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Interactive BASIC Compiler
by

Andrew R. Gariepy,
Scott Terry. David Overton.
Greg Branche and Halbert Uang

Documentation by
Michael A. Gariepy

©Copyright1985. 1986. 1987

fA M.m.) ,j
All Rights Reserved

ZBasic'" is a Trademark of Zedcor. Inc.

Fourth Edition: 4/87
First edition: 8/85
Seoond edition: 10185
Third edition: 5/86

TECHNICAL SUPPORT:
1-(602) 795-3996
Support hours: Monday-Friday, Noon to 5PM, Mountain Standard Time
Zedcor provides free phone support. Be sure to have your invoice number and license agreement number ready. You
may need them to get support. Also be sure you understand the problem dearly and describe ~ is simply as possible.
His usually a good idea to test the problem a few times before calling. Sometimes it's just a syntax problem. Collect
or toll free calls will not be accepted for technical support.
In addition, you may contact us on the GEnie Information Service by sending electronic mail (EMAIL) to;
ZBASIC. We check our mailbox semi-regularly and will respond to you via electronic mail. We also have topics set up
on the various Round-Table Bulletin Boards for general information.
Notes on the Fourth Edition
This ed~ion of the ZBasic'" manual contains all the computer appendices. This includes the appendix for MS-DOS"',
APPLE'" lie, IIc (DOS 3.3 and ProDOS), MACINTOSH"', CP/M'" and TRS-80'" Model 1, 3 and TRS-80 Model 4.
The appendices are at the back of the manual and the new index includes entries for both the reference section and
the appendices. His important to study the appendix for the computer you are using since there are usually
enhancements and variations that are important to note.
Acknowledgements
Special thanks to John Kemeny and Thomas Kurtz for creating BASIC, the easiest and most powerful of all the
general purpose languages. To Joanne Gariepy for many late hours of ed~ing. An extra special thanks to the
programming teams that have meant so much to the success of the product; Scott Terry, Dave Overton, Greg
Branche and Hal Liang and to Thomas Dim~ri and David Cooper for their help with the MSDOS version. Special
thanks to Karen Moesh and Leyla Blisard for making sure ZBasic gets mailed as fast as it does and to Apple
Computer, Inc. for the Macintosh"', Laserwr~er"', MacDraw, and MacPaint graphic software and to Microsoft for
Word"'; on which this entire manual was composed and printed (both text and graphics).
Many thanks to the multitudes of ZBasic'" users who provided helpful suggestions for this fourth edition.
Copyright Notice
The ZBasic software and manual are © Copyright 1985,1986,1987, Zedcor Inc., All Rights Reserved. It is against
the law to copy the ZBasic software or Documentation on cassette, diskette, tape, listing or any other medium for
any purpose other than the purchaser's archival use without the express written permission of Zedcor Inc.
Trademarks
Because ZBasic™ runs on so many different products, this manual makes reference to many manufacturers and products that are trademarks of their
respective owners. We acknowledge these companies and thank those that have been so helpful In making ZBasicTM a success: ZBasic™ is a
trademark of Zedcor Inc. Apple, IIGS, lie, 11+, lie, Macintosh Plus, MAC XL, LISA and Macintosh'" are registered or licensed trademarks of Apple
Computer. IBM PC, IBM PC jr., IBM PC-XT, PC·AT and PC-OOS are registered tredemarks of International Business Machines Corporation.
MSBASIC, MS, Xeni. and M5-DOS are registered trademarks of Microsoft Corporation. CP/M is a registered trademark of Digital Research. Turbo
Pascal is a registered trademark of Borland International. TR5-80, Radio Shack, Tandy 2000. Tandy and Tandy 1000, 1200, 3000 are registered
trademarks of Tandy Corporation. Kaypro II, 4, 10, 16 and 286i are registered trademarks of Kay pro Corporation. Amiga, Commodore 64 and 128 are
trademarks of Commodore Intemational. Franklin Ace 1000 Is a trademark of Franklin Corporatio=Osborne is a trademark of Osborne Corporation.
Compaq and Deskpro are trademarks of Compaq Computers. Panasonic Senior and Executive rtners are trademarks of Panasonic Industrial
Corporation. Data General One Is a trademark of Data General Corporation. Quadram is a tradem
of Quadram Corporation. VAX is a trademark of
Digital Equipment Corporation. Unix is a trademark of AT&T Corporation. We apologize for any unintentional omissions.
Zedcor Incorporated reserves the right to make changes to the specifications of Z8asic'Rl and to the ZBasic"" documentation without obligation to notify
any persons or organization of such changes.

ZEDCOR, INC.
4500 East Speedway Blvd., Suite 22
Tucson, Arizona 85712-5305
(602) 795-3996
(602) 881-8101

Orders: 800· 482·4567

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Getting Started

Standard Line Editor
Adding, Inserting and Deleting Lines
The Line Editor
Renumber, Calculator, SAVE, LOAD, DIRectory

Running ZBaslc Programs
RUN, RUN+, RUN"
Breaking Out of Executing Programs

Chaining Programs

Compile and Runtime Errors

Terms and Definitions

36
36
37
40
41
42
44

Operators
Expression Evaluation types
Other Math Functions
Derived Math Functions
Order of Precedence
Conditional and Logical Operators
Numeric Conversions

Variables
Integer Variables
Floating Point Variables (REAL)
Configuring Accuracy
String Variables
Defining String Lengths with DIM and DEFLEN
INDEX$
Arrays
Shell and Quick Sort examples
Graphics

76
110
Table of Contents

TABLE OF CONTENTS
98

Flies
Terms
File Structure
Sequential Method
Random Method
Mixing File Methods
Disk Errors

100
106
108
115
120
122

Screen and Printer

Loops FOR-NEXT, WHILE-WEND, DO-UNTIL

Functions and Subroutines
DEFFN
LONGFN

Machine Language

program Structure

Debugging Tools

Porting Programs

Converting Old Programs

Glossary
170
The reference section contains a complete alphabetical list of all
Standard ZBasic commands, statements, functions and operators
with cross reference to other commands and sections of the
manual.
Also see the appropriate appendix for special commands or
enhancements for a particular computer model.

Table of Contents

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Computer Appendices
VERSION NOTES
Throughout this manual are notes to different versions of ZBasic.
An Icon representing the various computer type is used.

Remember the icon for your computer type. If you see the icon
in the standard reference manual, a note will follow it describing
something of importance for that version.

I___IB_M_®_~:_~·_I:a_D_O_S_TM_"P_C_-_D_O_S_TM_a_n_d_co_m_pa_ti_b_le_S
I

= ______Z_8_0™__;T_R_S_-_8_0TM__M_O_d_e_I_1,_3_a_n_d_4_a_n_d_C_P_/M_TM__-8_0_____B

Apple® lie, IIc, Laser 128™ and IIGS: DOS 3.3
Apple® 11+, lie, IIc, Laser 128™ and IIGS, ProDOS

---------------------------------------------

Macintosh™, Macintosh Plus™, MAC XLTM,
Macintosh SETM, Macintosh IITM and
LlSATM with Macworks™

Table of Contents

As the orginal developer of ZBasic and the head of the programming
team I want to thank you for your support.
I've been involved in writing ZBasic for eigth years now and am very
proud of what we've accomplished. It hasn't been easy but it's sure
been fun. How many times does a complex product like ZBasic ever
make it to market?
Over the years I have received thousands of suggestions from
programmers. I've tried to implement as many of these suggestions as I
could. I still need your feedback and comments so I can make ZBasic
the most powerful programming tool available. Send your suggestions
to the "ZBasic Wish-List Department" or to my attention.
Special thanks to my wife Janis for putting up with my programming late
into the night and to the many ZBasic users that have taken the time to
send letters of encouragement.
Andrew R. Gariepy
April, 1987

ZBasic has come a long way since it was introduced in 1985. Many
thousands of copies, on many different computers, have been distributed
all over the planet.
We have accomplished what we set out out to do; to provide a powerful,
fast, interactive, simple-to-use, inexpensive BASIC compiler that works
the same way on many different computers so you only have to learn a
language once.
I've worked hard to make the manual simple to follow and easy to
understand.
I highly recommend that you subscribe to the ZBasic newsletter; "Z".
It
covers all sorts of topics about ZBasic and has listings for public domain
ZBasic subroutines on diskette you can get cheap. It's jammed with hints
and tricks from other ZBasic users all over the world and from the ZBasic
programmers themselves. Call 800-482-4567 to order.
Thank you for your support of ZBasic. Please let us know if you have any
ideas of how to improve the product.
Michael A. Gariepy
April,1987

GETTING STARTED

Getting Started

GETTING STARTED

ASIC
GETTING STARTED
ZBasic is provided on a diskette for your computer. Before loading ZBasic do the following:
1.

Read, sign and return the License agreement in the front of this manual.
Keep track of your serial number, you may need it for support.

Read the Appendix for your computer. It will explain any variations or
enhancements for your version of ZBasic and also has important
information about hardware requirements or limitations.

MAKE A BACKUP COPY OF THE ORIGINAL ZBasic™ DISKETTE. Never
use the original diskette. If you do not know how to make backups,
refer to your DOS or User Manual.

Using the BACKUP, load ZBasic™ according to the instructions for your
computer below:

MS-DOS
CP/M-SO
TRS-80
Apple DOS 3.3
Apple ProDOS
Macintosh

From A> :
From A> :
From DOS READY:
From FP prompt:
From FP prompt:
Using the mouse:

ZBASIC
ZBASIC
ZBASIC
BRUN ZBASIC
-/ZBASIC/ZBASIC.SYSTEM
Double Click ZBasic Icon

HOW TO BE A ZBASIC EXPERT IN TEN MINUTES OR LESS
The following is a quick-and-dirty course that teaches you how to TYPE, RUN, SAVE, QUIT
and LOAD a program using ZBasic.
First LOAD ZBasic according to the instructions for your computer above or in your
computer appendix. Some versions require that you press to enter the editor. If a
prompt appears asking for input, press . See CONFIGURE for more information about
the options being offered.

Macintosh users note that the following lessons are done in the COMMAND window.

Getting Started

GETTING STARTED
LESSON ONE: TYPING IN A SIMPLE PROGRAM

When you see the message; ZBasic Ready, you may begin entering programs. So
we may demonstrate the simplicity of Z8asic, please type in the following program exactly as
shown. Always type COMMANDS in UPPERCASE and remember to press or
at the end of each line.
10
20
30

FOR Count
PRINT "Hi,
NEXT Count

1 TO 10
I'm ZBasic! ---"

Congratulations, you've just entered your first ZBasic program. To see a listing of the
program type: LIST. To find out more about entering and editing programs,
see: STANDARD LINE EDITOR. Also see your computer appendix for information about
using a full screen editor (if your version has one).
LESSON TWO: RUNNING THE PROGRAM

To run the program you just entered type:
RUN

The program will print the message; Hi, I'm ZBasic! --- ten times. ZBasic
actually compiles the program but does it so fast that you'll barely notice. When the program
is finished you're back in the editor. That's the beauty of interactive compiling.
LESSON THREE: SAVING THE PROGRAM

To SAVE your program, make sure you have an unprotected diskette in the drive and type:
SAVE

The program will be saved to disk for future use.
LESSON FOUR: EXITING ZBASIC

To exit ZBasic type:
QUIT

You will now be back in the operating system. It's a good idea to save your programs before
doing this.
LESSON FIVE: HOW TO LOAD EXISTING PROGRAMS

To load the previously saved program, first re-Ioad Z8asic then type:
LOAD

The program you saved is now back in memory. To see it, type LIST:
10 FOR Count = 1 TO 10
20
PRINT "Hi, lim ZBasic!--_n
30 NEXT Count

Getting Started

GETTING STARTED

A NOTE TO EXPERIENCED BASIC PROGRAMMERS:
Since the ZBasic Compiler is very similar to the BASIC interpreters found on most
microcomputers (except for graphic commands and file I/O), use the Reference Section
and your Computer Appendix to check syntax differences from other BASIC's. Use the
Index to find more in-depth answers. The appendices in the back of this manual contain the
commands and enhancements for specific computers. These appendices are also very
useful for converting programs from one machine to another.
If you have been frustrated with incredibly slow interpreters and awkward, complicated
compilers, you will be pleased with the power and ease of ZBasic.

A NOTE TO INEXPERIENCED BASIC PROGRAMMERS
This manual is llQ1 intended to teach you BASIC programming from scratch. If you lack
programming experience we suggest picking up some of the BASIC tutorials for the IBM
PC, CP/M systems or the TRS-SO, available from most major bookstores and libraries.
Once you leam the beginning concepts of BASIC programming, like GOSUB, FOR/NEXT
and that type of thing, this manual should be all you need.
ZBasic is very similar to the IBM PC, TRS-SO, MSBASIC and GW BASIC interpreters;
however, most Graphic commands and Random File commands are different (sequential file
commands are very similar).
For those with some experience, this section and the section "Standard Line Editor" are
written in a tutorial format.
Be sure to examine the appendix in the back of this manual for your computer. It will tell you
about any differences and enhancements that are important to know ~ you start.

Getting Started

ASIC
CONFIGURATION

Since no two programmers are alike, we allow you to configure your version of ZBasic. Most
versions start with a screen something like this:

As you can see below, configuring your version of ZBasic is simple. Simply set the
parameters the way you want, then save the reconfigured ZBasic:

Type "E" to enter the Standard Line Editor. Once in the editor, you may
LOAD, TYPE, RUN, EDIT, SAVE or DEBUG your programs.

Typing "e" allows you to configure certain parts of ZBasic. Note that in most
cases you will not have to change parameters. See next page for options.

Typing "S" allows you to save ZBasic with the configuration defaults set to your
options. This way you don't have to reconfigure ZBasic every time you load it.

Typing "P" allows you to make patches to ZBasic. If we make minor changes you
won1 have to return you disk to us for an upgrade. Not available on all versions.

CONFIGURATION
CHANGING CONFIGURATION
It is simple to change configurations. If the defauH value is not to your liking simply type in
the value you want. Press to skip inputs, Press or to go
back to the main menu.
STANDARD CONFIGURE QUESTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Double Precision Accuracy 6-54
000E
Single Precision Accuracy 2-52
0006
Scientific Precision 2-Double Prec. 0006
Maximum File Buffers Open 0 - 99
0002
Array Base
o or 1
0000
Rounding Number
0031
o - 99
Default Variable Type:
ingle, oub1e, nteger
Test Array Bounds
Convert to uppercase
*Optimize expressions as Integer? yiN
*Space required after Keywords? yiN

00014
00006
00006
00002
00000
00049

• Not all versions.
DEFINITIONS OF THE STANDARD CONFIGURE QUESTIONS
Set from six to 54 digits of precision for Double Precision math. Defaults to 14.
1.
2.
Set from four up to two digits less than Double Precision. Defaults to 6.
Digits of math precision for Scientific functions (ATN, COS etc.)
3.
4.
Set the number of files you want OPEN at one time. Up to 99. Two is the default.
Array Base 0 or 1. Set zero or one as ARRAY start. Zero is default.
5.
Rounding Factor. Sets rounding for PRINT USING and other things.
6.
7.
Set variable default to Integer, Single or Double precision.
Press I, S or D key. Same as DEFDBL, DEFSNG, DEFINT A-Z.
Check the runtime program (object code) for array values going out of DIM bounds.
S.
(Slows the program down but is very good for debugging purposes)
Tells ZBasic to convert all lowercase entries to UPPERCASE.
9.
The variable "FRED" is the same as the variable "Fred" if this is done.
10.
Two ways to evaluate expressions. Integer or Floating Point.
Defaults to integer for speed and size. Set to NO if you want defaults as real.
Forcing a space after keywords allows you to embed keywords in variables.
11.

IMPORTANT NOTE: If you change configuration, make sure all CHAINED programs have
EXACTLY THE SAME CONFIGURATION. Otherwise unpredictable results may occur.

Macintosh: Select the "Configure" menu item to change or save configuration options.
MSDOS and ProDOS versions of ZBasic have a CON FIG command that allows resetting
the options from the Standard line editor. 'CP/M, Apple DOS 3.3 and TRS-SO versions
may not have the last two options offered. Check the appropriate appendix for specifics.

STANDARD LINE EDITOR

ASIC
STANDARD EDITOR
ZBasic comes with a Standard Editor that works the same way on all computers. While most
versions of ZBasic now come with a full screen editor which is easier and faster to use, the
Standard Editor allows you to do quick-and-dirty editing and direct commands like an
interpreter.
Learning the Standard Editor will allow you to jump from one version of ZBasic to another
without having to re-Iearn the full screen editor for that particular machine.

ENTERING THE EDITOR
Load ZBasic. When the screen says: ZBasic Ready you have entered the ZBasic
Interactive Programming Environment (a fancy name for the Standard Editor) and may enter
programs and type direct commands.
The Standard Line Editor requires each line of a program to have a line number for editing
and reference purposes (labels are available too.) Line numbers may range from 0-65534.
Each line can be up to 250 characters long. To add a line, type a line number and the text,
or use the AUTO command to have ZBasic assign line numbers automatically (some
versions of ZBasic will allow you to enter programs without using line numbers. Check your
appendix). If you are loading a program without line numbers, they will be added
automatically. Line numbers are used for editing in the Standard Line Editor only.
Important Note: Always type keywords and commands in uppercase. Select "Convert to
Uppercase" under Configure if you don't want to worry about it.

Important Note: This entire section deals with commands that are to be executed from
the Standard Line Editor. If you are in the full screen editor you will need to switch to the
Standard Editor. See your computer appendix for Specifics.

This section of the manual refers to the COMMAND window. Switching between the
COMMAND and EDIT windows is accomplished with COMMAND E.

Interactive Programming Environment

STANDARD LINE EDITOR
ENTERING AND DELETING LINES
Type in the following example. Enter it exactly as shown, as we will use this text to illustrate
the use of the line editor. Remember to use at the end of each line. This is how
ZBasic recognizes a line and stores it in memory:
10 THIS IS AN EXAMPLE OF ADDING A LINE
20 THIS IS THE SECOND LINE
30 THIS IS THE THIRD LINE
If you make a mistake, use or to delete it. If you a line
incorrectly just type it over again. To see the complete program type LIST:
LISTING A PROGRAM
To list a line, or range of lines, use LIST or just L:

TYPE
LIST or L
LIST "SUBROUTINE"
LIST "FRED"LIST 100-200
LLIST-100
LIST 100- or L100

L+
LLIST+
L+-100

ZBASIC RESPONDS
Lists complete program to the screen
Lists the line with that label
List all lines after and including the line with the label "FRED"
Lists lines from 100-200
Lists lines up to 100 to printer
Lists lines from 100 on
Lists the last line listed or edited
Lists previous line (or plus <+> key)
Lists next line (or minus <-> key)
Lists program without line numbers
Lists to printer without line numbers
Lists up to line 100 without showing line numbers
Single steps long listings. continues listing
Lists PAGE of lines (10 lines) to screen
Some systems: Highlights keywords on screen while listing.

LINES
Deleting lines is accomplished in a number of ways. Examples:
YOU TYPE
1000
DEL 1000
DEL 10-50
DELETE 50
DELETE 50NEW

ZBASIC RESPONDS
Deletes line 1 000
Delete line 1000
Delete lines 10 through 50
Delete line 50
Delete line 50 and all lines after
Delete the entire program Careful!

NOTE: Labels may be used in place of line numbers (except first example).
ADDING OR INSERTING A NEW PROGRAM LINE
Add or insert a line by typing in a new line number followed by text (be careful not to use the
number of a line already being used unless you want to replace it). To insert a line between
line 10 and line 20, assign a number such as 15 to the new line (or another number
between 10 and 20). To add a line at the end of the program, assign the line a number
greater than the largest line in the program.

Interactive Programming Environment

STANDARD LINE EDITOR
HOW TO EDIT TEXT ON A LINE
The Standard Line editor is used to edit lines in a program and to give commands directly to
the compiler. Deleting, inserting, changing or adding new text is easy and fast.

EDIT ANYTHING ON A LlNE. .. EVEN LINE NUMBERS!
Unlike most BASICs, ZBasic allows you to edit anything on a line, even the line number.
When a line number is edited, ZBasic creates a new line with that line number. The old line
will not be deleted or changed. Very handy for avoiding redundant typing.
The ZBasic line edttorfunctions the same way on all versions of ZBasic. Here are &
line edit keys you need to remember:

STANDARD LINE EDITOR KEYS
INSERT TEXT
nsert characters
etend line
ape Insert mode

CURSOR MOVEMENT
Move RIGHT
Move LEFT
earch for
ist the line you are editing

DELETE TEXT
elete one character
ill, Delete upto
ack to end of line
ape Kill and Hack

OTHER
bort changes
Keep changes

hange character under the cursor
Abort changes (CTRL C on some systems)

CURSOR ARROW keys are often used instead of and .

Macintosh: =, =. MSDOS and Apple II: Cursor
keys= and . Delete key also works as . =.
MSDOS: Insert key = . CP/M: =. TRS·SO: =.

USING THE LINE EDITOR
The command to edit a line is "EDIT" (or just "E") followed by a line number (or label). If no
line number is used, the last line LlST(ed) or EDIT(ed) will be assumed «COMMA> without
will also edit the current line).
"EDIT 20" and "E20" do the same thing.
The following page describes the simple commands used to edit the characters on the line.

Interactive Programming Environment

STANDARD LINE EDITOR
LEARNING THE COMPLETE STANDARD LINE EDITOR
IN 10 MINUTES OR LESS
LISTING THE LINE YOU ARE EDITING

To see the complete line you are editing, and put the cursor at the beginning of the line, press the
key. Remember: Line editor commands do not require .

MOVING THE CURSOR ON THE LINE

To move the cursor back and forth on a line, use or «DEl> some systems)
(don1 use

To move the cursor to a specific character on a line quickly, use the key, (SEARCH), followed by
the character to find. To move the cursor from the "1" in "THIS" to the "L" in "EXAMPLE", just type
and .

00010 THIS IS AN EXAMPLE OF ADDING A LINE
00010 THIS IS AN EXAMP_

CHANGE CHARACTER UNDER CURSOR
To change the character under the cursor, press followed by the new character. To change five
characters, press the <5> key first, the key, then the five keys to replace the old characters.

ABORT (UNDO) CHANGES

To undo changes press the key. All changes, additions and deletions will be aborted.

DELETE CHARACTERS
To delete characters in a line use the key. Pressing will delete the character under the
cursor. To delete five characters press 5 times or press the <5> key and the key.

ESCAPE PRESENT MODE

To escape from INSERT, SEARCH, CHANGE, EXTEND or KILL modes, press .

DELETE UP TO A SPECIFIC CHARACTER

To delete, or KILL, a range of characters from the cursor to a specified character, use the key.

INSERT CHARACTERS
To insert text in a line, position the cursor where insertion is desired. Press the d> key. Type in text
or to erase tex!. Almost any key may be typed except , or .
ape exits the INSERT mode.

DELETE TO END OF LINE

To delete all the characters from the cursor position to the end of the line, press the key (Hacks
off the remainder of the line).

MOVE TO END OF LINE AND ADD
To move the Cursor to the end of the line and enter the INSERT MODE, press the "X" key (For
eXtend). will return to the regular line editor mode.

EXIT THE LINE EDITOR
:
:

or
Exit the line edit mode and ACCEPT all changes and additions,
To exit the line edit mode and IGNORE all changes and additions

• n is a number. If you type 4D, four characters are deleted. n=nth occurrence or n times.

Interactive Programming Environment

STANDARD LINE EDITOR
USING OTHER EDITORS OR WORD PROCESSORS
Most versions of ZBasic now come with a Full Screen Editor. Check your computer
appendix to see if you have one for your version. If you choose, you may also edit ZBasic
programs with a word processor or some other editor. You will need to save the ZBasic
program in ASCII using the SAVE" or SAVE+ commands before editing.
In order for ZBasic to load a text file it requires that:
Line lengths must be less than 250 characters
Every line must be followed by a Carriage Return

If the text file does not contain line numbers, ZBasic will assign line numbers to the program
starting with one, in increments of one. Use RENUM to renumber a program. ASCII text
takes longer to LOAD and SAVE.

RENUMBER PROGRAM LINES
ZBASIC renumbers lines in a program using the RENUM command.
Formal:
RENUM [[NEW LINE NUMBER][[. OLD START,][ INCREMEN7]]]
YOU TYPE
RENUM
RENUM 100,,5
RENUM 100,20,5
RENUM,,100

ZBASIC RESPONDS
Lines start with 10, Increments of 10
Lines start with 100, Increments of 5
Renumber From line 20, Start with 100, Increments of 5
Renumbers all lines by 100

ZBasic has a built in calculator. Use "?" or "PRINT" in front of a calculation to see the results.
You may also convert number bases like HEX, Binary, Octal and Unsigned Integer. (See
BASE CONVERSIONS) Examples:

TYPE
PRINT 123.2*51.3
?SQR(92.1)
PRINT 3/2*6
?3./2*6
?320/.0001

ZBASIC RESPONPS
6320.16
9.5968745
6 (Calculated in INTEGER)
9 (Calculated in FLOATING POINT)
3200000

NOTE: Unless you have configured ZBasic to default to floating pOint, integer is
assumed. If configured for "Optimize expressions as Integer", use a decimal pOint in an
expression to force the result of a calculation to be floating pOint (see CONFIGURE).

Interactive Programming Environment

STANDARD LINE EDITOR
SAVE,

LOAD, APPEND and MERGE
ZBASIC uses the LOAD and SAVE commands to load and save programs. Subroutines
saved in ASCII without line numbers may be inserted in your program with APPEND. To
SAVE in ASCII use ...... To SAVE in ASCII without line numbers use "+". Examples:
SAVE MYPROG
SAVE CHECKERS 2
SAVE* MYPROG
SAVE+ TEST
LOAD CHECKERS
LOAD* CHECKERS
MERGE MYPROG
MERGE* MYPROG
APPEND 2000 MYSUB
APPEND* 50 SORT

Saves in tokenized format.
Saves tokenized to TRS-aO drive 2.
Saves MYPROG in ASCII.
Saves TEST without line#'s in ASCII.
Loads Checkers.
Loads Checkers but strips REMarks and Spaces.
Merges program MYPROG.
Merges ASCII program, strips REM's and Spaces.
Loads non-line# ASCII subroutine, MYSUB, to line 2000.
Loads SORT to line 50 in increments of 1, strips all
REM's and Spaces from the routine.

NOTE: Only non-line numbered ASCII programs may be APPENDED (SAVE+). Only line
numbered programs may be merged (SAVE or SAVE").
When LOAD(ing) programs without line numbers, ZBasic assumes the end-of-line is
terminated with , or 250 characters, whichever comes first. Lines are
assigned line numbers starting with one, in increments of one.

FILE DIRECTORY or CATALOG
To see the names of files on the current storage device type DIR. Examples:
MS-DOS (also see PATH and CHOIR)
Apple DOS 3.3 and CP/M:
DIR
Lists all the files on the present drive
DIR B:
Lists the files on drive B
DIR A:
Lists all the files on drive A
DIR C:
Lists all the files on drive C
NOTE: The Apple DOS 3.3 version of ZBasie uses A, B, C... for drive
spees instead of D 1, D2 ...
APPLE ProDOS: (also see PATH)
DIR
Lists all files in current directory
DIR FRED
Lists all files in subdirectory FRED
DIR FRED/TOM
Lists all files in subdirectory TOM
TRSDOS:
DIR 0
DIR 2
DIR 1

Lists the files on drive zero
Lists the files on drive two
Lists the files on drive one

MaCintosh: (also see FILES$)
DIR HD30: Fred
Lists files in folder called "Fred" on root directory called HD30
LDIR HD30: Fred
Lists all files to the printer
Be sure to see your COMPUTER APPENDIX for variations.

Interactive Programming Environment

STANDARD LINE EDITOR
THE MINI-COMPILER

(Direct mode similar to an Interpreter)

The Mini-compiler permits compilation of one line programs while in the standard editor. This
is very convenient for testing logic or math without having to run the entire program. You
are limited to one line but may use a colon ":" to divide a line into muHiple statements.
Remember to use? or PRINT to see the resuHs. Examples:
YOU TYPE
PRINT LEFT$("HELLO",2)
PRINT CHR$ (65)
PRINT ASC("A")
FOR X=l TO 500:? X;:NEXT
? ABS( TAN(l)* EXP(2)+ LOG(9))
: LPRINT "HELLO"
PLOT 0,0 TO 1024, 767
? &AB

ZBASIC RESPONDS
HE
A

65
1 2 3 4 5 ... 500
13.704997622614
Prints "HELLO" to the printer
Plots a line across the screen
171 (HEX to decimal)

"Note: A Mini-Compiler line may not start with an "E" or "L" since these are used for
abbreviations for EDIT and LIST. To do a command that starts with "E" or "L". use a colon ":"
first;
: LPRINT
THE FIND COMMAND
ZBASIC will FIND variables. quoted strings. labels. line numbers and commands within a
program quickly and easily. In most cases simply type FIND followed by the text you want to
find. The only two exceptions are:
1. To find quoted strings. use one leading quote;
Note 1:
Note 2:

2. Use "#" in front of a line number reference;
YOU TYPE
FIND "HELLO
FIND A$
or." "
99
#12345 (line number)
100 (not a line number)
X(C)
or." "
FIND PRINT
FIND "SUBS
or." "
FIND OPEN
FIND X=X+2
FIND
<;> (semi-colon key)

FIND
FIND
. FIND
FIND

First characters in quoted string are signtlicant.
"A" and "a" are considered different characters.

ZBASIC FINDS
01010 A=20:PRINT"HELLO THERE"
01022 Z=l:A$=B$:PRINTA$+B$
01333 ABA$="goodbye"
05122 F=2:X=X+2+F/999
08000 GOTO 12345
02000 X=100
03050 A=1:T=ABS(X(C)/9-293+F)
03044 ZX(C)=4
00230 A=92:PRINTA
00345 "SUBSOO": CLS
03744 GOSUB "SUB500"
034000PEN"R",l,"FILE54",23
09922 F=2:X=X+2+F/999
Finds next occurrence
Finds next occurrence

To FIND data in remarKs or DATA statements use FIND REM ...• FIND DATA ...
Note: If your version of ZBasic comes with a full screen editor. you may have other FIND or
REPLACE options. See your computer appendix for specifics.

Interactive Programming Environment

STANDARD LINE EDITOR
SETTING CHARACTER WIDTH AND MARGINS FOR PROGRAM LISTINGS
ZBasic has powerful formatting commands for making program listings to the screen or
printer easier to read.
WIDTH, WIDTH LPRINT and PAGE
Since screen and printer widths vary depending on the hardware, the user may set the
width of listing to either the printer or the screen.
COMMAND
WIDTH=O THROUGH 255
WIDTH LPRINT=O THROUGH 255
PAGE

RESULT
Sets Screen width for listings.
Sets the printer width for listings.
Formats LINES PER PAGE for printer.
(1) Desired lines printed per page
(2) Actual lines per page
(3) Top Margin

An example of using these commands for printer listings: To set the top and bottom
margins to 3 tines each (to skip perforations) and the printer width to 132, type.
WIDTH

NOTE: WIDTH, WIDTH LPRINT and PAGE may also be used from wHhin a program. Check
the reference section for specifics. (In a program, the PAGE function returns the last line
printed. The PAGE statement will send a form feed to the printer. A ZERO value disables all
the functions above.
AUTOMATIC LOOP AND STRUCTURE INDENTING
For readabilHy, loops are automatically indented two spaces. When WIDTH is set, lines that
wrap around will be aligned for readability as in line 10. Completed loops on the same line
will show an asterisk at the beginning of the line as in line 120:
lJ1il±...(without line numbers)
CLS: REM THIS IS A LONG
STATEMENT THAT CONTINUES ...
FOR X~ 1 TO 10
GOSUB "Graphics"
UNTIL G~3
NEXT
"MENU n
CLS
END

"Graphics": X=O
DO

PLOT X, 0 TO X, 767
UNTIL X>1023
*FOR X~ 1 TO 100: NEXT
RETURN

IJSL (with tine

00010 CLS: REM THIS IS A LONG
STATEMENT THAT CONTINUES ...
00020 FOR X~ 1 TO 10
00025
DO G~G+l
00030

00035
UNTIL G~3
00040 NEXT
00050 "MENU"
00060 CLS
00070 END
00080 "Graphics": X=O
00090 DO X~X+l6
00100
PLOT X, 0 TO X, 767
00115 UNTIL X>1023
00120*FOR X~ 1 TO 100: NEXT
00125 RETURN

Note: LLlST*+ may also be used to do program listings to the Imagewriter or Laserwriter
without linenumbers and with keywords highlighted as above.

Interactive Programming Environment

ASIC
RUNNING ZBASIC PROGRAMS
There are a number 01 ways to compile your programs with ZBasic. The most commonly
used is a simple RUN. This lets you compile and debug interactively. Definitions:
RUN

COMPILE PROGRAM IN MEMORY AND EXECUTE
The interactive mode is the easiest and fastest way to write and debug your programs. In
many ways it is similar to a BASIC interpreter since you may:
1. RUN a program to check for errors
2. "BREAK out of a running program by pressing .
3. Return to ZBaslc to re-edlt the program.
Interactive compiling is limited to available memory. II a program gets too large you will have
to use one of the methods below. ZBasic will tell you when this is necessary with an "Out of
Memory" message.
"Most computers require TRON, TRONS, TRONB or TRONX to enable the
key. Otherwise pressing may have no affect.

RUN filename COMPILE PROGRAM FROM DISK AND RUN
If a program gets too large for interactive compiling using just RUN, the program text may be
saved (not in ASCII), compiled, and executed. This is possible because the text to be
compiled is no longer resident and frees up memory for the compiled program.
RUN" COMPILE PROGRAM IN MEMORY AND SAVE TO DISK
RUN" filename COMPILE FROM DISK AND SAVE TO DISK
Compiles the program Irom memory (RUN*) or disk (RUN'''filename'') and saves it to disk. A
few moments later ZBasic will request the filename of the resulting compiled program to be
saved (For IBM or CP/M use a .COM suffix. For TRS-80 use a /CMD suffix).
This method frees up the most memory for the final program because the source code and
ZBasic are no longer resident in memory. Compiled programs saved to disk are machine
language programs and should be executed from the operating system like any other
machine language program. See column three of the COMPILE MEMORY CHART.
RUN+ COMPILE PROGRAM IN MEMORY AND SAVE AS CHAIN PROGRAM
RUN+ filename COMPILE FROM DISK AND SAVE AS CHAIN
See CHAINING PROGRAMS lor details.

Running ZBasic Programs

RUNNING ZBASIC PROGRAMS
DETERMINING MEMORY REQUIRMENTS
MEM returns the available memory. (The table may vary on some versions).
TYPE MEM:
00123
Text
49021
Memory
00000
Object
00000
Variable

MEANING
Program text memory used (source code).
Free memory.
Compiled program size of object code:
Memory required for variables:

"Type MEM immediately after compiling to get the correct totals. At other
times the results of "Object and Variable" may be invalid.

TYPICAL MEMORY USAGE BY "RUN" TYPE
RUN

Program text is resident in
memory with ZBasic, the
compiled program, and the
variables used by that
program. The user may
press when running
the program, re-enter
the edHor and debug any
mistakes and re-compile.

The program text is saved to
disk and compiled from the
disk to memory and RUN.
Larger programs may be
compiled this way because
the program to be compiled
is not in memory.

COMPILE AND RUN
A PROGRAM ~
IN MEMORY

RUN A COMPILED
PROGRAM
FROM DISK

Operating System

Operating System

"See your Computer Appendix to determine actual memory usage.

Running ZBasic Programs

The program is compiled
from memory or disk and the
resuning machine language
program is saved to disk.
The program is executed as a
machine language program.
When this program is executed
the program text and ZBasic
are no longer resident, leaving
more memory for the program.

RUNNING ZBASIC PROGRAMS
ING OUT OF RUNNING PROGRAMS
To make a program STOP when the key is pressed, use TRON, TRaNS,
TRONB or TRONX.
TRONB

Checks at the start of every line to see if the key
has been pressed. If pressed ZBasic returns control to DOS or
to the Standard line editor (if in interactive mode). To disable
TRONB use the TROFF command.

Single step trace. CNTR Z to engage/disengage
any other key to single step through the program a statement
at a time.

Displays line numbers during runtime.

Checks for the key at the beginning of that line only.

NOTE: TRONX, TRON, TRaNS and TRONB may cause INKEY$ to miss keys. TROFF
turns all the TRON functions off. All TRaNs will slow down programs AND increase size.
USING INKEY$ TO SET BREAK POINTS
You may also use INKEY$ to break out of a program. Put the following line in a program loop
or wherever you may want to escape:
IF INKEY$="S" THEN STOP
Program will stop if the "S" key is pressed (any key could have been used).
CASES WHERE BREAK WILL NOT FUNCTION
Since ZBasic compiles your programs into machine language, there occurs certain
situations where the key will be ignored. Remember; the key is
checked only at the beginning of a line. The following example will not break:
TRONB
*FOR X~ 1 TO 10:

This is obviously an endless loop (X never gets to 10). One obvious way around this is to
avoid putting the entire loop construct on one line.
Examples of other cases where the key is ignored; INPUT, LINE INPUT, DELAY
and SOUND statements.

Macintosh: = . =< COMMAND means:
. may be preferable. MSDOS: means: . CP/M:
means: : TRS-BO: means the key.

Running ZBasic Programs

ASIC
CHAINING PROGRAMS TOGETHER
Chaining is convenient when programs are too large for memory and must be broken into
smaller programs. There are three ways to chain programs:
• CHAIN WITH SHARED VARIABLES (GLOBAL or COMMON VARIABLES)
• CHAIN WITH INDEPENDENT VARIABLES
• CHAIN WITH SOME VARIABLES COMMON AND OTHERS NOT

Macintosh CHAIN programs are limited to 28K. See "SEGMENT" and "SEGMENT
RETURN" in the appendix for instructions on using the Macintosh memory manager.

EXAMPLES OF CHAINING PROGRAMS WITH SHARED VARIABLES
Programs that will share variables must have those variables defined in exactly the same
order in all the programs being chained. ZBasic allows common or shared variables to be
DEFINED within DIM statements (even if they are not arrays). CLEAR or CLEAR END
should always be used to clear variables that are not shared. Examples:
"STARTB"
DIM A(10),100A$(100),Z,F5,W99
OPEN"I", 1, "PROGl lf
RUN 1

Always execute this program 1st
This is just a starter program

"CHAIN1"
REM THIS IS PROG1
TRONB: REM ENABLE KEY
DIM A(10),100A$(100),Z,F5,W99
CLEAR END
TV=23: PR=4
CLS: PRINT"THIS IS PROGRAM *1"

"CHAIN2"
REM
THIS IS PROG2
TRONB
DIM A(10),100A$(100),Z,F5,W99
CLEAR END
ZZ=99: MYVAR=9191
PRINT "THIS IS PROGRAM *2"

PRINT"Z=tl i Z, "F5= 1T iF5

PRINT"Z=lI;Z,"FS=":FS

z=RND(10) :F5=RND(10)

Z=RND (10) :F5=RND (10)
PRINT"Z=";Z;" F5=";F5
PRINT"JUMPING TO PROGRAM *1"
DELAY 2000
OPEN"I",1,"PROG1"
RUN l:REM RUNs Prog1

PRINT"JUMPING TO PROGRAM*2"
DELAY 2000
OPEN"I",l,uPROG2 11
RUN 1: REM RUNs Prog2

CHAINING
COMPILING THE EXAMPLE PROGRAMS
1.

RUN" STARTB and save as START
Always RUN" a START program. This is a dummy program and is used only to get the
chained programs started and contains the runtime routines. Any filename will do.

RUN+ CHAIN1 and save as PROG1
RUN+ CHAIN2 and save as PROG2

NOTE: Always compile a START program using the RUN- command so that the chained
programs have a runtime package. All chained programs must be compiled using RUN+.
USE

"DIM" TO DEFINE SHARED OR COMMON VARIABLES
When chained together, both PROG1 and PROG2 will share variables defined on line 10
after the DIM. If F5 equals10 in PROG1, nwill still equal 10 when you RUN PROG2.
Because variables "TV" and "PR" are unique to PROG1 and the variables "ll." and
"MYVAR" are unique to PROG2, CLEAR END must be used to initialize them (they must
be assigned values). Otherwise false values will be passed from other CHAIN programs.
The example programs (PROG1 and PROG2) will chain back and forth until you press
. Lines 80 and 90 are where the programs branch off to the other program.

CLEARING NON-SHARED VARIABLES WHEN CHAINING

Always use CLEAR END to clear variables that are not common between the programs.
All variables that follow a CLEAR END will be unique to that program and will start out as null
values.
(1 )
10 DIM 200A$ (100),
20 CLEAR END
30 DIM FR(900)

(2)
10 DIM 200A$ (100),
20 CLEAR END
30 A9=10: Z=33

In the above examples, the array variables A$ and B$ are shared and will contain the same
values, while all other variables in the program following the CLEAR END statement will
be null or zero and unique to that program. FR(n) is unique to program (1) and A9 and Z are
unique to program (2).
This statement may be used in non-chained programs as well. It is a handy way to null or
zero out selected variables (the variables still exist, they are just set to zero or nUll).
CHAINING PROGRAMS WITHOUT SHARING VARIABLES
This is done exactly as the same as the previous examples for shared variables, except
CLEAR is used on the first line of each chained program.
In the example programs CHAIN1 and CHAIN2, add a line:
3

Variables are not shared and CLEAR clears all variables (sets them to zero or nUll) each
time a program is entered or chained.
To selectively share some variables and not others use the CLEAR END statement
described on the previous page and in the reference section.

ASIC
ERRORS
There are different types of error messages. When errors are encountered during
compilation, compiling is stopped and the offending line is displayed. This is a Compile
Time error. Errors encountered during execution of a program are called Runtime Errors.

COMPILE TIME ERRORS
After typing RUN, ZBASIC compiles the program. If errors are encountered, ZBASIC will
stop compiling and display the error on the screen along with the offending line (when
compiling from disk using RUN "Filename" or RUN", ZBasic will stop compiling, load the
Source Code, and LIST the line where the error occurred.) The Statement within the line
and the line number will be displayed. The following program would cause ZBASIC to print
an error during compile:

00010
00020
00030
00040

CLS
PRINT "HELLO THERE MR. COMPUTER USER!"
PRINT "I AM A COMPUTER"
Z=Z+1: X=X+Z: PWINTX

RUN
Syntax Error in Stmt 03 at Line 00040
00040 Z=Z+1: X=X=Z: PW~ X
NOTE: The error will be marked in some way depending on the computer system being
used. The error marker indicates the general error location on the line where compilation
stopped. To edit line 40 above type; EDIT 40 (or just comma). Fix the spelling of PRINT.
ZBasic will often display the missing character H expected.

00010 INPUT"Enter a number" A$
RUN
";" expected error in Stmt 01
00010 INPUT"Enter a number"_A$
00010 DIM A(10,10}
00020 A(X}=100
RUN
"," expected error
00020 A(X_}

ERRORS
COMPILE TIME ERROR MESSAGES
A compile time error is one that ZBasic encounters after you type RUN (while it is compiling
your program). More often than not, the error is a syntax error. Edit the line to fix the error
and type RUN again until all the errors have been deleted.
COMPILE TIME
ERROR MESSAGE
DIM Error In Stmt...

DEFINITIONS and POSSIBLE REMEDIES
Only constants may be used in DIM statements:
DIM A ( X) or Z ( A+4 ) are not allowed. If you have a need to erase and
reuse dynamic string arrays see; INDEX$, CLEAR INDEX$, MEM.

No DIM Error In ....

Array variable being used was not Dimmed. Make sure variable is
Dimmed correctly. Most interpreters allow ten elements of an array
before a DIM is required. A compiler requires a DIM for every array.

Overflow Error In ...

DEF LEN or DIM string length is less than one or greater than 255.
Also ij CLEAR =zero or CLEAR is too large. Check and adjust range.

Syntax Error In •...

Anything ZBasic does not understand. Check for spelling, formatting
errors and syntax. The offending part of the line is often highlighted.

Too Complex Error.•.

String function is too complex to compile. Break up complex strings.

Re·DEF Error ...

An FN or LONG FN was defined twice.

Variable Error In •..

String assignment problem: A$=123: Change to A$=STR$(123)

Out of Memory Error In...

Program is getting too large. Check large DIM statements and defined
string lengths, or compile using RUN*. For very large programs you
may wish to CHAIN programs together.

Line # Error In...

GOTO, GOSUB, ON GOTO, ON GOSUB, THEN or some other
branching command can't find line number or a label.

Mismatch error In...

The assignment to a variable is the wrong type.

Structure Error In .•.

FOR wHhout NEXT, DO without UNTIL, WHILE wHhout WEND,
LONG IF without END IF or LONG FN wHhout an END FN.

Structure Error In 65535* Missing NEXT, WEND, END IF, END FN or UNTIL. If unable to find
error quickly, LLiST the program. Structures are indented two
spaces. Backtrack from the end of the program until the extra
indentation is located.

"?" Expected error In •..

ZBasic expected some form of punctuation that was not provided.
Check cursor position in displayed line for error.

*NOTE: Each ZBasic loop command must have one, and only one matching partner. Each
FOR needs a NEXT, each WHILE needs a WEND, each LONG FN needs an END FN, each
LONG IF needs an END IF and each DO needs an UNTIL.

ERRORS
RUN TIME ERRORS
A Run Time (execution) error is an error that occurs when the compiled program is running
(Object Code). The only Run Time error messages produced are:
DISK ERRORS (Unless trapped by the user). See Disk Errors in the FILES section of
this manual.
OUT OF MEMORY ERROR when loading a compiled program saved to disk that is too
large to execute in memory.
ARRAY BOUNDS ERROR will be shown if the user configures ZBasic to check for this.
This will slow down a program execution but is extremely handy during the debug phase of
programming. You may turn this off after the program is completely tested. If access to an
array element out of bounds is made, the program is stopped and the line number with the
error is printed.
STRING LENGTH ERROR. Some versions of ZBasic have a configure option that tells
ZBasic to check for string assignments greater than the length allowed. This does slow
execution speed and add memory overhead, so you may want to remove this error
checking after the program is debugged. See your appendix for specifics. If an attempt is
made to assign a string a value longer than its length, the program is stopped and the line
number with the error is printed.
RECOVERING FROM FATAL RUNTIME ERRORS
Since ZBasic is a compiler and converts your code into machine language, there is always a
risk that you may unintentionally enter an endless loop or hang up the system (the
computer will not respond to anything) .
In these instances you may not be able to get a response from the computer or be able to
out of the program. The system may have to be reset or turned off, and back on
again to regain control. To avoid losing valuable time, it is very important that you SAVE
PROGRAMS and MAKE BACKUPS FREQUENTLY. See your computer appendix for
possible alternatives.
USING SINGLE STEP DEBUGGING TO FIND THE SOURCE OF "CRASHES"
Should you encounter a situation where your program goes so far and then the system
hangs-up or you get a system error of some kind that you just can' locate, there is a simple
way to find the problem.
First put a TRaNS and TRON in the program somewhere before the crash occurs. The
TRON is added so that you can see a listing of the line numbers as the program executes.
Press the space bar a statement at a time, keeping track of the line numbers as they go by.
When the system crashes, make a note of the line number where the crash occurred and fix
the problem in your program.

TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

Terms and Definitions

TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

ASIC
TERMS and DEFINITIONS
I use terms throughout this manual that may be unknown to you. The following terms are
used to make reading the technical information easier.

IMPORTANT NOTE
"The Hand" is pointing out something of importance for that section. Read it!
OPTIONAL
Items [enclosed in brackets] are OPTIONAL. You mayor may not include that part of a
command, function or statement.
REPETITION
Three periods (ellipsis) mean repetition ... when they appear after the second
occurrence of something.
PUNCTUATION
Any punctuation such as commas, periods, colons and semi-colons included in
definitions, other than brackets or periods described above, must be included as shown.
Any text in Courier font, like this: COURIER FONT TEXT, means it is something for
you to type in or a simulation of the way it will look on your screen like a program listing.
COMPUTER

APPENDIX
Refers to the appendix in the back of this manual, ABOUT YOUR COMPUTER.

SPECIAL32
The superscripted 32 means this command, function or statement only works on 32 bit
computers. See your COMPUTER APPENDIX to see if your computer supports 32 bits.
In this edition of the manual it refers to the Macintosh computer only.
ABBREVIATIONS
Frequently used line editor commands have convenient abbreviations:
USE WITH
?
PRINT
DEL
DELETE
E
EDIT
L
LIST

USE WITHOUT
, comma
EDIT present line
. period
LIST present line
/ slash
LIST next 10 lines
; (semi-colon)
FIND next occurrence

Terms and Definitions

TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
DIFFERENT (KEY) STROKES FOR DIFFERENT FOLKS
Since ZBASIC operates on many different computers, reference is made to the same
keys throughout this manual.
MANUAL USES

YOUR COMPUTER MAY USE
SPACE BAR
BACKSPACE, DELETE, lEFT ARROW
CONTROL C, COMMAND PERIOD
RETURN, CARRIAGE RETURN
ESCAPE, CNTRl UP ARROW, TAB
CURSOR UP, PLUS KEY<+>
CURSOR DOWN, MINUS KEY<->
Press the Key with that leller

See your COMPUTER APPENDIX for variations or enhancements.
LABELS ON LINES
A line may have a label directly following the line number consisting of upper or lowercase,
alphanumeric characters, or symbols in any order enclosed in quotes. The length of a
label is limited to the length of a line. ZBasic recognizes only the first occurence of a label
Line numbers are essential only for line EDIT(ing), MERGE, and APPEND. Statements
like; LIST, EDIT, APPEND, GOTO, ON GOTO, GOSUB, ON GOSUB, DEL, etc., may
use either labels or line numbers. List programs without line numbers by using LIST+ .
SIMPLE STRINGS
Quoted strIngs: "Hello",

"This is within quotes"

Any StrIng variables: A$, NAME$, FF$, BF$(23).
Any of the following string functions:
MKI$, MKB$, CHR$, HEX$, OCT$, BIN$, UNS$, STR$, ERRMSG$, INKEY$,
INDEX$(9).
COMPLEX STRINGS
Complex strings are any combination of SIMPLE STRINGS. Any string operations
containing one of the following commands: simple string + Simple string, lEFT$,
R1GHT$, MID$, STRING$, SPACE$, UCASE$
ZBasic allows only one level of COMPLEX STRING expression. Complex strings MAY
NOT be used with IF THEN statements. Convert all multi-level complex strings to simple
strings:
CHANGE COMPLEX STRINGS
B$=RIGHT$(A$+C$,2)
B$=UCASE$(LEFT$(A$,3»
IF LEFT$(B$,2)="IT"THEN 99

TO SIMPLE STRINGS
B$=A$+C$: B$=RIGHT$(B$,2)
B$=LEFT$(A$,3): B$=UCASE$(B$)
D$=LEFT$(B$,2): IFD$="IT"THEN 99

The Macintosh version allows much deeper levels of complex strings.

Terms and Definitions

TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
VARIABLE TYPES
A$, A#, AI, A%, and A%(n,n) represent different variables. If no type is given, integer is
assumed (unless configured differently by the user or changed with DEF DBL, DEF
SNG or DEF STR). A and A% would be the same variable. Types:
Integer variable
4 byte Integer (32 bit machines only)
Single precision variable
Double precision variable
String variable

Throughout this manual reference is made to expressions. There are different types of
expressions and the following words will be used to refer to specific expressions.

DEFINITION OF EXPRESSION
EXPRESSION refers to a combination of constants, variables, relational operators or math
operators in either integer, floating point or string used to yield a numeric result. The
following UNDERLINEP examples are EXPRESSIONS.

IF X*3 4 <= Y*98 3 THEN
IF A$>B$

Terms and Definitions

TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
BYTE EXPRESSION
A BYTE EXPRESSION always results in a number from 0 to 255. The expression may
be floating point, integer or string, but if the actual result is more than 255 or less than 0,
the final result will retum the posnive one byte remainder. ZBasic will not return an error if
the calculation result is out of this range.
INTEGER

EXPRESSION
An INTEGER EXPRESSION results in an integer number from
-32768 to 32767. The expression may be floating point, integer or string, but if the
actual result is more than 32767 or less than -32768, the final result will return the integer
remainder which is incorrect. ZBasic will not return an error if the calculation result is out of
integer range.
Note: 32 bit computers have a Longlnteger range of ± 2,147,483,647.

UNSIGNED INTEGER EXPRESSION
An UNSIGNED INTEGER EXPRESSION always results in an unsigned integer
number from 0 to 65535. The expression may be floating point or integer but if the actual
result is more than 65535 or less than 0 the final result will return the remainder which will
be incorrect. See UNS$ for displaying Signed integers as unsigned.
Note: 32 bit computers have an unsigned Longlnteger range of 0 to 4,294,967,300.
CONDITIONAL

Conditional expressions like A=B, A>B, A 65,535.
The following examples will give you an idea how ZBasic evaluates expressions as Integer
or floating pOint. (B=10)
EXPRESSION
B* .123
B* 23
B *23#
B* 32000
B" 32000.
SIN(B)
B*0+65535
B*4800

RESULT
1.23
230
230
-11264
320000
-.54402111
-1

EXPRESSION EVALUATED AS
FLOATING POINT (Decimal point force REAL)
INTEGER
FLOATING POINT (# forces Double Precision)
INTEGER (Overflow error)
FLOATING POINT (Decimal point)
FLOATING POINT (Scientific Function)
INTEGER (UNS$(-1)=65535)
INTEGER (UNS$(-17536)=48000)

"Note: You may configure ZBasic to assume floating point by setting "Optimize
expressions for integer math" to "NO". See "Configure" in the beginning of this manual.
PARENTHESES IN OPTIMIZED INTEGER EXPRESSION EVALUATION
Parentheses are used to force an expression to be evaluated in a certain order. (See
ORDER OF PRECEDENCE)
ZBasic evaluates an expression by examining the outermost portions. In the expression:
X*(2*(4.03+4))*5, the innermost portion of 4.03+4 is floating point, but since the
outermost portions of X* and *5 are integer, the whole expression is returned as an
integer. (B=10 in examples)
EXPRESSION
B*(32000+1)
B*(32000.+ 1)+O!
B+(.23)+1200
B+(.23)+ 1200.
B+(200*(.001 A2))
B+200* .001 A2
B+ATN(2)

RESULT
-7670
320010
1210
1210.23
10
10.0002
11.107149

EXPRESSION EVALUATED AS
INTEGER (Out of range error)
FLOATING POINT (! forces REAL)
INTEGER
FLOATING POINT (period forces REAL)
INTEGER
FLOATING POINT
FLOATING POINT (Scientific Function)

The expression within each level of parentheses is still evaluated according to the
precision in that level.
NOTE: Newer versions of ZBasic may be configured to expression evaluation you are
more used to. See "OPTIMIZE EXPRESSIONS FOR INTEGER MATH" above.

Math Functions and Operators

MATH
INTEGER AND FLOATING POINT DIVIDE SYMBOLS

It should be noted that the Divide symbols I and \ take on different meanings depending
on the type of expression evaluation being used:
Optimized for Integer "YES"
I = Integer Divide
\ =Floating Point divide

Optimized for Integer "NO"

I =Floating Point Divide
\ =Integer Divide

SCIENTIFIC FUNCTIONS
ZBasic offers several scientific and trigonometric math functions for making many
calculations easier.
SQR(expression)

SQUARE ROOT of expression.
Returns the number multiplied by itseH
that equals expression. SQR(9)=3

LOG( expression)

Natural LOGARITHM of expression
(sometimes refered to as LN(n».
Common LOG10 =LOG(n)/LOG(10)

EXP( expression)

Natural logarithm base value:
e=2.7182818284590452356028747135266249775724
TO THE POWER of EXPRESSION. Inverse of LOG.

LOG and EXP may speed up calculations dramatically in certain situations. Some
comparative equalities using LOG and EXP:
X'Y
X/Y
X"Y

EXP (LOG(X) + LOG(Y»
EXP (LOG(X) • LOG(Y»
EXP (LOG(X) • Y)

CONFIGURING SCIENTIFIC ACCURACY
Scientific function accuracy may be configured up to 54 digits of accuracy (32 bit
machines may be higher). DefauH accuracy is 6 digits. Scientific accuracy may be
configured from two digits of accuracy, up to Double Precision accuracy (not necessarily
the same as Single or Double precision).
Precision is set when loading ZBasic under onfigure. Scientific math functions are
complicated; the more digits of precision used, the longer the processing time required.
See "Setting Accuracy" in the floating point section of this manual for information about
accuracy, speed charts and memory requirements.
SCIENTIFIC MATH SPEED
When speed is more important than accuracy, configure DIGITS OF PRECISION (under
configure at start-up) to 6 digits for DOUBLE, 4 digits for SINGLE and 6 digits for
SCIENTIFIC.

Math Functions and Operators

MATH
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

TANGENT of expression in radians.
TAN(A)=Y/X, X=YITAN(A), Y=TAN(A)*X

ARCTANGENT of the expression in radians.
A=ATN (Y/X), Pi=ATN(1)«2

COSINE of the expression in radians.
COS(A)=XlH, H*COS(A)=X, XlCOS(A)=H

SINE of the expression in radians.
SIN(A)=Y/H, Y=H'SIN(A), H=Y/SIN(A)

SQUARE ROOT of expression.
H= SQR(X'X+Y'Y)

TAN, ATN, COS AND SIN return results in Radians.
OTHER ZBASIC MATH FUNCTIONS
FRAC(expr)

Returns FRACTIONAL portion of an expression
FRAC(23.232)=.232, FRAC(-1.23)=-.23

Returns expression as a whole number
INT(3.5)=3, INT(99231.2)+.0=99231

Returns the SIGN of an expression
SGN(-23)=-1, SGN(990)=1, SGN(0)=0

Returns the ABSOLUTE VALUE of an expression
ABS(-15)=15, ABS(152)=152, ABS(0)=0

Returns the whole number of an expression
FIX(99999.23)=99999, FIX(122.6231 )=122
(Like INT but forces floating point mode)

Returns the remainder of an integer divide (MODulo)
9 MOD 2=1, 10 MOD 2=0, 20 MOD 6=2

Returns a random number between 1 and expr
RND(10) randomly returns:1 ,2,3,4 ... 10

Randomly returns -1 or 0. (50-50 chance)
IF MAYBE PRINT "HEADS" ELSE PRINT "TAILS"
Math Functions and Operators

MATH
DERIVED MATH FUNCTIONS
MATH FUNCTION

ZBaslc EQUIVALENT EQUATION
ATN(l) «2 (accurate to double precision)
EXP (1)
LOG(X)/LOG(10)

Area of a CIRCLE
Area of a SQUARE
Volume of a RECTANGLE
Volume of a CUBE
Volume of a CYLINDER
Volume of a CONE
Volume of a SPHERE

Y#=(ATN(l )<<2 )'Radius*Radius
Y#=Length*Width
Y#=Length*Width*Height
Y#=Length*Length*Length
Y#=(ATN(l )«2) *Height*Radius*Radius
Y#=(ATN(l )«2) *Height*Radius*Radius/3
Y#=(ATN(l )<<2) *Radius*Radius*Radius*413

SECANT
COSECANT
COTANGENT

SEC(X)
CSC(X)
COT(X)

Y#=l/COS(X)
Y#=l/SIN(X)
Y#=lITAN(X)

Inverse SINE
Inverse COSINE
Inverse COSECANT
Inverse COTANGENT

ARCSIN(X)
ARCCOS(X)
ARCCSC(X)
ARCCOT(X)

Y#=ATN(XlSQR(l-X*X»
Y#=ATN(l )*2-ATN(XlSQR(1-X*X»
Y#=ATN(l /SQR(X*X-l »+(X< 0)*(ATN(1 )«2)
Y#=ATN(l )*2-ATN(X)

Hyperbolic Sine
Hyperbolic Cosine
Hyperbolic Tangent
Hyperbolic Secant
Hyperbolic Cosecant
Hyperbolic Cotangent

SINH(X)
COSH(X)
TANH (X)
SECH(X)
CSCH(X)
COTH(X)

Y#=(EXP(X)-EXP(-X»/2.
Y#=(EXP(X)+EXP( -X»/2.
Y#=(EXP(X)-EXP(-X»/(EXP(X)+EXP(-X»
Y#=2.1(EXP(X)+EXP(-X»
Y#=2.1(EXP(X)-EXP(-X»
Y#=(EXP(X)+EXP(-X»/(EXP(X)-EXP(-X»

Inverse Hyperbolic Sine
Inverse Hyperbolic Cosine
Inverse Hyperbolic Tangent
Inverse Hyperbolic Secant
Inverse Hyperbolic Cosecant
Inverse Hyperbolic Cotangent

ARCSINH(X)
ARCCOSH(X)
ARCTANH(X)
ARCSECH(X)
ARCCSCH(X)
ARCCOTH(X)

Y#=LOG(X+SQR(X*X+ 1»
Y#=LOG(X+SQR(X*X-l »
Y#=LOG«1+X)/(1-X»/2
Y#=LOG«l +SQR(l-X*X»/X)
Y#=LOG«l-SGN(X)'SQR(l +X*X»IX)
Y#=LOG«X+ 1)/(X-l »/2

Derivative of LN(X) (Natural LOG)
Derivative of SIN(X)
Derivative of TAN(X)
Derivative of COT (X)
Derivative of ARCSIN(X)
Derivative of ARCCOS(X)
Derivative of ARCTAN(X)
Derivative ofARCCOT(X)
Derivative of ARCSEC(X)
Derivative of ARCCSC(X)
Derivative of ARCSINH(X)
Derivative of ARCCOSH(X)
Derivative of ARCTANH(X)
Derivative of ARCCOTH(X)
Derivative of ARCSECH(X)
Derivative of ARCCOSECH(X)

Y#=llX
Y#=COS(X)
Y#=1+TAN(X)A2
Y#=-(1+(1ITAN(X)A2)))
Y#=SQR(l-X*X)
Y#=-SQR(l-X*X)
Y#=l/(l+X*X)
Y#= lI(X*X+ 1)
Y#= l/(X*SQR(X*X-l»
Y#=-l/(X*SQR(X*X-l »
Y#= l/SQR(l +X*X)
Y#=-l/SQR(X*X-l)
Y#=l/(l-X*X)
Y#=-l/(X*X-l )
Y#=-l/(X*SQR(l-X*X»
Y#=-l/(X* SQR(l +X'X»

See DEF FN and LONG FN for adding these math functions to your programs.

Math Functions and Operators

MATH
ORDER OF PRECEDENCE
In order to determine which part of a math expression is done first an order of precedence
is used. The following math operators are performed in the this order.

1. ((1 st)2nd)3rd)

Innermost expressions within parentheses always
performed lirst

Negation (not subtraction)

Logical operator

Multiply, Divide, Floating point Divide, MODulo

Addition, Subtraction

7. =,>=,=>,<=,=<,
>,<,<>,><

Conditional operators

8. AND, OR, XOR

Logical operator

ZBasic will calculate each operation of an expression in order 01 precedence, as delined
by the table above. The linal result 01 an expression depends on the order of operations.
II there are items 01 equal precedence in an expression, ZBasic will perform those
operations from left to right.
A#=2+5-3"6+1/4.

This expression is performed in the following order;
3"6
2. 1/4.
3. 2+5
4. (2+5) - (3*6)
5. (2+5-(3*6}) + (1/4.)

Important Note: II expressions are optimized lor Integer Math, the decimal point alter
the 410rces the result of the expression to be lIoating point. If the decimal point had been
omitted, the result would be -11. See CONFIGURE.

Math Functions and Operators

MATH
USING PARENTHESES TO FORCE PRECEDENCE
Parentheses are used in math expressions to force ZBasic to calculate that part of an
expression first. If a math operation is enclosed in parentheses, which in turn is enclosed
within parentheses, the innermost expression will be calculated first.

A#=2+5-3*6+1/4.
To force the 2+5-3 part of the above equation to be calculated first, and then muliply that
by 6 and add 1 second, with division by 4 last, you would express the equation like this:

A#=«2+5-3)*6+1)/4.
The order of operations in this expression would be:
1.

(2+5-3)
(2+5-3) *6+1
«2+5-3)*6+1)/4.
A#=6.25

Note: If Expressions are optimized for Integer Math; the outermost expression is used by
ZBasic to determine whether the final result will be returned as integer or floating point.
The decimal pOint after the 4 forces the expression to be calculated as floating point
(although each expression within parentheses is evaluated as floating pOint or integer
depending on the rules of expressions). If the decimal point had been omitted the result
would have been 6.
To use the standard rules of expression evaluation, set "Optimize Expression evaluation
to Integer" to NO under configure. Math expressions will be done in the usual manner if
this is done.

Math Functions and Operators

MATH
CONDITIONAL OPERATORS
The conditional operators return:
o (zero)
(negative one)

If the Comparison Is FALSE
If the Comparison Is TRUE

A non-zero expression
A zero expression

Is always TRUE
Is always FALSE

These symbols are used for comparing expressions and conditions.
<>,><
<
>

Equal To
Not Equal To
Less Than
Greater Than
Greater Than OR Equal To
Less Than OR Equal To

Examples: (A$="HELLO" and A%=2000)
CONDITIONAL EXPRESSION
X=12<20
PRINT 23=45
IF 10>5 THEN PRINT "SURE IS"
IF A%-2000>100-99 PRINT A%
IF VAL(A$)=O THEN PRINT A$
PRINT 2>5,
3<5,
5>5
IF A%>120 THEN PRINT "OK"
IF A%*5>=10000 THEN STOP
IF A% PRINT "YES"
PRINT 50>50
PRINT 50>=50
IF A%>30000 THEN PRINT "OK"
X=l:
IF X THEN PRINT "YEP"
X=O:
IF X THEN PRINT "YEP"
X=77.321>77.320+1
X= "HELLO"="HELLO"

A$="HELLO" PRINT "YES"
A$="HELLLO" PRINT "YES"
A$>"HEL" THEN PRINT A$
A$<>"GOON" THEN PRINT "NO"
STR$(A%)=" 2000" PRINT "YES"

o
SURE IS
Nothing
HELLO

OK
Program STOPs
YES
(Non zero is True)

Nothing
YEP
Nothing

o
X=-1
YES
Nothing
HELLO
NO
YES

Math Functions and Operators

MATH
LOGICAL OPERATORS
Zbasic makes use of the logical operators AND, OR, NOT, SHIFTS and XOR. These
operators are used for comparing two 16 bit conditions and binary operations (except on
32 bit computers which can compare 32 bits). When used in comparative operations a
negative one (-1) is returned for TRUE, and a zero (0) is returned for FALSE.
Logical Operators
condition AND condition
condition OR condition
condition XOR condition
condition SHIFT condition
NOT condition

RETURNS
TRUE(-1) if both conditions TRUE, else FALSE(0)
TRUE(-1) if either or both is TRUE, else FALSE(0)
TRUE(-1) if only one condnion is TRUE, else FALSE(0)
TRUE(-1) if any non-zero value returned, else FALSE(0)
TRUE(-1) if condition FALSE, else FALSE(0) if TRUE

EQV (ernulate with)
NOT (condition XOR condition) TRUE(-1) if both conditions FALSE or both conditions
TRUE, else FALSE(0)
IMP (emulate with)
(NOT condition) OR condition FALSE(0) if first condition TRUE and second condition
FALSE, else TRUE(-1)
A~D

eOOI.EAM "1 G ell" LOGIC

1 AND 1
o AND 1
1 AND 0
o AND 0

1 OR
0 OR
1 OR
o OR

1
1
1 = 1
1
0
0
0

00000001
1Il1ll1ll1ll1111
00000001

00000111
1Illlllllllll11l
00000111

00000001
1Il1ll1ll1ll1111
00001111

10000101
111l1ll1ll1ll111
10000111

00000001
1Illlllll1ll1ll1
00001110

10000101
llllllllllllllll
00000010

11111111
1Il1ll1ll1ll1ll1ll 1 III
00111111

00010111
1Illllllllllllllllll
10111000

o XOR 1 = 1
1 XOR 0 = 1
XOR 0 = 0

StllEI »,
255 »
23 «

llllllllllllllll
00110011

1Il11111ll11
10000100

With the Macintosh, 32 bit integers may also be used with logical operators (Longlnteger&).

Math Functions and Operators

NUMERIC CONVERSIONS

INTEGER BASE and SIGN CONVERSIONS
ZBasic has functions for converting integer constants to hexadecimal (BASE 16), octal
(BASE 8), binary (BASE 2), unsigned integer and back to decimal (BASE 10).
UNS$, HEX$, OCT$ and BIN$ are the functions used to convert an integer to the string
representation of that SIGN or BASE.

DECIMAL TO BASE CONVERSION
OCT$(54386)
="152162"

BINARY
BIN$(255)
="0000000011111111"

OCT$ (8)
="000010"

BIN$ (512)
="0000000100000000"

VAL (" &0030")
=48

OCTAL
VAL (" &0000011")
=9

BINARY
VAL ("&X0000000001100011")
99

VAL ("&HFFFF")
=-1 (65535)

VAL ("&0000030")
=24

VAL("&X1111111111111111")
=-1 (65535)

HEX$(48964)
="BF44 U
HEX$(32)
="0020"

BASE TO DECIMAL CONVERSION

DISPLAYING UNSIGNED INTEGERS
To display or print an unsigned integer number use UNS$. UNS$ returns the unsigned
value of the number by not using the lellmost bit as a sign indicator:
UNS$(-1)=65,535, UNS$(-2311 )=63,225
ZBasic interprets the integers, -1 and 65,535 as the same value. In BINARY format they
are both 1111111111111111. The lell-most bit sets the sign of the number to positive
or negative. This is the same unsigned integer format used by many other languages.

The same holds true with Longlntegers, only 32 bits are used instead of 16 bits. The
signed range is ± 2,147,483,647. The unsigned range is 0 to 4,294,967,293. See
DEFSTR LONG in the appendix for ways of using 32 bit HEX$, OCT$, UNS$ and BIN$.

Numeric Conversions

NUMERIC CONVERSIONS
CONVERSION BETWEEN DIFFERENT VARIABLE TYPES
ZBasic will convert variables from one type to another as long as the conversion is within
the range of the target variable.

DOUBLE or SINGLE PRECISION VARIABLE =INTEGER VARIABLE will
convert exactly (unless single precision is set less then 6 digits).

INTEGER VARIABLE=DOUBLE or SINGLE PRECISION VARIABLE will
convert correctly if the double or single precision variables are within the integer range of
-32,768 to 32,767 (unsigned 0 to 65,535). Any fractional part of the number will be
truncated. Results outside integer range will be the rounded integer resuH, which is
incorrect, and no error will be generated ..

SINGLE PRECISION VARIABLE=DOUBLE PRECISION VARIABLE
conversions will be exact to the number of significant digits set for single precision since
the calculations are done in double precision. If the single precision defauH is 6 digits and
double precision is 14 digits, the 14 digit number would be rounded down to 6 digits in
this example (precision is configurable by the user).

STRING VARIABLE=STR$(INTEGER, DOUBLE OR SINGLE PRECISION
VARIABLE) will convert exactly. The first character of the string produced is used for
holding the sign. If the number is positive or zero, the first character of the string
produced will be a SPACE, otherwise the first character of the string will be a minus (-).

INTEGER VARIABLE=VAL(STRING VARIABLE) will convert correctly, up to the
first non-numeric character, if the string variable represents a number in integer range.
Fractional portions will be ignored. Zero will be returned if not convertable.

DOUBLE OR SINGLE PRECISION VARIABLE=VAL(STRING VARIABLE) will
convert correctly within the range of floating point precision set by the user (rounding will
occur if it is more digits than the set precision).

LonglNTEGER conversions are the same as regular integers with the exception that
the range is much larger. Since all internal integer calculations are done in Longlnteger,
conversions are simple. See DEFSTR LONG in the Macintosh appendix.

Numeric Conversions

ASIC
CONSTANTS
Constants are values used in expressions, variable assignments, or conditionals. In the
following underlined program lines, the constants values remain constant, while values
of A$, Z and T are variable.
10

ZBasic uses both string (alphanumeric) and numeric constants.

INTEGER CONSTANTS
An integer constant is in the range of -32,768 to 32,767 (or unsigned integer in the range
of 0 to 65,535).
The BASE of an integer may be represented in Decimal, Hexadecimal, Octal or Binary.
See "Numeric Conversions" for information about converting integers to and from HEX,
OCTAL, BINARY and DECIMAL.

MEMORY REQUIRED FOR INTEGER CONSTANTS
Two bytes each in the same format as integer variables.

The Macintosh also has Longlnteger constants with a range of ±2,147,483,647.
Longlnteger constants require four bytes memory each. Macintosh format of integer is
the opposite of other versions. i.e. MSB is first and LSB is last.

CONSTANTS
FLOATING POINT CONSTANTS
The range of floating point constants is ±1.0E-64 to ±9.999E+63". Constants may be
expressed in scientific notation and/or up to 54 digits of significant accuracy.
Floating point constants are significant up to the double precision accuracy set by the
user. If the number of digits is greater than the accuracy of double precision, it will be
rounded to that precision. If the double precision default of 14 digits is assumed, a
constant of 1234567890.123456 will be rounded to 1234567890.1235.
Constants may be forced as double or single precision by including a decimal point in the
constant or by using # for double precision or ! for single precision.
MEMORY REQUIRED FOR FLOATING POINT CONSTANTS
ZBasic will store floating point constants in Binary Coded Decimal format (See Floating
point variables memory requirements). This is based on the actual memory requirement
of each constant, with a minimum memory requirement of 3 bytes per constant. To
calculate the memory requirements of a specific constant use the formula:
NUMBER of DIGITS In the constantl2+1=Bytes neededMinimum of 3 bytes required per Floating pOint constant.

"The range of Double precision contants is E±16,383 (single precision remains the same
for compatibility). To calculate the memory required use the following equation; Number
of Digits/2+2=bytes needed (single precision is the same as above).

Important Note: Some versions of ZBasic offer an optional high speed binary-floatingpoint option. While the speed of binary math packages is superior, the accuracy, range
and memory requirements of binary math are much different from the standard BCD math
described above. See the manual provided with the binary math package for details.
STRING CONSTANTS
String constants are alphanumeric information enclosed in double quotes with the
number of characters limited by line length (255 characters maximum).

"This is a string of characters"
"12345 etc."
"Hello there Fred"

Any character except quotes may be included between the quotes. To include quotes in
string constants use CHR$ (34). PRINT CHR$ (34) ; "HELLO" ;CHR$ (34) would print:
"HELLO". To conserve memory when using many string constants see PSTR$.
MEMORY REQUIRED FOR STRING CONSTANTS
One byte plus the number of characters, including spaces, within the string constant.
See PSTR$ for ways of conserving memory with string constants.

ASIC
VARIABLES
The word VARIABLE describes the label used to represent alterable values.
differentiates between four types of variables.
VARIABLE TYPE
STRING
INTEGER
SINGLE PRECISION
DOUBLE PRECISION

TYPE OF STORAGE
ALPHANUMERIC
INTEGER NUMBERS
FLOATING POINT NUMBERS
FLOATING POINT NUMBERS

o TO 255 CHARACTERS
±32,767
E± 63
E± 63

In addition to the variable types described above this version also supports Longlnteger
and an extended double precision range (single precision is the same as above).
LONG INTEGER
FOUR BYTE INTEGER
± 2 ,147,483,647
DOUBLE PRECISION
FLOATING POINT NUMBERS
E±16,383
Important Note: Some versions of ZBasic offer an optional high speed binary-floatingpoint option. While the speed of binary math packages is superior, the accuracy, range
and memory requirements of binary math are much different from the standard BCD math
described above. See the manual provided with the binary math package for details.

VARIABLE TYPE DECLARATION
Variable names may be followed by a type symbol:

STRING VARIABLE
INTEGER VARIABLE
SINGLE PRECISION VARIABLE
DOUBLE PRECISION VARIABLE

If type is not given, integer is assumed (unless configured differently). A, A!, A$, A#,
A(2,2), A#(2,2), A!(2,2) and A$(2,2) are considered different variables. Note: A and A%
are the same variable if ZBasic is configured to Integer.

Type declaration for Longlnteger is; &

VARIABLES
DEFINING VARIABLE TYPES
If you want to define variables beginning with a specific letter to be a specific type, use the
DEF statement at the beginning of a program.
DEFSTR A-M, Z
DEFSNG A-C
DEFDBL F, W
DEFINT A, G, T-W

Defines all variables starting with A thru M and Z as string
variables. M and M$ are the same variable.
Defines all variables starting with A thruC as single
precision variables. C and C! are the same variable.
Defines all variables starting with F and
Was Double precision variables. F and F# are the same.
Defines all variables starting with A,G and T thru W as
integer variables. No % needed. A and A% are
considered the same variable.

Note: Even if a range of letters is defined as a certain type, a declaration symbol will still
force it to be 1l:J.al type. For instance, if A-Z are defined as integer using DEFINT, A$ is still
considered a string, and A# is still considered a double precision variable.

Defines variables starting with A thru M as Longlntegers. No &
needed. A and A& are the same variable.

VARIABLE NAMES
Variable names must have the following characteristics:
Variable names may be up to 240 characters in length but only the first 15 characters
are recognized as a unique variable.
First character must be in the alpha range of A-Z, or a-z.
Additional characters are optional and may be alphanumeric or underline.
Symbols not allowed: ",~/+->=.~~<

Important Note: Some versions of ZBasic offer an optional high speed binary-floatingpoint option. While the speed of binary math packages is superior, the accuracy, range
and memory requirements of binary math are much different from the standard BCD math
described above, See the manual provided with the binary math package for details.

DEFINING VARIABLES AS SINGLE OR DOUBLE PRECISION
To force the preCision of a specific variable to be single precision, follow every occurrence
of that variable with an exclamation point (!),
To force a variable to be double precision, follow the variable name with a pound sign (#).
To force ZBasic to define a range of variables as double or single precision, use the
DEFDBL or DEFSNG statement:
DEFDBL

Makes all variables beginning with A-G as Double precision.
A# and A would be the same variable in this case

Makes all variables beginning with C as Single precision.
C! and C would be the same variable.

Note: Some verions of BASIC default to single preCision variables instead of integer. Use
DEFSNG A-Z in programs being converted or configure to assume Floating Point. Also
see "Optimize Expression Evaluation as Integer" under "Configure".

VARIABLES
SCIENTIFIC - EXPONENTIAL NOTATION
ZBasic expresses large numbers like:

5121,121121121,121121121,121121121
like this:

5E+1I2I or 5E1I2I

The plus sign (+) after the "E" indicates the decimal point moves to the right of the
number. Ten places in this example.
Technically: 5*10*10*10*10*10*10*10*10*10*10 or 5*10 Al0.
ZBasic expresses very small numbers like:

.1211211211211215
like this:

A minus sign after the "E" indicates the decimal point is moved to the left of the number
that many places, six in this example. Technically: 5/10/10/10/10/10/10 or 5*10 A (-6) .
STANDARD NOTATION
9,123,000,000,000,000
-3,400,002,000,000,000,000
.000,000,000,000,000,000,011
-.000,012

SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
9.123E+15 (or E15)
-3.400002E18 (or E+18)
1.1E-20
-1.2E-05

Note: Some BASICs use scientific notation wtth a "0" instead of an "En. (like 4.230+12
instead of 4.23E+12) ZBasic will read old format values correctly but will use the more
common "E" when printing scientific notation.

WHEN SCIENTIFIC NOTATION IS EXPRESSED
Constants and variables will be expressed in scientific notation when the value is less than
.01 or exceeds 10 digits to the left of the decimal point.
You can force ZBasic to print all significant digits in regular notation with: PRINT USING
See PRINT USING in the Reference Section of this manual.

RANGE OF ZBASIC FLOATING POINT VARIABLES
The range of floating point numbers, regardless of the accuracy configured is:
±1E-64

The digits of accuracy are 14 digits for double and 6 digits for single (this is the default for
most systems and may be set by the user).

Double Precision exponent may range from E-16,384 to E+16,383. Single Precision
exponent is the same for compatibility with 8 and 16 bit machines.

VARIABLES
OVERFLOW RESULTS
If an expression results in a number greater then ±9.999E+63, a result of 9.999 ... E+63
will be returned.
If the number is less then ±1.0E-64 the result will be zero. ZBaslc will not give an
or underflow error. Check program logic so that numbers do not exceed
floating point range.

BCD FLOATING POINT SPEED
To obtain maximum speed out of BCD floating point math be sure to configure the digits
of accuracy to:

DOUBLE PRECISION
SINGLE PRECISION
SCIENTIFIC PRECISION

Normally these setting are fine at 14 and 6 digits. The should only be changed when
speed is extremely important. Converting equations to integer will greatly increase speed
as well. These settings are important because ZBasic does all calculations in Double
precision. Single precision is used for saving memory only.

Important Note: Some versions of ZBasic offer an optional high speed binary-floatingpoint option. While the speed of binary math packages is superior, the accuracy, range
and memory requirements of binary math are much different from the standard BCD math
described above. See the manual provided with the binary math package for details.

SINGLE AND DOUBLE PRECISION DIGITS OF ACCURACY
The only difference between Single and Double Precision is that Single Precision holds
fewer significant digits than Double Precision. ALL ZBASIC FLOATING POINT

CALCULATIONS ARE PERFORMED IN DOUBLE PRECISION.
The default digits of accuracy are 6 digits for Single Precision and 14 digits for Double
Precision. The accuracy is configurable from 6 to 54 digits for Double and 2 to 52 digits
for Single Precision.'

ACTUAL
NUMBER
12,000,023
.009,235,897,4
988,888
.235,023,912,323,436,129
9,999,999 .999,900,001,2
88.000,000,912,001,51
12.34147

SINGLE
PRECISION"
12000000
9.2359E-03
988,888
.235024
10000000
88
12.3415

DOUBLE
PRECISION"
12000023
9.2358974E-03
988,888
.23502391232344
9999999.9999
88.000000912002
12.34147

'Defaults are 8 and 12 digits for the Macintosh. Both are configurable up to 240 digits.

VARIABLES
ROUNDING

If the dign just to the right of the least significant digit is greater than 5, n will round up,
adding one to the least significant digit.
In the example for .009,235, 898,4 above, the last significant 6 dign number is
nine, but since the digit after 9 is 7, the 9 is rounded up by one to 10 (and subsequently
the 8 is rounded up to 9 to give us 9.2359E-03, which more accurately represents the
single precision value. See "Configure" for ways of selting the rounding factor.
NUMBER
####49
####50
####51
####52

PEFAULT ROUNDING FACTOR IS; 49
.49+.49 = .98 which is less than one
No Rounding
.50+.49 = .99 which is less than one
No Rounding
.51+.49 = 1 which is equal to one
Rounds up
.52+.49 = 1.1 which is greater than one
Rounds up

This rounding option will not be available for optional binary floating point packages.
CONFIGURING ACCURACY
ZBasic allows the user to configure the digns of accuracy for Single, double or scientific
precision functions (like LOG, TAN, SIN, etc).
LIMITATIONS:

Double precision must be at least 2 digits more significant than single.
Digits of Accuracy must be In multiples of two (four with Macintosh).
TYPE
PRECISION
SINGLE
DOUBLE
SCIENTIFIC

MINIMUM DIGITS
OF ACCURACY
2 DIGITS
6 DIGITS
2 DIGITS

MAXIMUM DIGITS
OF ACCURACY·
2 DIGITS less than Dbl.
54 DIGITS
54 DIGITS

"Note: All floating point calculations are done In DOUBLE PRECISION. For
programs where floating point speed is important be sure to set the digits of accuracy to:
DOUBLE PRECISION
SINGLE PRECISION
SCIENTIFIC PRECISION

Important Note: Some versions of ZBasic offer an optional high speed binary-floatingpoint option. While the speed of binary math packages is superior, the accuracy, range
and memory requirements of binary math are much different from the standard BCD math
described above. See the manual provided with the binary math package for details.
WARNING: Programs sharing disk files and CHAINED programs with single or double
preCision variables must have the same accuracy configuration. If one program is set for 6
and 14 digits, and another program is set for 10 and 20 digits, the programs will not be
able to read and write each othe~s files.

Configurable up to 240 digits. For hi-speed set Double to 8, single and scientific to 6.

VARIABLES
ACCURACY AND MEMORY REQUIREMENTS
The number of bytes of memory or disk space required for storing single and double
precison variables is dependent on the digits of accuracy. If you do not change the
accuracy, ZBasic will assume 6 digits for single precision (which requires 4 bytes), and 14
digits for double precision (which requires 8 bytes)"
When you change accuracy, disk files, variables, and constants memory requirements will
change as well. The equation to calculate memory or disk file space required for single or
double precision variables is:
Digits of Accuracy I 2+1=Bytes required per Floating Point variable
DIGITS of
ACCURACY
2 digits
4 digits
5 digits
6 digits

DISK FILE AND
VARIABLE MEMORY REQUIREMENTS
2 bytes
3 bytes
Will round odd digits UP to the next even number, 6 here
4 bytes (Single precision default if not configured by user)

8 bytes (Double precision default if not configured by user)

52 digits
54 digits

27 bytes
28 bytes

• The Macintosh defaults to 8 digits for single (four bytes) and 12 digits for double (eight
bytes). Digits of accuracy are configurable in multiples of four (instead of two as above).
To figure memory: Digits of Accuracy 12+2=bytes required.

WARNING: Different ZBasic programs sharing files and CHAINED programs MUST be
set to the same accuracy. Failure to do this will result in program errors, faulty data reads or
program crashes.
Important Note: Some versions of ZBasic offer an optional high speed binary-f1oatingpOint option. While the speed of binary math packages is superior, the accuracy, range
and memory requirements of binary math are much different from the standard BCD math
described above. See the manual provided with the binary math package for details.

VARIABLES
HOW BCD FLOATING POINT VARIABLES ARE STORED IN MEMORY
Single precision default is 6 digits (4 bytes). Double precision default is 14 digits (8 bytes).
To locate the address (memory location) of either a Single or Double precision variable:
ADDRESS1=VARPTR(FLOATING POINT VARIABLE [(SUBSCRIPT(,SUBSCRIPT[ ,.. ])])
Single and Double precision variables are stored in Binary Coded Decimal format (BCD).
Bit 765 ... 0
*ADDRESS1=
Bit 7:
Bit 6:
Bit 5-0:
ADDRESS2
ADDRESs3
ADDRESS4
ADDRESs5
ADDRESS6
ADDRESS?
ADDRESs8

Mantissa sign (0=POSITIVE, 1= NEGATIVE)
The exponent sign (0=E+, 1=E-)
The exponent value (0 to 64)
Digit 1 and 2 (Four bits for each digit)
Digit3 and 4
Digit 5 and 6 (Single precison default)
Digit 7 and B
Digit9 and 10
Digit 11 and 12
Digit 13 and 14 (Double precision default)

Digit 53 and 54 (Limit of significant digits)

:Single precision defaults to 4 bytes (six digits) and Double precision defaults to 8 bytes
(12 digits). Macintosh computers use two bytes for mantissa and exponent for its high
precision double precision variable type:
ADDRESS1 & 2
Bit 15:
Bi:14:
Bil13-0

Bit 15 14 13... 0
Mantessa sign
Exponent sign
Exponent value 0-16383

Range of 32 bit double precision is ±1.0E-16,383 to ±9.999E+ 16,384.
Note: Single precision range is the same on all machines

Important Note: Some versions of ZBasic offer an optional high speed binary-floatingpoint option. While the speed of binary math packages is superior, the accuracy, range
and memory requirements of binary math are much different from the standard BCD math
described above. See the manual provided with the binary math package for details.

VARIABLES
ACCURACY VERSUS PROCESSING SPEED
While ZBasic is capable 01 configuration to extremely high accuracy, you should be aware
that calculation time is in direct relation to the number of digits of accuracy.
The following chart will clarify the relationship of processing time to accuracy.
ACCURACY versus PERFORMANCE

EUD!0 AND ASC (A$) =0 THEN ASCII CODE=O

STRING, NUMBER CONVERSIONS
VAL
STR$
CVI, CVB
MKI$, MKB$

Converts a string to a number: X=VAL(A$)
Converts a number to a string: A$=STR$ (43)
Converts a condensed string to a number
Converts numbers to condensed strings

See DEFSTR LONG for using CVI and MKI$ with Longlntegers.

DEFINING STRING VARIABLES
Use a $ symbol following a variable name to make it a string variable. A$ will always be a
string variable because of the $.
To define a range of variables beginning with a certain character to be string variables (so
you do not have to use $ every time), use the statement DEFSTR:
DEFSTR A-M
DEFSTR X, Y, Z

Makes all variables starting with A, B, C... up
to M as string variables. A is the same as A$.
Makes all variables starting with X,Y and Z
as string variables. Z is the same as Z$.

STRIN.G VARIABLE ASSIGNMENTS
String variables are aSSigned alphanumeric values like this:
A$="Hellothere"
ART$="VanGogh"+" DaVinci"
Z$=B$
Z$=B$+C$
Z$="Hello"+C$+TEST$
MID$(A$,2,3)="YES"

(+) connects the strings (concatenates)

Puts "YES" into A$ starting at position 2

VARIABLES
STRING FUNCTIONS AND RELATED COMMANDS
String variables are used for storing and manipulating character information. Here are
some examples of ZBasic's string capabilities:
STRING FUNCTIONS
DIM 10 A$
DEF LEN 20
W$=LEFT$(A$,3)
W$=RIGHT$(A$,1 )
B$=MID$(A$,4,2)
MID$(A$,2,3)=B$
C$=CHR$(65)
X=ASC("A")
X=INSTR(2,A$,B$)
A$=STR$(2345)
X=VAL(A$)
X=LEN(A$)
INPUTA$
LlNEINPUTA$
A$=INKEY$
A$=UCASE$("Hello")
X=VARPTR(A$)
WRITE#1,A$;20
READ#1,A$;20
A$=STRING$(10,"#")
PRINT SPACE$(4)
SWAP A$,B$
LPRINTA$
PRINT A$
PRINT#2,A$
OPEN"R",1 ,F$, 129
KILL A$
A$=DATE$
A$=TlME$
A$=B$+C$
A$="HI"+"THERE"
PSTR$

DEFINITION
Sets the string variable A$ to a length of ten.
Sets following strings to 20 character length.
W$= 3 characters from the left of A$.
W$= 1 character from the right of A$.
B$= 2 characters from A$ beginning at position 4.
Puts first 3 characters of B$ into A$ starting at position 2.
C$= the character represented by ASCII 65 (letter A).
X= the ASCII code of "A" (65).
Looks for B$ in A$ starting at position 2, and makes X equal
to the pOSition if found, otherwise X= zero.
Makes A$ equal "2345".
Makes X equal the VALue of A$ (2345 if above).
X= the number of characters in A$ .
Gets input from the keyboard and stores it in A$.
Accepts any keyboard characters, stores them in A$ and
terminates input only with the key.
Makes A$= the last key pressed without using .
Converts A$ to UPPERCASE. (A$ now equals "HELLO").
X= the memory address of the variable A$.
Writes 20 characters of A$ out to the disk file#1.
Reads 20 characters off the disk into A$.
Makes A$ equal to "##########" .
PRINTs 4 spaces.
Make A$ equal B$ and B$ equal A$.
Prints A$ out to the printer.
Prints A$ to the screen.
Prints A$ to disk file 2.
Opens the random access file named F$.
Erases the file specified by A$ off the storage device.
Puts the date into A$ (MM/DD/yy) (Most systems).
Puts the time into A$ (HH/MM/SS) (Most systems).
Makes A$ equal to B$ plus C$ (Concatenates).
Makes A$ equal to "HI THERE".
Special command to avoid duplication of string constants.

SPECIAL INDEX$ COMMANDS
INDEX$ (n)="simple string" INDEX$="Simple string".
INSERT A$ at INDEX$(n), moves up all other elements.
INDEX$I (n)=A$
DELETE element (n) of INDEX$ and move up other elements.
INDEX$D(n)
Looks
for A$ in INDEX$ (all) X equals element if A$ found.
X=INDEXF(A$)
else X equals -1.
Look for "END" in INDEX$ starting at the 950th element.
X=INDEXF("END",950)
Set aside nnnnn bytes for INDEX$.
CLEAR nnnnn
Nullify the contents of the entire INDEX$ array.
CLEAR INDEX$

VARIABLES
STRING CONDITIONALS
Strings may be compared using conditional operators just like numbers. The difference is
that they are compared by the value of the ASCII code for that number. For instance, the
ASCII code for "A" is 65 and "B" is 66. Therefore the expression "A"<"B" would be
true (-1).
See ASCII Chart in your computer manual. ASCII characters may vary from computer to
computer and from printer to printer.
Be aware that ZBasic differentiates between upper and lowercase characters. "a" is
greater than "A" because the ASCII code for "a" is 97 and the ASCII code for "A" is 65. If
you want ZBasic to look at a string variable as uppercase only, use the UCASE$ function
to convert it.
ZBasic "looks" at all the characters in a string when dOing comparisons. "Aa" is greater
than "AA". "AAAAAAa" is greater than "AAAAAAA" etc. ZBasic will compare characters
in a string to the last character in that string.
CONDITION
"RRRRR"<"S"

"FRANK"= " FRANK "
"abc">"ABC"
TEST$="Hello" (If TEST$="Hello")

"A">"B"
"YES 11 ="yes"

RESULT
True (-1)
True (-1)
True (-1)
True (-1)
False (0)
False (0)

SIMPLE STRINGS
Quoted string:
"Hello",
"This is within quotes"
String variable:
A$,
NAME $ ,
FF$,
BF$ (2,3)
Any of the following string commands: MKI$, MKB$, CHR$, HEX$, OCT$,
BIN$, UNS$, STR$, ERRMSG$, TIME$, DATE$, INKEY$, INDEX$(n)
COMPLEX STRINGS
May be any combination of SIMPLE STRINGS.
String operations containing one of the following commands: simple- string +
simplestring, LEFT$, RIGHT$, MID$, STRING$, SPACE$, UCASE$ would be a
complex string.
COMPLEX STRINGS MAY NOT BE USED WITH IF-THEN STATEMENTS.
ZBasic allows only one COMPLEX STRING per statement. If you wish to perform more
than one complex string at a time, simply divide the complex string expression into
multiple statements like this:
CHANGE complex strings
B$=RIGHT$(A$+C$,2)
B$=UCASE$(LEFT$(A$,3»
IF LEFT$(B$,2)="IT" THEN 99

IQ simple strings
B$=A$+C$: B$=RIGHT$(B$,2)
B$=LEFT$(A$,3): B$=UCASE$(B$)
D$=LEFT$(B$,2): IFD$="IT" THEN 99

VARIABLES
USING STRING VARIABLES EFFICIENTLY
String variables will require 256 bytes of memory for each string used if the string lengths
are not defined by the user. It is important to realize that extensive use of string variables
or string array variables may require the user to define string lengths to avoid running out
of memory.
Note: Some BASIC(s) have what is referred to as "Garbage collection". ZBasic's
method of storing strings NEVER creates time wasting "Garbage Collection".

DEFINING THE LENGTH OF STRING VARIABLES
ZBasic strings have a default length of 255 characters. This can cause excessive memory
usage. To obtain maximum memory efficiency, there are two ways of defining the length
of string variables and string array variables:
DEF LEN = number (Numbers only. No expressions.)
DIM number STRING VARIABLE, or number STRING ARRAY, ...

DEFINING STRING LENGTHS WITH DIM
DIM X$(10), 20 A$, Z$(5), 45 TEST$, 10 MD$(20,20)

In this example the strings are allocated:
X$( 10)

255 each element (255 is the default. 2816 bytes)

each element of Z$ as 20*
(21*6=105 total bytes of memory used.)
45 (46 bytes)

TEST$
MD$( 20, 20)

each element of MD$(20,20) as 10.
(21 * 21 *11=4851 total bytes of memory used.)

* If no length is defined, the last given length in t.!lal. DIM statement is used (20 for A$ in
this example). If no length was defined in that DIM statement then the DEFined LENgth
is assumed (255 if the string length has not been previously defined)
Note: Add one to the defined length of each string to determine the actual memory
requirement of the string PLUS ONE for the LENGTH BYTE.

VARIABLES
DEFINING STRING LENGTHS WITH DEFLEN
Another command for DEF(ining) the LEN(gth) of string variables is:
DEF LEN = NUMBER
(No expressions)
(In the range of 1 to 255)
Each string variable located liEIEB the statement will have that length, unless another
DEFLEN or DIM statement is used.

DIM A$(9,9), X(99),
H#(999),
DEF LEN=50:B$="HOPE"
C$="HELLO"
DEF LEN=100
ART$="COOL"
DIM Coolness$(9)
A$=ART$

In the example:
A$(9,9)

allocated 255 characters for each array element (ZBasic
automatically allocates 255 if length has not been defined).

allocated 4 characters.

allocated 50 characters each.

allocated 100 characters.

allocated 100 characters for each element.

allocated 100 characters.

Note: The actual memory required for each string (each string element in an array) is the
defined length plus one byte for the length byte.

VARIABLES
HOW STRING VARIABLES ARE STORED IN MEMORY

ADDRESS=VARPTR(STRING VARIABLE [( SUBSCRIPT[ ,SUBSCRIPT[ ,....))))
ADDRESS
ADDRESS+1
ADDRESS+2

Length Byte: Holds number of characters in the string.
First character of the string variable
Second character

ADDRESS+n
ADDRESS+255
ADDRESS+Defined Length

Last character of the string variable
Last address available for undefined string variable
Last address available for defined string variable

.>: ........,'-'~;"~"-

~
r::; '~<"'.".
of,;>,'"'
-",,"",

WARNING 1: Strings should never be assigned a character length longer than the
assigned length, If the length of A$ is 5 and a program line is executed that has:
A$="1234567890", the characters "6" through "0" will overwrite the variables following
A$, possibly causing system errors or faulty data.
WARNING 2: If using INPUT to input strings with set length, always make sure the string
length is at least one longer than the length being used for input.

For most versions of ZBasic, no error is generated if string assignments exceed the
length of the string.

See "Configure" in the Macintosh appendix for setting string length error checking.

INDEX$ Variables

ASIC
SPECIAL INDEX$ STRING ARRAY
INDEX$ is a special ZSasic string array with some powerful and unique capabilities.

The following commands work with INDEX$ variables only.
INDEX$ COMMAND
INDEX$(n)=simple string

MEANING
Assigns a value to INDEX$(n)

INDEX$ I(n)=simple string

Move element n and all consecutive elements
up one and INSERTsimple string at element n
(the value in element 3 moves up to element
4...). Actually inserts the value into the array
without destroying any other elements.

DELETE element n and move all
consecutive elements back down to fill
the space (value in element 4 moves down to
element 3 ... ).

X=INDEXF(simple string [,start#] )

FIND simplestring in INDEX$. Segin
looking at element START#.
If found X=element number
If not found X = -1.

USING INDEX$
INDEX$ array variables may be assigned values like other string variables. To illustrate the
power of INDEX$, the following values have been stored into INDEX$ elements
INDEX$(O) through INDEX$(3) and will be used in the examples on the following pages:
ELEMENT #
INDEX$(O) =
INDEX$(1) =
INDEX$(2) =
INDEX$(3)=

MIA
"AL"
"SOS"
"DON"
"ED"

INDEX$ Variables

INDEX$
INSERTING ELEMENTS INTO INDEX$
INDEX$I (n)

To INSERT "CHRIS" into INDEX$, between "SOS" and "DON", you would use the
commandlNDEX$ 1(2)="CHRIS".
This instructs ZSasic to move "DON" and "ED" down and insert "CHRIS" in element 2.
(INDEX$ 1(2)=A$ would also be legHimate) INDEX$ would now look like this:
ELEMENT #
INDEX$(O) =
INDEX$(1) =
INDEX$(2) =
INDEX$(3) =
INDEX$(4) =

DATA
"AL"
"SOS"
"CHRIS"
"DON"
"ED"

DELETING ELEMENTS FROM INDEX$
INDEX$ 0 (n)

To DELETE "SOS" from INDEX$ use the command INDEX$ D(1). This instructs ZSasic to
delete element one, and move "CHRIS" and "DON" and all the other elements up to fill in
that space. The INDEX$ array would now look like this:
ELEMENT #
INDEX$(O) =
INDEX$(1) =
INDEX$(2) =
INDEX$(3) =

"AL"
"CHRIS"
"DON"
"ED"

FIND A STRING IN INDEX$

X=INDEXF(simplestring [,element n I)
ZSasic will begin searching from element n (element zero if not specified) for the string
specified by simple string. Examples:
IF FOUND
X=ELEMENT NUMBER

IF NOT FOUND
X=NEGATIVE ONE(-1)

To FIND "DON" in the above list let's say that A$="DON". Using the command
X=INDEXF(A$), X would return 2 to show that "DON" is in element 2 of INDEX$.
To FIND "CHR" (part of "CHRIS"), you would use the command X=INDEXF("CHR"). X
would return with the value of 1 since a match was found in the first three characters of
"CHRIS".

If you tried to FIND "RIS": X=INDEXF("RIS"), X would return wtth a value of -1 (negative
one) since the FIND command begins the search at the 1irs1 character of each element,
which MUST be significant ("C" must be part of the search).
If the command had been INDEXF("CHRIS", 3), X would have equaled -1 since the
search began at element 3 and "CHRIS" is at element 1 Hwould never find "CHRIS,"

INDEX$ Variables

INDEX$
INDEX$ MEMORY REQUIREMENTS
INDEX$ variable elements use memory only if there are characters stored in that element
and only as much memory as needed to hold those characters (plus one for length byfe).
CLEAR nnnnn is used to allocate memory for INDEX$. CLEAR INDEX$ will clear
(nullify) the present contents of INDEX$.
INDEX$ LIMITATIONS
INDEX$ may not be used wnh SWAP.
USES OF INDEX$
INDEX$ is a valuable tool for disk indices, in-memory data bases, creating word
processors, holding lists of strings with varying lengths and much more.
INDEX$ is especially useful anyfime unknown string elements lengths are needed.
USING INDEX$ FOR AN INSERTION SORT
A good example of the power of INDEX$ is using it to create a perpetual sort. It allows you
to add items to a list instantly and always have the list in order:
CLEAR 10000: TRONB
DO
INPUT"Input String";A$: GOSUB "INSERTION SORT"
UNTIL A$="END" <--- Type END to end inserting
GOTO "PRINT LIST"
"INSERTION SORT"
REM N=Nurnber of items
REM A$= New to string to insert
B=N: S=O
DO
H=(B-S+1»>1.
LONG IF A$ <= INDEX$(B-H)
B=B-H
XELSE
S=S+H
END IF
UNTIL B=S
INDEX$ I(B)=A$
N=N+1
RETURN
"PRINT LIST"
FOR X=l TO N
PRINT INDEX$ (X)
NEXT
END

INDEX$ Variables

INDEX$ ARRAY VARIABLES ARE STORED IN MEMORY
The INDEX$ array is stored in memory in one contiguous block. The distance between
each element is the number of characters in the string plus one byte for the length byte of
the string.

WARNING: It is suggested that strings in INDEX$ not be manipulated with PEEK and
POKE.
Note: CLEAR is used on some computers to allocate memory for INDEX$. CLEAR
INDEX$ is used to nullify the contents of INDEX$

This version has the ability to use up to ten INDEX$ arrays at the same time. See
appendix for details. Also see MEM(-1) for determining memory remaining for INDEX$.

INDEX$ Variables

ARRAY VARIABLES

ASIC
ARRAY VARIABLES
An Array variable is a multi-celled variable followed by coordinates for specifying which cell
is to be used. The following is an example of a one dimension string array with 101
elements.

NAME$(0)=
NAME$(1)=
NAME$(2)=
NAME$(3)=

"ABE"
"ADAM"
"ALEX"
"AMOS"

Separate variables could be used for each value, like NAME1$="ABE",
NAME2$=.. ADAM..... but typing a hundred different variables would become very tiring.
Array variables are much easier to use when inputting, saving, loading, printing long lists,
moving data around in a list, sorting lists of information, etc. This example shows how
easy it is to print a complete list of the names in the array of variables.

FOR X =0 TO 100
PRINT NAME $ (X)
NEXT
Computers are very good at manipulating large amounts of data and using regular
variables to do this is very impractical.

MULTI-DIMENSIONED ARRAYS
ZBasic will allow arrays of 1, 2, 3 or more dimensions, depending on the amount of
memory available on your computer.

Array Variables

ARRAY VARIABLES
TWO DIMENSION ARRAY EXAMPLE
The following chart shows a two dimensional integer array; A(3,3). The number of
elements are determined by the BASE OPTION that was configured when loading
ZBasic. The default is Base 0:
A(3,3) BASE 0 dimensions are 4 elements down (0,1,2 and 3) and 4 elements across
(0,1,2 and 3). Base zero utilizes all the elements including the italicized.
A(3,3) BASE 1 dimensions are 3 elements down (1,2,3) and 3 elements across (1,2,3)
(not the italicized):

TWO DIMENSION ARRAY
A(O,O)

This array was DIM(med) A(3,3). A(1,3) represents the cell underlined above. Accessing
a cell only requires giving the correct coordinate after the variable name.
Variables, constants or expressions may be used in specifying coordinates:
A(3,2),

BASE OPTION
Zero is considered an element unless you set the BASE OPTION to one when
configuring ZBasic. See "Configure" for more information about setting the Base option.
The default BASE is zero.
DEFINING THE DIMENSIONS OF AN ARRAY
All variable arrays ~ be DIMensioned at the beginning of a program. When you RUN
a program, memory is set aside for the array based on the number of elements you have
DIMensioned.
An example of DIM:
DIM A%(10,10,10),

MI(5), A! (9,7),

Only numbers may be used within DIM statement parentheses. The following DIM
expressions are /IIegal :
DIM A(X),

ARRAY. VARIABLES
"

HOW ARRAYS USE MEMORY
The following chart shows how to calculate the memory requirements of the arrays
DIMensioned above with a BASE OPTION of zero (default value).

ARRAY
A%(10,10,10)
A#(5)
Ai (9,7)
B$(10)
Cool$(20)

INTEGER
DOUBLE PREC.
SINGLE PREC.
STRING
STRING

Bytes per
Element
2
8

How to
Cal!;ulat~"

11'11'11'2
6'8
10*8*4
11'256
21*6

Memory
Reg!,!lreg
2662 Bytes
48 Bytes
320 Bytes
2816 Bytes
126

"Note: If you use a BASE OPTION of ONE, you will not need to add one to the
dimension. For instance, in the first example the way to calculate the memory required
would be: 10*10*10*2. Also see DEF LEN and DIM under STRING VARIABLES for info
about defining string lengths.

Macintosh also has Longlnteger arrays. Each element takes 4 bytes.

ARRAY BOUNDS CHECKING
During the initial stages of writing a program, it is a good idea to configure ZBasic to check
array bounds in runtime. See "Configure" for more information.

OUT OF MEMORY ERROR FROM DIMMING
It is necessary to have an understanding of how arrays use memory. DIMensioning an
array larger than available memory will cause ZBasic to give an OUT OF MEMORY error at
Compile time or RUN time. When calculating large arrays be sure to check if memory is
sufficient.

Array Variables

ARRAY VARIABLES
PRINTING ARRAYS
Arrays were designed to make manipulating large lists of data easy. The following routines
print the values of ARRAY(50) and/or ARRAY(50,5) to the screen (Substitute LPRINT for
PRINT or use ROUTE 126 to print to the printer). Use AUTO or make your own line
numbers. It does not matter which numbers are used.
"One Dimension array PRINT routine"
DIM ARRAY (50)
FOR X=0 TO 50
PRINT ARRAY(X)
NEXT

"Two Dimension array PRINT routine"
DIM ARRAY (50, 5)
FOR X=0 TO 50
FOR X2=0 TO 5
PRINT ARRAY(X,X2),
NEXT X2
PRINT
NEXT X

MAKING AN ENTIRE ARRAY ONE VALUE
The following examples show how to make an entire array (ARRAY(50) or ARRAY(50,5))
equal to a certain value. This would be convenient if you wanted to zero out an array or
have all the elements start the same values.
"One Dimension array ASSIGNMENT routine"
DIM ARRAY (50)
FOR X=0 TO 50
ARRAY(X)=VALUE
NEXT

"Two Dimension array ASSIGNMENT routine"
DIM ARRAY (50, 5)
FOR X=0 TO 50
FOR X2=0 TO 5
ARRAY(X,X2)=VALUE
NEXT X2
NEXT X

Affay Variables

ARRAY VARIABLES
USING ARRAYS FOR SORTING
Arrays are also very convenient for organizing large lists of data alphabetically or
numerically, in ascending or descending order.
The first program below creates random data to sort. This program is for example
purposes only and should not be included in your programs. These programs are
Included on your master disk.
Follow the GOSUB with the label of the sort routine you wish to use (either "QUICK
SORT" or "SHELL SORT"). Any line numbers may be used. These sort routines may be
copied and saved to disk (using SAVE' or +) as a subroutine to be loaded with APPEND.
See APPEND.

""S""OJ,JR....
T.....
,B""A"S'-__ FILL ARRAY WITH RANDOM DATA FOR SORTING _ _
DIM SA(500), ST(30,1):
REM ST (30,1) FOR QUICK SORT ONLY,
NI=500:
REM Change DIM 500 and NI if sort larger
FOR X=OTO NI
SA(X)=RND(1000) :
REM Stores random numbers for sorting
NEXT
PRINT"Start Time:";TIME$
GOSUB "QUICK SORT":
REM Or SHELL SORT
PRINT"Finish Time:";TIME$
FOR X=NI-10 TO NI
PRINT SA (X):
REM Print last to make sure SORT worked.
NEXT
END

>i!S!lH!:!EL!:!L"".A~PC1P=--_ _ _ _ _SHELL-METZNER

SORT_ _ __
"SHELL SORT"
Y=NI
"Zl" Y=Y/2
REM Sort complete
IF Y=0 THEN RETURN:
Z99=NI-Y
FOR K9=1 TO Z99
I=K9
"X2" E2=I+Y
REM:
In line below change <= to >= for descending order
IF SA ( I ) <= SA (E2) THEN "x3" ELSE SWAP SA ( I ), SA (E2)
I=I-Y
IF 1>0 THEN "X2"
"x3" NEXT K9
GOTO "Zl"
END
Note: To sort string arrays instead of numeric arrays add a "$" to the appropriate variables.
Also see "Perpetual Sort" using INDEX$ in the previous chapter.

Array Variables

ARRAY VARIABLES
___________ auCK~_____________

"QUICK SORT"
REM Improved Quicksort submitted by Johan Brouwer, Luxembourg.
REM Thanks for the submission, Johan.
SP=O:ST(O,O)=O:ST(O,l)=O
ST(O,l)=NI
DO
L=ST(SP,O): R=ST(SP,l) :SP=SP-l
DO
LI=L: Rl=R: SA=SA«L+R)/2)
DO
WHILE SA(LI)< SA
LI=LI+l
WEND
WHILE SA(RI»SA
RI=RI-l
WEND
LONG IF LI<= RI
SWAP SA(LI), SA(RI)
LI=LI+l:RI=RI-l
END IF
UNTIL LI>RI
LONG IF (R-LI) >(RI-L)
LONG IF L
DD

Notice the variation in quality. Programmers porting programs over to other machines should
keep the resolution of the target computer in mind when creating programs.

GRAPHICS
MORE GRAPHIC EXAMPLES AT DIFFERENT RESOLUTIONS

Quality deteriorates as graphic complexity increases and screen resolution decreases.
although usually the lower the resolution the faster the execution speed. In this line example
you can see the variation of quality.
The ZBasic statement to create all the lines in the first example was the same:
PLOT

HIGH RESOLUTION

Additional examples of more complex graphics forms in different resolutions:
HIGH RESOLUTION

GRAPHICS
MODE
ZBasic offers different modes of text and graphics output depending on hardware and
model. The ability to change modes allows you to simulate the output for different machines.
Syntax:

MODE expression
The following chart gives the modes for some popular microcomputers, and illustrates how
modes are grouped according to resolution.

MODE CHART
MSDOS
Mode
number

Graphic
character

10
11
12
13
14
15

80x25
80x25
40x25

character
320x200
character

40x40
character
80x25

Many Font
styles and
sizes here!

SEE
Macintosh
APPENDIX

Bottom
80x24
Bottom

Graphic
character

Graphic
SEE
Z80

Note: Check your computer appendix for variations.

Be sure to read
the appropriate
appendix for
exact mode
designations.

GRAPHICS
PLOTTING POINTS AND LINES
To set a specific screen position(s) to the current color or to draw lines from one screen
position TO another, TO another... , or to draw from the last screen position used (in another
ZBasic statement) TO another...
PLOT [TO] horizontal, vertical

[TO [ horizontal, vertical

PLOT draws with the last color defined by COLOR. COLOR=O is the background color of
most computers, while COLOR=-1 is the foreground color. If you have a system with a black
background, COLOR -1 is white and COLOR 0 is black. See COLOR in this chapter.

'III1111.IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII'IIIIIIJII"'"

a/37
0.0 .-'-~u..u.u.J..LLJ..J.1.I.J~u..u.LU..LLJ..~L.Cu.LU..u..c:. 1023

..................................~~

PLOT :!09, 30~ TO 987, 643 TO :322,742

,304.: ........

304,; .•.•••••. ~ .•••

643 •. : ••..•••.•.•.•.• .:...............

742 .• : •.•...•.•.•.•.••..

As with all other graphic commands, PLOT uses the standard ZBasic coordinates of 1024 x
768 regardless of the computer being used. When TO is used, ZBasic will plot a line from
the first position TO the next position, TO the next position ...
EXAMPLES OF PLOTTING
PLOT 4,5

RESULT
Turns on the pixel at the graphic position
4 positions over and 5 positions down

PLOT 0,0 TO 1023,767

Plots a line from the upper left corner
of the screen down to the lower
right corner of the screen.

Draws a line from the last position
used with the PLOT command TO
the point on the screen 12 positions
over by 40 pOSitions down.

PLOT 0,0 TO 400,0 TO 0,300 TO 0,0

Plots a triangle in the upper left
corner of the screen.

NOTE: All the examples above will plot in the current COLOR.

GRAPHICS
POINT
POINT (horizontal coordinate, vertical coordinate)
Returns the COLOR of the pixel at the ZBasic coordinate. Point is available on many
computers to inquire about the COLOR of a specific screen graphic position (some
computers do not have the capability to "see" pixels).
As with other commands, ZBasic Device Independent Graphic coordinates may overlap
pixels. The following illustration shows the pixels and color types associated with them.
In this example: I2l=BACKGROUND (WHITE)

ZBasic
coordinates

1 =FOREGROUND (BLACK)

~----------EXAMPLES *
POINT (0,0) =1
POINT (1,0) =1
POINT (0,2) =0
POINT (2,1) =0
POINT (2,2) =1
Screen Pixel

• Note: Point returns COLOR of coordinate

As with all other ZBasic graphic commands the standard device independent coordinate
system of 1024 x 768 is used.

Note: The ZBasic device independent coordinate system specifies poSitions on the screen,
not pixels. See below for ways of setting your system to actual pixel coordinates, if needed.

Macintosh and MSDOS systems can be set to use pixel coordinates with COORDINATE
WINDOW. See Apple appendix for ways of configuring to pixel coordinates. Z8D see your
hardware technical manual and the Z80 appendix for specifics of your machine.

GRAPHICS
CIRCLE
CIRCLE [FILL] horizontal, vertical, radius
CIRCLE draws a circle in the currently defined COLOR and RATIO. COLOR=O is the
background color of most computers, while COLOR=-l is the foreground color. If you have
a system with a black background, COLOR -1 is white and COLOR 0 is black.
See RATIO for ways of changing the shapes of circles. Also see CIRCLE TO and CIRCLE
PLOT for creating PIES and ARCS.
If FILL is used, the circle will be a solid ball in the current color.

CIRCLE
850
1023

CIRCLE FILL 850, 624, 50

r~. ~~~......................

624 .. ...............

674 .: ............ ........... ..... ....... ... .........

As with all ZBasic graphic commands, the Device Independent Graphic Coordinates of 1024
x 768 are the default.

FILL is taken from PEN pattern; PEN .... n. Where n is one of the pen patterns used under the
control panel. Quickdraw circles are also available using toolbox calls. See appendix.

GRAPHICS
GRAPHICS THAT EXTEND OFF THE SCREEN (CLIPPING)
Jf coordinates are given that exceed the limits of the ZBasic screen coordinates, that part
of the image exceeding the limtis will be "CLIPPED".
It is still permissible to use these numbers and in many cases H is important to have them
available for special effects.

CIRCLE, or other graphic commands like PLOT, BOX, PRINT% etc., wHh coordinates
that are off the screen but are within the limits of -8191 to +8192 are permissible and that
part out of range will be "Clipped":

GRAPHICS THAT
EXTEND OFF THE SCREEN
0,0

CIRCLE 1023,767,687
767

As with all ZBasic graphic commands, the Device Independent Coordinates of 1024 x 768
are used.

GRAPHICS
SEGMENT OF A CIRCLE (PIE)
512
0,0

SEGMENT OF A CIRCLE (ARC)
512

..
·
,..................
.~t .........
..

··········cr·····
CIRClE 512,383,320 PLOT 192,84

CIRCLE 512,383,320 TO 192, 84
767

t"'IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII"I","1

CIRCLE 512,383,320 PLOT 80,32

CIRClE 512,383,320 TO 80,32

SEGMENT OF A CIRCLE

To draw an enclosed segment of the circumference of a circle (PIE), use this syntax:
CIRCLE h, v, radius TO starting BRAD degree, number of BRADs (counter clockwise)
CIRCLE draws with the last color defined by COLOR. COLOR=O is the background color of
most computers, while COLOR=-1 is the foreground color. If you have a system with a black
background, COLOR -1 is white and COLOR 0 is black. See COLOR in this chapter.
SEGMENT OF A CIRCLE

To draw a segment of the circumference of a circle (an ARC) use the syntax:
CIRCLE h, v, radius PLOT starting BRAD degree, number of BRADs (counter-clockwise)
CIRCLE draws with the last color defined by COLOR. COLOR=O is the background color of
most computers, while COLOR=-1 is the foreground color. If you have a system with a black
background, COLOR -1 is white and COLOR 0 is black. See COLOR in this chapter.

Note: 256 BRADS=360 DEGREES. See the BRAD chart on the next page. As with all
ZBasic graphic commands, the standard coordinates of 1024 x 768 are used.

FILL may be used with the CIRCLE FILL x,y,r, TO s,n statement on this version. The FILL
pattern is taken from PEN pattern; PEN .... n. Where n is one of the pen patterns used under
the control panel. Quickdraw arcs are also available using toolbOX calls.

GRAPHICS
BRADS
Brads are used with ZBasic CIRCLE commands to determine a position on the circumference
of a circle. Instead of DEGREEs of zero to 359, BRADs range from zero to 255. (Starting at
3 O'clock going counter-clockwise.)
ZBaslc™ BRAD CHART

Degrees INSIDE circle
Brads OUTSIDE circle

Methods of Measuring Angles and Circles
RADIANS

CONVERSIONS FROM ONE TYPE TO ANOTHER
GRADS=10 * DEGREES/9
RADIANS=DEGREES* ATN(1 )/45
RADIANS=9*GRADS/10
GRADS=RADIANS*63.66197723
RADIANS=BRADS/40.7436666
GRADS=BRADS*1.5625
DEGREES=RADIANS*45/ATN(1)
DEGREES=BRADS*1.40625
DEGREES=GRAD/63.66197723

BRADS=DEGREES/1.40625
BRADS=GRADS/1.5625
BRADS=RADIANS*40.743666

Also see USR8 and USR9 for high-speed Integer SIN and COS.

GRAPHICS
RATIO
ZBasic allows you change the aspect ratio of any CIRCLE, ARC or PIE with the graphic
statement RATIO:

RATIO Width (-128 thru + 127), Height (-128 thru +127)
(See CIRCLE)

Examples:
Ratio settings are executed immediately and all CIRCLE commands will be adjusted to the
last ratio.
+127

times normal
times normal
times normal
Normal proportion
times normal
times normal
times normal
(no width or height)

Quickdraw circles use box coordinates to set circle shape. See toolbox section of appendix.

GRAPHICS
BOX
Box is used for drawing rectangles in the current color. The size of a rectangle is specified by
giving the coordinates of opposing corners.

BOX [FILL] M, v1 TO h2, v2
h1, v2
h2, v2

The first corner coordinate of the BOX.
The opposite corner coordinate of the BOX.

The BOX is plotted in the current color. If FILL is used the BOX will be filled with the current
COLOR.

II I I I I I I I I

- .i •
I I I I II I I II'

1'1 I 1 ' 1 ' 1 "

BOX 209,3·04 TO 465; ~

~I'"
.
.
I I I 1'1':

:1::0.• • • • •
B~X 843~'134
FILL

As with all ZBasic graphic commands, the device independent coordinates of 1024 x 768 are
used. Notice the different quality of BOXes on various computers and different modes.

FILL is taken from PEN pattern; PEN .... n. Where n is one of the pen pattems used underthe
control panel. Quickdraw boxes are also available using toolbox calls. See appendix.

GRAPHICS
FILL
FILL Horizontal expression, Vertical expression
The fill command will fill a screen position from the upper left most position it can reach
without finding a color other than the background color, and down to the right and to the left
until a non-background color is found.
This command will not function on computers lacking the capability to read screen pixel
coordinates. See computer appendix.
Example:

As with all ZBasic graphic commands, the Device Independent Coordinates of 1024 x 768
are used.
Also see CIRCLE FILL and BOX FILL.

FILL pattern is taken from PEN pattern; PEN""n. Where n is one of the pen patterns used
under the control panel. A much faster way to fill screen segments is using Quickdraw FILL
with polygons, circles and rectangles. See appendix.

GRAPHICS
COLOR
COLOR is used to signify the color to be used with PLOT, CIRCLE, BOX and FILL. All
systems support zero and -1 for background and foreground colors (BLACK and WHITE
respectively on most systems).

COLOR [=) expression
The following chart represents the color codes for IBM PC and compatible systems with color
graphics. Colors codes vary significantly from system to system so check your computer
appendix for variations.

IBM pc and Compatible COLOR codes
0= BLACK
8= GRAY
1= BLUE
9= LIGHT BLUE
10= LIGHT GREEN
2= GREEN
11= LlGHTCYAN
3= CYAN
4= RED
12= LIGHT RED
5= MAGENTA
13= LIGHT MAGENTA
14= YELLOW
6= BROWN
7= WHITE
15= BRIGHT WHITE
Color intensities will vary depending on the graphics hardware and monitor being used.
Check your computer appendix for variations.

While most Macintoshes are black and white, COLOR is useful when printing to the
ImageWriter II with a color ribbon. See appendix for details.

CLS is used to clear the entire screen of graphics or text quickly. Optionally, the text screen
may be filled with a specific ASCII character (in most modes). Check your computer appendix
for variations.

CLS [ASCII code:O-255 )
CLS LINE is used to clear a text line of text and graphics from the current cursor position to
the end of that line.

CLS LINE
CLS PAGE is used to clear a text screen of text and graphics from the current cursor poSition
to the end of the screen.

CLS PAGE
See Computer Appendix

GRAPHICS
BUSINESS GRAPHS, CHARTS ETC.
Business graphs and charts are easily accomplished with ZBasic graphics. An added benefit
is that the graphs are also easily transported to different computers.
HIGH RESOLUTION

To further assist you in porting graph programs, ZBasic has two text commands that
correspond to the graphic position on the screen instead of the text position:

Prints from the position specified by the
ZBasic graphic coordinates.

Positions the input to be from the graphic
position specified by h,v.

The syntax of these commands is the same as PRINT and INPUT. Also see PRINT@.

GRAPHICS
SPECIALIZED GRAPHICS
The Apple, MSDOS, Macintosh and some Z80 versions of ZBasic have some added
powerful features for graphics. See the appendix for your version of ZBasic for specific
information:

APPLE 1/ GRAPHICS

Double Hi-Res with 16 colors is supported for the Apple /Ie, /lc and /lGS with 128K or more.
Text and graphic may be integrated on the screen and customizable character sets are also
supported. LONG FN's for DRAW, BLOAD and BSAVE are on the master disk.

IBM PC, MSDOS GRAPHICS

Version 4.0 supports most of the graphic modes of IBM PC's and compatibles including;
Hercules Monchrome Graphics, Hercules PLUS, Enhanced Graphics Adaptor (EGA), Color
Graphics Adaptor (CGA), Monochrome and all other graphics modes.
Also supported are GET and PUT graphic commands, PLOT USING, COORDINATE and
COORDINATE WINDOW. See appendix for specifics.

MACINTOSH GRAPHICS

The master disk contains examples of printing and displaying MacPaint graphics and TI FF bit
images. Also supported is GET and PUT graphics, PICTURE, TEXT, Apple's QuickDraw
and toolbox routines, PEN and many more. See appendix for specifics.

TRS-80, CP/M-aO GRAPHICS

)a"k
.............

Most TRS-80 graphics are supported including Radio Shack's Hi-Res and Micro-Lab's Hi-Res
boards on the Model 4 in MODE 8 and 15 (text and graphic integration is not supported with
the Radio Shack Hi-Res board). Hi-Res is not supported on the model one or three.
Because of the diversity of machines for CP/M systems and because of a lack of a common
interface, graphics are not supported wHh CP/M systems (although we have special graphics
versions for Kaypro 4 and 10 with graphics capabilities).

ASIC
FILE HANDLING
ZBasic file commands are the same on all versions. This section explains file commands
and statements. ZBasic file concepts are similar to a file cabinet:

~S~m~i~th~____________

Address 1234 East SouthWest Ave.
City San Mateo
Age 34

Money Spent ~.23

FILE CABINET
Holds files in drawers.

DISK OPERATING SYSTEM
Holds files on diskettes, cartridges etc.

FILE
Contains data for a mail list or inventory
control system among other things.

FILENAME,
FILENUMBER
Contains data for a mail list or inventory
control system among other things.

RECORD
One logical part of a file: All the data for
Mr. Smith in a mail list (name, address ... )

RECORD
One logical part of a file: All the data for
Mr. Smith in a mail list file (name, address ...)

PARTS OF A RECORD
One part of a Record: The address or
the City in a mail list record.

LOCATION
One part of a RECORD: The address in
a mail list record or even one character
in the address.

FILES
GLOSSARY OF ZBASIC FILE TERMS
DOS: The Disk Operating System is a program residing in a computer's memory which
takes care of the actual reading, writing and file control on a storage device such as floppy
drives, hard drives, tape backup devices, etc. ZBasic works with the formats and syntax of
each disk operating system using its syntax for such things as filenames, drive specs, etc.
FILENAME: Tells ZBasic which file to access. A string constant or variable is used.
FILESPEC: The part of a filename (or some other indicator) that specifies the device,
directory or sub-directory a file is on. See your DOS manual for correct filespec syntax.
FILENUMBER: ZBasic may be configured to have from 0 to 99 files OPEN at the same
time (if DOS and available memory permit). Filenumbers are used in a program with disk file
commands to instruct ZBasic which file is being referred to. For example; if you open a file
called "Fred" as number one, when doing file commands you need only refer to file number
one, not "Fred". This saves a lot of typing.
RECORD: A record is one segment of a file. A mail list record might include Name,
Address, City, State, ZIP, etc. If you want data from a specific record, it is called up using
the RECORD command. The first record in a ZBasic file is RECORD O. There may be up to
65,535 RECORDs in a file" RECORD #filenumber, record, location.
LOCATION: Specifies a location within a record. There may be from 0 to 65,535 locations
in a record. Each location in a record can hold one character (1 byte). Location is the
second parameter in RECORD; RECORD #fiIenumber, record, location.
SEQUENTIAL METHOD: This is a method of reading a file one element or record at a
time, in order ---one after another i.e. 1,2,3 ....
RANDOM METHOD: This is the method of reading file items randomly--- out of order. i.e.
RECORD 20, 90, 1, 22 ....
FILE POINTER: "is often important to know how to manipulate the file pointer. ZBasic
allows you to position the file pointer by using RECORD, and tells you where the file pointer
is currently positioned by using REC(filenumber) and LOC(filenumber).
COMPATIBILITY WITH MSBASICTM
Experienced BASIC programmers will like the power and simplicity of ZBasic file commands.
For the first time, BASIC file handling commands have been made compatible and portable.
All ZBasic disk commands function the same way regardless of the computer being used.
Sequential file commands are very similar. The main difference being that items written with
PRINT# should be separated with quoted commas in ZBasic if being read back with INPUT#.
Random file commands have been made simpler, yet just as powerful. Those experienced
with MSBASIC file commands should find the conversion painless:

ZBASIC COMMANDS
READ, WRITE, RECORD

MSBASIC
EQUIVALENTS
FIELD, GET, PUT, MKI$, CVI, MKS$,
CVS, MKD$, CVD, LSET, RSET

PRINT#, INPUT#, LlNEINPUT#

PRINT#, INPUT#, LlNEINPUT#

FILES
FILE COMMANDS COVERED IN THIS SECTION

This outline gives an overall perspective of file commands available in this section and
groups commands in logical order. This section of the manual provides lots of examples
and a tutorial for the file commands of ZBasic.
OPENING AND CLOSING FILES
OPEN
CLOSE
DELETING OR ERASING FILES
KILL
RENAMING A FILE
RENAME
POSITIONING THE FILE POINTER
RECORD
WRITING TO A FILE
WRITE#
PRINT#
PRINT# , USING
ROUTE
READING FROM A FILE
READ#
INPUT#
LlNEINPUT#
GETTING IMPORTANT FILE INFORMATION
LOF
LOG
REG

Be sure to read the appendix for your computer. Many versions have extra commands that
take advantage of a particular system.

FILES
CREATING AND OPENING FILES
OPEN ["0, lor R"J,

[,record length J

All ZBasic files must be opened before processing.

OPEN "0"
Opens a file for "O"utput only. If the file does not exist, it is created. If it does exist, all data
and pointers are erased and it is opened as a new file.
OPEN "I"
Opens a file for "I"nput only. If the file does not exist, a "File Not Found" error is generated
for that file number.
OPEN "R"
Opens a "R"andom access file for reading and/or writing. If the file does not exist, it is
created. If the file exists, it is opened, as is, for reading or writing.
fifenumber
ZBasic may be configured to have from 1 to 99 files open at one time in a program
(depending on the DOS and available memory for that computer). Files are assigned
numbers so ZBasic knows to which file it is being referred. The original copy of ZBasic is
configured to allow up to two open files at a time. If you wish to have more files open, you
may configure ZBasic for up to 99 open files. See "Configure".
"filename"
The filename is the name of the file on the disk. Filenames may be string constants or string
variables. Filenames may also specify which drive to use. Filename and drive speCification
syntax is dictated by the disk operating system. See your DOS manual.
record length
Record length is optional. If it is omitted, a record length of 256 characters is assumed.
Maximum record length is 65,535 characters, or bytes (check appendix for variations).
EXAMPLES OF OPENING FILES
OPEN "0", 2, "NAMES", 99
Opens filenumber 2 as "NAMES", with a record length of 99 characters, for OUTPUT only. If
"NAMES" doesn1 exist, a file named "NAMES" is created. If a file called "NAMES" exists, all
data and pointers in it are deleted and it is opened as a new file.
OPEN "1",1, A$
Opens file number 1 whose filename is the contents of A$, with assumed record length of
256 for INPUT only. If A$ doesn't exist, a "File Not Found" error is generated for filenumber
one. See "Disk Error Trapping" for more information.
OPEN "R", 2, "BIGFILE" , 90
Opens filenumber 2 named "BIG FILE", with a record length of 90, for Reading and Writing.
If "BIG FILE" doesn't exist it is created.

OPEN"IR", "OR", "RR" for resource forks. OPEN "A" for append also supported. Volumn
number is used after record number i.e. OPEN"R",1,"Fred",99, vol%. A number of other
enhancements are covered in the appendix.
.

FILES
CLOSING FILES
CLOSE[# filenumber [. filenumber, ... )]
All files should be closed when processing is finished or before ending a program.
to close files
resuff in lost data

CLOSE without a filenumber closes all open files (STOP and END will also CLOSE all files).
It is very important to close all opened files before exiting a program. When a file is closed,
the end-of-file-marker is updated and any data in the disk buffer is then written to the disk.
After you close a file, that filenumber may be used again with another OPEN.
DELETING FILES
KILL "filename"
Files may be deleted from the disk from within a program or from the editor with the "KILL"
command. From the editor the filename must be in quotes on Macintosh and Z80 versions.
Filename is a simplestring and may be represented by a string constant or variable:

TRONB
INPUT"FILE TO KILL: ";FILE$
INPUT"ARE YOU SURE? ";A$
IF A$<>"YES" THEN END
KILL

END
RENAMING FILES
RENAME "oldfilename" TO [or comma I "newfilename"
Files may be renamed on the disk from within a program or directly using RENAME.
Filenames may be a string constant or variable. Example:

TRONB
INPUT"FILE TO RENAME";OLDFILE$
INPUT"NEW NAME: ";NEWFILE$
RENAME OLDFILE$ TO NEWFILE$

pl!l
The TRS-80 Model 1 ,3 version does not support RENAME.

Macintosh: Both KILL and RENAME also use Volumn number. See appendix for syntax.
MSDOS: CHDIR and Path names may be used. APPLE ProDOS: Pathnames may be used.

FILES
WRITING TO A FILE USING PRINT#,

WRITE# AND ROUTE#

PRINT#
PRINT # filenumber, (variables, constants or equations) [ j"," ...)
PRINT# is used for writing data in TEXT format. It is saved to the disk quite like an image is
saved to paper using LPRINT. PRINT# is useful for many things but it is not the fastest way
or most efficient way to save data. See WRITE# below. Examples:
PRINT#1, A$ j","j C$j","j Z% j","j X#
Prints A$, C$, Z%, and X#, to filenumber one starting at the current file pointer. A carriage
return* is written after the X#. This command stores data the same way it would be printed.
Syntax is compatible with older versions of BASIC. The file pointer will point at the location
in the file directly following the carriage return:
PRINT#1,USING "##.##"j 12.1
Formats output to filenumber one starting at the current file pointer (stores 12.10).
Functions like PRINT USING.
*Data MUST be separated by a delimiter of a quoted comma or a carriage retum if reading
data back using INPUT#. Some systems write a carriage return and a linefeed (two bytes).
WRITE#
WRITE [#) filenumber, variable [. variable ... )
WRITE# is used for storing data in condensed format at the fastest speed. WRITE# may
only be used with variables and data is read back with the READ# statement. Example:
WRITE#1, A$j10,
Z%,
K$j2
Writes 10 characters from A$, the value of Z%, and 2 characters from K$ to file number one,
starting at the current file pointer. In the example; A$;1 0 stores A$ plus enough spaces, if
any, to make up ten characters (or truncates to ten characters if longer).
ROUTE#
ROUTE [#] device
ROUTE is used to route output to a specific device. Device numbers are:
"
video monitor (default)
128 PRINTER (same as LPRINT)

1-99
DISK filenumber (1-99)
-1 or -2 SERIAL port 1 or 2*

Example of routing screen data to a disk file or serial port:
1.
2.

Open a file for output (use OPEN "C" and -1 or -2 for serial ports)
ROUTE to filenumber or serial port number that was opened.
All screen PRINT statements will be routed to the device specified.
3. ROUTE" (so output goes back to the video)
4. Close the file or port using: CLOSE# n.
* Be sure to see your computer appendix for specifics.

FILES
READING FROM A FILE USING INPUT#,

L1NEINPUT# AND READ#

INPUT#
INPUT # fifenumber, variable [. variable ...]
INPUT# is used to read text data from files normally created with PRINT#. The data must be
read back in the same format as it was sent with PRINT#. When using PRINT# be sure to
separate data items with quoted comma or carriage return delimiters, otherwise data may be
read incorrectly or out of sequence. Example:
INPUT#1, A$, C$, Z%, X#
Inputs values from filenumber one from the current RECORD and LOCATION pointer, into
A$, C$, Z%, and X#. In this example the data is input which was created using the PRINT#
example on the previous page. The file pointer will be pointing to the next location after X#.
L1NEINPUT#
L1NEINPUT# filenumber, variable (One variable only)
L1NEINPUT# is used primarily for reading text files without the code limitations of INPUT#.
Commas, quotes and other many other ASCII characters are read without breaking up the
line. It will accept all ASCII codes accept carriage returns or linefeeds. TEXT is read until a
carriage return or Iinefeed is encountered or 255 characters, whichever comes first:
L1NEINPUT#5,
A$
Inputs a line into A$ from filenumber five from the current file pointer. Accepts all ASCII
codes including commas and quotes, except linefeed (chrl0) and carriage return (chr 13).
Terminates input after a chr 13, chr 10, End-of-file, or 255 characters.
READ#
READ [#] fifenumber,

[. variable ... ]

READ# is the counterpart of WRITE#. It is used to read back data created with WRITE# in
condensed high-speed format. This is the most efficient way of reading files. Example:
READ#l, A$;10, Z%, K$;2
Reads 10 characters into A$, an integer number into Z%, and 2 characters into K$ from
filenumber one, from the current file pointer. The file pointer will be pointing to the location
directly following the last character in K$ (includes trailing spaces tl string was less than ten).

GETTING IMPORTANT INFORMATION ABOUT A SPECIFIC FILE
~
REC( filenumber)

Description
Returns the current RECORD number location for fifenumber.

LOC( filenumber)

Returns the current location within the current RECORD for
fifenumber (the byte offset).

LOF( filenumber)

Returns the last RECORD number of fifenumber. If there
are one or zero records in the file, LOF will return one.
Due to the limitations of some disk operating systems this
function is not always exact on some systems. Check the
COMPUTER APPENDIX for specifics.

FILES
ZBASIC FILE STRUCTURE
All ZBasic files are a contiguous string of characters and/or numbers (bytes). The order and
type of characters or numbers depends on the program that created the file.

FILE STRUCTURE
OPEN "R", 1, "TESTFILE", 30

~~~~~R~E~C;O~R~D~(~S)~W~lt~h~le~n~g~th~S~O~f~3~O~~;:~

L-L...J'--I......L....J....L~~....L.......L..."'--"'--L...J'--I'--I....J....L...L..J....~.J

Up to 65,535
RECORD(s) In
8 ZBasle file.

?.:=:::=::~b~~~~i,J~=::~:=::~
L...l.....L..1....1.....L..1....1....L..JL...L....L....IL...L..1...JL...L............L............L..L..L-L...L..L~

Up to 65,535
LOCATION(s) In
a ZBasle RECORD.

' T h e "d" Is at LOCATION 3 In RECORD 6

In the illustration, the name "Fred Stein" was stored in RECORD six of "TESTFILE". To
point to the "d" in FILENUMBER 1, RECORD 6, LOCATION 3 use the syntax:
RECORD/tl,

The location within a record is optional, zero is assumed if no location is given. If RECORD 1,
6 had been used (without the 3). the pointer would have been positioned at the ··F" in
"Fred" which is LOCATION zero.
If RECORD is not used, reading or writing starts from the current pointer position. If a file
has just been OPEN(ed), the pointer is at the beginning of the file. (RECORD#n, 0, 0 )
After each read or write, the file pointer is moved to the next available position in the file .

Macintosh: RECORD length and number of records is 2,147,483,647.

FILES
POSITIONING THE FILE POINTER
RECORD [#]

[. LOCATION numbetj

To point to any LOCATION in any RECORD in any FILE, use:
RECORD 3, 23, 3

Sets the pOinter of filenumber 3 to RECORD 23, LOCATION 3.
If RECORD 23 contained "JOHN", then LOCATION 3
of this record would be "N", since zero is significant.

Sets the pointer for file#3 to location zero in RECORD 23. If
RECORD 23 contained JOHN, the character being pointed at
would be "J".

RECORD IS OPTIONAL
If the RECORD statement is not used in a program, the pointer will have a starting position of
RECORD 0, LOCATION 0 and is automatically incremented to the next position (for reading
or writing) depending on the length of the data.
FILE SIZE LIMITATIONS'
The file size limitations for sequential files are either the physical limitations of the storage
device or the limit of the Disk Operating system for that computer.
The limitation for Random access files is 65,536 records with each record containing up to
65,536 characters. Maximum file length is 4,294,967,296 characters (although multiple
files may be linked to create larger files).
It is important to note that most Disk Operating Systems do not have this capability. Check
your DOS manual for maximum file sizes and limitations.

Macintosh: RECORD length and number of records is 2,147,483,647.

CONFIGURING THE NUMBER OF FILES IN A ZBASIC PROGRAM

If the number of files is not configured, ZBasic assumes only 2 files will be used and sets
aside only enough memory for two files.
To use more than 2 files, configure ZBasic for the number of files you need under
"Configure" .
ZBasic allows the user to configure up to 99 disk files for use in a program at one time
(memory and disk operating system permitting). Each type of computer requires a different
amount of buffer (memory) space for each file used so check your computer appendix for
specifics (usually there are 256--1024 bytes allocated per file; 10 files would require
between 2,560-10,240 bytes).
'See computer appendix for variations.

SEQUENTIAL METHOD

Sequential File Method

SEQUENTIAL METHOD

ASIC
SEQUENTIAL METHOD
This section covers some of the methods that may used when reading or writing files
sequentially. It covers the use of READ, WRITE, PRINT#, INPUT# and LlNEINPUT#.
SEQUENTIAL METHOD USING PRINT# AND INPUT#
These two programs demonstrate how to create, write, and read a file with PRINT# and
INPUT# using the Sequential Method:
PRINT#
OPEN n O",l,"NAMES"
DO: INPUT"Name: "; NAME$
INPUT "Age:"; AGE
PRINT#l,
NAME$","AGE
UNTIL NAME$="END"
CLOSE#l: END

INPUT#
OPEN"I",l,"NAMES n
DO: INPUT#l, NAME$,AGE
PRINT NAME$","AGE
UNTIL NAME$="END"
CLOSE#l:END

Type "END" to finish inputing names in the PRINT# program. The INPUT#
program will INPUT the names until "END" is read.

FILE IMAGE CREATED WITH PRINT#

IT 10
12 13 1rrl H la Ir Ir Iy I· 14151 !fIG I I I d Ia I. 11 17 I KI a I t Ih Iy I. 11 10
rr Carriage return and sometimes lineteed depending on the Disk Operating System (DOS)

Unless a semi-colon is used after the last data being printed to the disk, the
end of each PRINT# statement is marked with a carriage retum.
PRINT# USING
USING is used to format the PRINT# data. See "PRINT USING".
COMMAS IN PRINT# AND INPUT#
It is important to remember when using PRINT# w~h more than one data ~em,
that quoted commas (",") must be used to set delimiters for data being written. It
commas are not quoted, they will merely put spaces to the disk (as to the printer)
and INPUT# will not be able to discern the breaking points for the data.

Sequential File Method

SEQUENTIAL METHOD
SEQUENTIAL METHOD USING READ# AND WRITE#
Other commands which may be used to read and write sequential data are READ# and
WRITE#. The main difference between READ#--WRITE# and PRINT#--INPUT# is that the
latter stores numeric data and string data, much the same way as H appears on a printer;
READ# and WRITE# store string and numeric data in a more condensed and predictable
format. In most cases this method is also much faster.

VARIABLES MUST BE USED WITH READ# AND WRITE#
READ# and WRITE# require that variables be used for data. Constants or expressions may
not be used with these commands except the string length, which may be an expression,
constant or variable.

HOW STRINGS ARE STORED USING WRITE#
When using WRITE# or READ# wHh strings, you must follow the string variable with the
length of the string:
WRITE#1, A$;10, B$;LB

READ#1, A$;10, B$;LB

An expression may be used to specify the string length and .IIll..lS1 be included. When
WRITE#ing strings that are shorter than the specnied length, ZBasic will add spaces to the
string to make H equal to that length. If the string is longer than the length specified, it will be
"Chopped off" (If the length of A$ is 20 and you WRITE#1 ,A$;1 0, the last 10 characters of
A$ will not be written to the file).
Normally, you will READ# strings back exactly the same way you WRITE# them. Notice that
the spaces become a part of the string when they are READ# back. If you WRITE# A$;5 ,
and A$="HI" when you READ# A$;5, back, A$ will equal "HI "(three spaces at the end of
H). The length of A$ will be 5.
To delete the spaces from the end of a string (A$ in this example), use this statement
directly following a READ# statement:
WHILE ASC (RIGHT$ (AS, 1»

(A$, LEN (A$) -1):

You can use READ# and WRITE# using variable length strings as well. See the two format
examples on the following pages.

Sequential File Method

SEQUENTIAL METHOD
READ# AND WRITE# IN CONDENSED NUMBER FORMAT
Numbers are stored in condensed format when using READ# and WRITE#. This is done to
conserve disk space AND to make numeric space requirements more predictable. ZBasic
automatically reads and writes condensed numbers in this format. Just be sure to read the
data in exactly the same order and precision with which it was written. Space requirements
by numeric variable type are as follows:
PRECISION
INTEGER
SINGLE PRECISION
DOUBLE PRECISION

MAXIMUM DIGITS
4.3 (±32,767)
6 (defautl)
14 (default)

SPACE
2 bytes
4 bytes
8 bytes

Since single and double preCision may be configured by the user, use this equation to
calculate the disk space required if different than above:
(Digits of precision I 2) +1

of bytes per variable

Longlnteger has 9.2 digits and requires 4 bytes for storage. To calculate the storage
needs for Macintosh Double precision; Digits/2+2=space required per variable.

INTEGER NUMBER CONVERSIONS
For those programmers that want to control conversions these commands are available.
They are not required with READ and WRITE since these commands do it automatically.
X=CVI (simplestring)
A$=MKI$ (integer)

Converts the first two bytes of simple-string to integer (X).
Converts an integer to a 2 byte string.

SINGLE AND DOUBLE PRECISION NUMBER CONVERSIONS
For those programmers that want to control conversions these commands are available.
They are not required with READ and WRITE since these commands do it automatically.
X#=CVB (simplestring)

A$=MKB$ (X#)
XI=CVB (simplestring)

Converts up to the first 8 bytes' of simplestring to an uncondensed double precision equivalent and stores the value in X#.
(If string length is less than eight characters, only that many
characters will be converted. At least two bytes are needed.)
Converts a Double precision number to an 8 byte string.'
Converts the first 4 bytes' of simplestring into a single precision
number and stores the value in Xl If string length is less than
eight characters, only that many characters will be converted.
At least two bytes are needed.
Converts a single preCision number to a 4 byte string:

'Note: The number of bytes of string space in the conversions depends on the precision
set by the user. Use the equation above for calculating the space requirements. ZBasic
assumes 8 bytes for double precision and 4 bytes for single precision if the user does not
set precision.

To manipulate Longlntegers with MKI$/CVI use DEFSTR LONG. See Macintosh appendix.

Sequential File Method

SEQUENTIAL METHOD
SEQUENTIAL FILE METHOD USING READ# AND WRITE#
The following programs illustrate how to use READ# and WRITE# using the sequential file
method.
USING READ# AND WRITE# WITH SET LENGTH STRINGS
The programs below create and read back a file with the sequential method using READ#
and WRITE#. String length is set to 10 characters by the "10" following NAME$. Z8asic
adds spaces to a string to make it 10 characters in length. then saves it to the disk.
AGE is assumed to be an integer number since it was not defined and is stored in
condensed integer format.
WRITE#

OPEN"O", 1, "NAMES"
DO: INPUT"Name: "; NAME$
INPUT"Age:"i AGE

WRITE#l,NAME$;lO,
UNTIL NAME$="END"
CLOSEU: END

OPEN U I",l,"NAMES"
DO:READ#l,NAME$;lO,
PRINT NAME$;",";AGE
A$=LEFT$(NAME$,3)
UNTIL NAME$="END"
CLOSEU: END

Type "END" to finish inputting names for the WRITE# program. The READ# program will
READ the names until "END" is encountered.

FIXED STRING LENGTH WRITE#
This illustration shows how strings saved with set lengths appear in a disk file:

FILE IMAGE CREATED WITH WRITE#
Condensed 2 byte
Integer numbers

Wrth SET STRING LENGTHS
23 _ _ _ _ _ _ _-... 4S

Sets 10 characters for each string. ~ a string is less than 10 characters
the rest of the string is packed with spaces.

The reason the ages 23. 45 and 17 are not shown in the file boxes is because the numbers
are stored in condensed format (2 byte integer).

Sequential File Method

SEQUENTIAL METHOD
USING READ# AND WRITE# with VARIABLE LENGTH STRINGS
READ# and WRITE# offer some benefits over PRINT# and INPUT# in that they will read and
write strings with ANY ASCII characters. This includes quotes, commas, carriage retums or
any ASCII characters with a code in the range of 0-255. The following programs will save
strings in condensed format, using the amount of storage required for each string variable.
WRITE#
OPEN"O",l,IINAMES"
DO: INPUT"Name: "; NAME$
INPUT" Age: "; AGE
LB$=CHR$(LEN(NAME$»
WRITE#l,LB$;l
WRITE#l, NAME$;ASC(LB$),AGE
UNTIL NAME$="END"
LAST$="END" :
WRITE#1,LAST$;3:CLOSE#1
END

OPEN"I",l,"NAMES"
REM
DO: READ # 1 ,LB$; 1
READ # 1 ,
NAME$;ASC(LB$) ,AGE
PRINT NAME$","AGE
UNTIL A$="END"
CLOSE#l
END

The WRITE# program stores a one byte string called LB$ (for Length Byte). The ASCII of
LB$ (a number from 0 to 255) tells us the length of NAME$.
Notice in line 30 (of READ#) that LB$ is read BEFORE NAME$, thus allowing us to read the
length of NAME$ first (all data in file handling statements is processed IN-ORDER).

VARIABLE STRING LENGTH WRITE#
This illustration shows how the data is saved to the disk when string data is saved using the
variable length method. LB for "Tom" would be 3, LB for "Harry" would be 5, elc...

FILE IMAGE CREATED USING WRITE#
W~h

Condensed 2 byte ~ 23
Integer numbers
A

VARIABLE STRING LENGTH

I~ITI olml-I-I ~I HI aIrIrIy I-I-I~ IGI i II Idla I-I-I~ IKia II IhE 1-1-1
bRepresents the Length Byte (stored as LB$ in the example)

Sequential File Method

SEQUENTIAL METHOD
APPENDING DATA TO AN EXISTING FILE CREATED
USING THE SEQUENTIAL METHOD
Sometimes it is faster (and easier) to append data to the end of an existing text file, instead
of reading the file back in, and then out again.
This may be accomplished by using "RH, for random access file when opening the file, and
keeping track of the last position in a file using REC(filenumber) and LOC(filenumber) and
pulling a character 26 at the end of the file .
To append sequentially to a text file created with other programs try using this example
program. The key is setting the record length to the right amount. The MS-DOS version
uses 128. Other versions will vary.
This example creates a function called: FN Open ( f$, F%) and will OPEN the file named f$,
with file number f%, for appending. The RECORD pointer will be positioned to the next
available space in the file.
To close a file properly for future appending, use the function called FN Close (f$, f%).
LONG FN Open (f$,f%):
REM FN OPEN(f$, f%)
OPEN "R", f%, f$,128:REM Change 128 to correct# for your DOS
Fi1e1en%=LOF(f%): NextRec%=Fi1eLen%: NextLoc%=0
LONG IF FileLen%>0
NextRec%=NextRec%-1
RECORD #f%, NextRec%, NextLoc%
READ #f%, NextRec$;128: REM Change this 128 too!
NextLoc%=INSTR(1,NextRec$,CHR$(26»: REM (zero on Apple)
IF NextLoc%>O THEN NextLoc%=NextLoc%-1 ELSE NextRec%=NextRec%+1
END IF
RECORD #%f, NextRec%, NextLoc%
END FN
LONG FN Close (f$, f%)
REM TCLOSE the file correctly with an appended chr 26.
PRINT#f%, CHR$(26);
CLOSE#f%
END FN

NOTE: This method will work with ASCII text flies ONL VI

See Open "A" in the appendix for opening files for APpend.

Sequential File Method

ASIC
CREATING FILES USING THE RANDOM ACCESS METHOD

Random access methods are very important in disk file handling. Any data in a file may be
stored or retrieved without regard to the other data in the file. A character or field from the
last record in a file may be read (or wrnten) without having to read any other records.
A simple example of the Random access method is the following program that reads or
wrnes single characters to any LOCATION in a file:
RANDOM ACCESS EXAMPLE USING A ONE BYTE RECORD LENGTH
OPEN

"Get record number"
DO: INPUT "Record number: ";RN
INPUT "ead,
rite,

IF A$="R" GOSUB "Read" ELSE IF A$ = "W" GOSUB "Write"

UNTIL A$="E": CLOSE#l: END
uWrite"
INPUT "Enter character:"
RECORD # 1 ,
RN
WRITE #l,A$;l :RETURN

"Read"
RECORD #l,RN :REM Point at record# RN
READ #l,A$;l
PRINT" Character in RECORD# "; RN ;" was" ;A$: RETURN

To change this program to one that would read or wrne people's names, merely change the
RECORD LENGTH to a larger number and increase the number after the A$ in the READ#
and WRITE# statements.
The following pages will demonstrate a more practical use of the Random Access method
by creating a mail list program in easy to understand, step by step procedures.

Random Access File Method

RANDOM METHOD
CREATING A MAIL LIST USING THE RANDOM ACCESS METHOD
This mail list uses: First and Last name, Address, City, State, Zip, Age and Money
spent. The first thing to do is calculate the record length for the mail liS! file. This is
done by calculating the space requirements for each field in a RECORD.

FIRST NAME
LAST NAME
ADDRESS

STRING$
STRING$
STRING$
STRING$
STRING$
DOUBLE PRECISION
INTEGER
SINGLE PRECISION

AGE
MONEY SPENT
Totals:

SPACE NEEDED
10 characters

18 characters
35 characters
25 characters
15 characters
8 bytes (holds up to 14 digits)
2 bytes (Holds up to 32,767)
4 bytes (Holds up to 6 digits)

117 bytes per RECORD

The following illustration illustrates how the mail list data is stored within each
RECORD. LOCATION numbers are shown by position.

MAIL LIST RECORD LAYOUT
0--------- Locations ·----------9 10-------------------- Locations ------------------------------27

IJ I01 h In! I I I I I II simi ij t I hI I I I I I I I
First name

117 TOTAL
LOCATIONS

10 Character :stnng

18 character :stnng

28------------------------------------------------------ Locations ------------------------------------------------------------62
191415161811El a lsltilMlij s lslilsislilpiplij Isltl·IIAlplq 1 9 13 1 111
Address
35 Character :string

63----------------------------------------- Locations -----------------------------------87
IslolultlhlelalsltllTlulsiclalllol o Isial I I I I I

25 character String

88-----------· Locations ----------------------102 103------ Loc. --------110 111-112

15 character string

Random Access File Method

8 byte Double precision

Money Spent
4 byte Single precision

RANDOM METHOD
MAIL LIST PROGRAM
The following program will READ# and WRITE# mail list data as described on previous
pages. The names are input from the user and a mail list file record is created for each
name.
You will be able to retrieve, print, and search for names in the mail list and, with some simple
modifications (like using the sort routines in the ARRAY section of this manual) you will
have a complete mail list program ready to use.

EXPLANATIONS OF THE MAIL LIST PROGRAM BY LINE NUMBER

Asks if you want to create a new file. If you say
yes the old data is written over.

If old data is being used, the data in RECORD zero is READ
to find out how many names are on the disk. NR holds the
number of records on the disk.

Puts a menu on the screen and awaits user input.

"END" routine. Closes file and exits the program.

"ADD" names to mail list. Gets data from user,
checks if OK. If not OK starts over. Note that the spaces in the
input statements are for looks only. Space may be omitted.

If not OK then redo the input.

Gets the disk record (DR) from NR. Saves the
variables to disk, then increments the number of
records. (NR=NR+ 1) and saves it to disk record zero.

PRINT(s) all the names in the file to the printer.
(Change LPRINT to PRINT for screen output).

"FIND" all occurences of LAST NAME or PART of a LAST NAME.
To find all the names that start with "G" just type in "G".
To find "SMITH" type in "SMITH" or "SMIT" or "SM".

"READ A MAIL LIST ITEM"
READ(s) RECORD DR from the disk into the variables
FIRST_NAME$, LAST_NAME$, ADDRESS$, ...

"WRITE A MAIL LIST ITEM"
WRITES the variables FIRST_NAME$, LAST_NAME$,
ADDRESS$, ... out to the RECORD specified by DR.

HINTS: Spaces are not important when typing in the program, except between double
quotes (if you have set "Spaces required between keywords" they will be required).

Random Access Rle Method

RANDOM METHOD
MAIL LIST PROGRAM EXAMPLE

0010
0015
0016
0021
0022
0025
0030
0040
0050
0052
0055
0060
0075
0077
0079
0080
0099
0100
101
102
0130
0140
0150
0160
0170
0180
0190
0200
0210
0220
0230
0240
0250
0255
0260
0261
0500
0510
0515
0520·
0530
0540
0550
0560
0570
0575
0580
0585
0590

CLS
OPEN"R",1,"MAIL",117
INPUT"CREATE A NEW FILE:Y/N";A$: IF A$><"Y" THEN 22
NR=l: RECORD1,0: WRITE#l,NR:REM NR=Number of names in list
RECORD 1,0: READ # 1 , NR
DO: CLS
PRINT"MAIL LIST PROGRAM"
PRINT"I. Add names to list", "Number of names: ";NR-l
PRINT"2. Print List"
PRINT"3. Find names"
PRINT"4. End"
INPUT@(0,7)"Number: ";ANSWER: IF ANSWER<1 OR ANSWER>4THEN60
ON ANSWER GOSUB "ADD", "PRINT", "FIND"
UNTIL ANSWER=4
"END":

"ADD"
CLS
PRINT"MAIL LIST INPUT": PRINT
INPUT"First Name: ";FIRST NAME$
INPUT"Last Name: ";LAST NAME$
INPUT"Address: ";ADDRESS$
INPUT"City: ";CITY$
INPUT"State: ";STATE$
INPUT"ZIP: ";ZIP#
INPUT"AGE: ";AGE%
INPUT"Money Spent:";SPENT!
PRINT
INPUT"Is everything correct? yiN: ";A$: IFA$<>"Y"THEN "ADD"
RECORD 1,0:READ#l,NR: DR=NR: NR=NR+l: REM NR is incremented
GOSUB"WRITE A MAIL LIST ITEM": REM when names added
RECORD 1,0: WRITE#I, NR :
REM Stores records to record zero
RETURN

"PRINT"
REM Change LPRINT to PRINT if screen output preferred
RECORD 1,0: READ#l,NR
FOR X=lTO NR-1: DR=X
:REM DR=DISK RECORD
GOSUB"READ A MAIL LIST ITEM"
LPRINT FIRST NAME$;" ";LAST NAME$
LPRINT ADDRESS$
LPRINT CITY$;",";STATE$;" ";ZIP#
LPRINT AGE%, "SPENT:"; USING"$###,###.##";SPENT!
LPRINT:IF FLAG=99 RETURN
NEXT
DELAY 3000
RETURN

Continued next page

Random Access File Method

RANDOM METHOD
0700
0704
0705
0710
0720
0730
0740
0750
0755
0760
0770
0780
0781
0782
1000
1001
1020
1030
1035
1040
1041
1042
1100
1101
1110
1120
1130
1135
1140

"FIND"
CLS
RECORD 1,0: READ#l, NR
IF NR=l THEN PRINT "No names to find!":DELAY 999:RETURN
INPUT"NAME TO FIND: ";F$:F$=UCASE$ (F$)
FOR X=l TO NR-1
DR= X: GOSUB"READ A MAIL LIST ITEM"
T$=UCASE$(LAST NAME$) :REM CASE must match
IF INSTR(l,T$,F$) THEN FLAG=99: GOSUB 540: FLAG=O
NEXT
INPUT "LOOK FOR ANOTHER? Y/N:";A$:IFA$="Y" THEN 700
RETURN
"READ A MAIL LIST ITEM"
REM:This routine READS RECORD DR
RECORD 1, DR
READ#l, FIRST NAME$;10, LAST NAME$;18, ADDRESS$;35,
READ#l, CITY$;25, STATE$;15,-ZIP#, AGE%,
SPENT!
RETURN
"WRITE A MAIL LIST ITEM"
REM: This routine WRITES RECORD DR
REM CALL WITH DR=DISK RECORD NUMBER TO WRITE
RECORD 1, DR
WRITE#l, FIRST NAME$;10, LAST NAME$;18, ADDRESS$;35
WRITE#l, CITY$;25, STATE$;15,-ZIP#, AGE %,
SPENT!
RETURN:
END

Random Access File Method

MIXING FILE METHODS

Mixing File Methods

MIXING FILE METHODS

ASIC
MIXING SEQUENTIAL AND RANDOM FILE METHODS
Since ZBasic stores data as a series of bytes whether sequential methods or random
methods are used, these methods may be intermixed.
The following program uses both methods. The program reads files from the mail list
program created with the random access method earlier in this chapter.
The second and third lines read the number of records in the file. Then the list is read off
the disk sequentially using the DO/UNTIL loop.
To read and print the mail list in sequential order:

OPENIII", 1, "MAIL", 117
RECORD 1,O:READ#1, NR:REM Gets number of records to read
RECORD 1,1: REM Set pointer to the first record
REM
Change LPRINT to PRINT if screen output prefered
DO: NR=NR-1: REM Counts down the number of names
READ#l, FIRST NAME$;10, LAST NAME$;18, ADDRESS$;35,
CITY$;25, STATE$;15, ZIP#, AGE%,
SPENT!
LPRINT FIRST NAME$;" ";LAST NAME$
LPRINT ADDRESS$
LPRINT CITY$;",";STATE$;" ";ZIP#
LPRINT AGE%, "SPENT:"; USING"$###,###.##";SPENT!
LPRINT
UNTIL NR=l:REM Until the last name is read
CLOSEn
END
The READ#1 after the DO reads the data in. Whenever read or write functions are
executed, ZBasic automatically positions the file pointer to the next position.

Mixing File Methods

ERROR MESSAGES
If a disk error occurs while a program is running, ZBasic will print a message something like
this:

File Not Found Error in File
(C)ontinue or (S)top?

If you type "S", ZBasic will stop execution of the program and return to the disk operating
systern (or to the editor if you are in interactive mode).
If you press "e", ZBasic will ignore the disk error and continue with the program. This could
destroy disk data!!
The following pages will describe how to ''TRAP'' disk errors and interpret disk errors which
may occur.

END OF FILE CHECKING
Some versions do not have an "END OF FILE" command because some operating systems
do not have this capability. Example of END OF FILE checking for some versions:

ON ERROR GOSUB 65535:
REM Set for User Error trapping
OPEN"I",l,"DEMO":IF ERROR PRINT ERRMSG$(ERROR) :STOP
DO
LINEINPUTU,A$
UNTIL ERROR <>0
IF ERROR >< 257 THEN PRINT ERRMSG$(ERROR): STOP
REM 257=EOF Error in filenumber l(See error messages)
ERROR=O:REM You ~ reset the ERROR flag.
ON ERROR RETURN:REM Give error checking back to ZBasic
CLOSEU
Note: Many versions have an EOF function. See your appendix fordetails.

DISK ERRORS
TRAPPING DISK ERRORS
ZBasic provides three functions for disk error trapping:
ON ERROR GOSUB 65535

Gives complete error trapping control
to the user. User must check ERROR
(If ERROR <>0 then a disk error has
ocurred) and take corrective action if
any disk errors occur. (Remember to set
ERROR=O after a disk error occurs). ZBasic
will not jump to a subroutine when the error
occurs. The 65535 is just a dummy number.
See the ON ERROR GOSUB line:

ON ERROR GOSUB line

GOSUB to the line number or
label specified whenever and wherever,
ZBasic encounters a disk error.

ON ERROR RETURN

Gives error handling control
back to ZBasic. Disk error messages
will be displayed if a disk error occurs.

When l(QJ.!. are doing the ERROR trapping it is essential that ERROR be set to ;zero after an
error is encountered (As in line #45 and #1025 in the program example). Failure to set
ERROR=O will cause additional disk errors.
DISK ERROR TRAPPING EXAMPLE
The following program checks to see if a certain data file is there. If disk error 259 occurs
(File Not Found error for file #1), a message is printed to insert the correct diskette:

10
15
20
30
40
45
46
50

1000
1003
1005
1010
1015
1020
1025
1030

ON ERROR GOSUB "CHECK DISK ERROR"
REM Line above Jumps to line 1000 if any disk error occurs
OPEN"I",l,"TEST"

IF ERROR=O THEN 50
INPUT"Insert Data diskette: press ";A$
ERROR=O:REM
You MUST reset ERROR to zero!
GOTO 20 :REM
Check diskette again ...
ON ERROR RETURN:REM ZBASIC DOES DISK ERROR MESSAGES NOW

"CHECK DISK ERROR"
REM
ERROR 259 is "File Not Found Error in File *01"
IF ERROR=259 RETURN
PRINT ERRMSG$(ERROR)
:REM Prints error if not 259
INPUT"(C)ont. or (S)top? ";A$
A$=UCASE$(A$): IFA$<>"C" THEN STOP
ERROR=O:REM
You MUST reset ERROR to zero!
RETURN

Note: This method may not work on some Disk Operating Systems (like CP/M). Check
your computer appendix for specifics.

DISK ERRORS
DISK ERROR CODES AND MESSAGES
If you wish to do the disk error trapping yourseH (using ON ERROR GOSUB), ZBasic will
return the ERROR CODE in the reserved variable word "ERROR".
For instance, if a "File not Found Error in file# 2" occurs, then ERROR will equal 515. To
decode the values of 'ERROR', follow this table:
DISK ERROR COPES & MESSAGES

f.B.R.QB.
No Error in File #
End of File Error in File #
Disk Full Error in File #
File Not Found Error in File #
File Not Open Error in File #
Bad File Name Error in File #
Bad File Number Error in File #
Write Only Error in File #
Read Only Error in File #
Disk Error in File #

1 (257=file#1, 513=file#2, 769=file#3, etc.)
2
3
4

ERROR CODE=ERROR AND 255
FILE NUMBER= ERROR» 8

ERROR FUNCTION
ERROR returns a number between 12) and 32,767. IF ERROR does not equal zero then a
disk error has occurred. The disk error code of the value returned in ERROR is deciphered
by using one of the following equations or statements:
IF ERROR =515 calculate the disk error type by:
ERROR AND 255 =3
File Not Found Error in File #
ERROR »8 =2
File Number is 2
ERRMSG$(ERROR)=
File Not Found Error in File #02
Also See ERROR and ERRMSG$ in the reference section.

Important Note: To avoid getting the same error again ... ALWAYS set ERROR back to
zero after an error occurs; ERROR=I2).

Also see SYSERROR in the Macintosh appendix.

SCREEN AND PRINTER

Screen and Printer Control

SCREEN AND PRINTER

ASIC
SCREEN AND PRINTER
ZBasic has several functions and commands for screen and printer control. PRINT
or LPRINT are the most frequently used. The following syntax symbols are used to
control the carriage return and TAB for either PRINT or LPRINT:
PRINT SYNTAX
Semi-Colon ";"

RESULT
Suppress Carriage retum and Iinefeed after printing.
Subsequent prints will start at the cursor posHion.

TAB over to the next TAB stop. The default is16: TAB stops are:
16,32,48,64, ... 25 (also see DEF TAB below).

Defines the space between the TAB stops for comma (,). Any
number from 1-255. If 10 is used then positions 10, 20, 30,
...250, are designated as TAB stops.

PRINT EXAMPLES
PRINT''HI''

RESULT
Screen PRINT "HI" to the current cursor posHion and move to the
beginning of the next line.

Screen PRINT "HI" and DON'T move to next line (the semi-colon
suppresses the carriage return)

Screen PRINT "HI" and move over to next TAB poSition.

PRINT TAB(20)"HI"

Print "HI" at the 20th position over from the left or at the current
position if past column 20.

Print "HI" at the next TAB stop position. See" DEF TAB".

PRINT USING"##.##";23.2

PRINTS 23.20 and moves to the next line. See "USING" in the
reference section for further information.

Returns the horizontal cursor position on the screen where the
next character will be printed.

Returns horizontal cursor position of the printer where the next
character will be printed.

Screen and Printer Control

SCREEN AND PRINTER
PRINTING AT A SPECIFIC SCREEN LOCATION

........
PRINT@(l,l)"HI";

\
, PRINT @ (O,5)"Name: ..

PRINT@(H,V)"HI"

Start printing H characters over horizontally
and V lines down vertically from the upper left hand
corner of the screen, then move to the
beginning of the next line (Use a SEMI-COLON or
COMMA to control the carriage return).

PRINT %(Ghoriz, Gvert)

Position the print output to be at the graphics
coordinates specified by Ghoriz, GVert (or as close as
possible for that computer. Great for easy porting of
programs.

Fill Screen with spaces or optional ASCII characters.
(CLS 99 would fill the screen wHh c's.)

CLS LINE or PAGE

Fill with spaces to the end of the LINE or to the
end of the PAGE (screen).

STRING$(Qty, ascii or string)

Used to print STRINGS of charaters. STRING$ (10, "X" )
prints lOX's to the current cursor posHion.
STRING$ (25, 32) will print 25 spaces.

SPACE$(n) or SPC(n)

Prints n spaces from current cursor position.

Sets the color of Graphics output and sometimes
text. (0= background color, usually black.
-1= foreground, usually white).*

Sets screen attributes. Some computers allow
80 character across or 40 characters across, etc..
Graphics may also be definable.*

ROUTE byte integer

Used to route output to the screen, printer or
disk drive .•

• See Computer Appendix for specifics.

Screen and Printer Control

SCREEN AND PRINTER
PRINT %
The PRINT % command functions exactly the same way as PRINT@ except
the X-V coordinate specifies a screen graphic position instead of a character
position.
Since ZBasic utilizes device independent graphics, this is a handy way of
making sure the text goes to the same place on the screen regardless of the
computer being used.
Use MODE to set certain character styles for some computers.
Examples:
PRINT % (512,383)
PRINT % (0,0)
PRINT % (0,767)

Print to middle of screen
Upper left corner of screen
Lower left corner of screen

Same as the toolbox MOVETO function. ZBasic coordinates unless
COORDINATE WINDOW is used.

TYPICAL VIDEO CHARACTER LAYOUTS
Here are some of the typical character layouts for a few of the more popular
computers:

COMPUTER
IBM PC and compatible
APPLE liE, IIC
TRS-80 Modell, III
TRS-80 Model 4, 4p
CP/M-80 computers
Macintosh

Columns (across)
80 or 40
800r40
640r32
80 or 40·
80
Almost any1hing ...

Rows (down)
25
24
16
24
24
See appendix

·Will also run TRS-80 models 1, 3 version.

Screen and Printer Control

ASIC
KEYBOARD INPUT
ZBasic utilizes the INPUT and L1NEINPUT statements of getting keyboard data from
a user. There are many options allowed so that input may be configured for most
input types. Parameters may be used together or by themselves in any order.
Syntax for INPUT and L1NEINPUT:
[L1NE]INPUT[;][[@or%] (horiz,vert);] [I] [& n,] ["string constanf';] var[, var[, ... ]
L1NEINPUT

Optional use of INPUT. Allows inputting quotes, commas, and
some control characters.
A semi-colon directly following "INPUT" disables the carriage
return (cursor stays on same line after input).

"&" directly following "INPUT" or semi-colon, sets the limit of
input characters to n. Length of strings used in INPUT must
be one greater than n.
An exclamation point used with "&" terminates the INPUT
when the character limit, defined by "&", is reached, without
pressing . If "!" is not used, ends input.

@(horiz, vert);

Pos~ions the INPUT message to appear at character
coordinates horiz characters over & vert lines down.

%(horiz, vert);

Positions the INPUT message to appear at the closest
graphic coordinates horiz pixels over avert pixels down.

"string constanf';

Prints a message in front of the input.

var [, varU, ... ]

The variable(s) to receive the input. Using more than one
variable at a time is allowed except with L1NEINPUT.

Important Note: When using strings with INPUT make sure that you define the
length of the string at least one character more than will be input.

KEYBOARD INPUT
EXAMPLES OF REGULAR INPUT
EXAMPLE
INPUT AS

RESULT
,
Wait for input from the keyboard and store the input in
A$. Quotes, commas and control characters cannot be
input. to finish. A carriage return is generated
when input is finished (cursor moves to beginning of
next line).

INPUT'NAME: ";A$

Prints "NAME: " before input. A semi-colon must follow
the last quote. A carriage return is generated after input
(cursor moves to next line).

Same as INPUT AS above, only the semi-colon directly
after INPUT disables the carriage return (wrsor stays on
the same line).

EXAtJlPLES OF LIMITING THE NUMBER OF CHARACTERS WITH INPUT
EXAMPLE
INPUT &10, AS

RESULT
Same as INPUT A$ only a maximum of ten characters may
be input. (&10) A carriage return is generated after
input (cursor moves to the beginning of the next line).
The limit of input is set for ALL variables, not each.

Same as INPUT &10, except the SEMI-COLON following
INPUT stops the carriage return (cursor stays on line).

Same as INPUT & 10 except INPUT is terminated as soon
as 10 characters are typed (or is pressed).

INPUT ;! &10, "NAME: ";A$

Same as INPUT ;&10,A$ except no carriage return is
generated (semi-colon). INPUT is terminated after 10
characters(&10 and Exclamation point). and the
message "NAME: " is printed first.

LlNEINPUT;!&5,"NAME: ";A$ LlNEINPUT A$ until 5 characters or is
pressed. (no carriage retum after or after the
5 characters are input. Accepts commas and quotes.)
Note 1: Wherever INPUT is used, LlNEINPUT may be substituted when commas,
quotes or some other control characters need to be input (except with multiple
variables).
Note 2: If more than one variable is INPUT, commas must be included from the user to
separate input. If all the variables are not input, the value of those variables will be null.

In certain cases EDIT FIELD, MENU or BUTTON may be preferable. See appendix.

KEYBOARD INPUT
INPUTTING FROM A SPECIFIC SCREEN LOCATION

V
E
R
T
I
C
A
L

.........
INPUT @(2,1)"?";X

~
INPUT @ (O,5)"Name: ";A$

INPUT@(H,V); A$

Wait for input at TEXT screen POSITION defined by Horizontal
and Vertical coordinates. No "?" is printed. A carriage return is
generated.

INPUT %(gH, gV);A$

Input from a graphic coordinate. Syntax is the same as "@".
Very useful for maintaining portability without having to worry
about different screen widths or character spacing.

INPUT@(H,V);!10,"AMT: ";0# Prints "AMT:" at screen position H characters over by V
characters down. 0# is input until 10 characters. or .
are typed in. and the input is terminated without generating a
carriage return (the cursor DOES NOT go to the beginning of
the next line).
INPUT%(H,V);!10,"AMT: ";0# Prints "AMT:" at Graphic position H positions over by V
positions down. 0# is input until 10 characters. or .
are typed in, and the input is terminated without generating a
carriage return (the cursor DOES NOT go to the beginning of
the next line).
Note: Replace INPUT with LlNEINPUT whenever there is a need to input quotes, commas and
control characters (except with multiple variables).

KEYBOARD INPUT
INPUT %
The INPUT % command functions exactly the same way as INPUT@ except
the X-Y coordinate specifies a screen graphic position instead of a character
position.
Since ZBasic utilizes device independent graphics, this is a handy way of
making sure the INPUT goes to the same place on the screen regardless of the
computer being used.
Use MODE to set certain character styles for some computers.
Examples:
INPUT% (512,383)
INPUT% (0,0)
INPUT% (0,767)

middle of screen
upper left corner of screen
lower left corner of screen

Although all parameters above function properly, EDIT FIELD, MENU or
BUnON are preferable for getting user input. See appendix.

TYPICAL VIDEO CHARACTER LAYOUTS
Here are some of the typical character layouts for a few of the more popular
computers:
COMPUTER
IBM PC and compatible
APPLE 1/ series
TRS-80 Modell, III
IRS-80 Model 4, 4p
CP/M-80 computers
Macintosh

Columns (across)
800r40
800r40
640r32
800r40
80
Almost anything ...

Rows (down)
25
24
16
24
24
See appendix

KEYBOARD INPUT
INKEY$
Unlike INPUT which must WAIT for characters, INKEY$ can receive characters from
the keyboard "on the fly". When INKEY$ is encountered in a program, the
keyboard buffer is checked to see if a key has been pressed. For computers with
no buffer, the keyboard is checked when the command is encountered. If a key is
pressed, INKEY$ retums the key. If no key has been pressed, INKEY$ retums a
null string. Examples:
I$=INKEY$

When the program reaches the line with this
command on it, ZBasic checks to see if a
character is in the input buffer. If a key has
been pressed it will be returned in 1$.
Otherwise 1$ will contain nothing (1$ will equal
"" or LEN(I$)=zero).

IF INKEY$="S" STOP

If the capital "S" key is pressed the program will
stop. Sometimes more appropriate than using
TRONB or TRONX for debugging purposes.

DO: UNTIL LEN(INKEY$)
DO: UNTIL LEN(lNKEY$)=O

Wait for any key press, then continue
Clears characters out of INKEY$ buffer

Note: TRONX, TRON or TRONB may cause INKEY$ to function improperly!

Macintosh: If doing EVENT Trapping or any TRON type, the INKEY$ function may operate
incorrectly. Use DIALOG(16) instead. See appendix for examples. MSDOS: See
appendix for special ways of getting function keys (INKEY$ retums two characters).

INKEY$ EXAMPLE
The program below will wait awhile for a key to be pressed. If you make it wait to long, it will
complain loudly. If you do press a key, it will tell you which key was pressed. If you press "S"
or "s", the program will stop.

"Start": CLS
DO
A$=INKEY$:REM Check if a key has been pressed
X=X+l: IF x>3000 THEN GOSUB"YELL FOR INPUT! ":REM Timer
UNTIL LEN(A$): REM If a key is pressed then LEN(A$)=l
PRINT "You pressed ";A$
X=O: REM
Reset timer
IF A$="S" OR A$="s" THEN STOP:
REM PRESS "s" to STOP!
GOTO "Start":REM Go look for another key
"YELL FOR INPUT!":REM
This routine complains
PRINT"HURRY UP AND PRESS A KEY!
I'M TIRED OF WAITING"
X=O:REM Reset Timer
RETURN

ASIC
LOOPS
Loops are sections of a program that repeat over and over again until a condition is
met.
Loops are used to make programs easierto read by avoiding IF THEN and GOTO,
(although these commands may also be used to loop). ZBasic has a number of
ways of looping or executing a routine until a condition is met.

NEXT, STEP
UNTIL
WHILE, WEND

• Each of these loop types is executed at least once.

ENTERING OR EXITING LOOPS
ZBasic loops may be entered or exited without ill affects. Some compilers require
you to use a loop EXIT statement. This is not required with ZBasic. Just use a
GOTO or RETURN to exit as appropriate.

IMPORTANT LOOP REQUIREMENTS
ZBasic requires that each FOR has one, and only one, NEXT. Each WHILE must
have one WEND and each DO must have one UNTIL. Otherwise a STRUCTURE
error will resutt when you attempt to RUN the program.

AUTOMATIC INDENTING OF LOOPS
ZBasic automatically indents loops two characters in listings for readability (LIST).

LOOPS
FOR-TO-STEP
NEXT
FOR VAR counter= start expression TO end expression [STEP expression]
Program flow...
NEXT [VAR counter]

STEP is an optional part of FOR/NEXT. If STEP is omitted, the step is one. An
example of a FOR-NEXT-STEP loop:
FOR x=o TO 20
PRINT X;
·NEXT X

program continues ...

LINE 1: Begin the loop where X is incremented in STEPs of 2 (0,2,4,6... 20)
LINE 2: Prints the value of X each time the loop is executed.
LINE 3: If X => 20 the loop falls through to line 4. X will equal 22 in line 4 of this
example program.

FOR-NEXT loops will go through the loop at least once regardless of
the values in the FOR instruction. See WHILE-WEND for immediate exiting.
To count backwards in a FOR/NEXT loop set STEP to a negative number.
Note 1:

STEP zero will cause an endless loop.

'Note 2: With integer loops, be sure the maximum number is less than 32,767;
otherwise an endless loop may occur for some systems. The reason for this is that
the sign of the number increments to -32768 after 32767 which restarts the loop all
over again! Endless loop example:
FOR x%= 1 TO 32767 <--Endless loop!
NEXT X%

Note 3: STEP number must stay within the integer range. STEP 32767 would
create an endless loop.
Note 4: Unlike most other languages, FOR-NEXT loops may be entered or exited
in the middle with no ill effects.

'The same problem arises with four byte integers when the maximum Longlnteger
number in the FOR loop exceeds 2,147,483,647.

LOOPS
DO
UNTIL
DO
Program flow...
UNTIL conditional expression is TRUE

DO
X=X+2
PRINT X;

program continues ...

LINE 1:
LINE 2:
LINE 3:
LINE 4:

Start of the DO loop
Make X=X+2
PRINT the value of X each time the loop is executed.
If X<20 then go back to the beginning of the loop. When X> 19 program
falls through to the next statement (line 4 in example)

A DO loop wllf execute at least once. In contrast to WHILE-WEND, which
checks the condition at the beginning of the loop, DO-UNTIL checks the condition
at the end of the loop. Use WHILE-WEND when you need to check the condition at
the beginning.
Note: Unlike most other languages, the loop may be entered or exited in the
middle with no ill effects. For instance, in line 2 above, you could used: IF X>10
then RETURN. This would not cause any problems in the program.

LOOPS
WHILE
WEND
WHILE conditional expression

Program flow...
WEND end loop here when condition of WHILE is FALSE

WHILE X<20
X=X+2

PRINT X;
WEND
program continues ...

LINE 1:
LINE 2:
LINE 3:
LINE 4:

Continue the loop while X is less than 20.
Make X=X+2.
Print the value of X each time the loop is executed.
If X is less than or equal 20 then go back to the WHILE and do the loop
again, otherwise continues at the first statement after WEND.

In contrast to DO-UNTIL and FOR-NEXT (which check the condition at the end of a
loop), WHILE-WEND checks the condition at the beginning of the loop
and will exit Immediately If the condition Is not met.

Note: Unlike most other languages, a WHILE-WEND loop may be entered or exited
in the middle wijh no ill effects. For instance, in line 30 above, you could have used:
IF X>1 0 then RETURN. This would not cause any problems in the program.

FUNCTIONS AND SUBROUTINES

ASIC
FUNCTIONS AND SUBROUTINES
ZBasic contains some powerful tools for creating re-usable subroutines and
appending or inserting them into other ZBasic programs that you create.

APPEND
APPEND is a command that will take an un-line numbered subroutine and insert it
anywhere in an existing program. The syntax for the command is APPEN D

linenumber or label, filespec.
To save a subroutine or program without line numbers, use the SAVE+ command.
MERGE is available for merging subroutines or programs with line numbers into an
existing program.

DEF FN
ZBasic incorporates the DEF FN and FN statements similar to many other BASIC
languages. This is very handy for creating functions thai may be used like
commands in a program.
A function is given a name and may be called and passed variables. FN's save
program space. Note thai functions may utilize other functions within definitions
and program code.
Examples of using DEF FN to create Derived Math functions.
DEF FN eil = EXP(l.)
DEF FN Piil = ATN(l) « 2
DEF FN SECiI(xiI) = 1. \ cos (Xii)
DEF FN ArcSinil(XiI) = ATN (Xii \ SQR(l-xil * Xii»
DEF FNArcCos#(xiI) = ATN(1.)*2-FN ArcSin#(X#)
Examples of
PRINT FN
Angleil =
PRINT FN

program use:
Pi#
SIN (FN ArcSin#(IiI»
ArcCos# (Gil)

Note: Be sure to define the function at the beginning of the program before
attempting to use it otherwise an UN DEF error will result at compile time.

Functions and Subroutines

AND SUBROUTINES

LONG FN
Included is a sophisticated and powerful multiple line function called LONG FN.
LONG FN allows you to create mUlti-line functions as large as a subroutine and
allows you to pass variables to the routine. This comes in very handy for creating reusable subroutines that you can insert or APPEND to other programs.
LONG FN is similar to DEF FN except that the function being defined may be many
lines long. Use END FN to end the LONG FN subroutine. WARNING: Do not exit a
LONG FN except at END FN otherwise system errors may result.
Example of LONG FN to remove trailing spaces from a string:

LONG FN RemoveSpace$ (x$)
WHILE ASC(RIGHT$(x$,1)=32
x$= LEFT$(x$, LEN(x$)-l)
WEND
END FN= x$
Name$="ANDY
PRINT X$, FN RemoveSpace$ (Name$)
z$=FN RemoveSpace$(fred$)
Example of a LONG FN for dOing a simple matrix multiplication:

DIM A%(lOOO)
LONG FN MatrixMult%(number%,
FOR temp%= 0 TO last%
A%(temp%)=A%(temp%)*number%
NEXT
END FN
A%(O)=l: A%(1)=2:A%(2)=3
FN MatrixMult%(lO,3)
PRINT A%(O), A%(l), A%(2)

SYNTAX OF DEF FN AND LONG FN NAMES
FN names have the same syntax as variable names. A function that returns a string
value should end with a $. A function that returns a double precision value should
end with a#.
AUTOMATIC INDENTATION
ZBasic automatically indents that code between a LONG FN and END FN so
programs are easier to read.
SAVING FUNCTIONS FOR USE IN OTHER PROGRAMS
To save DEF FN'S or LONG FN's (or any subroutine) for future use, use SAVE+.
This saves the subroutine without line numbers so it may be used in other programs
by loading with the APPEND command (be sure to avoid line number references
and GOTOs in subroutines to make them easily portable).

Functions and Subroutines

FUNCTIONS AND SUBROUTINES
MORE EXAMPLES OF LONG FN

The following example will check to see if a random file specified by the filename
file$ exists. If it does it will open it as a random file. If it does not exist, it will return a
disk error.
Remember; with OPEN"R" if the file exists it is opened, if it doesn't exist it is
created. You may not want it created in certain circumstances (like if the wrong
diskette is in a drive).
LONG FN Openfil.e% (files$, filenum%, reclen%)
ON ERROR 65535: REM Disk error trapping on
"Open file"
OPEN"I",filenum%,file$
LONG IF ERROR
LONG IF (ERROR AND 255) <>3
PRINT@(O,O);"Could not find ";file$;" Check disk drive"
INPUT"and press when ready";temp%
ERROR=O: GOTO "Open file"
END IF
XELSE
CLOSE* filenum%
END IF
ON ERROR RETURN: REM Give error checking back to ZBasic
OPEN"R",filenuril%, file$, reclen%
END FN

EASY GETKEY FUNCTION
LONG FN Getkey$ (Key$)
DO
Key$=INKEY$
UNTIL LEN(Key$)
END FN = Key$

Functions and Subroutines

MACHINE LANGUAGE SUPPORT

Machine Language Support

MACHINE LANGUAGE SUPPORT

ASIC
MACHINE LANGUAGE
Occasionally it is important to be able to use machine language programs with your
program, whether for speed or to utilize special features of the hardware of that
machine. ZBasic incorporates a number of special commands to integrate machine
language subroutines into your programs.

CAUTION: Unless you have a working knowledge of the machine language of the
source computer and target computer, use extreme caution when porting programs
with machine language commands or subroutines.
MACHLG
This statement allows you to put bytes or words directly into your program:

CALL LINE "Machlg": END
"Machlg": REM
EXAMPLE ONLY--> DO NOT USE!
MACHLG 10, 23 ,233, 12, 0, B%, A, 34, 12, &EF
MACHLG 23, 123, 222, 123, 232, GameScore%, &AA
Hex, Binary, Octal or Decimal constants, Integer variables, or VARPTR may be
used. Be sure to put a machine language RETURN at the end of the routine if
using CALL. Be sure you understand the machine language of your computer
before using this command.

LINE
This gives you the address of a specific line as it appears in the object code. This
allows you to CALL machine language programs starting at specific line numbers or
labels. Syntax is
or

LINE label
LINE line number

Since the Macintosh is a 16 bit machine, MACHLG code is stored in WORDS not
BYTES. The code above would be stored in every other byte. With LINE
parentheses are required because it is also a toolbox call Le. LINE (n).
Machine Language Support

MACHINE LANGUAGE SUPPORT
CALL
Allows you to CALL a machine language program. The syntax is:
CALL address

Be sure the routine being called has a RETURN as the last statement if you wish to
return control to your program.
If you wish to CALL a machine language subroutine in your program that was made
with MACHLG, use CALL LINE line number or label.

These versions have additional parameter passing capabilities. See appropriate
appendix under CALL for specifics.

The ProDOS version provides a special interface to the ProDOS Machine
Language Interface (MLI). See appendix for specifics.

DEF USR 0 - 9
Allows you to set up to 10 different machine language user routines. The syntax
for using this statement is:

This command may be used to pass parameters or registers. See your computer
appendix for the specifics about your computer. There are also default routines.
See USR in the reference section.

INTEGER BASE CONVERSIONS
ZBasic makes integer BASE conversions simple. Some of the commands for
converting between BASES:
BIN$,
HEX$,

See "Numeric Conversions" for specifics.

See DEFSTR LONG for configuring conversions above for Longlnteger (and also
CVI and MKI$).

Machine Language Support

MACHINE LANGUAGE SUPPORT
OTHER MACHINE LANGUAGE COMMANDS
Other tools for machine language programmers include powerful PEEK and POKE
statements that can work with 8,16 or 32 bit numbers and BOOLEAN MATH
operators.

POKE
In addition to the "standard" BYTE PEEK and POKE provided by many versions of
BASIC, WORD (16 bft) and LONG (*32 bit) PEEK and POKE are also provided:

PEEK
PEEKWORD
PEEKLONG

8 BIT
16 BIT
*32 BIT

POKE
POKEWORD
POKE LONG

8 BIT
16 BIT
*32 BIT

* Macintosh only at this time.

BINARY/BOOLEAN MATH FUNCTIONS

EXP and IMP may be emulated easily. See "Logical Operators" in the "Math" section
of the manual.

VARPTR (variable) will return the address of that variable.

Macintosh: Remember to use Longlntegers to store the address since Macintosh
memory exceeds 65,535 (the limit 01 regular integers). Also see DEFSTR LONG for
defining integer functions to do Longlnteger. MSDOS: Check appendix for way of
determining SEG 01 variable.

Machine Language Support

STRUCTURED PROGRAMMING

STRUCTURED PROGRAMMING

ASIC
STRUCTURE
Much has been said about the difficulty of reading BASIC programs and the socalled spaghetti code created (the program flow is said to resemble the
convoluted intertwinings of string spaghetti).
While we believe structure is important, we don't believe that a language
should dictate how a person should compose a program. This inhibits
creativity and may even paint programmers into comers.
Nevertheless, we have provided powerful structure support in ZBasic.

THAT NASTY "GOTO" STATEMENT
The GOTO statement has been classified by many as a programmer's
nightmare. If you want programs that are easy to read, do not use this
command. If you must use GOTO, do not use line numbers, use labels to
make the code easier to follow.

LINE NUMBERS VERSUS LABELS
The standard line editor (command mode) uses line number for three reasons:
1. Remain compatible with older versions of BASIC
2. For the Standard line editor commands
3. To give more easily understandable error messages
To make programs easier to read you should use alphanumeric labels for
subroutines or any other area of a program that does a specific function.
It is much easier to follow the flow of a program if GOSUB, GOTO and other
branching statements use labels instead of line numbers.
To LIST programs without line numbers use LIST+. Many versions of ZBasic
now use full screen editors that don't require line numbers. See your appendix
for specifics.

STRUCTURED PROGRAMMING
INDENTATION OF LOOPS,

LONG FN and LONG IF

Some versions of structured languages require that you manually indent
nested statements for readability.
ZBaslc does all the Indenting automatically!

Each nested portion of a program will be indented 2 spaces when the program
is listed. Program statements like FOR-NEXT, WHILE-WEND, DO-UNTIL,
LONG FN, LONG-IF etc. will be indented.
Example using LIST+:
LONG FN KillFile(file$)
PRINT@(0,10);"Erase ";file$;" YIN";
DO
temp$=INKEY$
UNTIL LEN (temp$)
LONG IF temp$="y" or temp$="Y"
KILL tempS
END IF
END FN
FOR X=l TO 100
DO : G=G+l
WHILE X<95
PRINT "HELLO"
LONG IF J< 4
J=J+l
END IF
WEND

UNTIL G >= 3.5
NEXT X

MULTIPLE LINE STATEMENTS

ZBasic allows putting more than one statement on a line with ":" (colon). While
this is handy for many reasons, over-use of this capability can make a program
line very difficult to understand.

10*FORX=lT0100:DO:G=G+1:PRINT G:UNTILG=99:NEXT

FOR X = 1 TO 100
DO : G=G+1
PRINT G
FOR V=l TO 20:NEXT
UNTIL G=99
NEXT X
*FOR V=l TO 20:NEXT

'Note: An asterisk will appear at the beginning of a line containing a complete
loop if that line is not already indented. In that case the line will be un-indented
two spaces (as in the examples above).

STRUCTURED PROGRAMMING
SPACES BETWEEN WORDS
To make code more readable, you should insert spaces between words,
variables and commands, just as you do when writing in English. While
ZBasic does not care if spaces are used (unless you configure ZBasic to require
spaces), ~ is a good practice to insert spaces at appropriate places to make
reading the program easier.
Hard to Read
Easier to Read

IFX=93*24THENGOSUB"SUB56"ELSEEND
IF X=93*24 THEN GOSUB "SUBS6" ELSE

VARIABLE NAMES
To make code more readable, use logical words for variables.
Hard to Read
Easier to Read

Balance = Old_Principle + Interest

ZBasic allows variable name lengths up to the length of a line, but only the first
15 characters in the name are significant. Do not use spaces or symbols to
separate words in a name, use underlines; Buildin(LPrinciple, Freds_House.
Keywords may not be used in variable names unless they are in lowercase and
"Convert to Uppercase" is "NO" (this is the default). Also see next paragraph.

INCLUDING KEYWORDS IN VARIABLES
To allow keyword in variables configure ZBasic for; "Spaces Required after
Keywords" (not available on all systems). See "Configure".

HOW CASE AFFECTS VARIABLE NAMES
To make the variable "FRED" and "fred" the same variable configure ZBasic for
"Convert to Uppercase". See "Configure".

GLOBAL VERSUS LOCAL VARIABLES
Programmers familiar with LOCAL variables in PASCAL and some other
languages can structure their variable names to approximate this in ZBasic. (All
ZBasic variables are global.)
GLOBAL variables should start with a cap~alletter.
LOCAL variables should start with lowercase. Many programmers also use
(and re-use) variables like temp$ or local$ for local variables.

STRUCTURED PROGRAMMING
DEFINING FUNCTIONS
Use DEF FN or LONG FN to define functions and then call that function by
name. This is easy reading for people trying to decipher your programs. It
saves program space as well. FN names have the same definition as variable
names. Passing values to functions in variables is also very easy.
LONG FN may be used when a function the size of a subroutine is needed.
One FN may call previously defined functions.

LOADING PREVIOUSLY CREATED SUBROUTINES
To insert subroutines you have used in previous programs, use the APPEND
command. This will append (or insert) a program saved with SAVE+ (a non-line
numbered program or subroutine), into the current program starting at the line
number you specify; APPEND Iinenumber or label filename
Be sure to avoid the use of line numbers or GOTO statements in your
subroutine to make them more easily portable.
If using variables that are to be considered LOCAL, we recommend keeping
those variables all lowercase characters to differentiate them from GLOBAL
variables (all ZBasic variables are GLOBAL).
Sometimes LONG FN may be more appropriate for re-usable subroutines.

LISTINGS WITHOUT LINE NUMBERS
To make program listings easier to read, use LIST+ or LLIST+ to list a program
without line numbers.
ZBasic automatically indents nested statements with LIST for even more
readability.

Macintosh: Listings can be sent to the Screen, LaserWriter or ImageWriter
without linenumbers and with keywords boldfaced by using LLIST+*.
MSDOS: Screen listings with highlighted keywords and no linenumbers are
accomplished with LIST+* (no printer support for highlighted keywords).

STRUCTURED PROGRAMMING
LONG IF
For more control 01 the I F statement. ZBasic provides LONG IF lor improved
readability and power.

UNSTRUCTURED
10 IFX=ZTHENY=10+H:G=G+Y:F=F+RELSEGOSUB122:T=T-1

LONG IF X=Z
Y=10+H
G=G+Y
F=F+R
XELSE
GOSUB"READ"
T=T-1
END IF

UNSTRUCTURED
10 FORI=-3T03:PRINT"I= ";I:IF I> THEN IF 1>-3 AND 1<3
PRINT I;">O",ELSEPRINT"Inner If False":GOTO 30
20 *PRINT I;"<=O", :X=-4:DO:X=X+1:PRINT"X=";X:UNTILX=I
30 NEXT I

STRUCTURED
FOR I = -3 TO 3: PRINT "1= ";I
LONG IF I > 0
LONG IF I > -3 AND I < 3
PRINT Ii

XELSE
PRINT "Inner LONG IF false"
END IF
XELSE
PRINT Ii"<= 0",

X = -4
DO : X=X+1
PRINT"X="iX
UNTIL X=I
ENDIF
NEXT I

Important Note: Any loops enclosed in LONG IF structures must be
completely contained within the LONG IF. END IF construct.

The Macintosh and IBM versions also support SELECT CASE. a structured.
multi-conditional LONG IF statement. See appendices lor syntax.

DEBUGGING TOOLS

Debugging Tools

DEBUGGING TOOLS

ASIC
DEBUGGING TOOLS
To get programs running bug-free in the shortest amount of time, ZBasic has incorporated
some powerful error catching tools.
TRON

Display program flow
Tums on the line trace statement. As the program is running, ZBasic will display the line
number where the program is being executed on the screen.

Also see TRON 128 for sending the line numbers to the printer so the display is not
affected.

Single Step
SINGLE STEP line trace debugging. Allows you to single step through that part of a
program. To activate single step mode press CTRL Z. To single step press any key. To
return to regular mode press CTRL Z again. To single step and display line numbers use
TRONS:TRON. Note: CTRL Sand CTRL Z will function during any TRON type.

Check for key
Sets a break point on that line and all the following lines of that program (until a TROFF is
encountered). As each line is executed, the program will check HCTRL C or is
being pressed.
If is pressed, the program will return to the edit mode (the operating system if
RUN' was used). Without a break point the program will not respond to the key.
No line numbers are displayed unless TRON was also used.

BREAK ON is often preferable as a check for . See appendix.

Debugging Tools

DEBUGGING TOOLS
TRONX

Check for on that line only
Sets a break point only on that line. If CTRL C or is pressed as that line is
executed, theprogram will return to the edij mode (if interactive) or to the operating system.

Disable all TRON modes
Turns off TRON, TRONB, TRONX and TRaNS. line number display and points
will be disabled in the program flow following this statement.

ARRAY BOUNDS CHECKING
Set "Check Array Bounds" to "YES" when configuring ZBasic to make sure you do not
exceed DIM limits. This is a RUN TIME error check and is very important for use during the
debug phase.
Exceeding array limits could cause overwriting of other variables and fauRy data.
After you have finished debugging your program, disable this function since it will slow
execution speed and increase program size.

STRING LENGTH CHECKING (not all versions; check your appendix)
Set "String Length Checking" to "YES" when configuring ZBasic to make sure you do not
exceed defined string length limits. This is a RUN TIME error check and is very important
for use during the debug phase.
Exceeding string lengths could cause overwriting of other variables and/or faulty data.
After you have finished debugging your program, you may wish to disable this function
since ij will slow execution speed and increase program size.

COMPILE TIME ERROR CHECKING
ZBasic compile time error messages help you pinpoint the cause of the problem
immediately by highlighting the error on the line and printing a descriptive message instead
of an error number.
Unlike BASIC interpreters, ZBasic will not execute a program with syntax errors in it. If the
program compiles without an error you can be sure ij is at least free of syntax errors.

DISK ERROR CHECKING
ZBasic gives the programmer a choice of trapping disk errors themselves or letting ZBasic
display the disk error. See "Disk Error Trapping" lor more information.

Debugging Tools

PORTING PROGRAMS

ASIC
PORTING PROGRAMS
Porting means taking a program from one computer and moving it to another computer of
different type or model. As from an Apple to an IBM.
Because most ZBasic commands contained in the reference section of this manual (except
USR, OUT, INP, PEEK, POKE, VARPTR, CALL and MACHLG) function the same way, it is
very easy to move the source code from one machine to another.
The following pages will describe some of the problems and solutions of porting programs.

OBJECT CODE AND SOURCE CODE
There are two separate types of programs created with ZBasic and you should understand
the differences.
SOURCE CODE

This is the text part of a program you type into the computer and
looks like the commands and functions you see in this manual. In
order to turn SOURCE CODE into OBJECT CODE, ZBasic compiles
it when you type RUN (or RUN' or RUN+).

The OBJECT CODE is what ZBasic creates from the SOURCE
CODE after you type RUN. Object code is specific to a certain
machine. i.e. an IBM PC uses an 8088 CPU and and Apple /I uses a
6502 CPU. The ZBASIC OBJECT CODE for each of these
machines is different and cannot be ported. Port the SOURCE
CODE to the target machine and then recompile it into the OBJECT
CODE of that computer.

FILE COMMANDS
ZBasic file commands work almost exactly the same way from one computer to the next.
The areas to be aware of when porting code from one machine to another are covered in
the following two paragraphs.

Porting Programs

PORTING PROGRAMS
DISK CAPACITIES

Make sure the target machine has enough storage space to accommodate the program and
program files being ported.
COMMON DRIVE CAPACITIES
IBM PC, XI, jr.
5.25"
3.50"
IBM PC AT
5.25
3.50"
variable density
Apple /I series
5.25"
3.50·
Macintosh
single sided
double sided
Macintosh Plus
Other:
SSSD
5.25"
SSSD
B.OO"
SSDD
5.25"
DSDD
5.25"
DSDD
B.OO"

320K-360K
7BOK
360K
7BOK
1200K
143K
BOOK
400K
BOOK
SOK
200-500K
160K
320K
600-2000K

SSSO: Single sided Single density
5500: Single sided Double density
DSDD: Double sided Double density

ZBasic filenameslfilespecs work within the limitations of the disk operating system. When
porting programs make sure the filespecs are corrected. For instance; if porting a program
from a TRS-80 Model 3 to an IBM PC, you must change all references to a file like; Fred:1
to A:Fred
Some computers cannot do RENAME or EOF. Others are incapable of certain DISK
ERRORS. Be sure to study the DOS manual of the target machine for variations.
MEMORY

Memory is another area of importance when porting programs from one machine to another.
Porting from smaller machines to machines with larger memory should not be a problem, as
long as other hardware is similar. Programs from TRS-BO MODEL I, 111,4, Apple lie and IIc

and CP/M SO machines should port over to an IBM PC or Macintosh with little or no changes.
Porting a large program (12BK or more) from a larger machine like an IBM PC or Macintosh to
a smaller machine will require a number of memory saving measures covered in the following
paragraphs:
CHAINING PROGRAMS TOGETHER

If a 12SK program is being moved to a 64K system, you will have to split it up into two or
more separate programs and CHAIN them together. Since ZBasic allows sharing variables
while chaining, this should solve most problems.

Porting Programs

PORTING PROGRAMS
CHECK STRING MEMORY ALLOCATION
ZBasic allows the user to change the size of strings. Since some programmers on larger
machines may not be concerned with creating efficient code or keeping variable memory
use down, check if string size has been set. Setting string size from the 256 byte default to
32 or 64 will reduce string variable memory requirements dramatically.
See DEFLEN, DIM and "String Variables" in this manual for more information about
allocating memory for strings.
QUOTED STRINGS
Excessive use of quoted strings often occurs on larger computers because there is so
much free memory. Shortening quoted strings may save memory. Also see ZBasic
PSTR$function for an extremely efficient way of utilizing string constants in DATA
statements and in regular statements.
EFFICIENT CODE
Careful examination of source code may uncover ways to decrease code size by making
repeated commands into subroutines or FN's, or just cleaning up inefficiencies.
RAM DISKS
Some smaller computers allow the use of RAM disks. The Apple /I ProDOS version for
example, allows RAM disks up to 8 megabytes, while program and variable size are limited to
4OK-50K. Utilizing a RAM disk to store indices, large arrays or whatever is nearly as fast as
having that data in direct memory.
USE DISK INSTEAD OF MEMORY

If very large arrays or indices have been used in a large program you may have to store and
access them from disk in a random file. This is slower than RAM access but is usually quite
acceptable on most systems.
TEXT WIDTHS
Some computers have only 64 or 40 characters across the screen or 16 rows down the
screen. You may have to adjust the program to accommodate this.
You should think about using the PRINT% or INPUT% commands if you plan on
porting programs often. PRINT% puts text at ZBasics' device independent graphic
coordinates, not text column/row coordinates. This makes porting programs much
simpler. Here are some ~ character layouts:
COMPUTER
IBM PC and compatible
Apple /I series
TRS-80 Modell, III
TRS-80 Model 4, 4p
CP/M-80 (typical)
Macintosh

Columns (across)
800r40
800r40
64or32
80, 64 or32
80
Almost anything ...

Rows (down)
25
24
16
16 or 24
24
See appendix

Porting Programs

PORTING PROGRAMS
CHARACTER SETS
Screen and printer characters vary from one computer to the next. Check the ASCII chart in
the owners manuals to see the differences. (Most between 32-127 are the same.)
KEYBOARD, JOYSTICK AND MOUSE
Keyboards vary from computer to computer so be sure the target computer has the same
keys available. If not, make changes in the program to use other keys.
Joystick and MOUSE devices vary considerably. Test the controls on the target computer
and make adjustments for the hardware.
SOUND
Sound tone may vary from machine to machine. Check program and make any adjustments
needed. Some machines may not have this capability at all.
DEVICE INDEPENDENT GRAPHICS
ZBasic makes use of very powerful and simple graphic commands that work the same way
regardless of the graphic capabilities of the target computer (or lack of).
You will have to determine if the graphic hardware on the target computer is of sufficient
quality to display the graphics of your program. Note: Colors and grey levels may have to be
adjusted. Here are some of the typical graphic types available for some major computers:
COMPUTER
IBM PC and compatibles

Apple ][, ][+,lIe, IIc,lIGS
Apple lie, IIc, IIGS
Macintosh
TRS-80 Modell,lII
TRS-80 Model 4, 4p
CP/M-80 (typical)
KAYPRO with graphics

Horizontal x Venlcal pixels
CGA: 640x200 (3 color) or 320x200 (8 color)
EGA: 640x348 (many colors)
HERCULES and HERCULES PLUS: 720x348
MDA: 80x25 (text simulation)
Hi-Res 280x192 (6 color)
Double Hi-Res 560x192 (16 color)
512x340 (larger monitors also supported)
128x48
160x72
RS and Micro-Lab's hi-res boards 640x240
80x24 (text simulation)
160x100

MACHINE DEPENDENT SUBROUTINES
If the program being ported contains machine language subroutines, you will need to
rewrite those routines in the machine language of the target computer. Watch out for:
DEFUSR
MACHLG
PEEK
POKE

USR
LINE
PEEKWORD
POKEWORD

OUT
CALL
PEEKLONG
POKELONG

Unless you completely understand the machine language of both the target and source
computer, use extreme caution when porting programs with these commands.

Porting Programs

PORTING PROGRAMS
MACHINE SPECIFIC COMMANDS
In order to take advantage of unique or special features of some computers, ZBasic offers
special commands that will not work or function on others. Be sure the program you are
porting contains only commands from the reference section of this manual.
Special ZBasic commands may have to be rewritten for the target computer.
Be sure to read the ZBasic appendices for both the Target and Source computers. They
will explain in detail the special commands for each system (you must purchase a version of
ZBasic for each computer you wish to compile from).

METHODS OF TRANSFERRING SOURCE CODE FROM ONE MACHINE TO ANOTHER
Telephone Modem Transfer
Transfer files using a Modem and simple communications software routines like the ones
under OPEN"C" in the main reference section of this manual.
Serial (RS-232) Transfer
Transfer files over the Serial (RS-232) ports of the two computers using a good
communication software package like Crosstalk or SmartCom. Crosstalk is available at
computer or software stores nationally.
Diskette File Transfer Utility Programs
Use Diskette file transfer utility programs like Uniform or Interchange. These programs will
convert a file from one disk format, like from a TRS-80 diskette, to another disk format, like
MS-DOS or CP/M. These programs are available from computer or software dealers
nationally.
Re-type the Program
Type the program into the other computers. This may be acceptable for small programs but
you will save plenty of time by using one of the options above.
See OPEN"C" in the reference section for a ZBasic terminal routine that may be used to
transfer files.

Important Note: Always transfer files in ASCII. Tokens are not necessarily the same from
one version of ZBasic to another and from old versions to newer versions on the same
machine.

Porting Programs

CONVERTING OLD PROGRAMS

Converting old Programs

CONVERTING OLD PROGRAMS

ASIC
CONVERTING PROGRAMS WRITTEN IN OTHER VERSIONS OF BASIC

ZBasic is a very powerful and improved version of BASIC. Many of the
traditional BASIC commands have been retained to make conversion as easy as
possible. Nevertheless, ZBasic is not 100% compatible with every BASIC.
You will have to make some changes to your old programs if you wish to convert
them to ZBasic.
If file and graphic handling are not used, conversion will normally be very simple.
If files or graphics are used the conversion will take a little more thinking. The
following pages will give you important insights into making the conversion
process as easy as possible.
The following pages will give you some ideas about converting your older
BASIC programs. Following the paragraphs step-by-step will make conversion
much easier.
SAVE YOUR OLD BASIC PROGRAM AS ASCII OR TEXT

Save your old BASIC program in ASCII or TEXT format so it can be loaded into
ZBasic. ZBasic tokens are different from other BASIC tokens so loading them
without first converting them to ASCII will make programs loaded look like
random control codes or the wrong commands (if the program will load at all).
See the owners manual for the older BASIC to determine how to save in ASCII
or TEXT format for your computer. The typical syntax is; SA VE '1ilename",A .

Note: When upgrading to newer versions of ZBasic, programs may have to be
saved in ASCII in the older version before loading into the newer version since
tokens may have changed.

Converting old Programs

CONVERTING OLD PROGRAMS
CONFIGURING ZBASIC TO MAKE CONVERSIONS A LOT EASIER
ZBasic has been configured to give you maximum performance. When
converting older BASIC programs this can be a problem. Often they are
configured for ease of use instead of performance. ZBasic allows you to
configure options so that converting your programs is simpler. Setting some of
the options below will also make ZBasic more like the BASIC you may be used
to (like MSBASIC and BASICA).
Be sure to see "Configure" in the main reference section and in your appendix
for details about other ways of configuring ZBasic.
To solve many of the problems encountered in converting we suggest setting
the following options when converting other programs. Be sure to set these
options BEFORE LOADING your program:

CONFIGURE OPTION
1. Double precision digits of accu racy
2. Single Precision Accuracy
3. Array bounds checking YIN
4. Default Variable type ingle, ouble, nteger
5. Convert to Uppercase YIN
*6. Optimize expressions for Integer YIN
*7. Spaces Required between Keywords YIN

Since ZBasic does all floating point operations in double preCision, it is
important to configure ZBasic for the speed and accuracy that you need. In
most cases the configuration above will be suitable (but not in all cases). If
you wish disk files and memory requirements to be the same as MSBASIC
leave the digits of accuracy at 14 and 6 as they take up B bytes of Double
and 4 bytes for single (the same as MSBASIC).

Set to two digits less than Double precision.

Sets array bounds checking to give runtime errors. Set to "N" when your
program is debugged.

Set to Single (S) if you want code to be most like other BASICs. We highly
recommend you set ~ to Integer if possible. Integer will often increase
program speeds 10 to 100 times.

Setting allows variables like "Fred" and "FRED" to be the same variable. If
you want CASE to be significant, do not change the configuration.

ZBasic gives you two options for deciding how expressions may be
evaluated. ZBasic defaults to optimizing expressions for Integer to get the
fastest and smallest code. Most other languages do not. Set to "N" for
easier conversions. See "Math" for explanation of ZBasic options for
expression evaluations.

Some BASICs allow using keywords in variables (like INTEREST). To
allow this, spaces or other non-variable type characters are required
around keywords. Set this for easier conversion in most cases (especially
IBM PC and Macintosh BASIC type programs).

'Note: Not available on all versions of ZBasic.

SET TO
60rB
40r6
Y

Converting old Programs

CONVERTING OLD PROGRAMS
CONVERTING RANDOM FILES
ZBasic incorporates FIELD, LSET, MKI$, MKS$, MKD$, CVI, CVS, and CVD into the READ
and WRITE statements saving the programmer a lot of time. RECORD is used instead of
GET and PUT for positioning the file pointer.
The OPEN and CLOSE statements are the same for both BASICs except for MSBASIC use
of OPEN FOR RANDOM type. This is changed easily.
ZBASIC statements
OPEN"R"

MSBASIC equivalents
OPEN"R" or OPEN FOR RANDOM

READ, WRITE, RECORD

FIELD, GET, PUT, LSET, RSET, CVS, CVD,
MKS$, MKD$, CVI, MKI$

Note: While ZBasic also supports MKI$, CVI and MKB$, CVB, they are not necessary for
use in Random files since ZBasic's READ and WRITE automatically store and retrieve
numeric data in the most compact format (ZBasic's MKI$, CVI, MKB$ and CVB are most
useful for condensing numbers for other reasons). Since ZBasic allows using any variable
type in READ and WRITE statements, the user is not faced with complicated conversions of
strings-to-numbers and numbers-to-strings.
CONVERTING SEQUENTIAL FILES
Most ZBasic Sequential file commands are very similar or the same to MSBASIC.
ZBASIC statements
OPEN"I" or OPEN"O"
OPEN"A" some versions
EOF(n) some versions

MSBASIC equivalents
OPEN"I", OPEN"O" or OPEN"A" or OPEN FOR INPUT,
OUTPUT or APPEND some versions
EOF(n) some versions

L1NEINPUT, INPUT, PRINT

L1NEINPUT, INPUT, PRINT

Note: The biggest difference when converting sequential file statements is that ZBasic's
PRINT# statements should have quoted commas:
MSBASIC:
PRINT#l, A$, B$, C$
or
PRINT#l, A$ B$ C$
ZBASIC:
PRINTjfl, A$", "B$", "C$
DISK ERROR TRAPPING
ZBASIC statement
ON ERROR GOSUB

MSBASIC equivalent
ON ERROR GOSUB

Read "ON ERROR" and "Disk Error Trapping" in this manual for detailed information. ZBasic
error codes are much different from MSBASIC.

Important Note: ZBasic does not necessarily store data in disk files in the
same way or format as other versions of BASIC. You may have to convert
existing BASIC files to ZBasic format.

Converting old Programs

CONVERTING OLD PROGRAMS
CONVERTING GRAPHIC COMMANDS
ZBasic's Device Independent Graphics are very powerful and simple to understand.
Conversion should be painless in most cases:
ZBASIC GRApHICS
PLOT
CIRCLE
BOX
COLOR
MODE
POINT
GET, PUT (some systems)
RATIO
FILL
PLOT USING

MSBASIC equivalent
LINE, PSET, PRESET
CIRCLE
LINE (with parameters)
COLOR (PSET, PRESET black and white)
SCREEN
POINT
GET, PUT (some systems)
aspect parameter of CIRCLE
PAINT
DRAW

ZBasic defau Its to a relative coordinate system of 1024x768. This system does
not pertain to pixels but to imaginary positions on the screen. Most older
versions of BASIC use pixel coordinates.

Macintosh and MSDOS: Use COORDINATE WINDOW at the beginning of
program to set a program to pixel coordinates. Apple: See appendix for ways
of using POKE to set system to pixel coordinates.

LOOP PAIRS
All ZBasic FOR-NEXT, WHILE-WEND and DO-UNTIL loops must have matching pairs.
Some BASIC interpreters allow the program to have two NEXTs for one FOR, or two
WENDs for one WHILE. Since ZBasic is a compiler it will not allow this. A STRUCTURE
ERROR will be generated when you compile a program with unmatched LOOP pairs.
Another way to find unmatched pairs is to LIST a program. Since ZBasic automatically
indents loops, just read back from the end of the LiSTing, looking for the extra indent, to
find the unmatched statement.
COMPLEX STRINGS
Complex strings may have to be converted to simple strings (some machines).

Improper
Proper

B$=LEFT$(Right$(A$,12), 13)
B$=RIGHT$(A$,12): B$=LEFT$(B$,13)

IF-THEN statements may have only one level of complex string.

Improper
Proper

Converting old Programs

IF B$=LEFT$(A$,5) THEN GOSUB "END"
C$=LEFT$(A$,5): IF B$=C$ THEN GOSUB "END"

CONVERTING OLD PROGRAMS
LONG LINES
Multiple statement lines with over 253-256 characters (depending on computer) will
automatically be shortened by ZBasic when loading. That part of the line longer than
253 will be added to a new line number. Most programs do not have lines of that length.
TIMING LOOPS
Timing loops may have to be lengthened to make up for ZBasic's faster
execution time. For some BASIC Languages a FOR-NEXT loop of 1000 would
take second or two. (About 111000 of a second in ZBasic!) Replace these
types of delay loops with the ZBasic DELAY statement.
STRING MEMORY ALLOCATION

Important Note: ZBasic assumes a 255 character length for every string and string
array element and allocates 256 bytes for each (255+1 for length byte) unless string
length is defined with DIM or DEF LEN.
Many versions of BASIC, like BASICATM, MSBASICTM, APPLESOFTTM and others,
allocate string memory as a program needs.

While this may seem efficient on the surface, immense amounts of time are wasted in
"String Garbage Collection". Garbage Collection is what happens when your program
suddenly stops and hangs up for two or three minutes while BASIC rearranges strings in
memory. This makes this method unusable for most serious programming.
HOW DIMMING STRING ARRAYS AFFECT PROGRAM CONVERSION
MSBASICTM:

CLEAR 10000
DIM A$(1 000)

ZBaslc™:
ZBaslc™:

DIM A$(1000)
DIM 10 A$(1000)

Sets aside 10,000 bytes for ALL strings
Uses memory allocated with CLEAR plus
3-8 byte pointers per element.
256,256 bytes allocated (1001x256)
10,010 bytes allocated (1001x10)

Many BASICs use CLEAR to set aside memory for strings. Each string in ZBasic is

allocated memory at compile time.
A problem you may encounter while converting: Out of Memory Error from DIMension
statements, like the ones above (just define the length of the string elements).
ZBasic allows you to define the length of any string with DEFLEN or DIM statements.
Check the string requirements of the program you wish to convert and set the lengths
accordingly.
If you have large string arrays that must have elements with wide ranging lengths
(constantly changing from zero to 255 characters), use ZBasic's speciallNDEX$ string
array. Like other BASIC's CLEAR is used to set aside memory for this array (no "Garbage
collecting" here either).
See INDEX$, DEFLEN, DIM and "String Variables" for more information.

Converting old Programs

CONVERTING OLD PROGRAMS
OTHER INFORMATION
Check your appendix for more information about converting programs.
A good resource for information about converting from one version of BASIC to
another is David Lien's "The BASIC Handbook".

CONVERTING OLD COMMANDS
Some BASIC(s) have commands that may be converted over quickly using a word
processing program. Simply load the BASIC ASCII file into the word processor and use the
FIND and REPLACE commands. (You may also use ZBasic FIND command if you choose.)
A good example would be converting Applesoft™'s HOME commands into ZBasic's CLS
command. Have the word processor FIND all occurrences of HOME and change them to
CLS.
If you don1 have a word processor try using this simple ZBasic convert program to change
commands in a BASIC file quickly (file MUST have been saved in ASCII using SAVE*).

SINGLE COMMAND CONVERSION PROGRAM
ON ERROR GOSUB "DISK ERROR": REM Trap Disk Error
INPUT"Command to Change:";Old$
INPUT"Change to:";New$
CLS: PRINT" Changing File .... One Minute please"
OLDFILE$="oldfile" :NEWFILE$="newfile": REM < .. Change to correct filenames
OPEN"I",l, OLDFILE$
OPEN"O",2, NEWFILE$
WHILE ERROR=O
LINEINPUT#l, Line$
DO
Line$=LEFT$ (Line$, I-I) +New$+RIGHT$ (Line$, LEN (Line$) -I+l+LEN (Old$))
I=INSTR(l, Line$, Old$)
UNTIL 1=0
PRINT#2, Line$
WEND
"Done Changing"
ERROR=O
CLOSE
PRINT "All '";Old$;''' have been converted to '";New$;'''''
INPUT"Rename OLD file? YIN: "; A$: A$=UCASE$ (A$)
IF A$="Y" THEN KILL OLDFILE$
RENAME "NEWFILE" TO OLDFILE$
END
"DISK ERROR"
PRINT ERRMSG$(ERROR)
CLOSE: STOP

Important: Practice on a dummy file until you are sure the program is working properly.

Converting old Programs

ASIC
STANDARD STATEMENTS,
ABS
AND
ASC
ATN
BIN$
BOX
CALL
CHR$
CIRCLE
CLEAR
CLOSE
CLS
COLOR
COS
CVB
CVI
DATA
DATE$
DEF
DEFDBL
DEFINT
DEFSNG
DEFSTR
DELAY
DIM
DO
ELSE
END
ERRMSG$
ERROR
EXP
FILL

FUNCTIONS AND OPERATORS
FIX
FN
FOR
FRAC
GOSUB
GOTO
HEX$
IF
INDEX$
INDEXF
INKEY$
INP
INPUT
INSTR
INT
KILL
LEFT$
LEN
LET
LINE
LaC
LOCATE
LOF
LOG
LONG
LPRINT
MACHLG
MAYBE
MEM
MID$
MKB$
MKI$

MOD
MODE
MOUSE
NEXT
NOT
OCT$
ON
OPEN
OR
OUT
PAGE
PEEK
PLOT
POINT
POKE
pas
PRINT
PSTR$
RANDOM
RATIO
READ
REC
RECORD
REM
RENAME
RESTORE
RETURN
RIGHT$
RND
ROUTE
RUN
SGN

SIN
SOUND
SPACE$
SPC
SOR
STEP
STOP
STR$
STRING$
SWAP
TAB
TAN
THEN
TIME$
TO
TROFF
TRON
UCASE$
UNS$
UNTIL
USING
USR
VAL
VARPTR
WEND
WHILE
WIDTH
WORD
WRITE
XELSE
XOR

IMPORTANT: See your computer appendix for other keywords that pertain to your
version of ZBasic. Most versions of ZBasic offer more and also use two-word keywords like
LONG FN, POKE WORD etc.

KEYWORDS
STANDARD COMMANDS
APPEND
AUTO
DELETE or DEL
DIR
EDIT. E or comma ....
FIND or semicolon ";"

HELP
LIST. L or period ....
LLiST
LOAD
MEM
MERGE

STANDARD REFERENCE

ASIC
STANDARD REFERENCE GLOSSARY
This reference section is an alphabetical listing of the "Standard ZBasic Commands". The
following paragraphs describe the information layout and syntax of this section.
TYPE OF INFORMATION CONTAINED IN THIS REFERENCE SECTION
function
statement
command
operator

Retums a value; used wherever an expression is used
Executed by Hself
Used from the standard line edHor mode; EDIT, SAVE. ..
Like AND, OR, XOR or NOT

COMPATIBLE COMMANDS

BLACK BAR
SPECKLED BAR

may
Check to see if your system does not support that command.

PAGE LAYOUT
The pages are layed out in the same way. Whenever possible descriptions are kept to one
page. The header has the command type and description. Paragraph layout is:
FORMAT
DEFINITION
EXAMPLE
REMARK

Correct syntax for that statement, function or command
Definition or explanation of usage
Program example or direct example of usage. Note that
linenumbers are usually omitted. Add linenumbers if needed.
Other information of importance and usually a reference to other
related sections that will aid the understanding of that item.

IMPORTANT NOTE ABOUT DIVIDE
ZBasic compiles divide symbols based on configuration.

If the default expression evaluator; "Optimize Expressions as Integer?" is YES;
I=integer divide
\=floating point divide
If the expression evaluator; "Optimize expressions as Integer?" is NO;
1= floating point divide \=integer divide
See "Configure" and "Converting Old Programs" and "Math expressions" for more
information about the options offered for expression types and how they are evaluated.
continued next page ...

Standard Reference

STANDARD REFERENCE
CROSS

REFERENCE
These commands work the same way on almost every version of ZBasic. There is an
extensive cross-reference to other commands and how a command works on specific
machines. The reference section uses a computer icon to bring attention to a specific
version of ZBasic. The following icons are used:

l i D O S 3.3 and ProDOS versions.

MSDOS and IBM PC and compatible versions.

The Macintosh versions (all except the 128K machine).

Z80 machines; Amstrad, CP/M-80 2.x and higher, Kaypro Graphics versions and TRS-80
model 1, 3 and 4 versions.

SYNTAX GLOSSARY
GLOSSARY

What follows is program or command output.
Items within the brackets are optional (may be omitted)
Anyone of A, B or C may be used
Three periods following ijems indicates a repeating sequence
Something you type in, a program example, or program output
Numeric: Any; including integer and floating point
Numeric: 0-255
Numeric: 0 to 65,535 or ±32,767
Numeric: 0 to 4,294,966,293 or ±2,147,483,647
Any Variable
String, integer, Longlnteger, single or
double precision variable types, respectively
Quoted strings (string contants)
String variable, string contant, BIN$, CHR$, HEX$, INDEX$,
OCT$, PSTR$, STR$, SPACE$, STRING$ or UNS$.
File number: An expression 1-99. See "Configure"
A legal filename for that operating system filename
Drive or storage volume specifier
A line number from 0 to 65,534 or a "label"
Requires a number. No variable or expression allowed
A valid variable name

... repeats
Courier text
expression or expr

byte expression
word expression
long expression
variable or var
var$, vat'/o, var&, var!, var#
"string"
simplestring or string
filenumber
filename
filespec
line
number
varname

Be sure to take note when you see this hand. It is pointing out important information about
using that command. If there is the message "Important Note" with the hand it is even
more critical that you read the notes.

Standard Reference

function ASS
FORMAT

ABS ( expression )

Returns the absolute value of an expression. The absolute value is the value without
regard to the sign (negative, zero or positive).
The result of ASS will always be a positive number or zero.

A=-15: B=15
PRINT ABS(A), ABS(B), ABS(-555)
X=ABS (0)
PRINT X

RUN
15, 15, 555

The SGN function will return the sign of an expression.

Standard Reference

expression1 AND expression2

Used to determine if BOTH conditions are true. If both expression1 AND
expression2 are true (non-zero), the result is true. Retums -1 for true, 0 for false.
See AND truth table below.
Also used to compare bils in binary number operations. 1 AND 1 return a 1, all olher
combinations of O's and 1's produce O. See truth tables below.

IF 30>20 AND 20<30 THEN PRINT "TRUE "
IF "Hi"="hello" AND 6-5=1 THEN PRINT "TRUE TOO!"

RUN
TRUE
PRINT BIN${ &X00001111 AND &X11111111)
PRINT 4 AND 255

RUN
0000000000001111
4

See OR, XOR and NOT.
AND TRUTH TABLE

condition AND condition

TRUE(-1) if both conditions TRUE, else FALSE(O)

AND
1 AND
o AND
1 AND
o AND

BOOLEAN "16 BIT" LOGIC
00000001
00000111
AND 00001111
AND 00001111
00000001
00000111

Longlnteger will function wilh this operator in 32 bits.

Standard Reference

command APPEND
line or label
line or label

["I filename [ "I
["I filename [ "I

APPEND
APPEND·

Used to append or insert a program segment or subroutine (saved with SAVE+) into
the present program in memory.
A non-line numbered ASCII program file is required to append a subroutine into the
present program in memory at the specified line number. Line numbers will be
assigned in increments of one.
APPEND" will strip REM(arks) and spaces to free up more memory for the program as
the program in inserted.

"TEST ROUTINE"
FOR I = 1 TO 10
PRINT I
NEXT I
RETURN

SAVE+ TEST .APP
APPEND 31 TEST.APP

LIST
00010
00020
00030
00031
00032
00033
00034
00035
00040
00050

"TEST ROUTINE"
FOR I = 1 TO 10
PRINT I
"TEST ROUTINE"
FOR I = 1 TO 10
PRINT I
NEXT I
RETURN
NEXT I
RETURN

<----Subroutine inserted here
<--- (Example only, program will not run)

The program to be appended must be in ASCII format and not contain line numbers.
Use the SAVE+ command to save programs without line numbers.
If any line number being used in APPEND already exists, it will overwrite the existing
line. Also see MERGE, LOAD, SAVE, SAVE', SAVE+.

Standard Reference

Ase function
FORMAT

Returns the ASCII code value (a number between 0 and 255) of the first character in a
string. ASCII stands for American Standard Code for Information Interchange.

PRINT ASC("A"), ASC("B")
PRINT CHR$(65), CHR$(66)
PRINT ASC("America")

ASC returns 0 if the length of string is zero or the ASCII code of the string is zero. Use
this logic to determine the true status if an ASCII zero is the resuH:

LONG IF ASC(A$)=O AND LEN(A$»O
PRINT "ASCII code of A$ =0"
XELSE
PRINT"A$ is an empty string"
END IF
The inverse function of ASC is CHR$. To return the character represented by the
ASCII code, use CHR$(ASCII number).
ASCII codes may vary from machine to machine.
ASCII codes 32 through 127 are usually the same for all microcomputers. See CHR$
with example ASCII listing.

Standard Reference

function ATN
FORMAT

ATN ( expression)

Returns the angle, in radians, for the inverse tangent of expression.

A=ATN(Y/X), PI=ATN(1)« 2

pijI=ATN(l)
PRINT pijI

RUN
3.141592 ___ <---Based on digits of accuracy set in configuration.

ATN is a scientific function. Using ATN in an expression will force ZBasic to calculate
that part of an expression in Double Precision.
ZBasic allows you to configure the accuracy for scientific functions separately for both
Double and Single Precision. See "Configure".
Also see "Expressions" and "Derived math functions" in the "MATH" section of this
manual.

Standard Reference

AUTO command
FORMAT

AUTO
AUTO starting line
AUTO starting line, increment
AUTO ,increment

This command automatically generates line numbers in the Standard Line editor to
save time. The two optional parameters are:
starting line
increment

Starting line number (default is 10)
Line spacing
(default is 10)

To end AUTO line numbering press either or at the first line
number you will not use.

Standard Reference

<---- Careful this line already exists!!

An asterisk appearing before a line number indicates an occupied line. Pressing
will skip that line leaving the original contents intact and resume auto line
numbering with the next line. To remove the line type a space and .
Also see LIST, EDIT

<---- Type in text then to go to next line.

...........................................................................................................................................................................
.l'."'."' ....... "' ................... "' .... "'.rI'.......... ..
• "' ....... .". • .". ....... "'."'.". .... "' .......... .1' .... "'."' .... .". • .,. .... "' .... "..rl'."'.rI' .... "." ....

-:""'""'""'"":""'""'"":"":""'""'"":':.":"":""'""'"":""'""'""'"":""'""'"":0:.":""'""'"":",,:" ... "... "... "... "... "... ".... "... ".... ":" ... "... ",,:":-" ... "... "... "... "... ",,:",,:':.,,:":"0:.:00

Sounds the speaker.

FOR X=1 TO 10
BEEP
NEXT
RUN

Also see SOUND.

BEEP is not supported with Apple /I or zao computers. For Apple /I and most CP/M
computers use PRINT CHR$ (7) instead. See your SOUND and your computer
appendix for other ways of creating audio output.

Standard Reference

BASE OPTION conti
o or 1?

An option in the ZBasic configuration routine to set the array BASE to either zero or 1.
The default is zero.

See "Configure" in the beginning of this manual for an explanation of configuring
your version of ZBasic to your preferences.

ARRAY BASE ZERO
DIM A(lDD)
DIM Tables (22)

<-- elements 0-100 (101 elements)
<-- elements 0-22 (23 elements)

ARRAY BASE ONE
DIM A(lDD)
DIM Tables

Standard Reference

See DIM and "Array Variables".

<-- elements 1-100 (100 elements)
<-- elements 1-22 (22 elements)

function BIN$
FORMAT

BIN$ (expression )

Returns a 16 character string which represents the binary (BASE 2) value of the
result of the integer expression. Sorne typical binary numbers:
0000000000000001
0000000000000011
0000000000000111
0000000011111111
0000000100000000
1111111111111111

255
256
-1 (65,535 unsigned)

The following program will convert a decimal number to binary or a binary number to
decimal:
"Binary Conversion"
CLS
DO
INPUT"Decimal number to convert: ";Decima1%
PRINT BIN$(Decima1%)
INPUTUBinary number to convert: ";Binary$
Binary$="&X"+Binary$
PRINT VAL(Binary$)
UNTIL Decimal% = 0

RUN
Decimal number to convert: 255
0000000011111111
Binary number to convert: 0000000000000011
3

Note that conversions are possible from any base to any other base that ZBasic
supports. &X is the inverse function of BIN$.
Also see HEX$, OCT$, UNS$ and "Numeric Conversions".

Use DEFSTR LONG to set BIN$ and &X to work in Longlnteger (32bits).

Standard Reference

BOX statement
FORMAT

BOX [TO] expr x1 ,expry1 [TO expr x2 , expr y2 ...]
BOX FILL [TO] exprx1 ,expry1 [TO exprx2' expr y2 ...]

Draws a BOX from the coordinates defined by the first comer (x1.y1) to the
coordinates defined by the opposite corner (x2.y2) in the current COLOR.
If BOX TO x.y is used the first comer will be the last graphic point used. If undefined
then 0.0 will be the defauH.
If the optional FILL appears directly after the command. the BOX will be painted as a
solid BOX in the current color.
The defauH screen positions are given using Device Independent Coordinates of
1024 across by 768 down.

BOX
209
465
843
987
0.0 .-"""c.L"w.'",,".!.!"w.'~:'''''''c.L'w.
........c.L..w..~.:.!.!..w..u.....,
..c.L..w.·.......!.!
..w.·""".1.:':cL'u.........!.!..w.·"""-!-i.'!.!.'!-'.,1023
134

1. ·~~~·~~·~·~r .~~ ·~~7············· ~

:,·:··0:. . . . . .:/
BOX FILL 843.134 TO 987.643

Standard Reference

The output will vary depending 01'1 the graphic capability of the host computer. Also
see CIRCLE. MODE. FILL. PLOT. RATIO and COLOR.

statement CALL
FORMAT

CALL number
CALL LINE line or label

CALL will execute a machine language subroutine at the address specified by
number or the address of the compiled line.

Use these examples only if you understand machine language.
REM TRS80 I & III, CALL DEBUG
CALL &H440D
REM CPM 80, CALL WARM START (Exits to DOS)
CALL 0
REM APPLE CALL TO SOUND BELL TONE
CALL -198
10
20
30
40
50

REM CALL LINE examples
CALL LINE 40
CALL LINE "LABEL"
MACHLG 34, 21, x%, 255, 9: RETURN
"LABEL": MACHLG.
RETURN

CALL is useful for transferring program control to a machine language subroutine
from which a return to the ZBasic program is desired. The routine to be called must be
terminated by that machine's instruction for RETURN.
Also see MACHLG, USR, LINE and DEFUSR.

WARNING: Use of this command requires an understanding of machine language
programming and the computer hardware being used. Porting of this code may not
be possible without re-writing the machine language routines.

See CALL in your appendix for enhancements.

Standard Reference

CASE
statement
..................................................................................................................................................................
"' .......... ;a ....

"'.J'.rI' ................ "' .... oI' ......."' ....... ".."' .... ". .... " .... "' .... rI' ................ "."' ....... "' .... ". ....................,. ...... .

'''''''':'''r'':'''''''''''''':''''''''''''''''''''''''''''':''''''''':'''''''''''''':'''':'''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''"":' ... "..."... "... "":" ... "... "..."... "... "... ":-" ... "... "... "... "... "":''':'''':'''':'''':'' ... '''':' ... ' ...
FORMAT

SELECT [CASE] [expression]
CASE [IS] relational condition I. relational condition]
statement [:statement:...]]
CASE [IS] condition [. condition] [....]
statement [:statement:...]]
CASE boolean expression
statement [:statement:...]]
CASE ELSE
statement [:statement ... ]]
END SELECT

When SELECT/CASE is encountered. the program checks the value of the
controlling expression or variable. finds the CASE that compares true and executes
the statements directly following the CASE statement. After these statements are
performed. the program continues at the line after the END SELECT statement
CASE relational ....

If the expression after SELECT compares true to anyone of
a number of relational conditions. the statements following
the CASE are executed and the program continues after the
END SELECT:
SELECT 12
CASE >10
PRINT "This is the right answer"
CASE >20, <10
PRINT "This is not true"
END SELECT
program continues here ...

CASE condition....

If the expression following the SELECT equals anyone of a
number of conditions the statements following the CASE are
executed (program continues after the END SELECT).
A=23
SELECT A
CASE 10
PRINT "This is the wrong answer"
CASE 10,23,11,10
PRINT "This would be true"
END SELECT

If an expression after SELECT is omitted. you may use a
boolean or TRUE/FALSE condition. The statements after
the first TRUE (non-zero) CASE condition will be executed.
Only one boolean statement is allowed following CASE.
A=10:B=20
SELECT
CASE (A=10 AND A>20)
PRINT "This is the correct answer"
CASE (A>B OR A=B)
PRINT "This is the wrong answer"
END SELECT

Standard Reference

.................................................................................................................................................................
·"."'."' ...."'·I'·"'·I'· ..·.. ·rlI." ...."'." .
.r-..oI' ........ ,,.."' • ."'."'.".."..".rI'." ....
"."'.".rI'."."."'.". .... "....... ..
.I'."..·"·". ....

"..,/'.J'.". ....

"'""'""'""'""'""'"":"":"":""'""'""'""'""'""'"":""'""'""'"":"":"":"":""'"":""'""'" ":.":.":.":''':.'':''':.'':.'':.'':.'':.'':.'':~:-.'':.'':.'':.'':''':''':':.'':.'':.'':':'':.'':':.'':'.
CASE ELSE

If all of the CASE statements in the SELECT CASE structure
are false the statements following the CASE ELSE are
executed.
"Start"
A$="Maybe"
SELECT A$
CASE "Yes"
PRINT "Thank you for saying Yes"
CASE "No"
PRINT "Thank you for saying No"
CASE ELSE
PRINT "You smart aleck! "<--Does this one
END SELECT

This is a powerful structured way of doing complicated IF-THEN-ELSE or LONG IF
statements especially when there are multiple lines of complicated comparisons.
This structure is also much easier to read than complicated IF statements.
See SELECT for more information.

Important Note: Never exij a SELECT CASE structure using GOTO. This will
introduce problems into the stack and cause unpredictable system errors. Always
exit the structure at the END SELECT. Be sure to enclose loops and other contructs
completely within the SELECT-CASE and CASE ELSE constructs.

The Z80 versions do not support SELECT CASE. See LONG IF and IF for ways of
doing the same thing.

The Apple DOS 3.3 and ProDOS versions does not support SELECT CASE. See
LONG IF and IF for ways of doing the same thing.

Standard Reference

CHR$ function
FORMAT

CHR$ (expression )

Returns a single character string with the ASCII value of the result of expression. The
range for the value of expression is 0 to 255.
The inverse function of CHR$ is ASC;

"Print ASCII character set for this computer"
CLS
REM Use ROUTE 128 here to send output to printer.
FOR I=32 TO 127 STEP 8
FOR J= 0 TO 7: X =I+J
PRINT USING "###=";X;CHR$(X);" ";
NEXT J
:PRINT
NEXT I

RUN
32=
40=(
48=0
56=8
64=@
72=H
80=P
88=X
96='
104=h
112=p
120=x

33=!
41=)
49=1
57=9
65=A
73=I
81=Q
89=Y
97=a
105=i
113=q
121=y

34="
42=*
50=2
58=:
66=B
74=J
82=R
90=Z
98=b
106=j
114=r
122=z

35=#
43=+
51=3
59=;
67=C
75=K
83=S
91=[
99=c
107=k
115=s
123={

36=$
44=,
52=4
60=<
68=D
76=L
84=T
92=\
100=d
108=1
116=t
124=1

37=%
45=53=5
61==
69=E
77-M

85=U
93=]
101=e
109=m
117=u
125=}

38=&
46=.
54=6
62=>
70=F
78=N
86=v
94=A
102=f
110=n
118=v
126=-

39='
47=/
55=7
63=1
71=G
79=0
87=W
95=
103;;;g
111=0
119=w
127=#

PRINT CHR$ (64)
PRINT ASC("A")

When the program above is run, the character set for that computer will be displayed.
Some of the characters above may differ from what you get on your system. Try
changing the range above from 127 to 255. Some computers have extra characters
or graphic symbols for these codes.
Characters in the range of 0-31 are usually reserved for control codes like linefeed
(10), carriage return (13) ...
If the PRINT statement is changed to lPRINT the printer's character set will be
printed. If expression is less than 0 or greater than 255, only the low order byte will
be used.
CHR$ (256)
CHR$(257)

StandardReference

CHR$(O)
CHR$ (1)

statement CIRCLE
FORMAT

CIRCLE [FILL)
CIRCLE
CIRCLE

expr1,
expr1,
expr1,

expr2,
expr2,
expr2'

expr5 ,
exprS '

Draws a CIRCLE in the current COLOR.
If the optional FILL is used directly after the command, the CIRCLE will be filled with
the current COLOR. If TO is used, a PIE segment will be displayed (shaped like pie
slices). If PLOT is used, only the ARC segment will be displayed (a segment of the
circumference).

expr1
expr2
exprR
exprs
exprB

horizontal center
vertical center
radius (diameter of circle) in graphic coordinates
start of angle in brads (zero starts at 3:00 o'clock)
Number of brads to draw ARC or PIE (counter clockwise).

DeQrees INSIDE circle
6rods OUTSIDE circle

SEE ILLUSTRATIONS ON FOLLOWING PAGE.

CIRCLE uses the ZBasic Device Independent Graphic Coordinates of 1024 x 768.
For more details see the CIRCLE in the "Graphics" section in this manual. Also see
RATIO, MODE, PLOT, COLOR, FILL and BOX.

MacIntosh: See COORDINATE WINDOW for pixel coordinates and toolbox for ways
of using QuickDraw for creating boxes. MSDOS: See COORDINATE WINDOW for
converting to pixel coordinates. Apple: See appendix for ways of converting to pixel
graphics.

Standard Reference

CIRCLE statement
EXAMPLE

CIRCLE
CIRCLE FILL

1'11111\1'1111'1'1'111111"1'1'11'"'11111'"

~4 : C6)IRCLE3~'~4'300
~

CIRCLE FlLL850: 624, 50

6 2 4 , : " " " " " , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , . , 50

674 .: " • . . . . . . • . . . . . . • . . • . • . . . . . . . . . • . .

SEGMENT OF A CIRCLE (ARC)
0,0

" CIRCLE 512.383,320::7PLOT
~.32

"""""""""""U""""'"
CIRCLE 512.383.320

CIRCLE exprt. expr2' exprR TO

SEGMENT OF A CIRCLE (PIE)
512
" .. " ............. ;.....................

Standard Reference

Standard Reference

COLOR statement
FORMAT

COLOR [= I expression

Sets the COLOR to be used by all graphic drawing commands. Color values will vff.ry
from one compuler to the next. See your computer appendix for specifics. For most
computers 0 is the background color and -1 is the foreground color.
If you have a black and while monitor, 0 is Black, -1 is white.
If your computer is incapable of graphics or you are using one of the character modes,
the expression will determine the ASCII character to be used. (With some graphics
modes, zero = space, all others = asterisk "*").

CLS: MODE 6
COLOR ASCC"*")
PLOT 0, 256
MODE=7
CIRCLE 768,200,50
COLOR=6
BOX 0,0 TO 10,10
END

<---even modes are character graphics with some versions
<---Uses asterisks for graphics (nol all versions)
<--- odd modes are actual graphics
<----Sels COLOR to 6

Also see MODE, PLOT, CIRCLE, BOX, POINT and FILL. Colors vary by mode,
graphic type, monitors and other hardware criteria. Check hardware manual and Ihe
ZBasic appendix for your computer for specific color codes.

Macintosh: NOT(O) =black, O=white. See appendix for variations especially with
Macintosh II which supports a number of colors and grey levels.
MSDOS: COLOR is also used 10 change text color, background color, blinking,
underlineelc. See appendix for specifics. See CGA colors below.
Apple: Color chart below and the Apple appendix.
TRS-SO and Kaypro: Black=O, -l=white.
EXAMPLE COLORS CODES
IBM PC and compatibles
CGA MODE 5
0= BLACK
8= GRAY
1= BLUE
9=LTBLUE
2= GREEN
10= LTGREEN
3= CYAN
11= LTCYAN
4= RED
12= LTRED
5=MAGENTA 13= LTMAGENTA
6= BROWN
14= YELLOW
7= WHITE
15= BrightWHITE

Standard Reference

Apple /I ProDOS and DOS 3.3
MODE 5
MODES 1,3 and 7
O=BLACKI
O=BLACK
8=BROWN
ldGREEN
I=MAGENTA
9=ORANGE
2=VIOLET
2=DARK BLUE 10dGREY
3=WHITEl
3=PURPLE
I1=PINK
4=BLACK2
4=DARK GREEN 12=GREEN
5=ORANGE
5=GREY
13=YELLOW
6=BLUE
6=MED. BLUE
14=AQUA
7=WHITE2
7-LlGHT BLUE lS=WHITE

statement COMMON

...................................................................................................
"" ............................................................
...."'.r/'........ "'."..rI'."'."'.,."'.r/'."'."'."'•.".."'........rI'."' ..".."'...."' ...."'."'.11'.,/'.1'."'."'
...."' ...."' ...."' .........."'."' ....
01' ...."' ...."' .... ..

":"'l""":""'""'""'""'""'""'""'""'""'""'""'""'""'""'"":""'"":""'"":""'"":""'"":""'"":''':''':''':''':''':''':''':''':''':''':''':''':''':''':''':''':''':''l"''':''':''':''':'~''':'':'

COMMON variable list. ..

Identical to the ZBasic DIM statement. It is used to allocate memory for variables and
for declaring variables common to chained programs.
The order of the variables declared in COMMON is important when chaining
programs. The COMMON statement in one program must be exactly the same and in
exactly the same order in other programs being chained.

See DIM and "Chaining" in this manual.
This statement is added to make ZBasic compatible with other versions of BASIC .

Not available on the Apple" or Z80 versions of ZBasic. Use DIM.

Standard Reference

COMPILE
command
...........................................................................................................................................................

rI'."'.,...rI'.rI'.........................
r/'."'."'."'."'."'."'.r!'...."'...."'....rI."'.". ...."'...."' ...."'...."'...."'.
-":-":-":-"'-"'-"'-"'-"'-":-":-":-":-":-":-":-":-":-":-":-":-":-":-":-"'-":-":-":-":-":-":-":-,)-"'-"'-"'-"'-"'-"'-":-":-":-"'-":-":-"'-"'-"'-":-"'-"'-":-"'-":

r/' ....... " ....... ,/'."."'."' ....

Compiles a program and lists all of the compile time errors that are encountered.
If optional "L" is used, the error listings are sent to the printer.
This command is essentially the same as RUN except the compiler does not stop at
the first error.

PWINT "Hello"
X=X+1
INPUT "Yes or No:"A$
GOSUB "Routine"
END
COMPILE
Syntax Error in Stmt 01 at Line 00001
00001 PWINT "Hello"
";" Expected Error in Stmt 01 at line 00003
00003 INPUT "Yes or No:"_A$
Linew Error in Stmt 01 at Line 00004
00004 GOSUB "Routine"

See RUN and the section in the front of the manual called "Errors".

Not supported. Use RUN.

lal!l
Not supported. Use RUN.

Standard Reference

...................................................................................................................................................................................
."' .... "' ................ "'.".."' ................ "'.......".."' .... "'."' ....... "."' ................ "'............. "' .... "' ....... "'."' ......................."
"'""'""'"":""'""'""'"":-""'""'"":""'""'"":""'"'" "... "":" ... "... "... "... "... "... "... "... " ...":-""'""'""'""'""'""'""'""'"":"":""'".":""'"":"":""'""'""'"":""'""'"::"':"":""'"

Invokes the configuration prompts that allow you to set preferences for a number of
items including:
Digits of precision
Default variable types
Integer or floating pOint expression evaluation
Spaces between keywords
Convert to uppercase
Number of files that can be opened
The Rounding factor for PRINT USING
Test Array bounds

and a number of special options for your computer.

See "Configure" in the front of this manual and the section in your appendix for
specific configuration options available for your version of ZBasic.

This command is not available on all versions. See below.

The Z80 versions of ZBasic do not offer this command. The option to configure is
offered only when you first load ZBasic.

CON FIG is not offered as a command but "Configure" is always available as a menu
item. See appendix for the options specific to this version.

Standard Reference

COORDINATE statement
FORMAT

COORDINATE II WINDOW] horizontal, vertical]

Allows you to change the coordinate system used for graphic functions and
statements.
ZBasic defauHs to a coordinate system of 1024 x 768. This allows programs created
on one computer work on other computers with different graphic hardware.

COORDINATE horiz, vert

Sets the relative coordinate system to the specified
limits minus one. COORDINATE 100,100 would allow
setting the coordinates from 0 to 99 for both the
horizontal and vertical.

COORDINATE WINDOW

Sets the system to pixel coordinates. This allows you
calculate the graphic positions by the actual
resolution on the screen. While this is not
recommended for programs that will be ported to
other computers, some people prefer it for certain
applications.

<--- Puts a graphic dot at the ZBasic

default coordinates (lower right comer)

COORDINATE WINDOW
PLOT 100,100

<--- Puts a graphic dot at the pixel coordinate

COORDINATE 1000,500
PLOT 100,100

<--- Puts a graphic dot at the relative coordinate

Some versions do not support this statement. See below for aHernatives to changing
coordinate systems.

Not supported on ZSO versions although COORDINATE WINDOW may be emulated
by using this instruction: POKE&xx3F, &C9 to enable pixel graphics and
POKE&xx3F, &C3 to return to the default coordinates of 1024x76S. The value of xx
varies by version type: CP/M-SO=01, TRS-SO 1,3=52 and TRS-SO model 4=30.

Not supported on these versions although COORDINATE WINDOW may be
emulated using the statements below:
Apple ProDOS: POKEWORD &85,0 for pixel coordinates for that mode of graphics.
Use MODE to set back to regular coordinates.
Apple DOS 3.3: POKE &F388, &60 for pixel coordinates of that mode. POKE
&F388, &A9 to set back to the defauH coordinates of 1024x768.

Standard Reference

function COS
FORMAT

COS (expression)

Returns the Cosine of the expression in radians.

H*COS(A)=X, XlCOS(A)=H

Using COS in an expression will force ZBasic to calculate that expression in floating
point. COS is a scientific function. You may configure BCD scientific accuracy
separately from both Double and Single Precision immediately after loading ZBasic.
Integer Cosine may be accomplished with the predefined ZBasic USR function;
USR9 (angle in Brads). This returns the integer cosine of an angle in the range ±255
(corresponding to ± 1). The angle must be in Brads. This example program will draw a
sine wave using USR9:

MODE7 :CLS
FOR 1=0 TO 255
PLOT 1«2,-USR9(1)+384
NEXT I
For more information about scientific functions and derived math functions see the
"Math" section of this manual. See CIRCLE for more about BRADS. Also see ATN,
SIN, TAN, EXP, SQR.

Standard Reference

CSRLIN
function
...............................................................................................................................................................
......
"' ........... .... ......................................... .... .,. ................ "' ............................ "' .......... .......".".... "' ....
"... ... ... ... ... "":" ... ... ... ... "":" ... ... ... ... "":" ... ... ... ... "":" ... "":"":" ... "":"":"":" ... ... ... ... ... "":" ... ... ... ... "":" ... ... "":" ... ... ... "":" ... ... ... ... "... ... "::
".

Returns the line where the cursor is positioned.

CLS
PRINT
PRINT
PRINT CSRLIN

See POS to determine the horizontal cursor position.

Not supported with the Apple II or Z80 versions of ZBasic. For Apple II use
(37) to get the current cursor line.

Standard Reference

function eVB
FORMAT

Returns the binary floating point value of the first n characters of the condensed
number in string (depending on whether Single or Double Precision is used).
Double Precision

Returns the digits of accuracy defined in configure for
double precision. (default is 8 digits i.e. the first 8 string
characters.),

Single Precision

Returns the digits of accuracy defined in configure for single
precsion. (default is 4 digits i.e. the first 4 string characters.)

This function is the compliment of MKB$.

A#=12345.678: B!=12345.678
A$=MKB$(A#): B$=MKB$(B!)
PRINT LEN (A$), LEN(B$)
C#=CVB(A$): D!=CVB(B$)
PRINT CII, D!

RUN
8
12345.678

This function is used with some versions of BASIC to save space on disk when
storing large amounts of numeric data in strings with FIELD. ZBasic does this
automatically but CVB is still useful for string packing, etc. Also see MKI$, CVI, MKB$,
READ# AND WRITE#. This command is not compatible with CVS or CVD.
A few things to remember concerning CVB:
Null strings or 1 character strings return 0
Two character strings will retum 2 digits accuracy. Four character strings will return
four digits. See "Floating Point Variables" for more information.

·See "Floating Point Variables" for detailed information on how extended double
precision variables are stored and the added range of this precision for the Mac.

Standard Reference

CVI function
FORMAT

Retums the binary integer value of the first 2 characters of string.
This function is the compliment of MKI$.

A$=MKI$(30000)
PRINT LEN(A$)
Z%=CVI (A$)
PRINT Z%
END
RUN
2
30000

Also see MKI$, CVB, MKB$, READ# AND WRITE#.
A few things to remember conceming CVI:
Null string retums 0
One character strings will retum the ASCII value.
Two character strings will retum an integer value.
ASC(second character) • 256 + ASC(first character)
This function was used with MBASIC to save space on disk when storing large
amounts of numeric data. ZBasic does this automatically when using WRITE# and
READ# but CVI is still useful for string packing, etc.

See DEFSTR LONG in the Mac appendix for using this function with Longlntegers.
When Longlntegers are used the memory requirements are four bytes instead of two
bytes. MSB and LSB are stored in reverse order for regular integers with this version.

Standard Reference

statement DATA
FORMAT

DATA data item [ • data item [ •... 11

The DATA statement is used to hold information that may be read into variables using
the READ statement. DATA items are a list of string or numeric constants separated
by commas and may appear anywhere in a program.
No other statements may follow the DATA statement on the same line.
Items are read in the order they appear in a program. RESTORE will set the pointer
back to the beginning of the first DATA statement. RESTORE n will set the pointer to
the nth DATA item.

DATA Tom, Dick, Harry, 12.32, 233
READ A$, B$, C$, Ai, B%
DEF TAB 6
PRINT "DATA items are: ";A$,B$,C$,Ai,C%

RUN
DATA items are: Tom

DATA Tom, Dick, Harry, 12.32, 233
RESTORE 3
READ Name$
PRINT "Third DATA item is: ";Name$

RUN
Third DATA item is: Harry

Alphanumeric string information in a DATA statement need not be enclosed in
quotes Hthe first character is not a number. math sign or decimal point.
Leading spaces will be ignored (unless in quotes) . DATA statements can be
included anywhere within a program and will be read in order.
Typical storage requirements for DATA items:
Number with zero value
Non-zero integer
Strings
Floating Point BCD
Floating Point Binary

2 bytes
3 bytes
Length of string + 2
·See Floating Point Constants"
·See Floating Point Constants·

See READ. PSTR$ DIM and RESTORE for common statements used with DATA.
Note: See PSTR$ for extremely efficient way of retrieving strings in DATA
statements.

Standard Reference

DATE$ function
FORMAT

Returns an eight character string containing the system date using the format
MM/DDNY, where MM=month, DD=day and YV=year.

DATA January, February, March, April, May, June
DATA July, August, September, October, November, December
A$=DATE$
Day$=MID$(A$,4,2)
REM If leading zero; peel off on next line
IF ASC(Day$)=ASC("O") THEN DAY$=RIGHT$(DAY$,1)
Month%=VAL (A$)
RESTORE Month%
READ Month$

<---Get month name from DATA

Year$="19"+RIGHT$(A$,2)
PRINT "Computer date: ";TAB(20);DATE$
PRINT "Human date: lf i TAB(20);Month$;" ";Day$i", niYear$

RUN
Computer date:
Human date:

08/03/88
August 3, 1988

If the system does not support a date function, 00/00/00 will be returned. See your
computer appendix for more information.
Also see TIME$ and DELAY.

Macintosh: Date can only be changed from the "Control Panel DA"
MSDOS: Date may be set in program: DATE$="MM/DD/YV"
Apple: Date must be set from the system.
CP/M-80 3.0 and PLUS: DATE$ supported. CP/M 2.x does not support date.

Standard Reference

statement DEF
J [, letter
J [, letter
J [, letter
J [, letter
J [, letter

J, ... J
J, ... J
J, ... J
J, ...J
J, ...J

DEFINT
DEFSNG
DEFDBL
DEFSTR
*DEFDBL INT

These statements define which variable type ZBasic will assume when encountering
a variable name with letter as a first character and not followed by a type declaration
symbol (% integer, ! single, # double, $ string, & double integer).
DEFINT
DEFSNG
DEFDBL
DEFSTR
*DEFDBL INT

letter
letter
letter
letter
letter

[-letter
[-letter
[-letter
[-letter
[-letter

[-letter
[-letter
[-letter
[-letter
[-letter

Integer
Single Precision
Double Precision
String
Longlnteger (Macintosh only)

ZBasic will assume that all variables are integers unless followed by a type declaration
symbol or defined by a DEF type statement.
See "Configure"for another way of defining the default variable type.

letter
letter - letter

Letter from A to Z. Case is not significant.
Defines an inclusive range of letters.

DEFSNG
DEFDBL
DEFINT
DEFSTR
DEFSTR
DEFDBL
DEFSGL

Other versions of BASIC may assume all numeric variables are single precision unless
otherwise defined. See the sections on "Floating Point Variables", "Math" and
"Converting Old Programs" in the front of this manual for more information.

A
B
F
Z
B-D, X,Y,Z
A, F-J, T
A, G, B-E

<--- A and A! are the same variable (A$ is still a string).
<--- B and B# are the same variable (B% is still an integer).
<--- F and F% are the same variable (F! is still single prec).
<--- Z and Z$ are the same variable (Z# is still double prec).
<--- B, C, D, X, Y and Z all strings
<--- A, F,G,H,I,J and T all Double precision
<--- A, G, B, C, D and E all Single Precision

* Also see DEFSTR LONG in appendix for way of forcing HEX$, OCT$, UNS$, CVI and
MKI$ to default to Longlnteger instead of regular integer.

Standard Reference

DEF FN statement
FORMAT

DEF FN name [ ( variable [ , variable [ , ... 1 1 ) 1= expression

This statement allows the user to define a function that can thereafter be called by FN
name. This is a handy way of adding functions not provided in the language.
The expression may be a numeric or string expression and must match the type the
FN name would assume if ij was a variable name.
The name must adhere to variable name syntax.
The variable used in the definition of the function is a dummy variable. When using
FN the dummy variables, other variables or expressions may be used to pass the
values to the function. The variable should be of the right type used in the function.

DEF
DEF
DEF
DEF

e# = EXP(1.)
Pi#= ATN(1)«2
Sec#(x#) = 1.\COS(x#)
ArcSin#(x#) = ATN (x# \ SQR( 1 - x# * x#»

PRINT FN pit
1#=4.2312
P1anet#= FN ArcSin#(Sin(I#»* FN e#+ FN Sec#(Elipse#)

RUN
3.14159 ...
REM
REM

A Handy rounding function
Send the routine the number and places to round

DEF FN Round#(num#, p1aces)=INT(num#*10 places+.5)/10 places
A

PRINT FN Round#(823192.124567576,5)
X#=202031.12332
PRINT FN Round#(X#,2)
END

RUN
823192.12457
202031.12
REMARK

One function may call another function as long as the function was defined first.
LONG FN is another form of DEF FN that allows multiple lines of code. It is very
powerful for creating reusable subroutines.
See "Derived Math functions", "Functions and Subroutines", LONG FN, END FN
and FN.

Standard Reference

statement DEF LEN
FORMAT

DEF LEN [=] number

The DEF LEN statement is used to reset the default length of string variables until
the next DEF LEN statement is encountered. The number must be from 1 to 255.
If DEF LEN is not used string length default is 255 characters each. Each string will
consume 256 bytes; 1 byte for length byte, the rest for characters.
Since strings will consume so much memory if their length is 'lot defined; it is
imperative that thought be given to string length, especially if memory is at a premium.

<---Length of C$ defaults to 255 characters.

DEF LEN 20
DIM M(lO)
Greeting$="Hello"

<--A$() aliocateQ 20 characters per element.
<---Greeting$ allocated 20 characters

DEF LEN 200
B$="Goodbye"

<---B$ allocated 200 characters

<---Z$ allocated 50 characters. See DIM

DEF LEN will allocate the specnied amount of memory to every string that is defined
after it (unless defined differently in DIM or another DEF LEN).
Strings that appear before the DEF LEN statement are not affected. For example, in
the above program, C$ is allocated the default length of 255 characters because it
appeared BEFORE the DEF LEN statement.
DIM may also be used to set the length of string variables. See DIM.
Also see "String Variables" and "Converting Old Programs" in the front section for
important information about strings and how they use memory.

Imponant Note: Always allocate one extra character for strings used with INPUT.
Never use a one character string for INPUT. The extra character position is needed
for the carriage return.

Standard Reference

DEF
MOUSE statement
..................................................................................................................................................................
.................. "'."'."'."'.... "'."'....... "' ....... "'."' .... "' ...."'." .......... rl'."' ................ rI'."' ............."................................. .

~-:.~.-:.-:.":.":.":.":.":.":.":.":.":.":.":.":.":.":.":.":.":.":.":.":.":.":.": ":-":-"":"":"":"":"":"":"":"":"":"":"":"":"":"":"":"":"":"":"":"":"":"":"":"":

DEF MOUSE [=] expression

The DEF MOUSE statement is used to define the device to be used with the MOUSE
functions and statements, or the type of mouse commands to use with the program.
DEF MOUSE=O

Regular ZBasic MOUSE commands for a mouse device. See
MOUSE in this reference section.
MSDOS:

Uses Microsofl''M compatible mouse devices. Be
sure to "Configure" ZBasic for a mouse.

Assumes a mouse is connected.

Macintosh: Standard MOUSE commands in this section of the
reference manual. See DEF MOUSE=1 to do
MSBASIC type mouse commands.

zao:
DEF MOUSE= n

Tells ZBasic that other devices are to be used instead of a
MOUSE (in the case of the Macintosh ij tells ZBasic to use
MSBASIC mouse syntax).
MSDOS:

n=1 defines joystick/paddle A*
n=2 defines joystick/paddle B*
n=3 defines a lightpen device

n=1 defines a joystick/paddle device*
*MOUSE(3) function returns button status:
0= No button pressed
1= Button zero pressed
2= Button one pressed
3= Both buttons pressed

Macintosh: n= non-zero sets commands to MSBASIC mouse
commands. See Macintosh appendix for specifics.

See the appendix for your computer for specifics.

See MOUSE in this reference section and in your appendix for specifics.

MOUSE or DEF MOUSE is not supported with any zao versions of ZBasic. This is
due to the fact that most zao computers do not offer this hardware device.

Standard Reference

statement DEF TAB
FORMAT

DEF TAB [=] expression

The DEF TAB statement is used to define the number of characters between tab
stops for use in PRINT, PRINT# or LPRINT statements
Tab stops are the number of spaces to move over when the comma is encountered in
a PRINT statement.
The expression must be a number from 1 to 255. TAB default is 16.

PRINT 1,2,3
<---Tab stop default is 16, 32, 48 .. .
DEF TAB = 8
<---Tab stops now set to 8,16,24.. .
PRINT 1,2,3: PRINT
FOR X=1 TO 5
DEF TAB=X
PRINT 1,2,3
NEXT X
RUN
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

Also see TAB, WIDTH, WIDTH LPRINT and PAGE.

Standard Reference

DEF USR statement
FORMAT

The DEF USR statement is used to define the addresses of up to 10 machine
language user subroutines; USRO to USR9.

Examples only. Do Not Use!

REM Calls graphic routine at memory address 5000
DEFUSR1=5000
X=USRO (45)
DEFUSR2=23445
PRINT USR2(x)

A machine language return is needed at the end of the routine to return program
control to ZBasic.
See USR, MACHLG, CALL, LINE, VARPTR, BIN$, HEX$, OCT$, UNS$, PEEK,
PEEKWORD, POKE, POKEWORD and the chapter "Machine Language".
Some other default USR functions are included in the appendix for your computer.

WARNING: Use of this command requires a knowledge of machine language and a
computer's hardware. Porting of programs with this statement may not be possible
without re-writing the routines.

Standard Reference

statement DELAY
FORMAT

DELAY expression

The DELAY statement will cause a program to pause a specified amount of time.
The expression sets the delay in milliseconds; thousandths of a second.

CLS
FOR I = 1 TO 5
PRINT "DELAYING "; I; "SECONDS"
DELAY I * 1000
NEXT I
END

RUN
DELAYING
DELAYING
DELAYING
DELAYING
DELAYING

1 SECONDS
2 SECONDS
3 SECONDS
4 SECONDS
5 SECONDS

(after
(after
(after
(after

1 second)
2 seconds)
3 seconds)
4 seconds)

FOR X=1000 TO 0 STEP -50
PRINT X
DELAY X
NEXT
(try it)

The key is not scanned during DELAY. Any negative expression will
cause delays in excess of 32 seconds (the unsigned value). Note that DELAY -1 will
delay over 65 seconds (unsigned -1 = 65,535).
There may be a slight time variation from machine to machine due to processor
speed, interupts, hardware differences, etc.
Also see DATE$ and TIME$.

!b.
Also see TIMER.

Standard Reference

DELETE command
FORMAT

DEL
DEL
DEL
DEL

[ETE)
[ETE)
[ETE)
[ETE)

line
-line
line -line
line-

This command will remove a line or range of lines from a program in memory.
DELETE is used from the Standard Line Editor.

FOR I
1 TO 10
PRINT "NUMBER ". I
NEXT I
END

PRINT "NUMBER ". I
NEXT I
END

"FRED" PRINT "NUMBER ";1
PRINT "Fred was here"
END

DELETE "FRED"
LIST
20
30

Standard Reference

PRINT "Fred was here"
END

Use this command with care as recovery of deleted lines is not possible.

statement DIM
FORMAT

DIM [len ] var [type] [( number [ • number .. ])] [ •...]

The DIM statement is used to allocate memory for variables and array variables and to
define common variables for chained programs.

Defines the length a of a string (how many characters it may hold). This is
optional and defines the length of all the following string variables in that
DIM statement or until a new length is encountered in that statement. The
default is 255 characters unless changed by a previous DEFLEN.

The name of a variable (any variable type).

Forces the variable to be of that type.
%=Integer
&=Longlnteger (Macintosh only)
!=Single Precision
#=Double Precision
$=String
Also see "Variables" in the front section of this manual.

The maximum number of elements that a dimension may contain from 1 to
32,767elements (add one narray BASE option is set to zero. default=O).
Only numbers may be used, not variables.

See the following page for more information and examples.

Use care when allocating memory with the DIM statement.
See BASE OPTION, DEFLEN, "Array Variables", "String Variables", INDEX$ and
RUN+ for more important information about using DIM.

Macintosh: This version is limited to 2,147,483,648 elements in an array.
MSDOS: In order to optimize performance; integer variables and integer array
variables are limited to one 64K segment. String and BCD arrays may cross segment
borders to use up to available memory.

continued next page ...

Standard Reference

DIM statement
DIM continued
DETERMINING THE MEMORY NEEDS OF DIMMED ARRAYS
DIM A% (10, 10, 10), Ail (5), A! (9,7), B$ (10),
DIM Long&(10):
REM Macintosh Only

The following chart shows how to calculate the memory requirements of the arrays
dimensioned above with a BASE OPTION of zero.

ARBAY
A%(10,10,10)
A#(5)
A! (9,7)
B$(10)
Cool$(20)
Long&(10)

Integer
Double Precision
Single Precision
String
String
Longlnteger

Ci!I~I.!Ii!I~··

11'11'11'2
6*8
10'8'4
11'256
21'6
11'4

266?
48
320
2816
126
44

DEFINING STRING LENGTHS WITH DIM
DIM X$(10),

In the example above the maximum character capacities are:

X$
A$
Z$ (5)
TEST$
MD$( 20, 20)

255 (default is 255)
20
each element of Z$ as 20' (21'5=105 total bytes)
45
each element of MD$(20,20) as 10.
(20 * 20 '11 =4400 total bytes of memory used)

* " no length is defined, the last given length in that DIM statement is used. In the
example each element of Z$(n) gets a length of twenty. "no length is defined in that DIM
statement then 255 characters is the default (or the last length used in DEF LEN).
"" you configure BASE OPTION 1 you will not need to add one to the dimension. To
calculate the memory required for A%(10,10,10): 10*10*10'2. See "Configure".
Note: Add one to the defined length of each string for the length byte to determine the
actual memory requirement of the string. This extra byte is the "Length byte" and it is the
first byte in the string. It is what is pointed at by VARPTR(var$).

Important Note: Unpredictable system errors may result if an attempt is made to assign
a string variable a string longer then its allocated length. It is also important to define the
length of a string at least one greater than the maximum number of characters received in
an INPUT or LlNEINPUT statement.

Standard Reference

DIR [ drivespec

DIR will display the directory of the disk drive specified by drivespec.
The drivespec will vary from one computer to the next. See your Computer's Disk
Operating System reference manual for syntax.

DIR
LEDGER. COM
JUL.LED
ZBasic

MAY. LED
AUG.LED

The appearance of the directory layout will vary by computer. See appendix for further
information. This is a command so it does not operate during runtime.

See below, or your appendix, for possible ways of getting directories at runtime.

Macintosh: Syntax is OIR "rootname or foldername". To get a directory during
runtime see FILES$ in the appendix. LOIR will output the directory to a printer.
MSDOS: Use OIR •. BAS to see all the .BAS files or OIR Z·" to see all the files starting
with Z. To get a directory during runtime see FILES.
Apple ProDOS: To get a directory during runtime; OPEN"I" the directory
pathname. Example: OPEN"I",1,"ZBASIC". See directory layout in ProOOS
reference manual for more information about directory file layout. This version also
supports LOIR to list the directory to the printer. CAT may be used as well as OIR.
Apple DOS 3.3: To get a directory during runtime:

LONG FN DIR (slot,drive)
POKE &AA6A,slot
POKE &AA68, drive
CALL &A56E
END FN
Z-80: See appropriate section in appendix for your computer and ~OS. Some
versions do not allow getting a directory at runtime.

Standard Reference

DO statement
FORMAT

UNTIL expression
DEFINITION

The DO statement is used to define the beginning of a loop with the UNTIL statement
defining the end.
Program functions and statements appearing between the DO and UNTIL will be
executed over and over again until the expression defined at the UNTIL statement is
TRUE.

PRINT"Hi!"
UNTIL LEN(INKEY$)
END

RUN
Hi!
Hi!
Hi!
Hi!

<-----you press a key and it stops

X=X+1
UNTIL X=2492
PRINTX
END

The statements in a DO loop will be executed at least once. See WHILE-WEND for a
loop type that ends immediately if the condition is false.
ZBasic automatically indents text appearing between a DO and UNTIL two spaces.
This is helpful in debugging and documenting programs.
See the "Structure" and "Loops" sections of this manual for more information.
Also see FOR-NEXT-STEP and WHILE-WEND.

Standard Reference

command EDIT
FORMAT

EDIT
DEFINITION

EDIT is used from the Standard Line Editor to specify the line you wish to edit.
EDIT may be abbreviated to E. A comma will start editing at the line currently selected
by ZBasic's line pOinter. List of the EDIT sUb-commands:
SUB-COMMAND
[n]
[n]

n is a number from 1 to 255.

FOR I
PRINT
NEXT I

n is not used, one is assumed.

DEFtNITION
- MOVE CURSOR RIGHT (n characters)
- MOVE CURSOR LEFT (n characters)
- Begin INSERT mode at cursor position
- Goto the end of the line and EXTEND it
- Exit INSERT mode (you will still be in line edit mode)
- DELETE characters ( if n is used deletes n characters)
- CHANGE character to [n) times
- HACK to end of line and enter INSERT
- SEARCH for [n)th occurrence of
- LIST line being edited, home cursor
- ABORT changes, restore original line
- KILL text to [n)th occurrence of
- EXIT editing with changes intact
- ABORT EDIT SESSION (no changes made)

n20 was the last line used.)

Press spacebar or backspace to move cursor.
Use keys above to edit this line.

If you want to edit the current line, press the comma key <,> in command mode. It will
do the same as E .
Line numbers may be edited in ZBasic. The line being edited will remain unchanged,
the edited line with the new line number will be created.
See the "Standard Line Editor" section in the beginning of this manual.
Also see FIND, DELETE, AUTO and LIST.

These versions offer full screen editors as well as the Standard Line Editor. See "Full
Screen Editor" in the appropriate appendix for details.

Standard Reference

ELSE statement
FORMAT

IF- THEN- ELSE line or label
IF- THEN- ELSE statement(s)

ELSE is used with an IF statement to route control on a false condition.
ELSE may refer to a linenumber or label or it may be followed by one or more
statements that will be executed if the condition in the IF statement is FALSE.

X=99
IF X = 100 THEN STOP ELSE PRINT X
END

99
IF X=100 THEN STOP ELSE "End"
END

"End"
PRINT"Stopped here."
END

RUN
Stopped here.

All statements on a line following an ELSE are conditional on that ELSE.
See "Structure", IF-THEN, LONG IF, XELSE and ENDIF.

Also see SELECT CASE.

Standard Reference

statement END
FORMAT

END is used to stop the execution of a program.
END will return control to the Standard Line Editor if program was executed using
RUN, or to the operating system if the program was compiled using RUN" or RUN+.

PRINT
END
PRINT

"HELLO"
"THERE"

END will close all open files.
Also see STOP and TRONB.

Standard Reference

END FN statement
FORMAT

LONG FN
END FN [= expression

Marks the end of a LONG FN statement.
The optional expression MUST be numeric for numeric functions (#,%,&,!) and
MUST be a string ($) for string functions.

REM Removes spaces from the end of a string
LONG FN RemoveSpace$(x$)
WHILE ASC(RIGHT$(x$,1)=32
x$= LEFT$(x$, LEN(x$)-l)
WEND
END FN= x$
Name $= "ANDY
PRINT "Before:"iName$i"*"
PRINT" After:"; FN RemoveSpace$(Name$);"*"

REM Example of a simple Matrix Multiplication
DIM A% (1000)
LONG FN MatrixMult%(number%, last%)
FOR temp%= 0 TO last%
A%(temp%)=A%(temp%)*number%
NEXT
END FN
A%(O)=l: A%(l)=2:A%(2)=3
FN MatrixMult%(10,3)
PRINT A%(O), A%(l), A%(2)

If an END FN is omitted in a LONG FN construct, a structure error will occur. You
must exit a function from an END FN otherwise problems will occur internally.
Also see "Functions and subroutines", "Structure", LONG FN, FN statement, FN
function and DEF FN.

Important Note: Loops like FOR-NEXT, DO-UNTIL or WHILE-WEND must be
entirely contained within a LONG FN-END FN. Do not exit a function except at the
END FN.

Standard Reference

statement END IF
FORMAT

LONG IF expression
[XELSEI
END IF

This is an end marker for the LONG IF statement.
Program execution will continue normally at the END IF after completion of a LONG IF
orXELSE.

Love$="Forever"
LONG IF Love$="Forever"
PRINT "How Romantic!"
XELSE
PRINT "How heartbreaking!"
END IF
END

RUN
How Romantic!

If an END IF is omitted in a LONG IF construct, a structure error will occur.
See "Structure", LONG IF, IF-THEN, ELSE and XELSE.

Also see SELECT CASE.

Standard Reference

END
SELECT statement
.......................................................................................................................................................................

"'.oI' ...."' ....... "' ......."'.".."'."' ...."' ................"' ...."...."'."'.".1/'."."'.",.."' .... "' ......... .
................................................................................................................................................................
. . -... -...............................................
.

... ,..."'.".". .... " .... "' ........ ". ....... rI' ....

SELECT [CASE) [expression)
CASE [IS) relational condition1 [, relational condition) [, ...)
statement(s)
CASE [IS) condition I. condition] I. ... J
statement(s)
CASE [IS) boolean expression
statement(s)
CASE ELSE
statement [:statement ...))
END SELECT

END SELECT is the end marker for the SELECT /CASE structure.
When SELECT/CASE is encountered, the program checks the value of the
controlling expression or variable, finds the CASE that compares true and executes
the statements directly fOllowing the CASE statement. After these statements are
performed, the program continues at the line after the END SELECT statement

A=100
SELECT A
CASE >100
PRINT "A>100"
CASE 100
PRINT "A=100"
CASE ELSE
PRINT"None of the above"
END SELECT
PRINT "Program continues ... n
END

RUN
A=100
Program continues ...

Also see SELECT and CASE.

]a'!l
SELECT CASE is not supported with the Z80 versions. See IF and LONG IF for
accomplishing the same thing.

SELECT CASE is not supported with this version. See IF and LONG IF for
accomplishing the same thing.

Standard Reference

function EOF.
......... ....................................................................................................................................................
"'."'.01'...."'•
r/'."'...."'....
-.;

.......... "' .... ,/'."' ....... "'.,/' .... ,/' .... "' ....... "' .... "'.,."' .... ,/'.,."' .... r/'.i'.r/' ....... "'."' ....

.1' .... ". ....

"'''''''''''''''''''':'''''''''''''''''''''''':''''''''':''''''''':'''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''':-'':''''''''':''"''''':'''':''''''''''''''''''':'''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''':l'''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''.
FORMAT

EOF ( filenumber)

Returns true if an end-of-file condition exists for filenumber , returns zero if the endof-file has not yet been reached. This function is only available on the Macintosh and
MSDOS versions of ZBasic.

OPEN"I",l,"FILE.TXT"
DO
LINEINPUTH, A$
PRINT A$
UNTIL EOF (1)
CLOSEH
END
What to do if you don't have EOF on your computer:
ON ERROR GOSUB 65535 <--- Enable disk error trapping
OPENtlI", 1, "FILE.TXT"
IF ERROR GOSUB"Error message"

DO
LINEINPUTH, A$
PRINT A$
UNTIL ERROR <>0
IF ERROR <> 257 THEN GOSUB "Error message"
ERROR=O <--- Error 257 is an end·of-file error. Reset Error here then continue.
CLOSEH
END

"Error message"
PRINT "A disk error occurred: "; ERRMSG$(ERROR)
INPUT"ontinue or top? ";temp$
IF temp$="C" THEN ERROR=O:RETURN
STOP
REMARK

Some versions 01 ZBasic do not support EOF because of system reasons. Also see
ERROR function and statement, ON ERROR and ERRMSG$

EOF is not supported on zao versions of ZBasic. Use the second example above to
accomplish the same thing.

EOF is not supported on the Apple /I ProDOS or DOS 3.3 versions of ZBasic. Use
the second example above to accomplish the same thing.

Standard Reference

ERRMSG$ function
FORMAT

ERRMSG$ (expression )

Returns the error message string for the error number specified by expression. In
most cases you will use the number returned by the ERROR function when a disk
error has occurred.

OPEN "I",l, "OLDFILEI1
ON ERROR GOSUB "Error message"

"Error message"
PRINT "A disk error has ocurred!! n
PRINT "The error was: ";ERRMSG$(ERROR)
ERROR=O : REM ALWAYS SET ERROR TO ZERO AFTER ERROR OCCURS!'
RETURN

RON
A disk error has ocurred!!
The error was: File Not Found Error in File 11

FOR X=O TO 255
PRINT ERRMSG$(X)
NEXT X

RON
PRINTS ALL lHE ERROR MESSAGES FOR THAT COMPUTER.

ZBasic will display disk errors for you unless you use the ON ERROR disk trapping
options.
The ERROR function is commonly used for error trapping and display purposes. The
expression is stored as follows:
The low byte is used for the ERROR number
The high byte is used for the file number

(ERROR AND 255)
(ERROR» 8) or (ERRORl256)

See "Disk Errors", ON ERROR GOSUB and ERROR functions and statements.

Standard Reference

ERROR statement
FORMAT

ERROR [=] expression

Allows the programmer to set or reset ERROR conditions for the purpose of disk
error trapping.

Importanl Hoi" • ,"' do ... ,,"k
ERROR m"" be re,. \0 >oro
after a disk error occurs or ERROR function will continue to return an error value.

This routine checks to see if a file exists.
If it
does exist it is opened as random, if it doesn't
exist an error message is returned.

LONG FN Openfile%(files$, filenum%, reclen%)
ON ERROR GOSUB 65535: REM Disk error trapping on
"Open file"
OPEN"I",filenum%,file$
LONG IF ERROR
LONG IF (ERROR AND 255) <>3
PRINT@(O,O);"Could not find: ";file$;" Check drive"
INPUT"and press when ready";temp%
ERROR=O: GOTO "Open file"
END IF
XELSE
CLOSEt filenum%
END IF
ON ERROR RETURN: REM Give error checking back to ZBasic
OPEN"R",filenum%, fileS, reclen%
END FN

ERROR may also be used as a function. See "Disk Error Trapping", ERROR function,
ERRMSG$ and ON ERROR.

Macintosh: Also see SYSERROR in appendix.
MSDOS: See appendix for ways of doing critical error handling.
Apple ProDOS: See appendix for additional ways of trapping ProDOS errors.

Standard Reference

function ERROR
FORMAT

Returns the number of an ERROR condHion, if any.
Zero (0) is returned if no error has occurred.
This function is available to programmers who wish to trap disk errors using the ON
ERROR statement.

ON ERROR GOSUB 65535: REM User disk trapping enabled
OPEN n I", 1, "OLDFILE"
IF ERROR=259 GOSUB"NOT FOUND": GOTO 20
ON ERROR RETURN: REM Let ZBasic do the error checking nowl

"NOT FOUND"
REM ERROR 259 is: Rle Not Found error in Filenumber 1
PRINT" The file is not on that disk!"
PRINT" Please insert the correct disk"
PRINT" and press "
INPUT A$:ERROR=O:RETURN

ERROR may also be used as a statement. See ERROR statement, ERRMSG$ and
ON ERROR GOSUB.

Important Note: If you do the disk error trapping, ERROR must be reset to zero
after a disk error occurs or ERROR function will continue to return an error value.

Macintosh: Also see SYSERROR in appendix.
MSDOS: See appendix for ways of doing crHical error handling.
Apple ProDOS: See appendix for additional ways of trapping ProDOS errors.

Standard Reference

function EXP
FORMAT

EXP (expression )

Returns e raised to the power of expression. This function is the compliment of LOG.
The BCD internal constant of the value of e is:

2.71828182845904523536028747135266249775724709369995957
The result will be rounded to the digits of precision configured for Double Precision
accuracy.

DEFDBL A-Z
DO
INPUT "ENTER A NUMBER ";X
PRINT "e RAISED TO X ="
UNTIL X=O
END

RUN
ENTER A NUMBER
e RAISED TO X =

1
2.718281828459 <---14digitaccuracy

This is a scientific function. See "Configure" for information about configuring
scientific accuracy.
For more information about scientific functions see "Math", "Math expressions",
"Floating POint Variables", COS, SIN, ATN, TAN, SQR and raise to the power "A".

Standard Reference

FILL statement
FORMAT

FILL expressionx • expressiony

The purpose of FILL is to paint an area of the screen in the current COLOR. The
point defined by the two expressions are:

expressionx (horizontal position) and expressiony (vertical position).
Fill will search for the uppermost point in the contained area that has the background
color, then start filling from left to right and down. For this reason irregular shapes
may not fill completely with one fill command. It may be necessary to use a fill
statement for each appendage.

COLOR=l
FILL 0,284

See chart.
REMARK

FILL may not be available on machines without the capability of seeing pixels on the
screen. See computer appendix. Also see CIRCLE FILL, BOX FILL, MODE, POINT
and PLOT.

BOX FILL, CIRCLE FILL and the QuickDraw routines like FILLPOLY, FILLRGN,
FILLRECT etc. are much faster ways of filling areas.

Standard Reference

command FIND
commands or keywords
line
quoted string text or labels
items in REM statements
items in DA TA statements

FIND
FIND #
FIND"
FIND REM
FIND DATA

FIND is used in the Standard Line Editor to locate text in a program.
To FIND additional occurrences, press semi-colon (;l or FIND .

YOU TYPE
FIND "HELLO
FIND A$
or .. .
or .. .
FIND 99
FIND #12345 (line#)
FIND X(C)
or ...
FIND PRINT
FIND "SUBS
or ...
FIND OPEN
FIND CLOSE
FIND REM This
FIND DATA 123, 232
FIND DATA "Fred"

ZBASIC FINDS
01010 A=20:PRINT"HELLO THERE"
01022 Z=l:A$=B$:PRINTA$+B$
01222 BA$="hel1o"
01333 ABA$="goodbye"
05122 F=2:X=X+2+F/999
08000 GOTO 12345
03050 A=1:T=ABS(X(C)/9-293+F)
03044 ZX(C)=4
00230 A=92:PRINTA
00345 "SUB500": CLS
03744 GOSUB "SUB500"
03400 OPEN"R",1,"FILE54",23
09900 CLOSE#2
02981 REM This is a remark
09111 DATA 123, 232
10233 DATA "Tom", "Dick", "Fred"

When finding a string inside quotes, you must supply all of the characters up to the
point that will insure the uniqueness of the string.
See "Standard Line Editor" in the beginning of this manual.

See "Full Screen Editor" in the appropriate appendix for other FIND commands.

Standard Reference

FIX function
FORMAT

FIX (expression )

Truncates the digits on the right side of the decimal point.

PRINT FIX (123.456),
AiI=1293.21
PRINT FIX (AJI),
PRINT FIX (.12340),
PRINT FIX (999999.455)

FIX works the same as INT in ZBasic. They are both included to maintain compatibility
with other forms of BASIC. FIX will consider an expression floating point.
FRAC is the opposite of FIX. It retums the fraction part of the number.
See FRAC and INT.

Standard Reference

function FN
FORMAT

FN name [ (expression1 [, expression2 [, ....]] ) ]

FN calls a function by name which was previously defined by DEF FN or LONG FN.
The name of the function must follow the syntax of variable names, that is, a string FN
must have a name with a $, an integer FN must have a name with a "la, etc.
The expressions must match the variable types as defined by the DEF FN or LONG
FN. Numeric expressions are not a problem, string expressions allow only simple
strings.
FN may not be used before it is defined with DEF FN or LONG FN.

DEF
DEF
DEF
DEF

e# = EXP(l.)
pi#= ATN(l) « 2
Sec#(x#) = 1.\ COS (x#)
ArcSin#(x#) = ATN (x# \ SQR(l-x# * x#»

RUN
3 . 14159 . .. <--- Returned in the current digits of accuracy
REM Round number to the number of places indicated_
LONG FN ROUND#(number#, places)
number#=INT(number#*10 A places+.5)/10 A places
END FN=numbed
PRINT FN ROUND # (43343.327, 2)

This function is useful for saving program space and for making a program easier to
read.
Also see "Functions and Subroutines", "Structure", LONG FN, END FN, DEF FN,
APPEND and FN statement.

Standard Reference

FN statement
FORMAT

FN name [( expression1 [, expression2 [, .... ]])]

FN calls a function by name which has previously been defined by a DEF FN or a
LONG FN.
The expressions must match the variable types as defined by DEF FN or LONG FN.

DEF FN LastChr%(x) = PEEK( x + PEEK(x»
LONG FN RemoveSpace$(x$)
WHILE FN LastChr%(VARPTR(x$» = ASC("
x$= LEFT$(x$, LEN(x$)-l)
WEND
END FN= x$
Name $ ="ANDY
PRINT Narne$;"*", FN RemoveSpace$(Name$);"*"

Standard Reference

Also see "Functions and Subroutines", "Structure", LONG FN, END FN, DEF FN,
APPEND and FN function.

statement FOR
FORMAT

TO expression2 [STEP expression3]

NEXT [variable] [, variable ... ]

Permits the repeated execution of commands within the loop.
A FOR/NEXT loop will automatically increment variable by the amount set by STEP
and compare this to the end value, expression2, exiting the loop when var exceeds
this value alter adding STEP. Default STEP = 1.
Note the loop will be executed at least once with the value of expression1 .

FOR Counter = 0 TO 100 STEP 2
PRINT Counter;
NEXT

RUN
02468 10 12 ...

FOR Counter = 100 TO 0 STEP -2
PRINT Counter;
NEXT Counter

RUN
100 98 96 94 92 90 88 ... 0
FOR Counter* = 0.0 TO 1.0 STEP .01
PRINT Counter*;
NEXT Counter*

.01 .02 .03 .04 .. , 1

ZBasic will automatically indent all of its loop structures in listings. This is helpful in
debugging and documenting programs.
See chapter called "Loops" and WHILE·WEND and DO-UNTIL.
Note: If STEP is set to zero, the program will enter an endless loop. If the variable is
an integer, do not allow the loop to exceed 32,767 or you will enter an endless loop
(unsigned integer).

Standard Reference

FRAC function
FORMAT

FRAC (expression )

FRAC retums the fractional part of expression. The digits to the left of the decimal
point will be truncated.
This function is the compliment of INT and FIX.

A#=123.456
B#=99343.999
C#=3.5
PRINT A#, FRAC(A#)
PRINT B#, FRAC(B#)
PRINT C#, FRAC(C#)
PRINT 2.321, FRAC(2.321)
RUN
123.456
99343.999
3.5
2.321

.456
.999
.5
.321

This function will automatically set floating point calculation.
FIX and INT are the opposite. They retum the whole part of the number.
See FIX and INT.

Standard Reference

statement GET
FORMAT

GET (x1,y1)-(x2,y2), variable[array(index[,index ... ,])]

Stores a graphic image from the screen into a variable or variable array so that it may
be retrieved later and put to the screen with PUT.
GET and PUT are extremely fast and useful for sophisticated graphic animation.

Coordinates of the upper-left-comer of the graphic image on the screen.
Coordinates of the lower-right-corner of the image.

Coordinates are pixel coordinates; use with COORDINATE WINDOW.
The image is normally stored in memory specified by an integer array since it is easier
to calculate how much memory is required this way (although other variables may also
be used as long as the memory set aside is correct).
To calculate the amount of ~ to DIM for a graphic image, use this equation. Bitsper-pixel (bpp) has to do with colors or grey levels available. See next page for
specifics:

6+ ( ( y2-y1)+1)

* «x2-x1 +1) •

Failure to DIM enough memory for an image will cause unpredictable system errors
so be sure to carefully calculate the memory needed.

DIM A(750)
MODE 7
COORDINATE WINDOW

<--- Bytes above divided by two for integer array
<--- Not needed on the Macintosh version
<--- Pixel coordinates

CIRCLE 100,100,80
GET (0,0)-(100,100), A(l)
FOR x= 1 TO 200 STEP 3
<--- Does twice to move the image across
PUT (x, 90), A(l)
the screen without disturbing the background
PUT (x, 90), A(l)
NEXT x

END
This routine moves a section of a circle across the screen. It is PUT to the screen
twice so the item doesn't repeat and it will appear to move across the screen without
disturbing the background (default PUT mode is XOR) .

Standard Reference

GET
statement
................................................................................................................................................................
.

"' .... .1 .... ". .......... ". ....... "' .... ". ................... " .... ,/' .... ". ....... ............ ". .......".."' ...."'.".". ....... J".".."..". ............."' ...... .

~.":.":.":.":.":.":.":.":.":.":.":.":.":.":.":.":.":.":.":.":.":.":.":.":.":.": "

... "":"":"":"":"":"":"":"":"":"":"":"":"":"":"":"":"":"":"":"":"":"":"":"":"":

Important Note: Failure to DIM enough memory for the variables storing the
graphic images may result in unpredictable system problems.
Also see DIM and PUT.

Macintosh: With this version of ZBasic, PUT has another, optional, parameter:
(xl,yl) [- (x2,y2) l, var. The second parameter allows you to scale
the image, making it either larger or smaller by giving the rectangle size in which it is
to appear. The x2, y2 parameter is the lower-right corner of the image.
PUT

Bits-per-pixel (bpp) will vary by the type of Macintosh you have. The standard black
and white Macintoshes have one bit per pixel.
The Macintosh II may have up to 32 bits-per-pixel. Sixteen colors is 4 bpp, 256
colors is 8 bpp. Check addendum or "Inside Macintosh Volume V (Color Quickdraw)"
for the specifics of your color board.

MSDOS: Bits per pixel (bpp) will
TYPE
CGA
CGA
EGA
EGA
HERCULES

vary by the graphics adaptor board being used:

BITS PER PIXEL (bpp)

2 (64K or less on EGA card)
4 (More than 64K on card)

Z80: GET and PUT are not supported with these versions of ZBasic .

Apple /I ProDOS and DOS 3.3: GET and PUT are not supported with these
versions. See DRAW example on ProDOS disk and the BLOAD and BSAVE
functions for possible alternatives.

Standard Reference

statement GOSUB
FORMAT

GOSUB line or label

GOSUB will call that part of a program starting wHh line or label and return to the next
statement following the GOSUB when RETURN is encountered.

10 GOSUB 40: PRINT "All Done!"
20 END

30
40 PRINT"He1Io"
50 RETURN

RUN
HELLO
All Done!

GOSUB "Hello Routine"
PRINT "All Done!"
END

l1Hello Routine"
PRINT"Hello"
RETURN

RUN
HELLO
All Done!

On multiple statement lines, a RETURN will return control to the next statement on
the line following the originating GOSUB.
To avoid errors, be certain there is a line with the number or label that you GOSUB. All
subroutines must be terminated with a RETURN statement.
Note: IF Zbasic encounters a RETURN wHhout a matching GOSUB, it will return to the
operating system or the editor. ZBasic does not check for stack overflow which may
cause errors if subroutines do not end with a RETURN.
See RETURN LINE, GOTO, ON GOTO and ON GOSUB.

See SEGMENT RETURN in appendix.

Standard Reference

GOTO statement
FORMAT

GOTO line or label

GOTO will transfer control to a line or labalin a program.
Note that excessive use of this statement is considered inappropriate for structured
code because in complex programs it becomes extremly hard to read.
In most programming situations GOSUB, DO-UNTIL, WHILE-WEND, FOR-NEXT or
other programming structures are much easier to follow.

10 X~X+1
PRINT X,
20 IF X<5 THEN GOTO 10

PRINT X,
IF X<5 THEN GOTO "Loop"

A line error will occur during compile if the destination line or label cannot be found.
See "Structure", GOSUB, ON GOTO, ON GOSUB, LONG FN, FN statement, WHILE,
DO, FOR, LONG IF.

Standard Reference

HELP without a number prints the HELP menu to the screen. This menu will give you
corresponding numbers to the help topics available. This command is used from the
Standard Line Editor.
Type HELP and a number to get answers to a specific topic.
Press the SPACE BAR to continue when you see "MORE".

HELP
A menu for your version of ZBasic will be printed to the screen. To get help for an item
in the menu, type HELP and the number corresponding to that item.

HELP will return control to the Standard Line Editor upon completion of the listing.
If the help file has been deleted from the disk a File Not Found Error will occur. Check
your computer appendix for the filename of the HELP file.

The HELP window is brought up when you type this command or select "About
ZBasic" under the. menu. The command does not work exactly as above. Just
double click the appropriate item with the mouse.

Standard Reference

HEX$ ( expression )

The HEX$ function converts a numeric expression to a four character HEXadecimal
string ( BASE 16). The following program will convert a Decimal number to HEX or
HEX to Decimal. Some sample HEX numbers:
Decimal
0-9

Hexadecimal
0-9
A

12
13
14
15
EXAMPLE

INPUT"Decimal number to convert: ";Decimal%
PRINT "Decimal";Decimal%;"= HEX ";HEX$(Decimal%)
PRINT
INPUT"HEX number to convert: ";Hx$
Hx$="&H"+Hx$
PRINT"Decimal value of "iHx$i "="VAL (Hx$)
PRINT"The unsigned Decimal value of "Hx$"=" UNS$(VAL(Hx$))
UNTIL (Decimal% =0) OR (LEN(Hx$)=2)

RUN
Decimal number to convert: 255
Decimal 255= HEX FF
HEX number to convert: F9CD
Decimal value of F9CD = -1587
The unsigned Decimal value of F9CD

Floating point numbers will be truncated to integers.
See "Numeric Conversions", VAL, OCT$, BIN$ and UNS$.

See DEFSTR LONG in the appendix for doing Longlnteger conversions in Hex,
Octal, CVI and MKI$. In this case HEX$ would return an eight character string.

Standard Reference

statement IF
FORMAT

IF expression THEN line [or labe/J[ ELSE line [or label))
IF expression THEN statement [:statement: ...J [ ELSE statement [:statement: ... ]]
The IF statement allows a program to do a number of things based on the result of
expression:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Branch to a line or label after the THEN if a condition is true; expression ",0
Execute statement(s) after the THEN if a condition is true; expression ",0
Branch to a line or label after the ELSE if a condition is false; expressiorr-O
Execute statement(s) after the ELSE if a condition is false; expressiorr-O

X=99
IF X=99 THEN PRINT"X=99":PRINT"HELLO: ELSE STOP
IF X=99 THEN "CHECK AGAIN"
END
"CHECK AGAIN"
IF X=lOO THEN PRINT"YEP" ELSE PRINT"NOT TODAY!";:PRINT x
END

RUN
X=99
HELLO
NOT TODAY! 99

Complex strings will generate an error if used in an IF statement.
Improper
Proper

IF LEFT$(A$,2)="HI" THEN STOP
B$=LEFT$(A$,2): IF B$="HI" THEN STOP

See LONGIF, ELSE, XELSE , WHILE-WEND and DO-UNTIL for more ways of doing
program comparisons.
Note: In many cases LONG IF is easier to read.

Also see SELECT CASE.

Standard Reference

INDEX$ statement
( expression ) = string expression
( expression ) = string expression
( expression )

INDEX$
INDEX$I
INDEX$D

INDEX$ is a special array unique to ZBasic. Expression indicates an element number.
Statement
INDEX$(n)=simple string
INDEX$I(n)=simple string
INDEX$D(n)

INDEX$(O)="FRED"
INDEX$(l)="TOM"
INDEX$(2)="FRANK"
GOSUB"Print INDEX$"
INDEX$I(l)="HARRY"
GOSUB"Print INDEX$"
INDEX$D(O)
GOSUB"Print INDEX$"
END

Definition
Assigns a value to INDEX$(n)
Move element n (and all consecutiveelements) up
and INSERT simple string at INDEX$ element n
DELETE element n and move all consecutive
elements down to fill the space.
<---Normal assignments

<----HARRY INSERTED between FRED and TOM
<---FRED is DELETED here

"Print INDEX$": REM Routine prints contents of INDEX$
FOR X=O TO 4
PRINT X; INDEX$(X)
NEXT: PRINT
RETURN

o FRED
1 TOM
2 FRANK
0 FRED
1 HARRY
2 TOM
3 FRANK

<-- Notice how values move from one element to another
as items are inserted and deleted with INDEX$I and D.

0 HARRY
1 TOM
2 FRANK

INDEX$ provides for memory efficient string array manipulation and lends itself very
well to list management applications. See "SpeciaIINDEX$ Array", INDEX$ function,
CLEAR, CLEAR INDEX$ and MEM.

Allows up to ten simultaneous INDEX$ arrays. See INDEX$ in your appendix.

Standard Reference

function INDEXF
FORMAT

INDEXF is a speciallNDEX$ array function used to FIND a leading string within an
INDEX$ array quickly.
If INDEX$(1000) equaled "Hello", then X=INDEXF("Hel") would return 1000.
If X=INDEXF("IIo") X would equal-1 since "110" would not be found. The leading
characters are significant.

INDEX$(O)="FRED"
INDEX$(l)="MARY"
INDEX$(2)="TOM"
X=INDEXF ("TOM")
PRINT x

<--- Search for TOM

PRINT INDEXF ("MARY")

<--- Search for MARY

PRINT INDEXF ("RED")

<--- Search for RED

PRINT INDEXF ("FRED" , 1)

<--- Search for FRED starting at element 1

<----- TOM found at element two
<----- MARY found at element one
<--- RED not found. The first characters are significant
<----- FRED not found because search started at element 1

INDEX$ provides for memory efficient string array manipulation and lends itself very
well to list management and text editing applications.
See "Perpetual Sort" under "SpeciaIINDEX$ Array". Also see INDEX$, INDEX$I,
INDEX$D , CLEAR, CLEAR INDEX$ and MEM.

Allows up to ten simultaneous INDEX$ arrays. See INDEX$ in your appendix.

Standard Reference

INKEY$ retums the character of the last key that was pressed or an empty string if no
key was pressed.

REM Press "5" to Stop

DO
A$=INKEY$
UNTIL LEN(A$)
A$=UCASE$ (A$)
PRINT A$;
WEND
END
R.UN

GHUIJD, KEUG FAQCCQ OPU ... S <---When is pressed program stops
REM An easy function you can use to get a key
LONG FN Waitkey$(local$)

DO
local$=INKEY$
UNTIL LEN(local$)
END FN=local$
key$=FN Waitkey$(key$)
PRINT keyS
END
R.UN

(user presses "b")
b

When using INKEY$ for character entry, avoid having the TRON function active as this
may cause pressed keys to be missed.
See INPUT, LlNEINPUT, INPUT#, ASC and CHR$. See your computer appendix for
variations or enhancements.

Macintosh: See DIALOG (16) for way of doing INKEY$ during event trapping.
MSDOS: INKEY$ retums two characters for function keys. ON INKEY$ does event
checking for function keys. See appendix for specifics.

Standard Reference

...................................................................................................................................................................
."'.".."." ....... ". .......... ",.."' ....... "' .... "'."'." .... "'.". ....... "'."' .... J'.J'."'."'."..". ....... "' .... "' .... ". .... "..".."..".,/' .... ". .... rI' ....... ..

:-'... "":' ... ' ... ':-' ... "":" ... ' ... "... ' ... "... "... ' ... "... "... ' ... "... "":" ... ' ... "... ''':' ... ' ... ' ... '":''':'":''''''''''':''''':-''''''':''''''''''''"'':''''''':''':''';:''''''':''''''''"''''''''''''''''

INP ( expression )

The INP function is used to read an input port. The function returns the value that is
currently at the port specified by expression.

X=INP(l)
PRINT X
PRINT INP (G-1)

Note: This function requires a knowledge of your computer hardware and may not be
portable to other computers (may not be available on your version of Z8asic or may
have an unrelated function).
See your computer appendix for specifics.

Not supported with this version. See INSLOT.

Not supported with this version. See OPEN"e" and "Toolbox" in the appendix for
accessing hardware ports.

Standard Reference

INPUT statement
FORMAT

INPUT [(@ or%)( expr x , exprY)] [;] [!] [&expr,] ["string";] var[,var ... ]

The INPUT statement is used to input values (string or numeric) from the keyboard
into variables.
Multiple variables must be separated by commas (this is bad form since users often
forget commas). If no value is INPUT, a zero or null string will be retumed.

Places cursor at text coordinate horiz,vert.

% (exprc,exprY)

Places cursor at graphic coordinate horiz,vert.
Suppress carriage returnlline feed.
Automatic Carriage return after maximum characters
entered. User doesn't have to press .

Sets the maximum number of characters tobe INPUT.
Defaun is 255. Will not allow more than expr characters.

Optional user prompt will replace the question mark. If a null
string is used the question mark will be suppressed.

May be any variable type integer, single,double or string.

See examples on following pages...

Differences in screen width may affect operation.
See LOCATE and PRINT for more information on cursor positioning. Also see
INPUT#, LlNEINPUT, LlNEINPUT# and INKEY$ for others ways of getting input.
See "Keyboard I nput" in the technical section.

Important Note: String lengths MUST be one greater than maximum INPUT length
since a CHR$(13) is temporarily added. Never define a string used in an INPUT or
LlNEINPUT as ONE.

In certain cases EDIT FIELD, MENU or BUTTON may be preferable. See appendix.

Standard Reference

statement INPUT
INPUT continued
EXAMPLES OF REGULAR INPUT
EXAMPLE
INPUTA$

RESULT
Wait for input from the keyboard and store the input in
A$. Quotes, commas and control characters cannot be
input. to finish. A carriage return is generated
when input is finished (cursor moves to beginning of
next line).

INPUT"NAME: ";A$

Prints "NAME: " before input. A semi-colon must follow
the last quote. A carriage return is generated after input
(cursor moves to next line).

Same as INPUT A$ above, only the semi-colon directly
after INPUT disables the carriage return (cursor stays on
the same line).

EXAMPLES OF LIMITING THE NUMBER OF CHARACTERS WITH INPUT
EXAMPLE
INPUT &10, A$

RESULT
Same as INPUT A$ only a maximum of ten characters may
be input. (& 10) A carriage return is generated after
input (cursor moves to the beginning of the next line).
The limit of input is set for ALL variables, not each.

Same as INPUT &10, except the SEMI-COLON following
INPUT stops the carriage return (cursor stays on line).

Same as INPUT & 10 except INPUT is terminated as soon
as 10 characters are typed (or is pressed).

INPUT;!&10,"NAME: ";A$

Same as INPUT ;&10,A$ except no carriage return is
generated (semi-colon). INPUT is terminated after 10
characters(&10 and Exclamation point). and the
message "NAME:" is printed first.

LlNEINPUT;!&5,"NAME: ";A$ LlNEINPUT A$ until 5 characters or is
pressed. (no carriage return after or after the
5 characters are input. Accepts commas and quotes.)
Note 1: Wherever INPUT is used, LlNEINPUT may be substituted when commas,
quotes or some other control characters need to be input (except with multiple
variables).
Note 2: If more than one variable is INPUT, commas must be included from the user to
separate input. If all the variables are not input, the value of those variables will be null.

Standard Reference

INPUT statement
INPUT continued

INPUTTING FROM A SPECIFIC SCREEN LOCATION

......
INPUT@(2,1)"?";X

r\
\ INPUT @(O,S)"Namo: ";A$

INPUT@(H,V); A$

Wait for input at TEXT screen POSITION defined by Horizontal
and Vertical coordinates. No "?" is printed. A carriage retum is
generated.

INPUT %(gH, gV);A$

Input from a graphic coordinate. Syntax is the same as "@".
Very useful for maintaining portability without having to worry
about different screen widths or character spacing.

INPUT@(H,V);!10,"AMT: ";0# Prints "AMT:" at screen position H characters over by V
characters down. 0# is input until 1 characters, or ,
are typed in, and the input is terminated without generating a
carriage retum (the cursor DOES NOT go to the beginning of
the next line).

INPUT%(H, V) ;!1 O,"AMT: ";0# Prints "AMT:" at Graphic position H positions over by V
positions down. D# is input until 1 characters, or ,
are typed in, and the input is terminated without generating a
carriage return (the cursor DOES NOT go to the beginning of
the next line).
Note: Replace INPUT with LlNEINPUT whenever there is a need to input quotes, commas and
control characters (except with multiple variables).

Standard Reference

statement INPUT#
FORMAT

INPUT # expression, var [,var [, ...JJ

This slalemenl will read INPUT from a disk or other device specified by expression
until a carriage retum. . End-Of-File or 255 characters are encountered.
Commas and leading spaces may be read inlo a string variable if the data on disk was
enclosed in quotes. otherwise leading spaces and line feeds will be ignored.
See LlNEINPUT# for ways of inputting commas. quotes and some control characlers.

A$="HELLO"
B$="GOODBYE"
C$="WHAT?"
XiI=12.345
OPEN"O",l,"TEST.TXT":REM OPEN FOR OUTPUT
PRINTil1, A$", "B$", "C$", "xii
<--- Quoted commas important with PRINT#
CLOSEU
OPEN"I",l,"TEST.TXT":REM OPEN FOR INPUT
INPUTU, X$, Y$, Z$,AiI
<---INPUT# in same order and type as PRINT#
CLOSEn
DEFTAB=10: PRINT X$,Y$,Z$,AiI
END
RUN
HELLO

See OPEN. CLOSE. PRINT#. and LlNEINPUT#.
See your computer appendix for available devices.
Compatibility Note: ZBasic and MSBASIC have almost the same syntax wtth the
following exceptions:

MSBASIC ALLOWS
PRINT#n. A$. B$. X#. C%
PRINT#n. A$ B$ C$

ZBaslc REaUIRES
PRINT#n. A$ ..... B$..... X# .....C%
PRINT#n. A$ ..... B$..... C$

If you remember that ZBasic puts the image to the disk just as if tt were going to the
printer or to the screen you will see why the syntax is important.

Standard Reference

INSTR function
FORMAT

INSTR ( expression, string 1 , string 2 )

Finds the first occurrence of string 2 in string 1, starting the search at the position
specified by expression.

expression
string1
string2

Starting position of the search.
String to be searched.
String to search for.

Humble$="I am cool!"
PRINT INSTR(l,Humble$,"cool")

B$="am"
PRINT INSTR(l,Humble$, B$)
X=INSTR(l, Humble$, "FRED")
PRINT X
END

<--- "Cool" started at the sixth position
<--- "am" started at the third position
<--- There was no "FRED" in the string.

Name$="Fred Smith"
Lastname$=RIGHT$ (Name$, LEN (Name$) -INSTR (l,Name$, "
PRINT "Hello there Mr.";Lastname$
END

RUN
Hello there Mr. Smith

If the string is not found, zero (0) will be returned.
See LEFT$, RIGHT$, MID$ and INDEXF.

Standard Reference

function INT
FORMAT

INT ( expression )

Truncates all digits to the right of the decimal point of expression.

DEFDBL A-Z
DEFTAB 8
PRINT"
X","ABS(X) ,"INT(X) ","FRAC(X) ","SGN(X) "
FOR X =
PRINT
PRINT
PRINT
PRINT
PRINT
NEXT X
END

-15.0 TO +15.0 STEP 3.75
USING"-iliI.iliI";X,
USING"-U.H";ABS(X),
USING"-"."";INT(X),
US ING" -H. U" ; FRAC (X) ,
USING"-"."";SGN(X)

RUN
X
-15.00
-11.25
- 7.50
- 3.75
.00
3.75
7.50
11.25
15.00

ABS(X)
15.00
11.25
7.50
3.75
.00
3.75
7.50
11.25
15.00

.IlIT..OO..
-15.00
-11. 00
-7.00
-3.00
.00
3.00
7.00
11. 00
15.00

FRAC(X)
.00
-.25
-.50
-.75
.00
.75
.50
.25
.00

SGN(X)
-1. 00
-1. 00
-1. 00
-1. 00
.00
1. 00
1. 00
1. 00
1. 00

INT works the same as FIX in that expression will be restricted to the integer range of
-32,768 to +32,767 only when the expression has not been defined as floating point.
INT is simply as a function that truncates an expression to a whole number.
To get the fractional part of a number use FRAC.
See FIX, SGN, ABS and FRAC.

INT range for the Macintosh is -2,147,483,648 to +2,147,483,647.

Standard Reference

KILL statement
FORMAT

KILL simplestring

KILL will erase a disk file specffied by simplestring .
KILL functions either as a command or from within a program.

INPUT"File to erase:";A$
PRINT"Are you sure you want "iA$;" erased?";
INPUT B$
LONG IF B$<>"YES"
PRINT"File not erased": STOP
XELSE
KILL A$:PRINT A$;" is history."
END IF
END
RUN
File to erase: Oldfile
Are you sure you want Oldfile erased?
YES
Oldfile is history!

Use this statement with caution. When a file has been killed it is normally
unrecoverable.
See RENAME, ERROR, ON ERROR, ERRMSG$ and the "Files" section of this
manual for more information.

Standard Reference

This page intentionally left blank.

Standard Reference

LEFT$ (string. expression )

LEFT$ returns the left-most characters of string defined by expression. The string
will not be altered.

Quote$="Early to Bed, Early to rise •.. "
PRINT LEFT$(Quote$, 5)
Part$= LEFT$(Quote$, 12)
PRINT PartS
PRINT LEFT$(Quote$, 50);
PRINT "Makes men healthy ... at least"

RON
Early
Early to Bed
Early to Bed, Early to rise ... Makes men healthy ... at least"

Standard Reference

Also see RIGHT$, MID$, LEN, VAL, STR$, INSTR, INDEX$, SWAP and the "String
Variable" section of this manual for more information about using strings.

function LEN
FORMAT

Retums the number of characters that are stored in a string constant or string
variable. If zero is retumed it indicates a null (empty) string.

A$="FRED"
B$="SMITH"
PRINT A$;" has";LEN(A$);" characters."
PRINT B$;" has";LEN(B$);" characters."
PRINT LEN(A$)+LEN(B$)
PRINT LEN("Hello Fred")

RUN
FRED has 4 characters
SMITH has 5 characters
9
10

The maximum length of a string is 255 characters. You may set the length of strings
in ZBasic. See DIM, DEF LEN and the chapter on "String Variables· for more
information about defining string length.
Since the first character of a string stored in memory is the length byte,
PEEK(VARPTR(var$)) will also retum the length of a string.
The memory required for a string variable is the defined length + one for the length
byte (256 bytes if not defined).

Standard Reference

LET statement
FORMAT

[LEn variable = expression

LET is an optional statement that may be used to assign an expression to a variable.
Numbers, strings, numeric expressions, or other variables may be used to assign
values to a variable if the types are compatible or convertable.

LET B=100
PRINT B
LET B=B+10
PRINT B
Z$="HELLO n +" THERE"
PRINT Z$

<---Notice "LET" is optional

RUN
100
110
HELLO THERE

Standard Reference

See SWAP, "Optimize expressions for Integer", "Math Expressions" and
"Conversions Between Variable Types" for more information about assignments.

function LINE
FORMAT

LINE line number or label

Returns the starting address of a compiled line in memory. Normally used with CALL
to execute machine language subroutines created with MACHLG.

10 CALL LINE 30
<--- Example only. DO NOT RUN!
20 END
30 MACHLG 23,323,11,232,A%, 2,1,0,0,1:RETURN

"START"
PRINT"THIS IS A TEST ",1,2,3
!lEND"

A = LINE "END"
- LINE "START"
PRINT "The second line is n;A;" bytes longlt

RUN
THIS IS A TEST

The second line is

1
36 bytes long

This statement is useful for calling machine language subroutines embedded in your
program or for calculating the number of bytes used by program lines.
Also see MACHLG and CALL.

Macintosh: Use Longlntegers for addresses. See CALL in the appendix.
MSDOS: See CALL in appendix.
Apple ProDOS: See MLI in ProDOS appendix.

Standard Reference

LINEINPUT statement
FORMAT

LINEINPUT[(@ or %)(expr1,expr2) U; U!][ &expr, U"string"; ]var$

The LlNEINPUT statement is used to input characters from the keyboard into a string
variable. It is different from INPUT in that quotes, commas and some control
characters may also be entered. LlNEINPUT is terminated when is pressed.
@(expr1,expr2)
%( expr1 ,expr2)

Inputs from horizontal,vertical TEXT coordinate.
Inputs from horizontal,vertical GRAPHIC coordinate.
Suppresses carriage-returnlline-feed after input is complete.
(disable inputs that cause scrolling or overwriting.)
Automatically executes a carriage return after the
maximum number of characters are entered. The user
doesn't have to press .

Sets the maximum number of characters to be input.

Optional string prompt will replace the question mark "?"
normally shown wtth LlNEINPUT.

Only string variables may be used with LlNEINPUT.

INPUT"Last name First name";A$
PRINT A$
LINEINPUT"Last name First name";B$
PRINT B$
RUN
Smith
Smith, Fred

See the chapter on "Keyboard Input" in the front of this manual for more examples.
The advantage of using LlNEINPUT over INPUT is its ability to receive most of the
ASCII character set except:

CARRIAGE RETURN
CONTROL "C"
DELETE or LEFT ARROW
DELETE CURRENT LINE
NO CHARACTER

Important Note: String lengths MUST be at least one greater than the number of
characters being input, otherwise a string overflow condition will destroy
subsequent variables. Never use a one character string with LlNEINPUT.

Standard Reference

statement LINEINPUT#
FORMAT

LlNEINPUT # expression. variable$

This statement will input ASCII or TEXT data from a disk file specified by expression
until , End-Of-File or 255 characters are encountered.
Useful for accepting commas, quotes and other characters that I N PUT# will not
accept. A good example of using LlNEINPUT would be for reading an ASCII or
TEXT file a line at a time (as in the example below).

REM Read a text file and print it to the screen
REM Routine compatible with all versions of ZBasic
ON ERROR GOSUB 65535: REM Error trapping on to check for EOF
OPEN"I",l,"TEXT.TXT"

Counter=O
WHILE ERROR=O: REM Read file until an EOF error
LINEINPUTU, A$
PRINT A$
WEND
IF ERROR <> 257 THEN PRINT ERRMSG$(ERROR): STOP
ERROR=O
ON ERROR RETURN: REM Give error trapping back to ZBasic
END

The advantage of using LlNEINPUT# over INPUT# is its ability to receive most of the
ASCII character set. Leading linefeeds will be ignored on some systems.
If a CHR$(O) or CHR$(26) is encountered as a leading character it may assume EOF
and set ERROR = End Of File (varies by computer).
Also see INPUT#, LlNEINPUT and "Keyboard Input" in the front section of the
manual.

These versions support an EOF function that would simplify the error trapping
techniques used above. See the appropriate appendix for details about EOF:

OPEN"I",1, "TEXT.TXT"
Counter=O
WHILE EOF=O: REM Read until EOF
LINEINPUTU, A$
PRINT A$
WEND:CLOSE#l

Standard Reference

LIST command
FORMATS

[L)L [1ST]
[L)L [1ST]
[L)L [1ST]
[L)L [1ST]

line or label
• line or label
line or labe/· line or label

LIST (or L) is used from the Standard Line Editor to list the current program to the
screen. LLIST will list the current program to a printer.
Suppress line numbers
Highlight keywords on the screen (some versions)

[+ )[*)
[+ )[*)
[+ )[*)
[ +)[*)

LIST or L
LLIST
LIST 100-200
LLlST-100
LIST "SUBROUTINE"
LIST 100- or L 100

L+
LLlST+
L+-100

ZBASIC RESPONDS
Lists complete program to the screen
Lists complete program to the printer
Lists lines from 100-200
Lists lines up to 100 to printer
Lists the line with that label
Lists lines from 100 on
Lists the last line listed or edited
Lists previous line (or plus <+> key)"
Lists next line (or minus <-> key)"
Lists program without line numbers
Lists to printer without line numbers
Lists up to line 100 without line numbers
PAUSE. continues
PAGE AT A TIME: Lists 10 lines to the screen"

"See computer appendix for keyboard variations.

LIST automatically indents program lines two spaces between FOR-NEXT, DO-UNTIL,
WHILE-WEND, LONG IF-XELSE-END IF and LONG FN-END FN structures.
See PAGE, WIDTH, WIDTH LPRINT and the chapter; "Formatting listings".

Note: Labels may be used in place of line numbers.

LLIST+" will forrnatlistings to an Imagewriter or Laserwriter with no line numbers and witt
keywords in bold. While the output in of this format is extremely attractive and easy to
read, it should be noted that listings will take about twice as long to print.

Standard Reference

command LOAD
["] filespec ["]
["] filespec ["]

LOAD is used from the Standard Line EdHor to load a ZBasic tokenized or a regular
ASCII text file into memory.

ZBasic does not load tokenized files from other languages; the file must first be
saved in TEXT or ASCII format.

If the program does not have line numbers they are added in increments of one.
LOAD' will strip away remarks and unnecessary spaces from an ASCII file releasing
more room for the source and object code in systems with limited memory.

<--- Loads a regular tokenized or text file
<---Double Quotes optional
<---Strips spaces and REM's while loading

LOAD
LOAD
LOAD *

Each operating system may require specific syntax for a drivespec.

PROGRAM
"SOURCE"
THISONE

Line numbers are optional in ASCII files.
If a program was created using another form of BASIC it must be in ASCII format
before the ZBasic editor can load H.

These versions of ZBasic support a Full Screen Editor that may support other forms
of LOAD. See appropriate appendix for information about full Screen Editors.

Standard Reference

LOC function
FORMAT

Retums the byte pointer position within the current RECORD of the filenumber
specified by expression.

OPEN"R",1,"TESTFILE",30
RECORDiIl, 6, 3
PRINT LOC ( 1 )

<--See illustration

READl/l, Char$;l
PRINT LOC(l)
PRINT CharS
CLOSEiIl

FILE STRUCTURE
OPEN "R", 1, "TESTFILE", 30

~~:;~~R~E~C~O~R~D~(~S~)~W~lt~h~le~n~g~th~S~O~f~3~0~~;:~

L-L..J....J..-'-....L...J....:~.l.-L...JL..J....J..-'--'-..L....L....J......JL....J...J..-'-...J

RECORD(s) In
a ZBaslc fils.

c.~;:::=:;::::::;~~~~~~~h:~::;:;::::~~
r

Up to 65,535
LOCATION(s) In

L:L:-1:J~.L:J-:-I-L.L..LJu....L.J.....L..L..L...LJL...J....L..I....L..L..L...L.IL...I;:;! a ZBaslc RECORD.

'The "d" Is at LOCATION 3 In RECORD 6

The LaC position is incremented to the next file position automatically when
READ#, WRITE#, INPUT#, LlNEINPUT# or PRINT# are used. REC(filenumber)
retums the current RECORD. LOF retums the last record in the file. Also see "Files"
section for more information.

The record length limits are different for these versions. See appendix.

Standard Reference

statement LOCATE
FORMAT

LOCATE exprx' expry , [exprcursor J

Positions the cursor to the coordinates given by exprx, expry and optionally turns
on or off the cursor character (zero=off, not zero=on).

The horizontal coordinate (characters across)

The vertical coordinate (lines down)

Zero= cursor OFF.

Non-zero = cursor ON

<---- sets cursor in upper left corner
<---- sets Cursor 10 char to right at top
<---- sets Cursor 10th line down. Cursor OFF
<---- sets Cursor 12th line down. Cursor ON

LOCATE
LOCATE
LOCATE
LOCATE

This function is also useful with CLS LINE and CLS PAGE for clearing the screen to
the end of line and end of page.

0,0
10,0
0,10,0
0,12,1

See "Screen and Printer Control", PRINT@, PRINT%, INPUT@, LlNEINPUT@,
LlNEINPUT% and INPUT% for other ways of controlling the cursor positioning.
The ability to turn the cursor on or off may be limited by the hardware or software of
some computers.

These versions of ZBasic allow you swap the horizontal and vertical
coordinates under "Configure". This is handy for converting other BASIC
programs that use the vertical coordinate first (not Apple DOS 3.3).

Standard Reference

LOF function
FORMAT

LOF ( expression )

Retums the last valid RECORD number for the file specified by expression.
stands for Last-Of-File.

Important Note: This function may not return the last record correctly on some
systems. especially if the record length of the file is different from the operating
system's internal record length or if a file is opened with a different record length
then that which it was opened originally. This is often remedied by simply selling
the record length to the system default record length or the record length of which it
was opened originally.
EXAMPLE

See "Opening files for Append" in the "Files" section in the front of this manual for
methods of gelling a pointer to the last position in a file.

LOF retums the last record in the file. The default record length is 256 and may
need to be changed to make LOF function properly.
See LOC and REC for gelling file pointer information. See "Files" and "Disk Errors"
for more information. Some systems return one for both record zero and record one.
Note to better usage: If you need to keep track of the last byte position of a
sequential file or the last record of a random file. you might consider storing the last
REC and LOC of a file in record zero before it is closed. Examples:
OPEN"O",l,"Textfile.txt"
RECORDU,l <---Set file pointer to record one (zero will store last REC and LOC)
PRINTj/l,A$", "B$", "X", "zj/ <--- Save data
RECORDU, 0<---- Position pointer to RECORD 0 to save last REC and LOC
R=REC(l) :L=LOC(l)
WRITEU, R, L <--- Save pointers for future use
CLOSEU

To add data to the end of the file later:
OPEN"R",1, "Textfile.txt"
RECORDU,O
READj/l, R, L
RECORDj/l, R,L
PRINTU, A$

<--- Get last positions of file
<----- Position pointer to append data to the end of the file.
<-- Now you can append new data to the file

Don't forget to store the LOC and REC before clOsing! You could do the same thing
with random files by saving the last record.

Also supports: LOF(filenumber. [recordlength]). LOF(1.1) would return the length
of filenumber one in bytes.

Standard Reference

function LOG
FORMAT

LOG ( expression )

Retums the natural logarithm of expression (LN). LOG is the compliment of EXP.
Common LOG10= LOG(n) \LOG(10)

PRINT LOG(2)
X#=LOG(3)
PRINT X#
RUN
.69314718056
1.09861228857

LOG is a scientific function. Scientific preCision may be configured by the user
differently from both single and double precision.

See "Configure" and "Math" in the beginning of this manual.

Also see COS, SIN, EXP. 'w·. ATN and TAN.

Standard Reference

LONG FN statement
FORMAT

LONG FN name [ ( var [ , var [ , .•. ] ]) ]
END FN [= expression]

LONG FN is similar to DEF FN but allows the function to span over several lines. This
is usful for your own functions that you can use with ZBasic.
A re-usable, non-line-numbered function may be saved to the disk with SAVE+ and
retrieved later for use in other programs with APPEND.
The variables being passed to the function must not be arrays. The expression
must be numeric for numeric functions and string for string functions.

LONG FN RemoveSpace$(x$)
WHILE ASC(RIGHT$(x$),l)=32
x$=LEFT$(x$,LEN(x$)-l)
WEND
END FN= x$
Name$="ANDY
PRINT Name$i"*"

Name$=FN RemoveSpace$(Name$)
PRINT Name$;"*"

REM wait until key press. Return key in keyS
LONG FN WaitKey$(key$)
DO
key$=INKEY$
UNTIL LEN(key$)
END FN=key$
Z$=FN waitKey$(Z$)
PRINT Z$

RUN
(returns key that was pressed)

Standard Reference

Also see APPEND, SAVE+, DEF FN, FN statement, FN function and "Structure".

statement LONG IF
FORMAT

LONG IF expression

[XELSEI
ENDIF
DEFINITION

LONG IF allows multiple line IF-THEN-ELSE structures. Very useful for breaking
down complicated IF statements into more readable, logical structures. Two things
happen based on the result of expression:
• If expression is TRUE:
• If expression is FALSE:

Executes all the statements up to the XELSE (if used)
and then exits at the END IF.
Executes all the statements between the XELSE and
END IF and then exits at the END IF. If XELSE is not
used it will simply exit at the END IF.

INPUT"How old are you: ";Age%
LONG IF Age% >=30
PRINT "You are Old aren't you!?"
XELSE
PRINT "You're just a baby!"
END IF

RUN
How old are you: 30
You are Old aren't you!?
LONG IF Name$="Fred"
PRINT"Hello Fred ... Long time no-see!"
PRINT"The balance you owe is";USING"$iiii.iin;Duei
PRINT"Thanks for asking."
XELSE
PRINT "I don't know you! Go away!"
END IF

RUN
Hello Fred ... Long Time no-see!"
The balance you owe is $1234.56
Thanks for asking.
REMARK

No loop may be executed within a LONG IF construct unless it is completely
contained between a LONGIF and XELSE or between the XELSE and ENDIF. The
entire LONG IF construct must be completely contained within loops or nested loops
in order to compile properly.
ZBasic will automatically indent program lines between LONG IF, XELSE and END IF
two spaces. See the chapter about "Structure" for more information.

Standard Reference

LPRINT statement
FORMAT

LPRINT [variables, constants, ...]

The LPRINT statement sends output to a printer.
To use LPRINT from the Standard Line Editor use a colon first (:LPRINT).

LPRINT "REPORT OF THE CORPORATION"
LPRINT
LPRINT
LPRINT "SALES:"; TAB (50) ; US,ING" $11, III, III. Ill"; Salesll (1)
LPRINT
LPRINT "PROFITS:";TAB(50);USING"$III1,III1I1,III1*.III1";Profitsll(1)

~.0'Zl.'l22.'2'3

Some systems may lock up if a printer is not connected. See your hardware manual
for required action.
See ROUTE 128, PRINT, LLlST, TAB, DEFTAB, PAGE, USING, WIDTH LPRINT
and POS(1).

Macintosh: See DEF LPRINT, PRCANCEL, DEF PAGE, PRHANDLE, TEXT and
ROUTE 128 in the appendix for more information about printing to the Imagewriter
and Laserwriter printers. See appendix for specifics.

MSDOS: To use more than one printer you may also use OPEN"I",1 ,"LPT2:" and
use PRINT#1, [variables, constants ... ]. Be sure to close the printer device when
finished. See MSDOS reference manual for more information about LPT2:, LPT1:
and any other devices you may have available for your hardware.
Apple ProDOS and DOS 3.3: See DEF LPRINT for setting the printer slot.

Standard Reference

statement MACHLG
FORMAT

MACHLG ([bytes ,...Il-or- ([words ,... ]} -or-( [variables] [, ... ]}

The MACHLG statement is used to insert bytes directly into a compiled program.
These bytes may be machine language programs, variables or other items.
It may be used to insert machine language into memory without using POKE.
bytes

Numbers from 0 to 255

Numbers from 0 to 65535. They are stored in standard format

Will create the address where the variable is located. See
appendix for specifics.
Note: ZBasic uses registers when calculating elements of an
array variable. Contents of these registers may be destroyed.

x = LINE "Machine Language Routine"
FOR I = 0 TO 10
PRINT PEEK(X+I);
NEXT I
END
"Machine Language Routine"
MACHLG 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

REMARK
See LINE, CALL, USR, DEFUSR, PEEK, POKE and the chapter about "Machine
Language" in the technical section of this manual.

Important Note: Use of this statement requires knowledge of the machine
language of the computer you are using. Machine language may not be portable to
other computers.

Macintosh: Since the Macintosh is a 32 bit machine, MACHLG puts the code into
word, not byte, positions.
MSDOS: See DEF SEG in appendix.
Apple ProDOS: See section entitled Machine Language Interface in appendix.
Standard Reference

MAYBE function
FORMAT

MAYBE is a random function that retums either a TRUE (-1) or FALSE(O) wHh equal
probabilHy.
MAYBE is faster than RND. convenient. and requires little program space.

DEFTAB = 8: DIM Coin$(l)
Coin$(O)="HEADS":Coin$(l)="TAILS"

"Flip a Coin"
DO
X=X+1
PRINT Coin$(MAYBE+l),
UNTIL X=25
END
RUN
HEADS
TAILS
TAILS
HEADS
HEADS

HEADS
TAILS
TAILS
HEADS
TAILS

TAILS
TAILS
HEADS
HEADS
TAILS

HEADS
HEADS
TAILS
HEADS
TAILS

TAILS
HEADS
TAILS
TAILS
HEADS

This function is useful anytime a 50% random factor is needed.

MAYBE with logical operators:
MAYBE
MAYBE AND MAYBE
MAYBE OR MAYBE

Standard Reference

50% TRUE
25% TRUE
75% TRUE

50% FALSE
75% FALSE
25% FALSE

command MEM
FORMAT

Typing either MEM or MEMORY in command mode will retum information about
system memory use.

The number of bytes being used by the source code. The
source code is that part of the program that you type in.

The number of bytes remaining for program use (varies; see your
computer appendix for details).

The size of the object code after compiling.
Valid only immediately after RUN

The number of bytes required for variables, INDEX$ array, and
disk 110 buffers. This varies dramatically by version. See
computer appendix. Valid onlv immediately after RUN

00046 Text
41244 Memory
00039 Object
00388 Variable
(some versions may display more information)

These numbers are relative to that version of ZBasic being used. Varies significantly
by computer.
See your computer appendix for more information.
Also see MEM function, CLEAR, CLEAR INDEX$, CLEAR END, LOAD· and the
chapter about "Converting Old Programs".

Standard Reference

MEM function
FORMAT

Returns the number of bytes available in the INDEX$ array.

CLEAR 1000
PRINT MEM
A= MEM
INDEX$(O)
PRINT MEM

STRING$(49,"*")

See also INDEX$, MEM command, and CLEAR INDEX$. This function varies by
version. See appendix for specifics.

MEM(index number) returns the memory available to that INDEX$ (there are ten
available on the Macintosh).

MEM (-1): Retums the maximum amount of memory available for variables. Also
forces unloading of all unlocked memory segments. Returns a Longlnteger.
INDEX$ has many enhancements with this version. See appendix .

See appendix for various additions to the MEM function that return memory pointers
to arrays, strings, BCD variables and more.

Standard Reference

command MERGE
["] filespec ["]
["] filespec ["]

MERGE is used to overlay a line numbered TEXT/ASCII program from disk onto the
current program text in memory. Program being merged must be in ASCII (saved
w~h SAVE».
Incoming text with the same line number(s) as resident text will replace resident text.
The asterisk is used to strip spaces and REM's from the incoming program.

010 REM Program one
120 DO
130
I$=INKEY$
140 UNTIL LEN(I$)

NEW
10
20
30
40
50
60

REM Program two
PRINT "MAIN MENU"
PRINT
PRINT "1. Do Inventory"
PRINT "2. Print Inventory"
PRINT "3. Delete Inventory"

LIST
00010
00020
00030
00040
00050
00060
00120
00130
00140

REM Program one
<---- Line from first program overwrote this line
PRINT "MAIN MENU"
PRINT
PRINT "1. Do Inventory"
PRINT "2. Print Inventory"
PRINT "3. Delete Inventory"
<--- First program merged here
DO
I$=INKEY$
UNTIL LEN(I$)

MERGE has the same affect as manually typing in text.
Programs that were written in another BASIC must be in ASCII format before being
MERGED into ZBasic.
Also see LOAD, SAVE*, RENUM, APPEND and DELETE

Standard Reference

MID$ function
FORMAT

MID$ ( string , expr1 [, expr2j )

Returns the contents of string starting at posnion expr1, and expr2characters long.

The string from which the copy will occur.

The distance from the left that the copy will begin.

Optional parameter that determines how many characters will be
copied. If omitted, all characters from expr1 to the end of the
string will be copied.

A$="The Sun Shines Bright"
PRINT MID$(A$,5,3)
Z$=MID$ (A$, 15)
PRINT Z$
FOR Pointer = 1 TO LEN(A$)
PRINT MID$(A$,Pointer,l)
NEXT

RUN
Sun
Bright
T
h

INPUT"First and Last name p1ease:";Name$
PRINT "Thank you Mr. ";MID$(Name$,INSTR(l,Name$," ")+1)

RUN
First and Last name please: Fred Smith
Thank you Mr. Smith

Standard Reference

See LEFT$, RIGHT$, INSTR, LEN, STR$ and the MID$ statement.

statement MID$
FORMAT

MID$ (string1. expr1 [, expr2] ) = string2

Replace a portion of string1 starting at expr1, with expr2 characters of string2.

Target string. String2 will be inserted or layed over this string.

String to be inserted or layed over string1 .

Distance from the left of string1 where overlay is to begin

How many characters of string2 to insert into string1. Using 255
will assure that all characters are used.

"SILLY BOY"
"SMART"

PRINT A$
MID$(A$,1,5)
PRINT A$

RUN
SILLY BOY
SMART BOY

This function is very useful for altering selected portions of strings.

Also see RIGHT$, LEFT$, MID$ function, STR$, INSTR, VAL, LEN, SPACE$,
STRING$.

Standard Reference

MKB$ (expression)

Returns a string which contains the compressed floating point value of a ZBasie BCD
expression.
This function works with either single or double precision. The amount of string
space used will vary depending on the digits of precision configured. See
"Configure".
To return the floating point values stored in strings use the cva function.

A$=MKB$(991721.645643)
PRINT "The length of A$=";LEN(A$)
X!=CVB(A$)
PRINT X!
PRINT
B$=MKB$(991721.645643)
PRINT "The length of B$=";LEN(B)
Xii=CVB (B$)
PRINT Xii

The length of A$=4
991722

<--- Value returned depends on configured precision

The length of B$=8
991721.645643

<--- Value returned depends on configured precision

Since ZBasie automatically compresses and decompresses BCD variables when
using READ# and WRITE#, this function is of primary interest to those people that
need to conserve memory for other reasons.
See also eVB, CVI, READ#, WRITE# and MKI$.
See your appendix for default accuracy and variations.

Standard Reference

MKI$ ( expression )

Returns a two character string which contains a two byte integer specified by
expression.
To extract the integer stored in a string wth MKI$ • use the CVI function.

A$=MKI$(12345)
PRINT"Length of A$=";LEN(A$)
B%=CVI (A$)
PRINT B%
PRINT
A$=STR$(12345)
PRINT "Length of A$=";LEN(A$)
PRINT VAL (A$)

Length of A$=2
12345

<--- MKI$ saves space ... (4 bytes compared to below)

Length of A$=6
12345

<--- Leading blank reserved for the "SIGN"

Used in older versions of BASIC to convert integers to strings for FIELD statements.
ZBasic does this automatically when using READ# and WRITE#. Nevertheless.
MKI$ and CVI are still useful for packing strings to save memory-- especially on
systems with limited memory.
See also CVI. CVB. READ#. WRITE# and MKB$.

Use DEFSTR LONG to allow MKI$. CVI. HEX$. OCT$ and BIN$ to work with
Longlntegers. Use DEFSTR WORD to set back to regualr integer. Note that MKI$
returns a four byte string with Longlntegers.

Standard Reference

expression 1 MOD expression2

MOD returns the remainder of an integer division with the sign of expression 1 .

PRINT "9 DIVIDED BY 2=";INT(9/2);"REMAINDER =";9 MOD 2

RUN
9 DIVIDED BY 2= 4 REMAINDER= 1
PRINT "-4 DIVIDED BY 2=";INT(-4/2);"REMAINDER=";-4 MOD 2

RUN
-4 DIVIDED BY 2= -2 REMAINDER= 0

Standard Reference

MOD replaces the old BASIC routines for finding the remainder of a division and is
also much faster:
OLD BASIC:

(X - INT(X/N) • N)

statement MODE
FORMAT

MODE expression

MODE is used to set the screen graphics or text format.
Most computers offer a number of different character and/or graphic modes. Use
MODE to choose the mode most applicable to the program.
For most systems EVEN modes are character graphics and ODD modes are regular
graphics. Not all machines have graphic capability. MODE for some popular
microcomputers:
MSDOS type
Mode
number

lliraphlc
character

80x25
character

320x200
character

styles and
sizes herel

CP/M-SO
Graphic

SEE
ZOO
APPENDIX

Be sure to read
the appropriate
appendix for
exact mode
designations.

MODE will reset COLOR to the default, usually the darkest background and lightest
foreground, and may clear the screen with some systems.

Macintosh: MODE is ignored with the Macintosh. See the TEXT statement for
setting character styles and sizes. To emulate other computers you will probably
want to use Monaco or Courier mono-spaced fonts. TEXT font, size, face, mode.
MSDOS: Modes 16-19 support EGA modes. Mode 20 supports Hercules graphics.
See appendix for details.
Standard Reference

MOUSE
function
..............................................................................................................................................................
.

..:.":.":.":.":.":.":.":.":.":.":.":.":.":.":.":.... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... "":"... "":"":" ... ... ... ... ... ... ... "":" ... ... ... ... ...

............... "' .......................................................... j' ... • "' ....... "' .................................................................. .

~.":.":.":.'::'.":.":.":.":.":

" " " " " " " "

MOUSE (expression )

Returns information concerning the position and status of a MOUSE or JOYSTICK if
one is connected to the system. The fOllowing values are returned.

Innializes the MOUSE on some systems (nialization is required
on the Apple /I ProDOS and DOS 3.3 versions).

Returns the horizontal coordinate of the mouse.

Returns the vertical coordinate of the mouse.

Returns 0 if button not pressed.

MODE 5 :REM GRAPHIC MODE
CLS
X= MOUSE
(0)

Non-zero if button pressed.

<---Initialize mouse

WHILE LEN(INKEY$)=O
<--- Press any key to stop
<--- If button down then ok to draw
LONG IF MOUSE (3)
PLOT MOUSE (1), MOUSE (2) <--- Plot where mouse (or joystick) is
END IF
WEND
REMARK

The above example uses a mouse to draw on the screen. A joystick may also be
used (depending on the system). See your computer appendix for hardware
device specifics that may apply to these functions.

Also see DEF MOUSE.

Macintosh Note: You may use the mouse functions above or configure ZBasic for
MSBASIC Mouse compatibility using DEF MOUSE=1. See Mac Appendix.
MSDOS: Compatible with Microsoft Mouse. ZBasic has to be configured to support
a mouse. See "Configure" in MSDOS appendix. If MOUSE(O) <> 0 then a mouse is
installed. MOUSE(3) returns 0-3; Zero if both buttons up, three if both buttons
down, one or two if one button pressed. MOUSE(4) and MOUSE(5) hide and
show the mouse cursor.. DEF MOUSE=O for Mouse, 1 or 2 for joysticks, 3 for
lightpens.
Apple ProDOS and DOS 3.3: Compatible with AppleMouse or joysticks. Use
DEF MOUSE=O for AppleMouse or DEF MOUSE=1 for Joysticks. If using a joystick
MOUSE(3) returns 0-3. Zero if both buttons up, three if both buttons down, one or
two if one button pressed. See appendix for specifics.
Z80: MOUSE IS NOT SUPPORTED with Z80 versions of ZBasic.

Standard Reference

.....................................................................................................................................................................
.".."."'."'."'.".."'."." .... "'.".".."'."."."."."."."..". .... ".".".'".".."'."' ....".".."."."..".."..".."'."."'.1'."."." ...."'.".".".".."

-:"-:"":"":",,:",,:",,,",,:",,,",,:":--:,":-''''"'''"'':"'''"'''"'''"0::"'''"'''"'''"'':"'':"'''"'':"'':"":""'"":""'""'""'":-""'""'""'""'""'""'""'"":0:.:-" ... "..."... ".,,:",,:" ... ".,,:-.,,:",,:0:.":"
FORMAT

NAME string1 AS string2

Renames a file with a filename of string1 to string2. Same as the RENAME statement
except for syntax. This statement is provided to make ZBasic compatible with other
BASIC languages.

DIR
FRED.BAS
DICK. BAS

TOM.BAS
HARRY. BAS

NAME FRED.BAS AS GEORGE.BAS

DIR
GEORGE.BAS
DICK.BAS

TOM. BAS
HARRY. BAS

See RENAME for more information.

Not available on Apple /I or Z80 versions of ZBasic. See RENAME.

Standard Reference

NEW command
FORMAT

NEW is used to clear the text buffer of the current program.
Since programs that have been erased in this manner are impossible to recover,
SAVE your program first!

LIST+
CLS
PRINT"THIS IS A PROGRAM ' ;
PRINT"WHICH IS ABOUT TO BE LOST FOREVER AND EVER .....
END

(Nothing listed ... )

Standard Reference

Use this command with care. See LOAD.

statement NEXT
FORMAT

FOR var = expression1 TO expression2 [STEP expression3

NEXT [ variable • [ variable . ..

The NEXT statement is used as the end marker of a FOR loop. There must be a
matching NEXT for every FOR, otherwise a Structure Error will occur at compile time.

FOR Countl= 1 TO 2
FOR Count2 = 2 TO 4 STEP 2
PRINT Countl, Count2
NEXT Count2, Countl

FOR X= 1 TO 2
FOR y= 1 TO 2
PRINT X,Y
NEXT
NEXT

The variable(s) following the NEXT statement are optional; however, if used they
must match the corresponding FOR variable(s).
A FOR-NEXT loop will execute AT LEAST ONCE!
A Structure Error will specify the line number if there is an extra NEXT; or will specify
line 65535 if a NEXT is missing. ZBasic automatically indents all loop structures
when you LIST your program. This may be used to find where the missing NEXT is
located by simply following the program listing back to the point where the extra
indent ends.
See "Loops" in the front of this manual and; WHILE-WEND, DO-UNTIL, LONGIFXELSE-ENDIF for other loop and structure types.

Standard Reference

NOT retums the opposHe of expression. True is False, False if True. This is
equivalent to changing a logical true (-1) to a logical false(O) and vice versa.

WHh Boolean (binary) operations, the NOT function will toggle all bHs in expression.
That is, all bits that are one will be changed to zero, and all bits that are zero will be
changed to one.

A$="Hello"
IF NOT A$="Bye" THEN PRINT"True, it is False"
END

RUN
True, it is False

A logical true is -1 and logical false is O. Also see XOR, OR, AND.

TRUE(-1) if condition FALSE, else FALSE (0) if TRUE

BOOLEAN "16 Blr' LOGIC
NOT
11001100 NOT 01111011
00110011
10000100

Will also function with 32 bit Longlntegers.

Standard Reference

function OCT$
FORMAT

OCT$ (expression )

OCT$ returns a 6 character string which represents the Octal value (base 8) of the
resuH of expression truncated to an integer. Octal digits are from 0-7.

10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
20
EXAMPLE

DECIMAL eaulvalent
0-7

8
9
10
11
12
13
14

The following program will convert a decimal number to Octal or an Octal number to
decimal:
CLS
DO
INPUT"Decimal number: n;Decimal%
PRINT "Octal Equivalent: ";OCT$(Decimal%)
INPUT"Octal number: ";Octal$
Octal$="&O"+Octal$
PRINT"Decimal Equivalent: ";VAL(Octal$)
UNTIL (DECIMAL%=O) OR (LEN(Octal$)=2)
RUN
Decimal number: 8
Octal Equivalent: 000010
Octal number: 100
Decimal Equivalent: 80

Conversions are possible from any base to any other base that ZBasic supports.
See the Chapter "Numeric Conversions" in the front of this manual. See also BIN$,
HEX$ and UNS$.

Use DEFSTR LONG if you want to use OCT$, HEX$, BIN$, UNS$, MKI$ or CVI with
Longlntegers. Use DEFSTR WORD to set back to regular integer.

Standard Reference

ON ERROR statement
FORMAT

ERROR
ERROR
ERROR

GOSUB Line or label

RETURN
GOSUB 65535

The ON ERROR allows the user to enable and disable disk errortrapping. If ON
ERROR is not used ZBasic will display disk errors as they occur and give the user the
option of continuing or stopping. Options offered with ON ERROR:
ON ERROR GOSUB 65535

Enable user disk error trapping. Errors are retumed
using the ERROR function. You must check for
errors---ZBasic will not when this parameter is set.

ON ERROR GOSUB line

If a disk error occurs the program does a GOSUB to
the line or label specified.

ON ERROR RETURN

Disable user disk error trapping. ZBasic will trap the
disk errors and give error messages at runtime.

ON ERROR GOSUB 65535: REM Enable disk error trapping
"Start"
OPEN "I" ,1, "TEST"
IF ERROR GOSUB"Disk error"
GOTO "Start"
program continues ...

"Disk error"
LONG IF (ERROR AND 255)=3: REM Check for File not found error
PRINT"Check that correct diskette is in drive: ";
DO
UNTIL LEN{INKEY$)
ERROR=O : RETURN
XELSE
PRINT"A Disk Error has occurred:";ERRMSG${ERROR)
PRINT"ontinue or top?";
DO
temp$=UCASE${INKEY$)
UNTIL (temp$="C") OR (temp$="S")
IF temp$="C" THEN ERROR=O: RETURN
END IF
PRINT"P rogram aborted!"
ERROR=O
STOP

Also see ERROR and ERRMSG$ and the chapter about "Disk Error Trapping" in the
"Files" section of the manual.
See RETURN line for another way of returning from ON ERROR GOSUB line.

Important Note: Always remember to set ERROR=O after a disk error occurs when
you are doing the disk error trapping. Failure to do this will cause ZBasic to continue
to retum a disk error condition.

Standard Reference

statement ON GOSUB
11

ON expression GOSUB line [, line [, line . ..

The ON GOSUB statement is used to call one of several subroutines depending on
the value of expression.
The ON statement will call the first subroutine nthe expression evaluates to one, to
the third subroutine if the expression evaluates to three and so on.
The RETURN statement at the end of a subroutine will return the program to the
statement immediately following the ON GOSUB.

"Inventory Menu"
CLS
PRINT "1. Inventory"
PRINT "2. Print Listing"
PRINT "3. Month End"
PRINT "4. EXIT
PRINT
PRINT "Enter item wanted:

DO
Item%=VAL(INKEY$)
UNTIL (Item% >0) AND (Item% <5)
ON Item% GOSUB "Inventory", "Print", "EOM", If Exit 11
GOTO "Inventory Menu"
END
"Inventory"
RETURN
"Print n
RETURN
llEOM"

ZBasic will truncate expression to an integer. For example, if expression equalled
1.9, the ON statement would go to the first line (INT(1.9)=1).
If expression <=0 or> (number of line numbers listed), the program will continue
on to the next statement in the program.

Standard Reference

ON GOTO statement
FORMAT

ON expression GOTO line [, line [ , line . .. II

The ON GOTO statement is used to branch, or jump, to one of several portions of a
program depending on the value of expression.
The ON statement will jump to the first subroutine if the expression evaluates to one,
to the third subroutine if the expression evaluates to three, and so on.

A=RND(4)
ON A GOTO "ONE", "TWO", "THREE", "Last"
END
"ONE"
PRINT 1
END
"TWOII

PRINT 2
END
"THREE"
PRINT 3
END

"Last"
PRINT 4
END

ZBasic will truncate expression to an integer. For example, if expression equalled
1.9, the ON statement would go to the first routine (INT(1.9)=1).
If expression <=0 or> (number of line numbers listed), the program will continue
on to the next statement in the program.
See "Structure".

Standard Reference

statement OPEN
[ # I filenumber, filename [, record length
[ # I filenumber, filename [, record length
[ # I file number , filename [, record length

OPEN "I",
OPEN "0",
OPEN "R",

The OPEN statement is used to access a data file. Once a file is opened, information
may be read from or written to the file depending on the way the file was opened.
The first argument determines access:

Read/write file: Open file if it exists, create the file if it doesn't.

Read only file: Open file for input. If file doesn~ exist, a disk error
occurs (file not found error).

Write only file: Open file for output. Overwrites the old file.

The number you assign to a file which is subsequently used with
file commands like READ#, WRITE#, INPUT#, LlNEINPUT#,
PRINT#, REG, LOG and LOF.

The filename as it appears in a directory. See your DOS manual
and the appendix in this manual for information about drive
specifiers, pathnames, sub-directories or whatever syntax is
used for that computer.

Optional record length to be used with that file (default is 256).

REM Open a file for READ and WRITE
OPEN "R",1, IIINVEN", 180
REM Open a file for Input only
OPEN "1", File%, D$+"INVEN", 180
REM Open a file for Output only
OPEN "0",2, Filename$

To configure ZBasic to have more than two files open at a time; see "Configure".
Each file buffer will require between 160 and 1024 bytes of memory depending on
the Disk Operating System and your version of ZBasic. No more than 99 files may bQ
open at one time.
See your computer appendix for more information about file types, changing
directories and more. Also see INPUT#, PRINT#, READ#, WRITE#, LOC and REC.

TO INSURE DATA INTEGRITY, ALWAYS CLOSE OPEN FILES BEFORE EXITING
YOUR PROGRAM.
continued ...

Standard Reference

OPEN statement
OPEN continued

Macintosh: Extra parameters included:

The number you get from FILES$ that sets the folder or root
location of the file. Much easier than pathname specifiers. See
appendix for details. Also see FILE$, EJECT, EOF, LOF, "File
size", APPEND and pathnames. Example of volumn number:
OPEN"type",

Additional types

"R[R]", "O[R]", "I[R]", "A[R]" and "R[D]", "O[D)", "I[D)", "A[D]"
The optional "R" or "D" after the file type specifies opening the
resource fork (R) or data fork (D). The data fork is the defauK. See
appendix for specifics. The "A" type opens a file for append.
Also see APPEND for positioning the file pointer to the end.
Pathnames are supported like: Root: Folder: Fred

MSDOS: There are many ways to specifiy, create or remove diieCiories
and sUb-directories. See PATH$, CHDIR, MKDIR and RMDIR in the appendix.

Apple ProDOS: See PATH. Filenames may contain pathname
information like: PROFILE I ZBAS ICI SOURCE. See appendix for details.
Apple DOS 3.3 uses CP/M type drivespecs like: A: instead of D1, B: instead of
D2, etc. Filetype is specified by a leading exclamation mark and a number:
OPEN"-", filenumber,
!type=

"n !type) [drlvespec) filename", record length

1= Text file
2= Integer BASIC
3= Applesoft BASIC
4= Binary file

S type file
Relocatable file type
A type file
B type file

Example: OPEN"-", fnurn, "!4A:Fred", 200

CP/M-80: You may use a drive specifier in the filename:
OPEN"-",n,"A:Fred.DAT", 200
TRS-80: You may use a drive specifier in the filename:
OPEN"-",n,"Fred/DAT.password:l",200

Standard Reference

statement OPEN
FORMAT

OPEN "C",-1 or -2 [,[baud rate J[,[paritY)[,[stopbit][, word length 1111

This statement is used to set serial communication port parameters. If any of the
parameters are omitted the default will be used.
-1
-2

Serial port one
Serial port two

110, 150, 300(default), 600, 1200, 2400, 4800, 9600

1 = odd
2 = even
stopbit

1 = two
word length

0=7bits
1 = 8 bits

REM A Very Cheap Terminal Program
OPEN"C", -1, 300
<---Change parameters as needed

DO
READjf-l, A$;0
IF LEN(A$) THEN PRINT A$;
A$=INKEY$
IF LEN(A$) THEN PRINTjf-l,A$;
UNTIL A$="j"

<--- (;0) Won't "Hang" if nothing at port

<--- Set a key to stop

Serial ports may be accessed using the same statements used in disk I/O: PRINT#,
INPUT#, LINE INPUT#, READ#, and WRITE#. In all of these statements, the port is
not read or written to until the status indicates that the port is ready.
The one exception to the paragraph above is when READ# is used to read a string
of zero length. In this case, the character will be returned if ready, otherwise a null
string will be returned (similar to the INKEY$ function) (Not supported with CP/M).
A port does not have to be opened in order to be accessed. The OPEN "C"
statement is used only to set the current port parameter values. Without this
statement, the port will simply use the parameters to which it was last set.

All versions have a number of machine specific parameters. See appendix for
important details.
continued ...

Standard Reference

OPEN "C" continued
The following are examples of sending or receiving files over a modem or serial line.
Check appendix and hardware manuals for specifications.
Add your own line numbers, and modify programs as needed. Save with SAVE+ to
use later.

SENP FILES TO ANOTHER COMPUTER
"SEND FILES"
LINEINPUT"File to send: ";File$
IF LEN(File$)=0 THEN STOP: REM No file? STOP
OPEN"I",l,File$
ON ERROR GOSUB 65535: REM Catch errors
OPEN"C",-1,300: REM Change parameters as needed
DO
LINEINPUT#l, Line$
IF LEN (Line$) THEN PRINT#-l, Line$
DO
<---- This DO loop is an example of "Handshaking" remove
READ#-l,A$;O
this loop, and the PRINT# below, if not needed.
UNTIL ASC(A$)=l
UNTIL ERROR
IF ERROR=O
CLOSE#!
PRINT#-l,"*END*": REM Tell receiver "All Done!"
RETURN

RECEIVE FILES FROM ANOTHER COMPUTER
"RECEIVE FILES"
LINEINPUT"Filename to Receive: ";File$
IF LEN(File$)=0 THEN STOP: REM No File? STOP
OPEN"O",l,File$
OPEN"C",-1,300: REM Change parameters as needed
DO
LINEINPUT#-l, Line$
IF Line$<>"*END*" THEN PRINT #1, Line$
PRINT#-l, CHR$ (1) ;
<--- Goes with "Handshaking" Do Loop above.
UNTIL (Line$="*END*")
CLOSE#!
RETURN

Standard Reference

expression OR expression

Performs a logical OR on the two expressions for IF THEN testing and BINARY
operations. If either or both conditions are true the statement is true. See truth table
below.

In binarylboolean operations if either bit is one than a one is returned.

A$="HELLO"
IF A$="GOODBYE" OR A$="HELLO" THEN PRINT"YES"

Truth table for the OR function.
condition OR condition

TRUE(-1) if either or both is TRUE, else FALSE(0)
BOOLEAN "16 BIT" LOGIC

1 OR
o OR
1 OR
o OR

00000001
00001111
00001111

10000101
10000111
10000111

Also see AND, XOR and NOT.

Functions with 32 bit Longlnteger as well.

Standard Reference

OUT
statement
...............................................................................................................................................................
... "'.". .... J" .......... Il' ............. "' ............. "'." .......... J' .......... ............... " ....... "'."' ............. "' ................ "."' ....... ". ... .

"":"":"":"":"":"":"":"":"":"":"":-":"":"":"":"":"":"":"":"":"":"":"":"":"":"":"":"":"":"":"":"":"":"":"":""''''':'''':'''':'''':'''':'''':'''':'''':'''':'''':'''':'''':'''':'''':'''':-'':"":

The OUT statement sends dala to the specified port number.

A=6:B=9
OUT A,B
OUT
END

This statement is microprocessor dependent and works only with Z80 and 8086
type processors.
Also see INP for a way of reading data in from the port.

Not supported with these versions.

Standard Reference

statement PAGE
FORMAT

Relurns the current line position of the printer. The first line is line zero.

PAGE
PRINT PAGE
LPRINT
LPRINT
LPRINT
PRINT PAGE

<---Also see PAGE statement

This function is similar to POS except the line position is returned instead of the
character position.

Important Note: If your operating system uses forms control and checks lines per
page, you must disable the operating systems forms control or ZBasic's PAGE .

See CSRLN in the MSDOS appendix for getting the line position of the screen
cursor.

Standard Reference

PAGE function
1[. [expression3 IIII

PAGE [[expression11 [. [expression2

PAGE is used to format output to the printer and to control the number of actual
lines per page, printed lines per page and top margin. Following is a description of
the parameters:
PAGE

Without parameters will send a page feed to the printer. this
forces the print head to move to the defined position of the top
of the next page.

The number of printed lines per PAGE.

The number of actual lines per PAGE. Also resets line count to
zero (normally 66 lines per page).

Lines for the top margin. This number is a subset of
expression1. If the line count is zero, this many linefeeds will be
output immediately.

Sets Listings to 60 lines per page
with 3 lines as top margin. Skips perforations nicely.

WIDTH LPRINT should be set to your printer's character width for proper PAGE
operation when doing LLiST.
See PAGE function.
To disable PAGE use PAGE 0.

Important Note: If your operating systems uses forms control and checks lines
per page, you must disable the operating systems forms control or Z8asic's PAGE.

Standard Reference

....".."'.........."'.... "'." ...."............."............."...."'....................................."......."......................".". .... ....'"
"'"":"":""'"":""'""'""'"":""'""'"":"":"":"":""'""'""'""'"":""'""'""'"":""'""'""'"":" ... "":"":" ... "":" ... "":"":" ... "":" ... "":"":" ... "":"":"":"":" ... "":"":" ... ... "... ...

......................................................................................'\0 .........................................................................
".

PATH or PATH type commands are available on many versions of ZBasic that
support multi-level directories. Rather than give the exact syntax for each machine
this page gives a general overview. See your computer appendix for specifics.

See PATH$ function in the appendix. This allows you to get the
current path name so that you can return to that sub-directory.
Syntax is PATH$(drive number). Note: Drive A=1, B=2, ...
Pathname syntax example: C:\ZBasic\TEMP

Apple ProDOS See PATH command in the appendix. Also see the example
function on the master disk called: PREFIX.SAMPLE for ways of
getting ProDOS pathnames during runtime.
Pathname syntax example: IPROFILElZBASIC/OBJECT
Path names not supported w~h DOS 3.3 version.

The most appropriate way of specifying where a file is located is
using the volumn number. This is recommended in "Inside
Macintosh". Volume numbers are obtained easily using the
FILES$ function. See Macintosh appendix.
Nevertheless, pathnames are supported and may be used.
Pathname syntax example: Fred:Tom:Harry

Pathnames are not supported since the operating systems for
this CPU do not currently implement sub directories.

See your appendix for examples.

This command varies significantly by computer type.
See DIR, OPEN and also be sure to see your appendix for specifics.

Pathnames are not supported with Apple DOS 3.3 or

zao versions of ZBasic.

Standard Reference

PEEK function
FORMAT

PEEK [WORD) (expression )
PEEK LONG (expression)*

Returns the contents of the memory localion(s) specified by expression:
PEEK
PEEK WORD
PEEK LONG*

Returns a one byte number (0-255)
Returns a two byte number (-32768 to 32767)
Returns a four byte number (*32 bit versions)

<---Get a safe place in memory to play wilh

POKE X, 10
POKE WORD X+1, 12000
PRINT PEEK(X)
PRINT PEEK WORD (X+1)

See POKE, POKE WORD and POKE LONG, USR, MACHLG, CALL, LINE, HEX$,
OCT$, UNS$ and the section in the front of this manual; "Machine Language".

Important Note: This function is for people experienced with machine language
and the hardware of their computer.

*Maclntosh: Always use Longlntegers for expressions to pass an address or to
retrieve a four byte Longlnteger. See appendix.
MSDOS: An extra parameter is available to determine the segment of the variable:
PEEK[WORD) (address, segment). Also see MEM and DEF SEG in the appendix.

Standard Reference

statement PLOT
FORMAT

exprt , expr2
expr1 , expr2

[ TO expr3, expr4 ... J
[TO expr3, expr4 ... J

The PLOT statement is used to draw either one graphic point, or a line between two
or more pOints, in the current COLOR. Examples:
PLOT
PLOT
PLOT
PLOT

10,12
10,12 TO 100,100
10,12 TO 10,90 TO 1,1
TO 10,12

CLS
MODE 5
PLOT 209, 304

PLOT one point at position 10,12
PLOT a line from 10,12 to 100,100
PLOT two lines: 10,12 to 10,90, to 1,1
PLOT a line from last position to 10,12

<---Set graphics mode
<--- Plots one pixel

<--- Sets COLOR to foreground
COLOR -1
REM PLOT an angle
PLOT 209,304 TO 987, 643 TO 322,742
END

RUN
See illustrations on the following page.

As with all other ZBasic graphic commands, Device Independent Graphic
coordinates of 1024 by 768 are the default. Expressions are truncated to an
integer. Character type graphics will be substituted on computers, or modes,
without graphic capabilities.
Also see CIRCLE, BOX, FILL, POINT, COLOR.

Macintosh: Use COORDINATE WINDOW to set to pixel graphics. Use
COORDINATE to set yur own relative coordinates or to set back to 1024x768. The
upper left-hand comer of a WINDOW is coordinate 0,0.
MSDOS: Use COORDINATE WINDOW to set pixel coordinates. See
COORDINATE to set relative coordinates or to set back to ZBasic coordinates.
Z80: POKE &xx3F, &C9 for pixel coordinates. POKE &523F, &C3 to set back to
ZBasic coordinates. xx= CP/M=01, TRS-80 model 1,3=52. TRS-80 model 4=30.
Apple /I ProDOS: POKEWORD &85,
back to ZBasic coordinates.

for pixel coordinates. Use MODE to set

Apple II DOS 3.3: POKE &F388,&60 for pixel coordinates. POKE &F388, &A9
to set back to ZBasic coordinates.

Standard Reference

PLOT statement
PLOT continued

209
9!l7
...........: ................................... : ............ 1023

. J
. II>
304: ............ .0 ..... .

_
PLOT 987,643
,-..
"" .. .
643~ ...................................................
-

1 •• 111111 . . . . . . . 11111 . . . . , . , 1 . 1 • • • • • • • • • • 1'1 • • • 1' • • 111111.111

PLOT 209.304 TO 987.643 TO 322.742

Standard Reference

function POINT
FORMAT

POINT ( expression 1 , expression2 )

Point is available on many computers to inquire about the COLOR of a specific
screen graphic position. As with other commands, ZBasic Device Independent
Graphic coordinates may overlap pixels.
In the example: 0=Background (white here), 1 =Foreground (black here)
ZBeslc

EXAMPLES'
POINT (0,0) =1
POINT (1 ,0) =1
POINT (0.2) =0
POINT (2,1) =0
POINT (2,2) =1
Screen Pixel

• Note: Point returns COLOR of cocrdinate

As with all other ZBasic graphic commands, the device independent coordinate
system of 1024 x 768 is the default.

COLOR 1
PLOT 0,0 to 900,767
PRINT POINT(O,O)

If the coordinate is outside screen coordinates, a -1 will be returned.
See COLOR, BOX, CIRCLE and the section; "Graphics".
See COORDINATE or PLOT for ways of converting some versions of ZBasic to pixel
coordinates that can used with POINT.

POINT is not available for CP/M versions (including the Kaypro graphic verSions).

Standard Reference

POKE statement
FORMAT

POKE [WORD] express;on%, express;on2
POKE LONG expression&, expression2&'

POKE writes the value of express;on2 into a memory location. The first expression
is the address to POKE. The express;on2 is the data to POKE.

J:Y£I:.
POKE
POKE WORD
POKE LONG"
EXAMPLE

eXPress/an2
One byte
Two bytes
Four bytes ("32 bit machines only)

x = 12345: XA = VARPTR(X)
PRINT"Byte at ";UNS$(XA);" =";PEEK(XA)
POKE XA,99
PRINT"Byte at ";UNS$(XA);" =";PEEK(XA)
POKE WORD XA,44444
PRINT"WORD at .. ;UNS$ (XA);" =" ;UNS$ (PEEK WORD (XA»
END

RUN
Byte at 59009
Byte at 59009
Word at 59009

Also see PEEK, PEEK WORD, PEEK LONG, MACHLG, CALL, LINE and the
chapter "Machine Language" at the beginning of this manual.

Important Note: Indiscriminate use of this command may cause unpredictable
computer operation and loss of data or program. This statement is for experienced
machine language programmers only. Porting of programs with POKE is not
recommended.

"Macintosh: Always use Longlntegers for addresses and when using POKE
LONG or PEEK LONG.
MSDOS: There is an optional parameter for segment:
POKE [WORD] address, data, segment. See MEM and DEF SEG in the appendix.

Standard Reference

function POS
FORMAT

Returns the current horizontal cursor position, from zero to 255, for a screen,
printer or disk file.

(byte expression )

The expression specifies a device as follows:
Default device (normally the video monitor)
Printer
Disk file (limited to one file using carriage retums)

POS(O)
POS(1)
POS(2)

CLS
PRINT "READ and DISPLAY SCREEN pas"
FOR I O T a 30 STEP 10
PRINT TAB(I); POS(O)
NEXT
PRINT
PRINT "READ and DISPLAY PRINTER pas"
DEFTAB 5
FOR I
o TO 6
LPRINT,
PRINT POS(1),
NEXT
END

DISPLAY SCREEN pas
10
20
DISPLAY
18

A carriage return will set the POS value to zero. PAGE will return the current line
position for the printer.
Also see WIDTH, PAGE and WIDTH LPRINT.
While this command will work the same on all systems, it is dependent on screen
and printer widths.

Standard Reference

PRINT# statement
FORMAT

PRINT # expression. list of things to print..... .

Used to PRINT information to a disk file or other device in text format. Numbers or
strings will appear in the file or device similar to how they would look on the screen or
printer.
The expression is the file number assigned to a disk file or other device in an OPEN
statement.
INPUT# or LlNEINPUT# are normally used to read back data created with PRINT#
(although READ# may also be used).

A$="TEST":B$="TEST2":C=900

OPEN "0" ,1, "TEST.DAT"
PRINTill, "HELLO·..·, "A$", "B$","C <--- Quoted comma delimeters for INPUT#
CLOSE ill
OPEN"I",l,"TEST.DAT'1
INPUT#1, X$, Y$, Z$, A%

<--- INPUT in same order and same type

PRINT X$, Y$, Z$, A%
CLOSE
END

While this command will work the same on all systems. it is dependent on disk
inpuVoutput capabilities. Use INPUT# or LlNEINPUT# to read back data written with
PRINT#.
Be sure to see the entry on INPUT# in this reference section for more infonnation
about using PRINT# and INPUT# together and also information about MSBASIC
syntax differences.
See ROUTE. OPEN. OPEN"C". INPUT#. LlNEINPUT#. READ#, WRITE#, LPRINT
and the section in the front of this manual called "Files" for more information.

Standard Reference

statement PRINT
FORMAT

PRINT [ {@ I %J (expr1, expr2 )] [list of things to print.... ]

The PRINT statement is used to output information to the current device, normally
the video.

@ (expr1,expr2)
% (expr1 ,expr2)

Specifies text coordinates.
Specifies graphic coordinates.
Note: Expr1 =Horizontal. Expr2=Vertical.

,
PRINT@(1,1)",HI";

,
PRINT @ (O,S)",Name: ";AS

PRINT@(l,l)"Hi";
PRINT@(O,5)"Name:";A$
END

PRINT followed with a semi-colon will disable the carriage retum.
A PRINT item followed by a comma will cause the next element to be printed at the
next tab stop defined by DEF TAB.
While this command will work the same on all systems, it is dependent on hardware.
See ROUTE for ways of sending PRINT data to another device like a printer, disk file
or serial port.
See "Screen and Printer Text Control" in the front section of this manual for other
ways of formatting text.
As with all other ZBasic graphics commands, PRINT %(x,Y) defauHs to printing at the
position specified by the Device Independent Graphic coordinates of 1024 x 767.
See PLOT or COORDINATE for ways of changing some versions of ZBasic to using
other coordinates.

Standard Reference

PRINT USING function
FORMAT

PRINT[# filenumber ,] USING formatstring ; numeric expression; [USING ... ]

This function permits formatting numeric data in PRINT or PRINT# satements.

The last numeric digit displayed will be rounded up by adding 5 to the first digit on
the right that is not displayed.

The formatstring may be a quoted or string variable using the following symbols:
~ Definition

Holds place for a digit. More than one may be used. An example of using
this symbol to hold dollars and cents:
PRINT USING "$#U.U";A#
$123.45
Insert a comma in that place. An example of using it to format numbers with
dollars and cents would be:
PRINT USING"$##,###.iliI";A#
$12,345.67
Determines placement of decimal point within the format field:
PRINT USING"$iIiI, U#, ilU. U"; A#
$12,345,678.90

Prints a dollar sign on the left of the format. See examples above.

Prints a floating plus or minus sign on the side of the number where the plus
sign holds the place.
PRINT USING"+UU.U";AiI
+1234.56
PRINT USING"+UU. U"; -1234.56
-1234.56
Prints a minus sign only if the expression is negative.
PRINT USING"+UU.U";AiI
1234.56
PRINT USING"+ilU#. U"; -1234.56
-1234.56

Fill the spaces before a number with asterisks. One example would be
formatting ouput when printing checks.
PRINT USING"$#iI,##iI,###.iI#";12.34 $********78.90

See examples on next page ...

When error is printed in the format field, this indicates the occurrence of an
overflow condition and replaces the number that would have been printed. An
overflow condition is when the value of the expression used would have exceeded
the bounderies of the format.
USING not available for string formatting. See LEFT$, RIGHT$, STRING$ and MID$.

This version allows USING without PRINT. A$=USING"####.##";232 is acceptable.
See appendix for additions to exponential formatting with this version.

Standard Reference

function PRINT USING
PRINT USING continued
FORMAT EXAMPLES
In all the examples A =12345.678.

Note that .678 rounds up to .68.

PRINT USING FORMAT
"*$"',"',"',"'."";A

RESULT
**********$12,345.68

"%III.'";A/1000

"+"',"'."";A
"-"',III.II";-A

+12,345.68
-12,345.68

"."',"',"',"'";1.345E-8

.000,000,013,450

".""""""";1.345E-8

""',"',"',"',"'";9.123E15

9,123,000,000,000,000
12.30E16

""'."E16";123E15*lE-16

PROGRAM EXAMPLE
A$="".""
PRINT USING A$;10.2,USING A$;9.237, USING A$; 4.555
PRINT 10,12,13, USING A$;12.399
PRINT@(O,10);USING A$;23.12321
PRINT%(O,295);USING "@###'#."";12.33
OPEN"O",1, "TESTFILE lt
PRINT'l, USING A$;9.999
CLOSEIl

RUN
10.20
10
23.12
@12.33
10.00

<--- at text position 0,10
<--- at graphic position 0,295
<--- To disk file "TESTFILE"

Standard Reference

PSTR$ function/statements
FORMATS

function
PSTR$( var%)
statements
READ PSTR$( var%)
PSTR$( var%) = "quoted string constant'

The statements load the address of a string constant into var"/..
The function returns the string pointed to by var"/..

DATA Andy, Dave, Scott, Mike
DIM D (4)
FOR X=l TO 4
READ PSTR$ (D (X) )
NEXT

<---Set Pointer String to DATA items above

"Print PSTR$ of D(n)"
FOR X=lT04
PRINT PSTR$(D(X))
NEXT
END
PSTR$(g%)="Hello"
PRINT PSTR$ (g%)

<--- Set Pointer String to a constant

RUN
Andy
Dave
Scott
Mike
Hello

This is a handy way to

save string memory. Examples:

A$="Hi There!"
A$ will take at least 10 bytes (256 bytes if not defined). The quoted string takes
another 10 bytes.
Total memory used: 20 bytes
PSTR$(A)="Hi There!"
The quoted string "Hi There!" takes 10 bytes. The integer variable "A" takes
two bytes.
Total memory used: 12 Bytes

Macintosh: Use var& instead of var"/..

Standard Reference

..............................................
"' ....................................................................................................................
."."'."'."'.,/'."."."."."'."."."'."'."."."'.".1'."
...."."'."'."' .... '".1'.rI" •.I'."' ...."."' ....J"." .......
"'.oI'.".". .."..I'.".".".
rl'.ol' .... ". ....

",,,,,,,,,,,""''''''''''''''':-'':''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''':'''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''':'''''''":"":"":""''''':''''''''''''''''''''"''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''':'''''''''''''''''''''''''''.:FORMAT

PUT (x1,y1) variable [(array index I. array index [, ... J) I. mode 1

This statement places the graphic bit image stored in an array with the GET statement, to
the screen position at coordinates specified by x1,y1.
If an array has been used then you MUST specify the index number of the array (some
versions of BASIC always assume an integer array. ZBasic will allow you to store bit
images in any variable type as long as enought memory is available to do so.
Memory required for pixel images is calculated using this formula (based on GET (x1,y1)(x2,y2) where x1 and y1 deSignate the upper right-hand-comer of the image and x2 and
y2 are the pixel positions designating the lower-Ieft-hand-corner of the image) :

6+((y2-y1)+1) * ((x2-x1+1) * bpp+7)/8)
The number of bits per pixel (bpp) depends on system colors or grey levels. See next
page for specifics. Also see GET in this reference section, for detailed information about
storing the pixel image in an array.

XORs the pixels over the background pixels. This is the most usful
for animation purposes and is also the default.

ORs the pixels over the existing pixels This one way to cover the
background graphics (overlays the existing graphics).

ANDs the picture with the background.

Similar to PSET except the reverse image is shown (negative).

Draws the image over the background exactly as created.

It is recommended that COORDINATE WINDOW be used when using GET.
EXAMPLE

DIM A(10000)
MODE 7
COORDINATE WINDOW

<---- Not needed on the Macintosh version
<--- Pixel coordinates

CIRCLE 100,100,80
GET (0,0)-(100,100), A(l)
FOR x= 1 TO 200 STEP 3
PUT (x, 90), A (1) <--- Do it twice to XOR the pixels and move the image across
PUT (x, 90), A (1)
the screen without disturbing the background
NEXT x
END
This routine moves a section of a circle across the screen. It is XORed to the screen twice
so the item doesn't repeat and it will appear to move across the screen without disturbing
the background (default PUT mode is XOR) .

continued ...
Standard Reference

PUT
statement
................................................................................................................................................. .......... .
.

~ .......... "' .......... oI' ............. rI' .... rI' ................... rl' .... rl' .... "'."' ............. J'.rl' .............".."' ..........

""
"'.01' ....".."' .............
"' •

~.~.":.":.":.":.":.":.":.":.":.":.":.":.":.":.":.":.":.":.":.":.":.":.":.":.": "":"":""'"":"":"":"":"":"":"":""'"":"":"":"":"":"":"":"":"":"":"":"":"":"":"":

It is important to see entry under GET for more information.

Macintosh: With this version of ZBasic, PUT has another, optional, parameter:
[- (x2, y2) 1, var. The second parameter allows you to scale the
image, making it either larger or smaller by giving the rectangle size in which ij is to appear.
The x2, y2 parameter is the lower-right comer of the image.
PUT (xl, yl)

Btts-per-pixel (bpp) will vary by the type of Macintosh you have. The standard black and
white Macintoshes have one bit-per-pixel.
The Macintosh II may have up to 16 bits-per-pixel (with upto 256 colors or grey-levels per
pixel). Check addendum of Macintosh II for specifics .

MSDOS: Biis-per-pixel (bpp) will vary with the graphics adaptor board being used:
GRAPHIC TYPE

CGA
EGA
EGA
HERCULES

BITS PER PIXEL (bpp)
2
1
2 (64K or less on EGA card)
4 (More than 64K on card)

Z80: GET and PUT are not supported with these versions of ZBasic.

Apple 1/ ProDOS and DOS 3.3: GET and PUT are not supported with this version.
See DRAW example on ProDOS disk and the BLOAD and BSAVE functions for possible
alternatives.

Standard Reference

command QUIT
FORMAT

QUIT is used to exit the ZBasic Standard Line editor and retum control to the
operating system.

<----DOS prompt of your system

We highly recommend saving your program prior to using QUIT.

Macintosh: You may also quit from the menu.
MSDOS: SYSTEM functions the same as QUIT.

Standard Reference

RANDOM statement
I

RANDOM [IZE] [expression

Seeds the random number generator so that ZBasic produces a new sequence of
random numbers.
If expression is used, the RND function will return a repeatable series of numbers.
DEFTAB 5
RANDOM 12345
FOR I = 1 TO 5
PRINT RND(10),
NEXT I

RANDOM 12345 <--- Let's see if it repeats as above.
FOR I = 1 TO 5
PRINT RND(10),
NEXT I: PRINT

PRINT"Press any key to set random seed"
DO
R=R+1
UNTIL LEN(INKEY$)
RANDOM R

<--- Paranoid seed routine

FOR I = 1 TO 5
PRINT RND (10),
NEXT I
END

RUN
Press any key to set random seed
1 8 8 5 9

The results of the first two passes were the same because the seed of 12345 was
the same. When a different number is used, or no number, the result will be
RANDOM.

If expression is the same, the same random pattern will be repeated with all versions
of ZBasic.

.•The [IZEI part of RANDOM is not supported on the Apple II and Z80 versions.

Standard Reference

statement RATIO
FORMAT

RATIO byte expression 1, byte expression2

This statement will change the aspect ratio of graphics created with CIRCLE.
byte expression1

Horizontal ratio.
A number between -128 and +127 that gives
the relationship of the width of the circle to normal (zero).

byte expression2

Vertical ratio. A number between -128 and + 127 that gives the
relationship of the height of the circle to normal (zero).

-32
-64
-96
-128

Relationship to normal
2.0
times normal
1.5
times normal
1.25 times normal
o
Normal proportion
0.75 times normal
times normal
0.5
0.25 times normal
o
times normal (no width or height)

RATIO -50, 127
CIRCLE h,v,r

RATIO settings are executed immediately and all CIRCLE commands, including
CIRCLE TO and CIRCLE PLOT will be adjusted to the last RATIO.

Also see ROUNDRECT toolbox routines for other options to creating circles with
various rations.

Standard Reference

READ# statement
FORMAT

READ # filenumber, {var Ivar $ ; stringlength } [, ... I

Reads strings or numbers saved in compressed format with WRITE# and stores
them into corresponding variables. The list may consist of any type string or numeric
variables or array variables.

vcr
var$
; stringlength

The filenumber to work from
Any numeric type variable
String variable
The number of characters to load into the string variable

Imponant Note: A string variable must be followed by ;stringlength to specify
the number of characters to be read into that string.

REM The four variables below will require 18 bytes for storage
REM A$=4 bytes, A!= 4 bytes, A#=8 bytes, A%=2 bytes
A$="TEST": A!="12345.6":A#="12345.67898":A%=20000
OPEN"O",l, "DATAFILE" , 18
WRITE #1, A$;4, A!, A#, A%
CLOSE#1
OPEN"I" ,1,"DATAFILE", 18
READ #1 , Z$; 4, Z!, Zit, Z%
CLOSE# 1

<--- Wr~e a file with a record length of 18

<---Read in same order and type (see notes)

PRINT Z$, Z!, Z#, Z%
END

Note: Do not mix variable types when using READ# and WRITE#. Reading string
data into numeric variables, and visa-versa, will create variables with incoherent data.
READ# and WRITE# store and retrieve numeric data in a compressed format. This
saves disk space and speeds program execution.
While you may load numeric data into strings and convert using CVB or CVI, ~ is best
to refrain from this since it requires more time and is less efficient.
See the chapter "Files" for more detailed information using random and sequential
files. Also see RECORD, LOC, REC, LOF and "Disk Error Trapping".

Standard Reference

statement READ
FORMAT

READ [variable (-or- PSTR$( vat'lo) } [ , ...]]

The READ statement reads strings or numbers from a DATA statement into
corresponding variables.
The variable list can consist 01 any combination of variable types (string or numeric,
including arrays).
II no variable is given the READ statement will skip one DATA item.

DIM P% (3)
DATA Joe, Smith, Harry, "@ Cost"
DATA 1234.5, 567.8, 91011.12, 1314.15
READ A$, B$, C$, D$
READ A!, B!, e!, D!
PRINT A$, B$, C$, D$
PRINT A!, B!, C!, D!

<--- Regular old fashioned READ

RESTORE
<--- Set pointer back to start 01 DATA to READ again
FOR X=O TO 3
READ PSTR$ (P% (X) )
<---Use pOinter string to point at DATA string constants
NEXT:PRINT
PRINT "PSTR$>";
FOR X= 0 TO 3
PRINT PSTR$(P%(X»,
NEXT
<--- Set DATA pointer to the sixth item

RESTORE
READ A#
PRINT A#
END

Harry
91011.12
Smith

Leading spaces in string data statements will be ignored unless contained in quotes.

Do not read numeric data into string variables and vice versa (no error is generated).
Don't read past the end of a data list.
See RESTORE, PSTR$ and DATA.

Standard Reference

RECORD statement
1#] filenumber,

The RECORD statement is used to position the file pointer anywhere in a file. Once
the file pointer has been posHioned you may read or wrHe data from that position.

location in record ]

RECORD can position both the RECORD pointer and the location within a record.

Filenumber from 1 to 99

RECORD number to point to. Default is zero.

location in record

Optional location in RECORD. Default is zero.

OPEN"R",1,"TESTFILE",30

FOR position = 0 to 29
RECORD #1, 6, position
READ#!, A$; 1
<--- Reads one character at a time from record 6.
PRINT A$;
NEXT

See illustration next page ...

The default RECORD length is 256 by1es. The maximum record length is 65,535.
The maximum number of records in a file is 65,535.
See OPEN, READ#, WRITE#, PRINT#, INPUT#, LlNEINPUT#, LOC, LOF, REC,
CLOSE, and the chapter entitled "Files".

The maximum record length and number of records in a file is 2,147,483,647.

Standard Reference

statement RECORD
RECORD continued

FILE STRUCTURE
OPEN "R", 1, "TESTFILE", 30

up to 65,535
RECORD(s)

b-:;::;;::;:~;:;:~~~~~~,i,:+:;::;::;::~::;::~~

LOCATION(s) In
L...L...L..JL....L...L..JL....I....L..JL....I.....L...I....L..1...J....L..L..l....l......L...I....I.....L..l....L..L..l....L...I a ZBaslc RECORD.

' T h e "d" Is at LOCATION 3 In RECORD 6

In the illustration, the name "Fred Stein" was stored in RECORD six of "TESTFILE".
To point to FILE #1, RECORD 6, LOCATION 3 use the syntax:
RECORD#

The location within a record is optional (zero is assumed if no location is given).

If RECORD 1, 6 had been used (without the 3), the pointer would have been
positioned at the "F" in "Fred".
If RECORD is not used, reading or writing starts from the current pOinter position. If
a file has just been opened, the pOinter is positioned at the beginning.
After each read or write, the file pointer is moved to the next position in the file.

The maximum record length and number of records in a file for this versions is

Standard Reference

REC function
FORMAT

REC ( filenumber)

Returns the current position of the record pointer for the file specified by
expression. The first record in a file is record zero (0).
Also often used with REC is LOC which returns the poSition within the record.

OPEN "0",1, "THISPROG", 10 <--- Record length of ten
A$="01234S"

<--- String length of six

FOR I = 0 TO 3
PRINTU, A$;
PRINT "On pass";I;" file position was ".
PRINT "REC="REC(l);" and LOC=";LOC(l)
NEXT I
RECORD #1, 0, 4

<--- Position the file pointer with RECORD

PRINT "Right after the middle RECORD statement; ".
PRINT "REC="REC(l);" and LOC=";LOC(l)
CLOSEU
END

RUN
On
On
On
On

Pass
Pass
Pass
Pass

0 file position was REC=O and LOC=6
1 file position was REC=l and LOC=2

2 file position was REC=l and LOC=8
3 file position was REC=2 and LOC=4

Right after the middle RECORD statement; REC=O and LOC=4

The default record length is 256 bytes. LOC returns the position within a RECORD.
See OPEN, CLOSE, LOC, LOF, RECORD, READ#, WRITE# and the chapter
entitled "Files".

Standard Reference

statement REM
FORMAT

REM fol/owed by programming remarks

The REM statement is used for inserting comments or remarks into a program.
ZBasic ignores everything following a REM statement.

To save time, you can type an apostrophe (') at the beginning of a line and it will be
converted into a REM statement.

This is a comment or remark
ZBasic ignores everything following a REM
Including any commands enbedded in the remark

Colons are often used to make blank lines.

Thoughful use of REM makes a program easier to read.

REM statements are not compiled and do not take up any memory in the object
code.

Note: Some versions of ZBasic will not convert the apostrophe to REM.

Standard Reference

RENAME statement
I TO } string2

This statement is used to rename the Ii Ie string1 to the new name string2.

DrR
GOOGOO
FRE~BAS

ZBASIC.COM
OLDFILE.BAS

INPUT "FILE NAME TO CHANGE: ";Filel$
INPUT "NEW NAME FOR FILE: ";File2$
RENAME Filel$ TO File2$

RUN
FILE NAME TO CHANGE: GOOGOO
NEW NAME FOR FILE: GOONIE

DrR
GOONIE
FRED.BAS

ZBASIC.COM
OLDFILE.BAS

This command is also available in command mode. Remember that filename lormats
are different Irom system to system and may not be available lor some machines.

JIII!l
TRS-SO model 1,3: RENAME not supported with these versions.

Macintosh: Pathnames or volume number may be used.
Macintosh: RENAME lile1$ {TO I, } lile2$ [. volume number%]. Also see NAME.
MSDOS: See CHOIR, PATH$, RMOIR and MKOIR in the MSOOS appendix lor
controlling pathnames and directories. Also see NAME.
Apple 1/ ProDOS: Pathnames supported.

Standard Reference

command RENUM
FORMAT

RENUM [new] [, [old]] [, increment]

Used for renumbering program lines.

new
okJ
increment

The first new assigned line number desired after renumbering is
complete. default = 10
The first old line where you want renumbering to begin. default = 0
The increment between line numbers. default = 10 (256 maximum)

If an argument is omitted the default will be used.
This command will automatically update line references (GOTO, GOSUB, etc). If a
line reference is to a non-existent line, it will use the next existing line number.

7
IF I = 200 THEN 567
74 PRINT I
197 I
I + 1: GOTO 74
567 END

RENUM
LIST
10
20
30
40

IF I
200 THAN 40
PRINT I
I
I + L: GOTO 10
END

Line increments are limited to 256. If you issue a RENUM command that exceeds
the number of allowable lines (65,534) , an error will occur and your text will be
unaltered.
If you are unsure of what the results may be, SAVE your program BEFORE
renu mbering!

Some versions offer options for using, or not using, line numbers with full screen
editors. Check your appendix for specifics .

See RENUM*, UNNUM, INDENT and FIX in the MSDOS appendix for other options.

Standard Reference

RESET statement
............................................................................."1. ..................................................................................
.,..". .... ". .......... .,..". .... "'."' .... ".."' ....... ". ................ "' • .,.."'."' ................ rI' .... .,.."' • .,. .... "' • .,..".."'."' • .,.."..".."."."'.". • .,. • .,.."'.

"-:"":"":"":"":"":"":""''''':'''':'''':'''':'''':''''''''':'''':'''':"'':'''':'''::''''':"''''''':"'':''''''''':'''':"":"":"":""''''':''''''''::''''':"'''"'':'''':'''':'''':"'':'''':''''''''':'''':'''':"''''''':"'':"''''''':'''':"'':

Closes all open files and devices. Functionally identical to CLOSE without
parameters.

OPEN"O", 1, FRED "
OPEN"I",2,"HARRY"
II

IF ERROR THEN RESET
END

Not supported on Apple /I or Z80 versions of ZBasic. Simply use CLOSE without a
filenumber to close all open files.

Standard Reference

statement RESTORE
1

RESTORE [expression

This statement resets the DATA pOinter to the first DATA statement or optionally to
the DATA item specified by expression.
If the expression is omitted, the first DATA item is assumed. ZBasic automatically
sets the pointer to the next item after each variable is READ.

DATA ZERO, ONE, TWO, THREE, FOUR, FIVE
DATA SIX, SEVEN, EIGHT, NINE, TEN
tlStart U

DO
INPUT"What item do you want";Item%
IF (item%10) THEN "Start"
RESTORE Item%
READ A$
PRINT "Item number"jltem%;n is: ";A$
UNTIL Item%=O
RESTORE
READ A$: PRINT A$

<--- Set to beginning of DATA

RUN
What item do you want: 4
Item number 4 is: FOUR
What item do you want: 9
Item number 4 is: NINE
What item do you want: 0
Item number 0 is: ZERO
ZERO

If an attempt is made to READ or RESTORE past the last DATA item, the result will

be zeros or NULL strings. No error will be returned.
Also see READ, PSTR$ and DATA.

Standard Reference

RETURN statement
I

The RETURN statement is used to continue execution at the statement immediately
following the last executed GOSUB or ON GOSUB statement.
If optional line is used, the last GOSUB is POPPED off the stack and a GOTO line is
performed.

"Second"
PRINT "RETURN comes here."
END
"First"
PRINT "This is a subroutine"
RETURN

RUN
This is a subroutine
Return comes here
GOSUB "Routine"
END
"Weird"

PRINT"Ended Here!"
STOP
"Routine"
PRINT"At 'Routine'"
RETURN "Weird"

RUN
At 'Routine'
Ended Here!

When ZBasic encounters a RETURN statement which was not called by a GOSUB, it
will retum to the program that executed it (either DOS or the ZBasic editor).
Using RETURN line WITHOUT A GOSUB or from the middle of a LONG FN will cause
unpredictable (probably disastrous) system errors.

Use caution when using RETURN line to exit eveht trapping routines like DIALOG
ON, MENU ON, TRON, BREAK ON ...

Standard Reference

function RIGHT$
FORMAT

RIGHT$( string, expression )

Returns the righi-most expression characters of string.

A$="HELLO"
FOR I =
PRINT
NEXT I
A$

TO 6
I, RIGHT$(A$,I)

INSTR(l,A$," ")
SP
PRINT"LAST NAME:",
PRINT RIGHT$(A$,LEN(A$)-SP)
END
RUN

3
4
5
6
LAST NAME:

a
LO
LLO
ELLO
HELLO
HELLO
DOE

If expression is more than the characters available, all the characters will be returned.

See LEFT$, VAL, STR$, STRING$, SPACE$, SPC, MID$ and the chapter entitled "String
Variables" in the front section of this manual.

Standard Reference

RND function
FORMAT

RND (expression )

The RND function returns a random integer number from 1 to expression.

RANDOM
A=9
FOR I=l TO 5
PRINT RND (A) ,
PRINT RND(10000)*.0001
NEXT I
END

.9201
.8211
.0912
.7821
.0108

Some versions of BASIC return a floating point random number between 0 and 1;
use RND(10000} •. 0001 to emulate this (it will slow down execution).
Also see MAYBE and RANDOM.
If the same seed number is used for RANDOM, the random numbers generated by
RND will be predictable on the all versions of ZBasic.
The largest number you may use for a RND expression is 32,767.

Standard Reference

statement ROUTE
FORMAT

ROUTE [#) expression

This statement is used to route PRINT statements to a specified device. The
following are the values to be used as expression.
Device number
negative numbers

ROUTE 128
PRINT "HELLO"
OPEN 11 0",1, "Test "
ROUTE 1
PRINT "HELLO"
CLOSE#l
OPEN"C",-1,300
ROUTE -1
PRINT "HELLO"
CLOSE#-l
ROUTE a
PRINT"HELLO"
END

Routes PRINT statements to
I/O devices; See your appendix for specifics
Screen (default)
Disk files specified by number
Printer

<--- This HELLO goes to the printer

<--- This HELLO goes to the file "Test"

<--- This HELLO goes to a serial device

<--- This HELLO goes to the screen

You should eventually route the output back to a screen device (ROUTE 0 ).
See PRINT, OPEN"C" and the chapter "Files" for more information.

Also see ROUTE 128, CLEAR LPRINT, DEF LPRINT and DEF PAGE for more
information about routing text and graphic output to the Imagewriter and Laserwriter.
Be sure to use CLEAR LPRINT with ROUTE 128 to tell the Macintosh printer driver
to print the page.

Standard Reference

RUN statement
1

RUN [ filenumber

The RUN statement does one of two things.

Loads a compiled chain program specified by filenumber and
executes it:
OPEN"I", 1, "Prog.CHN"
RUN 1

Clears all variables and pointers and restarts the current program
from the first line.

OPEN"I",2,"MENU"
RUN 2

<---Loads and RUNS CHAIN program "MENU"

TRONB
FOR X=l TO 100
PRINT X
NEXT
RUN

<--- RUNS this program over and over...

Also see the RUN command and the chapters "Running ZBasic Programs" and
"Chaining" for more information.

Also see RUN filename$, volumenumber"/O in the appendix.

Standard Reference

command RUN
FORMATS

This command is used from the Standard Line Editor to compile a program:

})[ "1 filename [" II

Compiles source code in memory and executes.

Compiles source code called filename from disk and executes.
Source code must have been saved in tokenized format with
SAVE (not as a text file).

Compiles source code in memory and saves as a stand-alone
application on disk. Asks for filename after compiling.

Compiles source code called filename from disk and saves as a
stand-alone application on disk. Source code must have been
saved tokenized (not as a text file). Asks for filename after
compiling.

Compiles source code in memory and saves as a chain file to disk
(no runtime included). Asks for filename after compiling.

Compiles source code called filename from disk and saves as a
chain file to disk (no runtime included). Asks for filename after
compiling.

PRINT "THE PROGRAM RUNS!"

RUN
THE PROGRAM RUNS!

Compiling from disk will destroy any text currently in memory. If an error is
encountered when compiling from disk, ZBasic will load the source code and print
an error message.
After a successful compilation, typing MEM will return memory used for the object
code and variables.
See "Executing Programs" in the front of this manual for more information about
compiling large programs.

Also see COMPILE and LCOMPILE for ways of compiling a program and seeing all
the compile time errors at once (instead of one at a time as wtth RUN).

Standard Reference

SAVE command
FORMAT

SAVE [[ {* I +J] ["] filename

SAVE is used from the Standard Line Editor to save the source code in memory.
You may save your source code in a number of formats:

Saves program in tokenized format. This requires less room on
the disk and saving and loading is much faster than with text files.
In order to compile a file from disk a program must be saved in this
format.

Saves program in TEXT or ASCII format. This allows you to load
the program into other word processors or editors. Loads more
slowly than SAVE above.

Same as SAVE" but line numbers are removed. Be sure your
program doesn't uses label references with GOTO, GOSUB or
other commands, since when a program is re-Ioaded, line
numbers are added back in increments of one which will make
line number references incorrect.

Note: Source code is the program you type in. Object code is the machine
language program created when you compile the source code with RUN. See RUN
for more information about compiling and saving compiled programs to disk.

<---SAVE program in ASCII (text)
<---SAVE program tokenized (condensed)
<---SAVE program in ASCII- with no line numbers

SAVE* PROGRAM. TXT
SAVE AR.BAS
SAVE+ FILE.TXT

Also see LOAD, APPEND, MERGE and RUN.

Standard Reference

statement
SELECT
...............................................................................
"" ...........................................................................
."..". .... ". ....".."'."' .......... ". .... ". .... ". ...."'."'.".."'."..1'.". ....... "..".
.......... "..".."'.".."."........ "'.".". ....... ". ...."'."."..".".".".
"'"":""'"":""'"":""'""'""'"":"":"":""'""'""'""'"":""'"":""'"":""'"":"":""'""'""'" ":''':''':''':''':''':''':''':''':''':''':''':''':''':''':''':''':''':''':''':''':''':~'':''':''':',,:'

SELECT [expression or simplestring]
CASE [IS] relational condition [, relational condition]
statements ...
CASE [IS] condition L condition ]L ...]
statements ...
CASE [IS] boolean expression
statements ...
CASE ELSE
END SELECT

Provides a structured and efficient way of doing multiple comparisons with a single
expression. While IF-THEN or LONG-IF statements could be used, they are harder
to follow when reading program listings.

X=CARDTYPE:REM MSDOS Cardtype example.
SELECT X
CASE 0
PRINT"CGA CARD":MODE 7
CASE 1
PRINT"EGA CARD":MODE 19
CASE 2
PRINT"EGA with Mono": MODE 18
CASE 3
PRINT"HERCULES CARD":MODE 20
CASE 255
PRINT "Monochrome Monitor":MODE 2
CASE ELSE
PRINT"No Video card installed"
END SELECT

See CASE and END SELECT for more examples.

Important Note: Exit a SELECT structure only at the END SELECT.

lI!al!l
SELECT is not supported with the Apple or Z80 versions of ZBasic. Use IF-THEN or
LONG-IF to accomplish the same thing.

Standard Reference

SGN function
FORMAT

SGN ( expression )

Returns the sign of expression.

If expression is:
positive
Zero
Negative

+1 is returned.
o is returned.
-1 is returned.

DEFDBL A-Z: DEFTAB 8: WIDTH 40
X","ABS(X)" ... INT(X) ..... FRAC(X) .. ,SGN(X) ..
PRINT"
FOR X =
PRINT
PRINT
PRINT
PRINT
PRINT
NEXT X

-15.0 TO +15.0 STEP 3.75
USING"-"."";X.
USING ""."";ABS(X),
USING"-II.I''';INT(X),
USING "-'."";FRAC(X).
USING "-'."";SGN(X)

-15.00
-11.25
7.50
- 3.75
.00
3.75
7.50
11.25
15.00

15.00
11.25
7.50
3.75
.00
3.75
7.50
11.25
15.00

-15.00
-11.00
- 7.00
3.00
.00
3.00
7.00
11. 00
15.00

Standard Reference

FRAC(X)
.00
-.25
-.50
-.75
.00
.75
.50
.25
.00

Also see UNS$, FRAC, INT, ABS and negation.

SGN(X)
-1. 00
-1. 00
-1. 00
-1. 00
.00
1.00
1. 00
1. 00
1. 00

SIN ( expression )

The SIN function returns the sine of the expression in radians,

X#=SIN(123)
PRINT SIN(X2#)

SIN is a scientific function, The precision for scientific functions may be configured,
See "Configure" in the front of this manual for more information,
See the "Math" and "Expressions" sections of this manual and ATN, TAN, COS,
EXP,SQR, A,
INTEGER SINE: ZBasic provides a predefined USR function to do hi-speed
integer sines, This speeds up sine speed by up to 30 times:
USR8(angle ) returns the integer sine of angle in the range ±255 (corresponding to
±1), The angle must be in brads, See CIRCLE for examples of brads, Example:
MODE? :CLS
FOR I=O TO 255
PLOT I«2,-USR8(I)+384
NEXT I

Standard Reference

SOUND statement
FORMAT

SOUND frequency, duration

SOUND may be used to create sound effects or music.
frequency
duration

Frequency 120 Hz to 10,000 Hz.
Duration in 1 millisecond increments.

Note: Hz (Hertz) represents cycles-per-second.
EXAMPLE

DO
INPUT"Tone: niTone
INPUT"Duration: "iDuration
SOUND Tone, Duration
UNTIL (Tone=O) OR (Duration=O)

Example frequencies you may use in your program to create music or sound effects.
(Choose the duration as required.) Quality of sound may vary by machine.

OCTAVES
NOTES
C

1
33
35
37
39
41
44
46
49
52
55
57
61

2
66
70
74
79
82
88
93
99
105
110
115
123

3
132
140
148
158
165
176
187
198
211
220
231
247

4
264
281
297
316
330
352
375
396
422
440
462
495

5
528
563
594
633
660
704
751
792
844
880
924
990

6
1056
1126
1188
1267
1320
l408
1502
1584
1689
1760
1848
1980

2112
2253
2376
2534
2640
2816
3004
3168
3379
3520
3696
3960

Some computers may not have sound. See your computer appendix for more
information.

CP/M-SO: Sound not supported. CHR$(7) may sound a bell on some sytems.
TRS-SO model 1,3: Requires that a speaker be connected to the cassette port.
TRS-SO Model 4: Frequency range of internal speaker limited to 0,0 to 7,31.

See appendix for using four voice sound and utilizing the sound buffer.

Standard Reference

function SPACE$
FORMAT

SPACE$ ( expression

Returns a string of spaces expression characters long (range of 0 to 255).

PRINT "ZEDCORZEDCORZE"
FOR X=7 TO 0 STEP -1
PRINT SPACE$(X);"ZEDCOR"
NEXT
PRINT"ZEDCORZEDCORZEDCOR"
END

RUN
ZEDCORZEDCORZE
ZEDCOR
ZEDCOR
ZED COR
ZED COR
ZED COR
ZED COR
ZEDCOR
ZEDCOR
ZEDCORZEDCORZEDCOR

See STRING$, MID$, RIGHT$, LEFT$, INSTR and SPC.

Standard Reference

SPC function
FUNCTION

SPC (expression )

SPC prints expression spaces from 0 to 255.
Prints the number of spaces specified by expression.

PRINT"*";SPC(RND(20»;"+"
UNTIL LEN(INKEY$)

Standard Reference

Also see SPACE$, LEFT$, STRING$, RIGHT$, MID$ and INSTR.

function SQR
FORMAT

SQR (expression )

The SQR function returns the square root of expression.

H=SQR(X'X+ Y'Y)

A=9
PRINT SQR (A)

SQR is a scientific function. Scientific functions may be configured to a different
precision. See "Configure" in the front of this manual for more information.
For more information on scientific functions see the "Math" and "Expression"
sections of this manual and ATN, SIN, COS, TAN, EXP and A •

Standard Reference

STEP statement
FORMAT

expr1 TO expr2 [STEP expr3 J

J[ ,variable. .. J

This parameter allows you to set the increments used in a FOR-NEXT loop. If STEP
is omitted than one is assumed.

FOR X= 0 TO 10 STEP 2
PRINT X;
NEXT
FOR X = 10 TO 0 STEP -1
PRINT X;
NEXT
END
RUN

o 2 4 6 8 10
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

Also see FOR, NEXT, DO, UNTIL, WHILE, WEND and the chapter on "Loops".
IF STEP =0 an endless loop will result.
If expr1 or expr3 change while the loop is executed this change will be in effect
when NEXT is encountered.
Avoid long or complex loop expressions for expr1 or expr3 as they are evaluated
every loop and will slow execution.

Standard Reference

statement STOP
FORMAT

STOP halts execution of a ZBasic program and prints the line number where
execution stopped (if line numbers weren't used the lines are numbered in
increments of one).
STOP when used from ZBasic will return to the Standard Line Editor.
STOP when used from a stand-alone program will return to the operating system.

PRINT"HELLO"
STOP

RUN
Break in 00002
zBasic Ready

STOP closes all files.
END may be used when no message is desired.
See TRONB and TRONX for ways of inserting break pOints in your programs so that
may be used to exit a running a program.

Standard Reference

STR$ function
FORMAT

STR$ (expression )

STR$ returns the string equivalent of the number represented by expression. This
is used to convert numbers or numeric variables to a string.
This function is the compliment of VAL. VAL returns the numeric value contained in
a string.

Integer% =20000
Single! =232.123
Double# = .12323295342
A$=STR$(Integer%)
A$=STR$(Single!)
A$=STR$ (Double#)

:PRINT A$
:PRINT A$
:PRINT A$

X#=VAL(A$)
PRINT X#
RUN
20000
232.123
.12323295342
.12323295342

Standard Reference

Also see BIN$, OCT$, HEX$, MKI$, CVI, MKB$, CVB ljnd VAL.

function STRING$
FORMAT

STRING$ ( expr 1 ' string )
STRING$ ( expr1 , expr2 )

Relurns a string of the length expr1 consisting of the characters specified by either
the ASCII equivalent of expr2 or the first character of string.

PRINT STRING$ (5,"'")
PRINT STRING$ (10,65)
PRINT STRING$ (10,CHR$(65»
A$ = STRING$(3,"*") + "TEST"+ STRING$(3,"&")
PRINT A$
END

H.H
AAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAA

STRING$ is more efficient than using an equivalent string of characters.

See SPACE$, LEFT$, RIGHT$, MID$,INSTR, VAL, STR$,INDEX$ and SPC.

Standard Reference

SYSTEM
statement
..............................................................................................................................................................
.......................................". ....... rI" ..................................... "' ..................................... "' .... " .... "'."' ............... .

"":""'"":"":""'"":""'""'""'""'""'""'""'""'"":"":"":""'"":""'"":"":""'""'""'"":'"'"""'""'""'""'"":"":"":"":"":""'"":""'""'"":""'"":""'""'"":"":"":"":"":"":"":"":
FORMAT

Same as END. Provided for compatibility wnh other versions of BASIC.

PRINT"HELLO"
SYSTEM
RUN
HELLO

Functionally identical to the ZBasic END statement. See END and STOP.

Not Supported with Apple /I or

Standard Reference

zao versions of ZBasic.

statement SWAP
FORMAT

SWAP exchanges the contents of var1 and var2. The variables can be of any type
exceptlNDEX$ variables.

Var1 and var2 must be of the same type.

B$="YES"
A$="NO"
PRINT A$, B$
SWAP A$, B$
PRINT A$, B$
PRINT

A=1:B=100
PRINT A,B
SWAP A,B
PRINT A,B
END

SWAP will execute faster and take less memory than similar methods using "holding
variables" .
SWAP does not function with INDEX$.

Standard Reference

TAB function
FORMAT

TAB ( expression)

Tab will move the cursor to the posijions; 0 through 255, designated by expression.
Three devices may be used wnh Tab:

DEVICE
SCREEN
PRINTER
DISK

fQ.B.MPRINT
LPRINT
PRINT#

WILL POSITION
CURSOR
PRINT HEAD
FILE POINTER

DATA Fred Smith, 12 E. First, Tucson, AZ, 85712
DATA Dana Andrews, 32 Main, LA, CA, 90231
PRINT "Name " TAB (15) "Address"TAB(30) "City"TAB(40) "State
PRINT STRING$(50,"-")
FOR Item= 0 TO 1
RESTORE Item*5
READ N$, A$, C$, S$, Z$
PRINT N$ TAB(15) A$ TAB(30) C$ TAB(40) S$"
NEXT
END

Standard Reference

Fred Smith
Dana Andrews

12 E. First
32 Main

Tab will start numbering from the zero poSition. Also see DEFTAB, PRINT@,
PRINT%, pas, PAGE, WIDTH and WIDTH LPRINT.

function TAN
FORMAT

TAN (expression)

Returns the value of the tangent of the expression in radians.

TAN is a scientific function. Scientific accuracy may be configured differently than
single or double precision. See "Configure" at the beginning of this manual.
Also see ATN, COS, SIN, EXP, SOR and

For more information on scientific functions see "Math" and "Expressions" in the
front section of this manual.

Standard Reference

TIME$ function
FORMAT

Returns an eight character string which represents the systems clock value in the
format HH:MM:SS where HH=1 to 24 hours, MM= 0 to 60 minutes, SS= 0 to 60
seconds.

PRINT TIME$
DELAY 1000
A$=TIME$
PRINT A$

RUN
10:23:32
10:23:33

See DATE$ and DELAY.
This function will return a 00:00:00 if the system or version has no clock.

Macintosh: Set time from the Control Panel Desk Accessory. Also see TIMER for
other ways of getting seconds.
MSDOS: Set time using TIME$= hh, mm, ss. Also see TIMER.
Apple: See appendix for variations of system clocks.

zao: See appendix for your particular hardware.

Standard Reference

statement TROFF
FORMAT

TROFF is used to tum off the trace statements: TRON, TRONX, TRON and TRONS.

TRON
FOR X=l TO 3
NEXT
TROFF
PRINT "Line tracing now off"
FOR X=l TO 10
NEXT

RUN
00001 00002 00003 00002 00003 00002 00003 00004 Line tracing
now off

See also TRON, TRONS, TRONB, TRONX and the chapter on "Debugging Tools".

Standard Reference

TRON statement
FORMAT
DEFINITION

TRON[ {B I S I X} 1

These statements are used for tracing program execution, single stepping through a
program, and setting break points for monitoring the key so that you can
break out of a program.

TRACING PROGRAM FLOW
TRON
Prints the line numbers of the program as each line is executed
so you can trace program flow and check for errors.
TRON S
lets you single step through a program. Program execution will
pause at the beginning of every line in the program following
TRON S (up to the end of the program or when a TROFF is
encountered). Press any key to continue or press the
key to enable/disable single-stepping. also works.
SETTING BREAK POINTS
TRON X
Sets a break point at that line in a program and checks to see if
the key has been pressed.
TRON B
Sets a break point at the beginning of every line in the program
following it (up to the END or until a TROFF is encountered).
Note: The key is checked at the beginning of a line. IF is
encountered in a program compiled with RUN, program exits to the Standard Line
Editor. If is encountered in a stand-alone program, exit is to the system.
will pause execution when encountered during execution of TRONB,
TRONX or TRON. Any key will restart. will activate/deactivate singlestep mode when any TRON is active. Note: INKEY$ may lose keys if TRON is used.

TRON:TRONS
PRINT "HELLO"
TROFF

RUN
00001 00002 00003 HELLO 00004

Every line between a TRON and TROFF may use up to eight extra bytes per line.
Use TRON sparingly to save memory and increase execution speed. See chapter
entitled "Debugging Tools" for more information. INKEY$ may lose keys with TRON.

MacIntosh: is . Also see BREAK ON, and TRON
WINDOW in appendix for other ways of tracing program flow and variable values.
MSDOS: is .
CP/M: is .
Apple" ProDOS or DOS 3.3: is or .
TRS·aO: is .

Standard Reference

function
UCASE$
.
.,
,

UCASE$ (string )

Returns a string with all characters converted to uppercase (capital letters).

PRINT UCASE$ ("hello")

A$=IIHeLLo n
PRINT UCASE$ (A$)
END
RUN
HELLO
HELLO
DO
key$=UCASE$(INKEY$)
UNTIL LEN (key$)
PRINT keyS
END

<---always returns an uppercase character

REM This function converts a string to Lowercase
LONG FN lcase$(string$)
FOR X=l TO LEN(string$)
A=PEEK(VARPTR(string$)+X)
IF (A>64) AND (A<91) THEN A=A+32
POKEVARPTR(string$)+X,A
NEXT
END FN=string$
PRINT FN lcase$("HELLO")

This function is very useful when sorting data containing upper and lower case and
for checking user input without regard to case.
Also see LEFT$, RIGHT$, MID$, INSTR, STR$, VAL, and the chapter "String
Variables" in this manual.

Standard Reference

UNS$ function
FORMAT

UNS$ (expression )

Returns a string which equals the integer value of expression in an unsigned
decimal format.

PRINT UNS$ (-1)
PRINT UNS$ (4)
PRINT
PRINT 65535

This function is useful for displaying integers in an unsigned format (0 through
65,535 instead of -32,768 through 32,767).
See STR$, DEC$, OCT$, HEX$, VAL and the chapter on "Numeric Conversions".

See DEFSTR LONG for enabling this function to work with Longlntegers.

Standard Reference

statement UNTIL
FORMAT

DO
UNTIL expression

UNTIL is used to mark the end of a DO loop.
The DO loop repeats until the expression following the UNTIL is true (non-zero).
A DO loop will always execute at least once.

DO
X=X+l
UNTIL X=100
PRINT X

"Wait for a key"
DO
I$=INKEY$
UNTIL LEN (I$)
END

Notice ZBasic will automatically indent DO loop structures fwo spaces. See the
chapter on "Formatting Program Listings" for other ways of formatting listings.
Also see FOR, NEXT, STEP, WHILE, WEND and the chapter on "Loops" in the
technical section of the manual.
WHILE,WEND may be used to exit a loop immediately if a condition is false.

Standard Reference

USR function
FORMAT

USR digit (word expression)

The USR function calls the user created subroutine, defined wHh DEFUSR,
specified by a digit 0 to 9, and retums the value of integer expression in the 16 bit
accumulator.

REM EXAMPLE ONLY

DEFUSR2 = LINE "Routine two"
X=USR2 (938)
PRINT X
END
"Routine two"
MACHLG &8B,&C4,&C3:RETURN

A machine language retum is necessary at the end of a USR routine.
ZBasic provides pre-defined USR functions that perform some powerful functions
like integer sine and cosine. See next page.

Macintosh: Be sure to use Longlntegers whenever referencing memory
addresses. Also see CALL in the Macintosh appendix.
MSDOS: See CALL in your appendix.
Apple ProDOS: See MLI in the ProDOS appendix.

Standard Reference

functions PRE-DEFINED USR
Predefined USR functions
These pre-defined USR functions are available for ali versions of Z8asic. See your
Computer Appendix for possible other USR functions.

USR6(expr)
Retums the last line number executed that used any of the TRON functions
(expr is not used).
TRONX
I=USR6 (0)
PRINT I

USR7(expr)
Returns Z8asic's random number seed used in the RND function (expr is not used).
FOR I=l TO 10
PRINT USR7(0)
NEXT I

USR8(angle )
Returns the integer sine of angle in the range ±255 (corresponding to ±1). The
angle must be in brads.
MODE7 :CLS
FOR I=O TO 255
PLOT I«2,-USR8(I)+384
NEXT I

USR9(angle )
Returns the integer cosine of angle in the range ±255 (corresponding to ±1). The
angle must be in brads.
MODE7 :CLS
FOR I=O TO 255
PLOT I«2,-USR9(I)+384
NEXT I

Standard Reference

USR statement
FORMAT

USR digit ( expression)

This statement will call the USR routine defined by DEFUSRdigit and transfer the
result of expression in the integer accumulator.

Example only DO NOT USE
DEFUSRO=LINE "Machine language"
USRO (0)
END

"Machine Language"
MACHLG &39, &C9: RETURN

The USR routine must be set by the program or be a predefined USR routine. Also
see DEFUSR, USR function, LINE, CALL, MACHLG, the chapter about "Machine
Language" in this manual, and your computer appendix.

Macintosh: Be sure to use longlntegers whenever referencing memory
addresses. Also see CAll in the MAcintosh appendix.
MSDOS: See CAll in your appendix.
Apple ProDOS: See MLI in the ProDOS appendix.

Standard Reference

function VAL
FORMAT

Returns the numeric numeric value of the first number in a string.
The VAL function will terminate conversion at the first non-numeric character in

string.
This function is the compliment of STR$. STR$ will convert a numeric expression to
a string.

A$="HELLO"
B$="1234.56
C$="99999"
PRINT "The value of A$="; VAL (A$)
PRINT "The value of B$=";VAL(B$)
PRINT "The value of C$=";VAL(C$)
PRINT
PRINT "The value of 9876.543=";VAL("9876.543")
END

RUN
The value of A$= 0
The value of B$= 1234.56
The value of C$= 99999
The value of 9876.543= 9876.543

The numeric value returned by VAL will be in floating point forrnat
See STR$, UNS$, HEX$, OCT$ and BIN$, INT, FRAC, ABS, FIX.
Also see the chapter on "Math" and "Expressions" in the front section of this
manual.

Standard Reference

VARPTR function
FORMAT

VARPTR ( variable)

Retums the address of a variable . Any variable type may be used except INDEX$.

A$="HELLO"
PRINT "Address of A$=";VARPTR(A$)
PRINT "Length of A$ =";PEEK(VARPTR(A$»
PRINT "Contents of A$= ";
FOR X=l TO LEN(A$)
PRINT CHR$(PEEK(VARPTR(A$)+X»;
NEXT
END

RUN
Address of A$= 23456
Length of A$ = 5
Content of A$= HELLO

The following paragraphs describe which address VARPTR will be pointing to with
different variable types.
INTEGER

Points to the 1st byte of an integer variable

Points to the sign/exponent byte

Points to the length byte

Points to the element specified

See the sections in the front of this manaul for the variable type you interested in to
see how variables are stored in memory.

Macintosh: Be sure to use Longlntegers to store addresses.

MSDOS: var=VARPTR(var) retums two values: The address of varand the
segment of var in a special variable called VARSEG. See appendix for details.

Standard Reference

statement WEND
FORMAT

WHILE expression

This statement is used to terminate a WHILE loop. When expression becomes false
the loop will exit at the first statement following the WEND.

"Get a YES Answer and nothing else!"
INPUT"What is your answer :";A$
WHILE A$ <>"Y"
INPUT"Please reconsider and say :";A$
WEND
PRINT"Thank you for seeing things my way .....
program continues ....

RUN
What is your answer : N
Please reconsider and say : Y
Thank you for seeing things my way ...

WHILE X*X <23000
PRINT X*X,
X=X+l
WEND
END

ZBasic will automatically indent all lines two spaces between WHILE and WEND
when you use LIST. This makes programs much easier to read.
Also see FOR, NEXT, STEP, DO, UNTIL and the chapters on "Loops" and
"Structure" in the front of this manual.
A structure error will occur if a WHILE exists without a matching WEND. To find a
missing WEND, LIST the program and track back from the last indent.

Standard Reference

WHILE statement
FORMAT

WHILE expression

WEND
DEFINITION

In a WHILE statement, expression is tested for true before the loop is executed and
will exit to the statement immediately following the matching WEND when
expression becomes false.

"GET A KEY"
WHILE LEN(Key$)=O
Key$=INKEY$
WEND
PRINT Key$
END

WHILE X 23
Integer numbers
~
I lilTI

01 ml- I-I iii HI a I r I r I y 1- I-I § IGI i II I d I a 1- I-I§ I Kia I tI hE 1-1-1

~ Represents the Length Byte (stored as LB$ in the example)

Standard Reference

XELSE statement
FORMAT

LONGIF expression

This statement is used to separate the FALSE from the TRUE section of a LONG IF
structure.
The statements following the XELSE will only be executed if the statement following
the LONG IF is false.

LONGIF 10 = 0
PRINT"TRUE"
XELSE
PRINT"FALSE"
ENDIF
END

All program lines between the LONG IF and XELSE are indented two characters
when using LIST. This makes a program easier to read.
A structure error will occur the XELSE does not have a matching LONG IF.

Standard Reference

expression 1 XOR expression2

Provides a means of doing a logical EXCLUSIVE OR on two expressions for IFTHEN testing and BINARY operations.
This operator will return true if one condition is true and one condition is false. False
will be returned if both conditions are true or both conditions are false.

A$="Hello U
IF A$="Hello" XOR A$="Goodbye" PRINT "YES"
IF A$="Hello" XOR A$="Hello" PRINT "YES"

XOR TRUTH TABLES
condition XOR condition

XQB
1 XOR
0 XOR
1 XOR
0 XOR

FALSE
TRUE
FALSE
TRUE

XOR
XOR
XOR
XOR

FALSE
FALSE
TRUE
TRUE

TRUE(-l) if only one condition is TRUE, else FALSE(0)

BQOLEAN "16 BIT" LOGIC
00000001
10000101
XOR
XOR
fZlfZlfZlfZlllll
lfZlfZlfZlfZllll
00000010
00001110

FALSE
TRUE
TRUE
FALSE

Standard Reference

MSDOS APPENDIX
4 .; liUW£

MSDOSTMAppendix

ASIC
II
ZBasic MSDOSTM
Version 4.0
For MSDOSTM, PCDOSTM
and IBM® PC and compatible computers
Original code by
Scott Terry
4.0 Enhancements by
Halbert P. Liang

© Copyright 1985,1986,1987

ZEDCOR, Inc.
All Rights Reserved

MSDOSTM Appendix

MSDOS APPENDIX
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Getting Started

Enhancements to 3.02
Files Included On Master Diskette
Special Notes
Loading Old 3.02 programs
Pathnames
Note to Tandy 2000
Note to Zenith Z-150
Additions to The Standard Line Editor
Optional Keys
Other Enhancements
Graphic Enhancements
EGA, CGA, MDPA
Hercules Graphics

A6
A7
A8
A8
A8
A8
A8
A9
A9
A9
A 10
A 10
A 10

Executing ZBaslc from MSDOS
MSDOS Specific Configuration Options
Memory Use With 4.0
Variables
Notes on the Memory Map
Memory Map
RS-232 Communications
Common Problems
Cables Diagram
Jump Tables
List of Alterable USR functions
Machine Language Examples
Critical Error Handling
Assembly Listing
ZBasic Listing

A11
A 12
A 14
A14
A 15
A 16
A17
A 17
A 18
A19
A21
A22
A23
A23
A24

Converting BASICA and QulckBASIC programs

Alphabetical Reference
statement
BLOAD
BSAVE
statement
CALL
statement
statement
CALL "DOS"
function
CARDTYPE
CHDIR
statement
function
CINT
statement
COLOR
function
COM BUFF
statement
COM ON
function
COMMAND$
CON FIG
command
statement
DATE$
DEFMOUSE
statement

A28
A29
A30
A31
A32
A33
A34
A35
A36
A38
A40
A41
A43
A42
A43

MSDOSTM Appendix

MSDOS APPENDIX
-?.;":=il '

TABLE OF CONTENTS
DEF PAGE
DEFPAGEREADtWRITE
DEF SEG
DEFUSR
END
ERROR
FILES
FIX
FRE
INDENT
INKEY$
INKEY$
KEY
LOCATE
MEM
MEM
MKDIR
MODE
MOUSE
MOUSE
ON COM ERROR
ON INKEY$
OPEN"C"
PAGE LPRINT
PAINT
PALETTE
PATH$
PEEK
PLOT USING
POKE
RENUM*
RMDIR
SCREEN
SCREEN
SHELL
TFORMAT
TIME$
TIMER
UNNUM
USRI (EOF)
USR2
USR3
USR4
USR5
VARPTR
VARSEG
VIEW PRINT
WAIT

statement
statement
statement
statement
statement
function
statement
command
function
command
function
statement
command
statement
function
command
statement
statement
function
statement
statement
statement
statement
statement
statement
statement
function
function
statement
statement
statement
statement
function
statement
statement
statement
statement
function
command
function
statement
function
statement
function
function
function
statemeni
statement

New Full Screen Editor
Difference between the two Editors
Moving the Cursor
Full Screen Editor Commands

A44
A45
A46
A47
A48
A49
A50
A51
A52
A53
A54
A55
A56
A57
A58
A59
A60
A61
A63
A65
A66
A67
A69
A71
A72
A73
A74
A75
A76
A77
A78
A79
A80
A81
A82
A83
A84
A85
A86
A87
A87
A88
A89
A90
A91
A91
A92
A93
A94
A94
A95
A96

MSDOSTM Appendix

MSDOS APPENDIX
J

GETTING STARTED

This version of ZBasic is provided on a 180K diskette to be compatible with most
MSDOS computers. It is recommended that you make a backup of the diskette and put
the master away for safekeeping.

HOW TO MAKE A BACKUP
1. Put an MSDOS or peDOS diskette in drive A: and start the system.
2. Put a Write protect tab on the ZBasic master diskette.
3. Put the ZBasic disk in drive A: and a blank diskette in drive B:
4. Type: DISKCOPY A: B:
5. Put the master ZBasic diskette away for safekeeping.

HOW TO PUT ZBASIC ON A BOOTABlE MSDOS DISKETTE
1. Put an MSDOS diskette in drive A: and start the system

2. Put a blank diskette in drive B:
3. Type: FORMAT/S B:
4. Take the newly created diskette out of B: and pul it in drive A:

5. Put the ZBasic diskette in B:
6. Type: copy B: * . *

HOW TO COPY THE ZBASIC FilES TO A HARD DISK:
1. Pullhe ZBasic disk in drive A:
2. Type: Copy A:*.* C:

NECESSARY FilES
The only necessary file for running ZBasic is: ZBasic .COM.
If you are using a Hercules board then ZHERC • BAT and HERC. COM are required
when mixing text and graphics. If only graphics are used Ihese files are nol
necessary (Ihese files are not required with other graphic boards). All the other
files are optional. See "Files included on the Master Diskette" on the next page.

RUNNING ZBASIC
To run ZBasic from DOS just type: ZBAS IC. If you are using a Hercules board type;
ZHERC. For more detailed information see "Running ZBasic" in the main section of
this manual and "Executing ZBasic from MSDOS" in this appendix.

TWO EDITORS
You will see a start-up screen as described in "Getting Started" in the front section
of this manual. Press "E"lo go into the Standard Line Editor. Use the key
to toggle between the Standard Line Editor (where all direct commands are
executed) and the Full Screen Editor.

CONFIGURING ZBASIC FOR YOUR COMPUTER
You may configure many of the default settings of ZBasic to your preferences and
for your computer type. See "Configure" in the front section of this manual and
"MSDOS Specific Configuration Options" in this appendix for ways of changing the
standard settings.

MSDOSTM Appendix

",_liwfill. ._.,tl.wmBt_l.1tfB;¥itllt;;B@%\W¥ml
ENHANCEMENTS TO 3.02
When ZBasic was first introduced for MSDOS machines in late 1985 we knew it was a
great product, but we were also realistic and knew that there must have been things we
overlooked and that people would wan!. So we listened carefully to all the feedback we
received. This version of ZBasic is the culmination of that feedback. We have worked
hard to add the features you wanted (let us know what else you would like).
The following enhancements have been made to ZBasic 3.0:
UNLIMITED VARIABLE SIZE: for String and BCD arrays. Array sizes may be up to
available memory (640K on most systems). In addition, Integer variables and INDEX$
may be up to 64K (since data storage may be so large we had to change the way that
VARPTR worked. See VARPTR in this appendix for specifics).
EGA GRAPHICS: New modes have been added to take advantage of the Enhanced
Graphics Adapter. Resolution up to 640x350 in 16 colors is available. MODE 16-19 are
used for EGA modes. CGA modes may also be emulated. See MODE, SCREEN,
COLOR and PALETIE for details.
HERCULES AND HERCULES PLUS GRAPHICS: The popular "HERC" board
is now supported in MODE 20. Resolution is up to 720x348. See MODE and
"Hercules Graphics" in this appendix for details.
LOTS OF NEW COMMANDS: We have made ZBasic even more compatible with
other BASIC languages. Some of the commands added since the last version:
COORDINATE
SCREEN
BSAVE
CHOIR
CSRLN
RMDIR
KEY LIST
END SELECT

COORDINATE WINDOW
CARDTYPE
DEFSEG
COM ON
EOF
VARSEG
COM BUFF
CASE

GET(graphics)
BEEP
SHELL
COM OFF
MKDIR
KEY ON
WAIT
SELECT CASE

PUT
BLOAD
CONFIG
COMMAND$
PATH$
KEY OFF
PALETTE
CASE ELSE

FULL SCREEN EDITOR: We have included a powerful and easy to full screen editor with
ZBasic. To toggle between the Line Editor and the Full Screen Editor just press F10.
Instructions are at the back of this appendix.
IMPROVED USER INTERFACE: Both editors display function key equivalents at the
bottom of the screen. Just press the appropriate function key to do the command. LOAD
and SAVE automatically append the pathname and .BAS suffix where appropriate. If you
use another suffix just add it under "Configure".
ADVANCED COMMUNICATION FEATURES: An interrupt driven, 32K buffer has
been added that supports both communication ports. See COM ON, COM OFF,
COM BUFF and the chapter in this appendix entitled "RS-232 Communications".
NEW CONFIGURATION OPTIONS: We have added options to configure "Spaces
between Keywords" so that you can embed keywords in variables and an option to set
expression evaluation to do floating point like QuickBASIC and BASICA. See "Converting
QuickBASIC and BASICA Programs" in this appendix and "Converting Old Programs" in the
main reference section.

MSD05TM Appendix

MSDOS APPENDIX
fJWi@. ill
I~• • • • • • • •I
FILES INCLUDED ON THE MASTER DISKETTE
SYSTEM
FILES

DESCRIPTION
This is the main ZBasic compiler and editor. Just type ZBASIC
from the MSDOS to execute.

A limited demo version of ZBasic (public domain). Feel free to
give it away to your friends, relatives and co-workers. This and
ZBAS IC . HLP may be given away together (please do not give
away any other programs on this disk).

HERCULES
GRAPHICS

This batch file loads the Hercules text driver and ZBasic into
memory in the correct order. Always use it when with Hercules
Graphics boards.

This file is necessary for intermixing text and graphics in Hercules
graphics modes. If you are creating applications that may be run
on a Hercules Graphics adaptor be sure to have this file available
for the program.

D!:;SCRIPTION
This is the help file. It is not necessary for using ZBasic.

Configuration for keys.

PYRAMID.BAS
HOUSE. BAS
SIEVE.BAS
COLOR. BAS
PAGEFLIP.BAS
ZROSE.BAS

3-D pyramid rotates in space using standard graphics.
3-D house rotates in space.
The Sieve of Erastothenes benchmark from Byte, Jan. 1983.
Shows different uses of color.
Demonstration of graphics page flipping in EGA modes.
Does a graphic "Rose" using High-speed and regular speed SIN
and COSINE routines. Change mode for different graphics
types (MODE 7 for CGA, MODE 19 for EGA, MODE 20 for
Hercules and Hercules Plus).
A powerful graphic editor. Requires a Microsoft mouse.
This program displays some of the MODE type available in
ZBasic. It does not demonstrate EGA or Hercules modes.
Extend the loop from 16 to 20 to do that.
Bar and Line Graphs in Device independent Graphics.

A simple game written in ZBasic. It is quite fun. Try it.

This routine creates random data for arrays to demonstrate the
SHELL and QUICK sort routines on this disk. Load this program
firstthen do APPEND 1000 SHELL .APP (or QUICK.APP)
The SHELL SORT that appears in the manual (under "Array
variables.) A powerful sort when less items are used.
The QUICK SORT that appears in the manual (under "Array
variables.) A powerful sort when many elements need to be
sorted.

GEDIT.BAS
MODE.BAS

SHELL.APP
QUICK.APP

MSDOSTM Appendix

Examples of creating your own functions with ZBasic.

MSDOS APPENDIX
SPECIAL NOTES
LOADING OLD ZBASIC 3.02 PROGRAMS
To convert old ZBasic 3.02 programs to work with ZBasic version 4.0:
1. Load programs into ZBasic 3.02
2. Use SAVE< to save them in ASCII format
3. Load them into ZBasic 4.0
Note: Be sure that "Spaces between Keywords" is set to "NO" when loading old
programs (otherwise keywords without spaces will result in syntax errors [or worse]).

PATHNAMES
The filenames in ZBasic are the standard MSOOS filenames as specified in the MSOOS
reference manual. Pathnames may not be used as filenames within OPEN statements
in this version (although by using CHOIR you may have files open in many different
directories simultaneously).
To control pathnames use one of the following: PATH$, RMOIR, MKOIR and CHOIR and
ERROR 11. See the listings for these commands in this appendix.

NOT QUITE 100% IBM PC COMPATIBLE NOTES
For many computers that are not quite 100% compatible with the IBM PC there are a
number of things you may want to do. First; be sure to read the text in the "MSOOS
Specific Configuration Options" section of this manual. Especially under IBM Text
Compatible and IBM Graphics Compatible items. You may need to set these. Other
than that you should have few problems using ZBasic on your computer.

NOTE TO TANDY 2000 OWNERS
The Tandy 2000 boots up with random characters on the screen. While this may look
like the system has crashed, it is alive and well on another page. Simply press "E" and
everything works fine from there on out. Use CON FIG from the Standard Line Editor to
configure ZBasic to your preferences.
ZBasic operates normally on all the other Tandy computers including the Tandy 1000,
1200 and 3000.

NOTE TO ZENITH Z-150 OWNERS
Zenith Z-150 computers work great with ZBasic when you use the PC emulation
program available from Zenith and Heath dealers nationally. Failure to use this program
produces a "Wild Interrupt Error".

MSDOS'M Appendix

mMt.. . . . . .,;,;:

ADDITIONS TO THE STANDARD LINE EDITOR
OPTIONAL KEYS
The standard reference manual describes certain keys to be used with the Standard
Line Editor. The following list of keys may also be used:

KEY
Up arrow
Down arrow
Home
End
Page down
Ctrl-Home
Cursor keys
Insert
Delete

--->
--->
--->
--->
--->
--->

DefiNITION
List previous line
List next line
List first line
List last line
List next 10 lines
Clear the screen
Cursor movement left or right (or and

This is the standard way to startup ZBasic. See "Getting Started" in the front of this
manual and also "MSDOS Specific Configuration Options" in this appendix.

Type: ZBASIC filename

This will force ZBasic to load the file given by filename and go directly into the ZBasic
editor, skipping the initial prompt screen. Using this procedure saves the time of going
through the initial prompt screen (note: BASICA or QuickBASIC files must have been
saved in ASCII format).

Type: ZBASIC filenamel filename2 [/C 1

This will force ZBasic to load the file given by filename1, then compile it into the file
given by filename2. If the "/C" option is included, then the file will be saved as a ZBasic
chain file (same as using RUN+), else the file will be saved as an executable file (same as
using RUN-).
ZBasic will always return to the operating system when done compiling, making this
procedure very useful for compiling several programs at once using a batch file.

To convert old ZBasic 3.02 programs saved in tokenized format so they can be loaded
into the new version 4.0:
1. Load programs into ZBasic 3.02
2. Use SAVE- to save them in ASCII format
3. Load them into ZBasic 4.0

This compiles TEST. BAS and creates TEST. COM; an executable file.

This compiles TEST. BAS and creates TEST. CHN; a chain file (runtime not included).
If there is an error during loading or compiling, the error will be displayed and ZBasic will
retum to the operating system. ZBasic will also return an exit code of 1 if there was an
error, 0 if your program compiled and saved successfully. This exit code can be
examined using the batch sub-commands IF and ERRORLEVEL.
See the MSDOS manual for more information on using batch files.

MSDOSTM Appendix

MSDOS APPENDIX
MSDOS SPECIFIC CONFIGURATION OPTIONS
ZBasic may be configured by typing "C" in the initial prompt screen. ZBasic will then ask
for the standard configuration parameters explained in the "Configure" section of the
manual (this version may also be configured directly from the editor by typing CON FIG).
Following the "Standard configuration parameters" are the MSDOS specific
configuration parameters. The additional configuration prompts are:

Allows you to set the default suffix. If you save a program called FRED, it will be saved
as FRED.BAS. If you change BAS to ZBS, it will be saved as FRED.ZBS. Use a space
if no suffix is desired. The default is .BAS.

The normal IBM screen allows 25 rows of text to be displayed. There are some MSDOS
computers, however, that cannot display this many rows of text. For these computers,
simply enter the actual screen length under this prompt and ZBasic will automatically
correct this IBM incompatibility.

The ZBasic DELAY expression statement is designed to delay a number of
milliseconds given by expression. However, each millisecond delay is dependent on
the speed of the computer hardware.
ZBasic assumes the computer speed to be that of the IBM PC (i.e. 4.77 megahertz
clock speed using the 8088 microprocessor). If your clock-speed varies; enter a
number under this prompt corresponding to your computer's speed: For 8mhz
calculate using 8/4.77 *300=503. For 12mhz calculate using 12/4.77*300=754
This 1ms time constant is also used in the ZBasic SOUND statement; thus, if a program
uses sound at all, it is necessary that this time constant be accurate. The time constant
can also be changed during program execution using the pre-defined user function -USR2. See USR2 statement in this appendix for more information.

Mouse supported .

ZBasic defaults to not supporting a mouse driver. If ZBasic is configured to support the
mouse, it will assume the Microsoft mouse and will always check to see if the mouse
hardware and software are installed.
On some machines, this check is invalid and can cause unpredictable results. This is
because ZBasic checks and, if non-zero, uses interrupt H33 for the mouse interface. If
a system uses this interrupt vector for something else, problems will result.
If configured to use the mouse, make sure to test ZBasic with the mouse driver.

MSDOSTM Appendix

MSDOS APPENDIX
IBM

Graphics in MODE 5 and MODE 7 go directly to memory and, thus, are very fast. This is
a problem, however, on systems with the graphics memory arranged differently from the
IBM PC's graphics. If this is the case, enter "N" under this prompt and ZBasic will no
longer use direct memory when implementing graphics (which will noticeable slow down
the graphics functions).
Selecting the "N" option will also allow ZBasic to handle COLOR ranges from 0 to 255
for foreground, background, and palette in MODE 5 and MODE 7 (see "COLOR" in this
appendix). This will allow the full color range on some advanced color adapters;
however, the expressions used in the COLOR statement should not exceed the
highest allowed value for the adapter, else the result will be unpredictable.

If ZBasic is configured to be IBM text compatible, then ZBasic writes text directly to
memory. This speeds up the PRINT statement by as much as ten times, depending on
what is being printed. If the machine is not a true compatible, however, ZBasic will not
operate properly.
To find out if this works on your machine, Simply type "Y" after the question mark; if the
next configuration parameter shows up normally on the screen, then the machine is IBM
text compatible. A program that is compiled to disk using 'RUN", however, cannot be
configured to be IBM text compatible. This is done as a safety measure to insure that a
compiled ZBasic program will run on different machines. A program can set itseH to this
configuration by using:

POKE &342,1
POKE &342,0

sets to IBM text compatible (for high speed text printing)
sets to non-IBM text compatible (prints through BIOS)

A program should allow the user to configure the program to his machine.

ZBasic assumes an orientation of X,Y in the LOCATE statement, which corresponds to
column,row. This is different from MSBASIC. Thus, if converting a program from a
BASIC using Y,X orientation, enter "N" under this prompt and ZBasic will then use this
representation. This will not, however, change the orientation on the ZBasic
PRINT@(X,Y) statement.

The LOCATE statement in IBM BASIC uses 1,1 as the upper left hand corner of the
screen, but ZBasic uses 0,0. If "N" is entered under this prompt, ZBasic will use the
same convention as IBM BASIC. Notice that both the "LOCATE start" and "LOCATE
order" configuration parameters must be changed to "N" in order for the LOCATE
statement to operate as IBM BASIC.

MSDOSTM Appendix

MSDOS APPENDIX
MEMORY USE WITH VERSION 4.0
The MSDOS version of ZBasic is designed to run on the IBM PC and most compatibles
under MSDOS 2.0 or greater.
For those Not-So-Compatible-Compatibles, see "MSDOS Specific Configuration
Options" in this appendix for ways of configuring ZBasic to work with your computer.
At least 128 k of memory is required for editing and compiling of programs, although
ZBasic compiled programs can be written to run on 64K systems. See "Memory
Considerations" in this appendix for more information.

MEMORY FOR VARIABLES
SINGLE AND DOUBLE PRECISION
This version of ZBasic offers extended capacities for Single and Double precision
arrays. Arrays are limited to available memory up to 640K. The array may be larger than
64K. See MEM BCD function for determining where the regular BCD variable segment
begins (not arrays). See FRE to determine available memory.
Regular Single and Double precision variables (not arrays) and regular string variables
are limited to 64K total.
STRING
String arrays may be larger than 64K in this version. See MEM STR function for
determining where segment begins for string arrays.
Regular Single and Double precision variables (not arrays) and regular string variables
are limited to a total of 64K.
INTEGER
Integer variables may use a maximum of 64K memory. This includes all integer arrays
and regular integer variables. If you need an integer array larger than 64K you can use
either a floating point array or use a string array and store and retrieve the integer
numbers in the string array with CVI and MKI$. This will take only 2 by1es per element.

OTHER MEMORY CONSIDERATIONS
The MSDOS version of ZBasic has three different modes of operation concerning
memory organization -- EDIT mode, RUN mode, and RUN" mode (see memory map on
following page). At least 128k of memory is required for the EDIT and RUN modes (the
development stage of the program). However, after a program has been compiled and
saved using RUN", it can be run on as little as 64k of memory depending on the size of
the program (the RUN" mode is shown on the memory map).

MSDOSfM Appendix

• •_ _ _ _ J;

continued from previous page
While in EDIT mode, ZBasic will assume to own all of the existing memory available in the
machine. Thus, nanother program (i.e. a .COM or .EXE file) attempts to use parts of
memory located above (higher address than) ZBasic, the contents of this memory could
be destroyed by ZBasic. A "Memory Allocation Error" may also be generated by the
operating system in this case (because a memory block created by the other program
will have been written over). Thus, any drivers are to be resident in memory, they
should be installed before ZBasic is given control.

A program compiled by ZBasic as a .COM file only uses the amount of memory required
by the program. This means that other programs can use the memory outside of the
ZBasic compiled program. If a ZBasic program chains to another program, ZBasic will try
to re-size its current memory block to fit the chained program. If the new program is
larger and does not fit, ZBasic will not execute the chain and will return a disk error.
Note: See VARPTR for details about locating variables in memory.
NOTES ON ZBaslc MEMORY MAP:
1.

The MEM type functions are used to return the address of a segment break.
MEMC
MEMO

CODE segment
Disk buffer and INTEGER variable segment. Integer variables (including
arrays) and disk buffers may use up to 64K total.
MEME
EXTRA segment
MEMS
STACK segment
MEMI
INDEX$ segment
MEMBCD
The segment address for the BCD "simple" variables (non-array). Up to
64K total memory may be used (single or double precision variables).
MEMSTR
The Segment address for the String "Simple" variables (non-array). Up to
64K total memory may be used.
MEM ARR \a,(n) The segment address for the String or BCD array specnied by var (n is a
dummy expression or number and is not used).
For more information, see "MEM function" in this appendix.

The ZBasic subroutines and jump tables are not saved to disk when a program is compiled
as a chain file using RUN+. Thus, chain files take about 18-19k less on disk.

ZBasic is not necessarily located immediately after MSDOS. There may be drivers or other
applications installed before ZBasic. ZBasic does, however, assume to own all of the
memory above it.

The size of the INDEX$ segment is determined by the CLEAR statement (see reference
section in main manual). The MSDOS version of ZBasic defauRs to CLEAR 1024, making
the INDEX$ segment 1k. If there is not enough memory to create a segment of the size
specified, then the largest size available will be allocated. The size of the INDEX$ memory
can be determined using the MEM function.

When the CALL string or SHELL string statements are used to load and execute
another program, the program is loaded just above the ZBasic INDEX$ segment (see
CALL and SHELL in this appendix.

MSDOSTM Appendix

MSDOS
MEMORY MAP
EDIT MODE:

~
INDEX$
Segment

User Stack
Arrav Y#
Array XI

MEM ARR Y#(n)
MEM ARR XI(n)

Arrav A$
String var
sim-ole

MEM ARR A$(n)
MEM STR
MEM BCD

pto 64k
MEM I
MEMS
Up to available
Memory

pto 64k
MEM ARR Y#(n)

MEM 0, MEM E
(ES, OS)

Simple and
Array
Disk Buffers

Copy of
Jump tables

tac
ZBasic
Compiler

I.SSS1 • Available memory
_ . Segment break

ZSasic
Program
Text
Stack
ZBasic
Compiler

MEMI
MEMS
Up to available
Memory

Array A$
up to 64k
p to 4B'k

MEM STR
up to 64k
MEM BCD
up to 64k

MEM C
MEM 0, MEM E
(ES, OS)

saved to
disk using
RUN+

... About18K· ...

Jump tables
MEMC+
DOS

Data
Copy Runtime

",About SOK' ...

User Stack
rra
Array XI

I Quoted stnngs
Object code

ZBasic
Program
Text

uoted strings
Data
Object code
Created by
ZBasic
(up to 4Bk')

saved to
disk using
RUN'

Runtime
Jump tables
DOS

'Note: Object code size limitation subject to change in subsequent
releases. Check addendum (if any) for possible variations.

MSDOS'" Appendix

IMlIM. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1MfAt.fiijB
RS-232 COMMUNICATION
ZBasic for MSDOS supports asynchronous communication using the numbers; -1
for COM1 and -2 for COM2 within the OPEN"C" statement. Baud rate, parity, stop
bits, word length, handshaking and buffer length are all controlled in the OPEN "C"
statement.
The OPEN "C" statement has additional parameters that can be used to control the
handshaking on the RS-232 cable when writing to the port. See OPEN "C" in this
appendix and the example routines under OPEN"C" in the main reference section.
To switch the communication interrupts on or off, the commands COM ON and COM
OFF may now be used. The buffer size may be up to 32,700 bytes. See COM ON
and COM OFF in this appendix for details. To determine the status of the buffer see
COM BUFF in this appendix.
To trap communication errors see ON COM ERROR GOSUB in this appendix.
There is also a predefined user function -- USR5 -- that retums the modem and line
status for the asynchronous adapter; see USR5 function in this appendix.
COMMON COMMUNICATION PROBLEMS
If the asynchronous communication is not working properly, try any of the following:
1.

Check to make sure the baud rate, parny, stop bits, and word length settings are
the same on both sides of the communication. See ON COM ERROR GOSUB in
this appendix.

Examine the modem and line status. Type in the program below to observe the
status of the asynchronous port:
CLS
DO
PRINT@(O,O) BIN$(USR5(-1));: REM COM 2 is -2
UNTIL LEN (INKEY$) : REM Press a key to stop
If using COM2, then use USR5(-2). The meaning of the bits are explained in this
appendix under USR5 (bn 15 is on the left, bit 0 on the right). A Framing error or
Parity error usually means that the sender and receiver are operating at different
baud rates, parity, stop bits, or word length. An overrun error usually indicates an
improper cable or buffer length has been set to small.

MSDOSTM Appendix

Check for proper cable. The cable must support the standard RS-232
asynchronous interface. If the serial transfer works at a low baud rate (like 300
baud), but fails at higher baud rates, then the cable is improper. The diagrams on
the next page show the two most typical cable configurations. The top diagram
is for communication between two DTE's (Data Terminal Equipment) or two
DCE's (Data Communication Equipment). This configuration is typical for an IBM
talking to another IBM or compatible. The bottom diagram is for communication
between a DTE and a DCE. These cable configurations are not the "rule", they
are only the most typical for proper RS-232 interface.

MSDOS APPENDIX
RS-232 COMMUNICATION continued

DTE
<----> DTE
DCE
<----> DCE
(Typical for IBM to IBM communication)

Communication devices:

Data Terminal Ready

Transmit Data
Receive Data
Request to Send
Clear to Send
Data Set Ready
Ground

Communication devices:

Request to Send
Clear to Send
Data Set Ready
Ground
Carrier Detect

Data Terminal Ready

Transmit Data
Receive Data
Request to Send
Clear to Send

Data Terminal Ready

Data Terminal Ready

DTE: Data Terminal Equipment
DeE: Data Communication Equipment

MSDOST" Appendix

MSDOS APPENDIX
ZBasic JUMP TABLE
The MSDOS version of ZBasic makes a jump table available starting at address 0103
hex. These jumps can be altered to jump to some other routine to handle the same
function. This can be useful for implementing special hardware or for handling noncompatible DOS or BIOS.
Also included in this section are the USR function jumps, many of which are
predefined. The following is a list of all the available jump locations with a short
description of each:
LIST OF ALTERABLE JUMPS:

Description
ZBasic exil - where ZBasic jumps on a STOP or END statement.
On entry: --On ed:
exit program ...

Video output - all characters output to the screen.
On entry: AL = character
On exit:

Printer output - all characters output to the printer.
On entry: AL = character
On exit:
Remarks: altering will disable ZBasic PAGE control

Scan keyboard - used by INKEY$ and TRON commands.
On entry:
On exit:
Z flag Wno character
NZ flag Wcharacter in AL
Remarks: SI must be preserved

Inil. COM port - called by the OPEN "C" statement.
On entry:
On exit:
Remarks: sets Baud,Parity,Stopbits, and Wordlength

Write COM port - used whenever filenumber is #-1 or #-2.
On entry: AL = character
On exit:
Remarks: CX,DX must be preserved

Read COM port - used whenever filenumber is #-1 or #-2.
On entry:
On exit:
AX = character
Remarks: CX,DX must be preserved

MSDOSTM Appendix

MSDOS APPENDIX
LIST OF ALTERABLE JUMPS continued
~
&118

Description
Scan COM port - used by READ #-1 ,A$;O
(same as INKEY$, but for COM).
On entry: DS:SI points to destination string
On exit:
DS:SI contain string in form length,characters

SOUND frequency,duration - ZBasic statement.
On entry: AX = duration
BX = frequency
On exit:
... sound ...

MOUSE (expression) - ZBasic function (not statement).
On entry: AX = expression
On exit:
AX = value returned

Write dot - sets each graphic point in MODE 5 and MODE 7 when
ZBasic is configured to not be IBM graphics compatible (see
"MSDOS CONFIGURATION" in this appendix).
On entry: AX = row number
BX = column number
On exit:
Remarks: the row and column are actual screen pixels

POINT function - reads the color of a screen point.
On entry: AX = row number
BX = column number
On exit:
AX = color of point
Remarks: the row and column are actual screen pixels

Convert screen coordinates - converts ZBasic X,Y to pixel col,row.
On entry: AX = ZBasic Y (or row)
BX = ZBasic X (or column)
On exit:
AX = screen row number
BX = screen column number

PLOT USING statement.
On entry: AX = row number
BX = column number
CL = magnitude
SI points to string
On exit:
Remarks: the row and column are actual screen pixels

MSDOSTM Appendix

MSDOS APPENDIX
111ilttt?if. . . . . . . . .• . . .I. . . . .
LIST OF ALTERABLE USR FUNCTION JUMPS
User functions using USRn( expression) statement.
On entry:
AX = expression
~

&120
&133
&139
&13F
&145
&14B
&151
&157
&150
&163

Descriptjon
USRO - not predefined
USR1 - predefined ---> End 01 File function (same as EOF)
USR2 - predefined ---> DELAY time constant
USR3 - predefined ---> keyboard functions
USR4 - predefined ---> set break vector
USR5 - predefined ---> read COM port status
USR6 - predefined ---> last line number recorded
USR7 - predefined ---> random number generator
USR8 - predefined ---> integer sine
USR9 - predefined ---> integer cosine

NOTES ON USING THE ZBaslc JUMP TABLES:
1.

All routines must exit with the segment registers DS, ES, and SS the same as
that upon entry.

Exiting the routine is done with a RET assembly opcode (or a RETURN ZBasic
statement).

The jumps are all relative to the code segment on the 8088/86 processor, so
the actual value to poke into the jump table has to be calculated. The program
below is an example of how to change a jump vector.
REM EXAMPLE TO CHANGE SOUND TO LINE 1000
Jump = &l1B
Line = LINE 1000
POKE WORD Jump+1, Line-(Jump+3), MEMC

This program can easily be modified to change any of the jump vectors to any
ZBasic line number.
4.

The MSDOS version of ZBasic contains a 30 byte patch area that can be used
to contain a small routine. By using the patch utility (from the ZBasic startup
screen), a jump vector can be permanently changed to jump directly into a
routine written into the patch area.
Patch area address:
Additional patch area:

start
stop
stop

&169
& 187
&1B9

(30 bytes)
(49 bytes more)

This additional patch area (49 bytes) can only be used if the ON INKEY$
statement is not implemented. (For more information on ON INKEY$, see "ON
INKEY$" in this appendix.)

MSDOSTM Appendix

MSDOS APPENDIX
MACHINE LANGUAGE EXAMPLES
Following is a simple machine language example that instructs the operating system
to print a ZBasic string variable. The operating system is accessed through a DOS
function call (see DOS manual for more information on DOS function calls).
The assembly listing below is implemented using the MACHLG statement given in
the ZBasic listing. Notice how the address of the variable A$ is generated in the
MACHLG statement -- ZBasic automatically inserts the address of the variable when it
is specified.
------------------------------------- ASSEMBLY LISTING -------------------------------------

SEGMENT PUBLIC 'CODE'
CS:CSEG, DS:DSEG

;MAKE MSDOS FUNCTION CALL TO PRINT STRING
; (must be terminated with '$')
0000
0000 BA 0000

a
DX,OFFSET String
;Get string address in OX

0003 42
0004 B4 09
0006 CD 21

INC DX
MOV AH,9
INT 21H

;Skip length byte
;Make DOS call 9
SEGMENT PUBLIC 'DATA'

------------------------------------- ZBasic LISTING -------------------------------------

CLS
A$ = "PRINT ME"
A$ = A$ + "$"
:REM Must be terminated with "$"
REM ----- MAKE CALL TO DOS TO PRINT A$ ----MACHLG &BA,A$,&42,&B4,&09,&CD,&21
The next two pages give a more involved example of the MACHLG statement. The
example modifies interrupt 24 hex to jump to a ZBasic subroutine. This interrupt is
used for control whenever a critical error occurs within DOS (such as the disk drive
door being open during a read).

MSDOSTM Appendix

W@!Ul1§]. •a..

Assembly Listing of Routines to
Control the Critical Error Handler:
0000

SEGMENT PUBLIC 'CODE'

ASSUME CS:CSEG, DS:DSEG
GET CRITICAL ERROR HANDLER VECTOR
ON EXIT _Seg:_Offset= Address of error handler

0000
0000
0001
0004
0006
OOOA
OOOE

06
B8
CD
8C
89
07

ORG
PUSH
MOV
INT
MOV
MOV
POP

GETVEC:
3524
21
06 0006 R
IE 0004 R

a
ES
;Save ZBasic's ES
AX,3524H
21H
; DOS function call 35H - GET VEe:
_Seg,ES
;Save current vector
_Offset,BX

SET CRITICAL ERROR HANDLER VECTOR
Seg = ZBasic's code seg
ON ENTRY:
=Offset = LINE # of error handler

0000
0000
0001
0005
0009
OOOC
OOOE

IE
8B
8E
B8
CD
IF

16 0004 R
IE 0006 R
2524
21

0000
0000
0001
0002
0003
0004
0005
0007
OOOA
OOOD

53
51
52
IE
06
8B
8E
8E
89

0000
0000
0003
0004
0005
0006
0007
0008

Al 0002 R
07
IF
SA
59
5B
CF

EC
5E IE
46 20
3E 0000 R

0000
0000
0002
0004
0006
0008
0008

ORG
PUSH
MOV
MOV
MOV
INT
POP

a
DS
;Save ZBasic's DS
DX,_Offset
;Get vector in DS:DX

DS,_Seg
AX,2524H
;DOS function call 25H -

NEW CRITICAL ERROR HANDLER VECTOR
ORG
BX
;SS,SP,DS,ES,BX,CX,DX must
ERRVEC: PUSH
:be preserved!
PUSH
CX
PUSH
DX
PUSH
DS
PUSH
ES
BP,SP
MOV
DS, [BP+30)
:Get ZBasic's DS and ES
MOV
ES, [BP+32)
MOV
Error, Dr
MOV
:Put error code into variable
END OF NEW CRITICAL ERROR HANDLER
ORG
a
AX,Response
MOV
ES
POP
POP
DS
DX
POP
CX
POP
BX
POP
IRET
DSEG

SEGMENT PUBLIC 'DATA'

_Offset DW
_Seg

MSDOSTM Appendix

OW
ENDS
ENDS
END

DUP (?)
DUP (?)
DUP (?)
DUP (?)

VECTOR
;Put decision in AL
:Restore registers

iReturn to DOS ...

MSDOS APPENDIX
ZBasic Listing to Control Critical Error Handler:
REM ----- GET PREVIOUS CRITICAL ERROR VECTOR
MACHLG &06,&BB,&3524,&CD,&2l,&BC,&06
MACHLG 01d_Seg%,&B9,&lE,01d_offset%,&07
REM ----- SET CRITICAL ERROR VECTOR TO LINE 1000 ----Seg%=MEMC : Offset%=LINE "Error routine"
MACHLG &lE,&BB,&16,Offset%,&BE,&lE,Seg%,&BB,&2524,&CD,&2l,&lF
REM ----- READ DRIVE A: WITH DOOR OPEN ----OPEN "Rn,l,nA:HELPME"
REM ----- RESET ERROR VECTOR BEFORE EXIT TO ZBASIC ----MACHLG &lE,&BB,&16,01d offset%,&BE,&lE
MACHLG 01d_seg%,&BB,&2524,&CD,&2l,&lF
STOP

1'Error routine"
REM
START OF ERROR HANDLER ROUTINE
REM
******************************
MACHLG &53,&5l,&52,&lE,&06,&BB,&EC,&BE
MACHLG &5E,&lE,&8E,&46,&20,&B9,&3E,Error%:
REM ----- DO ANYTHING HERE EXCEPT DISK I/O
PRINT
PRINT"Error. What do you want to do"
PRINT"(Ignore, Retry, Terminate)? ";
DO
A$=INKEY$
UNTIL LEN (A$)
PRINT A$ : A$=UCASE$(A$)
I%=INSTR(l, "IRT",A$) : IF 1%=0 THEN 1060
Response%=I%-l
"DO DOS"
REM ----- RETURN TO DOS ----MACHLG &Al,Response%,&07,&lF,&5A,&59,&5B,&CF
REM

* ** * * * * * ** * ** * * * ** ** * * *** * * * ** * * ** * * * * *.* **** ** * * * * * *

NOTES ON EXAMPLE
1. The ZBasic code that handles the critical error (lines between "Error routine" and
"Do DOS" above) cannot use any DOS function calls greater than 12H. ZBasic uses
these function calls on the following:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

All RISK I/O!
TIME$ function and statement
DATE$ function and statement
CALL string statement
END = expr statement

2. See YOUR MSDOS manual for more information on the critical error handler
vector.
MSDOsnr Appendix

MSDOS APPENDIX
CONVERTING OLD BASICATM or QuickBASICTM
PROGRAMS TO COMPILE WITH ZBasic™
First; Read the chapter in the front of this manual called "Converting Old Programs".
Be sure to set the the following options under "Configure" b.e!Qre.loading your old
QuickBASIC, BASICA or other MSBASIC programs:
• Default variable type:
• Convert to Uppercase YIN:
• Optimize expressions for Integer YIN:
• Spaces required after keywords YIN:
• LOCATE x,y YIN:
• LOCATE start is 0,0 YIN:

S (to increase speed: avoid doing this)

WHAT DO WE HAVE THAT THEY DON'T?
• Hercules and Hercules Plus Graphics support.
• String arrays may be greater than 64K; up to available memory.
• Floating point arrays may be larger than 64k; up to available memory.
• No String "Garbage Collection". Static and dynamic String allocation.
• INDEX$ string array and special commands: INDEX$I, INDEX$D and INDEXF.
• Direct commands from the Standard Line Editor.
• Configurable BCD math up to 54 digits of precision.
• Device independent Graphics. See COORDINATE.
• Apple II, Macintosh and
versions.

STRING LENGTH NOTE
QuickBASIC allows up to 32k for a string length. The maximum string length in
ZBasic is 255. See notes under "Strings" in "Converting Old Programs" in the main
reference section of this manual.
COMMANDS THAT ARE DIFFERENT
The following list of QuickBASIC commands are not completely compatible with
ZBasic. Examples of possible alternatives are given.
CAll
CDBl
CHAIN
CIRCLE
CLEAR
COLOR
COM STOP
COMMON
CSNG
CVD,CVS

DATA
continued ...

MSDOSTM Appendix

Different syntax w~h ZBasic. See CAll in this appendix.
Not applicable.
See CHAIN in the main reference section.
Some variation in extra parameters.
Some syntax the same. Does not allow changing stack size.
Some syntax differences. See COLOR.
COM STOP not supported. See COM ON IOFF.
Same as ZBasic DIM. The SHARED parameter is not supported.
Automatic when the target variable is a single precision number.
ZBasic uses CVB w~h both single and double precision BCD variables.
~ is not necessary to use this with ZBasic file commands since numeric
variables may be used with READ# and WRITE# ( see FIELD below).
Same except that strings beginning with numbers must be in quotes.

MSDOS APPENDIX
continued from previous page
DRAW
ENVIRON[$]
ERASE
ERDEV[$]
ERRIERL
ERROR
EXIT
FIELD

GET (files)
INPUT$
IOCTL[$]
KEYn
KEY LlST/ON,oFF
LBOUND
LINE
LOCATE
LOCK/UNLOCK
LPOS
LSET
MKD$, MKS$
ON COM
ON ERROR
ON KEY$
ON PEN
ON PLAY
ON STRIG
ON TIMER
OPEN

OPEN COM
OPTION BASE
PALETTE
PCOPY
PEN
PLAY
PMAP
PRESET
PSET
PUT (files)
REDIM
RESTOREn
RESUME
RND(x)
RUN filespec
SADD
SCREEN
SHARED
SUB,SUBEND
STATIC
STICK
STRIG
UBOUND
WINDOW

Not supported. See PLOT USING.
Not supported. See PATH$ and SHELL for alternatives.
Not supported w~h ZBasic since all arrays are STATIC.
See "Critical Error Handling" in this appendix.
Not supported.
Not the same. See ERROR in this appendix and reference section.
See END FN, END IF, END SELECT and END.
Not supported. Fielding is done automatically in the READ# and
WRITE# statements. There is no need to use MKI$, MKD$, MKS$, CVI,
CVS, CVD, LSET or RSET to store or remove data from a field. Saves
lots of time. See "Files" in the main reference section of this manual.
Not supported. See RECORD#
Not supported. See READ# filenumoor, A$;length
See USRS in this appendix.
See INKEY$ (n) statement in this appendix (ignored at runtime).
See KEY ON/OFF/LIST and ON INKEY$ in this appendix for variations.
KEY ON and OFF in program code is ignored.
Since arrays are all static this is not necessary.
Use PLOT, PLOT TO, BOX, BOX FILL
X and Yare opposite, 0,0 is start. You may configure ZBasic for this.
Not supported.
Use POS(1) instead.
See FIELD above.
See MKB$ in main reference section (BCD) and FIELD above.
See COM ON/OFF, COM BUFF and ON COM ERROR GOSUB.
Not the same. Disk errors only. See "Disk Error Trapping" in the front of
the main reference section of this manual. Also see ON COM ERROR.
See ON INKEY$ in this appendix.
See DEF MOUSE statement in this appendix.
Not supported.
See DEF MOUSE and MOUSE statement in this appendix.
See TIMER in this appendix.
The same in most respects. See OPEN in the main reference section.
Pathnames are not allowed in filenames. See PATH$, CHOIR, RMDIR
and MKDIR in this appendix.
See OPEN"C" for syntax variations
The BASE of an array may be configured under "Configure".
Same except that PALETTE USING is not supported.
Not supported.
See DEF MOUSE and MOUSE function in this appendix.
Not supported
See DEF PAGE, VIEW PRINT and COORDINATE
COLOR=background: PLOT x,Y.
COLOR=foreground: PLOT x,y
Not supported. See RECORD# and "Files" in reference section.
Not supported since ZBasic uses static arrays.
With ZBasic n restores to the nth ~em not the nth line.
Not supported. See ON ERROR GOSUB in the main reference.
ZBasic returns an integer number from 1 to x. Not a number between
zero and one. This method provides higher performance.
See RUN, SHELL and CALL in this appendix.
See VARPTR and VARSEG in this appendix.
See SCREEN, MODE and COLOR in this appendix.
See "Chaining" in the main reference.
See LONG FN, END FN and APPEND.
All arrays are already static so this is not needed.
See DEF MOUSE and MOUSE function to set for joysticks.
See DEF MOUSE and MOUSE function to set for joysticks.
Not needed with ZBasic since all variables are STATIC.
See DEF PAGE and VIEW SCREEN.

MSDOsrn Appendix

MSDOSTM Appendix

ASIC
ZBaslc™ VERSION 4.0 MSDOSTM
REFERENCE SECTION
The following pages contain commands, statements and functions included in the MSDOS
version of ZBasic that are not necessarily included with other versions of ZBasic.
Also be sure to see the definitions of the following new commands in the main reference section:
BEEP
CASE
COMMON
COORDINATE
COORDINATE WINDOW
CSRLlN
END SELECT
EOF
GET and PUT (graphics)
NAME
PATH
RESET
SELECT

MSDOSTM Appendix

MSDOS APPENDIX
BLOAD statement
FORMAT

BLOAD filespec [. [offset j[,segmenO]

Loads a block of memory that was saved as filespec using the BSAVE statement.
The optional offset is the position in memory to load the block and it will load into the
current segment as defined using the DEF SEG statement (or the segment option if
used).
If offset and/or the segment is omitted, the information that was stored in the file with
BSAVE is used.

REM Loads the CGA screen saved with BSAVE on the next page.
MODE 7
BLOAD "CGASCRN . MEW'
DELAY 4000

See BSAVE and DEF SEG.
Address and lengths of different graphics memory:

MDPA
Hercules (pageO)
Hercules (page1)

ADDRESS
&HB800
&HBOOO
&HBOOO
&HB800

LENGTH
2048-16,3844,096
32,767
32,767

Note: EGA graphics are stored in memory in a different format than other graphic
cards. To save images in EGA modes (16-19) you should GET the screen. Save the
screen to disk using:
BSAVE filespec, VARPTR(var%(n», number of elements/2
BLOAD the integer array back into memory using
BLOAD filespec, VARPTR(var%(n»
and then PUT the image back to the screen (see GET and PUT in the main reference
section of the manual.
'See CGA, EGA, Hercules and MDPA technical manuals for more information.

MSDOSTM Appendix

~'i%filtEl'g$Jt.tt~IKiwfIHf"'##II?lttsi.'t1flt$f4itw.1JkI[tti.llt1+1

BSAVE statement
L segmen~

Saves a block of memory as filespec so that it may be loaded later wtth BLOAO. It
saves an exact image of memory.

, offset, length

The optional offset is the position in memory to load the block and will save the
current segment as defined using the DEF SEG statement (or the segment option if
used).
If DEF SEG is not used, the DATA SEGMENT (MEMO) is used.

REM This program saves a high-res CGA screen
REM which may be loaded with BLOAD on the previous page.
MODE 7: REM Adjust MODE for your computer.
PRINT "Hello there!!"
CIRCLE FILL 512, 383, 300
BSAVE "CGASCRN.MEM",O, 16384,&HB800

See BLOAO and OEF SEG.
Address and lengths of different graphics memory:

M.Q!lE.
0-15
2
20
20

TIeL
GGA
MOPA
Hercules (pageO)
Hercules (page1)

ADDRESS
&HB800
&HBOOO
&HBOOO
&HB800

LENGTH
2048-16,384'
4,096
32,767
32,767

Note: EGA graphics are stored in memory in a different format than other graphic
cards. To save images in EGA modes (16-19) you should GET the screen. Save the
screen to disk using:

BSAVE filespec, VARPTR(var%(n», number of elements/2
BLOAD the integer array back into memory using

BLOAD filespec, VARPTR(var%(n»
and then PUT the image back to the screen (see GET and PUT in the main reference
section of the manual.
'See GGA, EGA, Hercules and MDPA technical manuals for more information.

MSDOSTM Appendix

MSDOS APPENDIX
CALL statement
1

CALL address [, segment

This statement is used to execute a subroutine located in memory at the segment
given by segment with an offset of address.
If segment is not given, then ZBasic's code segment is used.

CALL LINE "Routine"

Calls a ZBasic subroutine starting at "Routine" (same as GOSUB "Routine" but takes
longer to execute).
CALL &H100,

Calls a subroutine located at &HBD7 with an offset of &H1 00. This is a very
dangerous use of the CALL statement.

Use caution when specifying the segment. Rarely is any subroutine loaded in the
same place every time. The operating system will load a program into the lowest
available address, which depends on other programs that may be resident in
memory.
Any subroutine that is called by specifying the segment must return from the
subroutine with a far return. Otherwise, unpredictable results will occur.

MSDOSTM Appendix

MSDOS APPENDIX
CALL statement

(same as SHELL)

The CALL statement followed by string will load and execute another program or
MSDOS command specified by string. If a null (empty) string is specified, then
MSDOS will be loaded and executed, in which case typing EXIT in DOS will return to
ZBasic.
This is identical to the "SHELL" statement and is retained to remain compatible with
older versions of ZBasic. Also see SHELL in this appendix ..
String must be either a string variable or a quoted string.

CALL "DISKCOPY A: B:"
This will perform a diskcopy as if it was typed in from the DOS command line.
CALL
Gives control to MSDOS; displays DOS prompt. Type EXIT to return to ZBasic.
CALL "ZBASIC"
This will actually load and execute ZBasic. Typing QUIT will then retum to the original
ZBasic.
A$ = "DIR A:*.BAS": CALL A$
This will get the directory of all .BAS files on the A drive.

This statement can also be very useful for executing batch files -- just use the name
of the .BAT file (batch file) for string.
There must be at least 17k of memory free to use the CALL statement.
If the "COMMAND.COM" file is not found, the message "File not found" will be
echoed to the display and control will be returned to ZBasic.

MSDOsm Appendix

MSDOS APPENDIX
CARDTYPE function
FORMAT

Returns the type of graphic hardware connected to the current system:
CARD

Color Graphics Card
Enhanced Graphics Card
EGA with Monochrome monITor
Hercules (or compatible)
Monochrome

IYPE
CGA
EGA
EGA-Mono
HERC
MDPA

A= CARDTYPE
SELECT CASE A
CASE 0
PRINT"A CGA card is installed"
MODE 7
CASE 1
PRINT"An EGA card is installed"
MODE 19
CASE 2
PRINT"A monochrome monitor is connected to an EGA card"
MODE 18
CASE 3
PRINT"A Hercules card is installed"
MODE 20
CASE 255
PRINT"A Monochrome card (MDPA) is installed"
MODE 2
CASE ELSE
PRINT"You can't read this!"
END SELECT
RUN

A Monochrome card is installed

This command can be useful in determining the display card of any system so that
the MODE parameters in a program can be changed accordingly.
Combine this with the Device Independent Graphics that ZBasic offers and one can
write a program that will work the same way on a variety of graphics adaptors.
Also see COORDINATE, COORDINATE WINDOW and the section in this appendix
"Graphics Enhancements".

MSDOSTM Appendix

MSDOS APPENDIX
CHOIR statement
FORMAT

Changes the current directory to the directory specified by pathname. This enables
ZBasic to access files in different directories.
A pathname is :

drive: directory\ directory\ ...

A$ = PATH$(O):
REM
CHOIR "\ZBASIC\OATA":
REM
OPEN "I" 1,"MYOATA.TXT ": REM
CHOIR A$:
REM

Also see PATH$, RMDIR and MKDIR.

gets current path
changes path
opens file using new path
back to original path

Note: IF an error is encountered when using CHOIR, RMDIR or MKDIR, ZBasic
returns an error eleven (11) in the ERROR function. See ERROR, ON ERROR
GOSUB and the Chapter "Disk Error Trapping" in the front of this manual.

MSDOSTM Appendix

MSDOS APPENDIX
CINT statement
FORMAT

CINT (expression)

Same as INT. The difference between INT and CINT in BASICA and QuickBASIC is
that CINT rounds up and INT rounds down.
Example:
CINT(99.5)=100

Use the function below to emulate the BASICA CINT statement.

REM This function emulates the BASICA CINT statement
DEF FN cint#( x#) = INT(x#+ (SGN (x#)
PRINT FN cint# ( 99.3), CINT(99.3)
PRINT FN cint# ( 99.5), CINT(99.5)
PRINT FN cint# (-99.5), CINT(-99.5)
END

RUN
99
100
-100

See INT, FRAC and FIX in main reference section.

MSDOSTM Appendix

. . .'*IWB.liI.I-. . . . . . .w.4MI.&l
COLOR statement
FORMAT

Graphics MODES:
COLOR [=] [foreground] [, [background] [, palette Iblinking]]
Character MODES:
COLOR [=] [character] [, [attribute] [, border]]

This statement controls the color of all output to the screen. All of the parameters are
optional. This statement acts quite differently between graphics and character
MODE (EGA colors in MODE 18: O=black, 1=low intensity, 2=blinking, 3=highintensity).
Under all modes COLOR 0 will tum foreground off (black in BIW modes, space in
character modes). COLOR -1 will set it to the brightest color (white in BIW modes):

CHARACTER MODES
character = 0-255
attribute = 0-255
border = 0-15

0.2,4,6
(represents an ASCII number)
(see below and table 2 on the next page )
(use table 1)

Examples of character formats available in most modes:
Normal Intensity
Regular
Blinking
Underline
UL Blinking
Invisible

Statement
COLOR ,7
COLOR,135
COLOR,1
COLOR,129
COLOR,136

High Intensity
Regular
Blinking
Underline
UL Blinking

Statement
COLOR,15
COLOR,143
COLOR ,9
COLOR,137

Reyerse (lnyerse)
Regular
Blinking

Statement
COLOR ,112
COLOR,240

(Blue on some color monitors)
(not all systems)

(Blue on some color monitors)

GRAPHIC MODES 1,3,5,7
(use table 1 [limited by memory if using an EGA card])
foreground = 0-15
(not available in EGA modes)
background = 0-31
blinking = 0 or not 0
MODE5foreground = 0-3
background = 0-15
palette = 0,1

(use table 3)
(use table 1)
(use table 3)

MODE7foreground = 0 or not 0
background = not used
palette = not used
continued ...
MSDOSTM Appendix

_iJtffAVi.SJi1WWlii. . . .*. . . . .
COLOR statement continued

Be sure to see the other sections in this appendix that cover graphics and color,
including; COLOR, SCREEN, PLOT, CIRCLE, PALETTE, DEF PAGE READ/WRITE
and MODE. MODE contains a chart of the resolutions, pages, memory and SCREEN
numbers required for different boards.

TABLE 1: Border, background, and foreground colors
VALUE
VALUE COLOR
COLOR
0
1
2
3
4
5

black
blue
green
cyan
red
magenta
brown
white

Gray
Light Blue
Light Green
Light Cyan
Light Red
Light Magenta
Yellow
White Intensified

10
11
12
13
14
15

Note: Text Borders are not used in EGA modes

Attribute byte definitions

Bill R BI
T,--_I~::~ ~~~e~;~~nd

Background color (not EGA)

' - - - - - - - - - - - . - Blinking

Foreground colors

PALLETE = 0
Green
Red
Brown

background - - Cyan
Magenta
White

In Hercules mode there are only two colors; Black and White. There are three
character formats: Regular, Reverse and XOR. See TFORMAT for more information.

MSDOSTM Appendix

&1. . .'.I. . . . . . . . . .XtJ. . .
COM BUFF function
FORMAT

COM BUFF (port)

Returns the number of bytes storeing in the communication buffer.

The communications buffer is a first in, first out (FIFO) buffer. To read data out of the
buffer use READ#, INPUT# or LlNEINPUT#.
To set baud rate, buffer size, parity and handshaking, see OPEN"C".

OPEN "en, -1, 300"",,32000:
OPEN "Ou,l,"File.TXT I1

REM COM (-1) ON is automatic

program continues here ...
LONG IF COM BUFF > 1000
GOSUB"Read Buffer"
ENO IF
"Read Buffer"
DO
READ#-l, A$; 0
<--- Reads even if buffer empty
IF LEN(A$) THEN WRITE#1, A$;l <---Savesincomingdatatoafile
UNTIL COM BUFF=O
RETURN
END

RUN
Prints incoming serial data to the capture file until the buffer is empty.

In this appendix see COM ON, COM OFF, OPEN"C", ROUTE and the chapter called
"RS-232 communications". Also see in the main reference section ROUTE,
OPEN"C", READ#, WRITE#, INPUT#, LlNEINPUT# PRINT# and the chapter called
"Files".

MSDOsrn Appendix

MSDOS APPENDIX
COM BUFF function continued
COM BUFF determines the size of the communication buffer in the following way;
(COM END and COM START are imaginary pointers we use for illustration of how COM BUFF
determines communication port size).

COM START and COM END
I-

As bytes are read from the com port into the buffer the
COM END pointer is positioned to the next available cell
in the buffer. When it gets to the end of the buffer it wraps
around to the beginning.

CB+H+f111 11111111111111111 rH+FifD
Communications Buffer

fred <--- Typed from MSDOS

Hello there fred

Also see "Executing ZBasic from MSDOS" in this appendix.

MSDOSTM Appendix

MSDOS APPENDIX
DATE$ statement
FORMAT

DATE$ = [month) [. [day) [, year))

This statement is used to set the current date. Any of the three parameters can be
omitted, in which case the parameter will not be changed. The following values are
accepted:

month:
day:
year:

1 - 12
1 - 31
1980 - 2099

DATE$ = 8,20,1987
PRINT DATE$
DATE$=,1
PRINT DATE$
RUN
08/20/87
08/01/87

If any of the specified parameters are not in the accepted range given above, the
date will not be changed. See TIME$ statement in this appendix and the TIME$ and
DATE$ functions in the main reference section.

MSDOsm Appendix

MSDOS APPENDIX
DEF MOUSE statement
FORMAT

DEF MOUSE [=] expression

This statement sets the MOUSE function to return information from anyone of four
device drivers defined by expression:

MOUSE
JOYSTICK A
JOYSTICK B
LIGHT PEN

If the DEF MOUSE statement is not used, the mouse driver is used as the default.
If expression is not 0 to 3, then the MOUSE(n) function will always return zero.

DEF MOUSE=O
DO
PRINT MOUSE (1) , MOUSE (2)
<--- Press the Mouse button to stop.
UNTIL MOUSE (3)

If you are using a mouse device, you must configure ZBasic for a mouse under
"Configure". See "MSDOS Specific Configuration Options" for more information.
Also see MOUSE statement and MOUSE function in this appendix and in the main
reference section.

MSDOSTM Appendix

Wlffi*}%;Yflffii*$• •1r~1ta~._i1£i_&• •#Mliit~~I*,sm&1
DEF PAGE statement
FORMAT

DEF PAGE xl, yl TO x2, y2

This statement defines the size of the screen used in print operations where the
parameters are as follows:

xl,yl = the upper left character position of the screen
x2,y2 = the lower right corner of the screen
ZBasic uses the screen size in scrolling the characters on the screen and in the CLS
statement. Programmers may use this command as an aid in creating "WINDOWS".

REM Example of creating WINDOWS
MODE 7: COLOR ,255: REM CGA or EGA
"MENU BAR"

PRINT@(0,0)CHR$(2);"
PLOT 0,30 TO 1024,30

"WINDOW"
BOX 123,150 TO 910, 650
PRINT @(33,4);"ZEDCOR WINDOWS";
BOX 123,150 TO 910,121
PRINT@ (10,5) ;
DEF PAGE 10,5 TO 70,20

<--- Put a box around the window
<--- Window title
<--- Put a box around the title bar

<--- Put cursor to first window position

DO
PRINT"HELLO THERE ... ";
UNTIL LEN(INKEY$)
END

<--- Text scrolls in window.

ZBasic keeps the text within the window specified.
This will force scrolling and CLS n to operate from the 5th row and 10th column to the
20th row and the 70th column. This will leave the last four rows (rows 21 to 24) and
the last 9 columns (columns 71 to 79) unaffected by normal print operations.

This statement is most useful for displaying information and status on the screen that
will not be erased by a CLS or by scrolling characters. The area outside the defined
screen can be accessed using LOCATE or PRINT@ to locate the cursor in this area.
Then normal printing can be done, except that none of the screen will be scrolled.
When done printing in this area, a LOCATE or PRINT@ is again used to go back to
the normal area (CLS will also home the cursor inside the normal area).
Use MODE to reset the screen to normal text coordinates.

MSDOsrn Appendix

DEF PAGE READ/WRITE statements

DEF PAGE READ [=) expression
DEF PAGE WRITE [=) expression

ZBasic can access the extra pages of memory available in text modes on the IBM PC
with EGA, CGA, MDPA and HERCULES graphic cards.
There are 4 pages of text when in 80 column text mode (ZBasic MODEs
2,3,4,6,10,11,12,14) and 8 pages of text when in 40 column text mode (ZBasic
MODEs 0,1,8,9 [16 when 256K is on the EGA card)). EGA MODES 17-19 allow 1, 2
or 4 pages depending on whether there is 64, 128 or 256k on the board. See
MODE for details.
ZBasic can write to and display any of the available screens. This allows the
programmer to write an entire screen full of data while a different screen is being
displayed; then display the new screen instantly. The syntax is as follows:
Set Display Page:
DEF PAGE READ [=) expression
Set Write Page:
DEF PAGE WRITE [=) expression

<--- Writes to page 1 while page 0 is displayed.
DEF PAGE WRITE = 1
CLS
FOR I=l TO 20
PRINT "STRING NUMBER"; I
NEXT I
<--- You won't see this till you display page one
PRINT "Press a key ... "
<--- Write back to page 0 to display message.
DEF PAGE WRITE=O
PRINT"Press a key ... "
*DO: UNTIL LEN(INKEY$)
<--- Display page one.
DEF PAGE READ=l
*DO: UNTIL LEN(INKEY$)
Set display back to page zero.
<--DEF PAGE READ = 0

This example will show you the resuHs of "flipping" text pages.

When the screen being displayed is not the same as the screen being written, the
ZBasic "CLS" statement does not work. Also, the auto scrolling feature, which
occurs when writing beyond the 25th row on the screen, does not work.
However, the ZBasic "CLS expression" statement will work regardless of the
displayed page. Thus, use CLS 32 to clear on any page (32 is ASCII for" ").
Note: Hercules graphics support only page 0 and 1 (MODE 20).

MSDOSTM Appendix

MSDOS APPENDIX
DEF SEG statement
FORMAT

DEF SEG [=] [address]

Defines the current segment in memory. The address is an integer number between

o and 65,535 (or the signed integer numbers -32,768 to 32,767).

Any subsequent use of a BLOAD, BSAVE, CALL, PEEK or POKE definition
specifies the offset into the segment (if the ZBasic segment option is not used in
these commands).

DEFSEG = &BOOO
BLOAD "TEXT.FIL" ,

This will load the file TEXT. F IL into monochrome display memory (which starts at
&BOOO ) at an offset of 80 bytes.
See MEM, PEEK, POKE, BLOAD, BSAVE, VARPTR, VARSEG and the sections in
this appendix entitled "Memory Considerations" and "MSDOS Memory Map" for
more information.

MSD08TM Appendix

MSDOS APPENDIX
DEF USR statement
FORMAT

DEF USR n [=) address [, segment )

This statement is used to tell ZBasic where a user function is to be located in
memory.
The difference with the regular ZBasic and the IBM version of DEF USR is in the
definition of the address. Address is used as the offset into the segment given by
segment. If the segment is not given, then ZBasic's code segment is used.

DEFUSR1 = LINE 100
This defines the subroutine at ZBasic's line 100 as user function 1.
DEFUSR1 = VARPTR(I),MEMD
This defines the address of variable I in ZBasic's data segment as user function 1.
The subroutine must end with a far return.
DEFUSR1 = &HO, &HOB7D
This defines offset zero into the segment at &HB7D as address of user function 1.
This is a very dangerous use of the USR function and is not recommended.

Use caution when specifying the segment. The subroutine must always be located
at that specific address, which is very uncommon on the IBM machines.
Any subroutine that is called by specifying the segment must return from the
subroutine with a far return. Otherwise, unpredictable resuijs will occur.
Also see CALL, MACHLG and the section in the front of this manual "Machine
Language".

MSDOSTM Appendix

tt._",llWWi*&WItllWl&1ttr;1WMWwffi..thW@j@1
END statement
I

END [= expression

The END statement is the normal way to exit a ZBasic program. On the MSDOS
version, however, an error return code can be sent using the END = expression.
This value can then be interrogated by the batch subcommands IF and
ERRORLEVEL.
If the END = expression statement is not used to terminate a program, then the error
code returned is zero.
ZBasic does two things depending on how END is used.
END USED WITH
RUN
RUN+orRUN*

RESULT
Control is returned to the Standard Line Editor.
Control is returned to MSDOS.

A program terminated by this statement could be tested by the following batch
subcommand:

IF ERRORLEVEL 4

ERROR IS AT LEAST 4

This subcommand will echo to the screen "ERROR IS AT LEAST 4".

See your MSDOS technical reference manual for more information on batch files and
the ERRORLEVEL subcommand.
Also see SYSTEM in this appendix and STOP in the main reference section.

MSD05TM Appendix

Itl}l}~.''''}I~$BI?l'''• •
ERROR function
FORMAT

The same as the standard ZBasic ERROR function except that other errors are
returned:
ERROR=11

An error was encountered with RMDIR, MKDIR or CHDIR.

Errors encountered depend on the statement but usually are related to that
statement i.e. if you get an error 11 doing RMDIR either the directory didn't exist, the
wrong diskette was used, a write protect was on the disk or the wrong pathname was
used.
See ON COM ERROR GOSUB for errors returned from the communication ports.

ON ERROR GOSUB 65535
MKDIR "Mydir n

LONG IF ERROR>O
LONG IF ERROR =11
PRINT "Could not make a new directory!"
PRINT "Please check your disk drive"
INPUT "and press to continue";temp$
GOTO "START"
END IF
XELSE
PRINT "A disk error occurred"
PRINT ERRMSG$(ERROR)
INPUT" ontinue or top";temp$
IF temp$="C" THEN ERROR=O: GOTO "START"
END
END IF
Program continues ....

See PATH$, RMDIR, CHDIR, MKDIR, ERROR function, ON COM ERROR GOSUB,
ON ERROR GOSUB, ERROR statement and the chapter "Trapping Disk Errors" in
the main reference section.

MSDOSTM Appendix

MSDOS APPENDIX
FILES statement
FORMAT

FILES [ filespec I

Prints a directory of the files in the directory specified by filespec.

If filespec if not used the current directory contents are listed.

RUN
Fred
Harry
ZBasic
ZDEMO

BAS
BAS
COM
COM

9843
23020
92020
12312

03/23/87
02/22/87
02/22/99
12/23/86

9:45
10:32
23:12
12:34

13993949 bytes free

Also see RMDIR, CHDIR, MKDIR and your MSDOS reference manual for file
specifications and pathname syntax. COMMAND.COM must be on the disk.
Note: Other ways to obtain directories during runtime:
To create a Directory file that you can read into your program (say into string arrays, so
you can manipulate them) try using; SHELLnDIR>DIR.TXT". This creates a text file
called nDIR.TXT" that will contain a listing of the current directory. This example
program should give you some ideas:
CLS
DIM 80A$ (100)
SHELL"DIR>DIR.TXT"
OPEN"I", 1, "DIR. TXT"<--- This routine opens the file and loads it into A$(x).
DO
READjfl, temp$;l
IF ASC(temp$)=13 THEN X=X+l
UNTIL EOF(l) OR X>99
X=X+1
CLOSEU
END
PRINT "There areniXi" items in this directory"

MSDOS'M Appendix

MSDOS APPENDIX
.al iii:: £@
;

FIX command
FORMAT

FIX (spaces to indenf)

This command is used from the Standard Line Editor to remove line numbers (that
are not referenced) and set the number of spaces to indent structures for the Full
Screen Editor (not the line editor).
Unless this command or the INDENT command is used ZBasic will not normally
indent in the full screen editor (it indents two spaces in the Standard Line Editor).
ZBasic structures are FOR-NEXT, DO-UNTIL, LONG-XELSE-END IF, WHILE-WEND,
LONG FN-END FN and SELECT CASE, CASE ELSE, END SELECT.
This is the same as doing both UNNUM and INDENT.

LIST
10
20
25
30
40
50
60

DO
x=x+2
X=X-1
UNTIL X=100
PRINT"HELLO"
PRINT "This is just a test"
GOTO 10

<--- To go into the Full Screen Editor
10 DO
X=X+2
X=X-1
UNTIL X=100
PRINT "HELLO"
PRINT"This is just a test"
GOTO 10

Also see INDENT, UNNUM and RENUM'

MSDOSTM Appendix

MSDOS APPENDIX
FRE function
FORMAT

FRE (dummy argument)

Returns the amount of free memory left in the system (divided by 16). Multiply the
number returned by 16to get the amount of free memory in bytes.

<---M# contains the amount of free memory in bytes

It is imperative that these variables be double precision to get the true amount of free
memory.

~
<\:c";~; .'.
•. ,..

Also see MEM and the sections in this appendix "Memory Considerations" and
"MSDOS Memory Map".
Since there is no "Garbage Collection" with ZBasic, this function does not compact
memory or return the remaining string space as BASICA does. String space is
allocated at compile time.

MSDOsm Appendix

.IW.'@lt_._m",~

INDENT command
inden~

INDENT (number of spaces to

This command is used from the Standard Line Editor to set the number of spaces to
indent structures for the Full Screen Editor (not the line editor).
ZBasic normally does not indent in the full screen editor. It indents two spaces in the
Standard Line Editor.
ZBasic structures are; FOR-NEXT, DO-UNTIL, LONG-XELSE-END IF, WHILE-WEND,
LONG FN-END FN and SELECT CASE, CASE, CASE ELSE, END SELECT.

DO
X=X+2
X=X-l
UNTIL X=lOO
PRINT"HELLO"
PRINT "This is just a test"

<--- To go into the Full Screen Editor

DO
X=X+2
X=X-l
UNTIL X=lOO
PRINT "HELLO"
PRINT"This is just a test"

Also see FIX, UNNUM and RENUM*

MSDOSTM Appendix

li_A\\}t*#jjw\t%ltt0• •'_1.il&w%%}lJlg(®;._*.~t1{lmg\.&*%f%SW1
INKEY$ function
(Special checks for function and other keys)
FORMAT

This function operates the same as described in the ZBasic reference section,
except in its handling of function keys.
Normally, the INKEY$ function will return a string whose LEN=1 if a key is available,
otherwise a null string is returned. However, on the IBM version only, the string
returned will have a LEN=2 when a function key is pressed.
The first character in the string will be a null and the second character will be the value
of the key pressed. See "ON INKEY$ statement" for the value corresponding to
each function key.

DATA F1,F2,F3,F4,F5,F6,F7,F8,F9,F10
DATA HOME, UP, PAGE UP, NONE, CURSOR LEFT, NONE, CURSOR RIGHT
DATA NONE, END, CURSOR DOWN, PAGE DOWN, INSERT, DELETE
CLS:PRINT"Key";TAB(30);"ASCII Code of 2nd char."
DO
DO
A$=INKEY$
UNTIL LEN(A$)
LONG IF LEN(A$)=2
B$=RIGHT$ (A$, 1)
LONG IF (ASC(B$»S8) AND (ASC(B$)<69)
RESTORE ASC(B$)-59
READ C$
PRINT "You pressed: ";C$;TAB(30) ;ASC(B$)
ELSE IF
RESTORE 10+ASC(B$)-71
READ C$
PRINT "You pressed: ";C$;TAB(30) ;ASC(B$)
END IF
END IF
UNTIL LEN (A$)=l
END
This example will print the function key you pressed if one is detected on the
INKEY$ function.

See ON INKEY$ and INKEY$ statement in this section for more information on how
to make full use of the function keys.

MSDOSTM Appendix

MSDOS APPENDIX
;

INKEY$ statement
FORMAT

INKEY$ ( expression)

This statement is used to enable or disable function key interrupts.
The function keys can be used to control program flow with ON INKEY$ GOTO (see
ON INKEY$ statement in elsewhere in this appendix).
The expression in the INKEY$ statement does the following:
--->
zero
non-zero --->

disables the function keys
enables the function keys

Enabling or disabling the function keys does not destroy the previous ON INKEY$
key definitions, it simply decides whether or not ZBasic should check for function
keys.

ON INKEY$(I) GOTO "FI"
ON INKEY$(2) GOTO "F2"
INKEY$ (I) <--- Function key interrupts ON

"Event Loop"
I$=INKEY$:IF I$="S" THEN STOP
GOTO "Event LOOp"
INKEY$ (0) <--- Function key interrupts OFF

"Fl"
PRINT "Fl":GOTO "Event Loop"
IIF2"
PRINT "F2":GOTO "Event Loop"
END

The ability to turn the function keys on and off is very useful when parts of a program
use function keys and other parts do not.

If a subroutine does not want to use function keys, the INKEY$(O) statement is used
at the beginning and then INKEY$(1) is used when the routine is done.
Without this statement, ON INKEY$(n) RETURN would have to be done to all
function keys at the beginning and ON INKEY$(n) GOTO line# at the end.

MSDOSTM Appendix

MSDOS APPENDIX
KEY command
FORMAT

KEY ON
KEY OFF
KEY LIST

Controls the display of function key oplions from the standard Line Editor.

Shows the function key equivalents on the last row of the screen. This
is the default.

Hides the function key equivalents.

Prints a list of the function key equvalents:

F2
F3
F4
FS
F6
F7
F8
F9
FlO

LIST
LIST
RUN
LOAD
SAVE
FIND
EDIT
CONFIG
COMPILE
KEY
EDITOR

Also see INKEY$ statement and ON INKEY$ in this appendix for other ways of
controlling function keys during runtime.
Note: The keys on the bottom of the screen for the Full Screen Editor are different.
See "Full Screen Editor" at the end of this appendix for specifics.

Note: KEY ON and KEY OFF are ignored during runtime.

MSDOSTM Appendix

MSDOS APPENDIX
LOCATE statement
x, YI [ ,[ cursor onloffl [ , [ start line I [ , stop line III

This statement handles all of the cursor functions.
parameter
X;Y
onloff
start/ine
stop/ine

Definition
horiz, vert coordinate on screen.
0= cursor off, not O=cursor on
start line for cursor character 0-13 (cursor appearance)
stop line for cursor character 0-13

The start and stop lines for the cursor determine the size and vertical position of the
cursor; LOCATE ",0,13 makes a fat cursor. LOCATE ",13,13 makes a thin
cursor. This example illustrates the different cursor types:
DO
INPUT"Start line, Stop line",x,y
LOCATE '"
x,y
UNTIL X13

For the monochrome adapter, the values of these two parameters can be from 0 to
13. Zero specifies the top of the character block and 13 specifies the bottom. With
the graphics adapter, 0 is top and 7 is the bottom. The cursor can be turned on and
off without the start and stop lines being affected.

LOCATE 0,20,0
This sets the cursor location at column zero of row 20. The cursor is also turned off.
LOCATE ,,1,3,4
This turns the cursor back on and sets the cursor start and stop lines to 3 and 4
(which is about the middle of the character on the graphics adapter).

Note: The X,V orientation can be reconfigured to be V,X (row,column). See
"MSDOS Specific Configuration Options" in this appendix for details.
Also note that ZBasic defaults to accessing character cells using numbers from 0 to
79 accross and 0 to 24 down. BASICA LOCATE uses 1 to 80 and 1 to 25
respectively. Vou may configure ZBasic for this under "Configure".

MSDOSTM Appendix

MSDOS APPENDIX
MEM function
FORMAT

MEM letter
MEM STR

MEM BCD
MEM ARR array variable name (dummy expression)
DEFINITION

This function returns the segment address of specific portions of a ZBasic compiled
program.
The segments returned are as follows:
MEM
MEMC
MEMD
MEME
MEMS
MEMI
MEMSTR
MEMBCD
MEM ARR A$(1)

CLEAR 2000: REM Clear room for INDEX$
DIM A$ (100), A# (200) ,A! (300)
PRINT
PRINT
PRINT
PRINT
PRINT
PRINT

Memory remaining in INDEX$ segment
CODE segment
DATA segment
EXTRA segment
STACK segment
INDEX$ segment
Simple strings
BCD variables.
Array A$ begins.

MEM,
MEM
MEM
MEM
MEM
MEM

MEMC, MEMO, MEME, MEMS, MEMl
STR
BCD
ARR A$(O)
ARR A#(200)
ARR A! (300)

When using the MEM ARR function the string array is given only one dummy
argument.
For example:
DIM A$(10,10)
A = MEMARR A$(12)

Only one argument is given, even though the array is 2 dimensional. It does not
matter what the value inside the ( ) is , it is only a dummy argument. It's 12 in this
example but could have been any number. In effect, it is the same as VARPTR
A$(O,O) and reading the segment from the variable VARSEG. See VARPTR for
further info.
Also see VARPTR, VARSEG and the chapter in this appendix entilled "Memory
Considerations" and especially the MSDOS Memory Map.

MSDOSTM Appendix

MSDOS APPENDIX
MEM command
FORMAT

The MEM command now gives some extra information about the memory usage of
variables. The following is an example of its output:

COMPILE
ZBasic Ready

MEM
00167
64238
14364
01232
00008
00512
00001k
00392k

Text
Memory
Object
Buffer + Integer size
BCD size
String size
BCD/String size
Available

Do not confuse the MEM command with the MEM function. The MEM command is
not a runtime feature.

The above values for Object, Buffer+lnteger size, BCD size, String Size, and
BCD/STRING (array) size will be true only after a successful COMPILE, RUN, RUN> or
RUN+.

MSDOSTM Appendix

MSDOS APPENDIX
._;

Creates a new directory (same as the DOS MKDIR command).

A$=PATH$
MKDIR "Mydirect"
IF ERROR=ll THEN PRINT"Disk error making directory": ERROR=O
END

Also see PATH$, CHOIR and RMDIR.

Note: If an error is encountered when doing CHOIR, RMDIR or MKDIR ZBasic returns
an error eleven (11) in the ERROR function. See ERROR function, ERROR
statement, ON ERROR GOSUB and the chapter "Disk Error Trapping" in the front of
this manual.

MSDOS'" Appendix

MSDOS APPENDIX
MODE statement
FORMAT

MODE expression

MODE sets the system screen attributes. MODE can be set in the range 0-20 and
takes advantage of all popular graphic and text devices available for IBM PC's and
compatibles.
Color Graphics Adaptor (CGA)
MODE 0-7
Same as the slandard ZBasic modes defined in the reference
section. All of these modes will use the color of the CGA card (or
EGA card when dip switches set to CGA mode) if it is available.
This card uses memory located at &HB800 and uses between
2,048 and 16,384 bytes depending on the MODE. Allows 16
colors in text and low resolution graphics modes only. Four
colors in MODE 5 and 2 colors in MODE 7.
Monochrome Display and Printer Adaptor (MDPA)
MODE 2
If a Monochrome Display and Printer Adaptor is all that is available
then only MODE 2 and 3 will be allowed. This board uses
memory at adress &HBOOO. It uses 4,096 bytes.
CGA Black and White
MODE 8-15
On the IBM. Modes 8-15 are the same as 0-7 with the exception
that only black & white is used on the screen. These modes can
be slightly faster. especially in graphics.
Enhanced Graphics Adpator (EGA)
MODE 16-19
These modes require the Enhanced Graphics Adaptor (EGA).
Resolution varies depending on the amount of memory on the
board (see MODE chart). This board uses memory at &HAOOO
and uses 8.192 bytes for MODE 16 and 32,768 bytes for MODE
17,18 and 19 (in monochrome graphics modes colors are:
O=black, 1=low-intensity. 2=blinking, 3=high-intensity).
Hercules and Hercules Plus Monochrome Graphics Cards
This mode allows the use of the Hercules or Hercules Plus high
MODE 20
MODE 2 (text only) resolution graphics boards (or compatibles). Text and graphics
may be intermixed if the Hercules character driver; HERe. BIN has
been loaded first. No other graphic modes will work with the
Hercules cards. It uses memory at &H8000 and uses 16.384
bytes. To utilize high-resolution text-only. use MODE 2.
Note: Also see SCREEN. COLOR, PALETTE, DEF PAGE and the section in the
main reference "Graphics".

MSDOSTM Appendix

MSDOS APPENDIX
MSDOS VERSION
MODE CHART
MODE
Number

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20

TEXT
Column/Row

40x25
40x25
80x25
80x25
80x25
40x25
80x25
80x25
40x25
40x25
80x25
80x25
80x25
40x25
80x25
80x25
40x25
80x25
80x25
80x25
80x25

GRAPHICS
horizon x vert

40x25
character

80x25
character

320x200'"
character

640x200'"
character

40x25
character

80x25
character

320x200'"
character

640x200'"
300x200·
640x200·
640x350·
640x350·
720x348··

MAX
COLORS MONITOR
PAGES Available
TYPE

8
8
4
4
4
8
4
4
8
8
4
4
4
8
4
4
2/4/8
1/214
1/2
1/2
2

16
16
16
16
16
4
16
2

8IW
8IW
8IW
8IW
BIW
BIW

8IW
8IW
16
16
3
4/16-2

MONO
C/RGB
C/RGB
C/RGB
C/RGB
C/RGB
C/RGB
C/RGB

MONO
C/RGB
C/RGB
C/RGB
G/RG-S-

C/RG8
C/RGB
C/RGB

Screen Number is the corresponding QuickBASIC equivalent and may be used instead of MODE. See SCREEN.
·The maximum number of pages for modes t 6-19 depends on the total graphic memory installed. The first number
is 64K, the second 128K and the last number is 256K See DEF PAGE READIWRITE .•• Mode 19 requires 12BK
or more to display 16 colors. C/RGB stands for Color or RGB monitor. MONO stands for monochrome monitor.
•• Requires Hercules or Hercules+ display or compatible.
···Requires CGA or EGA.
• Requires EGA.

To determine what board is installed on a computer see CARDTYPE function in this
appendix. Also see SCREEN, DEF PAGE READ/WRITE and COLOR in this
appendix for information on setting text types and colors and manipulating pages.

Also see PALETTE.

MSDOsm Appendix

MSDOS APPENDIX
MOUSE function
FORMAT

MOUSE (expression)

This function returns information from the current mouse driver as defined by the
DEF MOUSE statement. Expression will determine the value retumed as follows:
MOUSE(O)
MOUSE(l)
MOUSE(2)
MOUSE(3)

---> Resets and returns true if installed.
---> Retums X posHion
--> Retums Y posHion

---> Returns button status

The X and Y posHions returned are in terms of Z8asic's graphic coordinate system.
If expression is not 0 to 3, then zero will be returned. Also, MOUSE(O) is supported
only forthe mouse driver (i.e. for DEF MOUSE = 0).

PLOT MOUSE (1) , MOUSE (2)
UNTIL MOUSE (3)

This will plot on the screen the posHion of the mouse device until a button is pushed.

The MOUSE function does not operate exactly the same for all DEF MOUSE types.
Use the fOllowing for more specific information:

Resets the mouse hardware and software and returns 0 (false) if
hardware is not installed, otherwise returns -1 (true). Z8asic
always initially resets the mouse.

Returns the horizontal position of the mouse.

Returns the vertical poSition of the mouse.

Returns button status from 0 to 3. Zero if both buttons up, 1 or 2
if only one buttom is pushed and 3 if both buttons down.

The mouse cursor can also be shown and hidden by using the MOUSE(4) and
MOUSE(5) statements. See MOUSE Statement.
Note that the Z8asic has to be configured to support the mouse. See configuration
and DEF MOUSE.
continued ...

MSDOSTM Appendix

MSDOS APPENDIX
MOUSE function continued

---- JOYSTICK DRIVER

Returns horizontal position of joystick

Returns vertical position of joystick

Returns button status from 0 to 3. Zero if both buttons up and 3

if both buttons down. ZBasic debounces the joystick buttons for
1 millisecond.

---- LIGHT PEN DRIVER

Returns last horizontal position. If pen switch is currently down,
the X and Y poSitions are updated and the new X position is
returned; else the last position is returned.

Returns last vertical position, operating the same as MOUSE(1).

Returns pen switch status from 0 to 1 (0 if light pen switch not
down/not triggered, 1 if down/triggered). If pen switch is down,
the X and Y positions are updated.

If a mouse driver is installed, the light pen driver will no longer work. The MOUSE
function will then return the mouse position and buttons instead of the light pen, still
updating position only when a button is pressed.

MSDOS'" Appendix

MOUSE ( expression )

This statement is used to show and hide the mouse cursor.
It is only used for the mouse driver (i.e. DEF MOUSE = 0; see "DEF MOUSE
Statement" in this appendix).
The expression defines the operation as follows:
MOUSE(4)
MOUSE(5)

Show mouse cursor
Hide mouse cursor

" expression is not 4 or 5, the statement is ignored.

X=I
MODE 7
I=MOUSE(O)
NOUSE (4)

<--- Reset mouse hardware
<--- Let's see that mouse cursor

"Mouse"
DO
IF LEN (INKEY$) THEN STOP
<--- Press a key to stop
PLOT MOUSE(I), MOUSE (2)
UNTIL MOUSE (3) <---Press mouse button to toggle Mouse cursor
X=X*-I
<--- Toggle mouse cursor
IF X>O THEN MOUSE(4) ELSE MOUSE(5)
GOTO "Mouse"

It is important to note that the number of calls to one of the mouse statements must
be equal to the number of calls to the other to get the cursor to the same state. For
example, if MOUSE(5) is called 10 times to hide the cursor, then MOUSE(4) must be
called 10 times to show the cursor.
Also, ZBasic initially resets the mouse and leaves the cursor off (same as the
MOUSE(O) function); one call to MOUSE(4) will tum the cursor on.
This cursor can only be seen in ZBasic MODE's 5,7,13,15,16.

MSDOSTM Appendix

1I,81.i'Mt.'@11. . . . . . . .41DfM&11ij'immljf,jtwtful]
ON COM ERROR GOSUB statement
FORMAT

ON COM ERROR GOSUB line

Used to cali an error routine when an error is detected while reading data from the
communications ports.

-1, 1200" ",,20000
ON COM ERROR GOSUB "COM Error Routine"

"COM Error Routine U
PRINT"A Conununications error has occurred!"
PRINTItThe error is: 11.
X=USR5 (-1)
<--- Change to -2 if other port is being used

SELECT CASE X
CASE AND 2 A 9
<--- See USR5 for errors associated with bits 9-12
PRINT"Overrun Error"
CASE AND 2 10
A

PRINT"Parity Error"

CASE AND 2 ll
PRINT"Framing Error"
CASE AND 2A12
PRINT"Break detect"
CASE ELSE
PRINTItUnKnown Error!1t
END SELECT
INPUT"ontinue or top?";temp$
temp$=UCASE$(temp$)
IF temp$="C" THEN RETURN
END
A

See COM BUFF, COM ON, COM OFF, OPEN "C" and USR5(-1) in this appendix for
details. Also see OPEN"C" in the main reference section for other information.

MSDOSTM Appendix

ON INKEV$ statement
FORMAT

ON INKEY$( expression ) GOTO line#
ON INKEY$( expression ) RETURN

This statement is used to control the action when a function key is pressed. ZBasic
supports 20 of the function keys on the IBM standard keyboard. Table 1 on the next
page shows the function keys and the corresponding number associated with each.
When using the ON INKEY$ statement, expression determines which function key
is being defined according to Table 1. The function key is not actually recognized
until a ZBasic keyboard function is implemented, such as INPUT, LINE INPUT, and
INKEY$ function.
When the GOTO is used, the line# specifies where the program will continue
execution alter the function key is hit. When RETURN is used, the function key is no
longer implemented.
All function keys are disabled until the INKEY$O statement is used. See "INKEY$O
statement" in this appendix for more information.

ON INKEY$(l) GOTO "Fl"
ON INKEY$(2) GO TO "F2"
INKEY$(l)
"Event Loop"
I$=INKEY$:IF 1$="5" THEN STOP
GOTO "Event Loop"
INKEY$(O)
IfFl"
PRINT "Fl":GOTO "Event Loop"
"F2"
PRINT "F2":GOTO "Event Loop"
END

Remember to use the INKEY$(1) statement to enable the function keys; otherwise,
ZBasic doesn1 check to see if the ON INKEY$O statement was used. See
"INKEY$O" statement in this appendix.

MSDOSTM Appendix

MSDOS APPENDIX
ON INKEY$ statement continued

When a GOTO is made from a function key, the current program execution is
terminated and then restarted at the location specified in the ON INKEY$O GOTO
statement. Thus this program location cannot be nested in a subroutine' If a
RETURN is executed before a GOSUB, the program will stop and ZBasic will return to
the editor (or the operating system if in a compiled program).
The following is a list of the function keys supported by ZBasic and the numbers with
which each key is associated. The ON INKEY$ column refers to the number of each
key in the ON INKEY$( expression) statement. The INKEY$ column is the value that
the INKEY$ function will return when the function key is not implemented (see
INKEY$ function in the this appendix).

TABLE 4: Function Key Codes
KEY
F1
F2
F3
F4
F5
F6
F7
F8
F9
F10

ON INKEY$
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
HOME
13
CURSOR UP
14
PAGE UP
15
CURSOR LEFT
17
CURSOR RIGHT
19
END
21
CURSOR DOWN
22
PAGE DOWN
23
INSERT
24
DELETE
25

INKEY$
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
71
72
73
75
77

MSDOSTM Appendix

MSDOS APPENDIX
OPEN
"c" ,{ -1 I -2}

(.(baud ]I,(parity ](.(stopbit ]I,(word length ](,(status ](,(control ](,buffer

The OPEN "C" statement has three additional parameters more than is provided with
the Standard ZBasic,
·Status and· Control; can be used to control the handshaking on the RS-232 cable
when writing to the port - modem status and modem control. The modem status and
modem control parameters indicate the following:

Bits :1 716 Is 14 13 12 11 I 0 I

II ~I
! l'·'·"~

L..:; Delta Data Set Ready

Trailing Edge Ring Indicator
Delta Rx Une Signal Detect
Clear to Send (CTS) ••••
Data Set Ready (DSR) ....
L -_ _ _ _ _ _ _- i .. Ring Indicator
L S I

' - - - - - - - : : - - - - -... Receive Una Signal Detect

Modem Status
Bits :1 71 61 Sl 41 31 211 I 0 I

~. ~:~~est
~II
! 1~'..m-,~

to Send (RTS) •.-

Loop
not used
L----------i~ not used
' -_
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _•
not used

Modem Control
The default bits for these two parameters are shown by the four asterisks (•••• ) after
the bits set. This makes the default values &'<0011.0000 (or 48 decimal) for modem
status and &X00000010
(or 2 decimal) for modem Control.
(
t
• buffer size is used for loading incoming data with COM ON and COM OFF. COM
ON is automatically executed when OPEN"C" is used.
The buffer defaults to 256 bytes but may be configured up to 32,700 bytes. Also
see ON COM ERROR GOSUB and COM BUFF.
continued ...

MSDOSTM Appendix

MSDOS APPENDIX
OPEN"C" statement continued

OPEN "C",-1,300""O
This will force ZBasic to ignore the signal lines DSR and CTS when writing to the port.
This will normally work at 300 baud.

It is important to note that all of these optional parameters affect both COM1 and
COM2.
When a character is written to the COM port, ZBasic does the following:
1) Sends an indicator to the modem control register using the value given in the
modem control parameter. This is usually a Request to Send (RTS).
2) Waits for the appropriate signals from the modem status register given in the
modem status parameter. These are usually Data Set Ready (DSR) and Clear to
Send (CTS).
3) Waits for the transmitter holding register to be empty and then sends the
character to the port.
If the default parameters do not work properly on your machine, try setting the Data
Set Ready and/or Clear to Send bits to zero and/or tuming the Data Terminal Ready
bit to one.

Also see COM ON, COM OFF, COM BUFF, ON COM ERROR GOSUB, USR5 and
the chapter in this section call "RS-232 Communications". Also see OPEN"C" in the
main reference section for other information.

MSDOf3TM Appendix

MSDOS APPENDIX
-MAt
PAGE LPRINT statement (Screen Dump)
FORMAT

A screen dump to the printer will occur if the PAGE LPRINT statement is executed.
This statement is the same funclion as typing "Shift-PrtSc" from the IBM keyboard.

PRINT"HELLO"
PAGE LPRINT
END
This will cause the entire screen image to be dumped to the printer.

This statement is most useful for printing screen graphics created by ZBasic.
Graphics are not normally dumped to the printer, however. The program
"GRAPHICS.COM" that comes with MSDOS must be run before using the program
in order to install the graphics printer driver.
See the MSDOS reference manual for more information.
Requires IBM PC compatible screen dump routines. May not function on not-socompatibles.

MSDOSTM Appendix

tP.Mj• • •liiiN.*. . . . . . .¢IIBt#t+fh'a
PAINT statement
FORMAT

Fills a section of the screen with the current color. Same as the ZBasic FILL
statement.
PAINT will use the default coordinate system of 1024x768. If you wish to use pixel
coordinates, or your own coordinate system, use the COORDINATE ststement in
the beginning of your program (see coordinate in the main reference section).

CIRCLE 512, 383, 300
COLOR 3
PAINT (512,383)
END

See FILL, GET, PUT, PLOT, BOX FILL, CIRCLE FILL, PALETTE, MODE, COLOR (in
this appendix and in the front reference section), COORDINATE WINDOW and the
section in the front of this manual entitled "Graphics".
Note: BOX FILL and CIRCLE FILL are much faster than PAINT or FILL.
In some modes COLOR, attribute can be used to set the color of the background.
This is also much faster than FILL or PAINT when the entire background needs to
changed.

MSDOS'" Appendix

MSDOS APPENDIX
PALETTE statement

PALETTE attribute, c%r

Changes a color in the EGA color palette. This statement will only work with PC's
equipped with an EGA card.

COLOR = 1
CIRCLE 100,100,50: REM draw a blue circle
DELAY 2000:
PALETTE 1,2
REM the circle will instantly change to green and all
REM subsequent writes with color =1 will show
REM as green.

This statement allows the user to select a palette of 16 colors out of 63 available
colors.
The PALETTE statement works only on systems with the Enhanced Graphics
Adaptor (EGA).

Each attribute is paired with an actual display color.

MSDOS'M Appendix

1}}NfWg~I}!tt}}}1lififliJ{I,}I%_I.')iirfr*w#}$Mt_Jiifttll}}ttl}'jl.lf»1ii;(}weJiJ

PATH$ function
FORMAT

PATH$ (drive number)

The first format returns a string containing the current path of the specified drive.
drive
drive
drive
drive
drive

number;O
number;1
number;2
number;3
number;4

default drive,
drive A:
drive B:
drive C:
drive E:
etc.

PRINT "Current Path

RUN
Current Path;

This can be used to save the current directory, so that the programmer can change
to other directories (with the CHDIR statement) and have a way of retuming to the
original directory. See also CHDIR. See PATH in the main reference section.

MSDOSTM Appendix

MSDOS APPENDIX
PEEK function
FORMAT

PEEK [ WORD I ( address [ , segment

This statement is used to read a particular address in memory. The address is
actually the offset into the segment given by segment. If the segment parameter is
not given, then the data segment used by ZBasic will be used as the segment.

PEEK WORD (&HOOCC, 0)

Returns the mouse interrupt vector.
PEEK (0, &HB800)

Returns the first location on the screen.
PEEK WORD (VARPTR(I»

Returns the value of the variable I.

By specifying the segment, every address available on the IBM PC can be accessed.
The PEEK is done much faster, however, when the segment is not given.
This statement is most frequently used in directly accessing screen memory
(although IBM does not recommend doing this). For this purpose, use &HBOOO for
the segment if you have the monochrome adapter, and &HB800 if you have the
color graphics adapter or EGA in CGA modes.

MSDOSTM Appendix

MSDOS APPENDIX
PLOT USING statement
x,

Y, string [, magnification I

This statement is used to plot a set of pixels on the screen in a pattern defined by
string starting at the location X, Y. The starting location X, Y defines a point on the
screen according to the ZBasic graphic coordinate system. The simple string string
tells ZBasic where to plot each point corresponding to the one before it. The
following characters are accepted: "UDLRHIJK", which control direction, and "+" or
"-", which turn plotting on and off. The letters specify direction as follows:

PLOT USING 512,383,"UUUURRRDDDDLL"
This example plots a rectangle in the middle of the screen.
PLOT USING 512,383,"UUUU-RRR+DDDD",2
This example just plots the vertical halves of the rectangle in the previous example
and twice as big.
MODE 7
<--- Change MODE for your system.
A$="UUURRRRRRDDDLLLLLL"
FOR X= 1 TO 90 STEP 5
COLOR=-l
PLOT USING 0, 767, A$,X
COLOR=O
PLOT USING 0, 767, A$,X
NEXT
END

The PLOT USING statement only works in ZBasic graphic MODEs 5, 7, 13, 15, 16,
17,18,19 and 20 unless ZBasic is configured to not have IBM compatible graphics,
in which case the PLOT USING function is oompletely disabled.
Each pixel is plotted in the color last set by the COLOR statement; thus, a pattern
can be erased by setting COLOR = 0 and replotting.
When turning the plotting back on with a "+" imbedded in the string, note that the
pixel at that point is plotted.
Note: This statement is similar to the DRAW statement found in BASICA.

MSDOSTM Appendix

MSDOS APPENDIX
j;

POKE statement
FORMAT

POKE [WORD I address ,data

This statement is used to set a particular address in memory to a value determined
by data.

The address is actually the offset into the segment given by segment. If the
segment parameter is not given, then the data segment used by ZBasic will be used
as the segment.

POKE WORD &HOOCC,LINE 10,0

Sets the mouse interrupt vector to line 10 (not recommended!).
POKE O,ASC("A"),&HB800

Sets the first location on the screen to "A".
POKE WORD VARPTR(I%),0

Sets variable 1% to O.

By specifying the segment, every address available on the IBM PC can be accessed.
The POKE is done much faster, however, when the segment is not given.
This statement is most frequently used in wr~ing directly to screen memory (although
IBM does not recommend doing this). For this purpose, use &HBOOO for the
segment if you have the monochrome adapter, and &HB800 if you have the color
graphics adapter or using the EGA card in CGA mode.

MSDOSTM Appendix

...........MSDOS
.,.t...APPENDIX

ifllt£'.witI3%1t.ill

RENUM* new, old, increment

Adds line numbers to programs without line numbers. The compliment of UNNUM.

FOR X=l TO 100
PRINT X
NEXT
END

LIST
10 FOR X=l TO 100
20 PRINT X
30 NEXT
40 END

Also see UNNUM, FIX and INDENT in this appendix and RENUM in the main
reference section.

MSDOSTM Appendix

RMDIR statement

Removes a directory. Only empty directories may be removed.

RMDIR "Mydirect"
IF ERROR=11 THEN PRINT"Does not exist ! ":ERROR =0

Also see PATH$, CHDIR and RMDIR.
Note: If an error is encountered when doing CHDIR, RMDIR or MKDIR ZBasic returns
an error eleven (11) in the ERROR function. See ERROR function, ERROR
statement, ON ERROR GOSUB and the chapter "Disk Error Trapping" in the front of
this manual.

MSDOSTM Appendix

~lfwlflf.~flt_'8'Mf*.iW¥¥lfI_it_f~i• •}.}$,§o/ti*'lm

SCREEN function
FORMAT

SCREEN (row, column [, color])

If color is zero or is not used this function returns the ASCII code for the character on
the active screen at the specified row and column. Only valid in text modes.
If color is used and is non-zero the color of the character at the screen location
specified by row and column is returned.
lOW

expression from 0-24.

expression from 0 - 39 or 0 - 79, depending on current mode.

an expression that evalutes to a true (not zero) or false(zero)

The upper left comer is defined the same way as the LOCATE function (see "Special
MSDOS Configuration Options" in this appendix).

The number returned when using the color parameter may be interpreted as follows:

(number MOD 16)
(( ( number- forground) / 16) MOD 128)

; foreground color
; background color

A = SCREEN (9,9)
REM If character at poSition 9,9 is "8", A will equal 66
A = SCREEN ( 2,2,1)
REM The variable A will equal the color attribute of character at position 2,2

Also see COLOR, SCREEN statement and MODE.

MSDOSTM Appendix

MSDOS APPENDIX
SCREEN statement
FORMAT

SCREEN mode number

Allows changing from one graphic type to another. Similar to ZBasic's MODE
statement (added for compatibility to other BASIC languages).

0,1,2,7,8,9,10.
ZBaslc MODE

SCREEN mode number equivalent

CLS
SCREEN 0
PRINT "HELLO"
END
Prints "HELLO" in monochrome mode. Same as MODE 2 using ZBasic MODE
statement.

See MODE, PALETTE, VIEW SCREEN, DEF PAGE READ, DEF PAGE WRITE,
SCREEN function, COLOR and the chapter on graphics in this section.

MSDOSTM Appendix

MSDOS APPENDIX
SHEll statement (CALL)
FORMAT

The SHELL statement followed by string will load and execute another program
specified by string. If a null (empty) string is specified. then MSDOS will be loaded
and executed. in which case typing EXIT in DOS will return to ZBasic.
This is identical to the old ZBasic CALL string statement.
String must be either a string variable or a quoted string.

SHELL "DISKCOPY A: B:"
This will perform a diskcopy as if it was typed in from the DOS command line.
SHELL
This will go directly into DOS and give the DOS prompt.
SHELL "ZBASIC"
This will actually load and execute ZBasic. Typing QUIT will then return to the original
ZBasic.
A$ = "DIR A:*.BAS": SHELL A$
This will get the directory of all .BAS files on the A drive.

This statement can be very useful for executing batch files -- just use the name of the
.BAT file (batch file) for string.
There must be at least 17k of memory free to use the SHELL statement.
If COMMAND.COM is not found. the message "File not found" will be echoed to the
display and control will be returned to ZBasic.

MSDOSTM Appendix

MSDOS APPENDIX
; i

TFORMAT statement
(Herculesll!> or Hercules Plusll!> graphic boards only)
FORMAT

TFORMAT [=] expression

The TFORMAT statement is used to set the text format when using text in the
Hercules graphics MODE 20:
The values for expression:

Reverse video
normal (PSET); Overlays graphics
XOR mode. XOR text over background.

, Make sure ZBasic (or your program) was loaded using the
, ZHERC.BAT batch file (or your own batch file) so that the
, HERC.COM text driver is loaded into memory first.
MODE 20: REM Hercules graphics mode ONLY!
TFORMAT=l
PRINT"HELLO"

<--- Regular text

TFORMAT=O
PRINT"HELLO"
DELAY 2000
MODE 2
END

<--- Reverse text

<--- Back to MODE 2 for editing

RUN
HELLO
HELLO <--- Prints in black on white

Also see MODE, and the section about "Hercules and Hercules Plus Graphics" in
this appendix.

MSDOSTM Appendix

MSDOS APPENDIX
TIME$ statement
[hour] [. [minute] [,second]]

This statement is used to set the current time. Any of the three parameters can be
omitted, in which case the parameter will not be changed. The following values are
accepted:

hour:
minute:
second:

PRINT TlME$
TlME$ = 17,0,0
PRINT TlME$
END

RUN
16:33:12
17:00:00

If any of the parameters used are not in the accepted range, the current time will not
be changed.
TIME$ = ,,0
This only sets the seconds to zero, not destroying the current hours and minutes.
See TIME$ function in the main reference section.

MSDOS'M Appendix

MSDOS APPENDIX
TIMER function
FORMAT

Returns the number of seconds elapsed since midnight.

FOR X = 1 TO 32000:NEXT
FINISHiI

TiI= FINISHiI - START#
PRINT "The loop took ";TiI;" seconds"

RUN
The loop took 2 seconds

Since the number of seconds elapsed since midnight can be greater than 65535,
the variable must be BCD. The TIMER function can also be used to re-seed the
random number generator when used with the RANDOMIZE statement.

MSDOSTM Appendix

MSDOS APPENDIX
UNNUM command
FORMAT

Removes line numbers from lines that are not referenced elsewhere in the program
by a GOSUB line number, GOTO line number etc.
Extremely useful cosmetic command for removing unsightly line numbers from your
old BASIC programs (we should have used this sentence in our advertisements).

FOR X=l TO 100
PRINT X
NEXT
GOTO 10
END

UNNUM
LIST
10 FOR X=l TO 100
PRINT X
NEXT
GOTO 10
END

Also see RENUM* in this appendix and FIX and INDENT.

MSDOSTM Appendix

MSDOS APPENDIX
USR1 function (Check End Of File status)
FORMAT

USR1(fiIenumber)

USR1 is a predefined user function available on the IBM PC. This user function is
equivalent to the EOF(filenumber) function. The result is -1 if end of file, 0
otherwise.
Use the EOF function instead. This is retained only for compatibility with older
versions of ZBasic. See EOF in the main reference section of this manual.

USR2 statement (Set the the clock constant)
FORMAT

USR2 ( expression )

USR2 is a predefined user function available on the IBM PC version. USR2 is used
to control the 1millisecond time constant used in the DELAY statement.
The ZBasic DELAY statement should delay a specified number of milliseconds
(1/1000 of a second). This delay time is, however, very dependent on the actual
speed of the computer. The delay time constant defaults to a 1ms delay on the IBM
PC (i.e. 4.77 megahertz clock speed using the 8088 microprocessor).
If using ZBasic on a different speed computer, then use the USR2 statement to
adjust the time constant.
IBM PC
faster computer
slower computer

expression = 300
use a larger expression
use a smaller expression

This delay time constant is also used in the SOUND statement to specify the
duration.

This will set the time constant to 470. This is the value used on the IBM PCIAT to
correct the delay times.

This time constant can also be altered in configuration, which would change the
default value. See "MSDOS Specific Configuration Options" in this appendix.

MSDOSTM Appendix

MSDOS APPENDIX
USR3 function (Check keyboard status)
FORMAT

USR3(expression)

USR3 is a predefined user function available on the IBM PC. This user function is
used to control keyboard input and status as follows:
USR3(O)--->

Returns the next character struck from the keyboard. The ASCII
code is returned in the lower 8 bits. The keyboard scan code is
returned in the upper 8 bits.

Scans the keyboard buffer. Zero is returned ~ no key was struck.
If there is a key in the buffer, the ASCII and scan codes are
returned same as USR3(O), except the character will remain in the
buffer.

Returns the current shift status. The bits returned are as follows:

°Bit7
OBitS
OBitS
°Bit4
Bit3
Bit2
Bit1
BilO

Insert key active
Caps Lock key toggle
Num Lock key toggle
Scroll Lock key toggle
Alternate key depressed
Control key depressed
Left Shift key depressed
Right Shift key depressed

°Note: You can toggle the Insert, Caps Lock, Num Lock and Scroll Lock keys with
the following statement:
POKE &17,

(bit= 4-7 corresponding to the keys with bits 4-7 above).

DO
UNTIL USR3(1)<>0
A$=INKEY$
This is the same as DO: A$=INKEY$: UNTIL LEN (A$) , exceptthe above
example is much faster.
DO
PRINT@(O,O) BIN$(USR3(2»;
UNTIL INKEY$="Q"
This example will print the individual status bits on the screen. Pressing the keys
specified in the list above shows the response of the status bits.

Remember that USR3( 1) does not take the character out of the buffer. This can be
useful for checking the keyboard for a specific key before going into a standard input
routine, such as INPUT or INKEY$.

MSDOSTM Appendix

USR4 statement (Jump on CTRL C or CTRL BREAK)

USR4 ( address )

USR4 is a predefined user function available on the IBM PC version. USR4 is used
to set the clrl-break address (or ctrl-C) when one is detected. The address specified
must be in ZBasic's code segment.

USR4(LINE 20000)
This sets the ctrl-break address to be ZBasic's line 20000. In this case, if during
program execution a ctrl-break is detected, a jump will be made to line 20000.

When USR4 is used to set the ctrl-break address, it must be understood that the
program still cannot continue normal execution after the break is detected. The
register and stack will be unpredictable; thus, the subroutine at the break address
should finish with a stop or end to exit the ZBasic program.

MSDOSTM Appendix

MSDOS APPENDIX
USR5 function (Get Communication port status)
FORMAT

USR5 is a predefined user function available on the IBM PC version. USR5 is used
to return the status on either of the communication ports (see OPEN "C").
The status bits returned are defined as follows:

Bit 15
Bit 14
Bit 13
Bit 12
Bit 11
Bit 10
Bit 9
Bit 8

= Time Out
= Trans Shift Register Empty
= Tran Holding Register Empty
= Break Detect
= Framing Error
= Parity Error
= Overrun Error
= Data Ready

Modem
Bit 7
Bit 6
Bit 5
Bit 4
Bit 3
Bit 2
Bit 1
Bit 0

= Received Line Signal Detect
= Ring Indicator
= Data Set Ready
= Clear To Send
= Delta Receive Line Signal Detect
= Trailing Edge Ring Detector
= Deija Data Set Ready
= De~a Clear To Send

<--- These bits checked with ON COM
<--- ERROR when a communication
<--- error occurs.

This gets the status of the communications port 1 (COM1).

This function can be useful in investigating the RS-232 control. "there is a problem
with the 232 communication (such as mismatched baud rate, parity error, time out, or
cable hookup), it can be evident by observing the status via the USR5 function.
See "RS-232 COMMUNICATION" in this appendix for more information.
Also see OPEN"C", COM ON, COM OFF, COM START, COM END and ON COM
ERROR GOSUB in this appendix. Also see OPEN"C" in the main reference section.

MSDOS'" Appendix

MSDOS APPENDIX
ilt.Mffirjii;W;!ilili::iiWiii tw:m\;;;!:::II:::M8WlWMj

VARPTR function
VARSEG function

VARPTR (variable)
VARSEG

This pair of functions is used to determine the memory address of a variable.
VARPTR (variable) returns the offset of the variable. VARSEG returns the segment
of variable.

DIM A$(400)
AS (400) = "HELLO"
A = VARPTR (A$(400»:
B = VARSEG:
PRINT PEEK(A,B) :
PRINT CHR$(PEEK(A+l,B»

REM
REM
REM
REM

gets the offset
gets the segment
print the length
print the first char.

Because of the enhanced variable memory capability of this version of ZBasic, the
VARPTR function is slightly different from previous versions. In earlier versions, the
variables were put in one 64K segment which began at the data segment ( OS).
The address was returned in one 16-bit number.
Now in 4.0 integers, BCD's, strings and BCD/string arrays are given there own
dedicated block of memory so that more data can be stored. Therefore, two
numbers are needed; one for the offset; one for the segment.
The VARSEG function returns the segment of the last variable used with VARPTR.
Its value is valid only immediately after a VARPTR has been executed.

MSDOSTM Appendix

~• •*l)llal}i*.\%Wl.i.&.l§W&IIWI'I.ffl.}.&;;tMl'i4f.t.Jf,fj)l

VIEW PRINT statement
FORMAT

VIEW PRINT topline TO bottomiine

Used to the set scrolling bounderies.

topline
bottomline

The top line to be used for output.
The last line to be used for output.

This statement is very similar to the ZBasic DEF PAGE statement which also allows
setting the column bounderies as well.

CLS
VIEWPRINT 5 TO 10
LOCATE 0,5 <--- Set cursor to first line position
DO
PRINT"HELLO l1 i
UNTIL LEN(INKEY$)
END
Demonstrates how the text is retained within the row limits.

Also see DEF PAGE.

MSD05TM Appendix

MSDOS APPENDIX
WAIT statement
FORMAT

WAIT portnumber, AND expression [, XOR expression 1

Suspends program execution while checking the status of an input port.

portnumber
AND expression
XOR expression

numeric from 0-65535.
integer from 0-255
integer from 0-255

WAIT Port (x) , 255,255

The WAIT statement causes execution of the program to be suspended until a
specnied port produces a certain bit pattem.
The data read at the port is XORed with the XOR expression, the ANDed with the
AND expression. If the result is zero the program loops back to read the port again.

CAUTION: The computer may lock up n the required bit pattern does not appear on

MSDOSTM Appendix

ASIC
FULL SCREEN EDITOR
ZBasic 4.0 includes a powerful, yet simple, built in full screen editor for editing
program text. To toggle between the Full Screen Editor and the Standard line
Editor, use the key.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE FULL SCREEN AND STANDARD LINE EDITORS
STANDARD LINE EDITOR
This editor is provided for two reasons;
• The user may enter direct commands quite like a BASIC interpreter. You can
enter things like PRINT ASC(A) and ZBasic will return 65. Math expressions
may be entered like ?SQR(9) and 3 will be returned. See the section in the
front of this manual call "Standard line Editor" for detailed information about
this editor.
• The Standard line Editor works the same way on all versions of ZBasic
inlcuding Apple II, CPIM, Z80 and Macintosh. This allows a common interface
that someone may use that doesn't have the time to learn all the Full Screen
Editors provided.
Note: If you opt to disable line numbers you will need to do all the editing in
the Full Screen editor since EDIT requires a line number.

FULL SCREEN EDITOR
The full screen editor is provided to make entering and editing program code easy
and fast. The following two pages describe the commands used with this editor.
continued ...

MSDOsrn Appendix

MSDOS APPENDIX
FULL SCREEN EDITOR
Following is a list of command keys and control keys. Take a few minutes with the
editor to become familiar with what these keys do.

MOVING THE CURSOR

CURSOR MOVEMENT

UP a line
DOWN a line
LEFT one character
RIGHT one character

LEFT A WORD
RIGHT A WORD

BEGINNING OF LINE
END OF LINE

Ctrl-Home TOP OF TEXT (beginning or start of program text)
Ctrl-End BOTTOM OF TEXT (end of program text)
Pg Up
Pg Dn

PAGE UP
PAGE DOWN

ACTION
DELETE character under cursor

ERASE TO END OF LINE

INSERT MODE or OVERWRITE MODE

MSDOSTM Appendix

ACTION
Toggles between INSERT mode and OVERWRITE mode. Insert
mode inserls text at the current cursor poSition. Overwrite mode allows
you type over the text under the cursor. (cursor is thicker in insert mode)

MSDOS APPENDIX
FULL SCREEN EDITOR COMMANDS
The Full Screen Editor commands are easy to leam. Spend a few minutes trying out
the various commands.
You will notice that the function key commands are displayed on the bottom of the
screen. When you press the ALT key the alternate set of commands is displayed.

FUNCTION KEY
EDITOR COMMANDS
Editor
Keys

CUT line into buffer (for use with PASTE! REPLACE)
PASTE line from buffer to the current line
COpy line into buffer without erasing
REPLACE current line with line in buffer
INSERT a new line after current line
DELETE current line
FIND texl. See FIND in main reference section
FIND NEXT occurence
Set TAB value for indenting
AUTO TAB on/off. Toggles carriage retum positioning
RESTORE line to condition before changes made
LLiST to printer
SCROLL screen text up (does not move cursor)
SCROLL screen text down (cursor doesn't move)
FREEZE top of screen (press again to unfreeze)
FREEZE bottom of screen (press again to unfreeze)
Return to Standard Line Editor
NEW. Erases all text in text buffer

Note: Programmers that use ZBasic on both the Apple and IBM should notice that
the key sequences correspond to the open and closed Apple sequences so
switching from one machine to another is much less confusing (of course the
Standard Line Editor commands are the same).

MSDOsm Appendix

8-1 Z80 Appendix

TRS-80™ Models; 1, 3 and 4,
CP/MTM-80 2.2, 3.0 and
CP/MTM-80 Plus
by

© Copyright, 1985, 1986, 1987

ZEDCOR, INC.
All Rights Reserved

ZBasIc is a registered trademark of Zadcor. Inc.
ZSO is a registered trademark of Zilog, Inc.
TAS-SO Is a registered trademark of Tandy Corporation
CP/M [s a registered trademark of Oigltal Research Incorporated

. . . . . . . . . . . . . ..

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Table of Contents

Flies on the Master Diskette

Getting Started
TRS-80 Model 1
TRS-SO Model 3
TRS-80 Model 4
CP/M
Kaypro

85
85
85
85
85
85

Notes on the Z80 Version
Memory
Filenames
Sound
Z80 ICON
Z8asic DEMO program
Schools
Graphics
Mouse
Help
CALL "string" (TRS-80 versions only)
COLOR
TIME$/DATE$

86
86
86
86
86
86
87
87
87
87
87
87
87

Z80 Disk Formats
TRS-SO
CP/M

Z80 Optional Binary Math Package

B-3 Z80 Appendix

Executing ZBaslc

Z80 Specific Configuration Options
TRS-80 Specific Options
CP/M Specific Options

Using the Patch Utility

Memory Considerations
Memory Map

RS-232 Communications

Default USR Routines

Using Overlays instead of Chaining
Overlay Example

FILES ON THE MASTER DISKETTE
SYSTEM
FILES
ZBASIC

FILENAME
ZBASIC.COM

DESCRIPTION
This is the main ZBasic compiler and editor. Just type ZBASIC to
execute. Note: On TRS·80 the file is called ZBASIC/CMD.

THE FILE ABOVE IS THE ONLY ONE REQUIRED TO RUN ZBASIC
THE FILES BELOW ARE OPTIONAL AND MAY BE DELETED FROM WORKING DISKETTES

EXAMPLE
FILES
DEMO

FILENAME
ZBDEMO.COM

DESCRIPTION
A limited demo version of ZBasic (public domain). Feel free to
give it away to your friends, relatives and co-workers. This and
ZBAS IC. HLP may be given away together (please do not give
away any other programs on this disk). Note: ZBDEM013 on the
TRS-80 model 4 version is the Model 1 ,3 demo.

This is the help file. It is not necessary for using ZBasic but is
helpful when leaming ZBasic syntax. Just type HELP from the
editor to get a menu of the help available.

Example of using ZBasic disk file handling (DTEST on some disks)

Does a graphic "Rose" using High-speed and regular speed SIN
and COSINE routines. (GTEST on some Z80 versions). Not
included with all Z80 versions (storage limitations).
Graphic clock example (most versions).
Bar and Line Graphs in Device independent Graphics.

CLOCK
APPLE.BAS
SORT
ROUTINES

SHELL.APP
QUICK.APP

This routine creates random data for arrays to demonstrate the
SHELL and QUICK sort routines on this disk. Load this program
firstthendoAPPEND 1000 SHELL.APP (or QUICK.APP)
The SHELL SORT that appears in the manual (under "Array
variables.) A powerful sort when less items are used.
The QUICK SORT that appears in the manual (under "Array
variables.) A powerful sort when many elements need to be
sorted.
Examples of creating your own functions with ZBasic.

NOTE TO FILENAME SUFFIX SYNTAX: Filename suffixes will vary depending
on the disk operating system being used. Syntax above is for CP/M. If you have a TRS·
80 the suffix differs: ZBASIC.COM and ZBDEMO.COM become ZBASIC/CMD and
ZBDEMO/CMD respectively. The period is changed to a slash for all the other files
above; SORT. BAS becomes SORT/BAS ...

GETTING STARTED
TRS-SO MODEL 1

1. Make a backup and put the original in a safe place.
2. Read this appendix, making notes of any variations for the Modell.
3. Follow the instructions under "Getting Started" in the main reference manual.
TRS-SO Model 3

Since this diskette is in TRS-80 Model one format, you MUST use the CONVERT
utility to transfer the files on the master diskette to model 3 diskettes.
After converting the files make a backup of that diskette and put it and the master
disk in a safe place for future use.
Read this appendix, making notes of any variations for the Model 3.
Follow the instructions under "Getting Started" in the main reference manual.

Make a backup and put the original in a safe place.
Read this appendix, making notes of any variations for the Model 4.
Follow the instruction under "Getting Started" in the main reference manual.

CP/M-SO GENERIC
1. The diskette is provided on a Kaypro format Single sided-double density diskette.
You will need a program like "Uniform™" to transfer the files over to your computer's
diskette format if your drives will not read this diskette. ZBasic is also available on 8"
format for an extra charge. Use the PIP utility to transter files to your CP/M diskette.
2. Make a backup of your newly created master diskette and put it and the original in a
safe place for future use.
3. See "Special Configuration Options" in this appendix to set up ZBasic to work with
your terminal type. You will probably need your terminal or computer hardware
reference manual for control codes for Clear screen, cursor control and the sort.
4.
Read this appendix, making notes of any variations for the Model 3.
5. Follow the instruction under "Getting Started" in the main reference manual.
KA YPRO® CP/M
1.
2.
3.

8-5 Z80 Appendix

Make a backup of your master diskette and put it, and the original, in a safe place for
future use.
Read this appendix, making notes of any variations for the Model 3.
Follow the instruction under "Getting Started" in the main reference manual.

NOTES ON THE Z80 VERSION
MEMORY

ZBasic 3.0 for the zao Versions is designed to run in a DOS environment (CP/M-aO
or TRSDOS). The typical programming area available in a 48k to 64k machine is
from 24k to 56k. ZBasic also has the capability of OVERLAYS which are explained
later in this Appendix (this version will only use a single bank of 64k.)

The filenames in ZBasic are the standard DOS filenames.
(Disk Operating System). Example:
TRSDOSTM
ZBASIC/CMD

MYPROG/BAS. SECRET: 0

A: PROGRAM. BAS

CP/MTM-ao
ZBASIC.COM

TRSTM-ao Model 4, 4p
The range of frequencies for the internal speaker of the model 4 are limited to:
121,121 through 7,31.
TRSTM-80 Model 1&3
The frequency range is from 100hz to 10,000 hz and is routed out the out the
cassette port. Connect a speaker amplifier to the cassette port to get sound. See
your Radio Shack dealer for priCing (about $10).
CP/MTM-80 & Kaypro™
Since most CPIM systems do not support sound, SOUND is routed as CHR$(7)
(tone will not vary). Check your users manual for sound capabilities and porting.
Sometimes OUT (n) may be used.

Whenever you see this icon in the main reference section of the manual take note
of it's contents. It is referring to a variation in the use of that command for one of the
zao versions.

ZBASIC DEMO PROGRAM
There is a ZBasic demo program on your disk that may be copied and given away to
friends called ZDEMO.COM or ZDEMO/CMD. This is a limited version of ZBasic that
contains all the functions and is only limited by program size and saving object
code. Feel free to give copies of the ZDEMO program and the ZBasic.HLP program
to your friends.
continued ...

SCHOOLS
Schools may duplicate the ZDEMO/CMD program for teaching. This program is very
useful in a classroom since, in most cases, a full blown language is rarely necessary.
Note that this also cuts down the costs to schools (under no circumstances may the
actual ZBasic program be copied for distribution).

Special graphics Modes:
TRS-80™ Model 4, 4p
This version will use the Radio Shack™ Model 4, 640 x 240 high-resolution
graphics board and the Micro-Labs™ high-resolution board in MODES through 15
only.

TRS-80™ Model 1& 3
No High resolution modes are supported.
CP/MTM-80
Graphics are not supported. All Graphics are emulated using text characters. See
COLOR and CLS for changing the character type being used.
KAVPRO II, 4, 10 SpecIal GraphIcs versIon
Kaypro 160x1 00 Graphics are supported with this special CPIM version. Your
Kaypro must have graphics for this version to work.

Does not function with this version. See "Patch" in this appendix for ways a mouse
can be patched in.

The file used in the ZBasic HELP command is called ZBASIC/HLP or ZBASIC.HLP.
This file may be deleted to allow more room on the disk. If HELP is not on the disk,
typing HELP from the editor will generate a "FILE NOT FOUND" error.

Supported only in the TRSTM-80 Versions. This passes a DOS command to the
operating system. Example: CALL "DIR".

All present
versions use 0 (zero) as BLACK. Any other value will be WHITE or
the ..... character.

These commands are supported on the TRS-80 only. CPIM versions
will return 00:00:00 and 00/00/00 respectively.

B-7 Z8D Appendix

Z80 DISK FORMATS
The Z80 versions of ZBasic are provided on a specific disk format depending on the
machine. The format descriptions are as follows:
TRS-80 MODEL 1 & 3
Format:

TRSTM-80 Modell
5 1/4 inch, 35 track, Single Sided, Single Density

Modell
Transfer:

Model 3
Transfer:

Modell TRSDOS 2.3
Boot ZBasic™ disk in drive O. The disk will copy all files to a formatted
TRSDOSTh' 2.3 System Disk
Model 3 (4 in 3 mode) TRSDOS 1.3
Use TRSDOSTM 1.3 or compatible CONVERT command to move files
from the model 1 formated diskette to a model 3 compatible format. See
instructions for CONVERT in your TRSDOS manual.

TRS-80 MODEL 4 & 4p
Format:

TRSTM-80 Model 4 & 4p TRSDOS 6.0.2
5 1/4 inch, 40 track, Single Sided, Double Density (TRSDOSTM 6 Format)

Just copy files to your system disk.

OTHER TRS-80 OPERATING SYSTEMS
ZBasic can be copied over to most TRS-80 Disk Operating Systems like MultiDos,
DosPlus, Newdos, and LDOS.
CP/M-80 VERSIONS 2.2, 3.0 or PLUS
Format:

CP/MTM-80 version 2.2 or 3.0
5114 inch, 40 track, Single Sided, Double Density (KayproTM II Format)

If your computer cannot copy the ZBasic files over to your format using
PIP, try using a transfer program to move files onto your disk format.
Some popular transfer programs: Interchange™, Multidisk™, Uniform™.
Once ZBasic is in your disk format it may copied like other files.

SPECIAL KA YPRO GRAPHICS VERSION
Format:

KAYPROTM, CP/MTM-80 version 2.2
5 1/4 inch, 40 track, Single sided, Double Density

Use PIP to transfer programs onto your system disk.

OPTIONAL BINARY MATH PACKAGE

Zedcor offers an optional Binary Math package that allows you to get faster execution
times when doing floating point math. Contact Zedcor at 1-800-482-4567 if you want
this optional package.
While high speed floating math may be desirable, there are a number of trade-offs:

• Speed increase of 10x is typical.

Precision is not definable like BCD versions of ZBasic. Digits of accuracy for both single
and double precision is 6.2 digits with a range of E±38.

Binary constants and variables require four bytes each for RAM and DISK storage.

Binary numbers are stored in a different format that BCD numbers.

MKB and CVB work with binary numbers only.

• Speed increases are up to 10 times the speed of the BCD version. There is the typical
binary rounding error factor (not in the regular version of ZBasic).

Note: Programs created with the binary math version of ZBasic cannot read files with
BCD floating point created with the BCD version and vice-versa. The binary format is
subject to change in future and other versions of ZBasic. Do not use PEEK or POKE on
binary variables.
Note: A# and A! are dnferent variables (even though single and double are the same
precision).

8-9 ZBO Appendix

EXECUTING ZBasic™
There are basically two ways of starting ZBasic from the operating system prompt. With CP/M the
DOS prompt is A>or C> depending on the drive used. With TRSDOS ~ is DOS Ready.
1.

This is the standard way to startup ZBasic. See "GETIING STARTED" in the ZBasic
standard manual. Also see "CONFIGURATION" in this appendix.

This is a special way to startup ZBasic to recover a ZBasic text program after a crash or
reset. A version of ZBasic must be created using the arm start creator option from
the ZBasic start up screen.

To Create this WARM start version configure ZBasic for your machine and save using the
ave option from the ZBasic startup menu. (DO NOT use your MASTER DISK only use
a BACKUP COPY of your master diskette).
Exit ZBasic using QUIT and re-enter the just created configured ZBasic and use the
arm Start Creator option to create a WARM start version of ZBasic to be called
(TRSTM-80: ZWARM/CMD ,CP/MTM-80: ZWARM.COM) which can be used to recover
ZBasic program text after a RESET or program lock-up.

Important Note: ZWARM will only recover a program if it is still intact in memory and has
not been overwritten. This will not recover from a NEW as ~ erases the program.
The ZBasic 3.0 patch option allows the user to PATCH specific addresses in ZBasic to
Change areas in the JUMP TABLE for special hardware or software and to apply fixes to
the actual program as specified by Zedcor to provide some special features. These
changes may be saved by using the ave option from the start-up MENU.

'W.6::i:miiiii:;i• •jWMWtfM#j

SPECIFIC CONFIGURATION OPTIONS
After typing "C" in the initial prompt screen, ZBasic will ask for the standard
configuration parameters explained in the "Getting Started" section of the manual.
Following these standard parameters are the Z80 specific configuration parameters.
The additional prompts displayed are as follows:
NOTE: Press to skip options. Press to exit «CTRL C> with CP/M).

CONFIGURE OPTIONS ON ALL Z80 VERSIONS
Default

This selects the default amount of memory to be set aside for strings in the INDEX$
area at compile time. The actual amount of memory in the running compiled program
can be found by using MEM function in the program. If this area becomes less than or
equal to zero due to high memory drivers a 'Not Enough Memory' error will be
displayed and the program will exit back to DOS.
LIST

When pressed as the first key on a line will cause the editor to LIST the first program
line and make it the current line. Typical key:
LIST

When pressed as the first key on a line will cause the editor to LIST the last program
line and make it the current line. Typical key:
LIST

When pressed as the first key on a line will cause the editor to LIST the previous
program line and make it the current line. Typical key:

When pressed as the first key on a line will cause the editor to LIST the next program
line and make it the current line. Typical key:
FIND

When pressed as the first key on a line will cause the editor to FIND the next
occurrence of the string last used with the FIND command and make it the current line.
Typical key:
Overlay Offset

Allows you to set the Offset for overlay programs. See OVERLAYS in this appendix
for details.
continued ...

8-11 Z80 Appendix

SPECIAL TRS-80 CONFIGURATION OPTIONS
TRSDOS,

This special Configuration is used to tell the EDITOR which type of DOS you are using
50 the DIR command will be available from the editor.
Type a 'T' if you are using TRSDOS.
Type an "N" if you are using NEWDOS (be sure to re-enable the BREAK key with
NEWDOS; see your NEWDOS manual for details).
Type an "0" for using most OTHER TRS-80 type disk operating systems.
If not configured correctly, a system crash may occur when DIR is used from the
editor. This is one of those things in machine language that was never truly
standardized by TRSDOS and other Disk Operating Systems.
DIR does not function from the editor with Model 1 TRSDOS or NEWDOS. Most other
Model 1 Disk Operating Systems like LDOS, MultiDOS etc. function properly.

DOS COMMANDS FROM THE TRS-BO VERSIONS ONLY
To use DOS commands from within your programs use CALL"DOS Command". To
do a DIR from within a ZBasic program use CALL"DIR". To find out how much disk
space is available use CALL"FREE", etc.
Note: The DOS function being called MUST NOT use memory over 5200H for Model 1
or 3 and 3000H for Model 4. This may not work with some disk operating systems.
Note: NEWDOS stops the system scan of the key. Use the NEWDOS:
SYSTEM BREAK ON command (or whatever command that particular version of
NEWDOS uses. See your NEWDOS MANUAL).

SPECIAL CP/M CONFIGURATION OPTIONS
PRINT@

This Configuration question tells Z8asic which control codes for the screen will cause
the cursor to be posnioned for used with the PRINT@ or LOCATE function. The
codes for this can be found in your computer terminal technical manual. If a single
character just type the character code in decimal or Hex (precede the Hex code with a
"&").
If the code is two characters like 18 and 54, type the number in Hex in reverse order;
&5418. These codes must be correct for the Z8asic text graphics or screen PRINT@
or LOCATE functions to operate.
Clear

This Configuration question tells Z8asic which control code for the screen will cause
the screen or terminal to be cleared of text and graphics using CLS. The correct codes
for this can be found in your computer or terminal technical manual. If a single character
just type the character code in decimal or Hex (precede a Hex code with a "&").
If the code is two characters like 18 and 54, type the number in Hex in reverse order;
&5418. These codes must be correct for the Z8asic text graphics or screen CLS
function to operate.
Clear

This Configuration question tells Z8asic which control code for the screen will clear the
text and graphics from the cursor position to the end of the line using CLS LINE. The
correct codes for this can be found in your computer or terminal technical manual. If a
single character just type the character code in decimal or Hex (precede a Hex number
with a "&").
If the code is two characters like 18 and 54, type the number in Hex in reverse order;
&5418. These codes must be correct for the Z8asic text graphics or screen
CLSLINE function to operate.
Clear

This Configuration question tells Z8asic which control code for the screen will clear the
screen from the cursor position to the end of the screen using CLS PAGE. The
correct codes for this can be found in your computer or terminal technical manual. If a
single character just type the character code in decimal or Hex (precede a Hex number
with a "&").
If the code is two characters like 18 and 54, type the number in Hex in reverse order;
&5418. These codes must be correct for the Z8asic text graphics or screen
CLSPAGE function to operate.

Note: Also see JUMP TA8LE and PATCH in this appendix for configuring control
strings longer then two characters.
continued ....

8-13 Z8D Appendix

Special CP/MTM-80 Configurations continued

This Configuration question tells ZBasic which control code for the screen will turn on
the blinking cursor using LOCATE x,y, OFF. The correct codes for this can be
found in your computer or terminal technical manual. If a single character just type the
character code in decimal or Hex (precede a Hex code with a "&").
If the code is two characters like 1Band 54, type the number in Hex in reverse order;
&541 B. These codes must be correct for the ZBasic text graphics or screen
LOCATE x,y, OFF function to operate.

This Configuration question tells ZBasic which control code for the screen will turn on
the blinking cursor using LOCATE x,y, ON. The correct codes for this can be found
in your computer or terminal technical manual. If a single character, just type the
character code in decimal or Hex (precede a Hex code with a "&").
If the code is two characters like 1Band 54, type the number in Hex in reverse order;
&541B. These codes must be correct forthe ZBasic text graphics or screen
LOCATE x,y, ON function to operate.
NOTE: IF these parameters are not set properly the corresponding functions will not
operate.

USING THE PATCH UTILITY
The zao versions of ZBasic™ provide a utility to Patch or modify ZBasic internal code to
allow fixes or modifications for specific Hardware or software.
To get into the PATCH mode enter ZBasic™ from DOS and use the
atch menu
option. You will then be prompted for an address which may be decimal (or HEX if
preceded by a '&' character). The Modifications made during the patch session may be
saved by using the ave option when completed. Some example patches are
shown below.
Enter PATCH mode from ZBasic start-up.
Address:

Enter Address to View and/or Patch Data
to Abort to menu

aaaa bb?
(aaaa=hex-address)
(bb= byte at address)

Enler dala 10 change
10 Skip
to Abort and go back to Address:
If Data or selected the next address
will be shown.

BOLDFACE text is what you type in.
• COORDINATE WINDOW
atch
Address: &xx3F
xx3,-C3?_ &C9
Address:

Patch (enable pixel graphics)
get into patch mode
Jump table address for x,y conversion
Change JP to RET

• Patch to route MOUSE(x) to a user routine.
get into patch mode
atch
Jump table address for JP mouse
Address: &xx3D
Change JP to RET
xx3f C3? &C9
Address: -

dit
• Patch to Set the default USR3 vector.
get into patch mode
atch
Jump table address for USR3(expr)
Address: &xx61
Change JP to address FI2lI2lI2l
xx3F_C3?_ &00
XX40 FF? &F0
Address:

dit
xx=01 for CP/MTM ·80
xx=30 for TRS-80™ Model 4 TRSDOS/LDOS 6.2
xx=52 for TRS-80™ Model 1 and 3

8-15 zao Appendix

MEMORY CONSIDERATIONS
zao

The
versions of ZBasic have three different modes of operation concerning
memory organization -- EDIT mode, RUN mode, and RUN- mode (see memory map on
following page).
At least 32k of free memory is required for the EDIT and RUN modes (the development
stage of the program). However, after a program has been compiled and saved using
RUW, it can be run on as little as 16k of free memory depending on the size of the
program (the RUW mode shown on the memory map).

The system top of memory is observed by ZBasic in both the editor and object code.
The CLEAR area in the ICMD or .COM file created by ZBasic is the only area of the
compiled program which can adjust to different sizes of high memory drivers or
machine language routines. If this area is too small when an attempt is made to execute
this program from DOS a "Not Enough Memory" error will occur and it will return to
DOS.
The ZBasic subroutines and jurnp tables are not saved to disk when a program is
compiled as a chain file using RUN+. Thus, chain files take up 10k less on disk.
ZBasic is located immediately after the DOS. There may be drivers or other
applications installed at the top of memory. ZBasic does, however, assume to own all
of the memory from DOS to the TOP of memory as defined by the DOS.
The size of the INDEX$ is determined by the CLEAR statement (see reference
section). This version defaults to CLEAR 1000, making the INDEX$ equal to 1k. If
there is not enough memory, the largest size available will be allocated. The size of
the INDEX$ memory can be determined using the MEM function within the running
program.
When the CALL string statement is used to execute a DOS function the DOS
function must not use the area where ZBasic resides otherwise a system crash may
occur (this DOS function jump vector is located in the ZBasic jump table so it may be
re-vectored for different Disk Operating Systems).
TopRam is the highest RAM address the system will allow ZBasic to use. This address
varies from system to system and even on the same system depending on the DOS.
The INDEX$ CLEAR area is the only area of ZBasic that can adjust to this area if not
enough room is allocated. When the object code is executed, a "Not Enough
Memory" error will occur and the object code will stop and return to the operating
system. MEM will return memory for INDEX$.

Z80 APPENDIX
RS-232 COMMUNICATION
TRS-80 Modell, 3 and 4 SERIAL INTERFACES
ZBasic for the TRS-80 Modell, III and 4 supports asynchronous communication using
the file number -1 (negative one) for the standard serial Interface.

Baud rate, parity, stop bits, and word length are all controlled in the OPEN "C"
statement (see OPEN "C" in the reference section).

CP/MTM-80 SERIAL INTERFACES
The serial interface on Kaypro™ and CP/MTM-80 attempts to use the CPIM TTY
device and the OPEN"C" does not affect parameters as these are not software
selectable.
See your CPIM terchnical reference manual for changing parameters of the n-v
device. Use the Patch option to add your own Machine language drivers to the jump
table.

SERIAL COMMUNICATION PROBLEMS
If asynchronous communication is not working, try one of the following:
• Check to make sure the baud rate, parity, stop bits, and word length settings are the
same on both sides of the communication .
• Check for proper cable wiring. The cable must support the standard RS-232
asynchronous interface. "the serial transfer works at a low baud rate (like 300 baud)
but fails at higher baud rates, the cable is probably wired improperly.
See the diagrams which shows the two most typical cable configurations in the
MSDOS appendix.

Z80 JUMP TABLE
The Z80 versions make available a jump table that can be altered to route routines to other
addresses. This can be useful for implementing special software or for handling non-compatible
Disk Operating Systems or Serial ports (etc.).
The following is a list of all the available jump locations with a short description of each:
~

XXOO
XX03
XX06
XX09
XXOC
XXOF
XX12
XX15
XX18
XX1B
XX1E
XX21
XX24
XX27
XX2A
XX2D
XX30
XX33
XX36
XX39
XX3C
XX3F
XX42
XX45
XX48
XX4B
XX4E
XX51
XX54

JP
JP
JP
JP
JP
JP
JP
JP
JP
JP
JP
JP
JP
JP
JP
JP
JP
JP
JP
JP
JP
JP
JP
JP
JP
JP
JP
JP
JP

SUBRTN
WARM
EXIT
CHRINP
VIDOUT
LPROUT
SCANKY
ICOMM
BAUD
PARITY
STOPBT
WORDLN
RSREAD
RSWRT
RSSCAN
TIME
DATE
PRINTA
PRINTG
SOUND
MOUSE
CONVXY
MODE
COLOR
SETXY
PLOTXY
FILLXY
POINT
DOSCALL

Special Notes
NONE
NONE
NONE
• RETURNS KEY IN A
• SENDS CHAR IN A
• SENDS CHAR IN A
• A=O NO KEY ELSE A=KEY
Set Baud,Parity,Stop bits,Word len UAR
HL=BAUD RATE 300,1200 ..
SET RS232 PARITY, HL=PARITY 0,1,;
SET RS232 STOP BITS
HL=STOP BITS 0, 1, 2 ...
SET RS232 WORD LENGTH
HL=WORD LEN 5, 6, 7, 8 ...
READ 1 CHAR FROM RS232
'On exit A=char from RS-232 set Z flag
WRITE 1 CHAR TO RS232
• A=CHAR TO SEND set Z flag on exit
GET RS232 CHR NO WAIT
• A=O NO Char,Z flag set else A=CHAR
GET TIME STRING
ON Exit HL >=> 9 bytes: lenHH:MM:SS
GET DATE STRING
ON Exit HL >=> 9 bytes: lenMM/DDIYY
HL=Y,DE=X Set cursor for next characte
PRINT @(X,Y) ROUTINE
PRINT %(X,Y) GRAPHIC
Loc HL=Y,DE=X set cursor for next char
HL=DURATION MS,DE=FREQ in HZ
GENERATE SOUND
HL=TYPE RETURNS IN HL
READ MOUSE STATUS
CONVERT GRAPHIC POS
HL=Y,DE=X RETURN IN HL, DE
HL=MODE#
SET GRAPHICS MODE
SET COLOR FOR GRAPHICS
HL=COLOR
LOCAL COORDINATES
SET POINT DE,HL
PLOT FROM LAST POINT TO DE, HLLOCAL
DE, HL FILL AREA around X,Y
FILL FROM POINT
DE,HL RETURNS HL=COLOR
READ COLOR AT POINT
CALL DOS COMMAND
HL >==> STRING

Cold Start entry point
Warm Start entry point
ExH to System
Get Keyboard Character
Output Character to display
Output character to printer
Get Key from kybrd no waHing
INITIALIZE RS232 PORT
SET RS232 BAUD RATE

'save registers

XX=01
XX=30
XX=52

for CP/MBO 2.2 & 3.0
for TRS-BO Model 4 and 4P, TRSDOS/LDOS 6.2
for TRS-BO Model 1 and 3 versions

DEFAULT USR TABLE
USR digit (expression)
Entry:
Exit:
Address
XX57
XX5A
XX5D
XX60
XX63
XX66
XX69
XX6C
XX6F
XX72

expression >==> ZSO register HL
HL register returned in the expression contained in the USR function.
Vectors
JP USRO
JP USR1
JP USR2
JP USR3
JP USR4
JP USR5
JP USR6
JP USR7
JP USRS
JP USR9

Description
Special Notes
OLD HL RETURNS
HL ON COLD START ENTRY
RETURN
RETURN
RETURN
RETURN
RETURN
RETURNS LAST LINE # EXECUTED WITH TRON ACTIVE
RETURNS RAW RANDOM # 0 TO 65535
RETURNS SIN OF HL IN BRADS AS A VALUE OF +1- 256
RETURNS COS OF HL IN BRADS AS A VALUE OF +1- 256

SPECIAL STRINGS AND CONSTANTS
These Strings and constants may be changed by POKES or using the PATCH function from the MENU.
XXSO
XXS4

XXSA
XXSE
XX92
XX96
XX9A
XX9B
XX9C
XX9D

CUROFF
CURON
CLRLlNE
CLRPAGE
PAGED
PAGE1
PAGE2
PAGE3

4 BYTE CLEAR SCREEN STRING
6 BYTE PRINT AT CONTROL STRING , <=>, Y+32, X+32, 0, 0
(TRS-SO versions first 2 bytes are RS232 configuration bytes)
4 BYTE CURSOR OFF STRING
4 BYTE CURSOR ON STRING
4 BYTE CLEAR TO END OF LINE STRING
4 BYTE CLEAR TO END OF PAGE STRING
1 BYTE PRINTED LINES PER PAGE (O=disabled)
1 BYTE TOP MARGIN (O=none)
1 BYTE ACTUAL PAGE LENGTH IN LINES (O=disabled)
1 BYTE PRESENT LINE (Iine#1=0, line#2=1 .... )

OTHER IMPORTANT ADDRESSES
52AO and 52A2
XXA4 TO XXBF
XXOO +200H
XX=01
XX=30
XX=52

------> TRSSO Model 1, 3, 4 High resolution 240,640 in words
------> User area for PATCHES (Saved with ave configuration option)
------> 256 buffer (OK to use whole buffer during machine language routine)

CP/MSO 2.2 & 3.0
TRS-SO Model 4 and 4P, TRSDOS/LDOS 6.2
TRS-SO Model 1 and 3 versions

USING OVERLAYS
ZBasic 3.0 on Z80 based computers allows for Overlays to be used to make the most efficient use
of a systems available memory.
An Overlay is a program which is loaded from disk (without destroying the program in memory) and
executed. After it is executed, it will RETURN to the main program. As long as it is in memory it
may be called over and over again by RUN O(zero) until it is overwritten by another overlay or
program.
The main advantage of Overlays is they are small and will normally load up quickly. After they have
been loaded, they work like a GOSUB with the variables being chained that appear in the DIM
statements at the start of the main program and the overlay program.
Here are the steps in creating an overlay program.
1.

Create the MAIN program and define the Overlay subroutine(s).

To determine the OFFSET for the overlay subroutine:

Type RUN+ from the MAIN program
(type when it asks for a filename)

00000
00000
00000
00000

Text
Memory
Object
Variable

<--- This is the room available for the overlay.
<--- This, plus 100, is the OFFSET amount.

Add 100 to the number in front of Object to get the offset. This what is used in the
onfigure startup to create the OFFSET for the overlay program.
3.

Set up all variables which will be used by the Overlay program in identical DIM statements
at the start of both the MAIN program and OVERLAY subroutines.

Compile and save the MAIN program using the RUN' command.

Compile and save the OVERLAY subroutine using RUN+.

When the MAIN program requires the use of the overlay the first time use:
OPEN"I",1,"Overlay Filename": RUN 1

After the overlay is loaded it may be executed again without reloading the OVERLAY by
using the RUN" (zero) statement.
See the OVERLAY program examples on the next page ...

OVERLAY PROGRAM EXAMPLE
To see how the overlay capabilities work try typing in these program examples
as shown. is the key.

OVERLA Y Program

MAIN Program
ZBASIC
(in configure)
OVERLAY OFFSET = a

ZBASIC
(in configure All Else Same!)
OVERLAY OFFSET = 200+256 (aprox)=500

00010 CLEAR 5000: DIM E,X,Y,Z,T$
00020 PRINT "STARTING MAIN PGM"
00030 OPEWI",1 ,"PGMOVL"
00040 PRINT "GOING TO OVERLAY"
00050 E=O : RUN 1
00060 PRINT "BACK FROM OVERLAY"
00070 E=1 : RUN a
00080 E=2: Y=1 : Z=8: RUN a
00090 E=3 : RUN a
00100 PRINT "T$=M;T$;"'"
00110 STOP

00010 CLEAR 5000: DIM E,X,Y,Z,T$
00020 IF E=O THEN PRINT "OVERLAY"
00030 ON E GOTO "HELLO","TEST",120
00040 PRINT ""BAD COMMAND""
D0050 RETURN
00060 "HELLO"
00070 PRINT "HELLO" : RETURN
00080 "TEST"
00090 FOR X= Y TO Z
00100
PRINT X,
00110 NEXT X : PRINT: RETURN
00120 T$=STRING$(20,"X")
00130 RETURN

RUN. don1 Save Objectlll
MEM
00217 Text
----- Memory
00200 Object
06000 Variable

RUN.Object Filespec .... PGMOVL

RUN"
(TRSDOS) (CPMOO)
Object File .. MAIN/CMD or MAIN.COM
MEM
00217 Text
----- Memory
11000 Object >==> (size on disk)
06000 Variable
QUIT

(Compile overlay program)

MEM
00208 Text
----MEMORy
00150 Object >==> (size on disk)
06000 Variable
QUIT
MAIN
STARTING MAIN PGM
GOING TO OVERLAY
IN OVERLAY
"BAD COMMAND"
BACK FROM OVERLAY
HELLO
12345678
T$='XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX'
Break in 00110

I . . . . . . A:" 1. . . . . . . ;tliMi&il_i
Z80 MODE CHART
ZBasic™ Graphics Mode Chart
E:
0

CPMTM-80
Z80 ver. 2.2,3.0

KayproTM
With Graphics

TRSTM-80
Model 1&3

TRSTM-80
Model4&4p

, Model 4 Radio Shack™ or Micro Labs™ Graphics Board Only. (Do not use Modes 8 to 11)
Note: ZBasic™ will not scale High resolution graphics correctly on the Model 4 in 3 mode.

x=Honzontal resolution, y=vertlcal resolution
NOTE: ZBasic does not support both text and graphics in MODE 13 or 15
(Micro-Lab's board does).

8-23 Z80 Appendix

APPLE DOS 3.3 APPENDIX
a

Apple DOS 3.3 Appendix

APPLE DOS 3.3 APPENDIX

ASIC
DOS 3.3 VerSDon
\For the Apple® lie, lie, Laser 128™ and!

(lie requires the extended 80 column card)

Original version
by

David Overton
Enhancements

by
Greg Branche

© Copyright, 1985, 1986, 1987

ZEDCOR, INC.
All Rights Reserved
ZBasic is a trademark of Zedcor, Inc.

DOS 3.3 Is licensed from Apple CoTJl)uter, Inc.
Apple, lie, lie, I1GS, ProOOS and App\eSoft are a registered trademarks of Apple CorT1>uter, Inc.

Apple DOS 3.3 Appendix

APPLE DOS 3.3 APPENDIX
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Table of Contents

Hardware Requirements
Apple IIc, JIGS and Laser 128
Apple lie
Creating Programs for a)[+
Using the Videx 80 Column Card
ProDOS

C4
C4
C4
C4
C4
C4

Flies Included on the Master Diskette

Getting Started
Set up
Executing ZBasic from DOS 3.3
Note to main reference manual

Important Notes About using "MODE"
MODE problems
80 Column Card problems

Editor notes
Text and Graphics Integration
Blinking Characters
Apple lie Extended 80 Column Card
RESET key versus CTRL-C
Relative versus Pixel Coordinates
Compatibility with Applesoft
Using Hard Disks and/or Foreign DOS

C8
C8
C8
C8
C9
C9
C9
C9

Special DOS 3.3 Configuration Options
Configuring Drive specifications
Configuring Printer Slots
Printer Initialization Sequence

C10
C10
C10
C10

Reference
COLOR
statement
DEF LPRINT
statement
DEF MOUSE
statement
Important IIc MOUSE patch
MEM
command
DOS 3.3 Memory Map
MODE
statement
OPEN
statement
OPEN"C"
statement

C12
C13
C14
C15
C16
C17
C18
C18
C19
C20

Apple DOS 3.3 Appendix

APPLE DOS 3a3 APPENDIX
HARDWARE REQUIREMENTS
APPLE lie, IIGS, LASER 128™
The Apple™ version of ZBasic™ 3.2 functions with a standard Apple J1c or IIGS. A 5.25"
disk drive is required.
An Apple™ Mouse, second Disk drive and Joystick are supported but are not required.
The IIGS emulates the /Ie and /lc with this version. IIGS specific features are not used.

APPLE lie
~ an Extended SDcolumn card Installed In auxiliary slot 3 and 1 disk drive.

The Apple™ version of ZBasic™ 3.2 for the Apple lie

An Apple™ Mouse wlinterface, Joystick and Super Serial Card are supported but are
not required.

CREATING PROGRAMS TO EXECUTE ON AN APPLE

][+ RUNNING DOS 3.3

ZBasic requires a minimum of 128K memory to create programs, but compiled
programs will normally function on the older machines with 64K since the Object Code
(Machine language program) is compiled into the lower bank of 64K.
Code can be generated which will run on an Apple™ 11+ if certain restrictions are
observed. Avoid the use of MODE 3 or 7 as they require an extended 80 column card
which will not function inan Apple 11+.
The Apple 11+ MUST have a 16k memory card installed in slot # zero in order to execute
programs created with ZBasic (total of 64K memory).

VIDEXTM 80 COLUMN CARD
The Videx 80 column card works in MODE 2. You may need to clear the screen with
CHR$ (n). See 80 column manual for value of n (usually 12). Older style 80 column
cards mayor may not function.

ProDOSTM
Another option is to create your programs with the 64K ProDOS version of ZBasic. Programs
created with this version will run on any Apple /I. You may order the ProDOS version from
Zedcor at 800-482-4567.

Apple DOS 3.3 Appendix

APPLE DOS 3.3 APPENDIX
FILES INCLUDED ON MASTER DISKETTE
The following files are included on your master copy of ZBasic for Apple /I DOS 3.3:

Description
Hello program starts up ZBasic when you boot the disk.

.EI.Jll
A 002 HELLO
*B 037 ZBASIC

The ZBasic master program

*B
*B
*B
*B
*B
*B
*B
*B

Part of the main program

003
042
026
011
006
047
010
013

INTERPILER
VERSION 3.2
COPYRIGHT 1985
BY
ZEDCOR, INC.
ALL RIGHTS
RESERVED
APPLE //TM128K

The files above are required to create ZBaslc programs.
The flies below are optional and are not required to execute ZBaslc.
Example Flies
*T 133 ZBASIC.HLP

Description
The ZBasic HELP file accessed from ZBasic wnh HELP. If
file is not located you will get a File-Not-Found error.

T 003 GRAPH.BAS

Example of graphs.

T 013 DISKIO.BAS

Example of doing disk file handling wnh ZBasic (make sure
"Convert to Uppercase" is set to NO under "Configure").

T 004 QUICK.APP
T 003 SHELL.APP
T 004 SORT.BAS

Quick sort. Append to SORT.BAS to see how it used.
Shell sort. Append to SORT.BAS to see how it used.
Creates random data to demonstrate the SHELL and
QUICK sort subroutines above.

T 003 SIEVE.BAS

The Infamous "Sieve of Erastothenes" benchmark.

T 004 BLOAD.FUNCTION
T 003 BSAVE.FUNCTION
T 010 BLOAD/BSAVE DEMO

BLOAD function you can use in your programs.
BSAVE function you can use in your program.
Demo of the BLOAD and BSAVE function above.

Apple DOS 3.3 Appendix

APPLE DOS 3.3 APPENDIX
GETTING STARTED
1.

Before doing anything ... Make a Backup of the master diskette. See your DOS 3.3
users manual for instructions on using the COPYA program.

Put the BACKUP in a safe place.

You may delete all the "T" (text) files on the disk if you need more room. If you don't
need "HELP", the ZBasicHLP file may also be deleted.

Read the "Getting Started" section of the main reference manual.

EXECUTING ZBaslc FROM DOS 3.3
There are two ways to load and execute ZBasic:
1.

Put the ZBasic diskette into the first drive and tum the system on. ZBasic will BOOT
automatically from the "HELLO" program.

2. After loading DOS 3.3 put a ZBasic diskette in the second and type:
BRUN ZBASIC

NOTE TO THE MAIN REFERENCE MANUAL
When you are reading the main reference section of this manual always take note of this
icon:

It indicates a variation to this version that you will want to read (sometimes it will make note
of the ProDOS version in which case you can ignore it).

Apple DOS 3.3 Appendix

APPLE DOS 3.3 APPENDIX
~

IMPORTANT NOTES ABOUT "MODE"

ZBasic allows you to set different graphics and text modes. This feature lets you jump
from one MODE to another as your program requires.
This does introduce some unique potential problems that are easily avoided if you know
about them.
1. While programs compiled in the interactive method (RUN) of ZBasic will usually operate
correctly even if the MODE is not set at the beginning of a program, a program compiled to
disk as a stand-alone program (RUN' or RUN+) may appear to "Hang the system" if MODE
is not set.
To solve this problem just--->BE SURE TO SET THE MODE AT THE BEGINNING
OF EVERY STAND-ALONE PROGRAM.
2. Sometimes when typing programs in the editor, especially after pressing CTRL C or
CTRL-RESET from a running program, you may experience an unresponsive screen or
keyboard.
What has happened here is that the MODE has been changed in the compiled program
and needs to be reset in the editor (your keys are actually appearing on an invisible
screen of another MODE). Just type:
MODE 2
Even though you will not see the keys being typed and the screen will return to normal.
Do not press RESET, or REBOOT the system, as you will lose the program in memory .
The above method works just fine as long as you remember that you can't the see the
keys being pressed until you press .

CONTROL KEYS IN LISTINGS
The 80 column card responds to certain control codes. Sometimes a REM statement or
quoted string may contain a control character that will set the 80 column card to 40
characters or to a different mode. Use the example above to correct the setting and
delete the control character from the offending line.

Apple DOS 3.3 Appendix

APPLE DOS 3.3 APPENDIX
MISCELLANEOUS
The following is important information about how standard ZBasic commands may
vary on this version.

ZBasic allows you to use the cursor keys for listing programs and for use in the line
editor. The delete key or the left arrow key may be used whenever the reference
section says .

FULL SCREEN EDITOR VERSUS STANDARD LINE EDITOR
This version of ZBasic does not support a Full Screen Editor. Should you desire to
use a Full Screen editor you may want to try the ProDOS version of ZBasic. It
comes with a Full Screen Editor built-in.
You may also use other editors to create your programs if you save your programs in
ASCII using SAVE+ or SAVE'.

TEXT AND GRAPHICS

ZBASIC ALLOWS THE INTEGRATION OF
TEXT AND GRAPHICS IN MODE 5 AND 7
ZBasic allows the user to integrate text and graphics on the screen just like other
computers. This permits porting programs over to the Apple from the IBM PC and
many other computers! (Modes 5 and 7 only.)

BLINKING CHARACTERS
Blinking Characters are not supported in Graphics mode text. Inverse characters
may be obtained by setting the high bit of the character by OR-ing the character
with 80 Hex or adding 128 to the ASCII value.

APPLE lie EXTENDED 80 COLUMN CARD CONTROL CODES
All features of the Apple™ Extended 80-column card may be used by printing
characters to the screen in modes 2,4,6.
For example, printing a control-w will cause the screen to scroll up. See the
ProDOS appendix for a list of the 80 column card control characters.

Apple DOS 3.3 Appendix

APPLE DOS 3.3 APPENDIX
5

• •::i:ilM:@WfMMiikW.

CONTROL-RESET VERSUS CONTROL-C

If the computer should "Lock-Up" for some reason, or you faced with the monitor
prompt
you can press GTRL-RESET to re-enter the ZBasic line editor. In most
cases your source code will remain intact.

GTRL-RESET may also be used instead of GTRL-G to break out of programs and in
many cases is preferable since it is much more responsive.
RELATIVE GRAPHIC COORDINATES VERSUS PIXEL COORDINATES

ZBasic provide the standard device independent graphic coordinate system of
1024x768 so that programs created on other computers will also function on the
Apple 1/ and visa·versa. Even so, should the need arise where you MUST use pixel
coordinates use these POKEs:
POKE &F388, &60

Sets to Pixel coordinates of that MODE
(see MODE chart)

POKE &F388, &A9

Sets back to ZBasic's standard device
independent coordinates of 1024x768.

See "Graphics" in the front section of this manual for more information about using
ZBasic graphics.
COMPATIBILITY WITH APPLESOFTTM

ZBasic supports quite a number of the Applesoft commands. The big differences are
in Graphics and Disk file handling. To see a listing of the commands that are not
supported and some suggestions on converting your Applesoft programs over to
ZBasic, see the Apple 1/ ProDOS appendix in this manual.
USING WITH HARD DISKS ANDIOR NON-STANDARD DOS

This version of ZBasic overwrites the area of memory that is normally occupied by the
DOS 3.3 command interpreter to provide you with as much programming area as
possible. ZBasic can get away with this because it does not use the command
interpreter; it uses the DOS file manager directly.
Because of this, foreign operating systems (such as Diversi DOS) usually will not work
with ZBasic.
In addition, hard drives that force the use of a modified DOS 3.3 mayor may not work.
If you need the increased speed of a compiler and require the storage capacity of a
hard rive, we suggest you consider the ProDOS version of ZBasic. It does not modify
ProDOS in any way and is compatible

Apple DOS 3.3 Appendix

APPLE DOS 3.3 APPENDIX
SPECIAL DOS 3.3 CONFIGURATION OPTIONS
CONFIGURING DRIVE SPECIFICATIONS
DRIVE
DRIVE
DRIVE

Besides the regular configuration options that ZBasic offers, (See "Getling Started" in the
reference section) the DOS 3.3 version allows you to configure which physical slot and drive
will be associated with a logical drive specifier.
ZBasic specifies drives with letters instead of numbers (similar to MS-DOS and CPIM drive
specs). D1=A, D2=B etc.
During configuration you will be prompted with a logical drive specifier e.g. A: , and asked
which physical slot and drive will be associated with that logical drive spec. You are allowed to
configure multiple logical specifiers for a single physical drive.
For example, you can configure both drive A: and C: to access slot 6, drive 1. You may also
configure for drives that are not present on your system. You should be careful when doing
this, so that you do not try to access these drives. This is however, useful when developing
software for other systems when using ZBasic™. You can configure extra drives, and access
them if the end users have them in their systems.

CONFIGURING PRINTER SLOTS
PRINTER

The printer slot may also be set during configuration. This allows you to place your printer
interface card in any 5101. ZBasic will support any printer card that conforms to the Apple™
interface card standards for the ROMs. (Either Serial interfaces or Parallel.)
This merely sets the default printer sial. The slot may be changed at any time using the special
DEF LPRINT statemenl.
The default printer slot is number 1. The Apple™ lie has the equivalent of a serial printer card
in slot #1.
SETTING UP A PRINTER INITIALIZATION SEQUENCE
ENTER THE EXACT KEYSTROKES REQUIRED
INTERFACE CARD
(....... TO END):

The printer initialization string can be any sequence of up to 12 ASCII characters.
See the ProDOS appendix under "Configure" for the details of using this option (it is exactly
the same syntax).

Apple DOS 3.3 Appendix

APPLE DOS 3.3 APPENDIX

Apple DOS 3.3 Appendix

APPLE DOS 3.3 APPENDIX

ASIC
APPlE® II DOS 3.3 REFERENCE
This section describes the additional commands and differences to the standard
ZBasic.

You will notice there are relatively few variations from the main reference section of this
manual. This version of ZBasic is very good for leaming programming and for creating
programs that will work on virtually all versions of ZBasic with little or no changes.
When converting programs to other computers you usually only have to take COLOR,
MODE, filename variations and communication device numbers into account.

Apple DOS 3.3 Appendix

APPLE DOS 3.3 APPENDIX
IE

COLOR Statement
=n

The same as the standard ZBasic COLOR statement. The color codes are as follows:
Mode
Mode
Mode
Mode
Mode

Text Characters only
Text Characters only
Same as Mode 1
Text Characters only
Text Characters only

MODE 1,3 NUMBER

2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Mode 7:

Black
Magenta
Dark Blue
Purple
Dark Green

Grey
Medium Blue
Light Blue
Brown
Orange

Grey
Pink
Green
Yellow
Aqua
White

HI-RES GRAPHICS

Black1
Green
Violet
White 1
Black 2
Orange
Blue
White2
~

The ProDOS version of ZBasic
supports 16 colors in this mode.

The colors on the video display of Apple /I computers are affected by neighboring
colors and the condition of RAM. This is a phenomena of the Apple /I hardware and is
not correctable.

Apple DOS 3.3 Appendix

APPLE DOS 3.3 APPENDIX
DEF LPRINT statement
FORMAT

DEF LPRINT [=] Slot number

This command is used to configure the printer slot during runtime. Afterthis command
is used, all printer output will be diverted to the selected slot.
The slot number may be specified by a numeric expression but the value of Slot
number MUST be between one and seven (1-7).

If value exceeds the range of 1 through 7, the system may hang up.

Be sure to validate the slot if it is input from the user. Incorrect values may cause the
system to hang up.

This command supersedes the value set under "Configure" but does not supercede
the printer initialization string.

Apple DOS 3.3 Appendix

APPLE DOS 3.3 APPENDIX
[6£

DEF MOUSE statement
[=1

This statement defines which device (MOUSE or JOYSTICK) will be used with the
ZBasic MOUSE functions.

VALUE
expression = zero
expression = non-zero

DEVICE
Apple™ Mouse Interface card in slot number 4.
Joystick/paddle port.

DEF MOUSE=l: REM Define as a JOYSTICK
DO
PRINT MOUSE (1) , MOUSE (2)
UNTIL MOUSE(3)
END
Program will print positions of the joystick
until you press the joystick button.

The defauK is to read a mouse card in slot 4.

Older Apple™ lie systems have the equivalent of a mouse card in slot 4. Unfortunately,
Apple changed the slot in the newer Apple IIc to slot 7. If you have a newer Apple IIc or
want your commercial program to operate on any Apple IIc, use this routine in the
beginning of your program. It checks to see if it is a new or old IIc board (donl use it on
a lie, IIGS or Laser 128™) and configures itself accordingly.
LONG IF PEEK(&FBB3)=6 AND PEEK(&FBCO)=O AND PEEK(&FBBF)=3
POKE &D1F8, &7F
POKE &D1FF, &7F
POKE &D204, &7F
POKE &D20A, &FF
POKE &D20F, &FF
POKE &D217, &C7
POKE &D21C, &C7
POKE &D21E, &70
POKE &D222, &C7
END IF
Note: The ProDOS version DOES NOT require this routine.

Apple DOS 3.3 Appendix

APPLE DOS 3.3 APPENDIX
MEM command
FORMAT

This command is used to show the amount of memory remaining for text and object
code and the amount of text and object code space used in each bank.

MEMORY BANK 1
00000
Code Mem
00000
Object
00000
Variable

-Code and variable space remaining.
-Size of object code generated.
-Amount of variable space used.

MEMORY BANK 2
00000
Text
30050
Text Mem

-Shows amount of text space used.
-Amount of text room remaining.

MEM
00043
29842
00000
00000
00000

Text
Text Mem
Code Mem
object
Variable

See Memory map in this appendix.

Apple DOS 3.3 Appendix

APPLE DOS 3.3 APPENDIX
fi'l .

DOS 3.3 MEMORY MAP

Apple™ lie, lie
Memory Map
OBJECT CODE
65535

Editor / Compiler
65535

System Monitor
63488

System Monitor
63488

ZBasle Subroutln.,

Hardware Addresses

Hardware Addresses

COMPILED
OBJECT CODE

ZBASIC
SOURCE CODE
TEXT
SPACE

VARIABLE
STORAGE

ZBa,le Subroutines
16384

ZBa,le Complier

'638'
Graphics Screen

Graphics Screen
8192

ZBasle Subroutines

ZBasle
Complier

Text Screen
System Variables

Text Screen and
System Variables

Apple DOS 3.3 Appendix

APPLE DOS 3.3 APPENDIX
MODE statement
n

ZBasic uses MODE to define the characteristics of a screen.

ZBASIC ALLOWS TEXT and GRAPHICS INTEGRATION
That's right. ZBasic allows a program to integrate text and graphics anywhere on the
screen in MODE 5 and 7. This feature allows ZBasic programs from an IBM PC and
other computers to run on your Apple.

DOS 3.3 version
MODE CHART
MODE

MODES 8-15 are reserved for future use

character = Text only MODE. Draws graphics using characters.
40 x 48
= Low resolution graphics
80 x 48
= Medium Resolution "Color" Graphics
280 x 192 = High Resolution "Color" Graphics
560 x 192 = Double High Resolution. Not on ][+.
Modes 9, 11, 13 and 15 have graphics althe top olthe screen and text althe
bottom, similar to Applesoft BASIC.

Apple DOS 3.3 Appendix

APPLE DOS 3.3 APPENDIX
OPEN statement
"I! filetype 1 I drivespec I filename", record length

OPEN "--", filenumber,

This version of ZBasic has the same syntax as other versions with the exception that file
specifications are within the filename:
lflletype is a number from 1 to 8 and sets the filetype only at the time the file is created.
At all other times it is ignored. The types of files that may be defined:
Iflletypes

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)

Text file (defauH)
Integer BASIC file
Applesoft™ BASIC file
Binary File
Stype file
Relocatable type file
7) A type file
8) Btypefile

See your Apple DOS 3.3 reference manual for specifics
about file types.
drlvespec is a letter A through H followed by a colon separator. The letter must be in
upper case and specifies the physical slot and drive set in configuration.
A: 01
B: 02
filename is a standard Apple OOSTM 3.3 filename of up to 30 characters.

OPEN"O",1,"!4 A:FREO"

Any type of file can be opened in ZBasic. If files are to be read from other software, they
should be written with the correct file type and file format for that software.

Creates a Binary file named
"Fred" on drive A: (normally 01)

If drivespec is omitted, the last accessed drive will be used as the defauH.
See "Files" in reference section for more information about using files. Also see the
example program DISKIO.BAS on the master disk.

Apple DOS 3.3 Appendix

APPLE DOS 3.3 APPENDIX
OPEN"C" statement
FORMAT

OPEN"C". slot [. [baua] [. [parity] [. [ stopbm [. [word length]lll

Same as OPEN"C" in the main reference section except that slot designates the slot
that contains the Super Serial Card.
The default slot number is 2. The normal slot for use with a modem is slot two.
The Apple IIc contains the equivalent of a Super Serial Card in slot number 2.
The IIGS must have a Super Serial Card in order to use this statement. It will not
operate with the built-in IIGS serial port.
slot

Indicates Super Serial Card in slot 1
Indicates Super Serial Card in slot 2
Indicates Super Serial Card in slot 3
Indicates Super Serial Card in slot 4
Indicates Super Serial Card in slot 5
Indicates Super Serial Card in slot 6
Indicates Super Serial Card in slot 7

See the main reference section for more information and examples of using the
OPEN "C" statement.

Apple DOS 3.3 Appendix

APPLE DOS 3.3 APPENDIX

Apple DOS 3.3 Appendix

APPLE ProDOS APPENDIX
~
Notes

ProDOSTM Appendix

APPLE ProDOS APPENDIX

ASIC
ProDOS~
For the

][+, lie, lie,
and Laser 128™

by
Greg Branche
Original DOS 3.3 version by Dave Overton

© Copyright 1985, 1986, 1987

ZEDCOR, INC.
All Rights Reserved
Z8asic is a trademark of Zedcor, Inc.

Apple, IIGS, Imagewriter, and ProOOS are registered or licensed trademarks of Apple Computer, Inc.
Zedcor, Inc. is not affiliated with Apple Computer. inc.

ProDOSTM Appendix

APPLE ProDOS APPENDIX
TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS

HARDWARE REQUIREMENTS
64K Version
128K Version

FILES INCLUDED ON ZBASIC DISKETTE
64K Versions
128K versions

NOTES ON THE ProDOS VERSION
Boot-up Process
Note to main reference section
Importance of using a Ram Disk
ProOOS PATHNAMES
File BUFFER size (how to get an extra 2048 bytes)
List Keys
Help File
Reset Key
ProDOS Disk Error Codes
Hexadecimal Constants
Relative Coordinates versus Pixel Coordinates
MOUSE
IMPORTANT NOTES about video/system problems
Using the Super Serial Card
Commands not supported in this version
Integration of Text and Graphics
80 Column Card Control Codes
INVERSE text
Mouse TextCharacters
Custom Character Sets

09
09
09
D10
D10
D10
D11
D11
D11
D11
D12
012
D12
013
D13
D13
D14
D14
D14
D15
D15

SPECIAL "CONFIGURE" OPTIONS
"Printer Slot 1-7"
Setting up a Printer initialization sequences
LOCATE order
CON FIG
Note on Case Conversion

016
D16
D16
D17
D17
D17

ProDOSTM Appendix

APPLE ProDOS APPENDIX
TECHNICAL NOTES
ProDOS Machine language Interface
Entry Points
ZBasic to ProDOS interface
Using MACHlG
MEMORY Usage
Zero Page Memory Map
64K Memory Map
128K Memory Map

D18
D18
D18
D18
D19
D19
D19
D20
D21

CONVERTING Applesoft PROGRAMS TO ZBaslc
Applesoft commands and ZBasic Equivalents
Applesoft file commands and ZBasic Equivalents
Converting DOS 3.3 ZBasic programs to ProDOS

D22
D23
D24
D25

REFERENCE
ClS
COLOR
DATE$, TIME$
DEFlPRINT
DEF MOUSE
DIR
EDITOR
INSlOT
MEM
MODE
ONLINE
OUTSlOT
PATH
POINT
RENAME
RUN
USR
USR5

D26
D27
D28
D29
D30
D31
D32
D34
D35
D36
D37
D38
D39
D40
D41
D42
D43
D44
D45

command
statement
functions
statement
statement
command
command
statement
command
statement
command
statement
command
function
command
command
function
function

FULL SCREEN EDITOR
Difference between the Full Screen Editor
and the Standard Line Editor
80 Column Editor
80 column cursor movement DIAGRAM
40 column Editor
40 column cursor movement DIAGRAM
Full Screen Editor Quick Reference Page
Cursor key definitions (40 and 80 column)
Editor Command definitions

D46
D46
D47
D47
D48
D48
D49
D50
D51

ProDOSTM Appendix

APPLE ProDOS APPENDIX
l$jtt1&1;1waaw:u

leA:· .tt£ZJ&WWUU

HARDWARE REQUIREMENTS
Apple /lc, IIGS and Laser 128
The 64K and 128K ProDOS versions of ZBasic function with a standard Apple /lc and
IIGS. A disk drive is required (5.25 or 3.5 inch). ProDOS provides a tRAM disk, size
depending on available memory. An Apple Mouse™ with interface, Joystick and Super
Serial Card are supported but are not required.
IIGS Note: The IIGS emulates the /Ie, /lc modes with this version of ZBasic. Super
High-Res graphics are not supported on this version directly.
Apple /Ie
64K Version

The 64K ProDOS version runs with a standard Apple /Ie. A disk drive is required (5.25
or 3.5 inch). An AppleMouse™ with interface, Joystick and Super Serial Card are
supported but are not required.
If you have an Extended 80 column card, or other memory board, ProDOS provides a
tRAM disk, size depending on additional memory. If you have only 64K there will be
more disk accesses and compilation will take longer.
/lc, /Ie, /lGS Note: Code can be generated which will run on the older Apple )[+ or)[ if
certain restrictions are observed; Avoid MODE 3 or 7 as they require an extended 80
column card which will not function in an Apple ][+.

The 128K version of ZBasic requires an Extended 80 Column Card and a 65C02 or
65802 microprocessor.

Apple ][ or Apple ][+
64K Version

If you have an Apple )[ or ][+, you M.USI have a 16K bank-switched memory card
installed (giving you at least 64K memory). If you have a ProDOS compatible memory
board that allows ProDOS to create a tRAM disk, ZBasic will take advantage of it. If you
have only 64K there will be more disk accesses and compilation will take longer.
A disk drive is required (5.25 or 3.5 inch). ZBasic requires a minimum of 64K memory to
create and execute programs. An AppleMouse™ with interface, Joystick and Super
Serial Card are supported but are not required.

The 128K ProDOS version of ZBasic will not operate on an Apple ][ or ][+.

OLDER 80 COLUMN CARDS
Older style 80 column cards mayor may not function.
The Videx 80 column card works in mode 2 although you will have to do some manual
switching. When typing CLS from the Standard line editor ZBasic will sense the Videx
board and clear the screen automatically.

ProDOSTM Appendix

APPLE ProDOS APPENDIX
F~lES ~NCLUDED
64K VERSION

ON THE MASTER DISKETTE

The following files are included with the 64K ProDOS version of ZBasic:

File
ZBASIC. SYSTEM

Description
The boot program and low-memory subroutines.

High-memory runtime subroutines. This program MUST accompany
stand-alone programs you create with ZBasic.

EDITOR.OBJ
COMPILER.OBJ

The ZBasic command environment and Standard line editor.
The ZBasic compiler.

FSEDIT. 80 .OBJ

aD-column full screen
May be deleted if not
40-column full screen
May be deleted if not

FSEDIT.40.0BJ
INIT.64.0BJ

editor for IIc, IIGS and aO-collle.
used.
editor for 40-col lie, ]! and ][+.
used.

Contains a stand-alone program initialization sequence.

THE FILES ABOVE ARE REQUIRED WHEN CREATING ZBASIC PROGRAMS.
THE FILES BELOW ARE OPTIONAL OR EXAMPLE PROGRAMS
ZBASIC.HLP

Help file accessed with the "HELP" command.

DISKIO.BAS
GRAPH.BAS

Sample program demonstrating ZBasic file commands.
Sample program demonstrating ZBasic graphics.

QUICK.APP
SHELL.APP

Program to illustrate the use of the QUICK.APP and SHELL.APP sorting
programs. Load this program first then type:
APPEND 1000 QUICK.APP (or SHELL. APP).
Append file containing a quicksort subroutine.
Append file containing a shell sort subroutine.

SIEVE
GRAPHICS.COLORS

The SIEVE benchmark program from BYTE magazine.
Demonstrates the colors available in each of the graphics modes.

BLOAD . SAMPLE
BSAVE.FN
BLOAD.FN
DHRBSAVE.FN
DHRBLOAD.FN
DRAW.FN

Demonstrates the use of the BLOAD and BSAVE functions.
Function to simulate the ProDOS BASIC. SYSTEM BSAVE command.
Function to simulate the ProDOS BASIC.SYSTEM BLOAD command.
Double Hi-Res BSAVE function saves Double Hi-Res Graphic screen.
Double Hi-Res BLOAD function loads Double Hi-Res Graphic screen.
Function to simulate the Applesoft DRAW command.

PREFIX. SAMPLE
PREFIX.FN
CREATE.FN

Sample program demonstrating the use of the PREFIX function.
Function to set or retrieve the ProDOS default prefix at runtime.
Function to create a ProDOS subdirectory from within a ZBasic program.

Function to manually set the date and time.

ProDOSTM Appendix

APPLE ProDOS APPENDIX

."".,EffffiM&44h iW@&:lliiiirMMMifMMMf4
FILES INCLUDED ON THE MASTER DISKETTE
128K VERSION
The following files are included on the 128K ProDOS version of ZBasic (flip side of the diskette):
~
ZBASIC.SYSTEM

Description
The boot program and low-memory subroutines.

The following three files MUST accompany stand-alone programs you create with ZBasic.
RT.MAIN.OBJI
RT.AUX.OBJO
RT.AUX.OBJI

High-memory runtime subroutines.
Low auxiliary memory routines.
High auxiliary memory routines.

EDITOR.OBJO
EDITOR.OBJI
EDITOR.OBJ2

The ZBasic command environment and Standard line editor
and Full Screen Editor.

COMPILER.OBJO
COMP ILER. OBJI

The ZBasic compiler.

128K Stand-alone program initialization sequence.

Use the example programs on the 64K side of the diskette (see previous page for details). There will
also be a couple examples on this side of the diskette. These programs will not work with the 64K
version.

ProDOSTM Appendix

APPLE ProDOS APPENDIX
GETTING STARTED
1.

Make a BACKUP of your master ZBasic diskette. Store the master in a safe place (refer to the
ProDOS reference manual for backup methods).
Note: There are two versions of ZBasic for ProDOS; a 64K version and a 128K version. On
5.25" diskettes they occupy opposite sides. On 3.5" diskettes they are in two different subdirectories. If using 5.25" diskettes make sure to backup both sides.

Due to storage limitations. the ZBasic disk does not contain the ProDOS operating system.
Therefore you must create a ProDOS environment. There are a couple of ways to do this:
a. BOOT FROM A ProDOS Master Disk (/USERS.DISK). Then type "B" from the
menu to enter Applesoft BASIC.
From the prompt (1 ). enter: "PREFIX IZBASIC". then: "-ZBASIC.sVSTEM".
b. CREATE A ZBASIC BOOT DISK: Format a blank disk (using the FILER utility).
Copy the file "PRODOS" from a ProDOS disk to your freshly formatted disk. Transfer
the following files from your ZBasic Master Disk to your new copy:
64KVERSION
ZBASIC.SYSTEM
EDITOR.OBJ
RUNTIME.OBJ
INIT.64.0BJ
COMPILER.OBJ
FSEDIT. SO .OBJ (use FSEDlT.40.0BJ if using a40 col Apple ][.][+. or /Ie)
128K VERSION
ZBASIC.SYSTEM
RT.MAIN.OBJl
RT.AUX.OBJO
RT.AUX.OBJl
EDITOR.OBJl

COMPILER.OBJO
COMPILER.OBJl
INIT.12S.0BJ
EDITOR.OBJO
EDITOR.OBJ2

CTRL RESET will now
load and execute ZBaslc from this disk.

Read this appendix. making notes of any variations.

Now read "Getting Started" in the main reference section.

ProDOSTM Appendix

APPLE ProDOS APPENDIX
. . . .:miii:mil!!liim
BOOT·UP

::i:ii:::i:::liiiMiI• •;;ii ::::::11&

When the ZBASIC.SYSTEM program is loaded from ProDOS, it does several things prior to
putting you into the editor:
• ZBasic Title page displayed during the boot process.
Zero page locations are initialized.
• The low-memory runtime module is moved into place.
• ZBasic looks for a volume with the first four characters "/RAM". If found, it will
copy the necessary system files into the ram disk. If you do not wish to have
ZBasic use the IRAM disk, simply rename it prior to loading ZBasic.
• The command environment and standard line editor overlay is loaded into
memory (to invoke the full screen editor type EDITOR or EDITOR+).
NOTE TO THE MAIN I'IEFERENCE SECTION

Wherever there are notable differences between the text and the Apple ProDOS version
you will see an Apple ICON that will tell you the difference or refer you to the correct section.
The icon looks like this:

Occasionally the icon refers to the Apple /I DOS 3.3 version. In those instances simply
ignore this icon.

THE IMPORTANCE OF USING A RAM DISK

In order to leave as much free memory as possible for program development, there is a lot
of overlay swapping and other disk access involved while editing and running a program
interactively (like an interpreter).
For example, if you type "PRINT 2.345'32" from the editor command line, quite a number
of events take place:
• the editor saves whatever program you have in memory to the disk (/RAM disk, if enabled).
• loads and runs the compiler from disk ( IRAM disk, if enabled).
• compiles the command and stores the object code in memory .
• loads and runs the runtime system (/RAM disk, if enabled).
• the runtime executes the object code (which in this example prints 75.04).
• then reloads and executes the editor (/RAM disk, if enabled).
• editor reloads the temporary file (I RAM disk, if enabled) and waits for the next command.
Phew! As I said, a lot of disk access! It should be obvious that a IRAM disk will speed up
the whole process 10-15 times since disk access is nearly eliminated.

ProDOSTM Appendix

APPLE ProDOS APPENDIX
USING THE RAM DISK
These versions of ZBasic require 64K and 128K of memory, respectively. If your system
has more then the minimum amount of memory required, and the extra memory is
configured as a ProDOS tRAM disk, ZBasic will use it to store some system files and overlays
so that overall program development time will be reduced and system speed will be
improved.
In addition, a temporary file used to hold your source code is also saved to disk during the
overlay swapping. This file is named ZTEMP.ZBS.
If there is no tRAM volume, the ZBasic disk MUST remain in the drive for normal operation.
If the tRAM disk is not large enough to hold ZTEMP .ZBS, ZBasic returns a DISK FULL error
and returns to the editor. You should save the file to a diskette and compile from disk at this
point (RUN") or exit ZBasic, disable the tRAM disk by renaming it from ProDOS, then reenter ZBasic without rebooting.

.~."".'.)Ijj.\.'
~
'",",
,,:: . ""-".
'.:.:..:-~"
1 ')

Warning: DO NOT RENAME THE tRAM DISK WHEN IN USE!

PATH NAMES
The filenames used in ZBasic are standard ProDOS pathnames. ProDOS pathnames can
consist of up to 64 characters, including separating slashes. Individual filenames can be up
to 15 characters long, and can consist of alphanumeric characters and periods only.
Pathnames may be used with OPEN, RENAME, SAVE, LOAD and all other disk commands
and statements. See your ProDOS manual for more information about pathname syntax.

FILE BUFFER SIZE--- OR HOW TO GET AN EXTRA 2048 BYTES
Each file opened by a ZBasic program requires a 1024 byte file buffer.
two file buffers (2048 bytes).

ZBasic defaults to

If you configure ZBasic for one file buffer, 1024 bytes is freed for program or variables
(configuring for no open files would free 2048 bytes).
See "Configure" in main manual.

ProDOSTM Appendix

APPLE ProDOS APPENDIX
LIST KEYS
The following is a list of additional keys which can be used in the command mode editor to
list lines of source code (as well as those described in the main manual):
UpArrow
Down Arrow
Left Arrow
Right Arrow

List previous line
List next line
List first line of the file
Lis1last line of the file

HELP
The file used by the HELP command is named "ZBASIC.HLP". If you so desire, this file can
be deleted to allow more storage room on the disk. "ZBasic is not able to find this file in it's
system directory, Hwill look in the user's currently logged directory (see the PATH
command). If ZBasic still cannot find the help file, you will get a "File-Not-Found" error.

VERSUS CONTROL-C

This version allows you to use eHher CTRL-C or CTRL-RESET to exH a running program. If
the computer should "lock up" for some reason, or you are faced with the monitor prompt
( * ), you can press CTRL-RESET to restart the ZBasic editor. Your source program should
remain intact. If you press CTRL-RESET while executing a stand alone program, the
program will be terminated, and you will be allowed to load and execute another ProDOS
system program. If you are faced with the monitor prompt anywhere wHhin the ZBasic
system, pressing CTRL-Y will also return you to the editor.

ADDITIONAL DISK ERROR CODES
In addition to the standard ZBasic disk error codes referred to in the main reference section,
the following codes are defined and may be trapped with ON ERROR GOSUB:
Error Code

Error Message
Position Error
No Device Connected Error
Disk Switched Error
Duplicate Filename Error
Incompatible File Format Error
Access Error
File Already Open Error
Directory Structure Damaged Error
Not a ProDOS Volume Error
Duplicate Volume Online Error
File Structure Damaged Error
110 Error
Disk Error

The actual disk error code will be the filenumber times 256 plus the number above. See
disk error in the main reference manual for more information.

ProDOSTM Appendix

APPLE ProDOS APPENDIX
HEXADECIMAL CONSTANT INDICATORS ($ and &)
In addition to the "&" prefix signifying a hexadecimal constant (as in &FF69). the "$"
character may also be used (as in $FF69). This is so that Apple users will feel more at home.
Remember that if this character is used the program will not be directly transportable to the
Apple DOS 3.3, IBM, Macintosh, CP/M, or other versions of ZBasic.

RELATIVE GRAPHIC COORDINATES VERSUS PIXEL COORDINATES
The standard ZBasic graphic coordinate system is great for porting programs between the
various computers that run ZBasic or between Hi-Res and double Hi-Res. Occasionally you
may need to switch to PIXEL coordinates. Use this statement:
POKE WORD &85, 0
After this statement is executed, the following screen dimensions will be in effect with the
different graphics modes:
MODE 1
MODE 3
MODE 5
MODE 7

40 x 40
80 x 40
280 x 192
560 x 192 (not available with the Apple 1[+ or lie without an extended 80 col. card)

MODE automatically resets to the device independent coordinate system, so you must use
the POKE WORD &85, 0 statement immediately after setting MODE to re-enable the pixel
coordinates above.

MOUSE
If your program uses the MOUSE function to receive input from the mouse
(DEF MOUSE=O), you MUST use a MOUSE(O) function at the beginning of the program
prior to any other MOUSE call.

MOUSE(O) forces ZBasic to scan the slots for a mouse interface card, and then initialize the
mouse properly. If the mouse is not initialized prior to accessing it, your program may die a
horrible death (crash)!
In addition, ~ a mouse interface could be found and initialized properly, MOUSE(O) will
return a value of -1 (true,) otherwise a value of zero (false) will be returned.

ProDOS"" Appendix

APPLE ProDOS APPENDIX
IMPORTANT NOTES ABOUT VIDEO/SYSTEM PROBLEMS
ZBasic allows you to set many different graphics and text modes. This feature lets you jump
from one MODE to another as your program requires. This does introduce a unique
potential for contusing video problems that are easily mistaken for system errors.

• While programs compiled in the interactive method (RUN) of ZBasic will usually operate
correctly even if the MODE is not set at the beginning of a program, a program compiled to
disk as a stand-alone program (RUN" or RUN+) may appear to "Hang the system" if MODE is
not set. To solve this problem; BE SURE TO SET THE MODE AT THE BEGINNING OF
EVERY STAND-ALONE PROGRAM. If using an Apple][+ (or lie without an extended 80
column card) be sure to avoid MODE 3 and 7.
• Sometimes when typing programs in the editor, especially after pressing CTRL-C or CTRLRESET from a running program, you may experience an unresponsive screen or keyboard.
Nine times out of ten what has happened here is that the MODE has been changed in the
compiled program and needs to be reset in the editor (your keys are actually appearing on
an invisible page of another MODE). Just type:
MODE 2

Even though you will not see the keys being typed, the screen will retum to normal when
you're finished typing. Do not REBOOT the system, as you will lose the program in memory.
Remember: You can't see the keys being pressed until you press .
• CONTROL KEYS IN LISTINGS: The 80 column card responds to certain control codes.
Sometimes a REM or quoted string may contain a control character that may set the 80
column card to 40 characters or to a different mode. Use the example above to correct the
setting and delete the control character from the offending line.
USING THE SUPER SERIAL CARD
The file number specified in serial 110 must be the negative slot # in which an Apple Super
Serial Card is installed. The Apple IIc has the equivalent of a Super Serial Card installed in
slot # 2. This card would be accessed by:
OPEN "C",-2,300 •••
ZBasic communication commands only support the Apple Super serial card and compatible
serial interfaces.
Note: The IIGS serial port is not yet supported. A Super Serial Card or compatible card or
modem will function properly.
COMMANDS NOT SUPPORTED IN THIS VERSION OF ZBASIC
The following two functions are not supported: INP() and OUT( ) . See the notes at the
bottom of the pages in the main reference section for commands that may not be fully
compatible.

ProDOSTM Appendix

APPLE ProDOS APPENDIX
INTEGRATION OF TEXT AND GRAPHICS
Unlike Applesoft, ZBasic allows you to integrate text and graphics on the screen.
This permits porting programs over to the Apple from the IBM PC and many others
(MODE 5 only on the 1[+ and 64K /Ie. MODE 5 and 7 only on the 128K /Ie and /lc).

COLUMN CARD CONTROL CODES
The Apple 80-column text card firmware supports many control codes to perform special
operations, such as screen scrolling up and down. These control codes are available in
modes 2 and 6. Simply print CHR$(x), where x is the code for the function you want to
perform (see the aD-column text card manual for a listing of these codes.)
In addition, several of these codes are available in Modes 5 and 7. The codes and the
function they perform in MODES 5 and 7 are listed in the following table:
CHR$ Code

.ElJ.n.Q1lQn
Beep the Apple speaker
Moves cursor position one space to the left; from left edge of window,
moves to right end of line above
Moves cursor position down to next line, scrolls if necessary
Moves cursor position to left end of next line, scrolls if necessary
Sets display format normal (white on black)
Sets display format inverse (black on white)
Scrolls the display down one line, leaving the cursor at the current
position.
Scrolls the display up one line, leaving the cursor at the current position
Turns MouseText off
Turns MouseText on
Moves cursor pOSition one space to the right; from right edge of window,
moves it to left end of line below

Other Apple screen control codes are not implemented (as control codes) for graphics
MODE 5 and 7.

INVERSE TEXT
To shift to the inverse character set, print a CHR$(15). All characters printed after this will be
in inverse text.
To switch back to normal text, print a CHR$(14). These are the same control codes that
Apple's 80-column card uses to switch modes. As mentioned before, this works with the
40-column screen also (a slight enhancement to Apple's firmware done by our software).

ProDOSTM Appendix

APPLE ProDOS APPENDIX
¥

1ft
MouseText CHARACTERS

In addition to the MouseText characters available in 40 and 80 column modes of the new
Apple /I machines, MouseText is available in Modes 5 & 7. To shift the character set to
MouseText, print a CHR$(27) and a CHR$(15).

.......
XC VD L'Ji!:i
E
F
G

- ,...... 3
\" I
V

To de-select MouseText, print a CHR$(14) and a CHR$(24). Since Apple's procedure for
printing MouseText requires you to shift to inverse mode (the CHR$(15)), you might think
that inverse MouseText isn't possible. Not so with ZBasic! If you want to experiment a lillie,
just use a CHR$(27) to select inverse MouseText, and CHR$(24) to select normal
alphanumerics again!
CUSTOM CHARACTER SETS
The character set that is included with your ZBasic system and used by the graphics
character driver is the standard ASCII character set with the addition of the MouseText
characters (MODE 5 and MODE 7 only).
If you wish, you can customize the character set to your liking. Space does not permit
gelling into the specifics of how each character is defined or used, but I can tell you how to
change the character set to a pre-defined sel. Our character set is defined in exactly the
same way as the character sets included on the DOS Toolkit disk, available from Apple
Computer, Inc. To change the character set, follow these instructions:
1.

From Applesoft BASIC, with ProDOS active, insert a BACKUP COPY of your ZBasic
master disk in the drive.

BLOAD" /ZBASIC/ZBASIC. SYSTEM, A$2000, TSYS"
128K: BLOAD "/ZBASIC/RT.AUX.OBJO, A$2800"
This loads the character set (and some other stuff) into memory.

Load your character set by typing:
BLOAD , A$3900"
This loads your character set over our character sel. Since the DOS Toolkit character
sets are only 768 bytes long, (characters 32-128) and only contain definitions for the
standard ASCII characters, you will not be overwriting the MouseText (0 to 31).

Re-insert your ZBasic master disk, and type:

ProDOSTM Appendix

BSAVE "/ZBASIC/ZBASIC.SYSTEM, A$2000,L$4000,TSYS"
BSAVE "/ZBASIC/RT.AUX.OBJO, A$2800"

APPLE ProDOS APPENDIX
SPECIAL ProDOS CONFIGURATION OPTIONS
ZBasic can be configured by typing "C" at the initial prompt screen (see the "Configure"
section of the main reference manual), or by typing "CON FIG" while in the editor (see
"CON FIG" on the next page). In addition to the standard configuration parameters, there
are two more parameters which you can set for the Apple II.

This allows you specify which slot your printer interlace is in. This number must be from 1 to
7 (slot 1 is the standard printer slot for Apples). As in the rest of the configuration
questions, pressing as a response will accept the defauH and skip the
initialization string configuration.
If you type a number from 1 to 7, you are telling ZBasic that your printer interlace card is in
that slot and you will be given an opportunity to specify a printer initialization string (the IIc
has the equivalent of an Apple Super Serial Card in slot 1):
SETTING UP A PRINTER INIALIZATION SEQUENCE

ENTER THE EXACT KEYSTROKES REQUIRED BY YOUR
PRINTER AND/OR INTERFACE CARD (nAn TO END):
The printer initialization string can be any sequence of up to 12 ASCII characters that can be
typed from your keyboard (end input with the 'W' symbol (caret).
To enter the initialization string, type the EXACT keys required by your printer and/or
interlace card. The keys will appear on the screen as you type them. Unprintable control
characters will appear prefixed by a carettA) character on the screen. Once set, this string is
sent to the printer prior to anything else being sent out (such as LLlST, LPRINT, or ROUTE
12S). Be sure to see the ave option under "Getling Started" in the front of this manual.
Some common control codes may be entered from the keyboard using:
CTRLH
CTRLL
CTRL \
CTRL

TAB or CTRL I
RETURN
CTRL)
ESC or CTRL [

CTRLJ
DELETE
CTRL'

See your Apple reference manual for other character sequences.
This is most useful for those users who have an older interlace card that does not interlace
correctly with the SO-column screen. These cards will echo characters to the screen using
the 40-column screen firmware, instead of the SO-column firmware when the SO-column
card is active (usually messing everything up).
One solution is to tell the interlace card to NOT echo characters by using the following
initialization sequence: 80N
This would instruct the interlace to turn 011 the screen, and allow up to SO characters per line
on the printer. See your interlace card manual for more details. You can also send printer
configuration characters to your printer for all kinds of fancy printing, if your printer is capable
of it. Your printer manual will list printer control codes that are applicable.
continued ...

ProDOSTM Appendix

APPLE ProDOS APPENDIX
r• • •fI#W4IWiWE8iilii@ooli@",liiilii**i4,£QiIcontinued from previous page

LOCATE order X,Y?

This option allows you to configure the order of the coordinates in the LOCATE statement.
Normally ZBasic expects the horizontal (X) coordinate first. By answering "N"to this
question you can make the vertical (Y) coordinate first and the horizontal (X) coordinate
second.
Note: This also alters the coordinate base of the screen to make the upper-left hand corner
character position 1,1 instead 010,0 (only affects LOCATE).
This option is provided to maintain compatibiHy wijh the IBM/MSDOS versions of ZBasic
which have this option so that BASICA programs are easier to convert. This makes porting
BASIC programs from other computers much easier.

You may re-configure the system any time from the standard line editor by using the
CON FIG command. Use caution when doing this while working with CHAIN programs or
programs that will be sharing data (especially floating point numbers).

Each CHAINed program must be compiled using the same configuration as the other
programs in the overall CHAINed system. Otherwise, you will get a chain error when
attempting to run them.
II you elect to (S)ave your custom configuration, ZBasic will ask you to enter the complete
pathname 01 the ZBASIC.SYSTEM file. This will normally be "IZBASICIZBASIC.sYSTEM",
unless you have installed ZBasic on a hard disk and/or changed the name of this file.
If ZBasic has trouble saving your configuration, it will give you an error message and wait for
a keypress. After pressing a key, you will be returned to the configure menu.
If no error is encountered, you will automatically be put into the line editor.

NOTE ON CASE CONVERSION

During boot-up, the system checks to see if ij is running on an Apple 1[+ or a newer
machine. If you are using a J[+ the system will automatically convert from lower to upper case
for both keyboard input and screen output.
If it's a newer machine, the system will skip the conversion. Upper/lower case conversion
can be configured separately by the user from the configure menu. See "Configure" in the
front of this manual.

ProDOSTM Appendix

APPLE ProDOS APPENDIX
THE ProDOS MACHINE LANGUAGE INTERFACE
These versions of ZBasic have been written with the ease of direct access to ProDOS in
mind. This section of the manual describes how a ZBasic program can talk with ProDOS
directly.
MLI INTERFACE
First of all, this is NOT a tutorial on how to use the ProDOS Machine Language Interface.
For more information on that subject, consult the ProDOS Technical Reference Manual.

ENTRY POINTS
All parameters for ProDOS calls that are made by ZBasic are located in a parameter block at
$1 FOO (all addresses are in HEX). There is an 18 byte buffer here that the ZBasic system
uses for all MLI calls (18 being the maximum length of any MLI parameter block).
In addition, the entry point for a ProDOS call with the 64K version is at $803 ($865 for the
128K version). One more buffer that might be useful is the file name buffer. It is located at
$1 F12, and is 64 bytes long (the maximum length of a ProDOS pathname).

ZBaslc TO ProDOS INTERFACE
To use the ZBasic to ProDOS interface, first set up the parameter list for the MLI call that
you wish to make. If you need to, you can set up the pathname pointer with:
POKEWORD &lF01, VARPTR(name$)

since ZBasic strings conform to the ProDOS pathname standards (a count byte followed by
the string). Next, you must load the 6502 Accumulator with the MLI command code, and
then JMP or JSR to location $803 ($865 for the 128K version). The ProDOS call will be
performed, and the carry flag will have the status of the call upon return. II the carry is clear,
then the call returned with no error. II, on the other hand, the carry is set, then there was an
error and the error code can be retrieved from location $A2. The ProDOS error that is
returned by the MLI is translated into the appropriate ZBasic error code, if possible. II not,
then the actual MLI error code will be returned. If you wish to use the standard ZBasic error
handler, then you can perform a JMP to location $809 ($87F for the 128K version) if the
carry is set upon retum from the ProDOS interface.
For example, to use this interface to set the ProDOS system prefix to "!ZBASIC":
PATH$ = "/ZBASIC"
POKE &lFOO, 1
POKE WORD &lF01, VARPTR(PATH$)
MACHLG &A9, &C6 &20, $803
MACHLG &90, 3, &20, $809
END

<--- Sets up parameter block
<--- 128K version change to $865
<--- 128K version change to $87F

Note: Either "&" or "$" may be used to denote Hex numbers (ProDOS version only).

ProDOSTM Appendix

APPLE ProDOS APPENDIX
it

USING MACHLG
The assembly language source for the MACHLG statements would look something like this:

EQU
LDA
JSR
BCC
JSR
EQU

#$C6
$803
DONE
$809

;MLI CODE FOR SET_PREFIX
;CALL THE INTERFACE
;NO ERROR
;LET ZBASIC HANDLE THE ERROR

ProDOS ERROR CODES
For the 64K version only; another location of interest is $806. This is the entry point for the
subroutine that translates ProDOS error codes into ZBasic error codes. If you wish to
access the MLI directly, but still want ZBasic error codes retumed, you can perform a JSR to
this subroutine with the ProDOS error code in the accumulator. The translated error code
will be stored in location $A2.
For more examples of how to use the ProDOS-ZBasic interface, see the CREATE, PREFIX,
BLOAD, and BSAVE functions included on your master diskette.

MEMORY USAGE
The following diagrams illustrate memory usage for the various phases of operation of the
ZBasic system.
Note: Memory locations 768-975 (page 3) are not used by the ZBasic system. This would
be a good place to store short machine language subroutines.

Ox
1x
12x
13x
14x
ISx

ProDOSTM Appendix

APPLE ProDOS APPENDIX
64K VERSION MEMORY MAP

Edit/Compile
65535

Applesott Roms
(Not used by ZBasie)

Applesott Roms
(Not used by ZBasle)

Hardware 110
&COOO

EDITOR.CBJ
(whllo editing)
RUNTIME.CBJ
COMPILER.OBJ
(while compiling)
&8900

<3- File Bufl.r.
Variables

ZBasle
Complied Program

ZBasle
Source Program
&4000

Hi·Res
Graphics Page

Hi·Res
Graphics Page
&2000

ZBasle
Subroutines
204 8
1024
0

Text PaQe
Zero Page. Staek

ZBasle
Subroutine.
&0800
&0400
&0000

Text Page
Zero Page. Stack

(Numbers on the lett map are in decimal. numbers on the right map are in hexadecimal)

ProDOSTM Appendix

APPLE ProDOS
_-!Ii
. III.

128K MEMORY MAP

&FFFF
Monitor ROM

Copy 01 Monitor ROM

EDITOR
OBJI
~
COMPILER
OBJI

&0000
Hardware 110

Hardware 110
49152

EDITOR RT.MAIN
OBJO
OBJO
COMPILER
OBJO
44032
(&ACOO)
Variables

. -These fiies are
overlayed as
needed
~ File Buffers

RT.AUX.OBJI
&A800
(43008)

Pseudo St.ck
16364

ZB •• lc
Complied Program

&4000
Hi-Res
Graphics Page

Hi·Res
Graphics Page
&2000

Text Page
Zero Page, Stack

ProDOSTM Appendix

TextPao.
Zero Paoe, Stack

These fifes are
overlayed as
needed
EDITOR. OBJ2 1

APPLE ProDOS APPENDIX
CONVERTING APPLESOFT PROGRAMS
TO WORK WITH ZBASIC
ZBasic is an advanced version of BASIC. While it shares many of the commands and
syntax of Applesoft, it is not exactly the same in many areas, such as graphics, disk
file handling and such.

CONVERTING APPLESOFT FILES FOR LOADING INTO ZBASIC.
ZBasic source code files and Applesoft files are not compatible. To convert an
Applesoft program so you can load it into ZBasic:
1. Make sure you have a Backup of your Applesoft program then load the Applesoft
program into Applesoft. Make sure your program doesn't have a line zero then add
the following line to the program.
0F$="FILENAME":PRINTCHR$(4) "OPEN";F$
:PRINTCHR$ (4) "WRITE";F$:POKE33,33:PRINT"0";
:LIST 1-:PRINTCHR$(4) "CLOSE":TEXT:END

Note: The program above is one line. Enter without spaces or .
2. Change "FILENAME" above to the name of the file you wish to create for loading
into ZBasic. Then type RUN.
3. Load ZBasic, press "E" for edit, and then load the program using LOAD. To
compile the program type RUN. When errors occur use the chart on the next few
pages to convert syntax to ZBasic syntax.

CONFIGURING ZBASIC FOR COMPATIBILITY WITH APPLESOFT
ZBasic allows you to configure the system for your preferences. To make ZBasic as
compatible as possible to Applesoft, set the following configurations. See
"Configure" in the front of this manual for details about setting configuration options:
Default Variable type:
Convert to Uppercase YIN:
Optimize Expressions for integer YIN:

S (avoid doing this whenever possible)
Y
N (avoid doing this whenever possible)

STRING LENGTH NOTE
ZBasic uses strings differently than Applesoft. See "Converting Old Programs" and
DIM and DEF LEN in the front section of this manual for more infomnation.

COMMANDS THAT ARE DIFFERENT
The following commands are different and will require converting.
The list includes hints on how to convert the various Applesoft statements to ZBasic
equivalents.

ProDOSTM Appendix

APPLE ProDOS APPENDIX
wM'Wllw

Applesoft
Commands
BLOAD/BSAVE
CALL
CLEAR
COLOR
CONT
DEFFN
DIM
DRAW
FLASH
FRE
GET
GR
HCOLOR
HGR
HGR2
HIMEM
HUN
HOME
HPLOT
HTAB
IN#
INVERSE
LOMEM
NORMAL
ON ERRGOTO
PDL
POP
POS(expr)
PR#
RECALL
RESUME
ROT
RUN
RND(n)
SCRN
SCALE
SHLOAD
SPEED
STORE
TEXT
TRACE
VLlN
VTABy
WAIT
XDRAW

ZBaslc
Equivalent
See the BLOAD and BSAVE functions on the master disk.
ZBasic uses a constant as an address (not a variable). Parameters not allowed.
See CLEAR in the main reference section for ZBasic's additional options.
ZBasic uses this statement for all graphics modes (not just low-res).
Not supported (ZBasic is a compiler).
More options in ZBasic. See DEF FN and LONG FN in the main reference section.
ZBasic only allows constants in DIM exrpressions. See DIM.
Not available (see DRAW.FN example on the master disk).
Not available.
Not applicable (and not necessary since ZBasic doesn't do "Garbage collection").
Not available. See GET.FN on the master disk.
Use: MODE 1 :CLS.
Use: COLOR.
Use: MODE 5 (also see MODE 7 for double hi-res).
Not applicable
Not applicable
Use PLOTx,y TO x2,y2
Use CLS.
Use PLOT
Use LOCATE x, PEEK(37) (also see PRINT@ 1% and INPUT@/%)
Use INSLOT
Use CHR$(15). See "Inverse Characters" in this appendix.
Not applicable
Use CHR$(14). See "Inverse Characters" in this appendix.
See ZBasic's ON ERROR GOSUB statement.
See DEF MOUSE and MOUSE in this appendix and the main reference section.
Use RETURN nnnn instead.
Expr=O for default device, 1 for printer and 2 for disk.
See OUTSLOT, LPRINT, OPEN"C" and ROUTE.
Not available.
Use RETURN with ON ERROR GOSUB
Not available.
See RUN in this appendix and in the main reference section for other options.
ZBasic returns an integer number between one and n.
Use POINT
Not available.
Not available.
Not available.
Not available.
Not available. Use MODE 0, 2, 4 or 6 instead. See MODE.
Use TRON or TROFF (also see TRONX, TRONS).
Use PLOT x,y TO x2,y2
Use LOCATE PEEK(36), Y (see PRINT@ 1% and INPUT@.I''Io)
Not available.
Not available.

Many of the commands Applesoft supports have extentions in ZBasic. For instance; ELSE is supported
with IF THEN. RESTORE will allow you to position the DATA pointer to a specific item, PRINT USING is
supported, etc.
Note: When converting programs a word processor with FIND and REPLACE is very handy.
continued ...

ProDOSTM Appendix

APPLE ProDOS APPENDIX
'AlII

DIFFERENCES IN DISK FILE COMMANDS
Applesoft File Commands

ZBaslc Equivalents

OPEN A FILE FOR INPUT
PRINTCHR$(4)"OPEN filename"
PRINTCHR$(4)"READ filename"

OPEN"I",filenum, '1ilename"

OPEN A FILE FOR OUTPUT
PRINTCHR$(4)"OPEN filename"
PRINTCHR$(4)"WRITE filename"

OPEN"O",filenum,"filename"

OPEN A FILE FOR READ/WRITE
PRINTCHR$(4)"OPEN filename, L100"
PRINTCHR$(4)"OPEN filename, R10"

OPEN"R",filenum,"filename",100
RECORD#filenum,10

CLOSE FILES
PRINTCHR$(4)"CLOSE filename"
PRINTCHR$(4)"CLOSE"

CLOSE#filenumber
CLOSE

Note: Also see "Files" in the front section of this manual for more information about ZBasic's powerful file
handling commands. Also see: RECORD, READ#, WRITE#, DIM, PRINT#, INPUT# and L1NEINPUT#.

PEEKS, POKES, AND SYSTEM CALLS
Applesoft
CALL -958
CALL -868
X=PEEK(-16336)
X=PEEK(-16287), Y=PEEK(-16286)

ZBaslc Equivalents
CLSPAGE
CLS LINE
See SOUND in reference section.
See MOUSE(3) and DEF MOUSE

Other PEEK and POKE statements should work as expected except those dealing with Applesoft.
Also see MACHLG, USR, CALL and LINE in the main reference section.

ProDOS7>f Appendix

APPLE ProDOS APPENDIX
TRANSFERRING ZBaslc DOS 3.3 FILES TO THE ProDOS VERSIONS OF ZBaslc
The file format for the ProDOS version of ZBasic is different than the file format for the DOS
3.3 version of ZBasic. Therefore; follow these instructions to convert files:
1.

LOAD your program into the DOS 3.3 version of ZBasic.

Use the SAVE" command to save the source code in ASCII.

Exit the DOS 3.3 version of ZBasic and boot your favorite DOS 3.3 to ProDOS
conversion program; such as CONVERTfound on your ProDOS tUSERS.DISK or
APPLE SYSTEMS UTILITIES.

Copy the file just saved in ASCII to a ProDOS formatted diskette.

Execute either the 64K or 128K ProDOS versions of ZBasic and LOAD the program.

Programs created in the DOS 3.3 version should run with few, if any, changes; aHhough
you may want to modify the programs to take advantage of the ProDOS tRAM disk or the 16
colors available in Double Hi-Res.

ProDOSTM Appendix

APPLE ProDOS APPENDIX

ASIC
REFERENCE SECTION
This section of the appendix discusses commands unique to the ProDOS version of
ZBasic and commands that may have other meanings other than those described in the
main reference section.

ProDOSTM Appendix

APPLE ProDOS APPENDIX

fflgWgf.,...,........,..,.~

CLS command
FORMAT

Clears the screen. Same as the standard CLS statement with the following variations:
• If you are currently editing in one of the text modes, the screen will be cleared
immediately (without going through the compiler) .
• If you are currently in one of the graphics modes, the command must first be compiled
before it is executed by the runtime system, and takes longer.

See CLS in the main reference section for delailed information.

This command works correctly with the standard Apple 80-column card and Videx 80column cards (and compatible). Any control key typed at the keyboard that is not
defined as an editor command will be passed through unchanged to the 80-column
firmware. What this means is that if your card requires a CHR$(26) to clear the screen
you can press CTRL-Z to accomplish the same thing.
To use any of the other CLS options from within the editor, such as CLS nn, precede
the command with a colon. e.g.
: CLS ASC (" A")

ProDOSTM Appendix

APPLE ProDOS APPENDIX
COLOR statement
n

The COLOR codes for the ProDOS version of ZBasic are:

Modes 0, 2, 4, & 6: Text Characters only, no color.

Modes 1, 3, & 7:

Black
Magenta
Dark Blue
Purple
Dark Green
Grey
Medium Blue
Light Blue
Brown
Orange
Grey
Pink
Green
Yellow
Aqua
Whhe

QQ.J..QR
Black1
Green
Violet
Whhe1
Black 2
Orange
Blue
White2

IIGS Note: The IIGS Super Hi-Res graphics mode is not supported directly (the /Ie, /Ie
modes are emulated).

ProDOSTM Appendix

APPLE ProDOS APPENDIX
lid

DATE$, TIME$ function
FORMAT

See the main reference manual.

See the main reference manual for details of usage.

These functions behave exactly as described in the standard reference section if your
system has a ProDOS compatible clock installed.
The system performs a ProDOS call to retrieve the date and time from a clock card. If no
card is installed, then the strings that are returned will be set to whatever the current
values are of the ProDOS date and time locations on the global page (00/00/00 and
00:00 norrnally).
If your system has no clock, and you wish to set the date and time manually, you can
include the DATETIME function in your program (from your master diSk).
Since ProDOS does not have any storage space for seconds, the TIME$ seconds field
will always be ''~O''.

ProDOSTM Appendix

APPLE ProDOS APPENDIX
DEF LPRINT statement
FORMAT

DEF LPRINT [=) Slot number

This command is used to configure the printer slot during runtime. Alter this command
is used, all printer output will be diverted to the selected slot.
The slot number may be specified by any numeric expression but the value of Slot
number MUST be between one and seven

This command supersedes the configuration value, except for the initialization string.
See the notes on configuration for more info.

If value exceeds the range of 1-7, the number will be masked to stay in range.

ProDOSTM Appendix

APPLE ProDOS APPENDIX
DEF MOUSE statement
FORMAT

DEF MOUSE [=) expression

This statement defines which device (MOUSE or JOYSTICK) will be used for the
MOUSE function call.
expression=O
expression<>O

APPLE MOUSE INTERFACE
JOYSTICK

DEF MOUSE=l: REM Define as a JOYSTICK
DO
PRINT MOUSE (1) , MOUSE (2)
UNTIL MOUSE (3)
END

This program will print the positions of the joystick
until you press the joystick button.

The default is equivalent to DEF MOUSE=O. The Apple /lc has the equivalent of a
mouse card built-in.

If DEF MOUSE=1 is used to activate the joystick, the function MOUSE(3) will return a
value corresponding to which joystick button was pressed.

ProDOSTM Appendix

Meaning
Neither button pressed
Button 0 pressed
Button 1 pressed
Both buttons pressed

APPLE ProDOS APPENDIX
DIR command
FORMAT

[L]DIR [+] [pathname]
[L]CAT [+] [pathname]

These commands display a directory of a ProDOS volume, as explained in the
reference section. DIR and CAT are interchangeable. CAT was implemented to make
conversion easier for Applesolt programmers.
When the command DIR is given by itself, ZBasic will display a directory of the currently
logged ProDOS pathname (see the PATH command) in the standard 40 column format.
DIR+ operates in the same way as DIR without the "+", and will produce the ProDOS
standard BO-column display format (more information is shown). \I in 40-column mode
the output will wrap to the second line.
The optional pathname specifies a directory to be displayed. The pathname can be a
full or partial ProDOS pathname. Full pathnames start with a slash ("t'), and specify the
root volume. If a partial pathname is specified, ZBasic will append this pathname to the
currently logged pathname, and display the contents of this sub-directory. Pathnames
can be any legal ProDOS pathname.
The optional "L" preceding the command will direct output to the printer. There must
not be a space between the "L" and the "DIR".

As you can see, the first line of the directory contains the name of the directory which
the listing is produced from. A slash preceding the directory name (as in the example)
signifies that this is a root (volume) directory. Sub-directory names are not preceded by
the slash.
The heading line is pretty much self-explanatory, except the ENDFILE (found on a DIR+
listing). The figures in the ENDFILE column represent the total number of bytes in that
file.
The TYPE column represents the ProDOS standard file types, with one exception -ZBS. This file type is a ZBasic tokenized source file.
An asterisk (*) preceding a file name signifies that this file is locked. It can not be
modified in any way from within the ZBasic system.
As with the editor "L1ST' command, the directory can be temporarily halted by pressing
the space bar once. Pressing the space bar again will advance the directory one line.
Pressing any other key will restart the listing. Pressing CTRL-C will abort the directory
listing.
To read a directory from within a running program, simply OPEN the directory file as you
would any other, then read the necessary information from it. See the ProDOS
Technical Reference Manual, Appendix B, for information concerning the format of
directory files.
Also see the special ZBasic Pro DOS command: ONLINE.

ProDOSTM Appendix

APPLE ProDOS APPENDIX

: . . . . . . . . .1

DIR
!ZBASIC
NAME

SYS
BIN
BIN
TXT
TXT
ZBS
TXT
TXT

ZBASIC.SYSTEM
*RAM.FILLER
*RUNTIME.OBJ
*ZBASIC.HLP
DISKIO.BAS
GRAPH.BAS
CREATE.FN
DRAW.FN
BLOCKS FREE:

MODIFIED
10-FEB-87
31-JAN-86
29-JAN-87
12-0CT-86
5-DEC-86
6-NOV-86
20-JAN-87
29-DEC-86

12:02
11: 40
15:49
13:18
14:26
10:25
11 :31
17:08

DIR+
!ZBASIC
NAME
ZBASIC.SYSTEM
*RAM.FILLER
*RUNTIME.OBJ
*ZBASIC.HLP
DISKIO.BAS
GRAPH.BAS
CREATE.FN
DRAW.FN
BLOCKS FREE:

TYPE
SYS
BIN
BIN
TXT
TXT
ZBS
TXT
TXT
26

BLOCKS
33
17
28
57

10-FEB-87
31-JAN-86
29-JAN-87
12-0CT-86
5-DEC-86
6-NOV-86
20-JAN-87
29-DEC-86

10-FEB-87
10-FEB-87
10-FEB-87
10-FEB-87
10-FEB-87
10-FEB-87
10-FEB-87
10-FEB-87

NOTE: endfile numbers may not be actual.

ProDOSTM Appendix

12:02
11: 40
15:49
13:18
14:26
10:25
11 :31
17:08

ENDFILE
12 :51
12: 51
12: 51
12 :51
12:51
12:51
12: 51
12: 51
280

16384
9384
7644
384
844
1982
123
456

APPLE ProDOS APPENDIX
EDITOR command
FORMAT

This command is used to enter the full screen text editor from the Standard line editor.
Typing "EDITOR" on the ZBasic command line will transform any program currently in
memory from ZBasic tokenized format to full ASCII format and enter the full screen
editor.

If you use the optional "+", the program currently in memory will have the line numbers
stripped prior to entering the full screen editor. Be sure that you have not used any line
number references in your program (such as GOTO or GOSUB). Use label references
instead.
REMARK

See the section entitled "Full Screen Editot' in this appendix for a complete description
of editor commands and operation.
Note: To get back to the standard line editor press ESC (or CTRL-K CTRL-Q on U+ ).

ProDOSTM Appendix

APPLE ProDOS APPENDIX
INSLOT statement
FORMAT

INSLOT(Slot Number)

This statement will allow you to specify the slot number of an interface card which your
program is to receive input from.
This is supplied so that you can use non-standard interface cards (Le. other than those
supported directly by ZBasic, such as a graphics tablet).
Do not use this command to access a Super Serial Card; use the OPEN"C" command
instead.
INSLOT(O) will Ore-attach" the keyboard for input.

CLS
DO
INPUT"Which slot is the widget?";Slot
UNTIL (Slot>O) AND (Slot<8)
INS LOT (Slot)
do something with the slot here •..
INS LOT (0)

<--- Set the slot back to normal.

(example only do not use)

See your hardware technical reference manuals for details.
Note: Any interface card that attempts to store a value into an Applesoft variable (such
as some clock cards) will not work correctly with ZBasic since there are no "Applesoft
variables" in ZBasic.
Check the technical reference manual of the device to set it to some other parameters.

ProDOSTM Appendix

APPLE ProDOS APPENDIX
MEM command
FORMAT

This command is used to show the amount of memory remaining for text and object
code remaining and the amount of text and object code space used during each phase
of operation.

#####
#####
#####
#####
#####

Text
Text Mem
Object
Variable
Code Mem

• Shows amount of text space used
• Amount of text room remaining
• Size of object code generated·
• Amount of variable space used"
• Object and variable space remaining"

·Values returned only correct immediately after compiling (RUN).

See Memory map in this appendix for the 64K or 128K ProDOS versions of ZBasic.
Also see MEM in the main reference section.

ProDOSTM Appendix

APPLE ProDOS APPENDIX
taU ill::IiIb 1. iii;;;'
MODE statement
FORMAT

MODE [=]expression

ZBasic uses MODE to define the characteristics of a screen. ZBasic allows a program to
integrate text and graphics anywhere on the screen in MODE 5 and 7. This feature allows
ZBasic programs from an IBM PC and other computers to run on your Apple.

ProDOSTM Version
MODE CHART
MODE
0,8

I GRAPHICS
Character

character
40x48
80x48
280 x 192
'560 x 192

= Graphics are defined as text characters
= Low Resolution Color Graphics
= Medium Resolution Color Graphics
= High Resolution Color Graphics
= Double High Resolution. For lie, IIc and IIGS only.

Modes 9, 11, 13 and 15 have graphics at the top of the screen and text at the bottom,
similar to Applesoft GR and HGR commands.
MODE will set COLOR to default, white in most modes. See COLOR for the other colors
available in each mode.
'Double Hi-Res does not function in the 64K version (it requires 128k).

ProDOSTM Appendix

APPLE ProDOS APPENDIX
ON LINE command
FORMAT

When the ONLINE command is issued in the Standard Line Editor, a list of all ProDOS
volumes currently connected to the system will be displayed on the screen.
Each entry will display the slot, drive, and volume name of the device.

ZBasic Ready
ONLINE
S6,Dl
S3,D2

Since ZBasic will only operate on volumes by using pathnames, this is supplied so that
you can identify a particular volume in a drive.

ProDOSTM Appendix

APPLE ProDOS APPENDIX

"'1111'.~
OUTSLOT statement
FORMAT

OUTSLOT(s/ot numbef)

This command allows you to redirect output to the interface card located in the slot
number specified. This is not intended as an altemative to the existing ZBasic
commands (such as LPRINT or ROUTE).
This command is supplied only to allow you to interface your program with those cards
that ZBasic does not support directly (such as graphics tablets. etc.).
OUTSLOT(O) will "re-attach" the screen for output.

CLS
DO
INPUT"Which slot is the widget?";Slot
UNTIL (Slot>O) AND (Slot<8)
OUTSLOT(Slot)
do something with the slot here ...
OUTSLOT(O)
END

<--- Set the output back to normal.

(example only do not use)

See INSLOT statement and your hardware technical reference manuals for details
about using slots.

ProDOSTM Appendix

APPLE ProDOS APPENDIX

tllff,f,M'tiI'{il,lw. . . . . . . .lJiMiifll• •I¥Wi%{i!11ifiq
PATH command
FORMAT

PATH [[-] [-] ... ] [pathname]
PREFIX [[-] [-] ... ] [pathname]

The PATH command allows you to set and/or display the currently logged ProDOS
pathname. PREFIX is also provided for compatibility reasons.
PATH without any parameters will display the current ProDOS prefix.
"PATH pathname" will set the current ProDOS prefix, then display it as a verification that
it was indeed set. Pathname can be either a full or partial pathname. If it starts with a
slash ("f'), ZBasic will treat it as a full path name and reset the prefix appropriately. If you
specify a partial pathname, ZBasic will append it to the current prefix to create the new
prefix.
The "-" parameter will "step-back" the current prefix by one directory. If a pathname is
specified after the "-", ZBasicwill then set this as the current prefix. You may use more
than one "-" parameter to specify stepping back multiple directories.

(display current prefix)

/PROFILE/ZBASIC/SOURCE

(append ZBASIC/SOURCE )
(to current prefix)

PATH-OBJECT
/PROFILE/ZBASIC/OBJECT

(remove SOURCE and)
(append OBJECT)

ZBasic Ready
REMARK

ZBasic will not allow you to remove the prefix entirely. The system MUST have a prefix
set at all times.

ProDOSTM Appendix

APPLE ProDOS APPENDIX
l&l_if_AW". . . . .W@

POINT function
FORMAT

POINT (expression1 , expression2)

This function will return either a 0, signifying that the pixel is "off," or a 1 signifying that
the pixel is "on."

PLOT 0,0
PRINT POINT(O,O)

CLS
PRINT POINT(O,O)
END

In modes 5 and 7, the POINT function cannot return the color of the pixel at the
specified coordinates, due 10 the method that the Apple uses to create colors on the
screen.

ProDOsm Appendix

APPLE ProDOS APPENDIX
'x'

RENAME command
FORMAT

RENAME ["] pathname1 ["]. ["] pathname2 ['1

Renames the file specified by pathname1 to the name specified by pathname2. The
comma separating the names.lS. required.
This command is supplied as an editor command in addition to the ZBasic statement so
that the compiler does not have to be accessed every time you wish to rename a file.

RENAME ZBASIC.SYSTEM, ZBASIC

See RENAME in the main reference section for more information about using
RENAME.

ProDOSTM Appendix

APPLE ProDOS APPENDIX

RUN* command
FORMAT

See the main reference manual for syntax.

When saving your compiled programs to disk with the RUN" command, ZBasic will
create a SYS type file that can be executed directly from ProDOS.
64KVERSION
In addition to your object file, the file "RUNTIME.OBJ" MUSTbe in the same directory.
128K VERSION
In addition to your object file, the following three files must be in the directory:

RT.MAIN.OBJl
RT.AUX.OBJO
RT.AUX.OBJl
As part of it's initialization, your program attempts to load the runtime modules from disk
(you don't have to do this; the compiler will generate the necessary code automatically).

If the required runtime files cannot be found, a ProDOS error message will be
generated, and you will be left in the Apple system monitor.

ProDOSTM Appendix

APPLE ProDOS APPENDIX
.

USR function
FORMAT

See the main reference manual.

When your USR subroutine is entered, the value that was in the parentheses in the
ZBasic program can be found at zero page locations $64 and $65. This value will be a
16-bit integer in standard least-significant-byte/most-significant-byte order.
If your subroutine is to pass a 16-bit value back to the ZBasic program, it should place
the value in locations $64 and $65, again in Isb/msb order.

128K Note: Be aware that with this version the USR routine must be located in the
program auxiliary bank of memory. This is most easily accomplished by using"

DEF USRx=LINE nnnn

ProDosm Appendix

APPLE ProDOS APPENDIX
USR5 function
= USR5(slot)

This pre-defined USR function returns the status byte of an Apple Super Serial Card
in slot number slot.
The status byte will be returned in the lower 8 bits of variable.
The variable must be an integer variable.
If no Super Serial Card is installed in the system, the value returned will be undefined.

See OPEN"C" for more details about using communication functions and the Super
Serial Card reference manual for the format of the status byte.

ProDOSTM Appendix

APPLE ProDOS APPENDIX

ASIC
\FUll SCREEN EDITOR
This version includes an easy-to-use, full screen text editor. It can be used to enter and
edit ZBasic source program liles, or any other text file. Some of it's features include full
screen cursor movement, long distance cursor movement, split screen operation,
cutlcopy/paste/replace lines, global search, automatic indentation, full scrolling capabilities
up/down and left/right, and some other goodies.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE FULL SCREEN EDITOR
AND STANDARD LINE EDITOR
ZBasic comes with a Standard line editor, as described in the main reference section, that
works the same way on all versions of ZBasic. From this editor you can also do direct
commands as described in the main reference section. You cannot do direct commands
from the Full Screen Editor (other than those defined).
INVOKING THE FULL SCREEN EDITOR
To enter the full screen editor, type "EDITOR" from the Standard line editor ("EDITOR+" if
you want to strip line numbers). If you currently have a file in memory, the file will be
converted to a text file and transferred. If no file is in memory, you will enter the full screen
editor without text.
RETURNING TO THE STANDARD LINE EDITOR
To return to the Standard line editor (command environment), press (CTRL-K 0 in
the 40-column editor). The file that you were editing will be re-Ioaded into the line editor
(with line numbers added Hthe file did not contain any).

ProDOSTM Appendix

APPLE ProDOS APPENDIX

aO-COLUMN EDITOR
If you are using an Apple lie with an 80-column text display, most of the functions are
accessed by pressing one of the 0 or. keys in combination with one of the numeric keys.
While the editor is waiting for you to enter a character, you have the option of using one of
the commands available.

HELP LINE
When you press one of the Apple keys, a short "help" line will appear on the bottom line in
place of the status line. This help line will remain on the screen for as long as you keep
pressing an • or 0 key.
The help lines are not meant to be complete descriptions of the commands available, just
memory joggers.

ao COLUMN CURSOR MOVEMENT KEYS

• Beginning of File
(j Up a Page
Up a line

Left 1 Character
(j Left 1 Word
Beginning of Line

Down a Line
(j Down a Page
It End of File

ProDOSTM Appendix

Right 1 character
(j Right 1 Word
.End of Line

APPLE ProDOS APPENDIX
40-COLUMN EDITOR
Since Apple U+ users don't have Apple keys on their keyboard, control keys are used in
place of the Apple keys. These commands have been set up to match Wordstar™, a word
processor from MicroPro where possible. For those commands that are not a part of
WordstarTM, we tried to make the command key match the command as logically as possible
(the command is followed by an asterisk if it is not WordStar compatible).
When one of the prefix keys (Ctrl-Q or Ctrl-K) is pressed a "AQ" or "AK" appears in the lower
left corner of the screen, to remind you that one of the prefix keys has been pressed. If you
change your mind, and don't want to access one of the commands, simply press the space
bar to cancel the command.
The following pages describe all of the commands and cursor movements available. Each
one operates exactly the same way, whether the machine is a 1[+ or one of the newer
machines.

40 COLUMN CURSOR MOVEMENT KEYS

USING THE FULL SCREEN EDITORS
The following pages contain a complete description of the Full Screen Editor. You may
want to Xerox the Quick Reference page.

ProDOSTM Appendix

APPLE ProDOS APPENDIX

FULL SCREEN EDITOR
QUICK REFERENCE PAGE
40 Column

Left 1 Character

Right 1 Character

Riqht 1 Word
To Beginning of Line
To End of Line

CTRL·Q CTRL·S
CTRL·Q CTRL·D
CTRL·E

CTRL·R
CTRL·Q CTRL·R

Up a Page
Down a Page
To Beginning of File

CTRL·Q CTRL·C

40 Column
----"-~

CTRL·K CTRL·Q
CTRL·Q

CTRL·Q CTRL·Y
CTRL·V

Return to Line Editor

Delete Character
Delete to Line Start

Delete End of Line
Switch
INSERT/Overwrite

CTRL·K CTRL·N

Clear Text Buffer
NEW

CTRL·K CTRL·L

CTRL·K CTRL·S

CTRL·K CTRL·X

CTRL·K CTRL·V

Cut Line
Paste Line

CTRL·K CTRL·C

CTRL·K CTRL·R

Replace Line
Insert Line

CTRL·Q CTRL·F

Find Next Occurence

CTRL·K CTRL·I

CTRL·Q CTRL·I

Set Tab Value
Autotab On/Off

CTRL·K CTRL·F

CTRL·K CTRL·P

LLiST
Scroll Up

CTRL·K CTRL·T

Freeze Top
Freeze Bottom

CTRL·K CTRL·B

ProDOSTM Appendix

APPLE ProDOS APPENDIX

CURSOR KEY
DEFINITIONS
This page contains the detailed descriptions of the
cursor key movements for the Full screen ed~or:

40 COLUMN
DOWN A LINE

UP A LINE
Up-Arrow
Moves the cursor up one line.

Down Arrow
Moves the cursor down one line.
DOWN A PAGE

UP A PAGE
~-Up-Arrow

CTRL-R
Moves the cursor one page back in the file. A page is
defined as the current number of lines in the editing
window minus one.

Moves the cursor down one page in the file.
DOWN TO END OF FILE
a-Down-Arrow
CTRL-Q
Moves the cursor to the end of the file.

UP TO TOP
Gt-Up-Arrow
CTRL-Q
Places the cursor at the beginning of the file.

LEFT A CHARACTER
Left Arrow
Moves the cursor one character to the left.

LEFT A WORD
~-Left

Arrow
CTRL-A
Moves the cursor to the beginning of the word to the left
of the current cursor pos~ion.
LEFT TO START OF LINE
Ii-Left-Arrow
CTRL-Q
Moves the cursor to beginning of current line.

RIGHT A CHARACTER
Right Arrow
Moves the cursor one character to the right.

RIGHT A WORD
~-Rlght-Arrow
CTRL-F
Moves the cursor to the beginning of the next word to
the right of the present pos~ion.

RIGHT TO END OF LINE
.-Rlght-Arrow
CTRL-Q CTRL-D
Moves the cursor to the end of the current line.

ProDOSTM Appendix

APPLE ProDOS APPENDIX
FUll SCREEN
EDITOR COMMANDS
This following pages contain the definitions for the full
screen ed~or commands (cursor movement definitions
are on the previous page).
80 COLUMN

The current setting of the Insert/Overwrite switch can
be seen on the status line.
NEW
(Clear Text Buffer)

40 COLUMN
DELETE CHARACTER

DELETE
Left Arrow"
Delete~ the character to the left of the cursor. If the
cu~sor I~ currently at the beginning of the line, then the
edrtor will assume that the user means to delete the
carriage. return at the end of the previous line. The
current line and the previous line will be combined and
the cursor will be placed at the old end of the previous
line.
DELETE TO BEGINNING OF LINE
O-DELETE
CTRL-Q Left Arrow"
Deletes characters from the beginning of the line
through the character to the left of the cursor. The
remainder of the line will be moved to the left.
DELETE TO END OF LINE
Ii-DELETE
CTRL-Q CTRL-Y
Deletes characters from the current cursor position to
the end of the line.
QUIT THE FULL SCREEN EDITOR
ESC
CTRL-K CTRL-D
CTRL-K CTRL-Q
This command qu~s the Full Screen Ed~or and returns
to the Standard line editor. Any text that is currently in
the text buffer will be re-Ioaded into the line editor with
line numbers added to each line if the text does n~t
already contain line numbers.
INSERT / OVERWRITE

CTRL-V
This command is another toggle, switching the editor
between Insert and Overwrite modes of operation. The
ed~or "wakes-up" with overwrite mode selected (as can
be seen on the bottom status line). The overwr~e cursor
is the underline character. While overwrite mode is
active, any characters that you type will replace
whatever character the cursor is currently on (except
for the carriage return character at the end of a line). If
the cursor is at the end of a line, then any characters
that you type will effectively be inserted ahead of the
terminating carriage return.
When Insert mode is selected, the cursor character
changes to the caret ("'") character, and any characters
that you type will be inserted at the current cursor
pos~ion, moving any characters at and to the right of
the cursor over one pos~ion to the right. If you press

RETURN while in the middle of a line, the cursor will be
moveddown a line and to the left margin, and the portion
of the line at and to the right of the cursor will be brought
down as well.

ProDOSTM Appendix

8-0
CTRL-K CTRL-N*
This command will clear any text from the text buffer and
set the search string to null. It will then clear the active
wind~w, and place the cursor in the upper left corner of
the Window. k also removes the current file name from
memory, and selects overwr~e mode. If no file is in
memory when the ed~or is entered, this is the state that
is set when the ed~or "wakes-up."
LOAD A FILE

CTRL-K CTRL-L"
This commands clears any text from the text buffer and
then will prompt you for the ProDOS path name of a file to
load. The fil~ MUST be a TEXT type file (TXT). If it isnl,
you Will receive an error message.

Hyou have previously loaded a file, the system will
place the file name of this file on the screen for you
~utomaticaJJy. If this is the file that you wish to re-Ioad
(~, for example, you really botched up the file and want
to start over again), simply press the return key. If you
want a d~ferent file altogether, press CTRL-X to remove
the old file name, and enter the new file name. The left
arr~w key or the dele!e. ~ey ca~ be used to correct any
typing errors. H you mrtlate thiS command by accident,
you can press CTRL-C to return to the editor with your
current file intact.
SAVE A FILE

.-1
CTRL-K CTRL-S
This command will prompt you for a ProDOS pathname
to save the current text. If you have previously used
the Load command to load a file into the buffer, the
system will place the current file name on the prompt line
for you. You have the same options here as you did
when you loaded the file. Use caution w~h this
command. If a file already exists on the disk w~h the
same file name, the editor will replace whatever was
previously in the file without any warning message.
CUT LINE

CTRL-K CTRL-X"
This command will remove the current line from the text
buff~r and place ~ o.n the. clipbo~rd Oust a temporary
holding area). The line Will remain on the clipboard until
you e~her Cut another line, or Copy a line. This line can
be pasted from the clipboard back into the main text
buffer with the Paste command. This command will only
work w~h entire lines. There is no way to Cut in
increments of less than, or more than, a single line.

APPLE ProDOS APPENDIX
(This command actually does a COPY, and then a
DELETE.)
PASTE LINE

CTRL-K CTRL-V*
This command will copy whatever line is currently on the
clipboard into the current pos~ion within the main text
buffer. The current line will be moved up in the buffer
(down on the screen) to make room for the new line.
This action does NOT remove the line from the
clipboard. Therefore, you can paste the same line as
often as you like, into as many places in the text as you
like.
COpy LINE
CTRL-K CTRL-C*
0-3
This command will make a copy of the current line to the
clipboard. It does not remove the line from the main
buffer. You are then free to paste this line to your liking.
REPLACE LINE
~-3
CTRL-K CTRL-R*
This command will replace the current line w~h the line
that is currently on the clipboard. If there is no line
currently on the clipboard, no action will be taken.

INSERT LINE
0-4
CTRL-N
This command will insert a carriage return at the current
cursor position without moving the cursor. H the cursor
is at the beginning of a line, then the current line will
move down on the screen, leaving a blank line for you to
enter a new line on. If the cursor is in the middle of a
line, the portion of the line at and to the right of the
cursor will be moved down to the next line, and the
cursor will remain at the (new) end of the current line.
DELETE LINE
0-4
CTRL-Y
This command deletes the current line from the text. No
copy of the line is retained in memory. Therefore, this is
not a reversible command. Use ~ with caution.
FIND

This command searches for the last search string that
was entered using the FIND command. This command
operates in exactly the same way as the find command,
except that it does not prompt for the search string. (As
a matter of fact, the find command prompts for the
search string, and falls through to this command.)
SET TAB STOP

CTRL-K CTRL-I
This command will allow you set the size of the tab
stops. The editor will prompt you for the new value on
the bottom line of the screen. The last part of the
prompt is the current value of the tab setting, which has
a default of 16. To leave this setting, simply press the
RETURN key. To change ~, enter the new value. The
editor uses the same tab value as the rest of the ZBasic
system, so this command accomplishes the same thing
as the DEF TAB statement in a ZBasic program. This
also implies that ~ the value is changed here, then the
value will be changed for the rest of the system as well.
This tab value is used in the screen ed~or whenever you
press the TAB key (CTRL-I for 1[+ users). The cursor will
be pos~ioned to the next calculated tab stop on the
screen. H the next tab stop is beyond the end of the
line, the cursor will be placed AT the end of the line. H
you continue to press the TAB key, the cursor will move
to the beginning of the next line (the absolute first tab
position on the screen), and then continue normally.
AUTO TAB

d-6
CTRL-Q CTRL-I*
This command is simply a toggle to turn the autotab
feature on or off. The ed~or starts with autotab on. The
current setting of autotab can be seen on the status line
at the bottom of the screen. Autotab is a feature that
will allow you to enter nicely formatted source code.
When Insert mode is on, and RETURN is pressed at the
end of a line, the cursor will be moved down to the next
line, and then spaces will be inserted in the new line until
the cursor is in a position underneath the first nonspace character in the line above. H Insert is off
(Overwrite mode), autotabbing is only operable when
you are entering text at the end of the file. This is so
that spaces are not inserted ahead of any existing text.
RESTORE LINE

CTRL-Q CTRL-F
This command will allow you to enter a character
sequence of up to 30 characters. The ed~or will then
search from the current position to the end of the file for
the character sequence. If ~ can1 find the search
string, a message will be displayed on the last line to
this effect, and the cursor position will not change. If
the string is found, the line containing the string will be
placed at the current cursor position, and the cursor will
be placed at the beginning of the string.
FIND NEXT OCCURRENCE

CTRL-K CTRL-F*
This command will restore the line at the current cursor
pos~ion, deleting any changes that you have made to
the line. This will only work ~ the cursor has NOT moved
off the line since you made the changes, and/or the
screen has not scrolled sideways. Normally, while you
are ed~ing a line, you are actually editing a copy of the
line in an ed~ buffer. When the cursor is moved off the
line, or Hthe screen is scrolled either left or right, this
edit copy of the line is moved back to the main text
buffer prior to moving the cursor. If you have made
some changes to a line, and then change your mind, an
old copy of the line still resides in the main buffer. A

ProDOSTM Appendix

APPLE ProDOS APPENDIX
copy of this old line is placed into the edit buffer over
any changes that you might have made when you
invoke this command.

PRINT LINE
,*-7

This command will print the contents of the text buffer to
your printer. This command accomplishes the same
operation as the line editor's LLiST command w~hout
any parameters. The entire contents of the text buffer
will be printed; no provision is provided for printing only a
portion of the buffer. H no printer is connected in the
slot that is currently configured, the system may "hang".
Press CTRL-RESET to warm start the ed~or.

This command will scroll the screen down, with the
cursor remaining in the same screen position (which
means that ~ will be on the previous text line). H the
cursor is currently w~hin the first page of the text, the
screen will not scroll, but the cursor will move up a line.
The cursor will NOT move past the first line of the file.

This command will scroll the screen up, w~h the cursor
remaining in the same screen position (which means
that it will be on the next text line). H the cursor is
currently within the last page of the text, the screen will
not scroll, but the cursor will be moved down a line. The
cursor will NOT move past the last line of the file.

This command will freeze the top of the screen. A
separating line will be drawn at the current cursor
pos~ion, and the portion of the screen above this line
will be frozen. The line that the cursor is in will remain
w~hin the new active portion of the screen (the active
window). While the screen is frozen, the cursor will not
move into the frozen portion, and no changes will be
made within the frozen portion.
Only the screen is frozen. You can still move the lines
that are in the frozen portion into the active window and
make changes, but these changes will not appear in the
frozen window.
To "thaw out" the window, press the control key
sequence again. The separating line will be removed,
and the screen will be refreshed, leaving the cursor at
whatever pos~ion it was at.

FREEZE SCREEN FROM LINE DOWN
.-9

FREEZE SCREEN FROM THAT LINE UP

This command freezes the bottom portion of the screen.
A separating line will be drawn at the current cursor
position, and the portion of the screen below this line will
be frozen. The text line that the cursor was on will
remain within the active window. This command is very
much like the Freeze Top command. To "thaw out" the
bottom window, press the command key sequence
again.
These two Freeze commands are entirely separate from
each other. You can have up to two frozen windows on
the screen: a top window and a bottom window, leaving
a third, active window in the middle of the screen
between the two frozen portions.
This can be handy if you have a couple of dijferent
subroutines in a couple of different sections of your
program, while accessing those subroutines in a third
portion of your program.

ProDOSTM Appendix

For Macintosh Programmers ...

ASIC
CONSTRUCTION SET
A utility that brings you a MacDraw-like environment for easily creating:

WINDOWS
EDIT FIELDS
MENUS
BUTTONS
SCROLL BARS
Very little typing.... just draw with the mouse. You can set up complicated
EDIT FIELD, BUTTON, MENU and WINDOW layouts in minutes (that used to
take many incredibly boring, tedious, hours).
The ZBasic Construction Set creates a ZBasic Source file that you just merge
into your programs. Created by a ZBasic programmer that got tired of spending
a couple of days for each program JUST TO DO THE SCREEN LA YOUTS!

Best of all the price

plus shipping and handling: $5 U.S., $12 Canada, $25 Overseas

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Macintosh™ Appendix

MACINTOSH APPENDIX

ASIC
ZBasnc Macoll1ltoslhl™
Version 4.0
For the Macintosh 512K, Macintosh Plus,
Macintosh SE, Mac XL and LlSA® with MacWorks™
and the Macintosh II
Additions and Enhancements to 4.0
by

Andrew Gariepy
Original version by
Andrew Gariepy, Dave Overton and Scott Terry

© Copyright 1985, 1986, 1987

ZEDCOR, Inc.
All Rights Reserved

MacintoshThl, Apple, FinderTld, RMaker™, MacintalkTN and AppletalkTN are registered trademarks of Apple Computer,lnc.

Macintosh™ Appendix

MACINTOSH APPENDIX
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Getting Started

Files Included on the Master Diskette

Notes to this version
Enhancements to The Old Version
Executing ZBasic from the FINDER
Keyboard variations in the Command Window
Line Editor versus Full Screen Editor
COMMAND Window
EDIT Window
No Line Numbers
Errors
HELP Window
HFS versus MFS
Loading Old ZBasic files
Memory Available to Variables
Machine Language
Longlnteger
Using MKI, HEX, OCT & BIN with Longlntegers
File and Memory Requirements
Setting Defaults to Longlnteger
Floating Point enhancements
10,000 digits of Accuracy?
Obtaining Maximum Speed
Speed versus Accuracy
File Length Enhancements
RS-232 Communications
Determining if Old or New ROMs are installed
Speed and EventTrapping
Debugging Programs
Breaking Out of Programs

E8
E8
E8
E8
E8
E9
E10
E10
E10
E11
E11
E11
E12
E12
E12
E12
E12
E12
E13
E13
E13
E14
E15
E15
E15
E15
E15
E15

Macintosh Specific Configuration Options

How To Write a Macintosh-Type Application
The Macintosh Interface
Things to Avoid
Structure of Macintosh Programs

E17
E17
E17
E18

Macintosh Memory Manager
Using SEGMENT
Taking Advantage of Memory Management
CHAINING

E19
E19
E20
E20

E21
E21
E22
E22

Get "TEXT" and "PICT" from Clipboard
Put "PICT" on the Clipboard
Using INDEX$ to get and put "TEXT"
Macintosh Graphics
MacPAINT, Tiff and MacDrawfiles
QuickDrawn.< and PostScript™

Macintosh™ Appendix

MACINTOSH APPENDIX
Printing
Using PostScript™

Appletalk
Macintalk
Phoneme Table

Converting MSBASICTM programs

Using RMaker™

Example of Adding Icons to your Applications

ALPHABETICAL
APPEND
APPLE MENU
BLOCKMOVE
BREAK
BUNDLE
BUTTON
BUTTON
CALL
CLEAR LPRINT
COMPILE
CREATOR
CURSOR
DEFDBL INT
DEFLPRINT
DEFMOUSE
DEFOPEN
DEFPAGE
DEFSTRLONG
DEFSTRWORD
DIALOG
DIALOG
DIR
EDIT FIELD
EDIT MENU
EDIT$
EJECT
FILES$
FINDERINFO
FLUSHEVENTS
GET FILE INFO
GET VOLUME INFO
GET WINDOW
HANDSHAKE
INDEX$
INKEY$
KILL
KILL PICTURE
LCOPY
LOF
LPRINT
MEM(n)
MEMORY MONITOR
MENU
MENU (ON/OFF/STOP)
MENU
MODE
MOUSE
MOUSE

E42
E43
E44
E45
E46
E47
E4B
E50
E52
E53
E54
E55
E56
E58
E59
E60
E61
E62
E63
E63
E64
E68
E72
E73
E75
E76
E77
E78
E81
E82
E83
E85
E87
E88
E89
E91
E92
E93
E94
E95
E96
E97
E98
E99
E101
E102
E103
E104
E106

REFERENCE
statement
statement
statement
statement
command
function
statement
statement
function
command
function
function
statement
function
statement
statement
function
statement
statement
function
statement
statement
statement
statement
function
function
function
function
statement
function
function
statement
statement

enhancements
alternatives
statement
statement
statement
function

enhancements
function
Desk Accessory
function
statement
statement
statement
function
statement

Macintosh™ Appendix

MACINTOSH APPENDIX
ON BREAK GOSUB
ON DIALOG GOSUB
ON MENU GOSUB
ON MOUSE GOSUB
ON TIMER GOSUB
OPEN"new types"
OPEN"C"
OPEN TALK
PAGE LPRINT
PEN
PICTURE
PICTURE
PRCANCEL
PRHANDLE
PRINT USING
PUT
PUT FILE INFO
READ FILE
RENAME
ROUTE 128
RUN
SCROLL
SCROLL BUTTON
SEGMENT
SEGMENT RETURN
SHUmOWN
SOUND
SOUND
SYSERROR
TALK
TEHANDLE
TEXT
TIMER
TIMER
TRON#128
TRONV
TRON MONITOR
USR defaults
WAVE
WIDTH [LPRINTJ-2
WINDOW
WINDOW
WINDOW PICTURE
WRITE FILE

statement
statement
statement
statement
statement
statement
statement
statement
statement
statement
function
statement
function
function
statement

enhancement
statement
statement
statement
statement

enhancement
statement
statement
statement
statement
statement
function
statement
function
statement
function
statement
function
statement
statement
statement
Desk Accessory
function
statement
statement
function
statement
statement
statement

Macintosh Toolbox ~

El07
El08
El09
Ell0
Elll
E112
E113
E114
E115
E116
E117
E119
E120
E121
E123
E124
E125
E126
E127
E128
E129
E130
E131
E134
E135
E136
E137
E138
E139
E140
E141
EI43
EI44
E145
E146
E147
E148
E149
E151
E152
E153
E155
E158
E159

Pointers and Handles

A5 Global Memory Locations
Useful Memory Locations

Alphabetical listing of terms

Alphabetical listing of Toolbox routines

Macintosh™ Appendix

MACINTOSH APPENDIX
GETTING STARTED
Welcome to ZBasic, the most powerful and easy to use language available for the
Macintosh. Follow these instructions and you'll be up and running in no time.

+ MAKE A BACKUP FIRST
ZBasic is not copy protected. Make a copy or two for your personal backup purposes.
Put the master diskette in a safe place for future use. It's a good idea to set the write
protect tab on the master diske.

+ MOVE MAIN. PROGRAMS TO AN HFS SYSTEM DISK
ZBasic is provided on a 400K single sided diskette. The diskette is readable by any
Macintosh. It doesn't come with a system so you'll need to copy files to a system disketle
or hard disk. The main files to copy are: ZBasic™ and ZBasic.HLP. If you plan on using
MacinTalk copy this file to your system folder. All other files are example programs and
may be copied at your discretion.

+ INSTALL PRINTER DRIVERS
\I you haven't done so already, be sure to put a printer driver in your new system folder.

+ USE FONT/DA MOVER TO INSTALL THE ZBASIC DESK ACCESSORIES
Use FontiDA Mover to move the ZBasic MEMORY MONITOR and TRON MONITOR Desk
Accessories over to your system. These DA's are very useful for debugging purposes
(see MEMORY MONITOR and TRON MONITOR in the reference section for explanations
and examples of use).

+ NOTE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE "COMMAND WINDOW" AND "EDIT WINDOW"
The EDIT Window is the Macintosh-type editor and will probably be the one you use the
most. The Command Window is the "Standard Line Editor" and is the one being referred
to in the front of this manual. Use to switch from one to the other. Be
sure you understand the difference between these two modes before proceeding.
~

READ "GETTING STARTED" IN THE FRONT OF THIS MANUAL
Read "Getling Started" in the front of this manual to get the feel of ZBasic.

READ THIS APPENDIX
Read through this appendix and get an idea of the Macintosh specific information that is
available like; the Mac specific commands in this reference section, using the Toolbox,
Converting MSBASIC programs, ."How to write a Macintosh Application", and so on.

TRY THE EXAMPLE PROGRAMS
Try out some of the example programs we've provided on the master disk. Of special
interest is the Thinner.BAS program by Andrew Gariepy. It illustrates how easy it is to
create Macintosh-type applications using ZBasic. There are also example programs in the
toolbox section you may want to type in and try .

• CREATE YOUR OWN PROGRAMS
Now you can start creating your own programs. Still got questions?
Call us at (602) 795-3996 and we'll be glad to help you.
Macintosh™ Appendix

MACINTOSH APPENDIX
FILES INCLUDED ON THE MASTER DISKETTE
~
ZBasic'"

The ZBasic™ BASIC Compiler (version sometimes shown).

The Help File. Select from Apple menu or type HELP n from
Command window.

Macintalk file licensed from Apple. Must be in the system folder of an
application's start-up disk.

MEMORY Monitor DA
TRON Monitor DA

ZBasic desk accessory. Described in the reference section.
ZBasic desk accessory. Described in the reference section.

ZEXAMPLE FOLDER
HOUSE
PYRAMID

Examples of "Standard graphics".
Examples of "Standard graphics".

A MacPaint type program that will allow you to load, modify and save
out Macpaint files and Digitized TIFF files. Great example of doing
Macintosh graphics (xxx is the version number).

A number of Scientific Math FN's you can use in your programs.

SORT.BAS
QUICK.APP
SHELL.APP

Example program to be used with QUICK.APP and SHELL.APP
Two sort routines you can customize for your applications. QUICK is
good for a large sort. SHELL is good for smaller sorts.

IOTEST.BAS
NEWFILE.BAS
GETSCRAP.BAS
GETPUT.BAS
WINDOWPIC.BAS
PICT.BAS
SEGEXAM PLE.BAS

Example of using Windows, Edit fields and more.
Get pathnames at runtime.
Example of getting things off the clipboard.
Example of doing Window refresh with GET/PUT statements.
Example of Window refreshing with WINDOW PICTURE statement.
Example of deleting a PICTURE handle from memory.
Example of using SEGMENT and SEGMENT RETURN

How to Install Icons In your Applications: Numerous examples for putting icons into your
applications. A Complete description of how to use these files is included in this appendix:
RMaker™:

Resource compiler licensed from Apple Computer, Inc.

RMake(fM source file example program for installing Icons.

Example Icon resource.

Not included with ZBasic ...but you may want it, or some other
Icon editor, for adding or editing application icons.

Note: These were the examples as of 5/87, check the disk, there may be other examples.

Macintosh™ Appendix

MACINTOSH APPENDIX
NOTES TO THE MACINTOSH VERSION
ENHANCEMENTS TO VERSIONS BEFORE

The following items have been added to this version of ZBasic:
SELECT CASE Structure: Makes structured programming even easier.
TRON MONITOR Desk Accessory: Trace variables and program flow at runtime.
NEW-VASTLY IMPROVED-EDITOR: We've eliminated Apple's EDIT and the old
EDIT Window. Note that you can now do most commands from the editor environment.
Now you don't need line numbers at all!! Set for no line numbers under "Configure".
128K ROM SUPPORTED: Especially in the area of Toolbox calls and function. The
biggest additions are with LIST MANAGER and SCSI calls.
NEW MANUAL: You'll find the examples and syntax improvements in
the toolbox area and the alphabetized reference section especially helpful.
NEW COMMANDS like: TEHANDLE and GET WINDOW. See the
reference section for details.
EXECUTING ZBASIC FROM THE FINDER
Insert a backup of the ZBasic™ diskette into either drive. Double-click the ZBasic icon.
KEYBOARD VARIATIONS IN THE COMMAND WINDOW
The ZBasic manual makes reference to certain keys for certain purposes. The actual keys
you will use on the Macintosh may be different. Wherever reference is made to a key that
does not exist, use this chart to find out which key to use:
Reference manual Key
Macintosh Key

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