UNDP Shipping Guide
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UNDP PRACTICE SERIES
Practice Guide
Shipping and
Incoterms
Practice Guide
Shipping and
Incoterms
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SHIPPING AND INCOTERMS / PRACTICE GUIDE
Contents
Introduction 1
1 Shipping 2
Section 1 of these guidelines is intended for persons dealing with purchasing and shipping, but it is recommended that persons at the
receiving end also read it to be more familiar with how shipping operates, its terminology and documentation.
Chapter 1: Importance of Transportation and Summary 2
Chapter 2: Methods of Dispatch 2
Chapter 3: Selection of Method of Dispatch 7
Chapter 4: Packing – Markings – Addresses 8
Chapter 5: Parties Involved in the Chain of Transport Events 10
Chapter 6: Shipping Documents 11
Chapter 7: Forwarding Arrangements 14
Chapter 8: Shipping Instructions 15
Chapter 9: Distribution of Shipping Documentation 16
Chapter 10: Insurance Coverage 18
Chapter 11: Insurance Claim 21
2 Receiving 24
Section 2 will explain the steps to be taken for the withdrawal of supplies upon their arrival, and especially what to do when the
consignment is not in good order.
Chapter 1: Retrieval 24
Chapter 2: Receipt and Inspection 25
Chapter 3: Reporting and Claims 26
Chapter 4: Feedback and Cooperation 28
Chapter 5 Examples of Claim Letters 29
3 Terms and Glossary 34
Section 3 introduces Incoterms, UNCITRAL and contains a glossary of the most common terms used in the shipping world.
Chapter 1: Incoterms 34
Chapter 2: Uncitral 44
Chapter 3: Glossary 46
UNDP Practice Series, Shipping and Incoterms, November 2008
This Practice Guide is protected by international copyright laws.
The prior written consent of UNDP Procurement Support Office is required for the reproduction
(in any form) of the whole or any part of this Guide.
For further information please contact:
UNDP Procurement Support Office (PSO), Bureau of Management.
E-mail: procurement.training@undp.org.
Website: www.undp.org/procurement.
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SHIPPING AND INCOTERMS / PRACTICE GUIDE 1
SHIPPING AND INCOTERMS / PRAC TICE GUIDE
Introduction
This practice guide is designed for those working in UNDP who are interested in gaining an over-
view of appropriate shipping arrangements, documentation and Incoterms. Additionally, those
working in functions that include close interaction with the procurement or logistics function,
such as programme staff who would like a closer understanding of shipping activities, would nd
this practice guide relevant.
Among the topics covered are the principles of effective shipping arrangements, methods of miti-
gating risks and an overview of the options available for optimizing the organization’s logistical
activities and the capability to plan, implement and evaluate a transportation exercise appropri-
ate to the value/risk of the goods being transported.
About this Guide
This guide offers an overview of the different modes of shipment available to determine the •
appropriate logistical arrangements for a range of requirements;
Gives an introduction of a broad understanding of the need for insurance and the types of •
coverage available;
Explains the pros and cons of different Incoterms and the appropriate use of Incoterms;•
Discusses loss prevention, means and actions to put in place to minimize or prevent loss and •
effective packing and marking;
Describes customs procedures;•
Discusses the choice of appropriate shipping methods depending on various factors, includ-•
ing, cost, frequency / regularity, reliability and speed required; and
Explains the functions of shipping documents, including Air Waybill (AWB) and Bill of Lad-•
ing (B/L).
2SHIPPING AND INCOTERMS / PRACTICE GUIDE
1Shipping
Chapter 1 Importance of Transportation
The aim of this section is to provide guidelines for procurement and shipping by providing gen-
eral information on the mechanisms of transportation and their associated risks. This guide pro-
vides basic facts about shipping, and thus detailed legal aspects of trade and answers to specic
problems that could arise are beyond the scope of the publication. It is hoped, however, that the
guide will be useful to procurement staff in their day-to-day work.
Transport is the essential link between supplier and receiver, and the aim is to receive the goods
in good condition, when and where they are needed. This necessitates close collaboration be-
tween procurement staff, the supplier and the transporter. The journey involved, whether over
land, sea and/or air, may introduce certain costs and risks that can be mitigated by appropriate
methods of dispatch, insurance coverage, suitable packaging instructions, and by considering the
roles and responsibilities of the parties involved in the chain of transport events up until nal
delivery to the client.
Various aspects of these problems are examined in the following chapters.
Chapter 2 Mode of Transportation
Various modes of transportation are available for transporting goods between or within countries
by either air, sea or overland by road and rail.
In Short….
Purchasing and shipping are “service units” whose efforts must be devoted to help end-users.•
Receipt of supplies in good order is the target.•
A successful insurance claim does not compensate the inconvenience caused to end-users by arrival of supplies in bad •
order and therefore, managing risks comes before cost.
Use container services, full load, whenever possible, as this offers the best protection.•
Give clear shipping instructions to secure the best possible handling.•
Do not send any supplies, even post parcels, without a timely notification and supporting documents being issued to •
the end-user.
Modes of transportation
Sea-freight•
Containerized, Full Container Load (FCL) / Less-than-full Container Load (LCL) »
Conventional (general cargo) »
Charter Shipping (bulk) »
Roll on (RO)/Roll off (RO) Vessels and LASHING »
Airfreight •
Overland / Truck / Rail•
Post•
Multimodal Transportation•
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SHIPPING AND INCOTERMS / PRACTICE GUIDE
Sea-Freight Containerized
A standard container is a metallic box (steel or aluminium)
with a double door at one end and in which general cargo
can be safely loaded and transported. Most international con-
tainer trafc is carried in either 20 foot or 40 foot containers.
Container dimensions are standardized and the maximum
load is described in the table below.
Sea Freight Containers
20 foot container 40 foot container
Capacity (m³) 30 60
Internal dimensions L x W x H (meters) 5.89 x 2.32 x 2.23 12 x 2.32 x 2.43
Door W x H (meters) 2.30 x 2.14 2.30 x 2.23
Maximum load (tonnes) 18 30
Sea freight capacity, dimensions and load
There can be slight variations in these measurements depending upon the maker (always give
exact measurements of large, individual packages).
Containerized shipments are either Full Container Load (FCL) or Less than a Container Load (LCL):
FCL is a “door to door” concept. Containers are sealed at origin and opened at the destina-•
tion, offering high security and minimum handling. The majority of containerized UN cargo
is FCL.
LCL is a “Terminal to Terminal” concept. When a shipper does not have enough cargo to load •
a container to its full capacity, a forwarder running a “consolidated container service” may be
contacted and allowed to add, i.e. using one container for several loads originating from vari-
ous shippers. This is of greatest interest in the case of shipments to land-locked countries, as
the use of containers practically eliminates the risks of loss, pilferage and delays in the port
of unloading for transhipment over land. However, if reloading is required before the nal
destination, this method offers lower security, a higher risk of theft or damage during loading/
ofoading and/or exposure to adverse weather conditions.
The loading and stufng of a container to safely secure the cargo preventing movement and/or
collisions inside the container is a specialized procedure that is normally carried out by profes-
sionals to reduce the risk of cargo damage. Whether the buyer or the seller carries the cost and risk
Method of quoting freight rates
Case: Assuming that an ocean carrier or a freight consolidator offers an exporter $65 W/M (weight or measurement) for the
shipment of 665 cartons of product DX. The specified weight is per 1,000 kg and measure is per cubic meter (m³). The gross
weight of each carton is 10.5 kg and the dimensions are 0.45 x 0.30 x 0.30 m (LxWxH) which is 0.04 m³ per carton.
The consignment has a weight of 6,982.5 kg (i.e., 10.5 kg x 665) and a measure of 26.30 m³ (i.e., 0.04m³ x 665)
The freight cost by weight is: $65 x (6,982.5/1,000) = $ 453.86
The freight cost by measurement is: $65 x 26.30 = $ 1,729.00
The volume of product DX is large in relation to its weight; the freight cost by volume gives the carrier or the consolidator a
higher revenue and thus the exporter pays $1,729,00
4SHIPPING AND INCOTERMS / PRACTICE GUIDE
of stufng the container must be decided before bidding is conducted and the correct Incoterm
used in the bidding document.
Sea-Freight Conventional Cargo (General Cargo)
Conventional cargo is cargo that is transported in bulk, in
boxes and/or on palettes. This requires high quality export
packaging (for example, very strong wooden crates), offers
very low security and is da mage prone due to multi-handling
and exposure to weather conditions. Cargo is delivered to a
shipping company, referred to as “the carrier”, for transpor-
tation between a named port of shipment and a designated
place of destination, and is loaded into one of the holds of the carrying vessel (exceptionally on
deck if the nature of the goods so requires).
Sea-Freight Chartering
Charter cargo ships do not operate on regular routes and
schedules and pick up cargo only when it is chartered from
the ship operator. When a consignment represents several
thousand tons or cubic meters, for instance bulk cargo like
oil, coal, ore and grain, the normal procedure is to charter a
vessel or part of a vessel, after contacting possible carriers for
quotations. Charter shipping has the lowest freight rate per
unit of weight or measure. A charter-party can be concluded for a specic load (tonnage), for a
journey, or for a determined length of time.
Sea-Freight Roll on / Roll o (RO/RO)
The RO/RO vessel (RO/RO or RORO) derived from the tradi-
tional car ferry, where motor vehicles are driven on and off
by their drivers and non-mobile trafc is loaded on at racks.
The RO/RO is equipped with ramps that make loading and
unloading from the side and/or bow (front of vessel) and/
or stern (rear of vessel) possible. Benets include fast load-
ing and unloading. Some modern RO/ROs are designed as a
trailer/break-bulk/container carrier suitable for deep-sea voyage (long haul), making loading and
unloading of containers from the top using a crane, like a full container ship. The type of cargo
that can be carried on a RO/RO is exible, including large objects. The disadvantage is low se-
curity and the risk of damage occurring during loading/unloading and during on-forwarding to
an inland destination. For example, when transporting a large quantity of vehicles, RO/RO may
not be the optimal mode of transport, depending on the road conditions and safety and security
over-land. A car carrier or “own-wheels” offers considerably less protection against theft or dam-
age when compared with FCL delivery by truck where vehicles are safely secured inside closed
containers. Thus low freight rates offered on certain routes for RO/RO may not yield overall best
value for money; the entire transport chain must be considered when selecting appropriate meth-
ods of transport.
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SHIPPING AND INCOTERMS / PRACTICE GUIDE
Sea-Freight LASH (Lighter Aboard Ship)
Lighter Aboard Ship (LASH) is a system of water transport.
LASH vessels each carry about 82 LASH barges. The barg-
es, all of a standard size with cargo capacity of 385 tons, are
towed into ports and inland waterways to various shipping
points where they are loaded with cargo and then returned to
the ocean-going vessel. They are hoisted aboard by a special
shipboard gantry-type crane and transported overseas where
the process is reversed. LASH ships do not require special docks or terminals.
Air Freight
Air freight is often used for high value/low volume shipments.
The traditional method of air dispatch is to deliver a consign-
ment covered by an individual air waybill to an air carrier
(either direct or through a freight forwarder). In the case of
large loads, it is possible to charter a full aircraft or arrange for
what is called a split-charter if the load will not ll the aircraft
to full capacity.
Benets of air freight
Faster delivery
Airports worldwide can be reached in 1 or 2 days or in a few hours by airfreight, thus reducing
the risks of theft, pilferage and damage to the goods. Delivery to certain areas may take several
weeks to arrive by ocean and overland freight. Time sensitive or perishable goods, such as certain
pharmaceuticals, often rely on airfreight.
Better security
Airfreight has a tighter control over its cargo, thus it has better security that reduces the cargo
exposure to theft, pilferage and damage.
Less packaging
Airfreight requires less packaging because of faster delivery and better security. Less packaging
may mean saving freight, packaging and labour costs.
Lower insurance
Airfreight is faster and has better security than overland and ocean freight, thus the insurance
premium rate generally is lower.
Calculating airfreight
The basis of calculation of airfreight charges is normally weight per kilo, the weight being rounded off to the nearest higher 0.5
kg. When the ratio between weight and measurement exceeds 6, however (in the UK, it is 5), the basis for calculating cost will be
on volumetric weight.
Example:
A 9.8 kg package – volume 40 dm3 = charged at 10.0 kg
A 9.8 kg package – volume 75 dm3 = charged at 75/6 = 12.5 kg
Chargeable Weight for a shipment is the greater of the actual weight and the volumetric weight. It is proper and customary for
the figure to be rounded up to the next 0.5 kg.
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Overland (Truck/Rail/“Own-Wheels”)
Deliveries inland by truck, rail or “own-wheels” may be the
only viable option for supplying bulky loads. Road and rail
freight are commonly used in the cross-border deliveries. Gen-
erally, if the transit distance is less than 1,000 km, using road
freight is competitive compared to rail and airfreight. Road
freight is widely used in the inland delivery of goods to the
port of export. The delivery charge is called the cartage or
trucking fee. The hauling charges for transporting the ocean freight container on land normally ex-
cludes the cost of loading and unloading of cargo, called the drayage or cartage. The cartage, dray-
age and other inland transport charges (e.g. waterway freight and rail freight) are known as inland
freight. Security is generally considered low, and deliveries by truck require full export packaging
(e.g., strong wooden crates). Risk of theft and vandalism to rail transport can be mitigated by using
closed railway wagons. “Own-wheels” is perhaps the least secure and may require careful plan-
ning and analysis on the availability of drivers, road and weather conditions, customs checks and
general security in the area.
Post
Where postal services are reliable, small parcels can often be
sent more cheaply by air parcel post, or even surface parcel
post if the time element is not of primary importance. These,
however, should always be sent registered or insured. The
main considerations are the reliability of the postal service
at the destination and advising consignees of the arrival of
parcels which, in most instances, have to be cleared through
customs before they can be delivered.
Multimodal Transportation
Multimodal transportation is the movement of one unit load
from origin to destination by several methods or transporta-
tion under one document without breaking up the unit load.
The development of container trafc has made this possi-
ble, as containers can travel from end to end without being
opened/unloaded/reloaded during the course of the journey.
Companies which can offer multimodal transportation are large rms or forwarding agents who
specialize in such trafc, as it obviously requires diligent organization to ensure that the chain of
transport events works smoothly.
The advantage for those who make use of multimodal transportation is that they have one docu-
ment only for the whole operation and that the operator is legally responsible for a satisfactory
overall performance by his own staff and by the agents or branches that he is employing.
An example of multimodal transportation:
Containers loaded in continental Europe travel by train to Rotterdam, then ship on a vessel to Dar Es Salaam, then are delivered
inland in Tanzania by truck.
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Chapter 3 Selection of the Methods of Dispatch
The ability to decide on the right method of shipment depends on various factors, including
urgency, nature of the goods, cost, need for cautious handling, weight and volume, value of the
goods, frequency/regularity of delivery and reliability of the method.
Several factors have to be taken into consideration when planning the dispatch of any item, and
these factors may be conicting. For instance, an urgent consignment may not be sent by air be-
cause of insufcient funds or because the type of goods precludes air dispatch.
The following should be carefully considered:
a) Type of supplies
In many instances there are many choices. In some cases, however, there is no choice. For ex-
ample, perishable goods should be sent by air, and large quantities of fertilizers, insecticides,
and sewer pipes, for instance, will be sent by surface and/or sea (dangerous goods may not be
allowed by airfreight).
b) Geography
Origin and destination determine distance and therefore type of transportation required. Sur-
face shipment may be logical in certain cases, while airfreight might otherwise be required.
Related factors include transport infrastructure, safety, security, weather conditions, etc.
c) Time element
Except for emergencies or where the top priority is the delivery of supplies within the short-
est possible time, procurement should be made to allow dispatch by the most economical/
rational means. It is therefore of great importance that supply programmes are planned with
shipping in mind to avoid expensive rush shipments or purchasing from a source that is not
especially rational when shipping time is factored in.
d) Cost
There is no rule to indicate the percentage cost of transportation as compared to the value of
supplies. Except for clear cases where only air or surface can be selected, airfreight should
automatically be compared to surface. Small and medium-sized consignments can often be
sent at approximately the same cost by air as surface, chiey when transhipment and on-
forwarding would be required in surface transport. A golden rule: group small orders for joint
shipment, as repeated small dispatches become very expensive, especially when the cost of
customs clearing the goods is added.
e) Safety
Fragile/sensitive high valued equipment is best sent by air, even if there is no special urgency
in their dispatch. In the same manner, cargo at risk of being pilfered that is shipped by sea
should be containerized, such as automotive spare parts, ofce machinery and stationery,
pharmaceuticals and medicines, etc. Remember that a successful insurance claim is, at best,
a nancial compensation; it will never compensate for the inconvenience caused to the con-
signee by the arrival of supplies in bad order.
Rule of thumb
Relatively high value / volume: • use airfreight
Relatively low value / volume: • use sea freight
8SHIPPING AND INCOTERMS / PRACTICE GUIDE
Chapter 4 Packing – Markings – Addresses
Ideally during the tendering period and at the time of placing orders and issuing shipping instruc-
tions, all requirements concerning packing and markings must be sent to potential suppliers (in
the invitation to tender), contracted suppliers and forwarders.
Packing
The type of packing required depends on the goods to be sent, the method of dispatch and condi-
tions at the nal destination. Remember that paying extra for good packing may result in savings
to the organization in the long run.
The type and nature of the packing is inuenced by factors such as:
Kind of product
Use crates for large and heavy objects like machines, bags for powder like cement, plastic drums
or containers for liquids, wooden cases for small and heavy items like nails, and bales for bulky
materials like cotton.
While many items – i.e. printers, ofce machines, household appliances – are delivered in mould-
ed polystyrene packs and then placed within good cartons which offer excellent protection, many
orders for composite pieces of equipment cannot be packed in the same manner. In addition to
outside packaging, this type of freight should be secured inside its packaging to prevent move-
ment during shipping. It is important on such occasions to instruct suppliers specically to pack
for airfreight, for ocean freight or for container shipment.
Mode of transportation
Generally, airfreight requires less packing than ocean and land freight, and containerized ship-
ments require less packing than non-containerized shipments due to lower risks of loss or dam-
age.
Route and nal destination
In areas with higher incidence of loss or damage due to mishandling, theft and pilferage, more
and stronger packing is necessary.
If several transfers are required along the way, for example from vessel to rail, rail to lorry and -
nally, to a 4-wheel drive vehicle, the packing should be especially strong and carefully made. The
internal packing must be made to prevent movement inside the boxes – and the supplier should
be told this upon order.
In addition, suppliers should be instructed to avoid delivering very heavy individual packages,
as these may create problems at the destination. For examples, it may be very difcult to load a
case weighing 250kg onto the back of a pick-up with the absence of lifting gear, but loading three
smaller cases would present no problem. Suppliers may therefore be requested to deliver their
goods in packages not exceeding 50-80kg each whenever the cargo can be split accordingly.
Climatic conditions
Desiccants (drying agent made form silica or a form of clay which is packed as granules into bags)
and/or other special packing materials such as waxed paper and laminated foil may be required
in areas with high humidity levels. Other packaging materials utilized to protect consignments
from adverse climatic conditions include: paper, cardboard, lling and cushioning material, con-
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SHIPPING AND INCOTERMS / PRACTICE GUIDE
tainers and inserts, corrugated cardboard folding boxes, corrosion protection lms, stretch and
shrink lms, etc.
Customs duties and freight rates
Lighter and less packing material is preferred in cases where the specic duty or the freight rate
is on the basis of weight.
Cost of packing materials
The cost of wooden cases has increased considerably, so in some cases, suppliers may be invited
to quote separately for the cost of packing. Bidding documents or Purchase Orders quoting “ex-
port packing” are not explicit enough. Suppliers should be clearly instructed what sort of export
packing is required as their standard packaging may not be adequate.
Pallets
Pallets were conceived for easy handling of all types of stackable items such as small cases, car-
tons or bags; they consist of wooden boards as a oor on which goods are placed, a wooden top,
and the whole being securely strapped to constitute a compact unit. The oor itself is nailed onto
wood blocks which allows for passage of the prongs of a forklift. Standard Europallets have the
following dimensions: 120 x 80 cm and US pallets 120 x 100 cm. Pallets are ideal for loading into
containers and facilitate easy handling by forklift.
It is highly recommended that each carton, case or unit of goods loaded on pallets be clearly
marked to facilitate identication, in case a pallet is lost in transit. For instance, a consignment
should be described as “three pallets of each 40 cartons”, instead of just “three pallets”. Endless
difculties, loss of time and loss of supplies can occur at destination when the number of parcels
on the bill of lading (B/L) and invoices does not agree with the quantity actually received because
the pallet wrapping has broken.
Markings
Known as “shipping marks”, these serve two
main purposes: rst, as identication marks
for the carriers and all those engaged in the
carriage and handling while in transit, and
second, for the consignee to identify the cor-
responding order and activity to ensure cor-
rect delivery. Shipping marks must enable
people to spot and recognize, at a distance,
packages in a warehouse lying among other
cargo. They must, therefore, be stencilled in
bold letters and gures and be as simple as
possible.
Additional compulsory information may
need to appear, for instance, gross weight or
net weight and any warnings required by law
because of the nature of the goods or simply
required for proper or cautious handling.
Keep in mind that the physical handling in
warehouses, sheds, etc., is often done by un-
skilled or illiterate workers, unable to read
the Latin alphabet. Indications such as “frag-
Example
Identification of the consignee UNDP
Destination ADDIS ABABA
Port of unloading VIA ASSAB
Project identification HH/…/…
Order number XO/ETH-1234/…
Case number 1/10…2/10…3/10
Examples of symbolic markings
Keep away from heat Keep dry
10 SHIPPING AND INCOTERMS / PRACTICE GUIDE
ile”, “top”, “this side up” will thus have no meaning. It is preferable to replace them with symbols
such as the broken glass for fragile items or arrows for a package to be kept upright.
To help consignees, shipping marks should be standardized for all orders relating to one and the
same activity, with only the order numbers and actual package numbers being adapted. Shipping
marks should not be left to the discretion of suppliers but be stipulated clearly in each order.
Addresses
While shipping marks are usually abbreviated designations of the consignee and its location, the
full address is written on shipping documents, as well as the address to which correspondence
and shipping documents will be sent.
An address should be clear and concise the for the simple reason that the space allowed on many
important documents such as air waybills and bills of lading is comparatively small, usually a
maximum of four to ve short lines. If the addresses given are too lengthy to t in, they will be ab-
breviated at some stage by someone who may omit important details. The address should include
the name of a department, unit or bureau to whom the documents are intended to avoid possible
misrouting when they are sent to a large organization, such as a ministry.
Chapter 5 Parties Involved in the Chain of Transport
Carriers
Inland carriers are those who take charge of the consignment at the suppliers’ premises, carry
and deliver it to the specied warehouse, berth, wharf or airport of departure. At the destination,
inland carriers may be required to transport consignments from the place of arrival to their nal
inland destination. The term “inland carrier” is a general one, as it can cover either rail or road
transport, or often a combination of both.
Overseas carriers are either shipping or airline companies. A shipment may require transporta-
tion by one or several carriers if transhipments are involved, but normally, such a shipment will
be covered by one document only, either a through bill of lading or through air waybill.
Forwarding Agents/Forwarders
Forwarding agents are also known as freight forwarders, freight brokers, transit agents, and they
may also act as clearing agents or customs brokers. In most instances buyers and sellers are not
themselves in a position to carry out the necessary arrangements for the shipment of their cargo.
They rely on the services of specialized rms for this work and for processing customs formali-
ties. The role of a forwarding agent is to monitor shipping from the moment cargo becomes avail-
able. They register consignments with carriers, call them forward for delivery to the wharf and
berth of the carrying vessel, prepare B/L, lodge and retrieve them from the carriers’ agents, pay for
the freight and related expenses, prepare or obtain any other document that may be required, and
nally, distribute documentation in accordance with instructions from their principals.
In the case of airfreight, they carry out somewhat similar operations. Forwarding agents act as
consolidators for both surface and airfreight trafc. It is their specic duty to look after the interest
of their customers, to check the rates charged by carriers and to negotiate special terms when the
size of a shipment warrants it in case their principals are not in a position to do so themselves. At
the destination, forwarders may be appointed to retrieve cargo, arrange for its clearance through
customs and for its delivery or on-forwarding.
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Dock Authorities
It is in the care of the port/airport authorities, or in places under their jurisdiction, that consign-
ments will be kept pending shipment or pending clearance and retrieval at the destination.
Customs Authorities
Cargo can not be exported from a country or imported into another without customs control.
Documents need to be processed through the ofcial customs ofces, and spot-checks of the
goods are sometimes carried out to assess the conformity of the cargo with the description given
on the documents. The activities of the customs authorities have in fact, many purposes. At the
time of export and apart from the control exercised to prevent illegal transactions, customs will
certify documents proving export of cargo, thus exempting rms form payment of internal taxes
or enabling them to obtain refunds. They keep statistical records by destination and on the types,
quantities and values of goods on the export market. From the import side, customs authorities
carry out similar operations, collecting the same sort of statistical information, with, however, the
big difference that they also collect duties, rather than exempt rms from taxes.
Insurers
By means of separate insurance policies or under contractual arrangements, insurance companies
will hold all cargo covered against the hazards of transportation to destination.
Others
In addition to the above-mentioned rms or corporations, various sub-contractors intervene in
the process of shipping, but rarely come into direct contact with suppliers or principals. Some
of them are indicated here, but not commented upon: container handling, warehousing/stevedo,
lighterage services, tally clerks, surveyors, banks, etc.
Chapter 6 Shipping Documents
Certain basic documents are required for the carriage of cargo. Other documents are also needed
by consignees and buyers to complete any transaction.
Ocean Freight
The document covering the carriage of goods by sea is called a bill of lading (B/L). The B/L is the
authentic receipt delivered by a carrier, conrming that the goods therein specied (markings,
types of goods, number of packages, etc.) have been loaded or taken in charge for loading on a
designated vessel for carriage to a specied port.
Apart from the Master copy, B/L is established in two or three “originals”, signed and stamped by
the carriers or their agent. Non-negotiable copies, which are not signed, have no legal value. An
original B/L is the title of property to the goods.
They can be of the following types:
a) Relating to parties
B/L to a named person or consignee
That a person alone will be able to collect the goods at the destination against presentation of
the original B/L (in USA, this type of B/L is called a straight B/L).
B/L to bearer
The holder is considered as the legal owner of the goods.
12 SHIPPING AND INCOTERMS / PRACTICE GUIDE
B/L to order
A negotiable-instrument of title and ownership of goods covered under it can be transferred
by one party to another by signature (endorsement) and delivery of the B/L. Generally, goods
which have not been paid-for in advance (goods sent under an open-account or a letter-of-
credit) are shipped this way. The consignor must stamp and sign (endorse) this B/L so that
its title can be transferred. B/L to order is not normally used in UN trafc, but widely used in
commercial trafc.
b) Relating to the journey
Direct B/L
From port to port, without transhipment.
Through B/L
Transhipment is taking place along the journey. This can be either in a rst port of unloading
for transfer into another vessel serving the nal destination, in a port for overland on-forward-
ing, or from an inland origin for carriage to a port where shipment will take place.
Examples:
Hamburg/Myanmar with transhipment in Singapore•
London/Bamako, via Abidjan•
Geneva/New York, via Le Havre•
These various features of B/L designating beneciaries and routing can combine their ele-
ments, and there can be direct B/L to order, or a through B/L to bearer, for instance.
Other provisions can be made on B/L, but the only one we would mention here is the “clean
B/L”, meaning that the cargo has been accepted by the carriers without reservation, i.e. that
the consignment has been received for shipment in sound, external condition – therefore, the
carriers must deliver it at the destination in the same sound, external condition.
c) Forwarder B/L
We have seen that in the case of multimodal transportation, one document only is issued and
this is what is called an “hours” B/L, or also a FIATA B/L, if the document is prepared on
forms produced by FIATA (according to the International Federation of Freight Forwarders
Association). This document is, in fact, a through B/L, with the difference that it is not created
by an ocean carrier, but by a forwarding agent, under his own name.
d) Other features on the B/L
Even if two or three original Bs/L have been issued, only one needs be presented to withdraw
the cargo at the destination and be endorsed (or “accomplished”). When one of the originals
has been accomplished, the remaining originals stand void.
The indications which must appear on a B/L are:
The beneciaries;•
Port of shipment, port of destination or transhipment (nal destination in case of tranship-•
ment);
Complete markings and numbering of packages;•
Quantity and types of packages (cases, bags, bales, drums, pallets, etc.);•
Type of goods, with all the legal, compulsory notices, in case of restricted cargo;•
Weight and measurements by type of cargo; and•
Whether freight is prepaid or payable at destination.•
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Rail
Goods transported by rail between countries are covered by international “rail consignment
notes”. These documents are not negotiable with the cargo being placed at the disposal of the
designated consignee upon proof of identity. For road transportation, waybills are normally is-
sued. For loads lesser than a full truck, consolidation is the rule.
Airfreight
The document covering the carriage of goods by airfreight is called an air waybill (AWB).
The AWB is to air transportation what the B/L is to ocean freight, with, however, a fundamental
difference: the AWB is not a negotiable document, and there is no original AWB to be given to
the consignee to enter into possession of the goods. The consignment is placed at the disposal
of the stipulated consignee against proof of identity, a signed receipt and payment of charges, if
any. When airfreight consignments are sent by a joint-cargo service, the consolidator will issue an
ordinary “master air waybill” (MAW) to his agent at the destination, covering the entire consign-
ment, but issue a separate “house air waybill” (HAWB) for each individual lot. The agent will
place the individual lots at the disposal of the various consignees designated on the house air
waybills. As with B/L, all detailed information required to identify the consignee and the goods
must appear on the AWB.
Post
A postal declaration giving the name and address of consignee must be lled. A receipt is given
by the postal authorities for all registered/insured parcels.
Supporting Documentation
In addition to the basic transport documents, buyers and receivers may require several others:
Invoices and packing lists essential to clear through customs and to tally the supplies re-•
ceived;
Forwarder’s receipt to process suppliers’ invoices for payment;•
Certicate of origin (if required);•
Legalized invoices in the country of destination;•
Consular invoices;•
Declaration on dangerous or restricted cargo, required by carriers before they will accept such •
items for transportation;
Insurance certicates, as applicable;•
Veterinary certicates; and•
Certicates of analysis or of conformity, in accordance with special conditions which may be •
part of contracts.
In some special cases, additional certications or information may need to appear on the invoices
or shipping documents. When this is required, forwarding agents will normally be able to provide
advice.
Letter of Credit (L/C)
An L/C is a bank document issued to safeguard the interest of both seller and buyer. Shipments
on behalf of UN agencies are not, as a rule, subject to L/C. However, there are several types of let-
ters of credit, but the one offering the best guarantee to both parties is the so-called “conrmed
and irrevocable L/C”. Fundamentally, such a L/C means that to cover a purchase, the buyer has
instructed his bank to notify the banking agent in the seller’s country to effect payment to that
supplier against presentation of specied documents, to specied terms and within the period of
validity of the letter of credit.
14 SHIPPING AND INCOTERMS / PRACTICE GUIDE
Chapter 7 Forwarding Arrangements
In most instances, UN purchasing and shipping can be described as a triangular operation: a
buyer, a supplier and a receiver. On many occasions, the three parties are in different countries,
if not on different continents.
In Section III of these guidelines, further explanations are provided on the signicance of the
most currently used international commercial terms (Incoterm) such as: FCA, CIF, CIP and DDU,
etc., which are referred to in this chapter, as published by the International Chamber of Com-
merce. These rules have proven to be of great help to the commercial world in providing clear
explanations for roles and responsibilities for various important steps in the delivery:
Freight arrangement•
Obligation to take out transport insurance•
Place of delivery•
Transfer of risk•
Distribution of costs (loading/off-loading etc.)•
Arrange export/import clearance•
Dispatch arrangements by suppliers on behalf of the buyer
This is the basis of contracts placed, for example, CFR (cost and freight) or CIF (cost, insurance
and freight). Orders placed on CFR or CIF terms mean that suppliers have quoted a price which
included the value of the goods and all shipping cost up to the seaport of arrival (CFR), or the
value of the goods, all shipping cost and insurance up to seaport of arrival (CIF). Suppliers are
therefore responsible for the shipping arrangements, either directly themselves or through their
own forwarders. Most of the time this is in accordance with shipping instructions they have re-
ceived from the buyer, or according to their best judgement if they have no specic instructions.
Dispatch arrangements made through forwarders designated by the buyer
Forwarding agents are professional intermediaries whose work is to ship goods for account of
their many principals (see Chapter 5 – Forwarding Agents). When a contract is CIF or CFR the
selection of the forwarder remains with the supplier. When a contract is FCA (free carrier) or FOB
(free on board), the choice of the forwarder for the main voyage lies with the buyer.
Standardizing procedures
Another consideration is the standardization of shipping procedures so that orders are dispatched
via the same rm. This eliminates errors which are otherwise unavoidable when every purchase
is handled by a different forwarder.
What difference does it make if the forwarder is selected by the supplier or by the buyer?
A forwarder works for, and is responsible to its principals, i.e. those from whom a mandate is received and who pay for its
services. In a CFR or CIF contract, the forwarder selected by the supplier has no obligation towards the buyer on behalf of whom
shipment is made, rather is responsible to carry out the instructions received from the client, the supplier. Often, in a CIF or
similar contract, the name of the forwarder who actually handled dispatch is not known to the buyer.
A forwarding agent appointed by a buyer is in fact the buyer’s representative on the spot, with the specific mandate to look
after the interests of the principals, the buyer, and not after the supplier’s interest. This can be very important should an incident
occur at the time of delivery. The forwarder employed by a supplier may hesitate before making a claim against that supplier,
while the forwarder appointed by a buyer may readily do so. Forwarders appointed by buyers can also perform other functions
such as: keeping in touch with suppliers and sending them reminders when orders are falling behind their delivery schedule
and consolidating orders for joint dispatch, thus reducing overall cost of transportation and facilitating receipt of orders at
destination by making one instead of several shipments.
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If a supplier or manufacturer already has large volumes going to the desired destinations, a par-
ticular consignment may benet from volume consideration in freight consolidations. If the con-
tract with the supplier/manufacturer so species, it can also be the supplier’s responsibility to
ensure that the goods arrive at the destination in time and in good order, thus simplifying the
buyer’s responsibilities in handling the order. The supplier/manufacturer may indeed have a
shipping department or freight forwarders who are experienced in ensuring that their products
arrive safely at difcult destinations.
Chapter 8 Shipping Instructions
Where and how to dispatch which documents are required and to whom they should be distrib-
uted, is the basic data that must be indicated in the terms of a contract. However, a number of
other requirements or information may be needed or requested.
Adequate and detailed instructions must be issued for proper handling of the transportation,
keeping in mind that the nal aim is the arrival of the cargo at its destination in time and good
order. Shipment should be arranged by the safest route and the best service available, at the most
economical cost. Supplies ordered may very often go to difcult destinations; delays and unnec-
essary expenses can be avoided by specifying a routing, indicating one port of transit in prefer-
ence to another, and in the case of airfreight, which airports of transit should be avoided. This
requires some technical knowledge in the eld of transportation, and feedback from the receiving
end can be tremendously helpful.
The following points should be noted:
a) Instructions to suppliers, as integral parts of orders:
Terms of purchase: FOB… CFR… CIP… (specify the port/airport);•
Method of dispatch: ocean freight, airfreight, container, etc.;•
Packing required, shipping marks and addresses (see Chapter 4); and•
Name of forwarded to contact, if applicable.•
b) Instructions to forwarders or suppliers acting as such:
Documents required, how many copies (we recommend 3 original B/L, for example);•
To whom documents must be distributed;•
Transportation charges payable by the buyer (this is important when on-forwarding is re-•
quired from a port to an inland destination); and
Information on any preferential rates or discounts applicable to the Agency’s shipments.•
c) Information on recommended routing
The decision on routing should not be left to chance, but be taken by the buyer, often with
feedback and advice from the freight forwarder and/or from the receiving end.
For instance, air-shipment to Kano (Nigeria), should proceed on direct ight to Kano (Nigeria)
and not via Lagos; air-shipment to Juba (South Sudan), should be prescribed via Nairobi and
not via Khartoum; surface shipment to Bamako (Mali), can be directed either to Dakar, or
via Abidjan; and surface shipment to Colombia can be directed either to Barranquilla on the
Atlantic coast, or to Buenaventura on the Pacic coast, depending on the nal site of delivery
in the country, etc.
16 SHIPPING AND INCOTERMS / PRACTICE GUIDE
d) Instructions or information on insurance coverage
Instructions should specify either that coverage is not required because the consignment will
not be commercially insured, or will be insured by the agency or that insurance arrangements
are to be made, and in that case, specify the risks to be covered, for example, “Cargo Clauses
A”.
e) When in doubt on the method of dispatch
For many orders there is no doubt about the method of dispatch, for example due to the size,
weight or urgency, etc.; they are scheduled for surface or air and sent accordingly.
There are frequent cases, however, when it is not known at the time of placing the order
whether surface or air should be selected. Considering the high cost of transit and on-forward-
ing charges for inland destinations and the favourable rates that can be obtained in air trafc,
there is little doubt that a number of consignments sent by surface could well have gone by air
at approximately the same cost.
To overcome this, it is suggested that normal instructions for surface dispatch be issued, but
that a provision be made on orders and shipping instructions to cover an alternative. This
provision could read along the following lines: “This order is issued for dispatch by surface;
however, please e-mail the approximate gross and net weights, with measurements, when
packed for airfreight and for surface. Unless you receive alternative instructions within …
days, dispatch is to proceed by surface as originally scheduled.”
Chapter 9 Distribution of Shipping Documents
Shipping documents are required for several purposes: by the purchaser to verify that the order
has been satisfactorily lled and dispatched and then for payment of related invoices, and by the
consignee (who may also be the purchaser), to clear through customs, obtain delivery and check
the conformity of the goods received against the order. Copies of documents may also be required
by other ofces for information.
Ocean Freight
B/L being the title property to the goods, one of the originals must be in the consignee’s hands
by the time the carrying vessel reaches the port of destination, preferably a week before, so that
formalities for free entry may be initiated. At least one copy of invoice, with packing details or
packing slips, must accompany the B/L, together with any other documents that may be required,
such as certicate of insurance, certicate of origin, consular invoice, etc.
Risks inherent in late receipt of shipping documents and/or late retrieval of
consignments are:
Rent and demurrage charges;•
Theft / vandalism;•
Damage to the supplies because of inadequate storage or climatic conditions (adverse weather, heat, monsoon, snow, •
etc.);
Seizure and auction sale if not collected within the time prescribed by port/airport authorities;•
Loss because a consignment, although landed, cannot be located under accumulation of later arrived cargo; and•
Insurance claims becoming time-barred.•
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There is no standard method of distribution; documents may either be sent to the agency for
transmittal or documents sent directly to the consignee by the forwarder/supplier entrusted with
shipping.
The respective merits of each method are as follows:
a) Documents sent to the purchasing agency for distribution have the advantage of a standardized
procedure, the consignees receiving their documents regularly under cover of the agency’s
usual courier service.
Transmission time can be calculated as follows:
retrieval of B/L from carriers and airmailing 2-6 days
airmail from origin to buyer 2 days
processing, checking and issue of dispatch
notications at the buyer’s organization 7 days
(this is considered a minimum, it can take longer in case of public holiday, leave, sickness or seasonal pressure of work)
transmission by airmail to eld, or by airmail or courier 7 days
The minimum total time is about 3 weeks, often longer. This is adequate for a shipment from
Europe to Indonesia, for example, but it is not from Japan to Indonesia, as the ship would ar-
rive before the documents.
b) Sending documents directly from the port of shipment reduces the transmission time, but for
safety and efciency, precautions need to be taken. The rst and second original B/L, with
their supporting documents, should be sent to the consignee by separate registered airmail.
This is the reason why it is stated in Chapter 8 that original B/L should be obtained in three
originals (2 to destination, 1 to the purchasing ofce). Then, the address should include an
identication of the department or unit concerned in a multi-ofce location, to avoid misrout-
ing. The third original B/L should be sent to the purchasing ofce because this is an important
document which belongs exclusively to the owner of the goods. Moreover, should the other
originals go astray, the third copy would be readily available.
When the sea journey is particularly short, there is also a possibility of sending a set of documents
by ship’s bag, i.e., to leave one B/L in care of the ship’s Master for transmittal to the consignee
on arrival. When a consignment for a land-locked country cannot be sent on a through B/L, and
consequently action must be taken to secure on-forwarding from the port of arrival, the original
B/L must be made out and sent to the rm or party responsible for the transit operations, together
with the necessary instructions for payment of charges and carriage.
Airfreight
Cargo sent by airfreight is placed at the disposal of the consignee designated on the AWB. There
is no “original” to surrender, as with ocean freight and the set of copies travel on the same plane
as the goods.
To enable consignees to enter quickly into possession of their supplies, it is necessary for them
to be aware of dispatches on their way to them. It is recommended that forwarders/suppliers en-
trusted with dispatch arrangements forward scanned copies of invoice, packing list and AWB by
email to the recipients a few days before airlifting, with a covering note of warning, announcing
the related forthcoming consignment.
18 SHIPPING AND INCOTERMS / PRACTICE GUIDE
A copy of the commercial invoice should always be attached to the AWB itself. For perishable
supplies, an email must be sent at least 48 hours before departure of the consignment, with all the
relevant ight details (right through to the nal airport, in case of transfer(s)).
In case of perishables, dispatch over a week-end or idle day/ofcial holiday should be avoided if
at all possible, and an AWB should also be annotated to draw the attention of all concerned to the
nature of the goods and action to be taken for appropriate storage, etc.
Rail - Road - Post
It is essential for consignees to be notied of consignments and to have copies of invoices with
packing notes. These must either be airmailed in advance, or at least remitted to the carriers to
accompany the consignment.
Chapter 10 Insurance Coverage
Why Insure?
It is a common practice in the commercial world to insure goods in transit. Briey, the following
reasons compel traders to contract transport insurance:
Protection against nancial losses resulting from damage, pilferage, theft and non-receipt of •
entire or part of a consignment; and
Protection against nancial claims that can be made against the owner of goods on board a ves-•
sel in case of a “declared general average” (the goods themselves being undamaged).
Example of cases leading to general average: re on board, heavy weather disabling the ship or
break down of machinery leaving the ship uncontrolled. To prevent a total loss, the ship’s Master
will ask for outside help, and usually, for the vessel to be towed to a port where repairs can be
made. All the expenses resulting from the event will be shared between the owner of the ship
and the owners of the cargo on board; the extent of liability of the latter being the value of cargo,
invoice value plus freight. The assessment is undertaken by specialists called “average adjusters”,
and the settlement of a case of general average can take several years.
What to Insure
The value for insurance is usually calculated as follows: cost of goods + freight and shipping cost,
plus an uplift of 10% to cover administrative expenses and increases in price if goods have to be
re-ordered.
Typical calculation
What additional risks to cover vary from commodity to commodity; they are not the same for
glassware, iron pipes and vehicles, for instance. If a buyer has negotiated a oating policy where
all usual risks and special coverage are included, then any consignment beneting from these
What is “particular average” and “general average”?
Particular average means damages sustained by goods only, or by the ship only•
General average means the loss (jettison) and the expenditure, voluntarily incurred, to prevent the entire loss of a vessel and •
her cargo on board
(Value of goods + Cost of Transport) x 1.10 = Insurance Value
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conditions will be insured to the maximum extent. If coverage is arranged case by case, then the
request for coverage should specify what is required: normally all risks, war, strike and civil com-
motions.
How to Insure
a) Through suppliers
Contracts placed CIF relieves the buyer of the task of making insurance arrangements. Howev-
er, the disadvantages are many: under CIF the supplier is obliged only to buy the cheapest in-
surance coverage subject to cargo clauses C, unless otherwise stated in the bidding document/
contract that the coverage must be subject to “Institute Marine Cargo Clauses, A”. Another
disadvantage is that every insurance contract is placed with a different company by someone
acting on behalf of the buyer only, each time with varying terms and conditions on minimum
amounts for survey reports, coverege, and agents to contact with different procedures for pay-
ment of claims. For each of these insurance companies, the consignees are just one of their
many occasional clients. This can lead to difculties and non-payment of claims, if all the
conditions stipulated in the policy/certicate are not met (documentation incomplete, late
presentation of claim, etc.). For the consignees, it means no continuity or standardization in
procedure. Finally, it may result in higher premium for a lesser coverage. The buyer may in-
stead take advantage of corporate system-wide long-term-agreements for insurance coverage
maintained by headquarters.
Remember that under contracts placed CIF/CIP the supplier obtains insurance on behalf of the
buyer. Thus, it is the buyer who will submit the insurance claim. Under CIF/CIP the buyer may
submit invoices for payment as soon as the goods have passed the FOB/FCA point. Therefore
the supplier may still be entitled to full payment in the event the cargo is lost at sea. In this
instance it is imperative the buyer meet claim deadlines and initiates the insurance claim
promptly (see Chapter 11). However, in some cases, the supplier/manufacturer may have a
global policy which offers the buyer low rates.
b) Self-insurance
This is when the buyer decides not to insure outside and chooses to bear the risks of the
transportation, a common practice for consignments of small value where funds to nance
replacements are available and when it is believed that administrative work involved with
commercial insurance of many small dispatches is not warranted. The limit level may vary
considerably, depending on the volume of purchasing and internal nancial regulations and
rules. The overall risk should be limited, so there are no disastrous consequences in case of
loss. The problem is different for high-valued consignments; self-insurance then requires the
setting up of a fund with proper administration for studying claims received and for process-
ing claims against faulty carriers/parties responsible for losses. All this can create problems
with yearly budgets, as settlement of claims can drag on for years. It is recommended that a
nancial threshold is determined above which all shipments shall be commercially insured in
line with the organization’s nancial regulations and rules.
c) Floating policy with an insurance company
This method is adopted by many commercial rms with a regular ow of shipments. A oating
(or open) policy is the result of negotiation between parties. The larger the amount of busi-
ness for the insurers, the better the terms they are prepared to offer, and consignees benet
from dealing with the same insurance agents, under the same terms and with a standardized
method of reporting claims.
20 SHIPPING AND INCOTERMS / PRACTICE GUIDE
UNDP subscribes to an All Risks Open Marine, Air and Land Cargo Policy providing insurance
worldwide and country ofces are encouraged to use this contract. The policy insures the sub-
ject matter against all risks of loss or damage. Coverage continues during the course of transit
or while temporarily stored as long as the goods remain at risk to UNDP.
Goods are insured from UNDP’s suppliers warehouse to the consignees warehouse, if required,
including any consolidation, deconsolidation, transshipment and/or temporary storage there-
after while in transit.
A separate supplemental policy is also available to UNDP that covers motor vehicles driven
under own power from the port of discharge to nal interior destination.
Once the insurance company has been informed that the eld ofce will use the cargo insur-
ance policy, the eld ofce can on a monthly basis simply send an email or fax providing
the following information: one gure representing the combined total of all values, including
freight, to be insured for the reported period.
The policy is subject to monthly declarations to be submitted to the insurance company with-
in 15 days of the end of the respective month.
For rates, details on coverage, war risks, claims procedure and contact information see the
procurement section on UNDP’s Intranet.
Insurance Documents
Apart from the insurance policy, which is the agreement between insurer and insured party and
which sets in details the risks covered, the conditions and the rates, the following other docu-
ments are currently used in the insurance market:
a) Insurance certicates: a furtherance of the policy to cover consignments in transit, to describe
them, the journeys, the amounts covered, agents to contact at destination and other details
relevant to the insurance cases.
Insurance certicates are signed by the underwriters and the original certicate is normally
required in the set of documents to be presented to a bank for a transaction covered by a letter
of credit. When not required for banking purposes and to cut down on administrative work,
certicates can be replaced by much simpler notices of insurance where only the agent to con-
tact at destination need to be added. This can be arranged by an agreement between the holder
of a long-term-agreement and the insurance company.
b) Survey report: the document established by the insurance company’s agents at destination,
when consignments are received in bad order.
Since survey reports are costly, they should be requested only when it is expected that the loss
or damage will exceed the gure considered reasonable by the underwriters or when a survey
report is registered by the insurer. The survey report will be the basis of settlement of an in-
surance claim and it can be accompanied by an estimate of repairs approved by the surveyor
when applicable. The fees levied by the surveyor for establishing his report is payable by the
person/party who requested his attendance, but are reimbursable by the insurance company.
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Chapter 11 Insurance Claims
This chapter outlines contracts between insurers and the insured party, but not the steps to be
taken by consignees on receipt of damaged consignments. This particular problem will be exam-
ined in Part Two, “Receiving”.
Processing an insurance claim involves administrative work, correspondence and accounting. It
is not worth putting this in motion to recover small amounts and claims involving compensations
under $25 or $50, for instance, and a minimum level should be determined by negotiation.
There is a difference between processing an insurance claim and the provision of replacements. A
small and inexpensive spare part may be urgently needed and its replacement becomes a procure-
ment matter irrespective of any insurance claim.
An agreement should also be reached with insurer on the amount under which no survey report
will be required, with a report signed by a senior ofcial being deemed sufcient by the under-
writers to take a claim into consideration. This facility, however, does not relieve the consignee
of forwarding a claim to the responsible party.
Documents Required to Process Claims
Always carefully read the claims procedure and documents required to support claims; as stipu-
lated in the specic insurance policy, these may include:
Survey report or Senior Ofcer’s report, according to the extent of damages;•
Estimates and /or invoices for the cost of repairs, goods which have to be procured and sent, •
or for local purchase of replacement parts, whenever possible, approved by the surveyor to
facilitate settlement;
Copy of the invoice for the original shipment;•
Copy of claim letters to the responsible party and response(s); and•
Short-landing certicates or certicates of loss when entire cargo is missing.•
When a piece of equipment cannot be repaired on the spot, the manufacturer’s and the under-
writer’s agreements should be obtained before its return. The manufacturer may have special
instructions to give to secure the prompt and correct handling of the returned consignment and
may also direct the return to a repair center nearer to the consignee’s location.
Simplied Claims Procedure
In the even of a claim, the facilities of UNDP’s contracted insurance company are available. They
will provide recommendations as to steps to take in case of loss, coordinate survey requirements
and prepare claims documentation on behalf of UNDP. For claims under $5,000 the statement of
the Resident Representative will sufce as proof of loss. Settlement of claims below $50,000 takes
place within two weeks if properly documented. For details on claims procedure and contact
information; see the procurement section on UNDP’s Intranet.
Compensation by Insurers
The basis of calculation of the compensation
to be paid by underwriters is proportional be-
tween the loss and the total insured value.
The total insured amount includes the cost of
the goods, freight and shipping costs plus an
overhead (10%) to account for price increases
Example
(US$)
10 cases @ $1,000 each 10,000
Freight 2,000
Total cost 12,000
Overhead 10% 1,200
Insured value 13,200
22 SHIPPING AND INCOTERMS / PRACTICE GUIDE
and overheads. Depending on the terms and conditions of the insurance policy, one case lost will
be compensated by settlement of $1,320 even if the cost of replacement and dispatch of one case
by itself comes to $1,400. Practice shows that underwriters will nevertheless be prepared to pay
for extra expenses incurred by a higher cost of dispatch, for instance. This is where the relation-
ship between insurer and insured can play an important part – more consideration is given to a
regular customer with a long-term-agreement than to the occasional client.
Carriers’ Limited Liability
There is a common misconception that carriers take full responsibility for the cargoes they carry,
but as you can see from the tables below, because of conditions applied under national or inter-
national conventions, the reality often falls short of the expectation.
Liability Limitation Damage / Miscarriage Delay
Forwarder: Max. 8.33 SDR pr. kilo Max. freight amount
Road: Max. 8.33 SDR pr. kilo Max. freight amount
Sea: Max. 667 pr. Unity or 2 SDR per kilo Max. 3 times the freight amount
Air: Max. 17 SDR per kilo Max. 2.5 times the freight amount
Rail: Max. 17 SDR per kilo Max. 17 SDR per kilo
Liability limitation for damage/miscarriage and delay
Furthermore to claim you must:
Prove negligence of the carrier under their conditions – not always easy and often time con-•
suming;
Claim in writing within strict time scales, e.g. 7 days under RHA for damage or partial loss;•
Be prepared to pursue large claims through the courts against carrier’s insurers; and•
Not conict with various contact contract clauses, e.g. events which could not have been fore-•
seen by the carrier.
Deadlines for Filing an Insurance Claim
To avoid the risk of a claim becoming void, notication of the shortage must be transmitted to
the insurer within certain deadlines. It is imperative that these deadlines are observed. If they are
not, the claim may be dismissed as the buyer’s or seller’s insurer will have no regress against the
carrier. In this instance it is imperative the buyer meets claim deadlines and initiates the insur-
ance claim promptly.
Deadline for Claims Damage / Miscarriage Delay Conditions applicable
Road: Visible – At delivery
Not visible – 7 days
21 days e.g. CMR Convention in transport
between European countries
Sea: Visible – At delivery
Not visible – 3 days
60 days Hague Visby
Hamburg Rules
Air: Damage / Partly miscarriage: 7 days
Total miscarriage: 120 days
21 days Warsaw Convention
Rail: Visible – At delivery
Not visible – 7 days
7 days e.g. Convention concerning
International Carriage by Rail (COTIF)
Deadlines for ling and insurance claim for damage/miscarriage and delay
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24 SHIPPING AND INCOTERMS / PRACTICE GUIDE
Receiving
Chapter 1 Retrieval
It is usually not consignees themselves who carry out the formalities and operations leading
to the collection of consignments arriving by ocean freight. They must rely on the services of a
forwarding agent to do this. The consignee should procure the services of a forwarding agent of
good standing and repute to look after their interests. In the case of airfreight, it may be easier and
less time-consuming for the consignees to carry out the operations leading to clearance through
customs and collection. This depends on local conditions, and it may also be preferable to entrust
these duties to a regular clearing agent.
On receipt of B/L and accompanying documents, it may be possible to start action immediately to
speed up retrieval of the goods when the carrying steamer calls at the port. The forwarding agency
will be in a position to advise the due date of call of the vessel. Formalities for free entry may
then be initiated. Procedures to follow vary from country to country, and may involve applying to
several departments of the national authorities concerned before the necessary authorization or
permit is granted or issued. It is best to start action immediately upon receipt of the B/L, provided
the laws of the country allow preliminary formalities before actual landing of the cargo.
Once the authorization is obtained, the duly endorsed B/L should be remitted to the forwarding
agent for processing, clearance, collection from the warehouse and delivery to site. Once the ves-
sel has arrived in the meantime, be sure to maintain contact with the clearing/forwarding agent.
In some countries, the legislation or pragmatic arrangement allow withdrawal of consignments
before nalization of customs formalities by providing the completed documentation by a certain
date. This is very helpful and of particular interest for air-freighted supplies.
It is obvious that for perishable supplies, a rapid clearance/collection has to be agreed upon with
the authorities concerned. In the case of airfreight, it is usually not possible to initiate free entry
before the arrival of the consignment, because it will be there at the same time as the notication
of dispatch in most instances. Prompt clearance and collection are desirable as consignments ly-
ing in warehouses run risks of loss and pilferage, apart from incurring rent charges.
When consignments are not located in the town where the port/airport of arrival is situated, but
inland in the same country, documents with appropriate instructions must be sent to the clearing
agent. Alternatively, supplies may be sent under bond for clearance at the nal destination or be
cleared on the spot then on-forwarded.
When the nal consignee is not located in the country of arrival, i.e., in case of land-locked
countries, transit and on-forwarding are normally undertaken by a forwarding agent who has
2
In Short….
Forwarding agents experienced in local conditions of the country can assist with arranging retrieval/clearance/onward •
forwarding.
Timely inspection of goods received is important.•
Proper documentation and reporting of damages or missing consignments, if any, is important.•
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received Bs/L and instructions from the senders or by a local ofce empowered to take action. If
consignments travel under a through B/L or in consolidated containers to their nal destination,
no action is required from the consignee until arrival, where clearance and collection will need
to be affected. Standing arrangements for payment of transportation charges include that goods
are sent free port/airport of arrival. Local expenses, starting from the moment goods are landed,
are payable by consignees. The exception will be if cargo is shipped under through Bs/L, or in
consolidated containers on terms free (or customs warehouse) arrival or uncleared. The freight
and on-carriage charged are billed as a lump sum to the sender.
Chapter 2 Receipt and Inspection
When a consignment is delivered to the nal end-user, the carrier will request a receipt. The
external condition of packages must therefore be veried. If in apparent good order, it is recom-
mended that the endorsement be given along the following lines: “received in good external
condition – contents unchecked.” This allows further action should discrepancies be noticed
when unpacking. If, however, there are signs of tampering with the packages, then the receipt
should be given with reservations such as: “cases broken, contents exposed/rattling/leaking, ...
cartons opened with signs of pilferage/shortages.” If possible, packages should be weighed to
determine differences between declared and actual weights, and such differences be stated on
delivery notes.
Insurance normally extends its coverage to include a period from 30 to 60 days in storage at des-
tination. There can be ambiguity here as sometimes it means days in warehouse at destination to
allow clearance and collection and/or stopping after delivery to site, or it means days at site after
delivery has taken place. If this is not clear from the documents in hand or not clearly understood
in a standing arrangement, then it should be claried with the party who negotiated the coverage.
Even if the coverage includes 60 days at site, however, it is always preferable to check supplies
as soon as possible after delivery has taken place. Carriers and/or suppliers may be involved in a
claim, but they are not party to the 60 days agreement. It always weakens the case when a claim
is submitted with a delay.
Case Study
A UNDP Country Office has ordered pharmaceuticals from a procurement agent with whom UNDP has an LTA. Although goods
often arrive later than promised in this case UNDP received the goods 5 days before the due date. UNDP was not aware of the
early arrival of the goods. The goods remained for 5 days at the airport in a non-cooled area before UNDP became aware of the
situation. Upon notification of the case the pharmacist rushed to the airport to measure the temperature in the storage facility –
which was 29 ºC, higher than the recommended storage temperature of 4 ºC.
Key questions to consider:
Should UNDP accept the products; should the all medicines be disposed of or are some batches undamaged?1.
If yes, should UNDP spell out certain conditions?2.
What is the Incoterms used for the delivery?3.
Who has insured the shipment?4.
Who is responsible for payment of any damage – UNDP, manufacturer, procurement agent, freight forwarder or custom clear-5.
ance agent?
What is the urgency of the supply – should replacement be procured immediately? 6.
Should samples be taken and sent to testing laboratory? 7.
Make enquiries into where the lines of communication broke down. 8.
Were instructions for the distribution of documents in the purchase order complete and accurate?9.
Suggested way forward:
Discuss with the supplier the potential impact of heat exposure. Contact the insurance company immediately; ask for their advice.
CONTINUE ON NEXT PAGE >>
26 SHIPPING AND INCOTERMS / PRACTICE GUIDE
Chapter 3 Reporting and Claims
To avoid the risk of a claim becoming void, notication of the shortage must be transmitted to the
insurer within certain deadlines (see Section I, Chapter 11). Reporting and claiming procedures
for reporting damage or loss and related formalities:
Consignment Externally Damaged
a) As stated above, indicate damages on the delivery note, and, by separate registered letter, hold
the carrier responsible.
b) Start unpacking carefully, putting aside and retaining all packing material, should a survey be
required.
c) If damages appear to be minimal, proceed with unpacking and send your report to the compe-
tent ofce in accordance with the internal rules governing the channels of communication.
d) If damages appear to be serious in nature, stop unpacking and call immediately for the sur-
veyor (insurance agent). Completion of unpacking and assessment of damages are to be done
only in the presence of the surveyor. As explained in Section 1, Chapter 11 no survey report
is required when damages are believed to be below a certain level, as agreed between insurer
and insured party. The fact that a survey report is not required, however, does not relieve the
consignee of the responsibility to send a letter of claim to the responsible party.
e) As with (c) above, send copies of claim letters and answers received with estimates for cost
of repairs/replacement items to be procured locally, request for spares not available locally,
etc., with the original of the survey report when applicable. Ask for an acknowledgement of
your transmittal letter and to be kept informed of the procurement status of replacements, as
required.
Consignment Externally Intact
If a consignment is delivered in apparent sound condition, but damages are noticeable upon un-
packing, the action as described from (b) to (e) above should be followed. If shortages are noticed
upon checking contents against packing list, report on the condition of the packing material and
whether cases/parcels may have been opened in transit, pilfered and closed again (a claim against
supplier for short-packing). Supplier may be unwilling to accept a claim for short-packing sent
several months after dispatch has taken place, but would consider it favourably if the discrepancy
is reported within a normal transit time, i.e. soon after arrival.
When wrong items have been supplied, the discrepancy is not the concern of insurers, but solely
the responsibility of the supplier who should be notied and requested to send the correct supplies
with all possible haste, at their cost. The supplier should also be requested to provide disposal
instructions for the erroneous material received. In this connection, the consignment has probably
been allowed entry on a duty-free basis and, consequently, the wrong items cannot be released to
a third party in the country without clearing the problem with the authorities.
Loss of Entire Parcels
When carriers or their agents fail to place at the disposal of the receiver a consignment (or if part
of it consists of several packages) for which valid transport documents are established, the carri-
The insurer may only accept claims pertaining to specific damaged batches and not to the entire shipment in general. If necessary
and prudent, engage a testing laboratory to document the extent of the damage. If the products are indeed rejected, check with
the supplier if alternate medicines are in stock and can be shipped urgently and who will bear the cost. Ensure that instructions in
the purchase order are complete and provisions are made for adequate notification for future shipments.
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SHIPPING AND INCOTERMS / PRACTICE GUIDE
ers/agents must be held responsible by registered letter and be requested to provide a certicate
of loss for the parcel(s) that cannot be delivered.
This certicate is to be obtained from the:
Carrier’s agent for a consignment sent by ocean freight and reported short-landed;•
Port authorities, if the consignment has been duly landed from the carrying vessel, but cannot •
be located in the port area;
Carrying airline or the airport authorities in the case of airfreight;•
Station-master, for the railway authorities, in case of goods sent by rail; or,•
Actual carrier or his agent in the country in the case of road transport.•
To avoid the risk of a claim becoming time-barred, notication of the shortage must be transmit-
ted to the buyer’s HQs or competent ofce immediately, and the certicate of loss/short-landing
be obtained as soon as possible after the due date of arrival of the carrier, whether vessel or air-
craft. If the carrier does not issue the short-landing certicate within a reasonable time, they must
be reminded by registered letter and requested to extend the deadline for presenting the claim
(see Section I, Chapter 11).
For consignments sent by airfreight, the non-arrival of a consignment should be reported straight-
away. If it does not arrive by the next ight, an email or fax must be sent to the originator or
competent ofce.
The reason for non-arrival can be: missing the ight at the starting point, missing a transfer on the
way, on-carriage to a further airport or unloading before. If the shortage is reported immediately,
there is a fair chance that the consignment can be traced; after a fortnight, it becomes problematic;
and after a month, it is doomed.
General Information
Insurance policies state specically in their conditions that, “It is the duty of the assured to take
such measures as may be reasonable for the purpose of averting or minimizing a loss, and to en-
sure that all rights against carriers, bailees or other third parties are properly preserved and exer-
cised.” This is the reason why registered letters of claim must be sent to responsible parties and
certicates of loss or short-landing obtained from faulty carriers. It should be pointed out that the
facility of not requesting survey reports for claims valued below the agreed amount with insur-
ers does not relieve the consignee to claim against responsible parties and obtain the documents
which will enable the underwriters to exercise their rights of recourse.
Insurance companies also reserve their rights to reject claims arising from faulty packing, and
policies include a paragraph stipulating that no claim is payable in case of “loss, damage or ex-
penses caused by insufciency or unsuitability of packing or preparation of the subject matter
insured...”
When reporting discrepancies, it is important to provide as much information as possible on the
condition of cases/packages on receipt and on the expected cause of the damages. This procedure
helps placing claims and eliminates unnecessary correspondence.
28 SHIPPING AND INCOTERMS / PRACTICE GUIDE
Chapter 4 Feedback and Cooperation
Apart from reporting on the conditions of supplies and equipment upon arrival, with the claim
procedure described in the previous chapters, eld ofces, end-users, or generally speaking, con-
signees, can provide useful information to the purchasing and shipping units of their organiza-
tions or to suppliers in case of direct purchasing, as follows:
Shipping:
Which carrier/s offer the best service, have the best or more cooperative agents, the best stor-•
age/handling facilities?
Which airline/s have reliable services at destination, advise promptly the arrivals of consign-•
ments, have cold storage facilities, etc.?
Where few direct services are available, what ports of transhipment can be used or recom-•
mended?
Example »: Is Mombasa suitable as port of transhipment for Mogadishu, Somalia? Is Dakar or
Abidjan preferred for Bamako, Mali?, etc. Similar information for airfreight trafc can also
be very helpful.
What container services are available to your country? From where and who operates them?•
Markings/Packing:
Are the shipping marks used for consignments adequate? If not, what should be requested?•
Are the shipping marks stipulated on orders duly stencilled on packages? If not, who are the •
delinquent suppliers, so that they may be told in order to avoid recurrences?
Is the packing generally provided considered suitable? If not, why and what are the require-•
ments? Are there weight limits per package?
Documentation:
Is the documentation made out properly? If not, give precise cases so that action can be taken.•
Did you receive it in time? If not, give cases so that it can be investigated and remedied.•
Procurement, shipping and receiving constitute a chain of events, and a chain is as good as the weakest of its elements. This is
why a close cooperation at each stage of the whole operation highly desirable. It can save a lot of efforts, time and money.
Supplies received should be checked as soon as possible upon receipt. Early notification of damages, non-conformity, etc.
helps in placing claims against insurers, suppliers or carriers and speeds up procurement of replacements. For air freighted
consignments, advise non-arrival by email or fax within a week, and immediately in case of perishable supplies. Provide feedback
information which can serve to improve services.
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Chapter 5 Examples of Claim Letters
Consignment missing, in whole or in part, surface
Typical text of a registered letter to the carrier’s agents:
(Copy of this letter for the insurers, with copy of the answer.)
Consignment missing, in whole or in part, airfreight
Typical text of a registered letter to the carrying airline, or to the Chief of the cargo Department at
the airport of arrival:
(Copy of this letter for the insurers, with copy of the answer).
Consignment, or part of it, landed but missing at the docks
Typical text of a registered letter to the Superintendent of the docks, or the Superintendent of the
Port Authority:
(Copy of this letter for the insurers, with copy of the answer).
A similar letter, with the necessary amendments can also serve the purpose for air freighted cargo.
10 cases shipped on vessel… from… (port of shipment) under B/L No. … dated …
We regret to inform you that the above consignment (or … cases, numbered …) has/have been reported short-landed
at the time of call of m/v…in… (port of destination). We would be grateful if the necessary enquiries to trace the miss-
ing goods could be made with all possible haste.
Should your efforts to trace it remain unsuccessful, we would have to hold you fully responsible for the loss and
would require an ofcial short-landing certicate to be issued as soon as possible.
We look forward to receiving your further news.
10 packages airfreighted under AWB… (give number and initials of the carrier: AF, BA, LH, SR, etc.) from… (airport
of dispatch) on… (date).
We regret to inform you that the above consignment (or … package No…) has/have not arrived at the airport. We
would be grateful if the necessary enquiries to trace the missing goods could be made with all possible haste.
Should your efforts to trace it within … months remain unsuccessful, we would have to hold you fully responsible for
the loss and would require an ofcial attestation of non-delivery to be issued forthwith.
We look forward to hearing from you…
10 cases shipped on vessel… from… (port of shipment) under B/L No. … dated …
We regret to inform you that the above consignment (or which part of it) which was duly landed from m/s… cannot
be traced in the port area. We would be grateful if urgent enquiries could be made to trace its present location.
Should your efforts to nd it remain unsuccessful, we would have to hold you fully responsible for the loss and would
require an ofcial attestation of loss to be issued forthwith.
We look forward to hearing from you…
30 SHIPPING AND INCOTERMS / PRACTICE GUIDE
Consignment reported damaged at port or carrier’s warehouse
Typical text of a letter sent registered to the carrier’s agent if consignment in the carrier’s shed, or
to the Superintendent of the Port Authority, if in port area:
Consignment delivered on site in a damaged condition
Typical text of a registered letter to the last carrier:
10 cases shipped on vessel… from… (port of shipment) under B/L… dated...
We regret to inform you that the above consignment is lying in warehouse..(specify, if known) in a damaged condi-
tion. As this consignment was accepted for carriage without restriction or reservation, we are compelled to hold you
fully responsible for any loss or damage sustained by these goods.
We would suggest that you delegate a representative to examine the present state of the consignment together with
one of our representatives, but that the extent of the damage/loss be determined upon completion of unpacking
and checking in our premises, to avoid the possibility of further damages occurring at the docks. Please contact this
ofce by telephone to x an appointment and speed up these formalities.
…package – delivered on…
Your delivery note No. …
We regret to inform you that the above consignment has been delivered to us in a damaged condition, and we con-
rm hereby the reservation expressed on the delivery note, reading as follows:
We are compelled to hold you fully responsible for any loss or damage sustained by these goods. We intend process-
ing with unpacking and checking to determine exactly the extent of the discrepancies and suggest that you contact
his ofce by telephone if you wish to delegate a representative whilst the unpacking and checking take place. Fail-
ing to hear from you, we reserve the right to submit our bill for the cost of the damages.
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32 SHIPPING AND INCOTERMS / PRACTICE GUIDE
A Checklist of Considerations
These questions below can be raised during the procurement planning stage with a view to get
the goods safely through to the nal destination:
Which methozd of transport will be best? 1
Air, sea, road, rail, own wheels, containerized (FCL, LCL) »
When are the goods needed? »
Who will be responsible for arranging transportation and insurance?2
How should I ensure the goods? »
Have you requested the appropriate Incoterm for the method of shipment involved? 3
FOB (named seaport) – for crated or bulky goods, but not for containerized shipments »
For FCA shipments, consider FCA (named place) vs. FCA (named place, containerized) »
CFR/CIF for delivery to seaport or inland waterway (but not for containerized shipments, »
use instead CPT/CIP
CPT/CIP for delivery to an inland destination or containerized shipments »
DDU (named place) – most risks are outsourced to the seller »
Ensure all staff involved in purchasing are aware of the buyers/sellers’ obligations embodied 4
in Incoterms 2000.
EXW the buyer must arrange export clearance and loading at the sellers premises is at the »
cost and risk of the buyer
FOB and FCA the buyer arranges freight and insurance »
The buyer is responsible for import customs clearance for all commonly used Incoterms: »
FOB, FCA, CFR/CIF, CPT/CIP, DDU
For CFR/CIF, CPT/CIP deliveries the seller can invoice the buyer from the “FOB or FCA »
delivery point”
The buyer most ofoad the goods from the arriving vehicle at the buyer’s cost and risk »
FOB, FCA, CFR and CPT buyer is responsible for arranging insurance »
Have precise packing instructions been given to your supplier?5
Give detailed packing instructions for sea vs. air transport. Less packaging is generally re- »
quired for air and containerized transport. Strong crates are required when containers are
opened before the end-destination, in rough terrain, and when trucking. Consider expo-
sure to weather and handling, and facilities for unloading at the nal destination.
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Under a CIF/CIP contract, have you requested the appropriate insurance coverage? 6
CIF/CIP the supplier is buying insurance on the behalf of the buyer, however, unless »
stated in the bidding documents and contract, the seller is permitted to offer the cheapest
insurance Cargo Clauses C or B.
Cargo Clauses B and C generally do not offer adequate coverage, and for example, theft is »
not covered.
Cargo Clauses A is generally the recommended insurance coverage for UN shipments. »
Are there any restrictions by the country of importation?7
Requirements for pre-shipment inspection of cargo »
Restrictions on invoices with breakdown of costs and packing list »
Requirements for Tracking Notes (or Waivers) »
Who is responsible for documentation? 8
What documentation and notications should be prepared and sent and by whom? »
Who is responsible for payment of unforeseen charges and costs?9
Demurrage charges at the port »
Terminal handling charges (THC) »
Quality control:10
At what point(s) in the delivery should the goods be inspected for compliance with speci- »
cations?
At the origin/factory, sea/airport or upon arrival at the nal destination? »
Who has the capabilities do undertake inspection and what standards of inspection »
should be used?
Who will assist with receiving the goods and customs clearance?11
What will I do if the goods are damaged or missing?12
Who is responsible for insurance claims and how are they done? »
34 SHIPPING AND INCOTERMS / PRACTICE GUIDE
Terms and Glossary
Chapter 1 Incoterms
To avoid conicts and difculties, importers and exporters – or buyers and sellers – must have a
common understanding of the terms and conditions under which they trade. The latest issue was
released in 2000, and the mention of “Incoterms 2000” in a contract determines the obligations of
the buyer and the seller and greatly contributes towards eliminating causes of disagreement.
The complete text of Incoterms constitutes a book of its own, and it would be difcult to incorpo-
rate all of it into this guide. Only the most commonly used terminology will be examined, with
the respective obligations of seller and buyers given in a concise transcription.
Validity of Incoterms
Incoterms apply only if incorporated in the contract of sale or if they are, for example, mentioned
in the offer, the sales conditions, the purchase order, the conrmation of an order or if they are
stipulated by the parties in separate agreement. Parties wishing to use Incoterms 2000 should
clearly specify that their contract is governed by Incoterms 2000. Incoterms do not apply directly
to questions relating to the transfer of ownership, property rights of the goods, breaches of con-
tract and its consequences, exclusions of liabilities in certain circumstances, limitation period
and conditions of payment. These should be claried in the sales contract.
When do Incoterms Apply?
Validity of Incoterms apply only if incorporated in the contract of sale or if they are specied in
the solicitation document, mentioned in the offer, the sales conditions, the purchase order, the
conrmation of an order or if they are stipulated by the parties in separate agreement. Parties
wishing to use Incoterms 2000 should clearly specify that their solicitation document and the
contract are governed by Incoterms 2000.
The full text of Incoterms can be purchased from www.iccbooks.com. Note: The “ICC Guide to
Incoterms 2000” is recommended reading and it explains how Incoterms 2000 can work for you
in daily practice and provides practical answers to important and recurring questions.
3
In Short…
The Incoterms (International Commercial Terms), also known as terms of delivery, are the essential part of any export-import •
transaction and standard trade definitions most commonly used in international sales contracts. Developed and administered
by the International Chamber of Commerce (ICC) in Paris.
United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL) provides guidelines to promote the progressive harmoni-•
zation and unification of the law of international trade to reduce divergences between trade laws of different states.
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The Structure of Incoterms 2000
Incoterms 2000 are governed by the International Chamber of Commerce (ICC) in Paris and are
grouped into four different categories. In Groups E and F the seller’s obligations are minimal and
the buyer must do most of the work and assume maximum risk. As we move to Group C the sup-
plier’s obligations become more extensive, however the buyer still assumes risks. As we move to
group D the supplier makes most arrangements and assumes maximum risk, whereas the buyer
must pay for and arrange import customs clearance and un-loading from the forwarder’s vehicle
at the nal destination.
Group Description
E The seller only makes the goods available to the buyer at the seller’s premises.
F The seller delivers the goods to a carrier or place appointed by the buyer.
C The seller has to contract at his costs for carriage (and insurance for CIF and CIP).
D The seller must assume most costs, obligations and risks needed to bring the goods to the place of destination
(except import customs clearance and un-loading at the final destination).
The structure of Incoterms 2000
Transfer of Risks
Incoterms not only describe seller’s and the buyer’s obligations and specify the point when the
responsibilities for the transportation costs shift from the seller to the buyer; it also determines
the point when the risks associated with transportation transfer from the seller to the buyer.
EXW When the goods are at the disposal of the buyer
FCA When the goods have been delivered to the carrier at the named place
FAS When the goods have been placed alongside the ship
FOB When the goods pass the ship’s rail, at the port of export (origin)
CFR When the goods pass the ship’s rail, at the port of export (origin)
CIF When the goods pass the ship’s rail, at the port of export (origin)
CIP When the goods have been delivered to the main carrier, at the port of export (origin)
CPT When the goods have been delivered to the main carrier, at the port of export (origin)
DAF When the goods have been delivered to the carrier
DES When the goods are placed at the disposal of the buyer on board the ship
DEQ When the goods are placed at the disposal of the buyer on the quay
DDU When the goods are placed at the disposal of the buyer
DDP When the goods are placed at the disposal of the buyer
Transfer of risks
36 SHIPPING AND INCOTERMS / PRACTICE GUIDE
Distribution of Costs
Incoterms dene the distrubution of cost and import/export clearance obligations.
TERM EXW FCA FAS FOB CFR CIF CPT CIP DAF DES DEQ DDU DDP
SEVICES
Ex Works
Free
Carrier
Free
Alongside
Ship
Free
Onboard
Vessel
Cost &
Freight
Cost
Insurance
& Freight
Carriage
Paid To
Carriage
Insurance
Paid To
Delivered
At
Frontier
Delivered
Ex Ship
Delivered
Ex Quay
Delivered
Duty
Unpaid
Delivered
Duty Paid
Export packing Seller Seller Seller Seller Seller Seller Seller Seller Seller Seller Seller Seller Seller
Export customs
clearance Buyer Seller Seller Seller Seller Seller Seller Seller Seller Seller Seller Seller Seller
Loading at seller’s
premises Buyer Seller Seller Seller Seller Seller Seller Seller Seller Seller Seller Seller Seller
Inland freight in the
seller’s country Buyer Seller Seller Seller Seller Seller Seller Seller Seller Seller Seller Seller Seller
Terminal Handling
Charges (THC) Buyer Buyer Seller Seller Seller Seller Seller Seller Seller Seller Seller Seller Seller
Loading on vessel Buyer Buyer Buyer Seller Seller Seller Seller Seller Seller Seller Seller Seller Seller
Main carriage/freight Buyer Buyer Buyer Buyer Seller Seller Seller Seller Seller Seller Seller Seller Seller
Customs clearance in
buyer’s country Buyer Buyer Buyer Buyer Buyer Buyer Buyer Buyer Buyer Buyer Buyer Buyer Seller
Delivery to destination Buyer Buyer Buyer Buyer Buyer Buyer Buyer Buyer Buyer Buyer Buyer Seller Seller
Overview of the obligations and costs for Incoterms 2000
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Transport Mode and their Appropriate Incoterms
Certain Incoterms are multi-modal and others can be used only when the goods are intended to
carried by sea or inland water transport. Since CFR and CIF can only be used when the goods
are intended for carriage by sea or inland waterway transport CPT and CIP respectively must
be used when whenever the goods are not handed over for marine transport or when the goods
are containerized (even the container is delivered to a seaport). A common mistake is selecting
the Incoterm which is not appropriate for the agreed mode of transport. The terms must be used
for the correct mode of transport if they are to offer any protection to the buyer or the seller.
Air Freight Road Freight Rail Freight Sea Freight
EXW * * * *
FCA * * * *
FAS *
FOB *
CFR *
CIF *
CPT * * * *
CIP * * * *
DAF * *
DES *
DEQ *
DDU * * * *
DDP * * * *
Applicable Incoterms in different modes of transportation
The Eight Most Commonly Used Incoterms
In total there are 13 different Incoterms, however only the study of the 8 most commonly used
Incoterms are broadly described in this guide:
Ex Works (EXW)
Title and risk pass to buyer including payment of
all transportation and insurance costs from the
seller’s premises, and the seller assumes minimum
risk. This is used for any mode of transportation.
The seller has fullled obligations when the goods
are placed at the disposal of the buyer. Loading at
the supplier’s premises and export formalities are at
the cost and risk of the buyer. However, if the seller
is required to assume the cost and risk of loading,
the sentence “loaded upon the departing vehicle at
the cost and risk of the seller” must be added after
EXW in the purchase order.
This term should not be used if the buyer cannot carry out the export formalities, either directly
or indirectly, and in such cases the FCA term should be used.
Group Incoterm
EEx-works (EXW)
FFree Carrier (FCA)
Free on Board (FOB)
CCost and Freight (CFR)
Cost, Insurance and Freight (CIF)
Carriage Paid to (CPT)
Carriage and Insurance Paid to (CIP)
DDelivered Duty Uncleared (DDU)
The 8 most commonly used Incoterms
38 SHIPPING AND INCOTERMS / PRACTICE GUIDE
Seller must:
Place the goods “at the disposal of the buyer” at the named place of delivery, at the agreed date •
or within the period agreed;
Must give the buyer sufcient notice and advise buyer of the availability of the goods; •
Provide suitable packing (unless otherwise stipulated in contract); and•
Help buyer to procure documents obtainable in the country and which may be required by the •
buyer.
Buyer must:
Take delivery as soon as goods are placed at the buyer’s disposal at the agreed time and loca-•
tion;
Clear the goods for export;•
Bear all risk and cost of goods from the moment they are placed at the buyer’s disposal;•
Bear cost and expense of obtaining documents required for buyer’s own use; and•
Load the goods onto the on-forwarding vehicle at the buyer’s own cost and risk.•
Free on Board (FOB) Named Port of Shipment
“Free on Board” means that the seller delivers when the goods pass the ship’s rail at the named
port of shipment. This means that the buyer has to bear all costs and risks of loss or damage to
the goods from that point. The FOB term requires the seller to clear the goods for export. This
term can be used only for sea or inland waterway transport. If the parties do not intend to deliver
across the ship’s rail, the FCA term should be used.
It is recommended that contracts do not quote only “FOB”, which is not clear and can lead to
many interpretations, but should specify the port of shipment.
For example, it is even preferable to request FOB UK port rather than FOB London, as it leaves
the opportunity to ship from another port if there is a convenient vessel at the same cost, or FOB
North Continental port, rather than FOB Hamburg or FOB Rotterdam, for the same reason. This
depends on the terms of offers received and can only be specied on contracts with the seller’s
agreement.
Seller must:
Prepare and pack the goods as required;•
Deliver the goods on board the vessel designated by the contract;•
Bear all costs and all risks of the goods until they have effectively passed ship’s rail;•
Bear costs of counting, measuring, weighing; •
Provide when required, at the buyer’s expense, consular certied invoices, certicates of ori-•
gin and help buyer to obtain other documents obtainable in the country and which the buyer
may need; and
Provide the buyer at the seller’s expense with the usual document of proof of delivery.•
Buyer must:
At own expense, reserve space on board a vessel and give all the required instructions to the •
seller enabling it to deliver in time for shipment (NOTE: this registration and calling forward
are normally carried out by the buyer’s forwarding agent.);
Bear all expenses and risks of the goods from the time they have effectively passed ship’s •
rail;
Bear the cost of obtaining documents required for the export of the goods;•
Pay demurrage incurred at the port of shipment unless the detention is attributable to the •
seller;
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SHIPPING AND INCOTERMS / PRACTICE GUIDE
Bear any costs incurred if the vessel designated by the buyer or buyer’s agent is unable to take •
the goods;
Bear the cost of B/L and any documents the buyer may have asked the seller to provide; and•
Pay the cost of inspection, if required.•
Free Carrier (FCA)
This term has been designed to meet the requirements of modern transport, particularly such
“multimodal” transport as container or “roll on-roll off” (RO/RO) trafc by trailers and ferries.
It is based on the same main principles as FOB except that the seller fulls his obligations when
the goods are delivered into the custody of the carrier at the named point (and not loaded onto
any means of transport used for the main voyage).
“Free Carrier” means that the seller fullls the obligation to deliver at the point when the goods
are handed over and cleared for export into the charge of the carrier named by the buyer at the
named place or point. If no precise point is indicated by the buyer, the seller may choose within
the place or range stipulated where the carrier shall take the goods into their charge. When, ac-
cording to commercial practice, the seller’s assistance is required in making the contract with the
carrier (such as in rail or air transport) the seller may act at the buyer’s risk and expense.
This term may be used for any mode of transport, including multimodal transport.
“Carrier” means any company who, in a contract of carriage, undertakes to perform or to procure
the performance of carriage by rail, road, sea, air, inland waterway or by a combination of such
modes. If the buyer instructs the seller to deliver the cargo to a person, e.g. a freight forwarder
who is not a “carrier”, the seller is deemed to have fullled his obligation to deliver the goods
when they are in the custody of that company.
“Transport terminal” means a railway terminal, a freight station, a container terminal or yard, a
multi-purpose cargo terminal or any similar receiving point.
“Container” includes any equipment used to unitize cargo, e.g. all types of containers and/or flats, whether ISO accepted or not,
trailers swap bodies and RO/RO equipment, and applies to all modes of transport. In order to clarify the seller’s obligations as
regards delivery, we are quoting below the full text of the Incoterms 2000:
Delivery to the carrier is completed:
In the case of 1. rail transport when the goods constitute a wagon load (or a container load carried by rail) the seller has to load
the wagon or container in the appropriate manner. Delivery is completed when the loaded wagon or container is taken over
by the railway or by another person acting on its behalf.
In the case of 2. road transport when loading takes place at the seller’s premises, delivery is completed when the goods have
been loaded on the vehicle provided by the buyer. When the goods are delivered to a carrier’s premises, delivery is completed
when they have been handed over to the road carrier or to another person acting on this behalf.
In the case of transport by 3. inland waterway when loading takes place at the seller’s premises, delivery is completed when the
goods have been loaded on the carrying vessel provided by the buyer. When the goods are delivered to the carrier’s premises,
delivery is completed when they have been handed over to the inland waterway carrier or to another person acting on this
behalf.
In the case of 4. sea transport when the goods constitute a full container load (FCL), delivery is completed when the loaded
container is taken over by the sea carrier. Do not use FOB for containerized shipments, instead use FCA. When the container
has been carried to an operator of a transport terminal acting on behalf of the carrier, the goods shall be deemed to have been
taken over when the container has entered into the premises of that terminal.
In the case of 5. air transport, delivery is completed when the goods have been handed over to the air carrier or to another
company acting on its behalf.
In the case of 6. multimodal transport, delivery is completed when the goods have been handed over as specified in 1.-5., as the
case may be.
40 SHIPPING AND INCOTERMS / PRACTICE GUIDE
Cost and Freight (CFR) Port of Destination
Seller must:
Contract and pay for the carriage of the goods to the port of destination on a sea-going vessel, •
by the usual route unless otherwise stipulated in the contract of sale;
Obtain and pay for a clean B/L (a through B/L) for the goods;•
Prepare and pack the goods as required;•
Bear the cost of checking, counting, weighing, measuring;•
Bear the cost of obtaining documents required for the export of the goods, and the cost of de-•
murrage if any at the port of shipment;
Bear all risks of the goods until they have passed ship’s rail at the port of shipment;•
Provide, at buyer’s expense, consular/certied invoices and/or certicates of origin and assist •
in obtaining other documents upon request of the seller to procure;
Notify the buyer without delay of the shipment; and•
Unless otherwise agreed, at seller’s own expense provide the buyer without delay with the •
usual transport document for the agreed port of destination.
Buyer must:
Bear all risks of the goods from the time they have passed the ship’s rail at the port of ship-•
ment;
Bear costs incurred in obtaining documents such as consular/certied invoices, etc. (not the •
cost of B/L);
Accept, as proof of payment of freight, B/L stamped “freight paid” or “freight prepaid”, and •
arrange payment on receipt of documents in accordance with terms of contract, even before
actual arrival of goods at destinations;
Bear the cost of unloading, lighterage, dock charges at destination, as well as all further ex-•
penses such as customs clearance, duties and taxes, etc.;
Except freight and bear extra expenses that may be incurred during the course of the carriage •
by sea (by reason of emergencies, back freight, etc.); and
Bear cost of inspection when inspection is required.•
Cost, Insurance and Freight (CIF)
The respective duties of seller and buyer are the same as for CFR contracts, with the addition of
the insurance coverage. The additional obligations are the following:
Seller must:
Contract at own expense with an insurance company, a transferable insurance coverage for the •
risks, duration and journey specied in the contract of sale or accepted purchase order (NOTE:
it is advisable that buyer includes in the solicitation document and in the contract, a provision
for additional coverage at seller’s expense, i.e. Institute Cargo Clauses A); and
Provide the insurance policy or certicate together with B/L and other documents, for the •
buyer to receive them in time for collection of the goods upon arrival. NOTE: the seller buys
insurance on behalf of the buyer.
Buyer must:
Bear supplementary expenses of insurance against risks requested that the seller cover, and •
which were not included in the contract of sale; and
Do their work in connection with an insurance claim.•
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Freight Carriage Paid (CPT) Named Point of Destination
The CPT term requires the seller to clear the goods for export. This term may be used for any
mode of transport including multimodal transport (i.e. including containers, roll-on/roll-off traf-
c by trailers and ferries).
CPT can be used for any mode of transport, including containerized shipments delivered to a sea-
port. “CPT Cape Town” means that the seller pays the freight for the carriage of the goods to the
named destination, in this case Cape Town. The risk of loss or damage to the goods is transferred
from the seller to the buyer when the goods have been delivered into the custody of the carrier
and not at ship’s rail. Risk passes from the seller to the buyer at so-called FCA point. If subsequent
carriers are used for the carriage to the agreed destination, the risk passes when the goods have
been delivered to the rst carrier.
“Carrier” means any person who, in a contract of carriage, undertakes to perform or to procure
the performance of carriage by rail, sea, road, air, inland waterway or by a combination of such
modes.
Freight Carriage and Insurance Paid (CIP) Named Point of Destination
“Carriage and insurance paid to …” means that the seller has the same obligations as under CPT
but with the addition that the seller has to procure cargo insurance against the buyer’s risk of loss
of or damage to the goods during the carriage. The seller contracts for insurance and pays the in-
surance premium. The buyer should note that under CIP term the seller is only required to obtain
insurance on minimum coverage. It is advisable that buyer includes in the solicitation document
and in the contract, a provision for additional coverage at seller’s expense, (i.e. Institute Cargo
Clauses A). The CIP term requires the seller to clear the goods for export. This term may be used
for any mode of transport including multimodal transport.
Delivered Duty Unpaid (DDU) Named Place of Destination
The seller clears the goods for export and is responsible for making the goods available (usually
in the buyer’s country) at the named point and place and on the date or period specied in the
sales contract but not unloaded from any arriving means of transport. DDU can be used on all
means of transport. The buyer bears the cost and risk of carrying out import customs formalities,
including the payment of formalities, customs duties, taxes and other charges (unless otherwise
specied in the contract). The seller’s business risk is high compared to the C terms above, be-
cause the seller bears the risk of loss during transit and may not invoice the buyer until delivery
at the nal destination has taken place. However, the risk may pass even before the goods have
reached the agreed delivery point, for example, when the goods are detained at a customs station
because of the buyer’s failure to full the obligation to clear the goods for import (thus the buyer
may bear the cost of any loss and demurrage charges during this time). Overall, the buyer’s risks
are minimized, but at a cost which is factored into the offered DDU price. Because of the risks
involved the supplier may, depending on the destination and other commercial considerations,
be reluctant to offer DDU delivery.
42 SHIPPING AND INCOTERMS / PRACTICE GUIDE
Incoterms Quiz
Frequently asked questions (answers follow on next page)
1. EXW – Must seller load on buyer’s vehicle?
2. EXW – What happens if seller assists with the loading anyway?
3. FCA – Who is bears the cost and risk of loading the goods at origin and unloading at the des-
tination?
4. FCA – Who pays:
Terminal handling charges at port of export?
Export clearance?
Transport cost up to the FCA delivery point (named place) or up to the main carrier’s receipt
of the goods?
Airport charges and transport security fee?
5. FCA – Is seller obligated to stow the goods in buyer’s container upon delivery on seller’s loca-
tion?
6. FOB – Who pays Terminal Handling Charges (THC)?
7. FOB – What is the ship’s rail and what is its signicance?
8. FCA – Where does the transfer of risk take place?
9. FOB – Who pays for pre-carriage?
10. FOB – Must seller make sure that the goods are stowed/trimmed on board the ship?
11. CIF – Who pays terminal handling charges (THC) in port of arrival?
12. CIF – Why 110% insurance?
13. DDU – Who carries the cost and risk of clearing the goods for export and import respectively?
14. DDU – Who bears the cost and risk of the unloading the goods from the forwarders vehicle at
the nal destination?
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Answers:
1. No, the buyer must load the collecting vehicle at the buyer’s cost and risk.
2. In case of an accident during loading a dispute over liability may arise. If the seller loads the collecting vehicle it should be stated that
“loading is at the seller’s cost and risk” in the contract.
3. Loading at origin is at the seller’s cost and risk. Unloading at destination is at the buyer’s cost and risk.
4. 4.a – buyer, 4.b – seller, 4.c – seller, 4. d – buyer.
5. No, unless the Incoterm is “FCA (named place), containerized” is used in the contract.
6. The seller pays THC in the port of export.
7. A light structure serving as a guard at the outer edge of a ship’s deck. Risk transfer point is the “ship’s rail”.
8. The risk transfers at the FCA delivery point (named place) or when the rst carrier takes charge of the goods.
9. Seller pays pre-carriage up to the ship’s rail at the port of export.
10. No, stowing/trimming is at the cost and risk of the buyer.
11. Buyer pays THC and port fees.
12. To cover administrative cost of handling insurance claim and price increases of the goods.
13. The supplier carries the cost and risk of clearing the goods for export. The buyer carries the cost and risk of import clearance.
14. Buyer.
44 SHIPPING AND INCOTERMS / PRACTICE GUIDE
Chapter 2 UNCITRAL
Although this guide is not intended to provide legal advice or information as this is outside its
scope, we shall nevertheless mention here the existence of the United Nations Commission on
International Trade Law (UNCITRAL) established in 1966 by a decision of the UN General As-
sembly, with their ofce in Vienna.
The aim of this Commission is to reduce divergences between trade laws of different states.
Object and Functions
The object of UNCITRAL is to promote the progressive harmonization and unication of the law
of international trade:
To coordinate the work of organizations active in this eld and encourage cooperation;•
Promote wider acceptance of existing international conventions and model or uniform laws;•
Prepare or promote the adoption of new conventions or laws and promote the codication and •
acceptance of international trade terms, customs and practices;
Promote means of ensuring a uniform interpretation and application of international conven-•
tions and uniform laws; and
Collect and disseminate information on national legislation and modern legal developments, •
including case-law.
Activities
Formulation of legal texts
These texts are not on private international law in the conict of law sense but on substantive
law in respect of international trade, related to the following priority topics: international sales of
goods, payments, commercial arbitration, shipping (maritime law) and contract practices.
International sale of goods
UNCITRAL’s work has resulted in three legal instruments.
Convention on the Limitation Period in the International Sale of Goods (New York, June 12, •
1976) provides for a uniform limitation (Prescription) period during which a party may exer-
cise a claim arising out of an international sales transaction. The United Nations Convention
on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (Vienna, April 11, 1980) covers a wide range of
sales law matters, including the formation of contract and the rights and obligations of sellers
and buyers and their respective remedies in case of breach of contract; and
Protocol amending the Convention on the Limitation Period, in order to align its scope of ap-•
plication with that of the new Convention.
International payments
Major efforts relate to the unication of the law of negotiable instruments, to overcome disparities
between the common law (e.g. the United Kingdom Bills of Exchange Act of 1882 and the United
States Uniform Commercial Code) and the civil law systems (e.g. the series of conventions signed
in Geneva in 1930 and 1931such as Bills of Exchange and Cheques, Uniform Laws). Draft conven-
tions prepared by UNCITRAL on bill of exchange, promissory notes and cheques contain modern
rules, acceptable in both systems and for optional use in international transactions.
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SHIPPING AND INCOTERMS / PRACTICE GUIDE
International commercial arbitration
A major achievement was the preparation of UNCITRAL Arbitration Rules (1976). Based on mod-
ern practice and acceptable in the different legal systems, they are increasingly referred to in com-
mercial contracts and used by arbitral bodies around the world (e.g. the Inter-American Commer-
cial Arbitration Commission, the Regional Arbitration Centres in Cairo and Kuala Lumpur, the
Stockholm Chamber of Commerce and its “Operational Arbitration Clause for Use in Contracts
in USA-USSR Trade, 1977”, and the Iran-United Nations Claims Tribunal established under the
United States-Iran Hostage and Financial Agreement of January 19, 1981).
International legislation on shipping
UNCITRAL prepared the draft for the United Nations Convention on the Carriage of Goods by
Sea, 1978 (March 31). These so-called “Hamburg Rules” seek to remove uncertainties encoun-
tered with the “Hague Rules” (embodied in the Brussels Convention for the Unication of Certain
Rules relating to Bills of Lading of August 25, 1924). They also take into account modern trans-
port techniques and provide for a more balanced allocation of risk between the cargo owner and
the carrier, in harmony with the present laws on other modes of transport.
International Contract Practices
Work is directed either to specic clauses used in many kinds of contract or to specic types of
contracts and their typical provisions. Clauses under consideration include liquidated damages
or penalty clauses, on which uniform rules have been drafted, and clauses protecting parties
against the effects of currency uctuations. As to specic types of contracts, priority is given to
the preparation of a legal guide on contracts for the supply and construction of large industrial
works, then to contracts on research and development, consulting, engineering, technology trans-
fer (including licensing), service and maintenance, technical assistance, leasing, joint ventures
(Joint Undertakings) and industrial cooperation in general (Industrial Property, International Pro-
tection).
46 SHIPPING AND INCOTERMS / PRACTICE GUIDE
Chapter 3 Glossary
Air waybill consignment note covering the carriage of goods by airfreight
Alongside vessel delivery of cargo on the wharf, berth or lighter under the ship’s tackle,
for direct loading into the ship
Average in marine insurance means: damage particular average: damage to the
goods general average: expenses voluntarily incurred to save a ship
and her cargo
Average adjusters rms specialized in the settlement of general average cases
Average contribution share of the general average expenses to be paid
Average deposit amount to be paid, as notied by average adjusters, pending the nal
liquidation of a general average
Berth at a quay or wharf, location where a ship is moored to unload/load
cargo
Bill of lading (B/L) title of property of the goods, it is the authentic receipt delivered by
carriers for the said goods shipped/to be shipped on a named vessel
Bunker adjustment factor surcharge calculated at a percentage of the basic ocean freight, to take
into account the uctuations of the price of fuel, adapted as needed
Carriage forward also, carriage collect, means freight payable at destination
Certicate of insurance document issued by insurers conrming that a particular consignment
is held covered by their company, and giving the name of their agent
to contact at destination
Certicate of origin document certied by Chambers of Commerce conrming the origin
of goods, and required in some instances by Customs Authorities for
clearance
Certicate of short-landing document which must be issued by carriers or their agents when they
fail to deliver a consignment of which a valid bill of lading has been
issued
Chargeable weight weight for air shipment is the actual gross weight (gw) or the volume
weight (vw), whichever is greater; gw is the gure that is indicated out-
right on a cargo weighing scale; vw is calculated based on a cargo’s size,
measurement or dimensions, and with the use of the following formula:
Imperial System: L x W x H in inches (in) / 165 = vw (in lbs)
Metric System: L x W x H in centimetres (cm) / 6,000 = vw (in kg)
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Charter-party contract of hire of a vessel or part of a vessel
CFR cost and freight
CIF cost, insurance, freight
CIP carriage and insurance paid to
CPT carriage paid to
Clean said of a bill of lading without reservation
Clear to clear: process through customs
Closing date date limit by which goods can be delivered for loading into a named
vessel
Commodity rate or “corate” special low rates applicable in airfreight trafc for certain
categories of supplies and between designated airports or origin and
destination
Conference cartel composed of several shipping lines that join their interests, so as
to offer regular shipping services at standard rates never undercut by
any of the members
Consignee the receiver of a consignment
Consignment note a certain amount of cargo, dened by one transport document where
its weight, size, number of parcels or appearance are stated
Consignor the sender of a consignment
Consolidation the assembling of several loads originating from several sources for
joint dispatch
Consolidator the rm, normally forwarding agent, running a consolidation service
Consular invoice invoice which are prepared on special forms provided by consulates,
and which have to be authorized by the importing country’s consulate
in the exporter’s country and required by some countries for customs
clearance
Container metallic box, of steel or aluminium, with double doors at one end,
more and more in use on sea-routes, for easier handling and safe trans-
portation of cargo
Crate open case made of planks assembled, nailed and strapped which show
contents or their inner packing, as opposed to a close case
Cubic foot unit of volume, often used to express freight rate i.e. $… per 40’, mean-
ing $... per 40 cubic feet, equivalent to 1.13 cubic meters
Cubic meter unit of volume for freight rates i.e. $… per m3
48 SHIPPING AND INCOTERMS / PRACTICE GUIDE
Currency adjustment factor surcharge calculated at a percentage of the basic ocean freight, to take
into account uctuations of currencies for rates expressed in US$ (it
can be a negative adjustment)
Dangerous goods goods, which, because of their nature, are classied as hazardous and
admitted for transportation on special terms and regulations; see also
IMO (formally IMCO) code and RAG
Deck under deck cargo means goods stowed inside the holds of a vessel;
on deck cargo means goods stowed above the holds “on deck”, on the
vessel, mostly because of their hazardous nature; on deck cargo will be
the rst to be jettisoned in case of emergency; deck goods are always
carried without any acceptance of responsibility by the carrier
Delivery note documents used by cartage contractors or carriers to be signed by con-
signee as receipts for the goods, and on which reservations must be
stated if consignments are not in order
Delivery order voucher issued by carriers or agents against surrenders of Bs/L, ena-
bling consignees to obtain delivery of their cargo; also document es-
tablishing the transfer of cargo from one party to another
Demurrage rent in railway sheds; penalty for keeping containers longer than al-
lowed; penalty for immobilization of a vessel longer than allowed for
loading/unloading and payable by owners of the goods
Destufng in container trafc: emptying of the container
Door-to-door through service from origin to consignee, as can best be operated by
containers or road
FCL full container load
EXW ex works
FAS free alongside
FCA free carrier
FIO free in and out (loading and unloading NOT included in basic ocean
freight rate)
FOB free on board
FPA free of particular average
Feeder service delivery or collection services to/from ports of call of large ocean ves-
sels, and arranged on smaller local vessels, barges, rail or road, from/
to various places of origin/destinations which could not be served by
the larger vessels
FIATA International Federation of Freight Forwarders Association
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FIATA B/L valid B/L established by a forwarder belonging to the above associa-
tion
Floating policy also called open policy, open marine policy: insurance contract of a
permanent nature between insurer and insured
Forwarding agent or forwarders – intermediary between suppliers, buyers and carriers,
who arrange pre-transportation, shipping and issue of documentation
in accordance with instructions from their principals
Harbour dues taxes levied for using port facilities
Haulage road transportation
Haulage contractor road carrier
Heavy lift charges additional charges for moving, loading or unloading pieces above a
certain weight limit per unit; these charges vary according to the port
equipment and facilities
Hold storage space situated under deck of merchant ships where cargo is
stowed
IATA International Air Transportation Association
IMO (previously IMCO) International Maritime Organization. Code: IMO publications where-
by dangerous goods are classied into several categories according to
their hazards (corrosive, inammable, explosive, poisonous, etc), and
editing compulsory rules and regulations adopted by most trading
countries, for their packing, markings, conditions of acceptance and
carriage
Incoterms international commercial terms
Jettison washing overboard; voluntary throwing of cargo overboard in emer-
gency cases to prevent damages to the ship and/or other cargo; the
value of jettisoned goods enters into the calculation of expenses in
cases of general average
Joint-cargo consolidated cargo
Lay-day time allowed for unloading/loading of a vessel
LCL less than container load
Legalized invoice invoice prepared on seller’s own letter headed forms, but to be legal-
ized by a consulate, when such is required for customs clearance in
some countries
50 SHIPPING AND INCOTERMS / PRACTICE GUIDE
Letter of credit or L/C, in short, document issued by a bank, acting as an intermediary
between buyer and seller; see explanation in Section 1/Chapter 6 –
Shipping Documents/(f)
Lighter barge placed alongside vessels on which cargo is unloaded/loaded,
when this cannot be done at a wharf/quay; used also in feeder serv-
ices
Lighterage the fee charged for carrying goods in ships constructed to carry special
barges (lighters)
Lift-van large case, comparable to metallic container, but made of wood, and
mainly used for removal of furniture
Longshoreman has various waterfront-related meanings concerning loading and un-
loading ships
Manifest list of the consignments place on board an aircraft or vessel
Markings symbols, letters and gures, stencilled on cases/packages and serving
as identication of consignments
Measurements linear dimensions of length, width and height of packages. Often used
also to mean the volume of a package or of a consignment
Minimum freight minimum amount charged by carrier and per B/L in case of transporta-
tion of small consignment
Negotiable describe a document which is a title of value or property, such as an
original B/L, and which can be transferred to somebody by endorse-
ment
Non-negotiable either duplicate of a negotiable document (n/n copy of B/L), or docu-
ment which is not a title of property (an air waybill is not a negotiable
document)
Notify address in a B/L or AWB, name and address of a party, not designated as con-
signee or beneciary, but to whom a notication of arrival of the goods
is to be sent by the carrier’s agent at destination.
On board B/L mention that may appear on Bs/L, as a conrmation that goods are ef-
fectively loaded
Open policy see oating policy
Outturn report list of consignments unloaded from a vessel and established in the
port of unloading
Pallet robust, wooden oor, on wood blocks, allowing handling by fork-lift
trucks, on which goods, presented in standard packs, can be easily
transported
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Payload total weight of the cargo that can be placed in a rail or road truck, or in
a plane (also volume acceptable)
RAG restricted articles guide; an IATA publication on the rules and regula-
tions governing the packing, markings, labelling of hazardous goods,
and their conditions of acceptance and carriage by airfreight
RAG declaration declaration, in duplicate, must be completed and signed by the sup-
plier (forwarders are not authorized to sign), describing in details the
goods dispatched and certifying that consignment complies in every
respect with the regulations; one copy travels with the AWB on the
carrying plane
Reefer refrigerated container
Restricted cargo hazardous goods, or goods classied as such, admitted for carriage
under special rules and regulation only; see IMO code and RAG
Right of recourse right of claiming compensation against party at fault; consignees must
preserve the right of recourse of their underwriters by sending regis-
tered claim letter to faulty carriers
Shipping marks see “markings”
Short-landing certicate see “certicate”
Skid special frame, usually metallic, to permit handling, lifting, stowing,
etc. of pieces of odd shape or size, and generally heavy
SRCC abbreviation used in insurance terminology; means “strikes-riots-civil
commotions” – these risks are not included in the so-called “all-risks”
policies and must be specied separately, as well as war risks
Stevedores dockers specialized in the proper and adequate storing (called stow-
age) of cargo in vessels’ holds; also in containers
Storage warehousing; cargo remaining in sheds, warehouses, etc. pending de-
parture, transhipment, collection, is in storage
Stowage means storage in ships’ holds or in containers
Stufng loading in containers
Subrogation transmission of rights of claim and recovery to another party
Surveyor in shipping/insurance terminology, the expert who examines dam-
aged goods and prepares a detailed report
52 SHIPPING AND INCOTERMS / PRACTICE GUIDE
Survey report detailed report prepared by an insurance agent describing the dam-
ages suffered by goods, the possible cause of discrepancies, with all
relevant shipping information, to enable insurers to give considera-
tion to the case; expensive document not to be requested for minor
claims
Tackle ship’s own gear to load/unload cargo. FAS (free along side) is under-
stood to be delivery “under ship’s tackle”
Tally clerks persons checking the conformity of packages and cargo with the de-
scription given on documents
Through B/L B/L covering a carriage between two designated places but involving a
transhipment or a transfer during the course of the journey
Through rate lump sum for the carriage charges relating to consignments travelling
on through Bs/L
Transshipment transfer, in a convenient port from one ship to another when the rst
carrying vessel does not call at the port of destination
Underdeck see: deck; storage space below the vessel’s deck where cargo is stowed
in the holds; carriers are responsible for cargo shipped under deck,
whilst they reject all liability for cargo shipped on deck
Underwriter an underwriter is a person or rm who assumes nancial risks on be-
half of another; the term is used in a number of industries; it can refer
to an insurance company, an investment bank, or an individual spon-
sor of an event
Warehouse shed or storehouse where cargo is kept pending dispatch or retrieval
Bonded warehouse warehouse under customs control where cargo in transit is kept or
where cargo is kept pending customs clearance
Waybill consignment note; generally speaking, document covering dispatch of
goods
Wharf quay alongside which vessels berth
Wharfage cost of utilization of wharves
W/M means weight/measurement; basis of calculation of ocean freight charg-
es, either on weight or on measurement, at ship’s option
53
SHIPPING AND INCOTERMS / PRACTICE GUIDE
United Nations Development Programme
Procurement Support Oce, Bureau of Management
www.undp.org/procurement
November 2008
