process in the motor system and therefore
increasing SMR through operant conditioning increases the ability to control seizures.[7] Most
individuals treated with biofeedback in research studies have been sufferers of the most severe
epilepsy for whom anticonvulsant drug therapy has proven ineffective.[citation needed] However, even
among these most severe cases, beta and SMR training has been found to produce an average
70% reduction in seizures and to facilitate increased control of seizures in 82% of patients.[citation
needed]

Lubar addressed attention disorders using essentially the same protocol.[citation needed] His research
indicates that inhibition of motor function also inhibits input function, which is related to
attention. Lubar’s protocol, which has been adopted by most practitioners as the standard
protocol for treating patients with attention disorders, is to inhibit 2-10 Hz slow waves (alpha and
theta) as well as 19-22 Hz waves and encouraging activity in the 12-19 Hz range.[citation needed] This
procedure has been supported since alpha activity is known to decrease during cognitive
functions and to be inversely related to metabolism.[citation needed] Lubar’s hypothesis for what is
happening in an ADD brain is that there is a decreased metabolism and decreased blood flow to
the subcalossol cortex. Alpha is inhibited to counter these problems.[citation needed] Lubar has
published 10-year follow-ups on cases and found that in about 80% of patients biofeedback can
substantially improve the symptoms of ADD and ADHD, and these changes are maintained.[citation
needed]
Currently, treatment for attention disorders is the most common application of EEG
biofeedback.[citation needed] However, the treatment is also effective in the treatment of traumatic head
injuries and sleep disorders as well as epilepsy.[citation needed]
Neuroimaging studies have correlated ADHD with abnormal functioning in the anterior cingulate
cortex (ACC) during tasks involving selective attention. In 2006, Johanne Levesque and

colleagues at the University of Montreal published results from their fMRI study showing
normalization of ACC activation during a selective-attention task in ADHD subjects who had
undergone neurofeedback training (Levesque, 2006). Subjects in the study were randomly
assigned to either the neurofeedback treatment group or a no-treatment control group, and
subjects from the latter showed no difference in ACC activation compared to their baseline.
In 1974 the pioneer Canadian psychologist (holding Registration #1 as a registered
psychologist[citation needed]) D.A. Quirk heard a presentation by Sterman and discussed with him the
method. Quirk immediately conferred with his colleague, G.von Hilsheimer, Director of the
Green Valley Psychiatric Hospital in Orange City Florida([citation needed]). Quirk and von Hilsheimer
began applying EEG biofeedback, training the amplitude of 4-7 Hz (theta)down, whilst training
the amplitude of 13-14 Hz (sensori-motor) up over the Fissure of Roland (Ten-20 locations C-3
and C-4). From 1974 until his retirement in 1995 Quirk trained 2700 felons incarcerated at the
Ontario Correctional Institute near Toronto using temperature at the left ring finger, skin
conductance (palm to palm), and EEG detected at Ten-20 sites C-3 and C-4.[citation needed] The three
year recidivism rate for these felons was 15%, which compares well to the range of 40-70%
widely reported in the correction literature.[citation needed]
A significant bibliography on the efficacy of EEG biofeedback documented in refereed journals
is listed at isnr.org.
For years, EEG biofeedback was treated as a minor part of the field of biofeedback, particularly
by the primary biofeedback organization, AAPB. In 1993, three different efforts, somewhat
overlapping, dramatically increased the energy and influence of EEG biofeedback.
In February 1993, Rob Kall, president of Futurehealth, organized the first annual Winter Brain
Meeting, in Key West Florida. The meeting brought together many of the leading figures in the
field and it created a setting where the leaders could discuss and plan strategies for building
greater influence and organization to move the field forward.
In April 1993, Ken Tachiki, Jim Smith and Bob Grove organized a meeting of leaders in the field
of Neurofeedback on Catalina Island, immediately before the 1993 AAPB meeting. Further
planning took place at this meeting and the beginnings of SSNR occurred. SSNR= Society for
the Study of Neuronal Regulation. Since then, SSNR has evolved to become ISNR International
Society for Neuronal Regulation.
Immediately after the Catalina meeting, at the 1993 AAPB meeting, a new EEG section was
formed, after plenty of lively discussion. It quickly grew to become the biggest section of the
organization. Things were never the same at AAPB. Neurofeedback had become a mainstream
part of the field, though it took a few years to fully integrate into the annual meeting and
journals.
Within the last 5-10 years, neurofeedback has taken a new approach, in taking a second look at
deep states. Alpha-theta training has been used in the treatment of alcoholism (first reported by
Penniston in 1989[citation needed]) and other addictions as well as post-traumatic stress disorder, the
dysphoric disorders of women, musicians, and psychopathic offenders.[citation needed] This low

frequency training differs greatly from the high frequency beta and SMR training that has been
practiced for over thirty years and is reminiscent of the original alpha training of Elmer Green
and Joe Kamiya. Beta and SMR training can be considered a more directly physiological
approach, strengthening sensorimotor inhibition in the cortex and inhibiting alpha patterns,
which slow metabolism. Alpha-theta training, however, derives from the psychotherapeutic
model and involves accessing of painful or repressed memories through the alpha-theta state.
The alpha-theta state is a term that comes from the representation on the EEG. During this
therapy, when the alpha waves amplitude is crossed over by the rising amplitude of theta waves,
the state is called the alpha-theta crossover state and is associated with resolution of traumatic
memories.[citation needed]
The physiological mechanisms behind these therapies are very unclear. EEGs of alcoholics have
revealed an inability to produce the alpha waves generally associated with feelings of relaxation
and comfort.[citation needed] However, following the use of alcohol, theta and alpha waves increase.
[citation needed]
This can be expected considering the drowsiness and relaxation are common effects of
alcohol. Therefore, alcoholics may be self-medicating their abnormal level of low frequency
waves. Studies have demonstrated a high efficacy of alpha-theta therapy in treating alcoholism.
[citation needed]
Peniston and Kulkosky found that while alcoholics in a control group receiving
standard treatment showed significant increases in beta-endorphin levels as a result of stress
caused by abstinence from alcohol, alcoholics receiving the alpha-theta treatment did not. On
four-year follow-ups only 20% of the traditionally treated group of alcoholics remained sober,
compared with 80% of the experimental group who received neurofeedback training.[citation needed]

Low Energy Neurofeedback System (LENS)
The Low Energy Neurofeedback System (LENS) uses a device, under control of a computer
program, to produce electromagnetic fields and apply them as brain stimuli. The stimuli are
applied by EEG leads that serve as bi-directional conduits for both the stimuli and returning EEG
signals. Treatment sessions are very short, typically only a few minutes (treatments that are too
long or use incorrect settings can cause hyper-arousal, headache, irritability, nausea, etc). During
treatment sessions, the subject is completely passive; there is no auditory or visual feedback.
LENS treatment is preceded by a diagnostic Quantitative EEG (QEEG) brain map to identify
zones of the brain at which the various brain waves deviate from the norm. Both electrode
placement and system settings are determined by the condition being treated and the clinician's
interpretation of the brain map. System settings must be adjusted by the clinician over the course
of treatment to accommodate the effects of treatment. The number of treatments needed to
achieve improvements for ADD/ADHD, depression, PTSD, and seizures is claimed to be fewer
than for more traditional neural feedback methods.
At least two books detailing the concept and methodology of LENS are available commercially:
"The Healing Power of Neurofeedback: The Revolutionary LENS Technique for Restoring
Optimal Brain Function" by Stephen Larsen and Thom Hartmann (Paperback - May 2, 2006);
and "Lens: The Low Energy Neurofeedback System," by D. Corydon Hammond (Paperback Feb 13, 2007).

Neurofeedback in practice
A common professional neurofeedback therapy nowadays goes as follows:
1. In an intake of about 90 minutes the patient will get a questionnaire and a first EEG reading.
The questionnaire specifies the complaints and filters out people with serious psychological
problems. The EEG serves both for diagnosis and as a reference to check later whether there is
progress. In about 20% of the patients neurofeedback has no effect.
2. The EEG recording is typically done on a few points on the head. It results in a brainmap
("quantative EEG"). This is a series of maps (for each frequency one) where for each measured
spot the average level of activity is shown. The brainmap is compared to a database to determine
spots of over- and underactivity compared to the average people of the patient's age and sex.
There are several commercial providers of such databases.
3. On the basis of the complaints, the brainmap and the database results a therapy is chosen. This
involves an electrode on a single spot on the head that needs to become more or less active for
specific frequencies. During the therapy the patient gets feedback that helps them improve. This
feedback may involve for example a simple light or tone, some game where "good" brainwaves
are rewarded and "bad" ones punished or some image that becomes less sharp when the patient
loses focus.
4. A typical therapy takes 20 to 40 sessions. Some forms of psychotherapy are considerably
faster, so neurofeedback is not always the most efficient solution. At the beginning of each
session the patient reports the course of his complaints and also mentions other mental effects.
On the basis of this report the therapy may be adjusted. In some cases a patient is allowed to take
a feedback machine home and have most - but not all - sessions there.
See also: Psychophysiology, the study of the connections between neurobiology and
psychology.

EEG BIOFEEDBACK: A GENERALIZED
APPROACH TO NEUROREGULATION
Siegfried Othmer, Susan F. Othmer, and David A. Kaiser
Publication Date:
September 16, 2003
Epilepsy
Epilepsy is listed among the most difficult conditions to address with EEG training because of the variety
with which epilepsy manifests, because of the ongoing structural deficits which may underlie the
condition, and also because historically it has been the most intractable cases which have been referred
for EEG training. This historical circumstance introduces a bias into how matters are viewed, since in fact
there are many types of seizure that respond quite readily to EEG training. Since training was done at the
sensorimotor strip, and was deemed to address the motor system specifically, Sterman argued initially
that the training could be expected to be beneficial only for seizures with a predominantly motor
symptomatology. Subsequently, however, a controlled study was successfully accomplished with
primarily temporal lobe or complex-partial seizures (Lantz, 1988).
The Sterman protocol was replicated for seizures in a number of laboratories and by a number of groups
(See References for Table 1.) The technique failed to be acknowledged at the time, however, because of
confounding issues regarding anticipated changes in the EEG (Quy, 1979). The cat EEG had manifested a
countable increase in incidence of bursts of SMR rhythmic activity with training. The human EEG does
not exhibit such bursts except during Stage 2 sleep. And whereas there was in fact an increase in sleep
spindles with training in epileptic subjects, the various studies which were intended to replicate
Sterman's findings did not yield consistent EEG changes in the waking state (Kaplan, 1975). We now
understand that this is not a contradiction. The human EEG remains more desynchronized in the waking
state than the cat EEG, and observable bursts would now be considered anomalous. Some individuals
did in fact show increased amplitudes of the EEG in the SMR subsequent to long-term reinforcement;
others tended toward normalization of their EEG characteristics, which in many instances meant an
overall decrease in EEG amplitudes, even within the training band. At the relevant time, however, during
the 1970's and 1980's, the lack of consistent EEG changes accompanying the training was thought to be
fatal to the hypothesis that EEG training had taken place. The behavioral benefit of EEG biofeedback
training that had been replicated in all of the studies was therefore attributed instead to non-specific
factors.
Subsequent developments (in our clinical setting) extended the seizure work to absence seizures as well.
These generally require higher-frequency training of 15-18Hz in addition to the SMR-training. It is
important to make the distinction that in the use of EEG training with seizures, no claim is made that the

seizure focus is in any sense extinguished or annihilated. Rather, it is claimed that by enhancing stability
conditions in the surrounding healthy brain tissue, the irritable focus will no longer as readily lead to
spreading of paroxysmal activity and hence to focal or generalized seizures. The effect of enhancing
stability can often be additive to the effect of anti-convulsant medication. It may also lead to the
reduction or even elimination of such medication.
More than half of seizures occur at night, and most of these are closely associated with sleep transitions,
particularly with falling asleep and waking. This association suggests an intimate connection of seizure
susceptibility with stability of arousal. Similarly, about half of all seizures are associated with identifiable
events of brain trauma. This of course suggests a connection between the seizure susceptibility with the
specific organic loss suffered in the brain injury. However, an equally compelling case can be made that
the association is in fact with arousal disregulation here as well. As already indicated in our discussion of
brain injury, the predominant symptomatology associated with such injury relates not to the specific
location of injury, but to generalized function, in particular the management of arousal. Hence, a brain
with an intrinsic seizure vulnerability could simply have been pushed over the edge by a minor head
injury.
The hypothesis that efficacy for epilepsy is traceable in large measure to improved regulation of arousal
comes from an unusual quarter. A Swedish study has demonstrated some 60% seizure reduction in
children by behavioral methods alone (Dahl, 1992). The strategies typically involve deliberate changes in
arousal level when the subject anticipates a seizure. As it happens, the 60% reduction is also the average
seizure reduction obtained using the Sterman protocol in the various published studies. The nexus with
arousal dysfunction helps us to address the structuralist objection that the seizure focus should be
impervious to such an intervention as EEG biofeedback. (Whether articulated or not, it is this
structuralist objection that has resulted in neurologists dismissing this technique out of hand for thirty
years.) It is in fact quite sufficient to argue that only healthy brain tissue is affected by the training in
order to explain the clinical findings.
Excerpt from "Applied Neurophysiology & Brain Biofeedback"

Brain Wave Measurement
and Frequencies of Healers
The fact that the brain emits measurable frequencies has been known since the
beginning of the last century. In the 1960s, it was discovered that a person could
exert some control over these frequencies and the term “biofeedback” was coined to
describe this process. With the advent of increased computing power and a deeper
understanding of the brain, the research focus is now on “neurofeedback.” The year
2010 saw the first hard evidence of neuroplastic changes occurring directly in the
brain after voluntary control of brain rhythms. (T. Ros et al., Endogenous control of
waking brain rhythms induces neuroplasticity in humans)

The range of brain frequencies has been divided up and named as follows:

 Delta (0 to 4 Hz) – deep nighttime sleep
 Theta (4 to 7 Hz) – dreams at night and trance state of somnambulism
 Alpha (8 to 12 Hz) – background brain activity in the waking state. (Named
alpha because it was the first one discovered by Hans Berger in 1908.)
 Beta (12 to 30 Hz) – awake, alert, focused
 Gamma (30 to 100 Hz) – certain cognitive or motor functions

The diagrams below are a 3D representation of brain wave patterns recorded using
an IBVA recorder. Across the width of the diagram is the frequency from delta on the
left to gamma on the right. Time is recorded in the length of the strip – each diagram

being about a five-minute segment of time. Amplitude is shown in the height in
microvolts.

The first diagram is that of a client in a non-focused state and shows a random
distribution across the ranges. The second diagram shows the coherence and
specificity in Jack’s brain as he works with the Reconnective Healing® energy
frequencies. The left and right hemispheres of the brain appear in separate windows.
The left window represents the left hemisphere of the person. Recordings made in
September 2010.

Note: These EEG (Electroencephalography) experiments were done by JeanCharles Chabot, a hypnotherapist specialized in Life Between Lives spiritual
hypnosis, who uses the IBVA recorder in his practice. (www.life-between-lives.ca).
Note: Jean­Charles and I carried out these experiments without knowing whether such
an experiment had been done before. On October 29, 2012, reading Ervin
Laszlo's Science and the Akashic Field, (p. 152­153) I discovered a description of a
similar experiment showing the same result and giving a bit more information about
the condition. Laszlo's book was first published in 2004, a new edition appeared in
2007 both from Inner Traditions in Vermont.
"An experiment carried out in the presence of this writer took place in southern
Germany in the spring of 2001. At a seminar attended by about a hundred people, Dr.
Günter Haffelder, head of the Institute for Communication and Brain Research of
Stuttgart, measured the EEG patterns of Dr. Maria Sági, a trained psychologist and
gifted natural healer, together with that of a young man who volunteered from among
the participants. The young man remained in the seminar hall while the healer was
taken to a separate room. Both the healer and the young man were wired with
electrodes, and their EEG patterns were projected on a large screen in the hall. The

healer diagnosed the health problems of the subject, while he sat with closed eyes in a
light meditative state. When the healer found the subject's areas of organic
dysfunction, she sent information designed to compensate for it. During the
approximately fifteen minutes that the healer was concentrating on her task, her EEG
waves dipped into the deep Delta region (between 0 and 3 Hz per second), with a few
sudden eruptions of wave amplitude. This was surprising in itself, because when
someone's brain waves descend into the Delta region, he or she is usually in a state of
deep sleep. But the healer was fully awake, in a state of intense concentration. Even
more surprising was that the test subject exhibited the same Dela­wave pattern­­it
showed up in his EEG display about two seconds after it appeared in the EEG of the
healer. Yet they had no sensory contact with each other."

Alpha Brain Waves: Definition,
Functions, & Benefits
Article by Brain Waves Jr.
What are Alpha Brain Waves?
Alpha Brain Waves are a sign of relaxed activity in your brain. Alpha brainwaves are defined as brain
waves that cycle between the frequency 8 Hz – 12 Hz. They are commonly produced in synchronized
fashion connecting both hemispheres of your brain, though they can be found solely in the right
hemisphere as well. Alpha brainwaves are the dominant brain wave activity when your body and mind
are able to relax. If you have ever practiced meditation, yoga, or even felt relaxed after drinking
alcohol – you have experienced alpha brain waves.
Alpha brain wave activity is common among highly creative individuals who have a clear mind or are
experiencing relaxation. If you close your eyes for a minute or so, your alpha brain wave activity will
significantly increase. As you open your eyes, the more stressful beta brain waves become the
dominant pattern. In comparison, as a child you will have had significantly greater amounts of alpha
brain wave activity than you will as an adult. Alpha brain waves have long been considered to be
regarded as the healthiest brain wave range, but also the “safest” brain wave range to entrain –
especially at 10 Hz (e.g. 10 cycles per second).
As an early teen or child, you likely had a dominant alpha brainwave pattern. Should you choose to
experience a dominant alpha brain wave again, I recommend checking the products section. Most of
the products recommended will do a nice job at increasing your alpha brain wave activity. I want to
make it clear that there isn’t a single brain wave state that is “better” than the others to be in – each
have their advantages and disadvantages. However, most people are lacking in at least one brain
wave pattern. For the majority of individuals, alpha brain waves happen to be the lacking frequency
range. Things like environmental stressors, fear, anxiety, tension, and overworking tend to deplete
your alpha wave activity. Below, I will outline several benefits of alpha brain waves and also discuss
ways in which you can naturally increase your alpha activity.

Benefits of Alpha Brain Waves:



Relaxing Thoughts / Relaxed Body – The alpha brainwave is produced when your body
calms down and your mind is completely relaxed. Your brain’s thinking is slower, your mind is
clear and you may even feel slightly drowsy. Your body has zero stress, tension, anxiety, or
other feelings of being nervous. Increasing your alpha brain wave activity is a profound way
to reduce your stress.



Access Creative States – If you consider yourself to have above-average creativity, chances
are that you often experience an alpha brain wave state. Artists, innovative thinkers, and
singers are generally found to have higher alpha activity than the average person. If you feel
that your creativity is lacking, an increase in your alpha waves will feel great.



Enhanced Problem Solving - Most people cannot seem to tap their alpha waves to help
them problem solve. Alpha waves integrate both hemispheres of your brain for better
communication and clearer thinking. The problem with lacking alpha waves is that your lefthemisphere is pulling all the weight in solving a problem, when your right-hemisphere has a
solution waiting to communicate to the left. Increasing your alpha brain waves can benefit
artists, writers (for writers block), and creative thinkers. You certainly won’t feel mentally
“stuck” in the alpha state. In order to tap your inner creativity, your brain must be able to
produce synchronous bursts of alpha waves.



Calming, Centered Emotions – Alpha brain waves will put you in a calm emotional state.
You will not feel powerful emotions, however, you will feel “content” and centered. If you are
stressed out or nerved up, you likely haven’t had access to the alpha brain waves in a long
time. Getting back in an alpha state will stabilize your intense emotions and you will feel good
about yourself.



Optimal Athletic Performance – Interestingly enough, if you are an athlete, you could
significantly improve your performance by entraining some alpha brain waves. There is
published evidence showing that just before a golfer hits their best shot or a basketball player
sinks a shot (think LeBron and Kobe), alpha activity bursts in the left-hemisphere of their
brain. Elite marksmen also have shown a significant burst of alpha wave activity before
perfect shots. Also unique is the fact that the EEG’s (brain wave measurement) of proathletes are very likely to display the alpha rhythm, whereas newbie athletes and even decent
athletes do not demonstrate any alpha activity. The best brain wave to entrain for peak
performance has been widely considered to be 10 Hz (i.e. 10 cycles per second). I encourage
athletes to give some alpha entrainment a shot and see if it puts you “in the zone.”



Reductions of Fear, Tension, Stress, Nervousness, Anxiety – Increasing your alpha brain
waves automatically leads to decreasing your fears, tension, stress, nerves, and anxiety. If
you have ever gotten so caught up in a stressful or fearful state, that you literally “forgot how
to relax,” then having the ability to increase your alpha brain waves would feel like you’ve
been given a miracle drug.



Everything Seems to “Flow” – Being able to access “flow” means that you are able to tap a
state of mind where all of life’s events seem to pass quickly and all challenges are easily and
quickly overcome. “Flow” is a period of time when you do not have any resistance or
problems. You are in a mental state with optimal brain wave stimulation – you are not
thinking too rapidly as to stress yourself out, yet you are also not thinking too slow as to be
tired; you are right in the middle between the two. You feel “balanced” and understand that
you are in a desirable state of mental functioning.



Ability to Tap “Super Learning” – The ability to learn quickly and effortlessly has been
described as the phenomena of “super learning.” Basically, your brain is able to remember

and recall information with less effort than normal. Alpha waves will allow your brain to retain
large quantities of information. This is due to the fact that both hemispheres of your brain are
integrated and communicating with each other.



Improved Immune System Functioning – Your alpha waves are responsible for amping up
your immune system. They have been linked to health, recovery from sickness, and serve as
protection from stress-related illnesses. Stress can quickly ramp up damage on your immune
system if you go long periods without taking some time to relax; thus increasing alpha
activity.



Think Positive – Research indicates that due to the calm, wellbeing as a result of increasing
alpha brain wave activity, positive thinking and positive emotions also result. I can personally
testify for this one – after having gotten caught up in stress for a prolonged period – my
thinking became increasingly positive after a few sessions of alpha entrainment; likely
resulting from increased mental peace and calmness.



Alpha Brain Waves = Nautral Antidepressant – Alpha brain waves allow for increased
release of an important neurotransmitter called “Serotonin.” Serotonin production usually
drops to lower than normal levels in your brain when you feel depressed. In fact, most
antidepressants nowdays aim to increase low levels of serotonin in the brain (do a search for
“SSRI’s” to find out more). For these reasons, it makes sense that alpha brain waves may
help ward off your blues.



Internal Awareness – Alpha brainwaves are associated with an increased awareness of your
self: body and mind. Where as beta brainwaves cause the mind to focus more on external
events, the alpha brainwaves enhance the overall awareness of one’s self.

People with Higher than Average Amounts of Alpha Brain Waves



Outgoing People, Extroverts – Generally, if you are more outgoing and consider yourself
extroverted, you have more alpha brain waves than introverts. The consensus seems to be
that if you have plenty of alpha activity, you are more than 3X as likely to be outgoing. It
makes perfect sense – introverts are less comfortable during social interaction – whereas
being social comes natural for extroverts.



People who Meditate – If you practice meditation, then you have definitely accessed the
alpha brain wave state. Each time as you close your eyes to meditate, you experience a surge
of alpha brain wave activity. If you want to naturally increase your alpha activity, try
meditation.



As a Child – As a child, you tend to experience much greater activity in the alpha range. As
you age, your brain shifts away from alpha to another range (commonly the beta range). It is
important to recognize that even though you are not still a child, you can still have access to
alpha waves. The majority of the adult population would benefit from increasing their alpha
brain waves.

What Are Beta Brain Waves?
Beta Brain Waves are considered to be among the fastest brainwave frequencies and are
documented as brain waves within the frequency range of 12 Hz – 38 Hz (or 12 to 38 cycles per
second). They are typically produced by the left hemisphere of your brain, but can be synchronized.
Each time you solve a tough math problem, logic puzzle, or read a book, your Beta Brain Waves kick
in.

People who think logically tend to have a lot of Beta Brainwave activity. Adults tend to have more
Beta Brainwaves than children and teens – and Beta Brain Waves have been known to increase as you
get older. In the majority of healthy adults, Beta Waves seem to be the dominant rhythm. Beta
Waves have also been associated with an increased ability to focus on our external reality. When we
experience too many Beta Brain Waves, there can be problems like stress and anxiety. However, when
produced in normal amounts, there are definitely many benefits to be had from experiencing Beta
Brain Waves.
How Can You Experience Beta Brain Waves?
If you want to experience logical thinking, the ability to think more critically, and cultivate the ability
to be quick-witted, then you may want to experience Beta Brain Waves. People who have increased
their Beta Waves have been known to increase their I.Q. and productivity. Beta Brain Waves have also
been associated as being a natural antidepressant (similar to Gamma Brain Waves). People have
recorded that they were able to experience more motivation after increasing their Beta Brainwaves.
Tapping the highly energetic mental state of Beta is very possible now that there is such solid,
scientifically supported brainwave technology. Cultivating brainwave flexibility by learning how to
access other brainwave states of awareness like Beta is a valuable skill. There are many benefits and
new experiences that can be had by experiencing an altered state of consciousness. If you’d like to
experience Beta Brain Waves, I suggest that you check out some brainwave products – many of
which you can test out for free before you buy. Read below for more benefits that result from Beta
Brainwave Entrainment.
Benefits Of Beta Brain Waves
If you are able to access your Beta Brainwave state, you will know and understand exactly what it
feels like. When you are in a Beta State, you are far from relaxed. You may have a lot of energy in
the form of nervousness, excitement, or anxiety. When you are in a Beta Brainwaves state, you are
able to think rapidly and quickly come up with logical solutions to problems. The Beta Waves state is
ideal for solving math problems, conducting research, reading books, and writing articles. Each time a
student takes a test, they experience a large surge in their Beta Brainwave activity.
Another side-effect from having lots of Beta Wave activity is being more socially outgoing. Talk-show
hosts, lawyers, radio announcers, and people involved in debates tend to experience significant
increases in their Beta Brainwave activity each time they begin talking. Beta Waves increase your
ability to hold an interesting and stimulating conversation with others. You also have feelings of
excitement and energy while talking to someone else.
Due to the fact that excitement and nervous energy accompany the Beta Range, many people
experience leaps in their motivation to take action. If you’ve ever read about someone being able to
perform an amazing feat out of fear (i.e. out of adrenaline), then you understand that these Beta
Waves can be highly motivating and action-oriented. If you’ve ever run away from someone because
you were scared – your Beta Brain Waves kicked in at their highest levels.
It is natural that people become more goal oriented when their Beta Waves dominate their mental
activity. Though they may be using this fear or excitement type energy, it does produce results. You
can get a heck of a lot better performance out of someone who is performing as if their life depended
on it – versus someone who is calm and not very concerned with how they end up performing. It is
because of this increase in energy from the Beta State that sometimes peak performance is associated
with the higher-range Beta frequencies

What Are Delta Brain Waves?
Delta Brain Waves are the brain’s slowest frequency range cycling at a rate of 1-4 times per second
(e.g. 1 Hz – 4 Hz). Delta Brain Waves become active in your brain when you are in the deeper stages
of sleep (e.g. stage 3 and stage 4). They are associated with being completely unconscious (i.e. you
usually won’t know or remember anything while Delta Waves are dominant). Delta Brain Waves have
been known to oscillate throughout all parts of the brain and are not usually synchronized. Of all
brainwave ranges, the Delta Waves have the greatest amplitude and are responsible for the slowest
form of mental processing.
Having access to the Delta Brainwave state not only implies that we are in a deep stage of sleep
though. In some cases, people can learn to increase their delta activity. People with high amounts of
Delta Waves have been found to have increased empathy (or understanding of others’ emotions).
Other interesting effects have been documented as a side-effect of having Delta Brainwaves.
Delta Brain Waves Benefits
Delta Brain Waves have been proven to have a number of beneficial side-effects. When Delta Brain
Waves increase, so does your natural ability to: Release Anti-Aging hormones, tap an increased
amount of empathy (understanding how others feel), heal the mind and repair your muscles, and
access the deepest possible states of relaxation. Other side-effects as a result of Delta Brain Waves
include: the release of natural growth hormone, the release of melatonin, connecting with your
intuition and accessing deep states of spirituality.
Another great thing about Delta Brain Waves is that they have been known to reduce levels of cortisol
in your body. Cortisol is a hormone released when you are under stress that basically kills off brain
cells and can cause damage to parts of your body. Cortisol has been linked to quicker aging, while
having less cortisol has been known to be associated with anti-aging. For some individuals with high
amounts of stress, Delta Brain Waves may also work great at reducing adrenaline levels.
The great thing about Delta brainwaves is that they are able to connect you with deeper parts of your
unconscious mind. Even though you must travel down through Alpha Brain Waves and Theta Brain
Waves before you can reach Delta, many people are able to greatly appreciate a Delta Brainwaves
experience. If you spend too much time caught up in the higher ranges of brain waves, then chances
are you may be able to benefit from Delta Waves, especially if you increase them right before you go
to bed. Since Delta Brainwaves are associated with sleep, listening to a brainwave entrainment
session in the Delta frequency range of 1 Hz to 4 Hz will do a nice job at helping you fall asleep.
Advanced monk meditators have also been known to access the Delta Brain Waves range when they
practice meditation. The average, less experienced meditator usually is only able to acess the Alpha
or Theta Brainwaves range. However, if you practice long enough and get proper training, you too will
be able to tap into your Delta awareness. Having a brainwave pattern that is dominated by Delta
Brainwaves is impossible if the person is awake. Many people have also reported having spiritual
experiences and sometimes O.O.B.E. (Out-Of-Body-Experiences) while having Delta Brainwave
activity. These paranormal experiences are more common if a person has access to slower levels of
their Brain Waves.
People With Delta Brain Waves
Typically, Delta Brain Waves are most commonly documented in E.E.G. brain activity while a person is
asleep. However, other individuals like: babies, very young children, monks/advanced meditators,

people who have had Near-Death-Experiences, people suffering from brain damage, and people with
brain damage have also been known to have higher than average amounts of Delta Brain Waves.
If you saw a boxer get K.O.’d (Knocked-Out), he would have been experiencing Delta Brain Waves. If
you have ever been put to sleep with anesthesia, you were knocked into your Delta Brain Waves
state. Other individuals who lack focus and suffer from attention-deficit can also have high amounts
of Delta Brain Waves – even though having Theta Waves is more common

What Are Theta Brain Waves?
Theta Brain Waves are the second slowest frequency of brain waves. They typically cycle at a rate
of 4-7 times per second (4 Hz – 7 Hz). Theta Brain Waves have long been associated with early
stages of sleep and the process of dreaming. Theta Brain Waves are of high amplitude and usually
kick in when you experience powerful surges of emotion. Theta Waves have been associated with
states of enhanced creativity, “Super Learning,” deeper relaxation, day-dreaming, and sleep-dream
activity.
Theta Brain Waves can kick in when you have a spiritual experience or while you are in a highlycreative state. On other occasions, Theta Waves may dominate our brain wave activity when we are
not able to concentrate. People with attention-deficit problems (ADD and ADHD) are not able to shift
out of the Theta State when events that require focus (i.e. Taking a test) arise. This makes school
work much harder for people with attention problems. However, the majority of healthy people are
able to naturally shift their brainwave state from Beta to Alpha to Theta and back from Theta to Alpha
to Beta in cases where extreme mental focus is required.
Benefits Of Theta Brain Waves
If you are able to recall how relaxed and carefree you were as a child, then you are able to remember
what it felt like to access your Theta Brain Waves. Children tend to have significantly higher amounts
of Theta Waves than do adults – which is why children are not generally as stressed out as their
parents. Children are able to say what’s on their mind and not be fearful of trying something new;
this is the Theta Brainwave State.
Accessing your Theta Brain Waves means having a deeper emotional connection with yourself.
Generally, people have much stronger emotions – whether they be happy or sad – while in the Theta
Range. If you have been too caught up in the Beta State for an extended period of time – chances are
good that you forgot what your natural emotions feel like. Some Theta Brainwave Entrainment will get
you more closely connected with your inner self and back to experiencing natural emotions – not
artificially or stress-induced ones.
Not to mention, Theta Waves have been linked to having a strong intuition. Have you ever gotten a
strong “gut-feeling” about something and your gut turned out to be right? Well, it has been proven
that Theta Brainwaves are accessed when you have an instinctual-type “feeling” in the pit of your
stomach. Much of the time, our gut-instinct turns out to be right – even when our logical Beta
Brainwaves want to take over. Other benefits from having more Theta brainwave activity include: A
connection to your subconscious mind or subconscious processing, advanced problem solving, and
learning ability.

Each and every day, you receive subconscious programming from your environment that you may not
be aware of. This information and processing cycles into your brain and has actually been found to
have an influence on behavior. You can benefit from tapping your Theta Waves to connect with your
sub-conscious because it will allow you to reprogram your brain with ideas and beliefs that you truly
want to believe. This helps you avoid falling victim to environmentally induced thought patterns.
People with Theta Waves have been known to be able to think far more creatively than those who
don’t. Usually musicians, painters, designers, or anyone with a job that involves a certain degree of
creativity – has more Theta Waves than average. It has also been found that people with lower levels
of anxiety, stress, and neurosis – are able to maintain stable Theta Brainwave activity.
Theta Brain Wave activity has also been noted among individuals who are able to learn quickly. This is
due to the fact that like Alpha Waves, Theta Brain Waves can induce a similar state of “Super
Learning.” In fact, the Theta State of “Super Learning” has been found to be the most powerful state
for learning a new language.
This makes perfect sense due to the fact that children (who have high amounts of Theta activity) are
able to learn new languages much more quickly and easily than adults. Additional Theta Brainwave
benefits are: Long-term memory improvements, improvements in the healing of the brain and body,
the ability to hyperfocus (i.e. Get in ”The Zone”), and boosted immune system functioning (as is true
with all forms of slower brainwave).
People With Theta Brain Waves
Groups of people that already experience Theta Waves include: people who meditate, people who are
extroverted, children, artists, and inventors. Meditation can allow you to tap into you your Theta Brain
Waves quickly and experience a deeper connection with your subconscious. It has been documented
that Theta Brain Waves also occur in extroverts when they communicate and during emotional
bonding.
What Are Gamma Brain Waves?
The fastest documented brainwave frequency range is that of Gamma Brain Waves – which oscillate
within the range of 40 Hz to 70 Hz. Gamma Brain Waves have the smallest amplitude on an E.E.G. in
comparison to the other four basic types of brainwave frequencies. Gamma Brain Waves have long
been considered the brain’s information and sensory-binding brainwave – or the brainwave that is able
to link and process information from all parts of the brain. Having high amounts of Gamma Brainwave
activity has been associated with: having high levels of intelligence, being compassionate, having
high amounts of self-control, and feelings of natural happiness.
Gamma Brain Waves have also been linked to having a great memory and an increased perception of
reality. People lacking in Gamma Brainwaves tend to experience difficulties with learning and mental
processing. Usually people with impaired or retarded mental functioning tend to have significantly less
Gamma Brainwave activity than those who have average and above-average intelligences. There
seems to be a correlation with higher amounts of Gamma Brainwave activity and increased brain
functioning ability.
Benefits Of Gamma Brain Waves
People with higher amounts of Gamma Brainwaves are lucky due to the fact that they will often
experience improvements in memory and their ability to vividly recall past experiences. One

frequency in the Gamma Waves range, which cycles 40 times per second (e.g. At a rate of 40 Hz), has
been known to regulate memory processing in the brain. If you are currently having difficulty
remembering information like: names, dates, events, plans, etc. – you would likely benefit from
increasing your Gamma Brainwave range.
Gamma Brain Waves are also known to boost your perception of reality through your five senses.
Gamma Brainwave activity is responsible for making smells more powerful, increasing your visual
acuity, sharpening your hearing, and making foods taste better. Those who lack Gamma Brain Waves
may have the same foods or be put in the same environment, but their brain’s will not have as much
sensory-rich processing as individuals with Gamma activity.
The Gamma Brainwave range is able to properly combine or “bind” your senses and memory together
for one ultimate experience. This is why on a memorable night you’ll often remember the music that
was playing, the aroma of the atmosphere, what you saw, the foods you ate, etc. The Gamma Brain
Wave state is an incredibly focused one and allows us to get the richest possible sensory experience as
a result of our external world.
Gamma Brain Waves have also been linked with the ability to process large amounts of information in
relatively small amounts of time. Think of having more Gamma Activity as getting a processor
upgrade for your brain. People without much Gamma activity literally cannot imagine what they are
missing out on – unless they have experienced Gamma activity before.
One of the best side-effects from Gamma Brainwave Entrainment is that you’ll naturally begin to feel
more compassionate towards others and internally happier. Gamma Brain Waves have been
documented as being a powerful antidepressant-type brainwave. This makes complete sense due the
fact that people suffering from clinical depression tend to have lower-than-average amounts of
Gamma Brain Waves.
People With Gamma Brain Waves
Everyone has some Gamma Brainwave activity, but some groups of people have more Gamma activity
than others. People with plenty of Gamma Brainwave activity include: People in advanced stages of
meditation and people living in a state of peak-performance. Gamma Brain Waves is the most
common brainwave state for top-notch athletic performers to be in when they perform perfectly (i.e.
When Tiger Woods sinks put from far away OR when an Olympic performer receives a perfect score
from the judges).

Brain Oscillations Reveal We
Experience the World in Rapid
Snapshots
May 14, 2012

Neuroscientists from the University of Glasgow have demonstrated that our brains experience the
world in discrete snapshots determined by the cycles of brain rhythms. While studying a brain
rhythm associated with visual cortex, they used a “simple trick” to affect and “reset” the oscillations
of this rhythm.
It has long been suspected that humans do not experience the world continuously, but rather in rapid
snapshots.
Now, researchers at the University of Glasgow have demonstrated this is indeed the case. Just as
the body goes through a 24-hour sleep-wake cycle controlled by a circadian clock, brain function
undergoes such cyclic activity – albeit at a much faster rate.
Professor Gregor Thut of the Institute of Neuroscience and Psychology, said: “Rhythms are intrinsic
to biological systems. The circadian rhythm, with its very slow periodicity of sleep and wake cycles
every 24 hours has an obvious, periodic effect on bodily functions.
“Brain oscillations – the recurrent neural activity that we see in the brain – also show periodicity but
cycle at much faster speeds. What we wanted to know was whether brain function was affected in a
cyclic manner by these rapid oscillations.”
The researchers studied a prominent brain rhythm associated with visual cortex functioning that
cycles at a rate of 10 times per second (10Hz).
They used a ‘simple trick’ to affect the oscillations of this rhythm which was presenting a brief sound
to ‘reset’ the oscillation.

Testing subsequent visual perception, by using transcranial magnetic stimulation of visual cortex,
revealed a cyclic pattern at the very rapid rate of brain oscillations, in time with the underlying
brainwaves.
Prof Thut said: “Rhythmicity therefore is indeed omnipresent not only in brain activity but also brain
function. For perception, this means that despite experiencing the world as a continuum, we do not
sample our world continuously but in discrete snapshots determined by the cycles of brain rhythms.”
The research, ‘Sounds reset rhythms of visual cortex and corresponding human visual perception’ is
published in the journal Current Biology.

Conscious Perception from a Global
Network of Neurons
June 12, 2012

Neurons in the lateral prefrontal cortex represent the content of consciousness. The red trace
depicts neural activity (neuronal discharges) in the lateral prefrontal cortex when a stimulus is
consciously perceived for 1 second while the green trace depicts neural activity when the same
stimulus is suppressed from awareness. MPI for Biological Cybernetics

New research from scientists at the Max Planck Institute for Biological Cybernetics supports the
view that the content of consciousness is not localized in a unique cortical area but, rather, that a
global network of neurons from different areas of the brain is responsible for it.
Consciousness is a selective process that allows only a part of the sensory input to reach
awareness. But up to today it has yet to be clarified which areas of the brain are responsible for the
content of conscious perception. Theofanis Panagiotaropoulos and his colleagues – researchers at
the Max Planck Institute for Biological Cybernetics in Tübingen and University Pompeu Fabra in
Barcelona – have now discovered that the content of consciousness is not localized in a unique
cortical area, but is most likely an emergent property of global networks of neuronal populations.
The question which parts of the brain are responsible for the things that reach our awareness is one
of the main puzzles in neurobiology today. Previous research on the brains of primates has shown
that neurons in primary and secondary cortices provide poor representation of visual consciousness.
In contrast, the neurons in the temporal lobe seem to reliably reflect the actual conscious perception
of a visual stimulus. These findings indicated that not all parts of the brain are responsible for the
content of conscious awareness. Nevertheless, the question whether only one of the brain’s areas is
responsible for the content of perception or whether more regions are involved in the process has so
far remained unanswered.

The Max Planck scientists in Tübingen led by Nikos Logothetis have now addressed this issue using
electrophysiological methods to monitor the neural activity in the lateral prefrontal cortex of macaque
monkeys during ambiguous visual stimulation. The visual stimuli used allow for multiple perceptual
interpretations, even though the actual input remained the same. In doing so, Panagiotaropoulos
and his team were able to show that the electrical activity monitored in the lateral prefrontal cortex
correlates with what the macaque monkeys actually perceive.
They thus concluded that visual awareness is not only reliably reflected in the temporal lobe, but
also in the lateral prefrontal cortex of primates. The results depict that the neuronal correlates of
consciousness are embedded in this area, which has a direct connection to premotor and motor
areas of the brain, and is therefore able to directly affect motor output. These findings support the
“frontal lobe hypothesis” of conscious visual perception established in 1995 by the researchers Crick
(the co-discoverer of the structure of the DNA molecule) and Koch that awareness is related to
neural activity with direct access to the planning stages of the brain.
The results support this theory in so far as they show that the lateral prefrontal cortex is involved in
the process of visual awareness. However, the fact that neural activity in two different cortical areas
reflects conscious perception shows that the decision which sensory input reaches our awareness is
most likely not made in a unique cortical area but, rather, that a global network of neurons from
different areas of the brain is responsible for it. “Our results therefore broaden the hypothesis and
create new questions regarding the cortical mechanisms of visual awareness”, Panagiotaropoulos
explains. In the near future the group is going to record the electrical activity in both regions
simultaneously.
By this they will try to find out which of the two areas is activated first and draw conclusions on how
the two areas interact with each other during conscious perception. This may lead to a better
understanding of why only certain things reach our awareness and others remain suppressed.
Source: Max Planck Institute

EEG Biofeedback Treatment

EEG Biofeedback Treatment –
EEG Biofeedback Treatment also know as electromyograph, is the process of identifying, measuring and
manipulating many physiological functions. Some of the processes that can be controlled include brainwaves, muscle
tone, skin conductance, heart rate and pain perception.
The goal of Crosby’s EEG Biofeedback Treatment is to improve health, performance, and the physiological changes
which often occur in conjunction with changes to thoughts, emotions, and behavior. Eventually, these changes may
be maintained without the use of extra equipment or medication.
EEG Biofeedback monitors physiological reactions while Neurofeedback monitor neurological reactions. Crosby
utilizes EEG Biofeedback Treatment to accurately diagnose your condition and its root causes and to treat
addictions and any co-occurring emotional disorders. Biofeedback performs several functions in your recovery:







Part of your diagnostic testing
Part of your individualized therapy
A benchmark to measure the effectiveness of your on-going therapy
For your treatment team to make adjustments to your therapy
To display your results on the video monitors so that you can see your healing & recovery.

How Does EEG Biofeedback Treatment Work?
EEG Biofeedback Treatment is completely non-invasive and painless. Electrical sensors are placed on the patient to
measure activity. The electrical activity is sent via the sensors to the wires which connect to the EEG biofeedback
device. These measurements are displayed on a video monitor. You can actually see your physical reactions and

watch as our therapy addresses areas your reaction. EEG Biofeedback Treatment helps identify the root cause to
psychological disorders, drug addictions or both.

EEG Biofeedback Treatment
With successful EEG Biofeedback training, prescribed medications that target brain function may no longer be
needed. During EEG Biofeedback treatment, medication dosages may be lowered as you are able to control and
regulate your physical reactions reducing the need for pharmacological intervention. This decrease in medications is
particularly striking when the medications play a supportive role as is often the case for the more severe disorders.

Electroencephalography

Epileptic spike and wave discharges monitored with EEG.
Electroencephalography (EEG) is the recording of electrical activity along the scalp produced
by the firing of neurons within the brain. In clinical contexts, EEG refers to the recording of the
brain's spontaneous electrical activity over a short period of time, usually 20-40 minutes, as
recorded from multiple electrodes placed on the scalp. In neurology, the main diagnostic
application of EEG is in the case of epilepsy, as epileptic activity can create clear abnormalities
on a standard EEG study. A secondary clinical use of EEG is in the diagnosis of coma and
encephalopathies. EEG used to be a first-line method for the diagnosis of tumors, stroke and
other focal brain disorders, but this use has decreased with the advent of anatomical imaging
techniques such as MRI and CT.
Derivatives of the EEG technique include evoked potentials (EP), which involves averaging the
EEG activity time-locked to the presentation of a stimulus of some sort (visual, somatosensory,
or auditory). Event-related potentials refer to averaged EEG responses that are time-locked to

more complex processing of stimuli; this technique is used in cognitive science, cognitive
psychology, and psychophysiological research.

Source of EEG Activity
The electrical activity of the brain can be described in spatial scales from the currents within a
single dendritic spine to the relatively gross potentials that the EEG records from the scalp, much
the same way that the economics can be studied from the level of a single individual's personal
finances to the macro-economics of nations. Neurons, or nerve cells, are electrically active cells
which are primarily responsible for carrying out the brain's functions. Neurons create action
potentials, which are discrete electrical signals that travel down axons and cause the release of
chemical neurotransmitters at the synapse, which is an area of near contact between two neurons.
This neurotransmitter then fits into a receptor in the dendrite or body of the neuron that is on the
other side of the synapse, the post-synaptic neuron. The neurotransmitter, when combined with
the receptor, typically causes an electrical current within dendrite or body of the post-synaptic
neuron. Thousands of post-synaptic currents from a single neuron's dendrites and body then sum
up to cause the neuron to generate an action potential (or not). This neuron then synapses on
other neurons, and so on.
It is generally accepted that the activity measured by EEG is electrical potentials created by the
post-synaptic currents, rather than by action potentials. More specifically, the scalp electrical
potentials that produce EEG are due to the extracellular ionic currents caused by dendritic
electrical activity (whereas the fields producing magnetoencephalographic signals are associated
with intracellular ionic currents).
Although post-synaptic potentials generate the EEG signal, it is not possible for a scalp EEG to
assess the activity within a single dendrite or neuron. Rather, a surface EEG reading is the
summation of the synchronous activity of thousands or millions of neurons that have similar
spatial orientation, radial to the scalp. Currents that are tangential to the scalp are not picked up
by the EEG. The EEG therefore benefits from the parallel, radial arrangement of apical dendrites
in the cortex. Because voltage fields fall off with the fourth power of the radius, activity from
deep sources is more difficult to detect than currents near the skull.[citation needed]
Scalp EEG activity shows oscillations at a variety of frequencies. Several of these oscillations
have characteristic frequency ranges, spatial distributions and are associated with different states
of brain functioning (e.g., waking and the various sleep stages). These oscillations represent
synchronized activity over a network of neurons. The neuronal networks underlying some of
these oscillations are understood (e.g., the thalamocortical resonance underlying sleep spindles),
while many others are not (e.g., the system that generates the posterior basic rhythm).

Clinical use

A routine clinical EEG recording typically lasts 20-40 minutes (plus preparation time) and
usually involves recording from 21 scalp electrodes. Routine EEG is typically used in the
following clinical circumstances:


to distinguish epileptic seizures from other types of spells, such as psychogenic nonepileptic seizures, syncope (fainting), sub-cortical movement disorders and migraine
variants.



to differentiate "organic" encephalopathy or delirium from primary psychiatric
syndromes such as catatonia



to serve as an adjunct test of brain death



to prognosticate, in certain instances, in patients with coma

At times, a routine EEG is not sufficient, particularly when it is necessary to record a patient
while he/she is having a seizure. In this case, the patient may be admitted to the hospital for days
or even weeks, while EEG is constantly being recorded (along with time-synchronized video and
audio recording). A recording of an actual seizure (i.e., an ictal recording, rather than an interictal recording of a possibly epileptic patient at some period between seizures) can give
significantly better information about whether or not a spell is an epileptic seizure and the focus
in the brain from which the seizure activity eminates.
Epilepsy monitoring is typically done


to distinguish epileptic seizures from other types of spells, such as psychogenic nonepileptic seizures, syncope (fainting), sub-cortical movement disorders and migraine
variants.



to characterize seizures for the purposes of treatment



to localize the region of brain from which a seizure originates for work-up of possible
seizure surgery

Additionally, EEG may be used to monitor certain procedures:


to monitor the depth of anesthesia



as an indirect indicator of cerebral perfusion in carotid endarterectomy



to monitor amobarbital effect during the Wada test

EEG can also be used in intensive care units for brain function monitoring:



to monitor for non-convulsive seizures/non-convulsive status epilepticus



to monitor the effect of sedative/anesthesia in patients in medically induced coma (for
treatment of refractory seizures or increased intracranial pressure)



to monitor for secondary brain damage in conditions such as subarachnoid hemorrhage
(currently a research method)

If a patient with epilepsy is being considered for resective surgery, it is often necessary to
localize the focus (source) of the epileptic brain activity with a resolution greater than what is
provided by scalp EEG. This is because the cerebrospinal fluid, skull and scalp smear the
electrical potentials recorded by scalp EEG. In these cases, neurosurgeons typically implant
strips and grids of electrodes (or penetrating depth electodes) under the dura mater, through
either a craniotomy or a burr hole. The recording of these signals is referred to as
electrocorticography (ECoG}, subdural EEG (sdEEG) or intracranial EEG (icEEG)--all terms for
the same thing. The signal recorded from ECoG is on a different scale of activity than the brain
activity recorded from scalp EEG. Low voltage, high frequency components that cannot be seen
easily (or at all) in scalp EEG can be seen clearly in ECoG. Further, smaller electrodes (which
cover a smaller parcel of brain suface) allow even lower voltage, faster components of brain
activity to be seen. Some clinical sites record from penetrating microelectrodes.

Research use

An early EEG recording, obtained by Hans Berger in 1924. The upper tracing is EEG, and the
lower is a 10 Hz timing signal.
EEG, and its derivative, ERPs, are used extensively in neuroscience, cognitive science, cognitive
psychology, and psychophysiological research. Many techniques used in research contexts are
not standardized sufficiently to be used in the clinical context.
A different method to study brain function is functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI).
Some benefits of EEG compared to fMRI include:


Hardware costs are significantly lower for EEG sensors versus an fMRI machine



EEG sensors can be deployed into a wider variety of environments than a bulky,
immobile fMRI machine



EEG enables higher temporal resolution, on the order of milliseconds, rather than seconds



EEG is relatively tolerant of subject movement versus an fMRI (where the subject must
remain completely still)



EEG is silent, which allows for better study of the responses to auditory stimuli



EEG does not cause claustrophobia

Limitations of EEG as compared with fMRI include:


Significantly less spatial resolution



Need to apply electrodes to the scalp (which may bother people with severe tactile
sensitivities, e.g., some individuals with autism)



ERP studies require relatively simple paradigms, compared with block-design fMRI
studies

EEG recordings have successfully obtained simultaneously with fMRI scans, though successful
simultaneous recording requires that several technical issues be overcome, such as the presence
of ballistocardiographic artifact, MRI pulse artifact and the induction of electrical currents in
EEG wires that move within the strong magnetic fields of the MRI.
EEG also has some charateristics that compare favorably with behavioral testing:


EEG can detect covert processing (i.e., that which does not require a response)



EEG can be used in subjects who are incapable of making a motor response



Some ERP components can be detected even when the subject is not attending to the
stimuli



As compared with other reaction time paradigms, ERPs can elucidate stages of
processing (rather than just the final end result)

Method

Computer Electroencephalograph Neurovisor-BMM 40
In conventional scalp EEG, the recording is obtained by placing electrodes on the scalp with a
conductive gel or paste, usually after preparing the scalp area by light abrasion to reduce
impedance due to dead skin cells. Many systems typically use electrodes, each of which is
attached to an individual wire. Some systems use caps or nets into which electrodes are
embedded; this is particularly common when high-density arrays of electrodes are needed.
Electrode locations and names are specified by the International 10–20 system for most clinical
and research applications (except when high-density arrays are used). This system ensures that
the naming of electrodes is consistent across laboratories. In most clinical applications, 19
recording electrodes (plus ground and system reference) are used. A smaller number of
electrodes are typically used when recording EEG from neonates. Additional electrodes can be
added to the standard set-up when a clinical or research application demands increased spatial
resolution for a particular area of the brain. High-density arrays (typically via cap or net) can
contain up to 256 electrodes more-or-less evenly spaced around the scalp.
Each electrode is connected to one input of a differential amplifier (one amplifier per pair of
electrodes); a common system reference electrode is connected to the other input of each
differential amplifier. These amplifiers amplify the voltage between the active electrode and the
reference (typically 1,000–100,000 times, or 60–100 dB of voltage gain). In analog EEG, the
signal is then filtered (next paragraph), and the EEG signal is output as the deflection of pens as
paper passes underneath. Most EEG systems these days, however, are digital, and the amplified
signal is digitized via an analog-to-digital converter, after being passed through an anti-aliasing
filter. Analog-to-digital sampling typically occurs at 256-512 Hz in clinical scalp EEG; sampling
rates of up to 20 kHz are used in some research applications.
During the recording, a series of activation procedures may be used. These procedures may
induce normal or abnormal EEG activity that might not otherwise be seen. These procedures
include hyperventilation, photic stimulation (with a strobe light), eye closure, mental activity,
sleep and sleep deprivation. During (inpatient) epilepsy monitoring, a patient's typical seizure
medications may be withdrawn.
The digital EEG signal is stored electronically and can be filtered for display. Typical settings for
the high-pass filter and a low-pass filter are 0.5-1 Hz and 35–70 Hz, respectively. The high-pass
filter typically filters out slow artifact, such as electrogalvanic signals and movement artifact,
whereas the low-pass filter filters out high-frequency artifacts, such as electromyographic
signals. An additional notch filter is typically used to remove artifact caused by electrical power
lines (60 Hz in the United States and 50 Hz in many other countries).

As part of an evaluation for epilepsy surgery, it may be necessary to insert electrodes near the
surface of the brain, under the surface of the dura mater. This is accomplished via burr hole or
craniotomy. This is referred to variously as "electrocorticography (ECoG)", "intracranial EEG (IEEG)" or "subdural EEG (SD-EEG)". Depth electrodes may also be placed into brain structures,
such as the amygdala or hippocampus, structures which are common epileptic foci and may not
be "seen" clearly by scalp EEG. The electrocorticographic signal is processed in the same
manner as digital scalp EEG (above), with a couple of caveats. ECoG is typically recorded at
higher sampling rates than scalp EEG because of the requirements of Nyquist theorem—the
subdural signal is composed of a higher predominance of higher frequency components. Also,
many of the artifacts which affect scalp EEG do not impact ECoG, and therefore display filtering
is often not needed.
A typical adult human EEG signal is about 10µV to 100 µV in amplitude when measured from
the scalp [1] and is about 10–20 mV when measured from subdural electrodes.
Since an EEG voltage signal represents a difference between the voltages at two electrodes, the
display of the EEG for the reading encephalographer may be set up in one of several ways. The
representation of the EEG channels is referred to as a montage.
Bipolar montage
Each channel (i.e., waveform) represents the difference between two adjacent electrodes.
The entire montage consists of a series of these channels. For example, the channel "Fp1F3" represents the difference in voltage between the Fp1 electrode and the F3 electrode.
The next channel in the montage, "F3-C3," represents the voltage difference between F3
and C3, and so on through the entire array of electrodes.
Referential montage
Each channel represents the difference between a certain electrode and a designated
reference electrode. There is no standard position at which this reference is always
placed; it is, however, at a different position than the "recording" electrodes. Midline
positions are often used because they do not amplify the signal in one hemisphere vs. the
other. Another popular reference is "linked ears," which is a physical or mathematical
average of electrodes attached to both earlobes or mastoids.
Average reference montage
The outputs of all of the amplifiers are summed and averaged, and this averaged signal is
used as the common reference for each channel.
Laplacian montage
Each channel represents the difference between an electrode and a weighted average of
the surrounding electrodes.
When analog (paper) EEGs are used, the technologist switches between montages during the
recording in order to highlight or better characterize certain features of the EEG. With digital
EEG, all signals are typically digitized and stored in a particular (usually referential) montage;
since any montage can be constructed mathematically from any other, the EEG can be viewed by
the electroencephalographer in any display montage that is desired.

The EEG is read by a neurologist, optimally one who has specific training in the interpretation of
EEGs. This is done by visual inspection of the waveforms. The use of computer signal
processing of the EEG—so-called quantitative EEG—is somewhat controversial when used for
clinical purposes (although there are many research uses).

Limitations
EEG has several limitations. Most important is its poor spatial resolution. EEG is most sensitive
to a particular set of post-synaptic potentials: those which are generated in superficial layers of
the cortex, on the crests of gyri directly abutting the skull and radial to the skull. Dendrites which
are deeper in the cortex, inside sulci, in midline or deep structures (such as the cingulate gyrus or
hippocampus), or producing currents which are tangential to the skull, have far less contribution
to the EEG signal.
The meninges, cerebrospinal fluid and skull "smear" the EEG signal, obscuring its intracranial
source.
It is mathematically impossible to reconstruct a unique intracranial current source for a given
EEG signal, as some currents produce potentials that cancel each other out. This is referred to as
the inverse problem. However, much work has been done to produce remarkably good estimates
of, at least, a localized electric dipole that represents the recorded currents.

EEG vs fMRI and PET
EEG has several strong sides as a tool of exploring brain activity; for example, its time resolution
is very high (on the level of a single millisecond). Other methods of looking at brain activity,
such as PET and fMRI have time resolution between seconds and minutes. EEG measures the
brain's electrical activity directly, while other methods record changes in blood flow (e.g.,
SPECT, fMRI) or metabolic activity (e.g., PET), which are indirect markers of brain electrical
activity. EEG can be used simultaneously with fMRI so that high-temporal-resolution data can be
recorded at the same time as high-spatial-resolution data, however, since the data derived from
each occurs over a different time course, the data sets do not necessarily represent the exact same
brain activity. There are technical difficulties associated with combining these two modalities,
including the need to remove the MRI gradient artifact present during MRI acquisition and the
ballistocardiographic artifact (resulting from the pulsatile motion of blood and tissue) from the
EEG. Furthermore, currents can be induced in moving EEG electrode wires due to the magnetic
field of the MRI.
EEG can be recorded at the same time as MEG so that data from these complimentary high-timeresolution techniques can be combined.

Normal activity

One second of EEG signal
The EEG is typically described in terms of (1) rhythmic activity and (2) transients. The rhythmic
activity is divided into bands by frequency. To some degree, these frequency bands are a matter
of nomenclature (i.e., any rhythmic activity between 8-12 Hz can be described as "alpha"), but
these designations arose because rhythmic activity within a certain frequency range was noted to
have a certain distribution over the scalp or a certain biological significance.
Most of the cerebral signal observed in the scalp EEG falls in the range of 1-20 Hz (activity
below or above this range is likely to be artifactual, under standard clinical recording
techniques).

Comparison table
Comparison of EEG bands

Type

Frequency
(Hz)

Delta up to 3

Location

frontally in
adults,
posteriorly in
children; high
amplitude
waves

Normally





adults slow wave
sleep

Pathologically



subcortical lesions



diffuse lesions



metabolic
encephalopathy
hydrocephalus



deep midline
lesions.

in babies

Theta 4 - 7 Hz


young children



focal subcortical
lesions



drowsiness or arousal
in older children and
adults



metabolic
encephalopathy



Alpha 8 - 12 Hz

Beta

posterior
regions of
head, both
sides, higher
in amplitude
on dominant
side. Central
sites (c3-c4) at
rest .

both sides,
symmetrical
distribution,
12 - 30 Hz most evident
frontally; low
amplitude
waves

Gamm
34 – 100 +
a



deep midline
disorders



some instances of
hydrocephalus



coma



benzodiazepines

idling



relaxed/reflecting



closing the eyes



alert/working



active, busy or
anxious thinking,
active concentration



certain cognitive or
motor functions

Wave patterns

delta waves.


Delta is the frequency range up to 3 Hz. It tends to be the highest in amplitude and the
slowest waves. It is seen normally in adults in slow wave sleep. It is also seen normally in
babies. It may occur focally with subcortical lesions and in general distribution with
diffuse lesions, metabolic encephalopathy hydrocephalus or deep midline lesions. It is
usually most prominent frontally in adults (e.g. FIRDA - Frontal Intermittent Rhythmic
Delta) and posteriorly in children (e.g. OIRDA - Occipital Intermittent Rhythmic Delta).

theta waves.


Theta is the frequency range from 4 Hz to 7 Hz. Theta is seen normally in young
children. It may be seen in drowsiness or arousal in older children and adults; it can also
be seen in meditation[citation needed]. Excess theta for age represents abnormal activity. It can
be seen as a focal disturbance in focal subcortical lesions; it can be seen in generalized
distribution in diffuse disorder or metabolic encephalopathy or deep midline disorders or
some instances of hydrocephalus. On the contrary this range has been associated with
reports of relaxed, meditative, and creative states.

alpha waves.


Alpha is the frequency range from 8 Hz to 12 Hz. Hans Berger named the first rhythmic
EEG activity he saw, the "alpha wave." This is activity in the 8-12 Hz range seen in the
posterior regions of the head on both sides, being higher in amplitude on the dominant
side. It is brought out by closing the eyes and by relaxation. It was noted to attenuate with
eye opening or mental exertion. This activity is now referred to as "posterior basic
rhythm," the "posterior dominant rhythm" or the "posterior alpha rhythm." The posterior
basic rhythm is actually slower than 8 Hz in young children (therefore technically in the
theta range). In addition to the posterior basic rhythm, there are two other normal alpha
rhythms that are typically discussed: the mu rhythm and a temporal "third rhythm". Alpha
can be abnormal; for example, an EEG that has diffuse alpha occurring in coma and is not
responsive to external stimuli is referred to as "alpha coma".

Sensorimotor rhythm aka mu rhythm.


Mu rhythm is alpha-range activity that is seen over the sensorimotor cortex. It
characteristically attenuates with movement of the contralateral arm (or mental imagery
of movement of the contralateral arm).

beta waves.


Beta is the frequency range from 12 Hz to about 30 Hz. It is seen usually on both sides in
symmetrical distribution and is most evident frontally. Low amplitude beta with multiple
and varying frequencies is often associated with active, busy or anxious thinking and
active concentration. Rhythmic beta with a dominant set of frequencies is associated with
various pathologies and drug effects, especially benzodiazepines. Activity over about 25
Hz seen in the scalp EEG is rarely cerebral (i.e., it is most often artifactual). It may be
absent or reduced in areas of cortical damage. It is the dominant rhythm in patients who
are alert or anxious or who have their eyes open.

gamma waves.


Gamma is the frequency range approximately 26–100 Hz. Because of the filtering
properties of the skull and scalp, gamma rhythms can only be recorded from
electrocorticography or possibly with magnetoencephalography. Gamma rhythms are
thought to represent binding of different populations of neurons together into a network
for the purpose of carrying out a certain cognitive or motor function.

"Ultra-slow" or "near-DC" activity is recorded using DC amplifiers in some research contexts. It
is not typically recorded in a clinical context because the signal at these frequencies is
susceptible to a number of artifacts.
Some features of the EEG are transient rather than rhythmic. Spikes and sharp waves may
represent seizure activity or interictal activity in individuals with epilepsy or a predisposition
toward epilepsy. Other transient features are normal: vertex waves and sleep spindles are
transient events which are seen in normal sleep.
It should also be noted that there are types of activity which are statistically uncommon but are
not associated with dysfunction or disease. These are often referred to as "normal variants." The
mu rhythm is an example of a normal variant.
The normal EEG varies by age. The neonatal EEG is quite different from the adult EEG. The
EEG in childhood generally has slower frequency oscillations than the adult EEG.

The normal EEG also varies depending on state. The EEG is used along with other
measurements (EOG, EMG) to define sleep stages in polysomnography. Stage I sleep
(equivalent to drowsiness in some systems) appears on the EEG as drop-out of the posterior
basic rhythm. There can be an increase in theta frequencies. Santamaria and Chiappa cataloged a
number of the variety of patterns associated with drowsiness. Stage II sleep is characterized by
sleep spindles--transient runs of rhythmic activity in the 12-14 Hz range (sometimes referred to
as the "sigma" band) that have a frontal-central maximum. Most of the activity in Stage II is in
the 3-6 Hz range. Stage III and IV sleep are defined by the presence of delta frequencies and are
often referred to collectively as "slow-wave sleep." Stages I-IV comprise non-REM (or
"NREM") sleep. The EEG in REM (rapid eye movement) sleep appears somewhat similar to the
awake EEG.
EEG under general anesthesia depends on the type of anesthetic employed. With halogenated
anesthetics, such as halothane or intravenous agents, such as propofol, a rapid (alpha or low
beta), nonreactive EEG pattern is seen over most of the scalp, especially anteriorly; in some
older terminology this was known as a WAR (widespread anterior rapid) pattern, contrasted with
a WAIS (widespread slow) pattern associated with high doses of opiates. Anesthetic effects on
EEG signals are beginning to be understood at the level of drug actions on different kinds of
synapses and the circuits that allow synchronized neuronal activity (see:
http://www.stanford.edu/group/maciverlab/).

Artifacts
Biological artifacts
Electrical signals detected along the scalp by an EEG, but that originate from non-cerebral origin
are called artifacts. EEG data is almost always contaminated by such artifacts. The amplitude of
artifacts can be quite large relative to the size of amplitude of the cortical signals of interest. This
is one of the reasons why it takes considerable experience to correctly interpret EEGs clinically.
Some of the most common types of biological artifacts include:


Eye-induced artifacts (includes eye blinks and eye movements)



EKG (cardiac) artifacts



EMG (muscle activation)-induced artifacts



Glossokinetic artifacts

Eye-induced artifacts are caused by the potential difference between the cornea and retina, which
is quite large compared to cerebral potentials. When the eye is completely still, this does not
affect EEG. But there are nearly always small or large reflexive eye movements, which generates
a potential which is picked up in the frontopolar and frontal leads. Involuntary eye movements,
known as saccades, are caused by ocular muscles, which also generate electromyographic
potentials. Purposeful or reflexive eye blinking also generates electromyographic potentials, but

more importantly there is reflexive movement of the eyeball during blinking which gives a
characteristic artifactual appearance of the EEG (see Bell's phenomenon).
Eyelid fluttering artifacts of a characteristic type were previously called Kappa rhythm (or Kappa
waves). It is usually seen in the prefrontal leads, that is, just over the eyes. Sometimes they are
seen with mental activity. They are usually in the Theta (4–7 Hz) or Alpha (8–13 Hz) range.
They were named because they were believed to originate from the brain. Later study revealed
they were generated by rapid fluttering of the eyelids, sometimes so minute that it was difficult to
see. They are in fact noise in the EEG reading, and should not technically be called a rhythm or
wave. Therefore, current usage in electroencephalography refers to the phenomenon as an eyelid
fluttering artifact, rather than a Kappa rhythm (or wave).[2]
Some of these artifacts are useful. Eye movements are very important in polysomnography, and
is also useful in conventional EEG for assessing possible changes in alertness, drowsiness or
sleep.
EKG artifacts are quite common and can be mistaken for spike activity. Because of this, modern
EEG acquisition commonly includes a one-channel EKG from the extremities. This also allows
the EEG to identify cardiac arrhythmias that are an important differential diagnosis to syncope or
other episodic/attack disorders.
Glossokinetic artifacts are caused by the potential difference between the base and the tip of the
tongue. Minor tongue movements can contaminate the EEG, especially in parkinsonian and
tremor disorders.

Environmental artifacts
In addition to artifacts generated by the body, many artifacts originate from outside the body.
Movement by the patient, or even just settling of the electrodes, may cause electrode pops,
spikes originating from a momentary change in the impedance of a given electrode. Poor
grounding of the EEG electrodes can cause significant 50 or 60 Hz artifact, depending on the
local power system's frequency. A third source of possible interference can be the presence of an
IV drip; such devices can cause rhythmic, fast, low-voltage bursts, which may be confused for
spikes.

Artifact correction
Recently, source decomposition techniques have been used to correct or remove EEG
contaminates. These techniques attempt to "unmix" the EEG signals into some number of
underlying components. There are many source separation algorithms, often assuming various
behaviors or natures of EEG. Regardless, the principle behind any particular method usually
allow "remixing" only those components that would result in "clean" EEG by nullifying
(zeroing) the weight of unwanted components.

Abnormal Activity

Abnormal activity can broadly be separated into epileptiform and non-epileptiform activity. It
can also be separated into focal or diffuse.
Focal epileptiform discharges represent fast, synchronous potentials in a large number of neurons
in a somewhat discrete area of the brain. These can occur as interictal activity, between seizures,
and represent an area of cortical irritability that may be predisposed to producing epileptic
seizures. Interictal discharges are not wholly reliable for determining whether a patient has
epilepsy nor where his/her seizure might originate. (See focal epilepsy.)
Generalized epileptiform discharges often have an anterior maximum, but these are seen
synchronously throughout the entire brain. They are strongly suggestive of a generalized
epilepsy.
Focal non-epileptiform abnormal activity may occur over areas of the brain where there is focal
damage of the cortex or white matter. It often consists of an increase in slow frequency rhythms
and/or a loss of normal higher frequency rhythms. It may also appear as focal or unilateral
decrease in amplitude of the EEG signal.
Diffuse non-epileptiform abnormal activity may manifest as diffuse abnormally slow rhythms or
bilateral slowing of normal rhythms, such as the PBR.

History
A timeline of the history of EEG is given by Swartz.[3] Richard Caton (1842–1926), a physician
practicing in Liverpool, presented his findings about electrical phenomena of the exposed
cerebral hemispheres of rabbits and monkeys in the British Medical Journal in 1875. In 1890,
Beck published an investigation of spontaneous electrical activity of the brain of rabbits and dogs
which included rhythmic oscillations altered by light.
In 1912, Russian physiologist, Vladimir Vladimirovich Pravdich-Neminsky published the first
EEG and the evoked potential of the mammalian (dog).[4] In 1914, Cybulsky and JelenskaMacieszyna photographed EEG-recordings of experimentally induced seizures.
German physiologist and psychiatrist Hans Berger (1873–1941) began his studies of the human
EEG in 1920. He gave the device its name and is sometimes credited with inventing the EEG,
though others had performed similar experiments. His work was later expanded by Edgar
Douglas Adrian. In 1934, Fisher and Lowenback first demonstrated epileptiform spikes. In 1935
Gibbs, Davis and Lennox described interictal spike waves and the 3 cycles/s pattern of clinical
absence seizures, which began the field of clinical electroencephalography. Subsequently, in
1936 Gibbs and Jasper reported the interictal spike as the focal signature of epilepsy. The same
year, the first EEG laboratory opened at Massachusetts General Hospital.
Franklin Offner (1911–1999), professor of biophysics at Northwestern University developed a
prototype of the EEG which incorporated a piezoelectric inkwriter called a Crystograph (the
whole device was typically known as the Offner Dynograph).

In 1947, The American EEG Society was founded and the first International EEG congress was
held. In 1953 Aserinsky and Kleitmean describe REM sleep.
In the 1950s, William Grey Walter developed an adjunct to EEG called EEG topography which
allowed for the mapping of electrical activity across the surface of the brain. This enjoyed a brief
period of popularity in the 1980s and seemed especially promising for psychiatry. It was never
accepted by neurologists and remains primarily a research tool.

Various uses
The EEG has been used for many purposes besides the conventional uses of clinical diagnosis
and conventional cognitive neuroscience. Neurofeedback remains an important extension, and in
its most advanced form is also attempted as the basis of brain computer interfaces. There are
many commercial products substantially based on the EEG.
EEGs have been used as evidence in trials in the Indian state of Maharastra. [5]

Games


In March 24th 2007 a US company called Emotiv launched a pointing device for video
games based on electroencephalography.[6]



Announced at the end of 2008/start of 2009 were two games based monitoring Theta
waves using technology by a company called Neurosky. Mindflex by Matel[7] and Force
Trainer by Uncle Milton [8]

Images

Portable recording
Girl wearing Person wearing device for EEG
electrodes for electrodes for
EEG
EEG

References

EEG used during a music performance in
which bathers from around the world were
networked together as part of a collective
musical performance, using their
brainwaves to control sound, lighting, and
the bath environment

1. ^ H. Aurlien, I.O. Gjerde, J. H. Aarseth, B. Karlsen, H. Skeidsvoll, N. E. Gilhus (March 2004).
"EEG background activity described by a large computerized database.". Clinical
Neurophysiology 115 (3): 665–673. doi:10.1016/j.clinph.2003.10.019.
2. ^ Epstein, Charles M. (1983). Introduction to EEG and evoked potentials. J. B. Lippincot Co..
ISBN 0-397-50598-1.
3. ^ Swartz, B.E (1998). "Timeline of the history of EEG and associated fields" (PDF).
Electroencephalography and clinical Neurophysiology 106: 173–176. doi:10.1016/S00134694(97)00113-2. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=MImg&_imagekey=B6SYX4FV4S6H-11&_cdi=4846&_user=10&_orig=browse&_coverDate=02%2F28%2F1998&_sk=998939997&vi
ew=c&wchp=dGLbVzz-zSkWb&md5=47fbbe7e51a806779716fba415b96ab7&ie=/sdarticle.pdf.
4. ^ Pravdich-Neminsky VV. Ein Versuch der Registrierung der elektrischen Gehirnerscheinungen
(In German). Zbl Physiol 27: 951–960, 1913.
5. ^ This brain test maps the truth 21 Jul 2008, 0348 hrs IST, Nitasha Natu,TNN
6. ^ Reporter: Don Clark "Video Mind Control Device". 2007.
http://video.msn.com/v/us/fv/msnbc/fv.htm??f=00&g=09e9f856-63f3-40cd-83e6eb6f2910a31c&p=&t=m5&rf=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/17740749/&fg=. Retrieved on
2007-03-25

References


Butnik, Steven M. "Neurofeedback in adolescents and adults with attention deficit
hyperactivity disorder." Journal of Clinical Psychology, May 2005. Vol. 61 Issue 5, p621-625



Evans, J.R., and Abarbnanel, A. An introduction to quantitative EEG and Neurofeedback.
Academic Press: San Diego, 1999.



Hammond, Corydon D. "Neurofeedback Treatment of Depression and Anxiety." Journal of
Adult Development, Vol 12, Nos. 2/3, August 2005



Kaiser, David A. "Basic Principles of Quantitative EEG." Journal of Adult Development, Vol.
12, Nos. 2/3, August 2005.



Levesque, Johanne and Mario Beauregard. "Effect of neurofeedback training on the neural
substrates of selective attention in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A
functional magnetic resonance imaging study." Neuroscience Letters, 394, 216-221.



Masterpasqual, Frank and Healey, Katherine N. "Neurofeedback in psychological practice."
Professional Psychology: Research & Practice. Dec 2003, Vol. 34 Issue 6, p652-656



Trudeau, David L. "EEG Biofeedback for Addictive Disorders -- The State of the Art in
2004." Journal of Adult Development, Vol 12, Nos. 2/3, August 2005.



Vernon, D. (2005). Can neurofeedback training enhance performance? An evaluation of the
evidence with implications for future research. Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback,
30(4), 347-364.

1. ^ Kamiya, J. (1971). "Operant Control of the EEG Alpha Rhythm and Some of its Reported
Effects on Consciousness". Biofeedback and Self-Control: an Aldine Reader on the
Regulation of Bodily Processes and Consciousness.
2. ^ Hardt, J.V.; Kamiya, J. (1978). "Anxiety change through electroencephalographic alpha
feedback seen only in high anxiety subjects". Science 201 (4350): 79–81.
doi:10.1126/science.663641. PMID 663641.
3. ^ Paskewitz, D.A.; Orne, M.T. (1973). "Visual Effects on Alpha Feedback Training". Science
181 (4097): 360–363. doi:10.1126/science.181.4097.360. PMID 4719909.
4. ^ Hardt, J.V.; Kamiya, J. (1976). "Conflicting results in EEG alpha feedback studies".
Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback 1 (1): 63–75.
http://www.springerlink.com/index/Q6XU641775678664.pdf. Retrieved on 2007-12-05.
5. ^ Sterman, M.B.; Clemente, C.D. (1962). "Forebrain inhibitory mechanisms: cortical
synchronization induced by basal forebrain stimulation". Exp Neurol 6: 91–102.
doi:10.1016/0014-4886(62)90080-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?
db=pubmed&uid=13916975&cmd=showdetailview&indexed=google. Retrieved on 2007-1205.
6. ^ Sterman, M.B.; Friar, L. (1972). "Suppression of seizures in an epileptic following
sensorimotor EEG feedback training". Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 33 (1): 89–95.
doi:10.1016/0013-4694(72)90028-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?
db=pubmed&uid=4113278&cmd=showdetailview&indexed=google. Retrieved on 2007-1205.
7. ^ a b Sterman, M.B. (2000). "Basic concepts and clinical findings in the treatment of seizure
disorders with EEG operant conditioning". Clin Electroencephalogr 31 (1): 45–55.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?
db=pubmed&uid=10638352&cmd=showdetailview&indexed=google. Retrieved on 2007-1205.
8. ^ Lubar, J.F.; Swartwood, M.O.; Swartwood, J.N.; O'Donnell, P.H. (1995). "Evaluation of the
effectiveness of EEG neurofeedback training for ADHD in a clinical setting as measured by
changes in TOVA scores, behavioral ratings, and WISC-R performance". Applied
Psychophysiology and Biofeedback 20 (1): 83–99.
http://www.springerlink.com/index/L2213885102N16W6.pdf. Retrieved on 2007-12-05.

EEG Biofeedback: A Promising
New Therapy for Attention Deficit

Disorder, Learning Disabilities,
and Mild Traumatic Brain Injuries
EEG Biofeedback (neurofeedback) is a promising new therapy in the field of
applied psychophysiology. This field studies the relationship between the mind
and the body. Specifically, it involves teaching people effective ways to control
body functions. For example, therapists use biofeedback to help people learn
how to relax. However, EEG Biofeedback is more inclusive, as it involves
opening up new avenues for communication between your body and your brain.
EEG biofeedback helps you to learn how to access and maintain different states
of physiological arousal. In other words, it is education for your brain.
EEG Biofeedback is an ideal therapy as it is noninvasive with minimal side
effects. This therapy involves placing one or more sensors on the scalp and one
to each ear. These sensors are then connected to a device which depicts a
graphical recording of the electrical activity of the brain, referred to as brain
waves. From the EEG, the therapist helps the client to associate specific mental
states with his/her brain waves. Feedback regarding brain activity is presented to
the client via a video game in which the brightness and speed of a Pacman like
figure corresponds to a preset threshold. The therapist guides the client by telling
him/her to make the video game work with his/her brain.
As brain waves in the desirable frequency occur, the video game moves faster, or
an alternative reward is given. However if brain waves in the undesirable
frequency occur, then the video game is hindered. Since EEG Biofeedback
training is a learning process, progress is gradual. For most conditions, initial
improvements can be observed within ten sessions. In the case of hyperactivity
and attention deficit disorder, training usually is recommended for about forty
sessions and more sessions may be needed depending on the severity.
Whereas, some symptoms related to head injury such as quality of sleep, fatigue,
and chronic pain frequently improve in less than twenty sessions (EEG Spectrum
website, 2000).
Using EEG Biofeedback as a therapy is becoming more acceptable due to the
previous 20 years worth of research in the field. EEG Biofeedback has been
investigated for use with a multitude of disorders such as: epilepsy, hyperactivity,
attention deficit disorder, and specific learning disabilities. Furthermore, it has
been used clinically to help alleviate sleep disorders, and the motor, sensory, and
cognitive deficits caused by minor closed head injury.

However, the one characteristic which unites all of these disorders is that each
typically causes abnormal brain waves on EEG. For example, in the instance of
hyperactivity, the EEG shows inadequate beta activity related to arousal (Othmer
and Othmer, 1989). Additionally, Lubar, Bianchini, Calhoun, Lambert, Body, and
Shabsin (1985) compared the brain wave patterns of learning disabled (LD)
children with those of normal control children. They found that LD children
displayed slower brain wave patterns than those without LD.
Brain activity can be assessed by examining the graphical recording of the
waves. Brain waves are classified as either alpha, beta, theta, or delta. When
alpha waves are present, they indicate a calm and relaxed state of unfocused
attention. Whereas, beta waves indicate an alert and awake state such as when
you focus on solving a problem. And, lastly delta and theta waves are observed
when you are daydreaming or drowsy (Linden, Habib, and Radojevic, 1993). By
examining brain waves, the therapist can evaluate how your brain is functioning
and then devise a treatment plan if abnormalities are present.
EEG Biofeedback for Epilepsy:
The field of EEG Biofeedback began with Joe Kamiya and Elmer and Alyce
Green who examined the connections between physiology and different states of
consciousness. They found that clients could get into a deeply relaxed state in
merely one to two sessions when trained to increase alpha waves. Sterman
discovered that the 12-15 Hz region of the EEG was associated with specific
rhythmic activity. He labeled this rhythm as the SensoriMotor Rhythm (SMR) due
to its location at the sensorimotor cortex. (Chase and Harper;1971, Howe and
Sterman; 1972, Sterman, 1977). Sensory motor rhythm has control over our body
sensations and voluntary movements. Barry Sterman focused on the effects of
EEG Biofeedback on epilepsy.
Sterman first worked with cats who had been exposed to toxic chemicals which
usually induce seizure activity. In their study, Fairchild and Sterman (1974) found
that the cats who were operantly conditioned for SMR exhibited a higher
threshold for seizure activity. Following this study with cats, Sterman and Friar
(1972) then focused on whether SMR training could reduce seizures in humans;
they published a report that SMR training did in fact reduce the seizures of one
individual and also helped her sleep to improve.
Sterman, MacDonald, and Stone did further research and found that there was a
66% reduction in seizures for four epileptics; the protocol they followed was a
combination of enhancing the SMR along with inhibition of excessive slow-wave

activity (Sterman, 1974). Additionally, Sterman reviewed the literature on treating
epilepsy with EEG Biofeedback and found that seizures were reduced in
approximately 70% of the clients (Sterman, 1980).
EEG Biofeedback for Hyperactivity:
Using EEG Biofeedback as a therapy for hyperactivity stemmed from the
previous work with epilepsy. During EEG Biofeedback training with epileptics, it
was observed that symptoms of hyperactivity decreased (Lubar and Bahler,
1976a). This decrease is not that unexpected since hyperactivity can also be
ascribed to insufficient motor inhibition. Lubar and Shouse (1976b) conducted the
first study on the effectiveness of EEG biofeedback with hyperactivity.
In this study, EEG training was observed to be more effective than the sole use of
stimulant medication such as Ritalin. Then, Lubar and Shouse completed a more
comprehensive study of using EEG Biofeedback for hyperactivity; they found that
combining SMR training with drug therapy resulted in considerable improvements
in behaviors which surpassed the effects of the drugs alone. Additionally, these
changes in behavior were maintained with SMR training even after the
withdrawal of medication.

EEG Biofeedback for AttentionDeficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
(ADHD):
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is generally diagnosed in children who
exhibit attention difficulties, impulsive behaviors, and extreme levels of hyperactivity.
ADHD is not classified as a disease and no single diagnostic test exists. Rather, ADHD
is generally viewed as an inherited disorder which may be intensified by minor traumatic
brain injury, birth trauma, emotional and dietary factors, and inadequate sleep (Othmer
and Othmer, 1992).
Also, children with ADHD frequently exhibit a variety of physical problems such as
headaches and immune system deficiencies, resulting in frequent illnesses.
Additionally, anxiety, depression, oppositional-defiant disorder, obsessivecompulsive behaviors may be present. The fact that ADHD is typically treated with

stimulant medication such as Ritalin indicates that this disorder is characterized by
insufficient arousal. EEG biofeedback is a way to train those areas of the brain
involved in arousal and focus. And, it appears that once the brain learns how to
regulate itself again that it does not revert back (EEG Spectrum website, 2000).
The EEG of ADHD children differs from that of other children, in that, the brain
waves tend to be of a larger amplitude. Specifically, the EEG shows excess theta
activity along with lower amounts of beta activity (Lubar, 1991). This pattern of brain
wave activity usually indicates a sleep or day dreaming state, rather than an alert
and focused state. The goal of EEG Biofeedback training is to alter these abnormal
brain waves by decreasing theta waves, while simultaneously increasing beta
waves. In EEG Biofeedback training, the therapist explains to the child the
connection between what is happening in his/her cortex and what is recorded on the
EEG. Then, the therapist helps the child to learn how to gain control over his/her
brain waves.
Joel Lubar has extensively studied biofeedback with ADD and ADHD children and
adults. He devised the protocol for treating ADD with neurofeedback in the 1970s
and his findings have been published in journals such as the Journal of Pediatrics
and Pediatric Neurology. Lubar states that between 80-90% of people with attention
deficit disorder (ADD) and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder can benefit
significantly from treatment (Robbins, 1997).
Additionally, Othmer and Othmer (1992) observed that significant change occurred
when EEG Biofeedback training was utilized. Fifteen children were tested with the
Wechsler Intelligence Scale-Revised by an independent clinical psychologist. In the
pretest, the lowest scores were observed in those categories dealing with attention
and sequence such as math, coding, information, and digit span. After EEG training,
the scores in all of these categories improved. Additionally, an average increase in
IQ was apparent, as much as 23 points.
Othmer and Othmer explain this IQ increase as: "We assume that we are not making
children smarter. We are simply making their intrinsic mental capability more
accessible and useable to them." (Othmer and Othmer, 1992). Several months after
EEG training was completed a follow up with the parents of the children in the study
was conducted. The parents noted an improvement in sleep and a reduction in
headaches, as well as an increase in self-esteem. However, parents noted that
problems in skills (math and reading) and behavior remained. From this study, it is
evident that children with behavior problems may benefit from psychotherapy in
addition to EEG Biofeedback (Othmer and Othmer, 1992).

Several researchers further corroborate that EEG Biofeedback is an effective
treatment for ADHD. In two studies, Michael Linden observed that EEG training had
a positive impact on IQ scores, as well as behavior. Henry Cartozzo reported his
findings at the annual meeting of the Association for Applied Psychophysiology and
Biofeedback. Like the Othmers, Cartozzo found that problems in math, coding, and
digit span were remediated with EEG training. He also noted improvements in
scores on a computerized test called T.O.V.A. (Othmer, Kaiser, and Othmer, 1995).
The T.O.V.A. (Test of Variables of Attention) is a relatively new test which assesses
attention deficits in adults and children. It is a continuous performance test which
evaluates deficiencies. Although this test is only 22 minutes, data from it can serve
as indicators of inattention, impulsivity, reaction time, and variability of reaction time.
(Othmer and Othmer, 1992). Since the T.O.V.A is computerized and computer
scored, it removes the variable of human bias; therefore, it helps to increase the
validity of EEG biofeedback. Othmer and Othmer studied the effects of EEG training
on the T.O.V.A. and they observed significant improvements in inattention,
impulsivity, and variability of response time. Additionally, they found that one child in
their study improved with EEG Biofeedback even after he stopped taking Ritalin.
This study is further supported by current research regarding EEG biofeedback with
ADD/ADHD. After EEG training, clinicians noted that children with ADD/ADHD
improved (60 to 80 percent) and that their medication could be reduced without
regressing (Association for Applied Psychology and Biofeedback website, 2000).
EEG Biofeedback is not a cure for ADHD, but can help these children to improve
their academic performance, social skills, and most of all their self esteem (Othmer
and Othmer, 1992a). Biofeedback helps ADHD children to realize that they can
overcome their problems (inattention/ hyperactivity) and are not at the mercy of this
disorder.

EEG Biofeedback for Learning
Disabilities:
According to The National Institute of Mental Health (1993), nearly 4 million schoolaged children exhibit learning disabilities. Studies indicate that children with learning
disabilities also have increased rates of attention deficits, hyperactivity, and
impulsivity. Holobrow and Berry conducted a study which investigated the
relationship between hyperactivity and learning disabilities.

In this study, teachers at six state primary schools and one private school rated their
students on learning difficulties. The results from this study revealed that 26.5% of
children rated as hyperactive also displayed learning difficulties; while, only 5.2% of
non hyperactive children had learning problems (Holobrow & Berry, 1986). From
these results, it appears that there is a connection between learning disorders and
hyperactivity.
Scientists originally thought that all learning disorders stemmed from a single
neurological problem. But, research supported by the National Institute of Mental
Health (NIMH) indicates that this theory is not accurate. Rather, many factors may
contribute to learning disorders. For example, researchers at the NIMH are studying
if environmental toxins can lead to the development of learning disorders. Since
there are many potential causes for the development of learning disabilities, mental
health professionals suggest that the family not concentrate on tracing the reason for
the disability, but rather that they focus on finding an effective treatment. Unlike
ADHD which is frequently treated with a stimulant medication, a medical remedy for
learning problems currently does not exist. However, recent evidence indicates that
EEG biofeedback training can be helpful in specific learning challenges such as
visual retention, articulation, and dyslexia (Othmer, 1999).
Tansey and Bruner (1983), Joel and Judith Lubar (1984) conducted the first studies
of EEG Biofeedback as a treatment for both attention and learning problems.
However, these early studies were not conclusive as to whether biofeedback training
was effective. For example, in Lubar's study, five of the six children in the study were
also receiving academic support in addition to EEG training. And, in Tansey and
Bruner's study, they employed conventional biofeedback and EEG biofeedback
training, so improvements could not unequivocally be attributed to EEG biofeedback.
Then, Tansey (1985) published a study which removed the ambiguity of these
previous studies. In his study of four learning disabled children, he observed that IQ
scores improved after EEG training.
In 1990, Tansey conducted another study with 24 learning disabled children which
further supported his theory that EEG biofeedback was effective. He noted that after
EEG training there was an average improvement of 19 points on the Wechsler full
scale IQ test. The results from these studies suggest that EEG biofeedback has an
impact on specific learning disabilities, while others appear to remain unaltered. It is
clear that more research is necessary to differentiate between which learning
problems improve with EEG biofeedback training and which are resistant to it.

EEG Biofeedback for Minor Traumatic Brain Injury :
The consequences of minor traumatic brain injury are headaches, body pain,
dizziness, depression, sleep problems, irritability, and even personality changes
(Hoffman, et al., 1995). Traditionally, treatment of these symptoms was
multidisciplinary and included: education, family therapy, coping skills training, stress
and pain management, vocational training, and individual psychotherapy (Howard,
1993). However, since the early 1980's, clinicians have been utilizing EEG
biofeedback as a therapy for brain injuries. Psychologist Steven Stockdale, director
of the Neuro-Health Center in Colorado Springs is one of these clinicians who has
been successful in using EEG biofeedback to treat head injuries.
Recently, Stockdale finished a three- year-study (not published yet) involving his
patients' progress. He states that " About 80 percent of people we work with learn to do
the feedback. Of that 80%, there is a 75-90 percent reduction in symptoms. They clear
up" (Robbins, 1996). Examples of brain injuries which respond to EEG biofeedback are
concussion, whiplash, infection of the central nervous system, chemical central nervous
system injury, stroke, and cerebral palsy (Othmer and Othmer, 1989). Although currently
there is no definitive answer to explain the mechanism behind EEG biofeedback, EEG
biofeedback still remains a promising new treatment for minor traumatic head injuries.
EEG Spectrum : A Biofeedback Treatment Center:
In 1985, Susan and Sigfried learned about EEG biofeedback as a possible treatment for
their son, Brian's epilepsy. Years earlier, Professor M. Barry Sterman had developed the
technique of treating epilepsy with EEG biofeedback at the UCLA School of Medicine
and the Sepulveda VA hospital. Brian was treated with EEG biofeedback and he
improved immensely. Because Brian had made such progress, the Othmers believed
that EEG biofeedback could be applied to a variety of disorders. Thus, in 1988, Susan
and Sigfried Othmer along with Edward Dillingham founded the company, EEG
Spectrum, with the mission to promote all aspects of EEG biofeedback such as clinical
services, training of professionals, research, and instrumentation development (EEG
Spectrum website, 2000).
Within the biofeedback community, EEG Spectrum is now recognized to be on the
forefront of treating disorders ranging from attention deficits to traumatic brain injuries.
EEG biofeedback for attention deficits is now offered at over 1,500 centers within the
country and abroad. EEG Spectrum has offices nationwide and more than 60 affiliates
in 20 countries. In "EEG Biofeedback: Medicine, Therapy, or Learning?" (1994), the
Othmers state, "Biofeedback, at its best, is empowerment of the individual. We are
simply the agency of that empowerment." For more information regarding EEG

biofeedback including specific locations of EEG Spectrum treatment centers, please
visit their web site at: http://www.eegspectrum.com/

References:
1. Association for Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback website
(2000). What Kind of Health Problems Can Biofeedback Help?
2. Chase, M.H., and Harper, R.M. (1971). Somatomotor and visceromotor
correlates of operantly conditioned 12-14 c/sec sensorimotor cortical
activity. Journal of Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology,
31, 85-92.
3. Fairchild, M.D., and Sterman, M.B. (1974). Unilateral Sensory-Motor
Rhythm (SMR) Training in Cats: A Basis for Testing Neurophysiological
and Behavioral Effects of Monomethylhydrazine (MMH). Report to the
Aerospace Medical Research Laboratory, AMRL-TR-73-123.
4. Hoffman, D.A., Stockdale, S., Hicks, L.L., and Schwaniger, J.E. (1995).
Diagnosis and Treatment of Head Injury. Journal of Neurotherapy , Sum,
v1 (n1):14-21, EEG Spectrum.
5.

Holobrow, P.L., and Berry, P.S. (1986). Hyperactivity and learning
disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 23, 426-430.

6. Howard, M. E. (submitted 1993). Mild brain injury: causes, damages,
diagnosis, and treatment. In Damages in Tort Actions. Matthew Bender
and Sons.
7.

Howe, R.C., and Sterman, M.B. (1972). Cortical-subcortical EEG
correlates of suppressed motor behavior during sleep and waking in the
cat. Journal of Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 2,
681-695.

9. Linden, M., Habib, T., & Radojevic, V. (1993). A controlled study of the effects
of EEG biofeedback on the cognition and behavior of children with attention
deficit disorders and learning disabilities. Manuscript submitted for publication

10. Lubar, J.F., and Bahler, W.W. (1976a). Behavioral management of epileptic
seizures following biofeedback training of the sensorimotor rhythm.
Biofeedback and Self Regulation, 1, 77-104.
11. Lubar, J.F., and Shouse, M.N. (1976b). EEG behavioral changes in a
hyperactive child concurrent training of the sensorimotor rhythm (SMR). A
preliminary report. Biofeedback and Self Regulation, 9(1), 1-23.
12. Lubar, J.O., and Lubar, J.F. (1984). Electroencephalographic biofeedback of
SMR and beta treatment of attention deficit disorders in a clinical setting.
Biofeedback and Self Regulation, 9(1), 1-23.
13. Lubar, J.O., Bianchini, K., Calhoun, W., Lambert, E., Brody, Z and Shabsin, H.
(1985). Spectral analysis of EEG differences between children with and
without learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 18, 403-408.
14. Lubar, J. F. (1991). Discourse on the development of EEG diagnostics and
biofeedback for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorders. Biofeedback and SelfRegulation, 16, 202-225.
15. National Institute of Mental Health (1993). Overview of Learning Disabilities.
NIH Publication No.93-3611, National Institute of Mental Health.
16. Othmer, S.F., and Othmer, S. ( 1989). EEG biofeedback training for
hyperactivity, attention deficit disorder, specific learning disabilities, and other
disorders, EEG Spectrum.
17. Othmer, S.F., and Othmer, S. (1992a). EEG biofeedback for Attention Deficit
Hyperactivity Disorder, EEG Spectrum.
18. Othmer, S.F., and Othmer, S. (1992b). Evaluation and Remediation of
Attentional Deficits, EEG Spectrum.
19. Othmer, S.F., and Othmer, S. (1994). EEG biofeedback: Medicine, Therapy, or
Learning? EEG Spectrum Inc.
20. Othmer, S., Kaiser, D., and Othmer, S.F. (1995). EEG biofeedback training for
Attention Deficit Disorder: A review of recent controlled studies and clinical
findings, EEG Spectrum.
21. Othmer, S. (1999). Working with the 'Unreachable' Child - Physiological
Perspective, and a Proposed Approach. EEG Spectrum.

22. Robbins, J. (1996). Wired for Miracles. Association for Applied
Psychophysiology and Biofeedback.
23. Robbins, J. (1997, November 11). Biofeedback Offers Help to Hyperactive
Children. New York Times, science section.
24. Sterman, M.B., and Friar, L. (1972). Supression of seizures in an epileptic
following sensorimotor EEG feedback training. Journal of
Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 33, 89-95.
25. Sterman, M.B., MacDonald, L.R., and Stone, R.K. (1974). Biofeedback
training of the sensorimotor EEG rhythm in man: Effect on epilepsy. Epilepsia,
15, 395-416.
26. Sterman, M.B. (1977). Sensorimotor EEG operant conditioning and
experimental and in clinical effects, Pavlovian Journal Biological Science, 12,
2, 65-92.
27. Sterman, M.B. (1980). EEG biofeedback in the treatment of epilepsy: an
overview circa 1980. White, L. & Tursky, B. (Eds.), Clinical Biofeedback:
Efficacy and Mechanisms, The Guilford Press, New York.
28. Tansey, M. and Bruner, R. (1983). EMG and EEG biofeedback training in the
treatment of a 10 year old hyperactive boy with a developmental reading
disorder. Biofeedback and Self-Regulation, 4, 299-311.
29. Tansey, M. (1985). Brain wave signatures: An index reflexive of the brain's
functional neuroanatomy: Further findings on the effect of EEG sensorimotor
rhythm biofeedback training on the neurological precursors of learning
disabilities. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 3, 85-99.

What Our Clients Are Saying About Neurofeedback
"Our son clearly benefited after every session of NF. The benefits he gained are areas which cannot be taught. (It's
like it has to come from within him). His awareness of events and surroundings are much better and he even helped
me on his own accord by carrying a bag of groceries. Normally he would have ignored what I was doing and walked
away. He is much more together and connected with us."
Mother of 5 year old with autism

"As we near our yearly celebration of things for which we are thankful, I am mindful of your organization and the
many instances of dramatic healing that are occuring through Neurofeedback around the world - due in large part to
your efforts. Blessings to you and that which you seek to accomplish."
Neurofeedback client who is home training

"In the fall of 2009 our 14-year-old son began having migraine headaches. He would have one to two per week
accompanied by vomiting and followed by 24 hours of sleep. Between the last week of October and the 19th of
December, he missed 17 days of school. On January 4, 2010, he had his first appointment with Roxana at the EEG
Institute. He has had a weekly session since that time and has not experienced a single migraine since he began the
therapy. It is an incredible relief to have found a way to help our child when he was in such debilitating pain. The

healing that my son has experienced is nothing short of a miracle. We cannot recommend the EEG Institute highly
enough."
Parents of child who suffered with migraines

"We believe very strongly in treating our daughter's autism developmentally - in looking at the source of her
constrictions and challenges from the inside out. We chose neurofeedback because it addresses the issues that
cause the symptoms/behaviors, versus "band-aid" therapies, treatments, or drugs. After her FIRST neurofeedback
session she, for the first time in her five years of life, slept soundly through the night. We all did! She is now 7 1/2 and
has slept soundly and deeply ever since, allowing her to feel and be the best she can be and receive the best results
possible in life and in her other areas of therapy. That was only one of many positive results that we experienced as a
result of neurofeedback. We will be forever grateful to Sue and her team at EEG Institute."
Mother of autistic child

"About 8 months ago, my son's behavior changed dramatically. He started having moderately severe tics and trouble
in school consentrating and following directions. He then was diagnosed with Tourette's Syndrome. Needless to say,
my husband and I were devastated. We immediately starting searching the web and looking for ways to help my son
that didn't involve medication. That is how we found Neurofeedback, and more importantly, Mrs. Othmer at the EEG
Institute. My son has had about 20 sessions, and the change in him is nothing short of a miracle!!! His tics have
calmed down to where we barely notice them, and his teacher is reporting that he is able to focus better and stay on
task now. He also is less volatile, and just generally a happier child. Thank you Mrs. Othmer and the dedicated staff
at EEG Institute, for giving me my son back, and giving my son the tools and ability to live a happy, healthy life."
Mother of child with Tourette's Syndrome

"I'm a Viet Nam vet who had a violently physically abusive dad. For most of my adult life I dealt with it by drinking a
fifth or two a day. Needless to say, I was a very angry human being. I was angry about the war and unconsciously
angry about my childhood. Within four or five neurofeedback sessions, I began experiencing a dramatic change. I
started becoming more mentally stable and I started coming out of my shell. I stopped drinking. Completely. I noticed
I wasn't angry on the job any more. Actually, my workers noticed it first. Then I noticed that things that used to make
me explode no longer existed. Tomorrow I'm on my 40th session and my life has changed completely. In six months,
I've shed 40 years of anger, anguish and pain. For the first time in my life – my entire life – at age 60, I am a
genuinely happy human being. My friends and family have noticed a major difference and because I finally became
my true self, I finally found true love and happiness. I can honestly say that I am a whole human being and I will be
forever grateful to Sue and Siegfried Othmer and Roxana Sasu for making this possible. If not for the EEG Institute's
generous program for veterans, I would never have reached this point."
Viet Nam Veteran

"For most of my life, I was a rageaholic. Of course, I didn't realize it. But along the way, I've destroyed a lot of
telephones and a lot of computers. Smashed them all to bits. Tiny bits. I'm female, by the way, in case you think only
guys get this enraged. I was desperately lonely and unhappy. There was no joy in my life. No amount of
psychotherapy, drugs, meditation, hypnotherapy, psychic healings, great love life, or vacations in Maui could lighten
the bruising black pain of my spirit. Now, things that used to incite me to a killing rage just roll right off my back. My
friends have been blown away by the changes in me. Even my boss has noticed it. He says I've become "totally
mellow." For the first time since early childhood I actually have serenity in my daily life. Finally, at age 55, I'm actually
happy. And what I love about it is – this is for keeps. My brain has changed the way it processes things. Instead of
"luffing" – shaking like a sail set too close to the wind -- my neurons sail serenely, plump and full, down gentler, kinder
pathways. For the first time that I can remember I am experiencing a sense of grace and equanimity in my life."
Client with previous rage control issues

"We're definitely doing something right! Our 6-year old son has become very polite, courteous and agreeable. He is
concerned about other's feelings and whether he is being good. He is showing more initiative to do things that he has
been asked to do. He has drawn more pictures in the last three weeks than in three years."
Mother of Asperger's child who is now home training

"With Neurofeedback my adopted son has improved his ability to focus in school (best grades ever), his athletic
ability (best tennis rating ever), and has eliminated all medications. Most importantly his behavioral outbursts are
gone. He has a new sense of calm attentiveness, and increasing self-esteem. All these changes have helped him
bond and develop meaningful relationships. He is a joy to be around. I thank the EEG Institute for their help and
commitment."
Mother of teenager with Reactive Attachment Disorder

"The change in my daughter is remarkable. While doing homework she is focused; she is able to comprehend
without going to blank-out and frustration; she is solving problems and feeling good about it. She is not panicking and
falling apart over her present heavy course load. And she is now rarely irritable – a very pleasant change."
Mother of college student with anxiety and depression

"Our son underwent a remarkable transformation following our visit to your clinic. He was an extremely difficult child,
and he now sleeps through the night, he is no longer constipated, he listens, he is extremely connected and he
smiles and relishes life."
Father of child with seizures, behavior and learning problems

"Our son was just chosen to be one of five first graders out of 120 to receive an award at his elementary school for
success in academic and social arenas as well as enthusiasm, cooperation, participation and respect for others. Last
year, this would have seemed as far away as the moon, and it is still hard to believe the amazing progress that has
been possible in such a very short time. Thank you. You have made the life he was supposed to have possible!"
Mother of high functioning autistic child

"Thank you for my new life. I can now sleep with no nightmares or night sweats, and I'm eating well. I feel very good
most of the time."
War veteran with PTSD for 10 years

"My son is doing AWESOME!!!! We are thrilled. Now that summer is here, I hope to train him every day. He finished
school on a great note. He is becoming more independent there and needing his aides less. The biggest change is in
his verbal skills. WOW!! is all I can say."
Mother of autistic child

"My grandson is doing better in general and concentration is definitely improving, too. All in all positive. Thank you,
thank you."
Grandmother of an ADHD teenager

"I had no 'moments' yesterday. Neurofeedback is working for me. I am so happy to be doing this."
Asperger's adult

"Everything in my life has been in so much disarray, but Neurofeedback has kept it all good."
ADD adult

"A whole night's sleep! Less irritability and impulsivity and improved attention - just some of the permanent
improvements that my daughters experienced with Neurofeedback. As a mom and an occupational therapist, I
believe that Neurofeedback training will revolutionize how we treat children with ADHD."
Mother of child with ADHD

"After Neurofeedback training, I am finally pain free and able to live my life without the fear of being paralyzed by a
migraine headache."
Former migraine sufferer

Reports from Clinicians
A case vignette reported by a Neurofeedback practitioner in Germany:
A six-year-old boy came in with extreme night sweats, nocturnal teeth grinding, and very poor attention. All these
issues vanished over just a few training sessions.

Another child came into the same office shortly thereafter with very similar symptoms, but in this case also had
extreme difficulty in social relationships. At age eight, he had no friends, and no one would play with him. This boy
trained very differently from the first, but he started being different with people after just the first session. His older
brother is now playing with him routinely. The boy is now taking the initiative in making friendships.
Brian Othmer Foundation|EEG Institute|Training Courses|Newsletter|Products|Link to Us|Contact Us|Careers|Tech Support|Li

The Unique and Mysterious Brain
Each human brain is unique in the way it processes information. This uniqueness accounts for
the vast differences in ideas, beliefs and behaviors between individuals. Appreciating what
makes each of us unique and understanding what makes one person’s behavior “normal” and
another’s “abnormal” is part of the study of the human brain. Until recently, the brain’s exact
function in matters of abnormal behavior was obscure; but now scientists can isolate, identify

and pinpoint the location
of those brain waves
responsible for various
behaviors.
By conducting a recording
of an individual’s electrical
brain waves, and through
the use of specialized
computer equipment and
software,
brain
wave
patterns can be identified,
quantified and displayed
in a diagnostic tool called
a
“brain

map.”

Obtaining Brain Map Information
The first step in brain mapping is conducting an electroencephalogram or “EEG”. An EEG
measures fluctuating electrical activity in the brain’s hemispheres. The procedure is completely
noninvasive and does not cause any pain. Brain wave activity is relayed from electrodes placed
at strategic points on the scalp (see electrode location map at left) to a computer where the
data is recorded and stored. This raw data is then compared and charted within a specialized
normative database, and then converted into a “map” of the brain that can
be easily printed and analyzed by experts in the field of brain mapping and
neurofeedback.“

Discovering And Establishing What Is “Normal”
Although a brain map is as unique as each individual,
patterns of “normal” and “abnormal” emerge when
compared within an extensive brain map database – just
as an individual is considered relatively normal or abnormal when compared
against other individuals in a societal grouping.
Researchers have studied thousands of brain maps of individuals who do
not possess any neurological conditions considered as abnormal. From
these studies, benchmarks for normal range brain function are established
for various age categories and gender.

The NxLink Brain Map Database
The NxLink brain map database, utilized by Nu-Brain, employs a color-based standard
deviation model to identify abnormal brain wave patterns. On the NxLink standard deviation
scale shown at right, “normal” corresponds to 0.0 and is shown by the color black. As you
deviate by degrees away from the norm, problematic brain wave patterns increase.
The Blue Side

The blue side of the scale indicates brain waves that are lower in amplitude compared to
normal waves. This means the brain is UNDER functioning – the brain waves are not up to par
to do their jobs and are too small to be effective. The further down on the scale, the lower the
amplitude of the brain waves and the greater the problems within the brain.
The Red Side

Anything in this range is OVER functioning – the brain waves are too large in amplitude. Areas
of the brain with these colors are considered as “hot spots” especially the higher up the chart to
white. These areas of the brain are like a car with the gas peddle stuck on, and the car is racing
out of control. So too may the brain be stuck in “on” with the peddle to the metal, the brain is
racing and driving beyond its means of
being in control. As this happens, the
brain is not functioning effectively, and
inappropriate behavior is the result.
Deviation From Normal

Understanding “standard deviation” is
important, as standard deviations help to
show the severity of problems occurring
within the brain. Consider the bell curves
at right in conjunction with the standard
deviation scale shown on the preceeding
page.

Beneath the apex of the bell curve, lies the average or normal range of behavior. Brain waves
here are considered to be a normal height. Seventy percent of all people typically fall within this
range. As you move toward the outer
fringes of the curve, the averages
change, and the brain waves become
increasingly either too large or too small
to be effective.
For
example,
when
the
color
burgundy/red shows up on the brain
map, the condition is one standard
deviation away from normal. But if the
brain map shows an orange color, the
condition is two standard deviations
away from normal and is much more severe. If the color shown is in the yellow/white range,
then the condition is three standard deviations away from normal, and the problem in this area
is considered extremely severe.

A Brain Map Identifies the Path to Improvement
Changing and improving one’s life is important, and the brain map identifies the most effective
path to take to accomplish this. As each brain map is unique from all other brain maps, so too,
is the course of action and treatment toward the final destination of improving the identified
neurological concerns.

Sample Brain Maps and Their Explanations
Map 1

In the first brain map example shown below, we see that the brain waves in most regions of the
brain fall in the blue range, indicating under activity. The exception is the theta wave in the front
part of the brain, which appears in the burgundy/red range. The amplitude of the large, slow
theta wave is too high in this region – it’s over functioning here. Immediately we can determine
that this abnormality involves an “Attention Deficit Disorder” (ADD) behavior, such as difficulty
paying attention. How we know this, is because the abnormality of too high a theta wave in the
frontal lobe and central regions of the brain is an ADD pattern. If the same pattern had shown in
orange, the problem would be more severe.
Attention Deficit Disorder has 12 subtypes, including difficulty paying attention, impulsivity,
hyperactivity and distractibility, to name a few. ADD is a broad diagnosis, but brain maps help to
determine the exact subtype(s) that are ocurring so that the treatment is more effective. This
may be why certain medications will work for one individual diagnosed with ADD, but not
another, because the sub-types of ADD vary so much within the neurological functioning of the

brain.
Map 2

This next map shows the brain wave patterns of a 19-year-old male. Before his EEG, the client
shared that he had been told all of his life that he had ADD. But when the map was processed,
instead of seeing over-active colors showing up in theta in the frontal area of the brain, those
indicators were absent. When reviewing the map with the client, he was asked if distractibility
was the reason he was told he had ADD. He said yes, that he was easily distracted by things
around him. He was also asked if he had math learning disabilities; again he answered yes.
Problems with distractions typically show up in the P4 area (note P4 on his map), and problems
with math and numbers usually show
up in the parietal area of the brain at
P3, PZ and P4. On his map it is
evident that the parietal lobe area is
in red, indicating these problems.
Map 3

In this map, several areas show over
activity in the brain: Theta is red in the frontal area, alpha is red in the back, and beta shows in
red all over. First, consider the large theta waves in the front. These indicate problems in paying
attention, and it is worst at F3, FZ, and F4. Next, take a look at alpha in the back. Alpha should
be in the back as alpha is generated there, but not this much alpha. Now look at beta. Here you
see beta in red, blanketing the majority of the brain area. Over functioning beta is responsible
for a number of problems such as
anxiety,
nervousness,
constant
worry, difficulty sleeping, inability to
relax, and the feeling of being
“wired”.
The person with a brain map like
the one above has difficulty taking
in information and processing it due
to the abnormal theta wave. In this
case, the information may be
presented, such as a teacher
talking to a student, or a parent giving instructions to a child, but overall, the result is an inability
to pay attention – the homework doesn’t get completed or the room properly cleaned. This
individual may also appear to be in an overly relaxed state due to alpha being so high in the
back, but the opposite is actually true; inside, he or she is a nervous jitter and is internally
“wired” due to the high beta throughout the brain.

Map 4

This next map of just theta, shown at right, shows a person who may struggle
with impulsivity, obsessive-compulsive (OCD) behavior and oppositional
defiant (ODD) behavior. These behaviors are typical with high theta in the
central area at CZ. Variations may include high theta in front as well as high
theta in the central area.

The Brain Map is an Important Diagnostic Tool
The work of brain mapping is to identify areas of the brain where brain waves are
malfunctioning so that an effective and efficient process of neurofeedback can then be
administered to correct the abnormalities. The brain map examples shown above were only a
small piece of an actual, full-blown brain map - which is
usually around 50 to 70 pages and includes a detailed
report of the identified problems.



---

Source Exif Data:

File Type                       : PDF
File Type Extension             : pdf
MIME Type                       : application/pdf
PDF Version                     : 1.4
Linearized                      : No
Page Count                      : 145
Language                        : en-US
Author                          : Desire Dubounet
Creator                         : Writer
Producer                        : LibreOffice 4.2
Create Date                     : 2014:06:23 13:36:20+02:00

EXIF Metadata provided by EXIF.tools