Mc 105

User Manual: MC 105

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MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING: NATURE AND SCOPE

Objective: The present lesson explains the meaning, nature, scope and limitations

of accounting. Further, it discusses the activities covered under

management accounting and its difference with financial accounting.

LESSON STRUCTURE

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Definitions of Management Accounting

1.3 Nature of Management Accounting

1.4 Functions of Management Accounting

1.5 Scope of Management Accounting

1.6 The Management Accountant

1.7 Management Accounting and Financial Accounting

1.8 Cost Accounting and Management Accounting

1.9 Limitations of Management Accounting

1.10 Self-Test Questions

1.11 Suggested Readings

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Management accounting can be viewed as Management-oriented Accounting.

Basically it is the study of managerial aspect of financial accounting,

"accounting in relation to management function". It shows how the accounting

function can be re-oriented so as to fit it within the framework of management

activity. The primary task of management accounting is, therefore, to

redesign the entire accounting system so that it may serve the operational

COURSE: MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

COURSE CODE: MC-105 AUTHOR: Dr. N. S. MALIK

LESSON: 01

ETTER: Prof. M S Turan

needs of the firm. If furnishes definite accounting information, past, present or

future, which may be used as a basis for management action. The financial

data are so devised and systematically development that they become a

unique tool for management decision.

1.2 DEFINITIONS OF MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

The term “Management Accounting”, observe, Broad and Carmichael, covers

all those services by which the accounting department can assist the top

management and other departments in the formation of policy, control of

execution and appreciation of effectiveness. This definition points out that

management is entrusted with the primary task of planning, execution and

control of the operating activities of an enterprise. It constantly needs

accounting information on which to base its decision. A decision based on

data is usually correct and the risk of erring is minimized. The position of the

management in respect of its functions can be compared to that of an army

general who wants to wage a successful battle. A general can hardly fight

successfully unless he gets full information about the surrounding situation

and the extent of effectiveness of each of his battalions and, to the extend

possible, even the enemy's intentions. Like a general a successful

management too strives to outstrip other competitors in the field by

streamlining its operating efficiency. It needs a thorough knowledge of the

situation and the circumstances in which the firm operates. Such knowledge

can only be gained through the processed financial data rendered by the

accounting department on the basis of which it can take policy decision

regarding execution, control, etc. It is here that the role of management

accounting comes in. It supplies all sorts of accounting information in the

form of such statements as may be needed by the management. Therefore,

management accounting is concerned with the accumulation, classification

and interpretation of information that assists individual executives to fulfill

organizational objectives.

The Report of the Anglo-American Council of Productivity (1950) has also

given a definition of management accounting, which has been widely

accepted. According to it, "Management accounting is the presentation of

accounting information in such a way as to assist the management in creation

of policy and the day to day operation of an undertaking". The reasoning

added to this statement was, "the technique of accounting is of extreme

importance because it works in the most nearly universal medium available

for the expression of facts, so that facts of great diversity can be represented

in the same picture. It is not the production of these pictures that is a function

of management but the use of them." An analysis of the above definition

shows that management needs information for better decision-making and

effectiveness. The collection and presentation of such information come

within the area of management accounting. Thus, accounting information

should be recorded and presented in the form of reports at such frequent

intervals, as the management may want. These reports present a systematic

review of past events as well as an analytical survey of current economic

trends. Such reports are mainly suggestive in approach and the data

contained in them are quite up to date. The accounting data so supplied thus

provide the informational basis of action. The quality of information so

supplied depends upon its usefulness to management in decision-making.

The usual approach is that, first of all, a thorough analysis of the whole

managerial process is made, then the information required for each area is

explored, and finally, all the information, after analysis in terms of alternatives,

is taken into consideration before arriving at a management decision. It is to

be understood here that the accounting information has no end in itself; it is a

means to an end. As its basic idea is to serve the management, its form and

frequency are all decided by managerial needs. Therefore, accounting aids

the management by providing quantitative information on the economic well

being of the enterprise. It would be appropriate if we called management

accounting an Enterprise Economics. Its scope extends to the use of certain

modern sophisticated managerial techniques in analyzing and interpreting

operative data and to the establishment of a communication network for

financial reporting at all managerial levels of an organization.

1.3 NATURE OF MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

The term management accounting is composed of 'management' and

'accounting'. The word 'management' here does not signify only the top

management but the entire personnel charged with the authority and

responsibility of operating an enterprise. The task of management accounting

involves furnishing accounting information to the management, which may

base its decisions on it. It is through management accounting that the

management gets the tools for an analysis of its administrative action and can

lay suitable stress on the possible alternatives in terms of costs, prices and

profits, etc. but it should be understood that the accounting information

supplied to management is not the sole basis for managerial decisions. Along

with the accounting information, management takes into consideration or

weighs other factors concerning actual execution. For reaching a final

decision, management has to apply its common sense, foresight, knowledge

and experience of operating an enterprise, in addition to the information that is

already has.

The word 'accounting' used in this phrase should not lead us to believe that it

is restricted to a mere record of business transactions i.e., book keeping only.

It has indeed a 'macro-economic approach'. As it draws its raw material from

several other disciplines like costing, statistics, mathematics, financial

accounting, etc., it can be called an interdisciplinary subject, the scope of

which is not clearly demarcated. Other fields of study, which can be covered

by management accounting, are political science, sociology, psychology,

management, economics, statistics, law, etc. A knowledge of political science

helps to understand authority relationship and responsibility identification in an

organization. A study of sociology helps to understand the behaviour of man

in groups. Psychology enables us to know the mental make-up of employers

and employees. A knowledge of these subjects helps to increase motivation,

and to control the actions of the people who are ultimately responsible for

costs. This builds a better employer-employee relationship and a sound

morale. The subject of management reveals the processes involved in the art

of managing, a knowledge of economics assists in the determination of

optimum output in the forecasting of sales and production, etc., and also

makes it possible to analyze management action in terms of cost revenues,

profits, growth, etc. It is with the help of statistics that this information is

presented to the management in a form that can be assimilated. The subject

of management accounting also encompasses the subject of law, knowledge

of which is necessary to find out if the management action is ultra-vires or not.

It is, therefore, a wide and diverse subject.

Management accounting has no set principles such as the double entry

system of bookkeeping. In place of generally accepted accounting principles,

the philosophy of cost benefit analysis is the core guide of this discipline. It

says that no accounting system is good or bad but is can be considered

desirable so long as it brings incremental benefits in excess of its incremental

costs. Applying management accounting principles to financial matters can

arrive at no single perfect solution. It is, therefore, an inexact science, which

uses its own conventions rather than standardized principles. The facts to be

studied here can be interpreted in different ways and the precision of the

inferences depends upon the skill, judgement and common sense of different

management accountants. It occupies a middle position between a fully

matured and an infant subject.

Since management accounting is managerially oriented, its data is selective in

nature. It focuses on potential opportunities rather than opportunities lost.

The data is operative in nature catering to the operational needs of a firm. It

details events, monetary and non-monetary. The nature of data, the form of

presentation and its duration are mainly determined by managerial needs. It

is quite frequently reported as it is meant for internal uses and managerial

control. An accountant should look at his enterprise from the management's

point of view. Whenever he fails to do that he ceases to be a management

accountant.

Management accounting is highly sensitive to management needs. However,

it assists the management and does not replace it. It represents a service

phase of management rather than a service to management from

management accountant. It is rather highly personalized service. Finally, it

can be said that the management accounting serves as a management

information system and so enables the management to manage better.

1.4 FUNCTIONS OF MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

The basic function of management accounting is to assist the management in

performing its functions effectively. The functions of the management are

planning, organizing, directing and controlling. Management accounting helps

in the performance of each of these functions in the following ways:

(i) Provides data: Management accounting serves as a vital source of

data for management planning. The accounts and documents are a

repository of a vast quantity of data about the past progress of the

enterprise, which are a must for making forecasts for the future.

(ii) Modifies data: The accounting data required for managerial decisions

is properly compiled and classified. For example, purchase figures for

different months may be classified to know total purchases made

during each period product-wise, supplier-wise and territory-wise.

(iii) Analyses and interprets data: The accounting data is analyzed

meaningfully for effective planning and decision-making. For this

purpose the data is presented in a comparative form. Ratios are

calculated and likely trends are projected.

(iv) Serves as a means of communicating: Management accounting

provides a means of communicating management plans upward,

downward and outward through the organization. Initially, it means

identifying the feasibility and consistency of the various segments of

the plan. At later stages it keeps all parties informed about the plans

that have been agreed upon and their roles in these plans.

(v) Facilitates control: Management accounting helps in translating

given objectives and strategy into specified goals for attainment by a

specified time and secures effective accomplishment of these goals in

an efficient manner. All this is made possible through budgetary

control and standard costing which is an integral part of management

accounting.

(vi) Uses also qualitative information: Management accounting does

not restrict itself to financial data for helping the management in

decision making but also uses such information which may not be

capable of being measured in monetary terms. Such information may

be collected form special surveys, statistical compilations, engineering

records, etc.

1.5 SCOPE OF MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Management accounting is concerned with presentation of accounting

information in the most useful way for the management. Its scope is,

therefore, quite vast and includes within its fold almost all aspects of business

operations. However, the following areas can rightly be identified as falling

within the ambit of management accounting:

(i) Financial Accounting: Management accounting is mainly concerned

with the rearrangement of the information provided by financial

accounting. Hence, management cannot obtain full control and

coordination of operations without a properly designed financial

accounting system.

(ii) Cost Accounting: Standard costing, marginal costing, opportunity

cost analysis, differential costing and other cost techniques play a

useful role in operation and control of the business undertaking.

(iii) Revaluation Accounting: This is concerned with ensuring that capital

is maintained intact in real terms and profit is calculated with this fact in

mind.

(iv) Budgetary Control: This includes framing of budgets, comparison of

actual performance with the budgeted performance, computation of

variances, finding of their causes, etc.

(v) Inventory Control: It includes control over inventory from the time it is

acquired till its final disposal.

(vi) Statistical Methods: Graphs, charts, pictorial presentation, index

numbers and other statistical methods make the information more

impressive and intelligible.

(vii) Interim Reporting: This includes preparation of monthly, quarterly,

half-yearly income statements and the related reports, cash flow and

funds flow statements, scrap reports, etc.

(viii) Taxation: This includes computation of income in accordance with the

tax laws, filing of returns and making tax payments.

(ix) Office Services: This includes maintenance of proper data processing

and other office management services, reporting on best use of

mechanical and electronic devices.

(x) Internal Audit: Development of a suitable internal audit system for

internal control.

(xi)

1.6 THE MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTANT

Management Accounting provides significant economic and financial data to

the management and the Management Accountant is the channel through

which this information efficiently and effectively flows to the management. The

Management Accountant has a very significant role to perform in the

installation, development and functioning of an efficient and effective

management information system. He designs the framework of the financial

and cost control reports that provide each management level with the most

useful data at the most appropriate time. He educates executives in the need

for control information and ways of using it. This is because his position is

unique with respect to information about the organization. Apart from top

management no one in the organization perhaps knows more about the

various functions of the organization than him. He is, therefore, sometimes

described as the Chief Intelligence Officer of the top management. He

gathers information, breaks it down, sifts it out and organizes it into

meaningful categories. He separates relevant and irrelevant information and

then ranks relevant information in an intelligible form to the management and

sometimes also to those who are interested in the information in the

information outside the company. He also compares the actual performance

with the planned one and reports and interprets the results of operations to all

levels of management and to the owners of the business. Thus, in brief,

management accountant or controller is the person who designs the

management information system for the organization, operates it by means of

interlocked budgets, computes variances and exhorts others to institute

corrective measures. Mr. P.L. Tandon has explained beautifully the position

of the management accountant in the following words.

"The management accountant is exactly like the spokes in a wheel,

connecting the rim of the wheel and the hub receiving the information. He

processes the information and then returns the processed information back to

where it came from"1.

Dr. Don barker2 sees a very bright future for the management accountants.

According to him, "Management Accountants will be presented with many

opportunities for innovative actions in the global economic environment. In

addition to their role of providing accurate, timely and relevant information,

management accountants will be expected to participate as business

consultants and partners with management in the strategic planning process".

Thus, there are tremendous possibilities for management accountants to

shine as a professional group in the years to come. To fit in this role, it is

necessary that the management accountants develop effective

communication abilities, adopt a structured approach, a flexible

accommodation and keep themselves aware with the latest evolving

technologies in the profession.

FUNCTIONS OF MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTANT

It is the duty of the management accountant to keep all levels of management

informed of their real position. He has, therefore, varied functions to perform.

His important functions can be summarized as follows:

1 Tandon, P.L.: "The Role of Management Accountants in General Management”. 4th All India

Seminar on Management Accounting, Lucknow, Feb. 1963.

2. President (1991-92), The Institute of Management Accountants, USA.

(i) Planning: He has to establish, coordinate and administer as an

integral part of management, an adequate plan for the control of the

operations. Such a plan would include profit planning, programmes of

capital investment and financing, sales forecasts, expenses budgets

and cost standards.

(ii) Controlling: He has to compare actual performance with operating

plans and standards and to report and interpret the results of

operations to all levels of management and the owners of the business.

This id done through the compilation of appropriate accounting and

statistical records and reports.

(iii) Coordinating: He consults all segments of management responsible

for policy or action. Such consultation might concern any phase of the

operation of the business having to do with attainment of objectives

and the effectiveness of the organizational structures and policies.

(iv) Other functions:

¾ He administers tax policies and procedures.

¾ He supervises and coordinated the preparation of reports to

governmental agencies.

¾ He ensures fiscal protection for the assets of the business through

adequate internal control and proper insurance coverage.

¾ He carries out continuous appraisal economic and social forces and

the government influences, and interprets their effect on the

business.

It should be noted that the functions of a Management Accountant are

more of those of a 'staff official'. He, in addition to processing historical

data, supplies a good deal of information concerning the future

operations in line with the management's needs. Besides serving top

management with information concerning the company as a whole, he

supplies detailed information to the line officers regarding alternative

plans and their profitability, which help them in decision-making. As a

matter of fact the Management Accountant should not bother himself

regarding the decision taken by the line officials after tendering advice

unless he has reasonable grounds to believe that such a decision is

going to affect the interests of corporation adversely. In such an event

also he should report it to the concerned level of management with

tact, firmness combined with politeness.

1.7 MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL ACCOUNTING

Financial accounting and management accounting are closely interrelated

since management accounting is to a large extent rearrangement of the data

provided by financial accounting. Moreover, all accounting is financial in the

sense that all accounting systems are in monetary terms and management is

responsible for the contents of the financial accounting statements. In spite of

such a close relationship between the two, there are certain fundamental

differences. These differences can be laid down as follows:

(i) Objectives: Financial accounting is designed to supply information in

the form of profit and loss account and balance sheet to external

parties like shareholders, creditors, banks, investors and Government.

Information is supplied periodically and is usually of such type in which

management is not much interested. Management Accounting is

designed principally for providing accounting information for internal

use of the management. Thus, financial accounting is primarily an

external reporting process while management accounting is primarily

an internal reporting process.

(ii) Analyzing performance: Financial accounting portrays the position of

business as a whole. The financial statements like income statement

and balance sheet report on overall performance or statues of the

business. On the other hand, management accounting directs its

attention to the various divisions, departments of the business and

reports about the profitability, performance, etc., of each of them.

Financial accounting deals with the aggregates and, therefore, cannot

reveal what part of the management action is going wrong and why.

Management accounting provides detailed analytical data for these

purposes.

(iii) Data used: Financial accounting is concerned with the monetary

record of past events. It is a post-mortem analysis of past activity and,

therefore, out the date for management action. Management

accounting is accounting for future and, therefore, it supplies data both

for present and future duly analyzed in detail in the 'management

language' so that it becomes a base for management action.

(iv) Monetary measurement: In financial accounting only such economic

events find place, which can be described in money. However, the

management is equally interested in non-monetary economic events,

viz., technical innovations, personnel in the organization, changes in

the value of money, etc. These events affect management's decision

and, therefore, management accounting cannot afford to ignore them.

For example, change in the value of money may not find a place in

financial accounting on account of "going concern concept". But while

affecting an insurance policy on an asset or providing for replacement

of an asset, the management will have to take into account this factor.

(v) Periodicity of reporting: The period of reporting is much longer in

financial accounting as compared to management accounting. The

Income Statement and the Balance Sheet are usually prepared yearly

or in some cases half-yearly. Management requires information at

frequent intervals and, therefore, financial accounting fails to cater to

the needs of the management. In management accounting there is

more emphasis on furnishing information quickly and at comparatively

short intervals as per the requirements of the management.

(vi) Precision: There is less emphasis on precision in case of

management accounting as compared to financial accounting since the

information is meant for internal consumption.

(vii) Nature: Financial accounting is more objective while management

accounting is more subjective. This is because management

accounting is fundamentally based on judgement rather than on

measurement.

(viii) Legal compulsion: Financial accounting has more or less become

compulsory for every business on account of the legal provisions of

one or the other Act. However, a business is free to install or not to

install system of management accounting.

The above points of difference between Financial Accounting and

Management Accounting prove that Management Accounting has flexible

approach as compared to rigid approach in the case of Financial Accounting.

In brief, financial accounting simply shows how the business has moved in the

past while management accounting shows how the business has to move in

the future.

An attempt may now be made to compare and study the two types of

accounting on basis of the characteristics of the data used. It is presented

through the box- 1.1, given below.

Box 1.1

Features of data Provided by Financial Provided by

Accounting Management accounting

1. Period After a stated period At frequent intervals

2. Time Historical data Current and future data

3. Unit of expression Money only Any statistical unit

4. Nature Actual data Projected data

5. Specificity Aggregates Detailed analysis

6. Description Money consequences Events

7. Reality Objective Subjective

8. Precision Pie to Pie accuracy May be guess-work

9. Principles Double entry system Cost benefit analysis

10. Legality Obligatory Optional

11. Purpose Overview of entire Analytical details of such

Business activity activities as call for decisions

1.8 COST ACCOUNTING AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Cost accounting is the process of accounting for costs. It embraces the

accounting procedures relating to recording of all income and expenditure and

the preparation of periodical statements and reports with the object of

ascertaining and controlling costs. It is, thus, the formal mechanism by

means of which the costs of products or services are ascertained and

controlled. On the other hand, management accounting involves collecting,

analyzing, interpreting and presenting all accounting information, which is

useful to the management. It is closely associated with management control,

which comprises planning, executing, measuring and evaluating the

performance of an organization. Thus, management accounting draws

heavily on cost data and other information derived from cost accounting.

Today cost accounting is generally indistinguishable from the so-called

management accounting or internal accounting because it serves multiple

purposes. However, management accounting can be distinguished from cost

accounting in one important respect. Management accounting has a wider

scope as compared to cost accounting. Cost accounting deals primarily with

cost data while management accounting involves the considerations of both

cost and revenue. Management accounting is an all inclusive accounting

information system, which covers financial accounting, cost accounting, and

all aspects of financial management. But it is not a substitute for other

accounting functions. It involves a continuous process of reporting cost,

financial and other relevant data in an analytical and informative way to

management. We should not be very much concerned with boundaries of cost

accounting and management accounting since they are complementary in

nature. In the absence of a suitable system of cost accounting, management

accountant will not be in a position to have detailed cost information and his

function is bound to lose significance. On the other hand, the management

accountant cannot effectively use the cost data unless it has been reported to

him in a meaningful and informative form.

1.9 LIMITATIONS OF MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Management accounting, being comparatively a new discipline, suffers from

certain limitations, which limit its effectiveness. These limitations are as

follows:

1. Limitations of basic records: Management accounting derives its

information from financial accounting, cost accounting and other

records. The strength and weakness of the management accounting,

therefore, depends upon the strength and weakness of these basic

records. In other words, their limitations are also the limitations of

management accounting.

2. Persistent efforts. The conclusions draws by the management

accountant are not executed automatically. He has to convince people

at all levels. In other words, he must be an efficient salesman in selling

his ideas.

3. Management accounting is only a tool: Management accounting

cannot replace the management. Management accountant is only an

adviser to the management. The decision regarding implementing his

advice is to be taken by the management. There is always a

temptation to take an easy course of arriving at decision by intuition

rather than going by the advice of the management accountant.

4. Wide scope: Management accounting has a very wide scope

incorporating many disciplines. It considers both monetary as well as

non-monetary factors. This all brings inexactness and subjectivity in

the conclusions obtained through it.

5. Top-heavy structure: The installation of management accounting

system requires heavy costs on account of an elaborate organization

and numerous rules and regulations. It can, therefore, be adopted only

by big concerns.

6. Opposition to change: Management accounting demands a break

away from traditional accounting practices. It calls for a rearrangement

of the personnel and their activities, which is generally not like by the

people involved.

7. Evolutionary stage: Management accounting is still in its initial stage.

It has, therefore, the same impediments as a new discipline will have,

e.g., fluidity of concepts, raw techniques and imperfect analytical tools.

This all creates doubt about the very utility of management accounting.

1.10 SELF-TEST QUESTIONS

1. What do you mean by management accounting? Explain giving examples.

2. What are the functions of a management accountant? Elaborate each one

of them.

3. Explain the benefits of management accounting in the business sector and

service sector.

4. Distinguish management accounting from financial accounting and cost

accounting.

5. Explain the limitations of management accounting.

1.11 SUGGESTED READINGS

1. Ashish K. Bhattacharya, Principles and Practices of Cost Accounting

(3rd.), New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India Private Limited, 2004.

2. Charles T. Horngren, Cost Accounting, A Managerial Emphasis,

Prentice Hall Inc., 1973.

3. D. T. Decoster and E. L. Schafer, Management Accounting, New York:

John Willey and Sons, 1979.

4. John G. Blocker and Wettmer W. Keith, Cost Accounting, New Delhi:

Tata Mc Grw Publishing Co. Ltd., 1976.

5. R. K. Sharma and Shashi K. Gupta, Management Accounting-

Principles and Practice (7th.), New Delhi: Kalyani Publishers, 1996.

FINANCIAL STATEMENT ANALYSIS

Objective: The present lesson explains the discrepancy between accounting

income and economic income; identify the devices used in practice to

exploit the use of the bottom line; the use of a firm's financial

statements to calculate standard financial ratios; decompose the return

on equity into its key determinants; carry out comparative analysis; and

highlights the uses of financial statement analysis for different

purposes.

LESSON STRUCTURE

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Financial Statements

2.3 Financial Statement Analysis

2.4 Methodical Presentation of Financial Statement Analysis

2.5 Techniques /Tools of Financial Statement Analysis

2.6 Self-Test Questions

2.7 Suggested Readings

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Financial statements are an important source of information for evaluating the

performance and prospects of a firm. If properly analyzed and interpreted,

financial statements can provide valuable insights into a firm's performance.

Analysis of financial statements is of interest to lenders (short term as well as

long term), investors, security analysts, managers, and others. Financial

statement analysis may be done for a variety of purposes, which may range

COURSE: MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

COURSE CODE: MC-105 AUTHOR: DR. N. S. MALIK

LESSON: 02

ETTER: Dr. Karam Pal

from a simple analysis of the short-term liquidity position of the firm to a

comprehensive assessment of the strengths and weaknesses of the firm in

various areas. It is helpful in assessing corporate excellence, judging

creditworthiness, forecasting bond ratings, evaluating intrinsic value of equity

shares, predicting bankruptcy, and assessing market risk.

2.2 FINANCIAL STATEMENTS

Managers, shareholders, creditors and other interested groups seek answers

to the following questions about a firm: What is the financial position of firm at

a given point of time? How has the firm performed financially over a given

period of time? What have been the sources and uses of cash over a given

period? To answer these questions, the accountant prepares two principal

statements, the balance sheet and the profit and loss account, and an

ancillary statement, the cash flow statement.

2.2.1 BALANCE SHEET

The balance sheet shows the financial condition of a business at a given point

of time. As per the Companies Act, the balance sheet of a company shall be

in either the account (horizontal) form or the report (vertical) form. Exhibit 2.1

shows the balance sheet of Horizon Limited as on March 31, 2005 cast in the

account as well as the report form. While the report form is most commonly

used by companies, it is more convenient to explain the contents of the

balance sheet of Horizon Limited, cast in the account form, as given Exhibit

2.2.

Structure of Balance Sheet as per the Companies Act

Exhibit 2.1 Account Form

Liabilities Assets

Share capital Fixed assets

Reserves and surplus Investments

Unsecured loans Current assets, loans and

advances

Current liabilities and provisions Current assets

Current liabilities Loans and advances

Provisions Miscellaneous expenditure

and losses

Exhibit 2.2 Report Form

I Sources of Funds

(1) Shareholders funds

(a) Share capital

(b) Reserves & surplus

(2) Loan funds

(a) Secured loans

(b) Unsecured loans

II Application of Funds

(1) Fixed assets

(2) Investments

(3) Current assets, loans and advances

Less: Current liabilities and provisions

Net current assets

(4) Miscellaneous expenditure and losses.

Liabilities. Liabilities defined very broadly represent what the business entity

owes others. The Companies Act classifies them as share capital, reserves

and surplus, secured loans, unsecured loans, current liabilities and provisions

Share Capital: This is divided into two types: equity capital and preference

capital. The first represents the contribution of equity shareholders who are

the owners to the firm. Equity capital, being risk capital, carries no fixed rate

of dividend. Preference capital represents the contribution of preference

shareholders and the dividend rate payable on it is fixed.

Reserves and Surplus: Reserves and surplus are profits, which have been

retained in the firm. There are two types of reserves: revenue reserves and

capital reserves. Revenue reserves represent accumulated retained earning

from the profits of normal business operations. These are held in various

forms: general reserve, investment allowance reserve, capital redemption

reserves, dividend equalization reserve, and so on. Capital reserves arise out

gains, which are not related to normal business operations. Examples of such

gains are the premium on issue of shares or gain on revaluation of assets.

Surplus is the balance in the profit and loss account, which has not been

appropriated to any particular reserve account. Note that reserves and

surplus along with equity capital represent owners' equity or net worth.

Secured Loans: These are the borrowings of the firm against which specific

collateral have been provided. The important components of secured loans

are: debentures, loans from financial institutions, and loans from commercial

banks.

Unsecured Loans. These are the borrowing of the firm against which no

specific security has been provided. The major components of unsecured

loans are: fixed deposits, loans and advances from promoters, inter-corporate

borrowings, and unsecured loans from banks.

Current liabilities and Provisions: Current liabilities and provisions, as per

the classification under the companies Act, consist of the amounts due to the

suppliers of goods and services bought on credit, advance payments

received, accrued expenses, unclaimed dividend, provisions for taxes,

dividends, and so on. Current liabilities for managerial purposes (as distinct

from their definition in the Companies Act) are obligations, which are expected

to mature in the next twelve months. So defined, they include current

liabilities and provisions as per the classification under the Companies Act

plus loans (secured and unsecured) which are repayable within one year from

the date of the balance sheet.

Assets: Broadly speaking, assets represent resources, which are of some

value to the firm. They have been acquired at a specific monetary cost by the

firm for the conduct of its operations. Assets are classified under the

Companies Act as fixed assets, investments, current assets, loans and

advances, miscellaneous expenditure and losses.

Fixed Assets: These assets have two characteristics: they are acquired for

use over relatively long periods for carrying on the operations of the firm and

they are ordinarily not meant for resale. Examples of fixed assets are land,

buildings, plant, machinery, patents, and copyrights.

Investments: These are financial securities owned by the firm. Some

investments represent long-term commitment of funds (usually these are the

equity shares of other firms held for income and control purposes). Other

investments are likely to be short term in nature such as holdings of units in

mutual fund schemes and may rightly be classified under current assets for

managerial purposes. (Under the requirements of the Companies Act,

however, short term holding of financial securities also has to be shown under

investments and not under current assets.)

Current Assets, Loans and Advances: This category consists of cash and

other assets, which get converted into cash during the operating cycle of the

fir. Current assets are held for a short period of time as against fixed assets,

which are held for relatively longer periods. The major components of current

assets are: cash, sundry debtors, inventories, loans and advances, and pre-

paid expenses. Cash denotes funds readily disbursable by the firm. The bulk

of it is usually in the form of bank balances and the rest is currency held by

the fir. Sundry debtors (also called accounts receivable) represent the

amounts owned to the firm by its customers who have bought goods and

services on credit. Sundry debtors are shown in the balance sheet at the

amount owed, less an allowance for bad debts. Inventories (also called

stocks) consist of raw materials, work-in-process, finished goods, and stores

and spares. They are usually reported at the lower of the cost or market

value. Loans and advances are the amounts loaned to employees, advances

given to suppliers and contractors, advance tax paid, and deposits made with

governmental and other agencies. They are shown at the actual amount.

Pre-paid expenses are expenditures incurred for services to be rendered in

the future. These are shown at the cost unexpired service.

Miscellaneous Expenditures and Losses: This category consists of two

items: (i) miscellaneous expenditures and (ii) losses. Miscellaneous

expenditures represent certain outlays such as preliminary expenses and

developmental expenses, which have not been written off. From the

accounting point of view, a loss represents a decrease in owners' equity.

Hence, when a loss occurs, the owners' equity should be reduced by that

amount. However, as per company law requirements, the share capital

(representing owners' equity) cannot be reduced when a loss occurs. So the

share capital is kept intact on the left hand side (the liabilities side) of the

balance sheet and the loss is shown on the right hand side (the assets side)

of the balance sheet.

2.2.2 PROFIT AND LOSS ACCOUNT

The Companies Act has prescribed a standard form for the balance sheet, but

none for the profit and loss account. However, the Companies Act does

require that the information provided should be adequate to reflect a true and

fair picture of the operations of the company for the accounting period. The

Companies Act has also specified that the profit and loss account must show

specific information as required by Schedule IV. The profit and loss account,

like the balance sheet, may be presented in the account form or the report

form. Typically, companies employ the report form. The report form

statement may be a single-step statement or a multi-step statement. In a

single step statement, all revenue items are recorded first, then the expense

items are show and finally the net profit is given. While a single step profit and

loss account aggregates all revenues and expenses, a multi-step profit and

loss account provides disaggregated information. Further, instead of showing

only the final profit measure, viz., the profit after tax figure, it presents profit

measures at intermediate stages as well.

¾ Net sales

¾ Cost of goods sold

¾ Gross profit

¾ Operating expenses

¾ Operating profit

¾ Non-operating surplus/deficit

¾ Profit before interest and tax

¾ Interest

¾ Profit before tax

¾ Tax

¾ Profit after tax.

2.3 FINANCIAL STATEMENTS ANALYSIS

Financial Statements Analysis (FSA) refers to the process of the critical

examination of the financial information contained in the financial statements in order

to understand and make decisions regarding the operations of the firm. The FSA is

basically a study of the relationship among various financial facts and figures is given

in a set of financial statements. The basic financial statements i.e. the Balance Sheet

and the Income Statement, already discussed in the preceding lesson contain a whole

lot of historical data. The complex figures as given in these financial statements are

dissected/broken up into simple and valuables elements and significant relationships

are established between the elements of the same statement or different financial

statements. This process of dissection, establishing relationships and interpretation

thereof to understand the working and financial position of a firm is called the FSA.

Thus, FSA is the process of establishing and identifying the financial weaknesses and

strength of the firm. It is indicative of two aspects of a firm i.e. the profitability and the

financial position and it is what is known as the objectives of the FSA.

2.3.1 Objectives of the FSA: Broadly, the objective of the FSA is to

understand the information contained in financial statements with a view to

know the weaknesses and strength of the firm and to make a forecast about

the future prospects of the firm and thereby enabling the financial analyst to

take different decisions regarding the operations of the firm. The objectives of

the FSA can be identified as:

¾ To assess the present profitability and operating efficiency of the firm

as a whole as well as for its different departments and segments.

¾ To find out the relative importance of different components of the

financial position of the firm.

¾ To identify the reasons for change in the profitability/financial position

of the firm, and

¾ To assess the short term as well as the long term liquidity position of

the firm.

2.3.2 Types of Financial Analysis

Financial analysis can be classified into different categories depending upon

(1) the material used, and (2) the modus operandi of analysis.

1. On the Basis of Material Used: Under this category the financial

analysis can be of two types: a) External Analysis; b) Internal Analysis

a. External Analysis: The outsiders to the business carry out this

kind of analysis, which includes investors, credit agencies,

government agencies and other creditors who have no access

to the internal records of the company. In the recent times this

analysis has gathered momentum towards better corporate

governance and government regulations for more detailed

disclosure of information by the companies in their financial

statements.

b. Internal Analysis: In contrary to the above this analysis is done

by those who have access to the books of accounts and other

information related to the business. The analysis is done

depending upon the objective to be achieved through this

analysis.

2. On the basis of Modus Operandi: In this case too, the financial

analysis can be of two types: a) Horizontal Analysis; b) Vertical

Analysis

a Horizontal Analysis: Under this financial statements for a

number of years are reviewed and analyzed. The current year’s

figures are compared with standard or base year.

b Vertical Analysis: Under this type of analysis a study is made

of the quantitative relationship of the various items in financial

statements on a particular date. For example, the ratios of

different items of costs for a particular period may be calculated

with the sales for that period. These types of financial analysis

are useful in comparing the performance of several companies

in the same group, or divisions or departments in the same

company.

In addition to above, the FSA for a firm can be undertaken in different ways.

There is 'the best' technique of the FSA, which can be applied to all the firms

under all the situations. The type of the FSA undertaken depends upon the

person doing the FSA and the purpose of which the FSA has been

undertaken. Different person/parties may undertake the FSA for different

purposes. The persons/parties, who are usually interested in the FSA, may

be the shareholders, the creditors, the financial institutions, the investors and

the management itself. The FSA can be classified into different categories as

follows: a) Internal and External FSA; b) Dynamic and Static FSA

a) Internal and External FSA: The FSA is said to be internal when it is

done by a person who has access to the books of the account and

other related information of the firm. This type of FSA is conducted for

measuring the operational and managerial efficiency at different

hierarchy levels of the firm. This type of analysis is quite

comprehensive and reliable. In order to undertake internal FSA, either

an employee of the same firm or an outside agency may be entrusted

the responsibility. External FSA, on the other hand, is one, which is

conducted by an outsider without having any access to the basic

accounting record of the firm. These outsiders may be the creditors,

the investors, the shareholders, the credit rating agencies etc. The

external FSA is dependent on the published financial data of the firm

and consequently can serve only limited purpose.

b) Dynamic and Static FSA: The FSA is said to be dynamic if it covers a

period of several years. Financial data/information for different years is

incorporated in the FSA to assess the progress of the firm. This type of

FSA is also called the horizontal analysis. The dynamic FSA is useful

for long-term trend analysis and planning. In dynamic FSA, the

figures/data for a year are placed and compared with the figures/data

for several other years and changes from 1 year to another are

identified. Since, the dynamic analysis covers a period of more than 1

year (may be up to 5 years or 10 years), is given a considerable insight

into areas of financial weaknesses and strength of the firm. On the

other hand, the static FSA covers a period of 1 year only and the

analysis is made on the basis of only one set of financial statements.

So, it is study in terms of information at a particular date only. It is also

called vertical FSA. Impliedly, the static FSA fails to incorporate the

periodic changes and therefore, may not be very conducive to a proper

understanding of the financial position of the firm. It may be noted that

both the dynamic and static FSA should be conducted simultaneously

as both are indispensable for understanding the profitability and

financial position of the firm.

On the basis of the above discussion, it can be said that FSA

investigative and thought provoking process in nature. The basic

objective of FSA is financial planning and forecasting on the basis of

meaningful interpretation of the financial information. It is forward

looking exercise. Since, decisions are going to be taken on the basis

of the FSA, the analyst must be careful, precise, analytical, objective

and intelligent enough to undertake the FSA in a systematic way.

2.4 METHODICAL PRESENTATION TO FSA

The financial statements usually present the financial data in a traditional

form. However, in order to make meaningful and convenient analysis, the

presentation of data may be modified and suitably rearranged. In the

modified form, the items of a statement are presented in a vertical form and in

a particular sequence only. However, it must be noted that this modified form

of the financial statements is only a matter of convenience and not a

compulsory requirement and therefore, there is no standard form of

methodical presentation. The FSA can be undertaken even without such

modification but not so conveniently. In methodical presentation, the financial

information can be presented even side by side for inter-firm comparison or

for dynamic FSA. A set of methodical presentation of the Income Statement

and the B/S are given in the Table 2.1 and 2.2 respectively.

Table 2.1 : Income Statement (Methodical presentation).

INCOME STATEMENT FOR THE YEAR ENDING......

Amount Amount

Sales

Cash sales *****

Credit sales *****

Less: Sales return *****

Net sales (1) *****

Less: Cost of good sold:

Opening stock *****

+ Purchases *****

+Manufacturing expenses *****

+ Direct expenses *****

- Closing stock *****

Total cost of goods sold (2) ***** *****

Gross Profit (3) *****

Less: Operating expenses : (4)

Selling expenses *****

Administrative expenses *****

Depreciation ***** *****

Operating profit (5) *****

Add: Non Operating Income *****

Less: Non Operating Expenses *****

Profit before Interest & Taxes (6) *****

Less : Interest Charges: (7)

Interest on Loans *****

Interest on Debenture ***** *****

Profit before tax (6-7) (8) *****

Less: Provision for tax (9) *****

Net Profit (10) *****

Table 2.2: The balance Sheet (Methodical presentation).

BALANCE SHEET AS ON.........

Amount Amount

Preference Share Capital *****

Equity Share Capital *****

Total Share Capital (1) ***** *****

Add: Capital Reserve *****

General Reserve *****

Share Premium A/c *****

Capital Redemption Reserve A/c *****

Profit & Loss A/c ***** *****

Less: Preliminary Expenses *****

Accumulated Losses ***** *****

Shareholders Fund (2) *****

Add: Long Term Loans *****

Debentures ***** *****

Capital Employed (3) *****

Represented by:

Fixed Assets

Land & Building *****

Plant & Machinery *****

Furniture & Fixture *****

Gross Block *****

Less : Depreciation *****

Fixed Assets (Net) (4) *****

Working Capital

Cash and Bank *****

Receivable *****

Marketable Securities *****

Liquid Assets (5) *****

+ Inventories *****

Total Current Assets (6) *****

Trade Creditors *****

Bills Payable *****

Expenses Outstanding *****

Provision for Tax *****

Quick Liabilities (7) *****

+ Bank Overdraft *****

Total Current Liabilities (8) *****

Net Working Capital (6-8) (9) *****

Total Assets (4+9) (10) *****

2.5 TECHNIQUES/TOOLS OF THE FSA

As already discussed, that the FSA can be undertaken by different persons

and for different purposes, therefore, the methodology adopted for the FSA

may be varying from the one situation to another. However, the following are

some of the common techniques of the FSA: a) Comparative financial

statements. (b) Common-size financial statements, (c) Trend percentages

analysis, and (d) Ration Analysis. The last techniques i.e. the ration analysis

is the most common, comprehensive and powerful tool of the FSA. For the

sake of proper understanding, all these techniques have been discussed in

detail as follows:

2.5.1 COMPARATIVE FINANCIAL STATEMENTS (CFS)

In CFS, two or more BS and/or the IS of a firm are presented simultaneously

in columnar form. The financial data for two or more years are placed and

presented in adjacent columns and thereby the financial data is provided a

times perspective in order to facilitate periodic comparison. In CFS, the BS

and the IS for number of years are presented in condensed form for year-to-

year comparison and to exhibit the magnitude and direction of changes.

The preparation of the CFS is based on the premise that a statement covering

a period of a number of years is more meaningful and significant than for a

single year only, and that the financial statements for one period represent

only 1 phase of the long and continuous history of the firm. Nowadays, most

of the published Annual Reports of the companies provide important statistical

information about the company in condensed from for the last so many years.

The presentation of such data enhances the usefulness of these reports and

brings out more clearly the nature and trends of changes affecting the

profitability and financial position of the firm.

So, the CFS helps a financial analyst in horizontal analysis of the firm and in

establishing operating and positional trend of the firm. The CFS may be

prepared to show the absolute amount of different items in monetary terms,

the amount of periodic changes in monetary terms and the percentages of

periodic changes to reveal the proportionate changes. The CFS can be

prepared for both the BS and IS.

Comparative Income Statement (CIS): A CIS shows the figures of different

items of the ISs of the firm in absolute terms, the absolute changes from one

period to another and if desired, the changes in percentage form. The CIS is

helpful in deriving meaningful conclusions regarding changes in sales volume,

cost of goods sold, different expense items etc. From the CIS a financial

analyst can quickly ascertain whether sales are increasing or decreasing and

by how much amount or by how much percentage. Similarly, analysis can be

made for other items also.

Comparative Balance Sheet (CBS): The CBS shows the different assets

and liabilities of the firm on different dates to make comparisons of absolute

balances and also of changes if any, from one date to another. The CBS may

be helpful in analyzing and evaluating the financial position of the firm over a

period of number of years. The preparation of CFS can be explained with the

help of Example 2.1.

Example 2.1: Following are the IS and BS of ABC & Co. for the year 2003

and 2004, Prepare the CBS and CIS for these two years.

Income Statements for the year 2003 and 2004

(Figures in Rs.)

To Cost of good sold 300000 375000 By Net Sales 400000 500000

To General Expenses 10000 10000

To Selling Expenses 15000 20000

To Net Profit 75000 95000

400000 500000 400000 500000

_________________________________________________________________

Balance Sheets as on December 31

(Figures in Rs.)

__________________________________________________________________

Liabilities 2003 2004 Assets 2003 2004

Capital 350000 350000 Land 50000 50000

Reserves 100000 122500 Building 150000 135000

Secured Loans 50000 75000 Plant 150000 135000

Creditors 100000 137000 Furniture 50000 70000

Outstanding 50000 75000 Cash 50000 70000

Expenses

Debtors 100000 150000

Stores 100000 150000

Particulars 2003 2004 Particulars 2003 2004

650000 760000 650000 760000

Solution:

COMPARATIVE INCOME STATEMENT

FOR THE YEARS ENDING 2003 AND 2004

(Figures in Rs.)

__________________________________________________________________

Liabilities 2003 2004 Change in % change in

2004 2004

Net Sales 400000 500000 100000 + 25

Less cost of goods 300000 375000 75000 + 25

Soled

Gross Profit (1) 100000 125000 25000 + 25

Less General 10000 10000 ---- -----

Selling Expenses 15000 20000 5000 + 33.3

Total Expenses (2) 15000 30000 5000 + 20

Net Profit (1-2) 75000 95000 20000 + 26.7

__________________________________________________________________

COMPARATIVE BALANCE SHEET AS ON DEC. 31

__________________________________________________________________

Liabilities 2003 2004 Change in % change in

2004 2004

Land 50000 50000 ---- ----

Building 150000 135000 - 15000 - 10

Plant 150000 135000 -15000 - 10

Furniture 50000 70000 20000 + 40

Total F. assets (1) 400000 390000 -10000 - 2.5

Cash 50000 70000 20000 40

Debtors 100000 150000 50000 50

Stock 100000 150000 50000 50

Total C. Assets (2) 250000 370000 120000 48

Creditors 100000 137500 37500 37.5

O/s Expenses 50000 75000 25000 50

Total Liabilities (3) 150000 212500 62500 41.7

Net Working 100000 157500 57500 57.5

Capital (2 - 3)

Total Assets (1+2) 650000 760000 110000 16.9

Capital 350000 350000 ------- ------

Reserves 100000 122500 22500 22.5

Proprietor's Fund (4) 450000 472500 22500 5

Secured Loans (5) 50000 75000 25000 50

Capital Employed 500000 547500 47500 9.5

(4+5)

Total Assets (1+2) 650000 760000 110000 16.9

Cap.+ Total

Liabilities (3+4+5) 650000 760000 110000 16.9

Interpretation: On the basis of CIS it can be said that Gross Profit for the

year 2004 has increased by 25% over the profit for the year 2003. The Net

Sales during the same period has increased by 25%, which was coupled with

increase in the cost of goods sold which also increased by same 25%. This

means that Input/Output ratio or the production efficiency level has been

maintained during 2004. the same increase of 25% in Net Sales and the Cost

of goods sold has resulted in increase in Gross Profit by 25%. The increase

in Net Profit is more pronounced i.e. by 26.7%. The reason for a higher

increase in Net Profit is the comparatively less increase in total expenses

(only 20%). The General Expenses during 2003 and 2004 were same but the

increase in Selling Expenses by 33 1/3% has resulted increase of total

expenses by 20%. The CBS also reveals many facts about the composition of

assets and the financial structure of the firm. The Fixed Assets have

decreased over the period by 2.5%, though this decrease has primarily

resulted by the amount of depreciation @ 10% on Buildings and Plant.

However, the Current Assets have increased by 48%, this increase of 48% is

too much in view of increase in Net Sales by 25% only. Moreover, the

Current Liabilities have increased by 41.7%. Since the increase in Current

Assets is more than increase is Current Liabilities, therefore the Net Working

Capital has increased by 57.5%. The clearly indicates that the Working

Capital of the firm is not properly managed. Had the increase in current

assets restricted to 25% or the increase in current liabilities was also achieved

at 48% or so, then the situation would not have been so alarming. However,

the decrease in fixed assets has been offset by increase in Net Working

Capital and consequently the total assets have increased by 16.9%. The firm

has not raised any capital during the period and the increase in proprietor's

funds has resulted because of increase in retained profits by Rs. 22,500. The

Secured Loans have also increased by 50%. The funds provided by the

retained earnings and the secured loans seem to have been utilized in

financing the current assets. This has, on one hand increased the short term

paying capacity of the firm and on the other hand, will affect the earning

capacity of the firm as the current assets are less or non productive. The

increase in total assets by 16.9% is matched with the increase in total

liabilities (proprietor's fund plus the secured loans)) by 16.9%. So, the CFS

explains about the changes in different items of the financial statements.

However, despite this revelation, the CFS fails to highlight the component

changes in relation to total assets or total liabilities. The CFS does not throw

light on the variations in each asset as a percentage of total assets for a

particular period or changes in different liabilities in relation to total liabilities

for that period etc. This drawback of CFS is taken care of by the Common

Size Statement.

2.5.2 COMMON SIZE STATEMENT (CSS)

The CSS represents the relationship of different items of a financial statement

with some Common item by expressing each item as a percentage of the Common

item. In Common size Balance Sheet, each item of the Balance Sheet is stated as a

percentage of the total of the Balance Sheet. Similarly in Common size Income

Statement, each item is stated as percentage of the Net Sales. The percentages for

different items are computed by dividing the absolute amount of that item by the

Common base (i.e. the Balance Sheet Total or the Net Sales as the case may be) and

then multiplying by 100. The percentage so calculated can be easily compared with

the corresponding percentages in some other period. Thus, the CSS is useful not only

in intra-firm comparisons over a series of different year but also in making inter-firm

comparisons for the same year or for several years. The procedure and the technique

of preparation of the CSS can be explained with the help of Example 2.2.

Example 2.2.

With the use of data given in the Example 2.1 prepare the Common Size BS and

Common Size IS for the years 2003 & 2004.

Solution:

COMMON SIZE BALANCE SHEET

Amount (Rs.) Percentages

__________________________________________________________________

Liabilities 2003 2004 2003 2004

Land 50000 50000 7.70 6.59

Building 150000 135000 23.07 17.76

Plant 150000 135000 23.07 17.76

Furniture 50000 70000 7.70 9.21

Total Fixed Assets (1) 400000 390000 61.54 51.32

Cash 50000 70000 7.70 9.20

Debtors 100000 150000 15.38 19.74

Stock 100000 150000 15.38 19.74

Total C. Assets (2) 250000 370000 38.46 48.68

Total Assets (1+2) 650000 760000 100 100

Capital 350000 350000 53.85 46.05

Reserves 100000 122500 15.38 16.12

Proprietor's Fund (3) 450000 472500 69.23 62.17

Secured Loan 50000 75000 7.70 9.87

Creditor 100000 137500 15.37 18.09

O/s Expenses 50000 75000 7.70 9.87

Total Liabilities (4) 200000 287500 30.77 37.83

Total Capital +

Liabilities (3+4) 650000 760000 100 100

_________________________________________________________________

COMMON SIZE INCOME STATEMENT

Amount (Rs.) Percentages

__________________________________________________________________

2003 2004 2003 2004

Net Sales 400000 500000 100.0 100.0

Less : Cost of goods sold 300000 375000 75.0 75.0

Gross Profit (1) 100000 125000 25.0 25.0

Less : General Expenses 10000 10000 2.5 2.0

Selling Expenses 15000 20000 3.75 4.0

Total Op. Expenses(2) 25000 30000 6.25 6.0

Net Profit (1-2) 75000 95000 18.75 19.00

Interpretation: The Common size BS and the Common Size IS reveal that

proportion of fixed assets out of total assets has reduced from 61.54% to

51.32% whereas the proportion of reliance of the firm on the current assets.

Similarly, out the total liabilities the proportion of the proprietor's funds has

reduced from 69.23% to 62.17% and the proportion of external liabilities has

increased from 30.77% to 37.83%. Since, no new capital has been issued

and the other liabilities have increased, the proportion of capital in the total

financing of the firm has gone down from 53.85% to 46.05%.

Further, the Cost of goods sold as well as the Gross Profit has remained

pegged at 75% and 25% of Net Sales. However, the Net Profit has increased

from 18.75% to 19% of Net Sales. This is due to decrease in operating

expenses from 6.25% to 6% of the Net Sales.

It can be observed that the CSS can be used for analyzing and comparing the

financial position of a firm for two different periods or between two firms for

the same year. This comparability was not available in the CFS because of

difference in firms’ sizes or in different years. Of course, in order to make the

CSS more meaningful, the analyst should ensure that accounting policies of

different firms being compared or for different year are unchanged or not

significantly different.

The CSS can be easily used for analyzing and for some real insight into

operational and financial position of the firm over a period of different years.

However, it may become difficult and cumbersome if the period to be covered

is more than two years. The CSS does not show the variations in different

items from one period to another. In horizontal analysis, the CSS may not

provide sufficient information about the changing pattern or trend of different

items over years. In such a situation, the Trend Percentage Analysis can be

of immense help.

2.5.3 TREND PERCENTAGE ANALYSIS (TPA)

The TPA is a technique of studying several financial statements over a series

of years. In TPA, the trend percentages are calculated for each item by taking

the figure of that item for some base year as 100. So, the trend percentage is

the percentage relationship, which each item of different years bears to the

same item in the base year. Any year may be taken as the base year. Any

year may be taken as the base year, but generally the starting/initial year is

taken s the base year. So, each item for base year is taken as 100 and then

the same item for other years is expressed as a percentage of the base year.

The TPA which can be used both for the BS as well as the IS has been

explained with the help of the Example 3.3.

Example 2.3: From the following data relating to the ABC & Co. for the year

2001 to 2004, calculate the trend percentages (taking 2001 as base year).

(Figure in Rs.)

__________________________________________________________________

2001 2002 2003 2004

Net Sales 200000 190000 240000 260000

Less: Cost of goods sold 120000 117800 139200 145600

Gross Profit 80000 72200 100800 114400

Less: Expenses 20000 19400 22000 24000

Net Profit 60000 52800 78800 90400

__________________________________________________________________

Trend percentages

__________________________________________________________________

2001 2002 2003 2004

Net Sales 100 95.0 120.0 130.0

Less: Cost of goods sold 100 9.2 115.8 121.3

Gross GXX Profit 100 90.3 126.0 143.0

Less: Expenses 100 97.0 110.0 120.0

Net Profit 100 88.0 131.3 150.6

__________________________________________________________________

Interpretation: On the whole, the 2002 was a bad year but the recovery was

made during 2003 with increase in volume as well as profits. The figures of

2002 when compared with 2001 reveal that the Sales have reduced by 5%,

but the cost of goods sold and the Expenses have decreased only by 1.8%

and 3% respectively. This resulted in decrease in Net Profit by 12%. The

position was recovered in 2003 and not only the decline was arrested but the

positive growth was also visible both in 2003 and 2004. Again, the increase in

Net Profit by 31.3% (2003) and 50.6% (2004) is much more than the

increased in sales by 20% and 30% respectively. This again testifies that a

substantial portion of the cost of goods sold and expenses is of fixed nature.

So, the TPA is an important tool of historical analysis. It can be of immense

help in making a comparative analysis over a series of years. The TPA

provides brevity and easy readability to several financial statements as the

percentages figures disclose more than the absolute figures. However, some

precautions must be taken while using the TPA as a technique of the AFS as

follows:

There should not be a significant and material change in accounting policies

over the years. This consistency is necessary to ensure meaningful

comparability.

i. Proper care must be taken while selecting the base year. It must be a

normal and a representative year. Generally the initial year is taken as

base year, but intervening year can also be taken as the base year, if the

initial year is not found to be normal year.

ii. The trend percentages should be analyzed vis-à-vis the absolute figure to

avoid any misleading conclusions.

iii. If possible, the figures for different year should be adjusted for variations in

price level also. For example, increase in Net Sales by 30% (from 100 in

2001 to 130 in 2004) over 3 years might have resulted primarily because

of increase in selling price and not because of increase in volume.

Quite often, it may be difficult to interpret the increase or decrease in any item

(in absolute terms or in percentages terms) as a desirable change or an

undesirable change. For example, decrease in cash may be discouraging if it

is going to affect the liquidity but may be encouraging if it has resulted out of

better cash management. Similarly, increase in inventory may result because

of decrease in sales or because of necessity to maintain a minimum level of

stock. In such cases, therefore, the techniques of CFS, CSS and the TPA

may not be of much help. Financial analysts have developed another

technique called the Ratio Analysis, which is presumably the most common

and widely used technique of the FSA.

2.5.4 RATIO ANALYSIS (RA)

The RA has emerged as the principal technique of the FSA. A ratio is a

relationship expressed in mathematical terms between two individual or groups of

figures connected with each other in some logical manner. The RA is based on the

premise that a single accounting figure by itself may not communicate any meaningful

information but when expressed as a relative to some other figure, it may definitely

give some significant information. The relationship between two or more accounting

figures/groups is called a financial ratio. A financial ratio helps to summarize a large

mass of financial data into a concise form and to make meaningful interpretations and

conclusions about the performance and positions of a firm. For example, a firm having

Net Sales of Rs.5, 00,000 is making a gross profit of Rs.1, 00,000. It means that the

ratio of the Gross Profit to Net Sales is 20% i.e.

(Rs.1, 00,000/Rs.5, 00,000) x 100.

Steps in Ratio Analysis: The RA requires two steps as follows:

i. Calculation of a ratio (as discussed later), and

ii. Comparing the ratio with some predetermined standard. The standard

ratio may be the past ratio of the same firm or industry's average ratio or

a projected ratio or the ratio of the most successful firm in the industry.

In interpreting the ratio is compared with some predetermined standard.

The importance of a correct standard is obvious as the conclusion is

going to be based on the standard itself.

Types of comparisons: As already stated that the RA comprised of two

steps i.e. the calculation and thereafter the comparison with some standard.

The calculation part (as discussed later) of a ratio merely involves the

application of a formula to the given financial data to establish the

mathematical relationship. The comparison is the next steps. The ratio can

be compared in three different ways.

Cross-Section Analysis: One way of comparing the ratio or ratios of a firm

is to compare them with the ratio or ratios of some other selected firm in the

same industry at the same point of time. So, it involves the comparison of two

or more firm's financial ratios at the same point of time. The Cross-Section

Analysis helps the analyst to find out as to how a particular firm has

performed in relation to it competitors. The firm’s performance may be

compared with the performance of the leader in the industry in order to

uncover the major operational inefficiencies. In this type of an analysis, the

comparison with a standard helps to find out the quantum as well as direction

of deviation from the standard. It is necessary to look for the large deviations

on either side of the standard could mean a major concern for attention. The

Cross-Section Analysis is easy to be undertaken as most of the data required

for this may be available in financial statements of the firm.

2.5.5 Time-Series Analysis

The analysis is called Time-Series Analysis when the performance of a firm is

evaluated over a period of time. By comparing the present performance of a

firm with the performance of the same firm over last few years, an

assessment can be made about the trend in progress of the firm, about the

direction of progress of the fir. The information generated by the Time-Series

Analysis can also help the firm to assess whether the firm is approaching long

term goals or not. The Time-Series Analysis can be extended to cover

projected financial statements. In particular, the Time Series Analysis looks

for (i) Important trends in financial performance, (ii) Shift in trend over the

years, and (iii) Significant deviations if any, from the other set of data.

Combined Analysis: If the Cross-Section and Time Series Analyses, both

are combined together to study the behavior and pattern of ratios, then

meaningful and comprehensive evaluation of the performance of the firm can

definitely be made. A trend of ratios of a firm compared with the trends of the

ratios of the standard firm can give good results. For example, the ratio of

Operating expenses to Net Sales for a firm, may be higher than the industry

average, however, over the years it has been declining for the firm, whereas

the industry average has not shown any significant changes. (This topic is

covered in detail in the chapters to follow)

2.6 SELF-TEST QUESTIONS

6. What do you mean by financial statements? Explain their different types .

7. What is financial statement analysis? Explain its objectives.

8. What are the types of financial statement analysis? How an accountant in

a firm can arrange them?

9. Explain the benefits of financial statement analysis to a business operating

in the manufacturing sector and service sector.

10. Explain the various techniques applied for carrying out the financial

statement analysis.

2.7 SUGGESTED READINGS:

1. Ashish K. Bhattacharya, Principles and Practices of Cost Accounting (3rd.),

New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India Private Limited, 2004.

2. Charles T. Horngren, Cost Accounting, A Managerial Emphasis, Prentice

Hall Inc., 1973.

3. D. T. Decoster and E. L. Schafer, Management Accounting, New York:

John Willey and Sons, 1979.

4. John G. Blocker and Wettmer W. Keith, Cost Accounting, New Delhi: Tata

Mc Grw Publishing Co. Ltd., 1976.

5. R. K. Sharma and Shashi K. Gupta, Management Accounting-Principles

and Practice (7th.), New Delhi: Kalyani Publishers, 1996.

COURSE: MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Author: Dr. B.S. Bodla

Course code: MC-105 Vetter: Dr. Karam Pal

Lesson: 3

RATIO ANALYSIS

Objective: To make appropriate decisions in keeping with the objectives of the

firm, the financial manager must have analytical tools. The financial

ratio analysis which is the subject matter of this chapter is such a tool.

After going through this chapter, the students must be capable of

analysing the financial data using ratio analysis.

Lesson Structure

3.1. Introduction to financial analysis

3.2. Use of financial ratios

3.3. Precaution in using ratio analysis

3.4. Types of ratios

3.4.1. Liquidity ratios

3.4.2. Debt (or leverage) ratios

3.4.3. Coverage ratios

3.4.4. Profitability ratios

3.4.5. Market-value ratios

3.5. Illustrative problems

3.6. Summary

3.7. Review questions

3.8. Suggested readings

3.1. Introduction to Ratio Analysis

To evaluate the financial performance of a company, the financial ratios are used as a

very sophisticate tool. But, the type of analysis varies according to the specific

interests of the party involved. Trade creditors are interested primarily in the liquidity

of a firm. Their claims are short term, and the ability of a firm to pay these claims is

best judged by means of a thorough analysis of its liquidity. The claims of

bondholders, on the other hand, are long term. Accordingly, they are more interested

in the cash-flow ability of the company to service debt over the long run. The

bondholder may evaluate this ability by analyzing the capital structure of the firm, the

major sources and uses of funds, its profitability over time, and projections of future

profitability.

Investors in a company’s common stock are concerned principally with present and

expected future earnings and the stability of these earnings about a trend, as well as

their covariance with the earnings of other companies. As a result, investors might

concentrate their analysis on a company’s profitability. They would be concerned

with its financial condition insofar as it affects the ability of the company to pay

dividends and to avoid bankruptcy. In order to bargain more effectively for outside

funds, the management of a firm should be interested in all aspects of financial

analysis that outside suppliers of capital use in evaluating the firm. Management also

employs financial analysis for purposes of internal control. In particular, it is

concerned with profitability on investment in the various assets of the company and in

the efficiency of asset management.

3.2. Use of Financial Ratios

For analysing the financial condition and performance of a company, the financial

analyst needs certain yardsticks. The yardstick frequently used is a ratio, or index,

relating two pieces of financial data to each other. Analysis and interpretation of

various ratios should give experienced, skilled analysts a better understanding of the

financial condition and performance of the firm than they would obtain from analysis

of the financial data alone.

The analysis of financial ratios involves two types of comparison. First, the analyst

can compare a present ratio with past and expected future ratios for the same

company. The current ratio (the ratio of current assets to current liabilities) for the

present year end could be compared with the current ratio for the preceding year end.

When financial ratios are arrayed on a spreadsheet over a period of years, the analyst

can study the composition of change and determine whether there has been an

improvement or deterioration in the financial condition and performance over time.

The above is termed as trend analysis. Financial ratios also can be computed for

projected, or pro forma, statements and compared with present and past ratios. In the

comparison over time, it is best to compare not only financial ratios but also the few

figures.

The second method of comparison involves comparing the ratios of one firm with

those of similar firms or with industry averages at the same point in time. Such a

comparison gives insight into the relative financial condition and performance of the

firm. Sometimes a company will not fit neatly into an industry category. In such

situations, one should try to develop a set, albeit usually small, of peer firms for

comparison purposes.

3.3. Precaution in using Ratio Analysis

The analyst should avoid using rules of thumb indiscriminately for all industries. For

example, the criterion that all companies should have at least a 2-to-1 current ratio is

inappropriate. The analysis must be in relation to the type of business in which the

firm is engaged and to the firm itself. The true test of liquidity is whether a company

has the ability to pay its bills on time. Many sound companies, including electric

utilities, have this ability despite current ratios substantially below 2 to 1. It depends

on the nature of the business. Only by comparing the financial ratios of one firm with

those of similar firms can one make a realistic judgement.

Similarly, analysis of the deviation from the norm should be based on some

knowledge of the distribution of ratios for the companies involved. If the company

being studied has a current ratio of 1.4 and the industry norm is 1.8, one would like to

know the proportion of companies whose ratios are below 1.4. If it is only 2 per cent,

we are likely to be much more concerned than if it is 25 per cent. Therefore, we need

information on the dispersion of the distribution to judge the significance of the

deviation of a financial ratio for a particular company from the industry norm.

Comparisons with the industry must be approached with caution. It may be that the

financial condition and performance of the entire industry is less than satisfactory, and

a company’s being above average may not be sufficient. The company may have a

number of problems on an absolute basis and should not take refuge in a favourable

comparison with the industry. The industry ratios should not be treated as target asset

and performance norms. Rather, they provide general guidelines. For benchmark

purposes, a set of firms displaying ‘best practices’ should be developed.

In addition, the analyst should realize that the various companies within an industry

grouping may not be homogeneous. Companies with multiple product lines often defy

precise industry categorization. They may be placed in the most ‘appropriate’ industry

grouping, but comparison with other companies in that industry may not be

consistent. Also, companies in an industry may differ substantially in size.

Because reported financial data and the ratios computed from these data are

numerical, there is a tendency to regard them as precise portrayals of a firm’s true

financial status. Accounting data such as depreciation, reserve for bad debts, and other

reserves are estimates at best and may not reflect economic depreciation, bad debts,

and other losses. To the extent possible, accounting data from different companies

should be standardized.

3.4. Types of Ratios

Financial ratios can be grouped into five types: liquidity, debt, profitability, coverage,

and market-value ratios. No one ratio gives us sufficient information by which to judge

the financial condition and performance of the firm. Only when we analyze a group of

ratios we are able to make reasonable judgements. We must be sure to take into account

any seasonal character of a business. Underlying trends may be assessed only through a

comparison of raw figures and ratios at the same time of year. We would not compare a

December 31 balance sheet with a May 31 balance sheet, but we would compare

December 31 with December 31.

Although the number of financial ratios that might be computed increases geometrically

with the amount of financial data, we concentrate only on the more important ratios in

this lesson. Computing unneeded ratios adds both complexity and confusion to the

problem. To illustrate the ratios discussed in this lesson, we use the balance sheet and

income statements of a Hypothetical Manufacturing Company shown in Tables 1 and 2.

Table 3.1: Hypothetical Manufacturing Company Balance Sheet

March 31, 2005

(Rs.) March 31, 2004

(Rs.)

Assets

Cash and short-term investments 177689 175042

Accounts receivable 678279 740705

Inventories 1328963 1234725

Prepaid expenses 20756 17197

Deferred income taxes 35203 29165

Current assets 2240890 2196834

Property, plant, and equipment 159686 1538495

Less: Accumulated depreciation 856829 791205

740057 747290

Investment, long term 65376 -

Other assets 205157 205624

Total assets 3251480 3149748

Liabilities and shareholders’ equity

Bank loans and notes payable 448508 356511

Accounts payable 148427 136793

Income taxes payable 36203 127455

Accruals 190938 164285

Current liabilities 824076 785044

Long-term debt 630783 626460

Shareholders’ equity

Common stock (Rs. 5 par value) 420828 420824

Additional paid-in capital 361158 361059

Retained earnings 1014635 956361

Total shareholders’ equity 1796621 1738244

Total liabilities and equity 3251480 3149748

3.4.1. Liquidity ratios

Liquidity ratios are used to judge a firm’s ability to meet short-term obligations. From them,

much insight can be obtained into the present cash solvency of a company and its ability to

remain solvent in the event of adversities. Essentially, we wish to compare short-term

obligations with the short-term resources available to meet these obligations.

Table 2. Hypothetical Manufacturing Company Statement of Earnings

Year ended March

31, 2005 (Rs.)

Year ended march

31, 2004 (Rs.)

Net sales 3992758 3721241

Cost of goods sold 2680298 2499965

Selling, general, and administrative expenses 801395 726959

Depreciation 111509 113989

Interest expense 85274 69764

Earnings before taxes 314282 310564

Provision for taxes 113040 112356

Earnings after taxes 201242 198208

Cash dividends 142968 130455

Retained earnings 58274 67753

Current ratio

One of the most general and most frequently used liquidity ratios is the current ratio:

Current assets

Current liabilities (1)

For Hypothetical Manufacturing Co., the ratio for the 2005 year end is

Rs. 2240890

Rs. 824076 = 2.72

The higher the current ratio, supposedly, the greater the ability of the firm to pay its bills. The

ratio must be regarded as a crude measure of liquidity, however, because it does not take into

account the liquidity of the individual components of the current assets. A firm having

current assets composed principally of cash and current receivables is generally regarded as

more liquid than a firm whose current assets consist primarily of inventories. Consequently,

we must turn to ‘finer’ tools of analysis if we are to evaluate critically the liquidity of the

firm. It is noteworthy that liquidity has been defined as the ability to realize value in money,

the most liquid of assets. Liquidity has two dimensions: (1) the time required converting the

asset into money and (2) the certainty of the price realized. To the extent that the price

realized on receivables is as predictable as that realized on inventories, receivables would be

a more liquid asset than inventories, owing to the shorter time required to convert the asset

into money. If the price realized on receivables is more certain than is that on inventories,

receivables would be regarded as being even more liquid.

Quick ratio

A somewhat more accurate guide to liquidity is the quick, or acid-test, ratio:

Current assets less inventories

Current liabilities (2)

For Hypothetical Co., this ratio is

Rs. 2240890 – Rs. 1328963

Rs. 824076 = 1.11

This ratio is the same as the current ratio, except that it excludes inventories– presumably the

least liquid portion of current assets– from the numerator. The ratio concentrates on cash,

marketable securities, and receivables in relation to current obligations and thus provides a

more penetrating measure of liquidity than does the current ratio.

Liquidity of receivables

Sometimes there are suspected imbalances or problems in various components of the current

assets. In these situations, the financial analyst will want to examine these components

separately in assessing liquidity. Receivables, for example, may be far from current.

Regarding all receivables as liquid when in fact a sizable portion may be past due, overstates

the liquidity of the firm being analyzed. Receivables are liquid assets only insofar as they can

be collected in a reasonable amount of time. For our analysis of receivables, we have two

basic ratios, the first of which is the average collection period:

Receivables × Days in year

Annual credit sales (3)

If we assume for Hypothetical that all sales are credit sales, this ratio is

Rs. 678279 × 365

Rs. 3992758 = 62 days

The average collection period tells us the average number of days receivables is outstanding,

that is, the average time it takes to convert them into cash.

The second ratio is the receivable turnover ratio:

Annual credit sales

Receivables (4)

For Hypothetical Co., this ratio is Rs. 3992758

Rs. 678279 = 5.89

These two ratios are reciprocals of each other. The number of days in the year, 365, divided

by the average collection period, 62 days, gives the receivable turnover ratio, 5.89. The

number of days in the year divided by the turnover ratio gives the average collection period.

Thus, either of these two ratios can be employed.

Year-end versus average receivables- The receivable figure used in the calculation

ordinarily represents year-end receivables. When sales are seasonal or have grown

considerably over the year, using the year-end receivable balance may not be appropriate.

With seasonality, an average of the monthly closing balances may be the most appropriate

figure to use. With growth, the receivable balance at the end of the year will be deceptively

high in relation to sales. The result is that the collection period calculated is a biased and high

estimate of the time it will take for the receivable balance at year end to be collected. In this

case, an average of receivables at the beginning and at the end of the year might be

appropriate if the growth in sales were steady throughout the year. The idea is to relate the

relevant receivable position to the relevant credit sales.

Interpreting the information- The average collection period ratio or the receivable turnover

ratio indicates the slowness of receivables. Either ratio must be analyzed in relation to the

billing terms given on the sales. If the average collection period is 45 days and the terms are

2/10, net 301 the comparison would indicate that a sizable proportion of the receivables is

past due beyond the final due date of 30 days. On the other hand, if the terms are 2/10, net 60,

the typical receivable is being collected before the final due date. Too low an average

collection period may suggest an excessively restrictive credit policy. The receivables on the

books may be of prime quality, yet sales may be curtailed unduly- and profits less than they

might be- because of this policy. In this situation, credit standards for an acceptable account

should be relaxed somewhat. On the other hand, too high an average collection period may

indicate too liberal a credit policy. As a result, a large number of receivables may be past

due- some uncollectible. Here, too, profits may be less than those possible, because of bad-

debt losses and the need to finance a large investment in receivables. In this case, credit

standards should be raised.

Aging of accounts- Another means by which we can obtain insight into the liquidity of

receivables is through an aging of accounts. With this method, we categorize the receivables

at a moment in time according to the proportions billed in previous months. We might have

the following hypothetical aging of accounts receivable at December 31.

Month December November October September August and Total

before

Proportion of

Receivables billed 67% 19% 7% 2% 5% 100%

If the billing terms are 2/10, net 30, this aging tells us that 67 per cent of the receivables at

December 31 are current, 19 per cent are up to 1 month past due, 7 per cent are 1 to 2 months

past due, and so on. Depending on the conclusions drawn from our analysis of the aging, we

may want to examine more closely the credit and collection policies of the company. In the

example, we might be prompted to investigate the individual receivables that were billed in

August and before, in order to determine if any should be charged off. The receivables shown

on the books are only as good as the likelihood that they will be collected. An aging of

accounts receivables gives us considerably more information than the calculation of the

average collection period because it pinpoints the trouble spots more specifically.

Duration of payables

From a creditor’s standpoint, it would be desirable to obtain an aging of accounts payable.

However, few customers are willing to provide such information, and many will resent being

asked. Nonetheless, we often are able to compute the average age of a company’s accounts

payable. The average payable period is

Accounts payable × 365

Purchases (5)

where accounts payable is the average balance outstanding for the year and the denominator

is external purchases during the year.

1 The notation means that the supplier gives a 2 per cent discount if the receivable invoice is paid within 10 days

and that payment is due within 30 days if the discount is not taken.

When information on purchases is not available, one can occasionally use the cost of goods

sold in the denominator. A department store chain, for example, typically does no

manufacturing. As a result, the cost of goods sold consists primarily of purchases. However,

in situations where there is sizable value added, such as with a manufacturer, the use of the

cost of goods sold is inappropriate. One must have the amount of purchases if the ratio is to

be used. Another caveat has to do with growth. As with receivables, the use of a year-end

payable balance will result in a biased and high estimate of the time it will take a company to

make payment on its payables if there is strong underlying growth. In this situation, it may be

better to use an average of payables at the beginning of the year and at the end.

The average payable period is valuable in evaluating the probability that a credit applicant

will pay on time. If the average age of payables is 48 days, and the terms in the industry are

net 30, we know that a portion of the applicant’s payables are not being paid on time. A credit

check of other suppliers will give insight into the severity of the problem.

Liquidity of inventories

We may compute the inventory turnover ratio as an indicator of the liquidity of inventory

Cost of goods sold

Average inventory (6)

For Hypothetical, the ratio is Rs. 2680298

(Rs. 1328963 + Rs. 1234725)/2 = 2.09

The figure for cost of goods sold used in the numerator is for the period being studied-

usually 1 year; the average inventory figure used in the denominator typically is an average

of beginning and ending inventories for the period. The inventory turnover ratio tells us the

rapidity with which the inventory is turned over into receivables through sales. This ratio, like

other ratios, must be judged in relation to past and expected future ratios of the firm and in

relation to ratios of similar firms, the industry average, or both.

Generally, the higher the inventory turnover, the more efficient the inventory management of

a firm. Sometimes a relatively high inventory turnover ratio may be the result of too low a

level o inventory and frequent stockouts. It might also be the result of too many small orders

for inventory replacement. Either of these situations may be more costly to the firm than

carrying a larger investment in inventory and having a lower turnover ratio. Again, caution is

necessary in interpreting the ratio. When the inventory turnover ratio is relatively low, it

indicates slow-moving inventory or obsolescence of some of the stock. Obsolescence may

necessitate substantial write-downs, which, in turn, would negate the treatment of inventory

as a liquid asset. Because the turnover ratio is a somewhat crude measure, we would want to

investigate any perceived inefficiency in inventory management. In this regard, it is helpful to

compute the turnover of the major categories of inventory to see if there are imbalances,

which may indicate excessive investment in specific components of the inventory. Once we

have a hint of a problem, we must investigate it more specifically to determine its cause.

3.4.2. Debt (or leverage) ratios

Extending our analysis to the long-term liquidity of the firm (that is, its ability to meet long-

term obligations), we may use several debt ratios. The debt-to-equity ratio is computed by

simply dividing the total debt of the firm (including current liabilities) by its shareholders’

equity:

Total debt

Shareholders' equity (7)

For Hypothetical, the ratio is

Rs. 1454859

Rs. 1796621 = 0.81

When intangible assets are significant, they frequently are deducted from shareholders’

equity.

The ratio of debt to equity varies according to the nature of the business and the volatility of

cash flows. An electric utility, with very stable cash flows, usually will have a higher debt

ratio than will a machine tool company, whose cash flows are far less stable. A comparison of

the debt ratio for a given company with those of similar firms gives us a general indication of

the creditworthiness and financial risk of the firm.

In addition to the ratio of total debt to equity, we may compute the following ratio, which

deals with only the long-term capitalization of the firm:

Long-term debt

Total capitalization (8)

where total capitalization represents all long-term debt, preferred stock, and share-holders’

equity. For Hypothetical, the ratio is Rs. 630783

Rs. 2427404 = 0.26

This measure tells us the relative importance of long-term debt in the capital structure. The

ratios computed here have been based on book-value figures; it is sometimes useful to

calculate these ratios using market values. In summary, debt ratios tell us the relative

proportions of capital contribution by creditors and by owners.

Cash flow to debt and capitalization

A measure of the ability of a company to service its debt is the relationship of annual cash

flow to the amount of debt outstanding. The cash flow of a company often is defined as the

cash generated from the operation of the company. This is defined as earnings before interest,

taxes and depreciation (EBITD). The cash-flow-to-total-liabilities ratio is simply

Cash flow (EBITD)

Total liabilities (9)

For Hypothetical Co., the ratio is Rs. 511065

Rs. 1454859 = 0.35

The cash flow is composed of earnings before taxes, Rs. 314282, plus interest, Rs. 85274,

and depreciation, Rs. 111509. This ratio is useful in assessing the creditworthiness of a

company seeking debt funds.

Another ratio is the cash-flow-to-long-term-debt ratio-

Cash flow (EBITD)

Long-term debt (10)

Here we have the following for Hypothetical Co. Ltd.:

Rs. 511065

Rs. 630783 = 0.81

This ratio is used to evaluate the bonds of a company. The two cash-flow ratios just described

have proven useful in predicting the deteriorating financial health of a company.

This is particularly helpful in corporate restructuring, where heavily levered transactions

occur. Another ratio often used in this regard is total interest-bearing debt plus equity in

relation to operating cash flows. Known as the enterprise value-to-EBITD ratio, it can be

expressed as

Total borrowings + Equity

Cash flow (EBITD) (11)

For Hypothetical Co., this ratio is

Rs. 2875912

Rs. 511065 = 5.63

where bank loans, notes payable, and long-term debt represent total borrowings. The higher

this ratio, the greater the value that is being placed on the securities. Lenders in highly

levered transactions become concerned when the ratio exceeds 8, as the possibility of default

has been found to be significant at this point.

3.4.3. Coverage ratios

Coverage ratios are designed to relate the financial charges of a firm to its ability to service

them. Bond-rating services, such as CRISIL, ICRA, Moody and Standard and Poor’s, make

extensive use of these ratios. Interest coverage ratio

Interest coverage ratio is one of the most traditional of the coverage ratios. The ratio of

earnings before interest and taxes for a particular reporting period to the amount of interest

charges for the period is known as interest coverage ratio. We must differentiate which

interest charges should be used in the denominator. The overall coverage method stresses a

company’s meeting all fixed interest, regardless of the seniority of the claim. We have the

following financial data for a hypothetical company:

Average earnings before interest and taxes Rs. 2,000,000

Interest on senior 7% bonds - 400,000

Rs. 1,600,000

Interest on junior 8% bonds 160,000

The overall interest coverage would be Rs. 2,000,000/Rs. 560,000, or 3.57. This method

implies that the creditworthiness of the senior bonds is only as good as the firm’s ability to

cover all interest charges.

Of the various coverage ratios, the most objectionable is the prior deductions method. Using

this method, we deduct interest on the senior bonds from average earnings and then divide the

residual by the interest on the junior bonds. We find that the coverage on the junior bonds in

our example is 10 times (Rs. 1600000/Rs. 160000). Thus, the junior bonds give the illusion

of being more secure than the senior obligations. Clearly, this method is inappropriate. The

cumulative deduction method, perhaps, is the most widely used method of computing interest

coverage. Under this method, coverage for the senior bonds would be 5 times. Coverage for

the junior bonds is determined by adding the interest charges on both bonds and relating the

total to average earnings. Thus, the coverage for the junior bonds would be Rs. 2000000/Rs.

560000 = 3.57 times. Cash-flow coverage ratios

This ratio involves the relation of earnings before interest, taxes, and depreciation (EBITD) to

interest and to interest plus principal payments. For the cash-flow coverage of interest we

have

EBITD

Annual interest payments (12)

Cash flow is very useful in determining whether a borrower is going to be able to service

interest payments on a loan. Even for highly levered transactions, lenders want a coverage

ratio comfortably above 2.0. The EBITD interest coverage ratio is highly correlated with

bond ratings and the market’s assessment of risk. To be investment grade, that is, AAA, AA,

A, or BBB, the ratio for an industrial corporation usually must be above 4.0.

The limitations of an interest coverage ratio are that a firm’s ability to service debt is related

to both interest and principal payments. Moreover, these payments are not met out of

earnings per se, but out of cash. Hence, a more appropriate coverage ratio relates the cash

flow of the firm to the sum of interest and principal payments. The cash-flow coverage of

interest and principal ratio may be expressed as-

EBITD

Interest + Principal payments [1/(1 - t)]

where t is the income tax rate and principal payments are annual. Because principal payments

are made after taxes, it is necessary to gross them up so that they correspond to interest

payments, which are made before taxes. If the tax rate were 40 per cent and annual principal

payments Rs. 120,000, before-tax earnings of Rs. 200,000 would be needed to cover these

payments. If the company has preferred stock outstanding, the stated dividend on this stock,

grossed up by 1 minus the tax rate, should appear in the denominator of Equation 13.

For measuring the financial risk of a firm, the financial analyst should first compute the debt

ratios as a rough measure of financial risk. Depending on the payment schedule of the debt

and the average interest rate, debt ratios may or may not give an accurate picture of the ability

of the firm to meet its financial obligations. Therefore, it is necessary to analyze additionally

the cash-flow ability of the company to service debt. This is done by relating cash flow not

only to the amount of debt outstanding but also to the amount of financial charges. Neither

debt ratios nor coverage ratios are sufficient by themselves.

3.4.4. Profitability ratios

There are two types of profitability ratios: (i) those showing profitability in relation to sales,

and (ii) those showing profitability in relation to investment. Together these ratios indicate

the firm’s efficiency of operation.

Profitability in relation to sales

Gross profit margin = Sales less cost of goods sold

Sales (14)

For Hypothetical, the gross profit margin is

Rs. 1312460

Rs. 3992758 = 32.9%

Gross profit margin ratio tells us the profit of the firm relative to sales after we deduct the

cost of producing the goods sold. It indicates the efficiency of operations as well as how

products are priced. A more specific ratio of profitability is the net profit margin:

Net profits after taxes

Sales (15)

For Hypothetical, this ratio is

Rs. 201242

Rs. 3992758 = 5.04%

This ratio tells us the relative efficiency of the firm after taking into account all expenses and

income taxes, but not extraordinary charges.

Profitability in relation to investment

The group of profitability ratios relates profits to investments. One of these measures is the

rate of return on equity, or the ROE:

Net profits after taxes – Preferred stock dividend

Shareholders' equity

For Hypothetical Co., the rate of return is

Rs. 201242

Rs. 1796621 = 11.2%

The rate of return on equity tells us the earning power on shareholders’ book investment and

is frequently used in comparing two or more firms in an industry. The figure for share-

holders’ equity used in the ratio may be expressed in terms of market value instead of book

value. When we use market value, we obtain the earnings/price ratio of the stock.

A more general ratio used in the analysis of profitability is the return on assets, or the ROA:

Net profits after taxes

Total assets (16)

For Hypothetical Co., the ratio is

Rs. 201242

Rs. 3251480 = 6.19%

ROA ratio is somewhat inappropriate, inasmuch as profits are taken after interest is paid to

creditors. Because these creditors provide means by which part of the total assets are

supported, there is a fallacy of omission. When financial charges are significant, it is

preferable, for comparative purposes, to compute a net operating profit rate of return instead

of a return on assets ratio. The net operating profit rate of return may be expressed as

Earnings before interest and taxes

Total assets (17)

Using this ratio, we are able to abstract from differing financial charges (interest and

preferred stock dividends). Thus, the relationship studied is independent of the way the firm

is financed. Assets turnover ratio

Generally, the financial analyst relates total assets to sales to obtain the asset turnover ratio:

Sales

Total assets (18)

Hypothetical Co. turnover for the 2005 fiscal year was

Rs. 3992758

Rs. 3251480 = 1.23

Assets turnover ratio tells us the relative efficiency with which the firm utilizes its resources

in order to generate output. It varies according to the type of company being studied. A food

chain has a considerably higher turnover, for example, than does an electric utility. The

turnover ratio is a function of the efficiency with which the various asset components are

managed: receivables as depicted by the average collection period, inventories as portrayed

by the inventory turnover ratio, and fixed assets as indicated by the plant or the sales to net

fixed asset ratio. Earning power

When we multiply the asset turnover of the firm by the net profit margin, we obtain the return

on assets ratio, or earning power on total assets:

Earning power = Sales

Total assets × Net profits after taxes

Sales (19)

Net profits after taxes

Total assets

For Hypothetical Co., we have

Rs. 3992758

Rs. 3251480 × Rs. 201242

Rs. 3992758 = 6.19%

None of these two ratios (the net profit margin and the turnover ratio) by itself provides an

adequate measure of operating efficiency. The net profit margin ignores the utilization of

assets, whereas the turnover ratio ignores profitability on sales. The return on assets ratio, or

earning power, resolves these shortcomings. An improvement in the earning power of the

firm will result if there is an increase in turnover, an increase in the net profit margin, or both.

Two companies with different asset turnovers and net profit margins may have the same

earning power. Firm A, with an asset turnover of 4 to 1 and a net profit margin of 3 per cent,

has the same earning power – 12 per cent- as firm B, with an asset turnover of 11

2 to 1 and a

net profit margin of 8 per cent.

Another way to look at the return on equity (ROE) is

ROE = Earning power × ⎟

⎟

⎠

⎞

⎜

⎝

⎛+Equity

Debt

1 (20)

In this equation, earning power is grossed up by the equity multiplier associated with the use

of debt. For Hypothetical Co.

ROE = 6.19% × 1.81 = 11.20%.

With all the profitability ratios, comparing one company with similar companies is valuable.

Only by comparison are we able to judge whether the profitability of a particular company is

good or bad, and why. Absolute figures provide insight, but relative performance is most

revealing. 3.4.5. Market-value ratios

We do find several widely used ratios that relate the market value of a company’s stock to

profitability, to dividends, and to book equity.

Price/earnings ratio

The price/earnings ratio of a company is simply

P/E ratio =

Share price

Earnings per share (21)

Here, earnings per share (EPS) usually are the trailing 12 months of earnings. However,

security analysts sometimes use estimated EPS for the next 12 months. Suppose Hypothetical

Manufacturing Company has a share price of Rs. 38. With a par value of Rs. 5 per share at

2005 fiscal year end in Table 1, there are 84165600 shares outstanding. Therefore, earnings

per share are earnings after taxes divided by number of shares outstanding, or Rs.

201242000/84165600 = Rs. 2.39. The P/E ratio for Hypothetical Co. is

Rs. 38.00

Rs. 2.39 = 15.9 times

In fact, the P/E ratio is considered as one measure of relative value. The higher this ratio, the

more the value of the stock that is being ascribed to future earnings as opposed to present

earnings. That is to say, likely future growth is what is being valued. During the last 20 years,

the P/E ratio for Standard and Poor’s 500 stock indexes has ranged from 8 to 28. The ratio

reflects a number of things including interest rates, growth expectations for stocks in general.

Dividend Yield

The dividend yield for a stock relates the annual dividend to share price. Therefore,

Dividend yield =

Dividends per share

Share price (22)

Going to Tables 1 and 2, we determine that dividends per share for the 2005 fiscal year are

Rs. 1.70. Therefore, the dividend yield for Hypothetical is

Rs. 1.70

Rs. 38.00 = 4.47%

Noteworthy it is that companies with good growth potential retain a high proportion of

earnings and have a low dividend yield, whereas companies in more mature industries pay

out a high portion of their earnings and have a relatively high dividend yield. Hypothetical

Co. falls in the latter category. Market-to-Book Ratio

The final market-value ratio we consider relates market value per share to book value

M/B ratio =

Share price

Book value per share (23)

where M/B ratio is the market-to-book value ratio. Going again to Table 1, we divide

shareholders’ equity by the number of shares outstanding to get a book value per share of Rs.

21.35. Therefore, for Hypothetical Co., we have

M/B ratio =

Rs. 38.00

Rs. 21.35 = 1.78

The market-to-book value ratio is a relative measure of how the growth option for a company

is being valued vis-à-vis its physical assets. The greater the expected growth and value placed

on such, the higher this ratio. M/B ratios for established companies range from as little as 0.5

to as high as 8.0. The former often is associated with a company that earns less than what the

financial markets require, a harvest situation, and the latter with a company that earns

substantially more through industry attractiveness and/or competitive advantage.

3.5. Illustrative problems

Problem 1. X Co. has made plans for the next year. It is estimated that the company will

employ total assets of Rs. 8, 00,000; 50 per cent of the assets being financed by borrowed

capital at an interest cost of 8 per cent per year. The direct costs for the year are estimated at

Rs. 4, 80,000 and all other operating expenses are estimated at Rs. 80,000. The goods will be

sold to customers at 150 per cent of the direct costs. Tax rate is assumed to be 50 per cent.

You are required to calculate: (i) net profit margin; (ii) return on assets; (iii) assets turnover

and (iv) return on owners’ equity.

Solution.

The net profit is calculated as follows:

Rs. Rs.

Sales (150% of Rs. 4, 80,000) 7, 20,000

Direct costs 4, 80,000

Gross profit 240000

Operating expenses 80,000

Interest charges (8% of Rs. 4, 00,000) 32,000 1, 12,000

Profit before taxes 1, 28,000

Taxes (@ 50%) 64,000

Net profit after taxes 64,000

(i) Net profit margin = Profit after taxes

Sales = Rs. 64000

Rs. 720000 = 0.089 or 8.9%

(ii) Return on assets = EBIT (1 - T)

Assets = 160000 (1 - 0.5)

800000 = 0.10 or 10%

(iii) Assets turnover = Sales

Assets = Rs. 720000

Rs. 800000 = 0.9 times

(iv) Return on equity = Net profit after taxes

Owners' equity = Rs. 64000

50% of Rs. 800000

Rs. 64000

Rs. 400000 = 0.16 or 16%

Problem 2. The total sales (all credit) of a firm are Rs. 6, 40,000. It has a gross profit margin

of 15 per cent and a current ratio of 2.5. The firm’s current liabilities are Rs. 96,000;

inventories Rs. 48,000 and cash Rs. 16,000. (a) Determine the average inventory to be carried

by the firm, if an inventory turnover of 5 times is expected? (Assume a 360-day year), (b)

Determine the average collection period if the opening balance of debtors is intended to be of

Rs. 80,000? (Assume a 360-day year).

Solution.

(a) Inventory turnover = Cost of goods sold

Average inventory

Since gross profit margin is 15 per cent, the cost of goods sold should be 85 per cent of the

sales.

Thus, Cost of goods sold = 0.85 × Rs. 640000 = Rs. 544000.

Rs. 544000

Av. inventory = 5

Average inventory =

Rs. 544000

5 = Rs. 1, 08,800

(b) Average collection period: Average debtors

Credit sales × 360

Average debtors = (op. debtors + cl. Debtors)/2

Closing balance of debtors is found as follows:

Current assets (2.5 of current liabilities) Rs. 2, 40,000

Less: Inventories Rs. 48,000

Cash 16,000 64,000

∴ Debtors Rs. 1, 76,000

Average debtors = (Rs. 1, 76,000 + Rs. 80,000)/2 = Rs. 1, 28,000

Average collection period = Rs. 128000

Rs. 640000 × 360 = 72 days

Problem 3. The following figures relate to the trading activities of Hind Traders Limited for

the year ended 30th June, 2004:

Table 3. Hind Traders Limited _________________________

Rs. Rs.

Sales 15,00,000 Administrative expenses

Purchases 9,66,750 Salaries 81,000

Opening stock 2,28,750 Rent 8,100

Closing stock 2,95,500 Stationery, postage, etc. 7,500

Sales returns 60,000 Depreciation 27,900

Selling and distribution expenses Other charges 49,500

Salaries 45,900 Provision for taxation 1,20,000

Advertising 14,100 Non-operating income

Travelling 6,000 Dividend on shares 27,000

Non-operating expenses Profit on sale of shares 9,000

Loss on sale of assets 12,000

You are required to (1) rearrange the above figures in a form suitable for analysis, and (2)

show separately the following ratios: (i) gross profit ratio; (ii) operating ratio; (iii) stock

turnover ratio.

Solution.

Table 4. Hind Traders Ltd. _______________________________

Profit and Loss Statement

Rs.

Sales (less returns) 15, 00,000

Less: Cost of goods sold:

Opening stock 2, 28750

Purchases 9, 66,750

11, 95,500

Less: Closing stock 2, 95,500 9, 00,000

Gross profit 6, 00,000

Operating expenses

Selling and distribution expenses 66,000

Administrative expenses 1, 74,000 2, 40,000

Operating net profit 3, 60,000

Non-operating income 36,000

Non-operating expenses 12,000 24,000

Profit before tax 3, 84,000

Provision for taxes 1, 20,000

2, 64,000

(a) Gross profit ratio = Rs. 600000

Rs. 1500000 = 0.40 or 40%

(b) Operating ratio =

Cost of goods+Operating expenses

Sales = Rs. 1140000

Rs.1500000 = 0.76 or 76%

Average stock = Rs. 900000

Rs. 262125 = 3.43 times

Problem 4. Towards the end of 2004 the directors of Wholesale Merchants Ltd. decided to

expand their business. The annual accounts of the company for 2004 and 2005 may be

summarised as follows:

Table. Wholesale Merchants Ltd _______________________________

Financial statements (Rs.)

Year 2004 Year

2005

Sales:

Cash 42,000 44,800

Credit 3,78,000 4,78,800

4,20,000 5,23,600

Cost of sales 3,30,400 4,17,200

Gross margin 89,600 1,06,400

Expenses:

Warehousing 18,200 19,600

Transport 8,400 14,000

Administration 26,600 26,600

Selling 15,400 19,600

Debenture interest - 2,800

68,600 82,600

Net profit 21,000 23,800

Fixed assets (Less: depreciation) 42,000 56,000

Current assets

Stock 84,000 1,31,600

Debtors 70,000 1,14,800

Cash 14,000 1,68,000 9,800 2,56,200

Less: Current liabilities 70,000 1,06,400

Net current assets 98,000 1,49,800

Net assets 1,40,000 2,05,800

Share capital 1,05,000 1,05,000

Reserves and undistributed profit 35,000 58,000

Debenture loan - 42,000

Capital employed 1,40,000 2,05,800

You are informed that: (a) All sales were from stocks in the company’s warehouse. (b) The

range of merchandise was not changed and buying prices remained steady throughout the two

years. (c) Budgeted total sales for 2002 were Rs. 3, 90,000. (d) The debenture loan was

received on 1st January 2002, and additional fixed assets were purchased on that date.

You are required to state the internal accounting ratios that you would use in this type of

business to assist the management of the company in measuring the efficiency of its

operation, including its use of capital.

Your answer should name the ratios and give the figures (calculated to one decimal place) for

2004 and 2005, together with possible reasons for changes in the ratios for the two years.

Ratios relating to capital employed should be based on the capital at the end. Ignore taxation.

Solution. The following ratios are calculated for Wholesale Merchants Ltd.:

Table. Ratios for wholesale merchant ltd. _____________________

Ratios (Rs. ‘000) Year

2004

(Rs’ 000) Year 2005

1. Net margin: EBIT/Sales 21,000/4,20,000 5.0% 26,600/5,23,600 5.1%

2. Sales to capital employed 4,20,000/1,40,000 3.0 times 5,23,600/2,05,800 2.5 times

3. Return on capital employed:

EBIT/CE

21,000/1,40,000 15.0% 26,600/2,05,800 12.9%

4. Gross margin: gross profit/sales 89,600/4,20,000 21.3% 1,06,400/5,23,600 20.3%

5. Expenses (excluding interest) to

sales

68,600/4,20,000 16.3% 79,800/5,23,600 15.2%

6. Stock turnover: CGS/Stock 3,30,400/84,000 3.9 times 4,17,200/1,31,600 3.2 times

7. Debtors turnover: credit 3,78,000/70,000 5.4 times 4,78,800/1,14,800 4.2 times

sales/debtors

8. Current ratio: CA/CL 1,68,000/70,000 2.4 times 2,56,200/1,06,400 2.4 times

9. Quick ratio: CA-Stock/CL 84,000/70,000 1.2 times 1,24,600/1,06,400 1.2 times

10. Long-term debt-equity 0 42,000/1,63,800 0.3

Note: EBIT for 2004 and 2005 respectively is: Rs. 21,000 + 0 = Rs. 21,000 and Rs. 23,800 + 2,800 = Rs. 26,600.

Comments. The return on capital employed has fallen from 15% in 2004 to 12.9% in 2005.

The reason lies in the sales to capital ratio which has also fallen in 2005. The increase in

capital employed has not been profitably utilised. The increased capital seems to have been

blocked in stock and debtors.

It will be noticed that the gross margin ratio decreased from 21.3% in 2004 to 20.3% in 2005.

This may be attributed to reduced selling price or granting of trade discounts on bulk orders.

The operating ratio (expense to sales ratio) has fallen in 2004 by 1% and this had a slight

impact on net profit ratio which has increased by 0.1%.

The short-term solvency of the company, reflected by current ratio and quick ratio, is more or

less constant. However, there has been deterioration in the stock turnover and debtors

turnover ratios. This implies the company is holding stocks for longer periods and allowing

longer credit periods to customers.

There is no threat to the long-term solvency of the company. It did not use any long-term debt

in 2004. A debenture loan of Rs. 42,000 is taken in 2005 and is about 0.26 of the equity

funds. By a normal criterion, the company could have a debt equity ratio of 2: 1.

3.6. Summary

Financial ratios can be derived from the balance sheet and the income statement. They are

categorized into five types: liquidity, debt, coverage, profitability, and market value. Each

type has a special use for the financial or security analyst. The usefulness of the ratios

depends on the ingenuity and experience of the financial analyst who employs them. By

themselves, financial ratios are fairly meaningless; they must be analyzed on a comparative

basis.

A comparison of ratios of the same firm over time uncovers leading clues in evaluating

changes and trends in the firm’s financial condition and profitability. The comparison may be

historical and predictive. It may include an analysis of the future based on projected financial

statements. Ratios may also be judged in comparison with those of similar firms in the same

line of business and, when appropriate, with an industry average. From empirical testing in

recent years, it appears that financial ratios can be used successfully to predict certain events,

bankruptcy in particular. With this testing, financial ratio analysis has become more scientific

and objective than ever before, and we can look to further progress in this regard.

3.7. Review questions

1. Explain the need for the financial analysis. How does the use of ratios help in

financial analysis?

2. Is it possible for a firm to have a high current ratio and still find difficulties in paying

its current debt? Explain with illustration.

3. What are the leverage, or capital-structure, ratios? Explain the significance and

limitations of the debt-equity ratio as a measure of the firm’s solvency?

4. Why is it necessary to calculate the profitability ratios in relation to sales? Illustrate

your answer.

5. Explain the calculation and significance of the various measures of rate of return on

investment.

6. Explain the ratios which you, as an analyst, will focus your attention to in the

following cases:

(i) A bank is approached by a company for a loan of Rs. 50 lakh for working-

capital purposes.

(ii) A company requests a financial institution to grant a 10-year loan of Rs. 5

crore.

7. Which of the financial ratios of a company would you most likely refer to in each of

the following situations? Give reasons.

(i) The company asks you to sell material on credit.

(ii) You are thinking of investing Rs. 25,000 in the company’s debentures.

(iii) You are thinking of investing Rs. 25,000 in the company’s shares.

8. “A higher rate of return on capital employed implies that the firm is managed

efficiently.” Is this true in every situation? What or why not?

9. Ratios are generally calculated from historical data. Of what use are they in assessing

the firm’s future financial condition?

10. A firm’s sales are Rs. 4, 50,000, cost of goods sold is Rs. 2, 40,000 and inventory is

Rs. 90,000. What is its turnover? Also, calculate the firm’s gross margin.

11. The only current assets possessed by a firm are: cash Rs. 1, 05,000, inventories Rs. 5,

60,000 and debtors Rs. 4, 20,000. If the current ratio for the firm is 2-to-1, determine

its current liabilities. Also, calculate the firm’s quick ratio.

12. High-Low Plumbing Company sells plumbing fixtures on terms of 2/10 net 30. Its

financial statements over the last 3 years follow:

Amount (Rs.)

2003 2004 2005

Cash 30,000 20,000 5,000

Accounts receivable 200,000 260,000 290,000

Inventory 400,000 480,000 600,000

Net fixed assets 800,000 800,000 800,000

1,430,000 1,560,000 1,695,000

Accounts payable 230,000 300,000 380,000

Accruals 200,000 210,000 225,000

Bank loan, short term 100,000 100,000 140,000

Long-term debt 300,000 300,000 300,000

Common stock 100,000 100,000 100,000

Retained earnings 500,000 550,000 550,000

1,430,000 1,560,000 1,695,500

Sales 4,000,000 4,300,000 3,800,000

Cost of goods sold 3,200,000 3,600,000 3,300,000

Net profit 300,000 200,000 100,000

Using the ratios taken up in the chapter, analyze the company’s financial condition and

performance over the last 3 years. Are there any problems?

13. Assume that a firm has owners’ equity of Rs. 1, 00,000. The ratios for the firm are:

Current debt to total debt 0.40

Total debt to owners’ equity 0.60

Fixed assets to owners’ equity 0.60

Total assets turnover 2 times

Inventory turnover 8 times

Complete the following balance sheet, given the information above.

Liabilities Rs. Assets Rs.

Current debt …….. Cash ……..

Long-term debt …….. Inventory ……..

Total debt …….. Total current assets ……..

Owners’ equity …….. Fixed assets ……..

Total capital …….. Total assets ……..

3.8. Suggested readings

1. Jain and Khan: Management Accounting, TMH, Delhi.

2. Pandey, I.M.: Financial Management, Vikas Publishing House, Delhi.

3. Periasamy, P.: Financial, Cost and Management Accounting, HPH, Delhi.

4. Maheshwari, S.N.: Accounting for Management and Control, Sultan Chand and Sons,

Delhi.

5. Van Horne: Financial Management and Analysis, Pearson Publication, Delhi.

Objectives: After readings this chapter you will be able to: prepare a

statement of changes in working capital; make out a statement of

sources and application of funds; and understand that why non-cash

transactions do not affect funds.

Lesson Structure:

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Meaning & Definitions

4.3 Objectives

4.4 Limitations

4.5 Procedure of Preparing Funds Flow Statement

4.5.1 Statement of Changes in Working Capital

4.5.2 Funds Flow Statement

4.6 Parties Interested in Funds Flow Statement

4.7 Typical Items Which Require Particular Care

4.8 Self Assessment Questions

4.9 Suggested Readings

4.1 INTRODUCTION

The balance sheet and income statement are the traditional basic financial statements

of a business enterprise. Balance sheet gives the summary of the firm’s resources and

obligations at a point of time; profit & loss account reflects the results of the business

Subject: Management Accounting

Subject Code: 105 Author: Ashish Garg

Lesson No: 4

Vetter: Dr B S Bodla

FUNDS FLOW STATEMENT

operations by summarizing revenue and expenses during a period of time. While they

do furnish useful financial data regarding operations, a serious limitation of these

statements is that they do not provide information regarding changes in the firm’s

financial position during particular period of time. They fail to provide the information

regarding causes of changes or the movements of finances between two-time period or

determine the various causes that lead changes in financial position of a concern.

Therefore, an additional statement should be prepared to show the

changes in assets, liabilities and owner’s equity between dates of two

balance sheets. Such a statement referred to as the statement of

changes in financial positions. The statement of changes in financial

position overcomes these limitations of basic financial statements. The

most commonly used forms of the statement of changes in financial

position are called the Funds Flow Statement and the Cash Flow

Statement. Present chapter is oriented on the concept of Funds Flow

Statement

4.2 MEANING & DEFINITIONS

The Funds Flow Statement is combination of three words Funds, Flow and

Statement.

Funds mean working capital. There are mainly two concepts regarding the meaning

of the working capital. First, the broad concept according to which working capital

refers to the gross working capital and represents the amount of funds invested in

current assets. Thus, the gross working capital is the capital investment in total current

assets of the enterprise. Current assets are those assets, which in the ordinary course

of business can be converted onto cash within a short period of time normally one

accounting year. Second, the narrow sense, which termed working capital as the

excess of current asset over current liabilities or that part of the current asset, which is

financed by the long-term source of finance. In case of the Funds Flow Statement we

will use the narrow concept of the working capital.

Flow means movement. It we take the flow of funds it means changes in the position

of the funds due to any transaction. As a result of the transaction the funds may

increase or decrease. The increase in funds is called funds inflow and if funds

decrease, it is called funds outflow. The one important point to be noted here is that

the flow of funds only occurs when a transaction affects on the one hand a non current

account and on the other a current account and vice-versa. If a transaction only two

current account or only two non-current accounts then flow of funds does not take

place because here funds means the difference of the current assets and current

liabilities.

Statement means the written description about some thing or a detail note, which

provide the informations. The Funds Flow Statement means a summary of the sources

and uses of the working capital.

Definitions:

“A statement of sources and application of funds is a technical device designed to

analyze the changes in the financial condition of a business enterprise between two

dates.” Foulke

According to I.C.W.A. “Funds Flow Statement is a statement either

prospective or retrospective, setting out the sources and applications

of the fund of an enterprise. The purpose of the statement is to

indicate clearly the requirement of funds and how they are proposed

to be raised and the efficient utilization and application of the same.”

Anthony defines the Funds Flow Statement as

the sources from which additional funds were derived and the use to

which these sources were put.

Thus, Funds Flow Statement is a statement, which indicates various means by which

the funds have been obtained during a certain period and the ways to which these

funds have been used during that period.

4.3 OBJECTIVES OF FUNDS FLOW STATEMENT

As it is clear form the above discussion the main objective of the Funds Flow

Statement is to know the sources and applications of the funds within a specific time

period. Some other questions are also there which can be sorted out by the help of

Funds Flow Statement. These questions are:

• What happened to the net profit? Where did they go?

• How the higher dividend can be paid in case of shortage of funds?

• What are causes of the shortage of fund in spite of higher profit?

• How the fixed assets have been financed?

• How the obligations are fulfilled?

• How was the increase in working capital financed and how it will be

financed in future?

Importance of funds flow statement is as follows:

1. Provide the information regarding changes in funds position

Funds Flow Statement provides the infomations regarding the funds, from

where they have procured and where they have invested meanwhile two

specific dates.

2. It helps in the formation of future dividend policy

Sometimes a firm has sufficient profit available for distribution as dividend

but yet it may not be advisable to distribute dividend for lack of liquid or cash

resources. In such cases, funds flow statement helps in the formation of a

realistic dividend policy.

3. It helps in proper allocation of resources

The resources of a concern are always limited and it wants to make the best

use of these resources. A projected funds flow statement constructed for the

future helps in making managerial decisions. The firm can plan the

deployment of its resources and allocate them among various applications.

4. It act as future guide

A projected funds flow statement also acts as a guide for future to the

management. The management can come to know the various problems it is

going to face in near future for want of funds. The firm’s future needs of funds

can be projected well in advance and also the timing of these needs. The form

can arrange to finance these needs more effectively and avoid future problems.

5. It helps in appraising the use of working capital

It helps to appraise the performance of a financial manager in utilization of the

working capital and also suggested the right way to use the working capital

efficiently.

6. It helps to the overall credit worthiness of a firm

The financial institutions and banks such as SFI, IDBI, IFCI etc. all ask for

funds flow statement constructed for a number of years before granting loans

to know the creditworthiness and paying capacity of the firm. Hence, a firm

seeking financial assistance firm these institutions has no alternative but to

prepare funds flow statements.

7. It helps to know about the utilization of the sources

It also provides the information to the managers and the

another interested parties that the sources they have collected

or provided where they have allocated.

4.4 LIMITATIONS

The funds flow statement also suffers from some of the limitations, which are as

follows:

1. Prepared from the final statements: The funds flow statement is prepared

with the help of final statements. So all the limitations of the final

statements are inherent in it.

2. Only rearrangement: The funds flow statement is only the rearrangement

of the data provided by the final statements so this is not providing the

actual figure and facts.

3. Past oriented: The funds flow statements provides only the historical

information. They are not guiding about the future.

4. Working capital oriented: It concentrates on the concept of the working

capital and show the position of the working capital in the concern while

changes in cash are more important and relevant for financial

management than the working capital.

5. Periodic in nature: It only reveals the changes in the working capital

position in the concern between to specific dates. It cannot reveal

continuous changes.

6. Not a substitute: It is not a substitute of an income statement or a balance sheet, it

provide only some additional information as regards changes in working capital.

4.5 PROCEDURE FOR PREPARING FUNDS FLOW STATEMENT

Funds flow statement can be prepared by comparing two balance sheets and other information

derived from various accounts as may be needed. While preparing the funds flow statement mainly

two statements are prepared:

1) Schedule of Changes in Working Capital

2) Funds Flow Statement

4.5.1 SCHEDULE OF CHANGING IN WORKING CAPITAL

As earlier stated, here we are using the narrow concept of the working capital it means

working capital means the surplus of current assets over current liabilities. This

statement is made to recognize the changes in the amount of working capital among

the dates of two balance sheets. This statement is prepared by deriving the values of

current assets and current liabilities from the balance sheet. Current assets are those

assets, which can be converted into cash into a short time period in the ordinary

course of the business. Similarly current liability means those obligations, which are

to be fulfilled in a short time period, generally a financial year.

The schedule of changes in working capital can be prepared by comparing the balance

sheets of two dates. Firstly we have to recognize the current assets and current

liabilities of the concern and then compare them between two dates if the current

assets of current year are more than the previous year that is recognized as an increase

in working capital or vice-versa. On the other hand if current liabilities of current year

is more than the previous year it will recognize as decrease in working capital or vice-

versa because Working Capital = Current Assets – Current Liabilities.

Figure 4.1 shows that if two current accounts increases and decreases simultaneously

it puts no effect on the working capital but if any transaction affects a current account

or a non-current account it affects the position of the working capital of concern.

The Performa of the Schedule of Changes in Working Capital is as follows.

Schedule of Changes in Working Capital

Changes in Working Capital

Particulars Previous Year Current Year Increase Decrease

Current Assets:

Cash in Hand

DECREASE INCREASE CURRENT

ACCOUNTS NON-CURRENT

ACCOUNTS

NO IMPACT IMPACT

IMPACT NO IMPACT

CURRENT ACCOUNTS

NON-CURRENT ACCOUNTS

FIG 4.1: EFFECT OF CHANGES IN ACCOUNTS ON WORKING CAPITAL

Cash at Bank

Sundry Debtors

Temporary Investment

Stock/Inventories

Prepaid Expenses

Accrued Income

Total Current Assets

Current Liabilities:

Bills Payable

Sundry Creditors

Outstanding Expenses

Bank Overdraft

Short-term Advances

Dividend Payable

Proposed Dividend*

Provision for Taxation*

Total Current Liabilities

Working Capital (CA-CL)

Net Increase/Decrease

Working Capital

* Proposed dividend and Provision for taxation may be considered as

current liabilities or long-term liabilities. If they are considered as current

liabilities then these will be shown in Schedule of changing in working

capital.

Illustration 4.1: Prepare a Statement of change in working capital from the

following Balance Sheet of Rohan Steel Co.

Balance Sheet of Rohan Steel Ltd. as on 31st Dec.

Liabilities 2003 2004 Assets 003 2004

Creditors 15,000 18,000 Cash 11,200 8,500

Bills Payable 10,000 7,500 Debtors 21,300 23,500

Loan on Mortgage 40,000 40,000 Stock 35,000 30,600

Capital 50,000 45,000 Sinking Find Investment 16,000 12,000

Sinking Fund 16,000 12,000 Land 10,000 10,000

Profit & Loss a/c 13,950 16,275 Building 60,000 60,000

Provision for Doubtful Debts 1,350 1,425 Furniture & Fixture 8,000 7,000

Depreciation Fund 15200 11400

1,61,500 1,51,600 1,61,500 1,51,600

Solution:

Schedule in Changes in Working Capital

2003 2004 Changes in Working

Increase Decrease

Current Assets:

Cash 11,200 8,500 2,700

Debtors less provision 19,950 22,075 2,125

Stock 35,000 30,600 4,400

Total 66,150 61,175

Current Liabilities

Creditors 15,000 18,000 3,000

Bills Payable 10,000 7,500 2,500

Total 25,000 25,500 10,100 4,625

Working Capital (CA-CL) 41,150 35,675

Increase in Working Capital 5,475 5,475

41,150 41,150 10,100 10,100

4.5.2 FUNDS FLOW STATEMENT

Funds flow statement is a statement, which shows the sources and application of the funds during

a particular time period. This statement shows that during that period from where the funds

have been procured and where have been invested. This statement can be prepared in two forms:

1) Report Form

2) T Form or Account Form

Specimens of the both of the form are as follows:

Specimen of T Form of Funds Flow Statement (for the year ended ……..)

Sources of Funds

Amount

Applications of Funds

Amo

unt

Funds from operations Funds Lost in Operations

Issue of Share Capital Redemption of Preference Share

Raising of Long term Loans Redemption of Debentures

Receipts from partly paid shares Repayment of Long-term loan

Sales of non-current assets Purchase of non-current assets

Non-trading receipts Non-trading payments

Sale of Investment Payment of Dividend*

Decrease in working capital Payment of Tax*

Increase in working capital

*Note Payment of dividend and tax will appear as an application of the funds only when

these items are considered as non-current item. If no thing is specified in question then that

depends on the discretion of the student how to treat these items.

Specimen of Report Form of Funds Flow Statement

Sources of Funds Amount

Funds from operations

Issue of Share Capital

Raising of Long term Loans

Receipts from partly paid shares

Sales of non-current assets

Non-trading receipts

Sale of Investment

Decrease in working capital

Total

Applications of Funds

Funds Lost in Operations

Redemption of Preference Share

Redemption of Debentures

Repayment of Long-term loan

Purchase of non-current assets

Non-trading payments

Payment of Dividend

Payment of Tax

Increase in working capital

Total

Let us put a light on the items of the Funds Flow Statement.

Sources of the Funds

Under this heading we will show all the sources of the funds from where the funds are

procured. These sources can be classified in two categories.

1) Internal Source

2) External Source

1.Internal Source: Funds from Operations is only single internal source of funds. Funds

from operations means the funds obtained by the general business of the organization. It is

equal to the difference of revenue obtained by the sale of goods and the total cost of

manufacturing them. As example if a businessman is selling 1000 units of a good @ Rs. 7 per

unit and the direct and indirect expenses incurred on the production of a unit is Rs. 5 per unit.

Then funds from operations will be 1000 X 7 – 1000 X 5 = Rs. 2000. During the calculation

of funds from operations following things should be considered.

The profit or loss shown by the Profit & Loss a/c is not always equal to the funds from

operations because in the some non-cash items are included in the Profit & Loss a/c, which

does not affect the working capital such as Depreciation and amortization or written off

Preliminary Expenses, Discount on Debentures, goodwill, Patent Rights, Advertisement

Expenses, Underwriting Commission etc. All the expenses, which do not affect the position

of the funds, should be added back in the profit.

With the non cash expenses some exceptional items are also there which are not concerning

with the operations of the business such as profit or loss arise from the sale of fixed assets

and investment and non business incomes such as dividend received, interest received, rent

received, refund of income tax and appreciation in the value of fixed assets etc. These items

should be deducted from the profit to calculate the funds from operations. There are two

methods to prepare the funds from operations, which are as follows:

A) The First method is to proceed from the figure of net profit or net loss as arrived at

from the profit and loss account already prepared. Funds from operations by this

method can be calculated as below.

Calculations if Funds from Operations

Closing balance of P &L A/c or Retained Earning

Add: Non fund and Non operating items which have been already debited

in P &L A/c

1) Depreciation and Depletion

2) Amortization of fictitious or intangible assets such as:

i) Goodwill

ii) Patents

iii) Trade Mark

iv) Preliminary Exp.

v) Discount in Issue of Shares Etc.

3) Appropriation of Retained Earning such as:

i) Transfer to General Reserve

ii) Dividend Equalization Fund

iii) Transfer to Sinking Fund

iv) Contingency Reserve etc.

4) Loss on Sale of any Non Current assets such as:

i) Loss of sale of Land and Building

)

Loss of sale of Machinery

B) The second method is to prepare the Profit & Loss account afresh by taking into

consideration only funds and operational items, which involves funds and are related to

the normal operations of the business. The balancing figure in this case will be either

funds from operation or funds lost in operations depending upon whether income or credit

side of profit and loss a/c exceeds the expenses or debit side of the profit and loss a/c or

vice-versa.

Funds from operations can also be calculated by preparing Adjusted Profit & Loss A/c

Adjusted Profit and Loss Account

Particulars Amount Particulars Amount

To Depreciation & Depletion By Opening Balance of P & L A/c

To Appropriation of retained earnings By Transfer from excess provisions

To Loss on sale of fixed assets By Appreciation in the value of fixed assets

To Dividend By Dividend received

To Proposed Dividend By Profit on the sale of fixed assets

To Provision for Taxation By Funds from Operations

To Closing Balance of P & L A/c

To Funds lost in Operations (B/F)

Let us take an example of the funds from operations.

Illustration 4.2: Following are Balance Sheet of a Limited Co. as on 31st Dec.2003 and

2004. Balance Sheet

Liabilities 2003 2004 Assets 2003 2004

Share Capital 61,000 74,000 Plant 45,000 43,000

Reserves 13,000 15,500 Building 50,950 48,000

Creditors 28,000 24,000 Stock 20,500 18,800

Bank Overdraft 18,000 Debtors 20,000 16,200

Provision for Taxation 8,000 8,500 Cash 150 180

Profit & Loss A/c 8,600 8,800 Cash at Bank 2,100

Goodwill 2,520

1,36,600 1,30,800 1,36,600 1,30,800

Taking into account the following information, calculate funds from operations: -

1) Interim Dividend was paid Rs.2,000.

2) Dividend proposed for Rs. 4,000.

3) Provision of Rs.9,000 was made for Income Tax.

4) Rs. 2000 was written off as depreciation on Plant and Rs.2,950 on Building.

5) Profit on Sale of Fixed Investment Rs. 1,500.

Solution:

Calculation of net profit for 2003

Rs. Rs.

Credit balance of P & L A/c on 31Dec. 2003 8,800

Less: Credit Balance of P& LA/c on 31Dec.2002 8,600

200

Add:

Interim Dividend 2,000

Proposed Dividend 4,000

Provision made for Income Tax 9,000

Provision Made for Reserve 2,500 17,500

Net Profit During the Year 17,700

Calculation of Funds From Operations

Net Profit During the Year 17,700

Add:

Depreciation on Building 2,950

Depreciation on Plant 2,000 4,950

22,650

Less:

Profit on sale of Fixed Investment 1,500

Profit from Business Operations 21,150

The alternative method for calculation of Funds from operations is as follows:

Adjusted Profit and Loss A/c

To Interim Dividend 2,000 By Opening Balance 8,600

To Dividend Proposed 4,000 By Profit on Sale of Investment 1,500

To Provision for Income Tax 9,000 By Profit From Business Operations 21,150

To Provision for Reserve 2,500 (Balancing Figure)

To Plant A/c(Depreciation) 2,000

To Building A/c (Depreciation) 2,950

To Closing Balance 8,800

31,250 31,250

2. External Source: These sources include:

i) Issue of Share Capital: One of the source of collection of the funds is issuance

of the new share that may be preference share issue or equity share issue. Not only

the new issue but also the call made on the partly paid share is also considered as

the source of the funds because it generates inflow of funds. The premium charged

on the time of issue is also considered, as inflow of funds and similarly the

adjustment for the discount provided on the time of issue should be made. If the

shares are issued in respect of another consideration rather than cash then it will

not be considered as a source of funds.

ii) Issue of Debenture and Raising of Loans: Just like the shares issue of debenture

and raising of loans are also a source of funds and the same adjustment regarding

the premium and discount should be made as in case of the issuance of the share.

iii) Sale of the Fixed Assets and Long-term Investments: One can increase the

funds in the concern by selling their investment they have made in different

alternatives and in fixed assets just like plant, machinery, building etc. but one

thing that should be remembered that if the assets are exchanged with rather than

cash that will not a source of funds.

iv) Non-Trading Receipts: Any non-trading receipts just as rent received, interest

received, dividend received and refund of tax or any another non-operating

income generates the inflow of cash will be treated as source of funds.

v) Decrease in Working Capital: If the working capital decreases in comparison of

previous year in the release of funds from the working capital so that will be

termed as source of funds.

Application or Uses of Funds

The other side of the funds flow statement is application of funds that side shows how the

funds procured from different sources are allocated or used. There may be following uses

or applications of the funds:

1) Funds lost in Operations: Sometimes the result of trading in a certain year is a loss

and some funds are lost during that trading period. Such loss of funds means outflow

of funds so that item if treated as an application of funds.

2) Redemption of the Preference Share Capital: A company can’t redeem its equity

share within its life time but can redeem their preference share as the result of

redemption of preference share an outflow of funds takes place. So the redemption of

the shares is written in the application side of the funds flow statement. One thing

should be remembered is that the premium provided on the redemption will also

considered as an application.

3) Repayment of Loans & Redemption of Debentures: As share the repayment of

loans and redemption of debenture also leads a outflow of cash so these items are also

treated as application of the funds.

4) Purchase of any Non-current or Fixed Asset: If the businessman purchases any

fixed asset or making investment for the long time period that will also generate a

outflow of funds and treated as an application of funds. But if the fixed asset is

purchased in exchange of any other consideration rather than cash that will not treated

as application of funds.

5) Payment of Dividend & Tax: Payment of dividend and tax are also applications if

funds. It is the actual payment of dividend and tax, which should be taken as an

outflow of funds and not the mere declaration of the dividend or creation of a

provision for taxation.

6) Any other Non-trading Payment: Any payment or expenses not related to the

trading operations of the business amounts to outflow and is taken as an application of

funds. The examples could be drawing in case of sole trader or partnership firm, loss

of cash.

4.6 PARTIES INTERESTED IN FUND FLOW STATEMENT

Funds flow statement is useful for different parties interested in the

business. They include owner or shareholder, financial institutions,

employees etc.

1. Owners or Shareholders: Owners and Shareholders are interested in ascertaining the

financial position of the concern. Funds flow statement helps them to find out:

i) Whether the business has enough funds to pay dividend at reasonable rates?

ii) Whether the business is in a position to meet its present liabilities in time?

iii) Whether the management is making effective use of funds at their disposal?

2. Financial Institutions: The financial institutions are interested in the

safety of their funds. A careful analysis of the fund flow statement will

help them in ascertaining:

i) Overall creditworthiness of the enterprise.

ii) The resources from which the enterprise will be in a position to

make repayments of the loans taken.

3. Employees: The employees have also a stake in the business. Their

growth and security of job depends upon the profitability of the firm

which is directly related to effective utilisation of the funds by the

enterprise. The employees can ascertain firm the funds flow statement

regarding effective use of funds by the management during a particular

period. The funds should be managed in a manner that the business is in

a position to make payment of salaries to the employees in the time

beside meeting other business costs.

It is a useful practice in business firms to prepare projected funds flow

statement for a number of years to predict the future availability of the

funds and their utilization. All this will help the firm in better planning of

its resources and their utilizations.

4.7 SOME TYPICAL ITEMS WHICH REQUIRE PARTICULAR CARE

The following items require particular care while preparing a funds flow

statement.

1. Digging out the hidden information: While preparing a funds flow

statement one has to analyze the given balance sheet. Items relating

to current account to be shown in the schedule of change in working

capital. But the non-current items have to be further analyzed to fund

out the hidden information in regard to sale or purchased of non

current assets, issue or redemption of share capital, raising or

repayment of long-term loans, transfer to reserves and provisions etc.

the hidden information can be digged out either by preparing working

notes in the statement form or preparing concerned accounts of non-

current assets and non-current liabilities. Both of these methods have

been clarified by following illustration:

Illustration 4.3 The following is the Balance Sheet of Anil Corporations Ltd.

as on 31st Dec. 2003 and 2004. You are required to prepare a Schedule of

Changes in Working Capital and a Funds Flow Statement.

Balance Sheet of Anil Corporation Ltd.

Liabilities 2003 2004 Assets 2003 2004

Share Capital (Paid up): Land & Buildings 60,000 50,000

11% Cumulative Preference Share 30,000 Plant and Machinery 30,000 50,000

Equity Shares 1,10,000 1,20,000Sundry Debtors 40,000 48,000

General Reserve 4,000 4,000 Stock 60,000 70,000

Profit & Loss A/c 2,000 2,400 Bank 2,400 7,000

9% Debentures 12,000 14,000 Cash 600 1,000

Provision for Taxation 6,000 8,400

Proposed Dividend 10,000 11,600

Current Liabilities 49,000 35,600

1,93,000 2,26,000 1,93,000 2,26,000

Solution:

Schedule of Changes in Working Capital

Particulars 2003 2004 Increase Decrease

Current Assets:

Sundry Debtors 40,000 48,000 8,000

Stock 60,000 70,000 10,000

Bank 2,400 7,000 4,600

Cash 600 1,000 400

1,03,000 1,26,000

Current Liabilities:

Current Liabilities 49,000 35,600 13,400

49,000 35,600

Working Capital (CA-CL) 54,000 90,400

Net increase in Working Capital 36,400 36,400

90,400 90,400 36,400 36,400

Funds Flow Statement

Sources Rs. Applications Rs.

Issue of the Preference Shares 30,000 Purchase of Plant and Machinery 20,000

Issue of the Equity Shares 10,000 Provision for Taxation* 6,000

Issue of the Debentures 2,000 Proposed Dividend** 10,000

Sale of the Land and Buildings 10,000 Net Increase in Working Capital 36,400

Funds from Operations 20,400

72,400 72,400

* For 2003 assumed to be paid

** For 2003 assumed to be paid

Working Notes:

1. As current Liabilities are separately given, provision for taxation and proposed

dividend has not been taken as current liabilities.

2. Calculations of Issue of Preference Shares:

Preference share in beginning of 2004 --------

Preference share raised during the year 2004 30,000

Preference share at the end of 2004 30,000

3. Calculation of Issue of Equity Share:

Equity Share Capital In the beginning of 2004 1,10,000

Equity Share Capital at the end of 2004 1,20,000

Equity Share Capital issued during the year 2004 10,000

4. Issue of Debenture:

9% Debenture in the beginning of 2004 12,000

9% Debenture at the end of the year 2004 14,000

9% Debenture issued during the year 2004 2,000

5.Provision for taxation and proposed dividend for 2003 have been presumed

to be paid in 2004.

6.Calculations of Sale of Land and Buildings:

Opening Balance of Land & Building in 2004 60,000

Closing Balance of Land & Building in 2004 50,000

Land and Building purchased during the year 2004 10,000

7.Purchase of Plant & Machinery:

Opening Balance in 2004 30,000

Closing Balance in 2004 50,000

Purchased during the year 20,000

8.Calculation of Funds from Operations:

Closing Balance of P & L A/c in 2004 2,400

Add: Non-fund and Non-operating items

Debited to P & L A/c:

Provision for taxation 8,400

Proposed Dividend 11,600

22,400

Less: Opening Balance of P & L A/c 2,000

Funds from Operations 20,400

2. Investments: The treatment of the investment depends on the nature of the

investment. If the investment is made in short term investment instrument then it is

considered as current assets and shown in the schedule of changing in working

capital. Or if the investment is made in long term instrument then the difference

between opening and closing balance is treated as purchase or sale of investment and

will be shown in the funds flow statement and appropriate adjustment regarding the

profit or loss on sale of investment is made during the calculation of funds from

operations.

3. Provision for Taxation: If the provision for taxation is treated as current liability

then it should be shown in the schedule of changing in working capital. If it treated, as

non-current liability then opening balance will be shown in the funds flow statement

by assuming it as paid for last year and closing balance will be added back in the

profit if it is debited earlier in P & L A/c for calculation of Funds from Operations.

4. Proposed Dividend: Proposed dividend also can be treated in two ways as same as

provision for taxation. And adjustment will be same as in the case of provision for

taxation.

5. Interim Dividend: The expression interim dividend denotes a dividend paid to the

members of the company during a financial year, before the finalization of annual

accounts. The dividend paid or declared in between the two annual general meeting

should be added back while calculating funds from operations. However, if the figure

of profit is taken prior to the debit of interim dividend this adjustment is nor required.

The interim dividend is also an application of funds and has to appear on the

applications side of funds flow statement.

6. Provision against Current Assets: The provision against the current assets either

deducted from their respective opening and closing balances before entering in the

schedule of changes in working capital or the difference between the opening and

closing balance if excess provision has been created may be treated as appropriation

of profit and should be added back while calculating the funds from operations. The

amount of excess provision will not be shown in the schedule of changes in working

capital.

7. Depreciation: depreciation means decrease in the value of an asset due to wear and

tear, lapse of time, obsolesce and accident. Depreciation is taken as an operating

expense while calculating operating profit. When we make the entry of depreciation

profit and loss account is debited while fixed asset account is credited with the

amount of depreciation. Since, both the accounts are non-current accounts so

depreciation is treated as a non-fund item. It is neither a source nor a application of

funds so it is added back to operating profit to find out funds from operations.

Illustration 4.4: The following schedule shows the balance sheets in

condensed form of Bharat Carbons Limited at the beginning and end

of the year:

Particulars 1/1/2002 31-12-2002

Cash 50,409 40,535

Sundry Debtors 77,180 73,150

Temporary Investment 1,10,500 84,000

Prepaid Expenses 1,210 1,155

Inventories 92,154 1,05,538

Surrender Value of Life Policies 4,607 5,353

Land 25,000 25,000

Other Fixed Assets(Including Machinery) 1,47,778 1,82,782

Debenture Discount 4,305 2,867

5,13,143 5,20,380

Sundry Creditors 1,03,087 95,656

Outstanding Expenses 12,707 21,663

4% Mortgage Debentures 82,000 68,500

Accumulated Depreciation 96,618 81,633

Allowance for Inventory Loss 2,000 8,500

Reserve for Contingency 1,06,731 1,34,178

Surplus in P/L A/c 10,000 10,250

Equity Share Capital 1,00,000 1,00,000

5,13,143 5,20,380

Additional Information:

1. Net profit for the year 2002 as P/L A/c is Rs. 49,097.

2. 10% cash dividend was paid during the year.

3. The premium on life policies Rs. 2,773 was paid during the year, which Rs. 1,627 has

been written off from P/L A/c.

4. New machinery was purchased for Rs. 31,365 and machinery costing Rs. 32,625 was

sold during the year. Depreciation on machinery sold had accumulated to Rs. 29,105

at the date of the sale. It was sold as scrap for Rs. 1,500.

5. The Mortgage debentures mature at the rate of Rs. 5,000 per year. In addition to the

above The Company purchased and retired Rs. 8,500 of the debentures at Rs. 103.

Both the premium on retirement and the applicable discount were charged to P/L A/c.

6. The allowance for inventory loss was credited by a charge to expenses in each year to

provide for obsolete items.

7. A debit to reserve for contingencies of Rs. 11,400 was made during the year. This

was in respect of settlement of past tax liability.

You are required to prepare a statement showing the sources and applications of funds for the

year 2002.

Solution:

Statement of Changes in Working Capital

Particulars 1/1/2002 31/12/02 Increase Decrease

Current Assets:

Cash 50,409 40,535

9,874

Sundry Debtors 77,180 73,150 4,030

Temporary Investment 1,10,500 84,000 26,500

Prepaid Expenses 1,210 1,155 55

Inventories 92,154 1,05,538 13,384

3,31,453 5,20,380

Current Liabilities:

Sundry Creditors 1,03,087 95,656 7,431

Outstanding Expenses 12,707 21,663 8,956

Allowance for Inventory Loss 2,000 8,500 6,500

1,17,794 1,25,819

Working Capital 2,13,659 1,78,559

Net Decrease in W.C. 35,100 35,100

2,13,659 2,13,659 59,915 59,915

Note :

1) Surrender value of the life insurance policy is not considered as a current asset.

2) Allowance for inventory loss which is a provision against the current asset has been treated

as a current liability like provision for doubtful debts not to be an appropriation of profits.

Statement of Sources and Applications of Funds for the year ended 31/12/02

Sources Rs. Applications Rs.

Funds from Operation 68,957 Redemption of debentures 13,755

Sale of Machinery as scrap 1,500 Purchase of machinery 31,365

Net Decrease in W.C. 35,100 Purchase of other fixed assets 36,264

Payment of life insurance premium 2,773

Payment of Tax 11,400

Payment if Dividend 10,000

1,05,557 1,05,557

Working Notes:

4% Mortgage Debentures A/c

To Cash 5,000 By Balance b/d 82,000

To cash 8,755 By Adjusted P/L A/c(Premium) 255

To Balance c/d 68,500

82,255 82,255

Other Fixed Assets (including machinery)

To Balance b/d 1,47,778By Accumulated Depreciation 20,105

To Cash(Purchase) 31,365 By Cash (Sale) 1,500

To Cash(Purchase)balancing figure 36,264 By Adjusted P/L A/c(loss) 2,020

BY Balance c/d 1,82,782

2,15,407 2,15,407

Accumulated Depreciation A/c

To Other Fixed Assets A/c 29,105By Balance b/d 96,618

To Balance c/d 81,633By Adjusted P/L A/c(b/f) 14,120

1,10,738 1,10,738

Reserve for Contingency A/c

To Tax Paid 29,105 By Balance b/d 1,06,731

To Balance c/d 1,34,178By Adjusted P/L A/c(b/f) 28,847

1,45,578 1,45,578

Debenture Discount A/c

To Balance b/d 4,305 By Adjusted P/L A/c(b/f) 1,438

By Balance c/d 2,867

4,305 4,305

Life Policy A/c

To Balance b/d 4,607 By Adjusted P/L A/c 1,627

To Cash (Premium Paid) 2,773 By Adjusted P/L A/c 400

( Rs 1,627 given to be transferred to

P/L A/c and Rs.400 B/F being excess

of book value over surrender value)

By Balance c/d 5,353

7,380 7,380

Adjusted Profit & Loss A/c

To 4% Mortgage debenture a/c By Balance b/d 10,000

Premium on redemption 255 By Funds From Operation 68,957

To Accumulated Dep. A/c 14,120

To Other Fixed Assets A/c- loss on sale 2,020

To Reserve for Contingency A/c 38,847

To Debenture Discount A/c 1,438

To Dividend 10,000

To Life Insurance Policy 2,027

To Balance c/d 10,250

78,957 78,957

Note: If allowance for Inventory Loss is not treated as a currently liability net decrease in

working capital shall be Rs. 28,600.

Illustration 4.5: From the following Comparative Balance Sheet and

Income Statement of ABC Ltd. prepare a Statement of Changes in

Financial Position:

ABC Limited

COMPARATIVE BALANCE SHEET

For the year ended 31st Dec. 2003 and 2004

Particular 2003 2004

Current Assets:

Cash 70,000 50,000

Debtors 40,000 45,000

Stock 1,25,000 90,000

Total Current assets 2,35,000 1,85,000

Fixed Asset:

Land and Building 1,50,000 1,00,000

Plant and Machinery 22,000 2,00,000

Less: Accumulated Depreciation 82,000 80,000

Total Fixed Assets 2,88,000 2,20,000

Total Assets 5,23,000 4,05,000

Current Liabilities:

Creditors 25,000 30,000

Salaries Payable 15,000 10,000

Provision for tax 50,000 60,000

Provision for Dividend 40,000 40,000

Total Current Liabilities 1,30,000 1,40,000

Long Term Liabilities:

Bank Loan 23,000 15,000

Debentures 1,20,000 1,50,000

Total Long term Liabilities 1,43,000 1,65,000

Total Liabilities 2,73,000 3,05,000

Owner's Equity:

Share Capital 175,000 75,000

Share Premium 12,500 7,500

Reserve and surplus 62,500 17,500

Total Equities 2,50,000 1,00,000

5,23,000 4,05,000

ABC Limited

Income Statement

For the year ended 31st Dec. 2004

Particulars Rs. Rs.

Sales 5,00,000

Less: Cost of Goods Sold 2,10,000

Gross Profit 2,90,000

Less: Operating Expenses:

Office and Administration Exp. 45,000

Selling and Distribution Exp. 25,000

Interest 12,000

Depreciation 22,000 1,04,000

Operating Profit 1,86,000

Add: Gain on sale of Plant 6,000

Total Profit 1,92,000

Less: Income Tax 85,000

Net Profit 1,07,000

Additional Information:

1) During the year plant Rs. 50,000 (accumulated depreciation Rs. 20,000) was sold

2) The debentures of Rs. 30,000 were converted into share capital at per.

3) The company declared a cash dividend of Rs.40, 000 and a stock dividend of Rs.

20,000 for the year.

4) The company issued 5,000 additional shares, par value Rs.10 per share, at premium of

10% during the year.

Solution:

Schedule of Changes in Working Capital

Particulars 2003 2004 Increase Decrease

Current Assets:

Cash 50,000 70,000 20,000

Debtors 45,000 40,000 5,000

Stock 90,000 1,25,000 35,000

Total Current assets 1,85,000 2,35,000

Current Liabilities:

Creditors 30000 25000 5,000

Salaries Payable 10000 15000 5,000

Provision for tax 60000 50000 10,000

Provision for Dividend 40000 40000

Total Current Liabilities 1,40,000 1,30,000

Working Capital 45,000 1,05,000 70,000 10,000

Increase in Working Capital 60,000 60,000

Total 1,05,000 1,05,000 70,000 70,000

Funds Flow Statement

Sources:

Funds from Operations 1,21,000

Sales of plant 36,000

Loan from bank 8,000

Issue of share 55,000

2,20,000

Applications:

Purchase of land & Building 50,000

Purchase of Plant & Machinery 70,000

Payment of Dividend 40,000

Increase in Working capital 60,000

2,20,000

Note: Stock dividend and debenture converted into share do not find place in a funds flow

statement because these items are not affecting the position of the funds in the concern.

Working Notes: Adjusted Reserve and Surplus A/c

To proposed Dividend 60,000 By Balance b/d 17,500

To accumulated Depreciation 22,000 By Plant and Machinery 6,000

To Balance b/d 62,500 (Profit on Sale)

By Funds from Operations 1,21,000

1,44,500 1,44,500

Plant and Machinery A/c

To Balance b/d 2,00,000By Accumulated Depreciation 20,000

To Adjusted Reserve and Surplus A/c 6,000 By Cash (Sale) 36,000

To Cash (Purchase - B/F) 70,000 By Balance c/d 2,20,000

2,76,000 2,76,000

Accumulated Depreciation A/c

To Plant A/c 20,000 By Balance b/d 80,000

To Balance c/d 82,000 To Adjusted Reserve and Surplus A/c 22,000

(Depreciation)

1,02,000 1,02,000

Further practice can be done with the help of textbooks.

4.8 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What is the Funds Flow Statement? Examine its managerial uses.

2. “Funds flow statement represents a stock to flow linkage”, Justify.

3. Discuss the Procedure of making a Funds Flow Statement.

4. What are the Causes for Change in Working Capital? Discuss.

5. Briefly discuss the meaning, importance and objectives of the Funds Flow

Statement.

6. From the following Balance Sheet of a company you are required to prepare 1) a

statement showing changes in working capital 2) a statement of sources and

applications of the funds.

Balance Sheet

Particular Jan.2003 Jan.2004

Cash 40,000 44,400

Account Receivable 10,000 20,700

Inventories 15,000 15,000

Land 4,000 4,000

Building 20,000 16,000

Equipment 15,000 17,000

Accumulated Depreciation -5000 -2,800

Patents 1,000 900

1,00,000 1,15,200

Current Liabilities 30000 32,000

Bonds Payable 22,000 22,000

Bonds Payable Discount -2,000 -1,800

Capital Stock 35,000 43,500

Retained Earnings 15,000 19,500

1,00,000 1,15,200

Additional Information:

1. Income for the period Rs.10,000

2. A building that cost Rs.4000 and which had a book value of Rs.1000 was sold

for Rs. 1400.

3. The depreciation charge for the period was Rs. 800.

4. There was Rs. 5000 issue of common stock.

5. Cash Dividend Rs. 2000 and a Rs. 3500 stock dividend were declared.

[Ans. Net Increase in working capital: Rs. 13,100 , Source of Funds: Rs. 17,100,

Application of funds: Rs. 4,000 Funds From Operations: Rs. 10,700]

7. A balance Sheet of retained earning of X Ltd. is given below:

Balance of retained earning, 1st Jan. 2003 3,25,600

Add: Net Profit after tax. 6,48,480

Tax Refund 25,470

9,99,550

Less: Loss on sale of Plant & Machinery 14,460

Goodwill written off 95,370

Dividend Paid 4,70,350

5,80,180

Balance of Retained Earning, 31st Dec.2003 4,19,370

Additional Information:

1. Plant and Machinery having a written off value of Rs.54,360 was sold on

Oct. 200.

2. Depreciation of Rs.68,250 has been deducted while arriving at net profit for

the year.

3. Plant and Machinery was purchased during the year at a cost of Rs. 1,60,000

but the payment was made in the form of 8% debentures of Rs. 100 Each for

the same.

4. Rs. 72,800 dentures have been redeemed during year 2003.

You are required to prepare a statement of Sources and Applications of the funds for

the Year ended on 31st Dec.2003.

[Ans. Funds from operations Rs. 7,16,730 Funds flow statement. Rs.7,82,100

increase in the working capital Rs.2,38,950]

8. The following is the Balance Sheet of Sri Krishna Limited:

As on As on As on As on

31/3/2002 Liabilities 31/3/2003 31/3/2002 Assets 31/3/2003

(in Lakhs) (in Lakhs) (in Lakhs) (in Lakhs)

Share capital: 15 Plant 18.00

100.00 Equity Shares of Rs. 100

Each 15.00 6.00 Stock 3.00

9% redeemable preference 15.00 Debtors 10.00

Share of Rs. 100 each Rs.50 1.00 Cash Balance 1.00

5.00 Called up Nil 1.00 Misc. Expenditure 4.00

0.25 Share Premium Nil

Nil Capital Redemption Reserve 5.00

10.00 General Reserve 7.00

2.75 Profit & Loss A/c 3.00

10.00 Other Liabilities 6.00

38.00 36.00 38.00 36.00

Further information furnished:

1. The company declared a dividend of 20% to equity share on 30/6/2002.

2. The company issued notice to preference share for redemption at a premium

of 5% on 1/7/2002 and the entire proceeding were completed before

15/8/2002/in accordance with the law after making a call of Rs. 50 per share,

so as to make shares fully paid.

3. The company provided depreciation at 10% on the closing of Plant. During

the year one plant of book value Rs. 1,00,000 was sold at loss of Rs. 25,000.

4. There was no change in the schedule of debtors as on 31/3/2002. However,

as the company felt that certain debtors were doubtful of recovery, a

provision was made in the account.

5. Miscellaneous expenditure included Es.5 lakh shares issue and other

expenses paid during the year.

Prepare funds flow statement for the year ended 31/3/2003.

[ Ans. Net decrease in working capital. Rs. 4 lakh, funds flow statement

Rs.24,06,250 funds from operations. Rs. 9,31,250]

4.9 SUGGESTED READINGS

1. Pandey, I.M., Management Accounting, Vikas Publishing House, N.Delhi

2. Horngren & Sundem, Introduction to Management Accounting, Prentice Hall of

India, N.Delhi.

3. Anthony R.N. and Reece J.S., Management Accounting Principles, 6th ed.,

Homewood, Illinois, Richard D.Irwin, 1995.

4. Hansen & Mowen, Management Accounting, Thomson Learning, Bombay.

5. Anthony Robert and Hawkins David, Accounting: Text & Cases, McGraw Hill,

1999

6. Mittal, S.N., Management Accounting and Financial Management, Shree Mahavir

Book Depot, N.Delhi.

7. Jain, S.P and Narang, K.L., Advanced Cost Accounting, Kalyani Publishers,

Ludhiana.

8. Gupta, R.L., and Radha Swamy, M, Advanced Accounting, Sultan chand & Sons,

N.Delhi.

9. Khan, M.Y. and Jain, P.K., Management Accounting, TMH, N.Delhi.

Objectives: After reading this chapter you will be able to: prepare a statement of changes

in cash; make out a statement of sources and applications of cash; and

understand that why after a high profit cash position become worst.

Lesson Structure:

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Meaning

5.3 Purpose and Uses

5.4 Structure of Cash Flow Statement

5.5 Treatment of Some Typical Items

5.6 Format of Cash Flow Statement

5.7 Procedure for preparing Cash Flow Statement

5.8 Limitations of Cash Flow Statement

5.9 Comparison between Cash Flow Statement and Funds Flow Statement

5.10 Self-Assessment Questions

5.11 Suggested Reading

Subject: Management Accounting

Subject Code: 105 Author: Ashish Garg

Lesson No: 5 Vetter: Dr. B.S.Bodla

CASH FLOW STATEMENT

100

5.1 INTRODUCTION

The statement of changes in financial position based on working

capital is of immense use in long-range financial planning. The long-

term financing and investment activities are specifically portrayed.

The net working capital requirements are shown as residual figures.

However, the working capital concept may conceal or exclude too

much. It treats increases in inventories and account receivable as

equaling to an increase in bank overdraft. This is not a correct

treatment. In fact, accrued expenses like wages and salaries may

become payable in next 10 days or so: sundry creditor’s bills may fall

due for payment during the next one month, where as bank overdraft

may be for a longer period of, say three months or even more.

Similarly, inventories and account receivables undergo a

transformation before they become money assets. It is possible that

there is sufficient net working capital as revealed by the statement of

changes in financial position, and yet the firm may be unable to meet

its current liabilities as and when they fall due. It may be due to a

sizeable piling up of inventories and an increase in debtors. Caused by

a slow-down in collections. The firm’s failure to meet its short-term

commitments, in spite of its sound long-range financial position and

adequate profitability, may plunge it to technical insolvency.

Therefore, in making plans for the more immediate future, the

management is vitally concerned with a statement of cash flow, which

provides more detailed information. Such a statement is useful for

the management to assess its ability to meet obligation to trade

creditors, to pay bank loans, to pay interest to debenture-holders and

dividends to its shareholders. Furthermore, the projected cash flow

statement prepared month wise or so can be useful in presenting

information of excess cash in some months and shortage of cash in

others. By making available such information in advance the

statement of cash flow enables the management revise its plan. So

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avoid the technical insolvency and to get aware about the short-term

liquidity position management have to make Cash Flow Statement.

5.2 MEANING OF THE CASH FLOW STATEMENT

Cash Flow Statement is a statement that describes the inflow

(sources) and outflow (applications) of cash and cash equivalent in an

enterprise during a specified period of time. Such a statement

enumerates net effect of the various business transactions on cash

and its equivalent and takes into account receipts and disbursement

of cash. Cash flow statement summaries the causes of changes in

cash position of a business enterprise between dates of two balance

sheets. According to AS-3 (revised), an enterprise should prepare a

cash flow statement and should present it for each period for which

financial statements are prepared. The term cash, cash equivalent and

cash flow are used in the statement with the following meanings:

Cash comprises cash on hand and demand deposit with bank.

Cash Equivalents are short term highly liquid investments that are

readily convertible into known amounts of cash and which are subject

to an insignificant risk of changes in value. Cash equivalent are held

for the purpose of meeting short term cash commitments rather than

for investment or other purposes. An investment normally qualifies as

a cash equivalent only when it has a short-maturity, of say, three

months or less from the date of acquisitions.

Cash flow means movement of funds that may be toward outside

called outflow of cash and that may be from outside to inside business

called inflow of cash. In another words flow of cash is said to have

taken place when any transaction makes changes in the amount of

cash and cash equivalent before happening of the transaction.

Cash flows exclude movements between items that constitute cash or

cash equivalent because these components are part of the cash

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management of an enterprise rather than part of its operating,

investing and financing activities. Cash management includes the

investment of excess cash in cash equivalent.

In another words a cash flow statement is a statement depicting

changes in cash position from one period to another. For example, if

the cash balance of a business is shown by its Balance Sheet in 31st

Dec. 2003 at Rs. 20,000 while the cash balance as per its Balance

Sheet on 31St Dec. 2004 is Rs.30,000, there has been an inflow of

cash of Rs.10,000 in the year 2004 as compared to the year 2003. The

cash flow statement explains the reasons for such inflows or outflows

of cash, as the case may be. It also helps management in making

plans for the immediate future. A projected cash flow will be available

to meet obligation to trade creditors, to pay bank loans and to pay

dividend to the shareholders.

5.3 PURPOSE AND USES OF CASH FLOW STATEMENT

The main purpose of the statement of cash flows is to provide relevant

information about the cash receipts and cash payments of an

enterprise during a period. The information will help users of financial

statements to assess the amounts, timing and uncertainty of

prospective cash flows to the enterprise. The statement of the cash

flows is useful to them in assessing an enterprise’s liquidity, financial

flexibility, profitability and risk. It also provides a feedback about the

previous assessments of these factors. Investors, analyst, creditors,

managers and others will find the information in the statement of

cash flows helpful in assessing the following:

1. It is very useful in the evaluation of cash position of a firm.

2. A projected cash flow statement can be prepared in order to know

the future cash position of a concern so as to enable a firm to plan

and coordinates its financial operations properly.

103

3. A comparison of historical and projected cash flow statement can

be made so as to find the variation and deficiency or otherwise in

the performance so as to enable the firm to take immediate and

effective actions.

4. A series of intra firm and inter firm cash flow statement reveals

whether the firm’s liquidity is improving or deteriorating over a

period of time.

5. Cash flow statement helps in planning the repayment of loans,

replacement of fixed assets and other similar long term planning of

cash.

6. Cash flow analysis is more useful and appropriate than funds flow

analysis for short-term financial analysis as in a very short period

it is cash, which is more relevant, then the working capital for

forecasting the ability of the firm to meet its immediate obligations.

7. Cash flow statement prepared according to AS-3 is more suitable

for making comparison than the funds flow statement, as there is

no standards format used for the same.

8. Cash flow statement provides information of all activities classified

under operating, investing and financing activities.

5.4 STRUCTURE OF CASH FLOW STATEMENT

According to AS-3, the cash flow statement should report cash flows

during the period classified by operating, investment and financing

activities as follows:

• Cash flow from operating activities

• Cash flow from investing activities

104

• Cash flow from financing activities

1. Cash flow from operating activities involves cash generated by

producing and delivering goods and providing services. Cash inflow

includes receipts from customers for sales of goods and services

(including collection of debtors). Cash outflow from operating activities

include payments to suppliers for purchase of material and for

services, payment to employees for services and payment to

governments for taxes and duties. Then by comparing the inflow and

outflow of cash we can determine the net value of cash flows. If the

inflows are more than outflows then it is called cash generated from

operating activities or if cash outflows are more than cash inflows

then it is called cash lost in operating activities. This cash flow is a

key indicator of the extent to which the operations of the enterprise

have generated sufficient cash flows to maintain the operating

capability of the enterprise, pay dividend, repay loans and make new

investments without recourse to external sources of financing.

Information about the specific component of historical operating cash

flows is useful, in conjunction with other information, in forecasting

future operating cash inflows.

Examples of cash flows from operating activities are:

• Cash receipts from the sale of goods and rendering the

services.

• Cash receipts from royalties, fees, commission and other

revenue.

• Cash payment to suppliers of goods and services.

• Cash payment to and on behalf of employees.

• Cash receipts and cash payment of an insurance enterprise for

premium and claims, annuities and other policy benefits.

105

Cash payment and refund of income tax unless can be specifically

identified with financing and investing activities.

• Cash receipts and payments relating to futures contract, forward

contracts, option contracts and swap contracts when the contracts

are held for dealing or trading purpose.

Some transactions, such as the sale of an item of plant, may rise to a

gain or loss that is included in the determination of the net profit or

loss. However, the cash flow relating to such transactions are cash

flows from investing activities.

2. Cash flow from investing activities involves the cash generated by

making and collecting loans and acquiring and disposing of debts and

equity instruments and fixed assets. Cash inflows from investing

activities are receipts from collection of loans, receipts from sales of

shares, debts or similar instruments of other enterprises, receipts

from sale of fixed assets and interest and dividend received firm loans

and investments. Cash outflows from investing activities are

disbursement of loans, payments to acquire share debts or similar

instruments of other enterprise and payment to acquire fixed assets.

Cash receipts and payments relating to futures contract, forward

contracts, option contracts and swap contracts except when the

contracts are held for dealing or trading purpose or the payments or

receipts are classified as financing activities.

3. Cash flows from financing activities involves cash generated by

obtaining resources from owners and providing them with a return on

their investment, borrowing money and repaying amounts borrowed

and obtaining and paying for other resources obtained from creditors

on long-term credit. Cash flows from financing activities involve the

proceeding from issuing share or other similar instrument,

debentures, mortgages, bonds and other short term or long-term

borrowings. Cash outflow from financing activities are payments of

106

dividend, payments to acquire or redeem shares to other similar

instruments of the enterprise, payment of amount borrowed, principal

payment to creditors who have extended long-term credit and interest

paid.

It is important to note down that the classification of the cash flows

into operating, investing and financing categories will depend upon

the nature of the business. For example, for financial institutions like

banks lending and borrowing are parts of their business operations.

So the income and expenditure regarding the borrowing and lending

will be included in the cash flow from operating activities.

Figure 5.1 : Structure of Cash Flows

Cash Inflows Activities Cash

Outflows

Receipts from

customers for sale

of goods and

services.

Operating Activities

Payments to suppliers

and employees for

material and services

Payments to

government for taxes

and duties.

Receipts from

sales of assets.

Payment for

107

5.5 TREATMENT OF SOME TYPICAL ITEMS

AS-3 (Revised) has also provided for the treatment of cash flow from

some peculiar items as discussed below:

1) Extraordinary items: The cash flow from extraordinary items just

like winning the lottery, loss by fire etc. either classified as arising

from operating, investing or financing activities as appropriate and

separately disclosed in the cash flow statement to enable users to

understand their nature effect on the present and future cash flows of

the enterprise.

2) Interest and Dividend: A great care have to be taken regarding the

interest and dividend as receivable of the interest and dividend is a

Receipts from sale

of investments

and from

collection of loans

Receipts from

interest and

dividend on loan

and investments

Investing Activities

Receipts from

issuance of

Receipts from

issuance of

debentures

Receipts from

other long-term

borrowing

Financing Activities

Payment for purchase

of investments and for

making of loans

Payment for

dividend on share

capital

Payments for

principal on

debentures and

other borrowin

Payments for

interest on

debenture and

other borrowin

108

result of investment so it is considered as cash inflow from investing

activities while payment of dividend and interest arise due to

collection of finance so it is termed as cash outflow from financing

activities. But in case of a financial institution payment and receipts

of interest and dividend are related to their main business so these

items are treated under the head of cash flow from operating

activities.

3) Taxes on Income: Taxes paid by the business should be treated as

cash outflow generated by operating activities if nothing is stated in

the problem but if it is specified in question that the tax arise due to

financing and investing activities then that tax should be treated

under respective activities.

4) Acquisitions and Disposal of Subsidiaries and other Business

Units: The aggregate cash flows arising from acquisitions and from

disposal subsidiaries or other business units should be presented

separately and classified as investing activities. The separate

presentation of the cash flow effects of acquisitions and disposal of

subsidiaries and other business units as single line items helps to

distinguish these cash flows from other cash flows. The cash flow

effects of disposal are not deducted from those of acquisitions.

5) Foreign Currency Cash Flow: Cash flows arising from transactions in

a foreign currency should be recorded in an enterprise’s reporting

currency by applying to the foreign currency amount the exchange

rate between the reporting currency and the foreign currency at the

date of the cash flow. The effect of the changes in exchange rates on

cash and cash equivalents held in a foreign currency should be

reported as a separate part of the reconciliation of the changes in cash

and cash equivalents during the period.

Unrealized gains and loss arising from changes in foreign exchange

rates are not cash flows. However, the effect of exchange rate changes

on cash and cash equivalent held is reported in the cash flow

109

statement in order to reconcile the value of cash and cash equivalent

at the beginning and the end of the period. This amount is presented

separately from cash flows from operating, investing and financing

activities and includes the difference, if any.

6) Non-Cash Transactions: There are some transactions, which do not

affect the cash positions of the business directly but affect the capital

and asset structure of an enterprise. Such as the conversion of debts

into equity, the acquisitions of an enterprise by means of issue of

shares etc. These transactions should not be included in the cash flow

statement but due to their importance these can be shown as

additional information under the statement.

5.6 FORMAT OF CASH FLOW STATEMENT

AS-3 (Revised) has not provided any specific format for preparing a

cash flow statement. The cash flow statement should report cash flows

during the period classified by operating, investing and financing

activities. A widely used format of cash flow statement is given below.

COMPANY’S NAME:…………………………

Cash Flow Statement

For the year ended…………..

Cash flow from Operating Activities

(List of the individual inflows and outflows) ………...

Net Cash Flow from Operating Activities ………

Cash Flows from Investing Activities

(List of individual inflows and outflows) ……….

Net Cash Flows from Investing Activities ……….

Cash Flows from Financing Activities

(List of individual inflows and outflows) ……….

Net Cash Flows from Financing Activities ……….

Net increase (Decrease) in Cash and Cash Equivalents ……….

Cash and cash Equivalent at the Beginning of the period ……….

Cash and cash Equivalent at the End of the period ……….

Particulars Rs. Rs.

110

5.7 PROCEDURE FOR PREPARING A CASH FLOW STATEMENT

Let us study how to construct the cash flow statement. As shown in the format of the

cash flow statement all the cash inflows and outflows will be classified according to

operating, investing and financing activities. Following are the procedures of the

calculation of cash flow from different activities: -

Determination of cash flow from operating activities: The profit and loss accounts

shows whether an enterprise’s operations have results in profit or loss, but it does not

indicate cash inflows and cash outflows from operating activities. This is because bet

profit is computed using the accrual basis of accounting. Revenue is recorded when

earned although the cash for some of them may not have been collected, and expenses

are recorded when incurred although all of them may not have been paid in cash.

Further, depreciation, amortization and provision for doubtful debts do not reflect

cash outflows in both current and future periods. Thus, the net profit will not indicate

the net cash flow from operations. In order to arrive at net cash flow from operating

activities, it is necessary to restate revenues and expenses on a cash basis. This is done

by adjusting for the effects of transactions considered in preparing the profit and loss

account that did not involve cash inflows or cash outflows. There are two methods for

reporting the net cash flow from operating activities.

1) Direct method

2) Indirect method

1) Direct method: Under this method, cash receipts from operating

activities and cash payments for operating expenses are calculated to

arrive at cash flows from operating activities. The difference between

111

the cash receipts and cash payments is the net cash flow provided by

operating activities. Cash flow from operating activities can be

calculated as follows:

Cash Flow from Operating Activities:

Cash received from customers XXX

Cash paid to suppliers and employees (XXX)

Cash generated from operations XXX

Income tax paid (XXX)

Cash flow before extraordinary item XXX

Extraordinary item (XXX)

Net cash flow from operating activities XXX

Cash received from customers: Cash receipts from customers from

cash sales and collections of debtors arising from credit sales. Cash

sales result in cash inflows in the current period. However, collections

from customers require additional calculations, sales from an earlier

period may be collected in the current period, sales from the current

period may be collected in future period or some debtors may not be

collected at all. As result, collections from customers in current period

are seldom equal to credit sales. The relationship among the credit

sales, change in debtors and collections from customers may be stated

in equation form as follows:

Cash received form customers= Sales + Opening balance of trade debtors (Debtors &

B/R) – Closing balance of trade debtors.

Cash paid to suppliers and employees: After calculation of cash received from

customers the second thing that would be calculated is cash paid to suppliers and

employees in lieu of services and goods received from them. Cash paid to customers

and employees can be calculated by using following equation:

112

Cash Paid to suppliers and employees = Purchases for the year as per statement of

profit + Opening trade creditors (Creditors & B/P) – Closing trade creditors + selling

and administrative expenses + prepaid expenses at the end of the year – prepaid

expenses in the beginning of the year.

Income tax paid: The amount of the income tax paid usually differs from the

estimated income tax expense, appearing on the profit and loss account. Also a part of

the income tax expenses for a year is paid in the following year. The difference

between income tax payment and income tax expense result in a change in income tax

payable. The following equation shows this relationship:

Tax paid during the year = Opening balance of tax unpaid + Provision made during

the year – Closing balance of tax unpaid.

Let us take an example to understand these treatments.

Illustration 5.1: The Board of Director of Amit ltd. was not able to decide that why

the Co. are not having adequate cash balance. The amount of profit of the company

for the year 2003 was Rs. 90,000. This was highest amount as compared to previous

years. You have been asked to prepare a Cash Flow Statement with the help of

following information using direct method.

Balance Sheet

(Rs. in thousands)

Liabilities Dec.2002 Dec.2003 Assets Dec.2002 Dec.2003

Issue and paid up capital 1,575.00 1,575.00 Long term assts 1,125.00 2.047.50

Profit and Loss A/c 157.00 225.00 Closing stock 337.50 900.00

Mortgage Loan 900.00 Prepayments 45.00 90.00

Tax unpaid 22.50 67.50 Trade debtors 112.50 450.00

Trade creditors 315.00 877.50 Cash 450.00 157.50

2,070.00 3,645.00 2,070.00 3,645.00

Statement of Profit

(For the year ended Dec.2003)

113

Particulars Rs. ,000 Rs. ,000

Sales 2,250.00

Opening stock 337.50

Add. Purchases 2205.00

2,542,50

Less Closing stock 900.00 1642.50

Gross profit 607.50

Less:

Administrative expenses 247.50

Depreciation 180.00

Taxes (Provision) 90.00 517.50

Net Profit 90.00

Payment of dividends 22.50

67.50

Add. Profit and loss a/c (Jan.2003) 157.50

Balance on Dec. 2003 225.00

You are also informed that a new building was purchased on 15th June 2003 for Rs.

11,02,500.

Solution:

Cash Flow Statement

(For the year ended 31st Dec.2003)

Particulars Rs., 000 Rs., 000

Cash Flow from Operating Activities

Cash Received from Customers (Note-1) 1,912.50

Cash Paid to Suppliers and Employees (Note-2) (1,935.00)

Cash generated from Operating Activities (22.50)

Income Tax Paid (Note-3) (45.00)

Net Cash Used in Operating Activities (67.50)

Cash Flow from Investing Activities

Purchase of New Building (1,102.50)

Net Cash Used in Investing Activities (1,102.50)

Cash Flow from Financing Activities

Raising of Mortgage Loan 900.00

Dividend Paid (22.50)

Net Cash Provided by Financing Activities 877.50

Net decrease in cash and cash equivalent (292.50)

Opening balance of cash 450.00

Closing balance of cash 157.50

Working Notes:

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1. Calculation of cash received from customers:

Sales for the year as per the statement 2,250.00

Add: Trade debtors in the beginning 112.50

2362.50

Less: Trade debtors at the end 450.00

Cash received from customers 1912.50

2. Calculation of cash paid to suppliers and employees:

Purchase for the year as per the statement of profit 2,205.00

Add: Trade creditors in the begging 315.00

2520.00

Less: Trade creditors at the end 877.50

Cash paid to creditors for purchase of goods (A) 1642.50

Administrative expenses as per the statement of profit 247.50

Add: Prepaid exp. at the end 90.00

337.50

Less: Prepaid Exp. In the begging 45.00

Cash paid for services (B) 292.50

Cash paid to suppliers and employees (A+B) 1,935.00

3.Calculation of tax paid:

Opening balance of tax unpaid 22.50

Add: Provision made during the year 90.00

112.50

Less: Closing balance of tax unpaid 67.50

Tax paid during the year 45.00

3) Indirect Method: Under the indirect method, the net cash flow from

operating activities is determined by adjusting net profit or loss for the

effect of:

i) Non cash items such as depreciation, provision, deferred taxes and

unrealized foreign exchange gains and losses

ii) Changes during the period in inventories and operating receivables and

payables.

iii) All other items for which cash effects are investing or financing flows.

115

The indirect method is also called the reconciliation method as it involves reconciliation of

net profit or loss as given in the profit and net cash flow from operating activities as shown in

the cash flow statement. Cash flow from operating activities by using the indirect method can

be calculated as follows:

Net Profit before Tax and Extraordinary Items XXX

Add: Non-cash and non-operating items, which have already been

Debited to P/L A/c;

Depreciation

Transfer to reserve and provisions

Goodwill written off

Preliminary expenses written off

Other intangible assets written off just as discount or loss on issue of

Shares, debentures and underwriting commission

Loss on disposal of fixed assets

Loss on sale of investment

Foreign exchange loss XXX

XXX

Less: Non-cash and non-operating items, which have already been

Credited to P/L A/c

Gain on the sale of fixed assets

Profit on sale of investment

Income from interest or dividend

Appreciation in values of fixed assets

Reserve written back

Foreign exchange gains (XXX)

Operating profit before adjustment of working capital changes XXX

Adjustment for changes in current operating assets and liabilities:

Add: Decrease in accounts of current assets (except cash and cash equivalents) XXX

Add: Increase in accounts of current operating liabilities (except Bank overdraft) XXX

Less: Increase in accounts of current assets (XXX)

Less: Decrease in accounts of current liabilities (XXX)

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Cash generated from operation before tax

XXX

Less: Tax paid (XXX)

Cash flow before extra-ordinary items XXX

Add/Less: Extra-ordinary items XXX

Net cash flow from operating activities XXX

Let us take an example to clear the above points.

Illustration 5.2: The following are the comparative Balance Sheet of Ashish Ltd. as

on 31st Dec.2003 and 2004.

Balance Sheet

Liabilities 2003 2004

Assets

2003 2004

Share capital

(share of Rs.10 each) 3,50,000 3,70,000 Land 1,00,000 1,50,000

Profit & Loss A/c 50,400 52,800 Stock 2,46,000 2,13,500

9% Debentures 60,000 30,000 Goodwill 50,000 25,000

Creditors 51,600 59,200 Cash & Bank 42,000 35000

Temporary Investment 3,000 4000

Debtors 71,000 84,500

5,12,000 5,12,000 5,12,000 5,12,000

Other particulars provided to you are: A) Dividend declared and paid during

the year Rs.17,500 B) Land was revaluated during the year at Rs. 1,50,000

and profit on the revaluation transferred to P/L A/c. you are required to

prepare a cash flow statement for the year ended 31/12/04.

Solution:

Cash Flow Statement

(for the year ended 31St Dec.2004)

Particulars Rs. Rs.

Cash Flow from Operating Activities

Increase in the balance of P/L A/c 2,400

Adjustment for non-cash and non-operating items:

Profit on revaluation of land (50,000)

Goodwill written off 25,000

Dividend declared 17,500

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Operating profit before working capital changes (5,100)

Adjustment for changes in current operating assets and liabilities:

Increase in creditors 7,600

Decrees in stock 32,500

Increase in debtors (13,500)

Cash generated from operating activities 21,500

Income tax paid --------

Cash flow from extra ordinary items ---------

Net cash flow from operating activities 21,500

Cash flow from investing activities -------- --------

Cash flow from financing activities

Proceeds from issue of share capital 20,000

Redemption of debentures (30,000)

Dividend paid (17,500)

Net cash used in financing activities (27,500)

Net decrease in cash and cash equivalent (6,000)

Cash and cash equivalent at the begging of the year 45,000

Cash and cash equivalent at the end of the year 39,000

5.8 LIMITATIONS OF CASH FLOW STATEMENT

Despite a numbers of uses, cash flow statement suffers from the

following limitations:

1. As cash flow statement is based on cash basis of accounting, it ignores the basic

accounting concepts of accrual basis.

2. Some people feel that as working capital is a wider concept of funds flow

statement provides a more complete picture than cash flow statement. So it is

based on narrow concept.

3. Cash flow statement is not suitable for judging the profitability of a firm as non-

cash charges are ignored while calculating cash flows from operating activities.

5.9 COMPARISON BETWEEN FUNDS FLOW AND CASH FLOW STATEMENT

The term funds have a variety of meaning. In narrow sense it means

cash and the statement of changes in the financial position prepared

on cash basis is called a cash flow statement. In the most popular

sense, the term funds refer to working capital and a statement of

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changes in the financial position prepared on this basis is called a

funds flow statement. A cash flow statement is much similar to a

funds flow statement as both are prepared to summarize the causes of

changes in the financial position of a business. However the following

are the main differences between funds and a cash flow statement.

Difference between Funds Flow Statement and Cash Flow Statement

Basis of Difference Funds Flow Statement Cash Flow Statement

1. Basis of Concept It is based on a wider concept of

funds, i.e. working capital

It is based on a narrow concept of

funds, i.e. cash

2. Basis of Accounting It is based on accrual basis of

accounting.

It is based on cash basis of

accounting.

3. Schedule of changes

in working capital

Schedule of changes in working

capital is prepared to show the

changes in current assets and current

liabilities.

No schedule of changes in

working capital is prepared.

4. Method of Preparing Funds flow statement reveals the

sources and applications of funds.

The net difference between sources

and applications of funds represents

net increase in working capital.

It is prepared by classifying all

inflows and outflows in term of

ing , investing and financing

ies. The net difference represents

t increase or decrease

5. Basis of Usefulness It is useful in planning intermediate

and long term financing.

It is useful in planning intermediate

and long term financing.

6.Discription It describes the reasons for change in

working capital.

It describes the reasons for changes

in cash and cash equivalent.

Illustration 5.3: Western Telecommunication Company’s profit and loss account for the year

ended January 31,2004, and its balance sheet as on Dec.2003 and Dec.2004 are as follows:

Western Telecommunication Company: Profit and Loss Account

(For the year ended Dec. 2004)

Sales Rs 5,70,000

Interest Income 2,000

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Gain on sale of investment 7,000

Cost of goods sold 4,45,000

Depreciation Expenses 89,000

Selling and Distribution Exp. 46,000

Interest Exp. 14,000

Loss on sale of plant and machinery 3000

Profit before income tax and extraordinary items (18000)

Income Tax -----------

Profit before extraordinary items (18,000)

Extraordinary item: Insurance proceeds from Earthquake loss claim ----------

Net Profit (18,000)

WESTERN TELECOMMUNICATION COMPANY: Balance Sheet as on 31St

December

Sources of Funds 2003 2004

Shareholder funds

Equity share capital 1,55,000 85,000

Profit and loss account 1,02,000 1,20,000

Total share holder fund 2,57,000 2,05,000

Loan funds

Secured loans 97,000 57,000

Unsecured loans 1,81,000 1,91,000

Total loan funds 2,78,000 2,48,000

Current liabilities

Bill payable 6,000 9,000

Creditors 24,000 1,78,000

Income tax payable 9,000 17,000

Total current liabilities 39,000 2,04,000

Total source of funds 5,74,000 6,57,000

Applications of funds

Fixed assets

Plant and machinery 7,20,000 5,40,000

Less accumulated depreciation 3,62,000 3,05,000

Fixed assets (net) 3,58,000 2,35,000

Investment 18,000 66,000

Current assets

Inventories 1,51,000 1,19,000

Debtors (less provision of doubtful debts 8,000 & 12,000) 29,000 1,66,000

Prepaid expenses 6,000 2,000

Cash and cash equivalent 12,000 69,000

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Total current assets 1,98,000 3,56,000

Total application of funds 5,74,000 6,57,000

Additional information:

i. Purchased machinery costing Rs.1,50,000 with cash.

ii. Sold machinery with cost of Rs.45,000 and accumulated depreciation of

Rs.32,000 for Rs.10,000.

iii. Purchased investment for Rs. 30,000.

iv. Sold investment costing Rs. 78,000 for Rs.85,000

v. Purchased machinery for Rs 75,000 in exchange for secured debentures.

vi. Issued at par share for Rs. 50,000

vii. Converted secured debentures of Rs. 20,000 to equity share of Rs. 10 at par

viii. Repaid unsecured debentures of Rs. 10,000.

ix. Redeemed secured debentures of Rs. 15,000 at par

x. Wrote off Rs. 14,000 of debtors when a customer become insolvent and provided

Rs. 10,000 for doubtful, included in selling and distribution expenses.

Required

1. Prepare the statement of cash flows according to direct method.

2. Prepare the statement of cash flows according to indirect method.

Solution:

1. Statement of Cash Flows- Direct Method

WESTERN TELECOMMUNICATION COMPANY: Statement

of Cash Flows

(For the year ended Dec.2004)

Cash Flow from Operating Activities

Cash received from customers (I) 6,97,000

Cash paid to suppliers and employees (ii) (674,000)

Cash generated from operations 23,000

Income tax Paid (iii) (8,000)

Cash flow before extraordinary items 15,000

Extraordinary items 0

Net cash provided by Operating Activities 15,000

Cash Flows from Investing Activities

Purchase of plant and machinery (150,000)

Proceeds from sale of plant and machinery 10,000

Purchase of investments (30,000)

Proceeds from sale of investment 85,000

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Interest received 2,000

Net Cash Used in Investing Activities (83,000)

Cash Flows from Financing Activities

Proceeds from Issuance of share capital 50,000

Repayment of unsecured loans (10,000)

Redemption of secured debentures (15,000)

Interest paid (14,000)

Net Cash Provided By Financing Activities 11,000

Net Decrease in Cash and Cash Equivalent (57,000)

Cash and Cash Equivalent at beginning of period 69,000

Cash and Cash Equivalent at end of period 12,000

Supplemental schedule of non-cash investing and financing activities

1. The company purchased for Rs. 75,000 in exchange for secured debentures.

2. The company converted secured debentures of Rs. 20,000 to equity shares of Rs. 10 at

par.

Working Notes:

i. (5,70,000 + 1,78,000 - 37,000 - 14000)

ii. (4,45,000 + 46,000 - 1,19,000 - 2,000 + 9,000 + 1,78,000 + 1,51,000 +

6,000 - 6,000 - 24,000 - 10,000)

iii. (17,000 – 9,000)

2. Statement of Cash Flows – Indirect Method

WESTERN TELECOMMUNICATION COMPANY: Statement

of Cash Flows

(For the year ended Dec.2004)

Cash Flow from Operating Activities (18,000)

Net profit before income tax and extraordinary items

Adjustment to reconcile Net Profit to net cash flow from

Operating Activities

Depreciation 89,000

Provision for doubtful debts 10,000

Loss on sale of plant and machinery 3,000

Gain on sale of investment (7,000)

Interest expenses 14,000

Interest income (2,000)

Operating profit before working capital changes 89,000

Decrease in Debtors 1,27,000

Increase in inventories (32,000)

Increase in Prepaid expenses (4,000)

Decrease in bills payable (3,000)

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Decrease in creditors (154,000)

Cash generated from operations 23,000

Income tax paid (8,000)

Cash flow before extraordinary items 15,000

Extraordinary items: Proceed from Earthquake Insurance

Claim 0

Net Cash Provided by Operating Activities 15,000

Cash Flows from Investing Activities

Purchase of plant and machinery (150,000)

Proceeds from sale of plant and machinery 10,000

Purchase of investments (30,000)

Proceeds from sale of investment 85,000

Interest received 2,000

Net Cash Used in Investing Activities (83,000)

Cash Flows from Financing Activities

Proceeds from Issuance of share capital 50,000

Repayment of unsecured loans (10,000)

Redemption of secured debentures (15,000)

Interest paid (14,000)

Net Cash Provided By Financing Activities 11,000

Net Decrease in Cash and Cash Equivalent (57,000)

Cash and Cash Equivalent at beginning of period 69,000

Cash and Cash Equivalent at end of period 12,000

Supplemental schedule of non-cash investing and financing activities

1.The company purchased for Rs. 75,000 in exchange for secured debentures.

2. The company converted secured debentures of Rs. 20,000 to equity shares of Rs. 10 at

par.

5.10 SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

1. Define the term ‘Cash Flow’. Explain the objective of cash flow analysis.

2. How does the statement of cash flows differ from the funds flow statement?

3. What is the purpose of statement of cash flows? How is it

prepared? Explain and illustrate.

4. Why is the statement of cash flow considered necessary in addition to the profit and loss

account and balance sheet?

5. Explain the procedure of preparing a cash flow statement.

6. The comparative balance sheet for Varun Ltd. are given below:

Dec.2002 Dec.2003

Assets:

Cash and Bank Balance 82,000 22,000

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Debtors 1,04,000 24,000

Stock 1,12,000 60,000

Prepaid Expenses 22,000 14,000

Plant and Machinery 3,80,000 3,60,000

Goodwill 36,000 40,000

7,36,000 5,20,000

Liabilities:

Creditors 30,000 14,000

Provision for Depreciation 1,00,000 60,000

Debentures 1,02,000 1,02,000

Premium on Debenture Issue 12,000 18,000

Share Capital 1,90,000 90,000

Share Premium 30,000

Reserve and Surpluses 2,72,000 2,36,000

7,36,000 5,20,000

The following additional informations is available from the accounting records for 2002.

1. Debenture premium of Rs. 6,000 was amortized during the year.

2. Dividend paid Rs. 6,000.

You are required to prepare a cash flow statement.

(Answer: Net cash used in operating activities Rs.44,000; Net cash used in investing activities

Rs. 20,000; Net cash provided by financing activities Rs. 1,24,000; net increase in cash and cash

equivalent Rs. 60,000)

7. Prepare a cash flow statement of Anoop Business Corporation from the following

informations:

Balance Sheet

As on Jan, 1st & Dec. 31st 2002

Jan.1 Dec.31

Assets

Cash and Bank 40,000 44,400

Account Receivables 10,000 20,700

Inventories 15,000 15,000

Land 4,000 4,000

Business Premises 20,000 16,000

Plant and Equipment 15,000 17,000

Accumulated Deprecation (5,000) (2,800)

Patents and Trade marks 1,000 900

Total Assets 1,00,000 1,15,200

Liabilities:

Current Liabilities 30,000 32,000

Bonds Payable 22,000 22,000

Bonds Payable Discount (2,000) (1,800)

Capital Stock 35,000 43,500

Retained Earning 15,000 19,500

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Total Liabilities 1,00,000 1,15,200

Additional Information

• Income for the period Rs.10,000.

• A building the cost Rs.4,000 and which had a book value of Rs. 1,000 was sold for

Rs. 1,400.

• Depreciation charged for the year Rs. 800

• There was Rs. 5,000 issue of capital stock

• Cash dividend of Rs. 2,000 and stock dividend of Rs. 3,500 was declared.

(Answer: Net cash operating activities Rs2,000; Net cash used in investing activities Rs. 600;

Net cash from financing activities Rs. 3,000; net increase in cash and cash equivalent Rs. 4,000)

8. From the following particulars, prepare a cash flow statement for the year ended 31st March 2004

i) Total sale for the year were Rs. 20,50,000 out of which cash sales amounted to Rs. 14,20,000.

ii) Total purchases for the year were Rs. 15,30,000 out of which cash purchases amounted to Rs.

10,20,000.

iii) Cash collected from creditors during the year amounted to Rs. 4,80,000.

iv) Cash paid to suppliers was Rs.4, 50,000.

v) Income tax paid Rs. 80,000.

vi) Equity shares of the face value of Rs. 2,00,000 were issued at a premium of 5% during the year.

vii) Rs. 25,000 was paid as dividend for the year ended 31st March 2004.

viii) Redeemable preference share of the face value of Rs. 1,00,000 were redeemed during the year at a

premium of 10%.

ix) New machinery war purchased for Rs. 30,000on 1st Jan. 2004.

x) Depreciation for the year was Rs. 40,000 where as salary and other expenses amounted to Rs.

1,80,000 out of which Rs. 20,000 are outstanding.

xi) The balance of the cash & bank as on 1st April 2003 was Rs. 85000.

(Answer: Net cash flows from operating activities Rs 1,90,000; Net cash used in investing

activities Rs. 30,000; Net cash from financing activities Rs. 75,000; net increase in cash and cash

equivalent Rs. 2,35,000)

9. The following are the Balance Sheets of GOYAL enterprises

Jan.1 Dec.31

Assets

Cash and Bank 5,000 8,000

Account Receivables 35,000 38,000

Inventories 25,000 22,000

Land 20,000 30,000

Business Premises 50,000 5,50,000

Machinery less Dep. 80,000 87,000

125

Delivery van 25,000

Total Assets 2,15,000 2,65,000

Liabilities:

Current Liabilities 35,000 40,000

Loan from Banks 30,000 25,000

Mrs. Goyal’s Loan 20,000

Capital 1,00,000 1,60,000

Hire Purchase vendor 20,000

Total Liabilities 2,15,000 2,65,000

Additional Information

The delivery van was purchased on hire purchase basis on Dec.2003, Payment of Rs. 5,000

was made at the time of agreement and the balance of amount is to be paid in 20 monthly installments

of Rs. 1,000 each together with interest @10% per annum. During the year the proprietor withdraw Rs.

25,000 for household expenses. The provision for depreciation on machinery on 1/1/03 was Rs. 27,000

and on 31/12/03 was Rs. 35,000. You are required to prepare the cash flow statement.

(Ans. Cash operating Profit Rs. 43,000)

5.11 SUGGESTED READINGS

1. Sharma, R.K. & Gupta, Shashi K., Management Accounting, Kalyani Publication,

New Delhi.

2. Horngren & Sundem, Introduction to Management Accounting, Prentice Hall of

India, N.Delhi.

3. Anthony R.N. and Reece J.S., Management Accounting Principles, 6th ed.,

Homewood, Illinois, Richard D.Irwin, 1995.

4. Hansen & Mowen, Management Accounting, Thomson Learning, Bombay.

5. Anthony Robert and Hawkins David, Accounting: Text & Cases, McGraw Hill,

1999

6. Jain, S.P and Narang, K.L., Advanced Cost Accounting, Kalyani Publishers,

Ludhiana.

126

Objective: The present lesson explains the CVP analysis. Further, it discusses the use of

the marginal costing technique for tactical decisions in different

manufacturing concerns.

LESSON STRUCTURE

6.1 Introduction

6.2 CVP Assumptions and Uses

6.3 Break-Even Point and Margin of Safety Equation Method

6.4 Graphical Representation of CVP Relationship

6.5 Marginal Costing Techniques

6.6 Summary

6.7 Self-Test Questions

6.8 Suggested Readings

6.1 INTRODUCTION

It is important for managers to ascertain the cost behavior pattern and use it to

estimate the total cost, total revenues and thereby profits at various sales volumes.

The cost revenue relationship holds for a short period. Therefore, this relationship

cannot be used to estimate long-term performance of the firm. However, this short--

term validity helps to maximise profit with given resources. For the purpose of taking

tactical decisions managers use the marginal costing techniques because these short-

term decisions influence fixed costs. To understand the use of Marginal costing

techniques, we have to study Cost-volume-profit (CVP) analysis. The Cost-volume-

profit (CVP) analysis is the study of the effects on future profit of changes in fixed

COURSE: MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

COURSE CODE: MC-105 AUTHOR: SURINDER S. KUNDU

LESSON: 06 VETTER: PROF. H. L. VERMA

MARGINAL COSTING AND PROFIT PLANNING

127

cost, variable cost, sales price, quantity and mix. The aim of CVP analysis is to

estimate the total cost, total revenue and thereby profit of various sales volumes.

Managers use this technique extensively to determine the break-even point and

margin of safety. Break-even point is the level of activity at which there is neither

profit nor loss. Margin of safety ratio indicates the percentage by which forecast

turnover exceeds or falls short of breakeven turnover. The CVP analysis assumes that

output is the only cost and revenue driver.

6.2 CVP ASSUMPTIONS AND USES

The assumptions of the CVP analysis are: (a) Fixed and variable cost patterns can be

established with reasonable accuracy, (b) Total fixed costs and variable cost per unit

will not change during the period under consideration, (c) Selling price will remain

constant at all sales volumes, (d) Factor price per unit (e.g. material prices, wage

rates) will remain constant at all sales volumes, (e) Efficiency and productivity will

remain unchanged during the period under consideration, (f) In a multi-product

situation, sales-mix will remain unchanged during the period, (g) Output is the only

relevant factor affecting costs and revenue, and (h) The volume of production will be

equal to the volume of sales that is accretion decoration to inventory level will be

insignificant during the period.

The uses of CVP analysis are: (a) To determine the 'Break-even point' in terms of

sales volume or sales value, (b) To ascertain the Margin of safety ratio, (c) To

estimate profits or losses at various activity levels, (d) To assess the likely effect of

management decisions such as an increase or a reduction in selling price, adoption of

a new method of production which will reduce fixed costs and increase variable costs

on the profitability of the firm, and (e) To determine the optimum selling price.

6.3 BREAK-EVEN POINT AND MARGIN OF SAFETY EQUATION METHOD

Break-even point is the sales volume or sales value at which the firm neither makes

128

profit nor incurs loss. In other words, at the break-even point, revenue equals total

costs.

6.3.1 Marginal Cost Equation

Revenue - Variable costs - Fixed costs = Operating income

Or S – V – F = P

Or S-V=F+P=C

Where S = revenue, V = total variable cost, C = total contribution F = total fixed cost

6.3.2 Contribution/Sales Ratio (C/S Ratio)

C/S = Total contribution/Total turnover x 100

Or (S-V)/S x 100 or (F+P)/S x 100

The C/S ratio represents the percentage of sales, which contributes towards fixed

costs and operating profit. CVP analysis assumes that C/S ratio does not change with

changes in output or sales volumes. It is also termed as Profit Volume ratio or PV

ratio.

6.3.3 Break-even Sales

In determining break-even sales, we need to know

(a) Fixed costs and (b) Contribution per unit or the C/S ratio.

At break-even point (BEP), total contribution equals fixed costs. Therefore, BEP in

terms of unit is calculated by dividing total fixed costs by contribution per unit. BEP

in terms of sales value is calculated by dividing total fixed costs by the C/S ratio.

Example 6.1: The following information is available from the annual budget of a

company manufacturing only one item.

Budgeted output and sales 5000 units

Budgeted selling price per unit Rs. 40

Budgeted cost per unit:

Material Rs. 15

Direct labour Rs. 5

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Variable overhead Rs. 10

Fixed cost per unit Rs. 5 (35)

Budgeted profit per unit Rs. 5

Calculate the break-even point both in terms of the number of units and sales value.

Solution:

Contribution per unit of the given product is as follows:

Selling price Rs. 40; Variable cost: Material Rs.15; Direct labour Rs.5; Variable

overhead Rs.10 and Contribution margin per unit Rs.10. Fixed cost per unit, included

in the total cost per unit, is the average fixed cost per unit, calculated on the basis of

budgeted fixed cost (total) and budgeted output. Therefore, budgeted fixed cost (total)

= Rs. 5 x 5,000 = Rs. 25,000.

The two factors (e.g. fixed costs and contribution margin per unit) are now known to

us, and, therefore, we can calculate the BEP

BEP = Fixed Cost/Contribution per unit

= 25000/10= 2500 units.

At BEP, total contribution (2,500 x Rs. 10), that is, Rs. 25,000 is equal to fixed

costs.

C/S ratio = C per unit/ Selling price per unit

= 10/40 x 100 =25%.

BEP = Fixed cost/ C/S ratio

= 25000/25% = Rs. 1,00,000.

6.3.4 Margin of Safety

Margin of safety is the difference between the estimated sales and sales at BEP. It

provides very useful information to management, i.e. by how much can sales drop

below the budgeted sales before a loss is incurred. Margin of safety is usually

expressed as a percentage of budgeted sales.

In the example 6.1, margin of safety is (5,000 - 2,500) units or 2,500 units that is 50%

of the budgeted sales.

6.3.5 C/S Ratio and Break-even Point in a Multi-Product Situation

In a multi-product situation, it is not possible to express the break-even point in terms

of units. It is quite likely that different measuring units are used to measure sales

130

quantity of different products. Even if a single unit is used, products may not be

comparable and contribution per unit would be different. Therefore, under a multi-

product situation, BEP is calculated in terms of sale value by using weighted average

C/S ratio. Weight of each product in the sales-mix is used to calculate the weighted

average C/S ratio. The underlying assumption is that the same percentage movement

in sales of all the products in the product-mix accompanies a percentage movement in

total sales.

Break-even point is calculated with the following assumptions: (a) Constant C/S ratio

for each product; (b) Constant sales-mix; and (c) Constant fixed cost. The steps

involved in calculating the break-even points are: (a) Calculate the C/S ratio for each

product; (b) Calculate weighted average C/S ratio in relation to estimated proportion

of sales; and (c) Use the weighted average C/S ratio to calculate break-even point in

terms of sale-value.

Example 6.2: (A) SSK manufactures and sells four types of products under the

brand names A, B, C and D. The sales-mix in value comprises 3

33 %, 3

41 %,

16 % and 3

8 % of A, B, C and D respectively. The total budgeted sales (100%) are

Rs. 60,000 per month. Operating costs are:

Variable costs: Product: A 60% of selling price; B 68% of selling price; C 80% of

selling price; D 40% of selling price; and Fixed cost Rs. 14,700 per month. Calculate

the break-even point for the products on an overall basis.

(B) It has been proposed to introduce a change in the sales mix as follows, the total

sales per month remaining Rs. 60,000:

Product A 25%

B 40%

C 30%

D 5%

Assuming that the proposal is implemented, calculate the break-even point

Solution:

131

C/S ratio for each product

Product Variable cost to sales ratio C/S ratio (100- variable cost to sales ratio)

A 60% 40%

B 68% 32%

C 80% 20%

D 40% 60%

Weighted average C/S ratio:

Product C/S ratio (Percentage)

A 3

33 x 40% 13.33

B. 3

41 x 32% 13.44

C 3

16 x 20% 3.33

D 3

8 x 60% 5.00

Weighted average c/s ratio

BEP = ratioSC

tsFixed

cos = %35

700,14.

Rs = 42,000 per month

Weighted average C/S ratio with changed sales-mix, without any change in individual

C/S ratio.

Weighted average C/S ratio:

Product C/S ratio (Percentage)

A 25% x 40 10.00

B. 40% x 32 12.80

C 30% x 20 6.00

D 5% x 60 3.00

Weighted average c/s ratio

BEP = ratioSC

tsFixed

cos = %80.31

700,14 = 46,226 per month

Proof (Nor required in examination)

Product Old sales-mix New sales-mix

Sales(Rs.) Contribution(Rs.) Sales(Rs.) Contribution(Rs.)

A 60,000 x 3

33 % 20,000 x 40% 60,000 x 25% 15,000 x40%

i.e. 20,000 i.e. 8,000 i.e. 15,000 i.e. 6,000

B 60,000 x

41 25,000 x 32% 60,000 x 40% 24,000 x 32%

i.e. 25,000 i.e. 8,000 i.e. 24,000 i.e. 7,680

132

C 60,000 x 3

16 10,000 x 20% 60,000 x 30% 18,000 x 20%

i.e. 10,000 i.e. 2,000 i.e. 18,000 i.e. 3,600

D 60,000 x 3

8 5,000 x 60% 60,000 x 5% 3,000 x 60%

i.e. 5,000 i.e. 3,000 i.e. 3,000 i.e. 1,800

Total Rs. 60,000 Rs. 21,000 Rs. 60,000 Rs. 19,080

Weighted average C/S ratio Weighted average C/S ratio

000,60

000,21 x 100 i.e. 35% 000,60

080,19 x 100 i.e. 31.80%

6.4 GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF CVP RELATIONSHIP

As an aid to management, CVP analysis is presented in graphical

form. This graph is popularly known as the 'break-even chart'. Break-

even chart can be drawn in many ways. The construction of break-

even chart is exemplified in Graphs 6.1 to 6.5.

Example 6.3: You are given the following data for the coming year for a factory.

Budgeted output 80000 units; Fixed expenses Rs. 400000; Variable expenses per unit

Rs. 10; Selling price per unit Rs. 20; 80,000 units Rs. 4, 00,000. Draw a break-even

chart showing the break-even point. If the selling price be reduced to Rs. 18 per unit,

what will be the new break-even point?

Solution:

Detailed notes: (i) The horizontal axis shows the units of output; (ii) The vertical axis

shows the cost and revenue in terms of value; (iii) The fixed cost line at Rs. 4, 00,000

is assumed to be same at all output levels; (iv) The revenue line (assuming the same

selling price per unit at all output levels) starts at nil and progresses evenly; (v) The

total cost line commences at the fixed cost of Rs. 4, 00,000 (fixed cost is incurred

even at nil production) and increase by the addition of variable cost per unit as output

increases; (vi) The break-even point is the point of intersection (which reads at 40,000

units on the graph) between total cost and revenue lines. This can be proved

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arithmetically. Contribution at 40,000 units is 40,000 x Rs. (20 - 10), i.e. Rs. 4, 00,000

which is equal to the fixed cost; and (vii) Revised revenue (revised on account of

reduction in selling price) shown by dotted line intersects total cost line at an output

of 50,000 units. The new break-even point is 50,000 units.

Graph 6.1: Break-even Chart

Graph 6.2: Break-even Chart with variable cost line

Detailed notes: (i) As in the conventional chart, the horizontal axis shows the units of

output and the vertical axis shows the cost and the revenue; (ii) The variable cost line

starts at nil and progresses evenly as the output increases. The conventional chart does

not show the variable cost line; (iii) Total cost line is parallel to variable cost line; the

gap between the two represents the fixed cost (Rs. 4, 00,000); and (iv) Revenue line

has been drawn in the same way as is drawn on conventional chart.

6.4.1 Volume contribution chart in Graph 6.3 is another way of presenting the

134

break-even point. Information in Example 6.3 has been used to draw the chart.

In this chart the contribution line starts at nil for nil output and progresses

evenly with increase in output. Break-even point is the point of intersection

between the contribution line and the fixed cost line. The advantage of this

method is that several lines at various selling prices and variable costs may be

drawn without the chart becoming too overburdened.

Graph 6.4 shows another method of depicting the break-even point. The horizontal

axis not only shows the sales volume in quantities, it shows the revenue (in rupee)

too. The chart clearly shows the profit or loss area, which starts at Rs. 4, 00,000 below

the break-even line (because Rs. 4, 00,000 being the fixed costs to be recovered to

break-even). Contribution line starts at nil with nil output and progresses evenly with

increase in sales. The point of intersection between the fixed cost line and the

Graph 6.3: Volume contribution chart

Graph 6.4: Volume contribution break-even chart.

135

contribution line shows the break-even point.

The chart with reduction in selling price has to be drawn separately to avoid

confusion. (It will be a good practice for the reader to draw the chart with a reduced

selling price.) The fixed cost line and the revenue line will look the same as in Graph

6.4 except a change in the scale for revenue (Rs.) at the horizontal axis.

6.4.2 Limitation of break-even chart

In actual practice, Break-even charts are quite unlikely to resemble the chart shown

above because underlying assumptions in CVP analysis do not hold good in real-life

situations. The cost and revenue lines are not straight lines. They are rather curvilinear

and the chart might show more than one break-even point. Such a break-even chart

may look like the chart given in Graph 6.5.

6.4.3 Angle of incidence

This is the angle at which the sales line cuts the total cost line (Graphs 6.1 and 6.2). If

the angle is large, the firm (or product) is earning .profit at a high rate. If used in

conjunction with the margin of safety, it indicates an extremely favourable condition.

A small angle of incidence shows that although the firm (or the product) is making

profit, it is being achieved under less favorable conditions.

6.4.4 MULTI-PRODUCT PROFIT GRAPH

When a firm manufactures and sells more than one product of varying profitability; a

Graph 6.5: Curvilinear break- even chart.

136

CVP chart may be drawn to show the relative profitability of different products. This

graph is known as ‘Sequential profit graph’ or ‘Profit path chart’. The following steps

are involved in drawing the graph: (a) The C/S ratio is determined for different

products and products are arranged in order of the descending C/S ratio, i.e. the

product showing the highest C/S ratio is shown first and so on; (b) A statement is

prepared showing the cumulative sales and the cumulative profit; (c) Sales are plotted

on horizontal axis; (d) Fixed cost is plotted on vertical axis below the horizontal axis;

(e) Starting from the fixed cost point a profit path is drawn which terminates at the

profit point reached by the last product; (f) The end of the profit path is connected

with the fixed cost point. This line is called the total profit line; (g) The point of

intersection between the total profit line and the total sale line is called the break-even

point for a group of products.

Example 6.4: A manufacturing company produces three products: P, Q and R. The

following are the results for 2003.

Product Sales (Rs.) Variable cost (Rs.)

P 5000 2000

Q 3000 1800

R 2000 2500

Fixed Costs Rs. 2200

Prepare a marginal cost statement and calculate C/S ratio for the product. Draw a

profit-graph of products and comment on the results.

Solution:

Product P (Rs.) Q (Rs.) R (Rs.) Total (Rs.)

Sales 5,000 3,000 2,000 10,000

Variable cost (2,000) (1,800) (2,500) (6,300)

Contribution 3,000 1,200 (500) 3,700

C/S ratio 100

5000

3000 x 100

3000

1200 x 100

2000

500 x 100

10000

3700 x

= 60% = 40% = 25% = 37%

Break-even point = Fixed cost/ c/s ratio= 2,200/37%= Rs. 5,946.

137

Data for graph

Products are arranged in order of descending C/S ratio.

Product Sales

(Rs.) Cumulative

sales (Rs.) Contribution

(Rs.) Cumulative

contribution

(Rs.)

Fixed

cost

(Rs.)

Cumula

tive

profit

P 5,000 5,000 3,000 3,000 2,200 800

Q 3,000 8,000 1,200 4,200 2,200 2,000

R 2,000 10,000 (500) 3,700 2,200 1,500

Product R’s contribution is negative. Therefore, it should be discontinued, if possible.

The production of P, which has the highest contribution, should be increased.

However, non-cost factors should also be considered before taking the final decision.

6.4.5 Effects of Income Taxes

Generally, we know S-V-F= P or operating income,

After income tax effects, it will

Net income = Operating income - [(Operating income) x (Tax-rate)]

Or Net income = (Operating income) x (1 - Tax rate)

Or Operating income = Net Income/ (1 - Tax rate)

Thus, Revenue - Variable costs - Fixed costs = Net Income/ (1 - Tax rate)

Example 6.5: Football Shoe Company produces different products-all of which has

the same C/S ratio of 20%. The present sale is Rs. 60,000 per month and fixed cost is

Rs. 80,000 per annum. The following information is available from the budgeted

forecasts for the coming year:

Volume of sales No change

Increase in variable cost 5%

Estimated fixed cost Rs. 90,000

You are required to calculate: (a) The present yearly profit and (b) The percentage

increase required in selling prices during the forthcoming budget year in order to

maintain the existing level of profit.

Solution:

(a) The present yearly profit: Rs.

Sales for the current year 60,000 x 12 720000

Variable cost (80% of sales) Contribution (576000)

Fixed cost 144000

138

Present yearly profit (80000)

64000

(b) Percentage increase required in selling price:

Budgeted fixed cost 90000

Required profit 64000

Required contribution 154000

Variable cost (5, 76,000 + 5%) 604800

Required revenue 758800

Increase in price: increase

x%39.5

720000

100)720000758800( =

−

6.4.6 Break-even point and profit planning

Now, in the ensuing examples, we will explain the profit planning decisions.

Example 6.6: A company sells its product at Rs. 15 per unit. In a period, if it

produces and sells 8000 units, it incurs a loss of Rs. 5 per unit; if the volume is raised

to 20000 units, it earns a profit of Rs. 4 per units. Calculate break-even point both in

terms of rupees as well as units.

Solution:

Suppose, the contribution margin is c and fixed cost of F; therefore, contribution on

sale of 8000 units is 8000 c.

Thus,

8000 c = F-8000 x Rs. 5 or 8000c = F-Rs. 40000 (1)

Similarly, on sale of 20000 units, contribution is 20000 c

Thus,

20000c = F + 20000 x Rs. 4 or 20000c = F + Rs. 80000 (2)

Deducting Eq. (1) from Eq. (2) we get:

12000 c = Rs. 120000 or c + Rs. 10

Substituting c = Rs. 10 in Eq., (1) we get F = Rs. 120000

Break-even pointy in units = Rs. 120000/Rs. 10 units = 12000 units,

Break-even point in rupees = 1200 units x Rs. 15 = Rs. 180000.

139

Example 6.7: Indian Traders and Indian Corporation sell the same type of products

in same type of market. Their budgeted profit and loss account for the ending 2003

are as follows:

Indian Traders

Indian Corporation

Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs.

Sales 300000 300000

Variable cost 240000 200000

Fixed costs 30000 (270000) 70000 (270000)

Net Profit 30000 30000

You are required to:

a) Calculated the break-even points of each business; b) Calculated the sales-

volume at which each of the business will earn Rs. 10000 profit; and state which

business is likely to earn greater profit in condition of: Heavy demand for the profit;

and Low demand for the product. Give your reasons.

Solution:

(a) Break-even point

Indian Traders Indian Corporation

(Rs.) (Rs.)

Sales 300000 300000

Variable cost (240000) (200000)

Contribution 60000 100000

C/S ratio= 60000 x 100/300000= 20% 100000x100/ 3000000= 33.33%

Break-even point Rs. 30000 = Rs. 150000 Rs. 70000 = Rs. 21000

20% 33%

(b) Total contribution required:

Fixed costs 30000 70000

Profit required 10000 10000

40000 80000

Rs. 40000/20% Rs. 80000/33.33%

= Rs. 200000 = Rs. 240000

Let the sales volume be a

Profit of Indian Traders: a x 20 % - Rs. 30000 = 0.20 a – 30000

Profit for Indian Corporation: a x 33*1/3 % - Rs. 70000

The profit for both the firms being equal,

0.20a – a/3 – Rs. 30000 + Rs. 70000 = 0 or a = Rs. 300000

140

The C/S ratio of Indian Corporation at 33.33% is higher than that of Indian Traders at

20% Therefore, Indian Corporation will earn a higher profit if the sales volume

exceeds Rs. 300000 level. However, below that level profit for Indian Traders will be

higher. It may be concluded that Indian Corporation is likely to earn a higher profit

under conditions of heavy demand for the product. Similarly, Indian Traders is likely

to earn a higher profit under conditions of low demand for the product.

Example 6.8: Two manufacturing companies, which have the following operating

details, decide to merge.

Company 1

Company 2

Capacity utilization % 90 60

Sale (Rs. Lakh) 540 300

Variable costs (Rs. Lakh) 396 225

Fixed costs (Rs. Lakh) 80 50

Assuming that proposal is implemented, calculate:

(a) Break-even sales of the merged plant and the capacity

utilization at that stage

(b) Profitability of the merged plant at 80% capacity utilization

lakh

(d) When the merged plant is working at a capacity to earn a profit

of Rs. 75 lakh, what percentage increase in selling price is required to

sustain as increase of 5 % in fixed overhead?

Solution: Operating data of the merged plant at 100% capacity:

Company 1 Company 2 Total merged

plant

Capacity 100% 100% 100%

(Rs. lakh) (Rs. lakh) (Rs. lakh)

Sales 54010.90 = 600 30010.60 = 500 1,100

Variable cost 396/0.90 = (440) 22510.60 = (375) (815)

Contribution 160 125 285

Fixed cost (80) (50) ( 130)

Profit 80 75 155

(a) Break-even point of the merged plant:

141

C/S ratio: Contribution x 100/Sales = 285 x 100/1100 = 25.91 %

Break-even point of the merged plant:

Fixed cost of the merged plant/ (c/s ratio) =130/25.91% = Rs. 501.74 lakh

Capacity utilization at break-even level:

= Sale value at break-even level/ Sale value at 100% capacity

= Rs. 501.74 lakh x 100/1100 = 45.6%

(b) Profitability of the merged plant at 80 % capacity utilization:

Sales at 80% capacity utilization = Rs. 1,100 lakh x 80% Rs. 880 lakh

Contribution at 80% capacity = Rs. 880 x 25.91 % Rs. 228 lakh

Fixed cost (Rs. 130 lakh)

Profit Rs. 98 Lakh

Profitability at 80% level 98 x 100/880 = 11.14%

Required contribution: (Rs. 75,000 + 1, 30,000) = Rs. 205 lakh

Sales turnover required: Required contribution

= Rs. 205 lakh = Rs. 781.20

C/S ratio 25:91 %

(d) Required percentage increase in selling price to sustain 5% increase in relaxed

cost:

Fixed cost at current level: Rs. 130 lakh

Increase in fixed cost 5% of Rs. 130 lakh Rs. 6.50 lakh

Hence, additional contribution required Rs. 6.50 lakh

Increase in selling price required =6.5 x 100/791.20 = 0.8215%

Example 6.9: X limited has been offered an order from A Ltd. for 10,000 units of

output @ Rs. 100 each which has a variable cost of Rs. 60 and will involve an outlay

of Rs. 60,000 to set-up jigs and dies. At the same time, there is another offer of B

Ltd., for 8,000 units of output at Rs. 110 each. Variable costs are estimated at Rs. 68

each and involve an outlay of Rs. 50,000 to set-up jigs and dies. Which offer should

the company accept?

Solution:

a) Contribution per units:

Price per unit Rs. 100 Rs. 110

Variable cost per unit (60) (68)

Contribution per unit Rs. 40 Rs. 42

b) Statement of profitability: A Ltd. B Ltd.

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Output of units 10000 8000

Total contribution per unit Rs. 400000 Rs. 336000

Net profit (60000) (50000)

Net profit Rs. 340000 Rs. 286000

Profit from the offer of A Ltd., would be higher as compared to profit from the offer

of B Ltd. Therefore, the offer of A Ltd. should be accepted.

6.5 MARGINAL COSTING TECHNIQUES

Marginal costing technique assumes that fixed costs are given and only variable costs

and revenue can be influenced by short-term managerial actions. Therefore, in the

short-term, profit can be maximised by maximising total contribution, which is the

difference between total revenue and total variable costs. Managers decide the use of

scarce resources to maximise total contribution by evaluating alternative uses of

available resources. Underlying assumptions that fixed costs do not change with

change in the activity level and that there is a linear relationship between revenue and

variable costs, which do not hold good beyond the relevant range. Similarly, in

practice, it is difficult to segregate the total cost into fixed and variable elements

accurately. All these limit the reliability of marginal costing techniques. In spite of

these limitations, the marginal costing technique has emerged as an important

management tool.

6.5.1 PRODUCT MIX

6.5.1.1 Product Profitability

If the same facilities can be used to produce more than one product, contribution per

unit is taken as the profitability index for each product. The assumption is that there is

no limiting factor and there is no limit on the number of units of each product, which

can be produced and sold. In normal absorption costing, fixed costs are apportioned

equitably over products to determine each product's profitability. Apportionment is

based on the estimated usage of common resources by each product. The result may

143

be misleading because it may lead to the conclusion that products, which show a net

loss, should be discontinued.

6.5.1.2 Limiting Factor Analysis

Limiting factor or key factor is defined as anything which limits the activity of an

entity. An entity seeks to optimize the benefit it obtains from the limiting factor.

Examples are a shortage of supply of a resource and a restriction on sales at a

particular price. Limiting factors restrict the number of units that can be produced or

sold. Typical examples of limiting factors are: a) Sales demand in quantity, b) Sales

demand in value, c) A limit to availability of material, d) A limit to availability of a

particular grade of labour, e) A limit to machine capacity, and f) A shortage of

working capital. More than one limiting factor may operate at a particular point in

time. Under such a situation, the factor, which keeps the activity level at the

minimum, should be considered as the key factor. However, the impact of other

factors should also be considered in arriving at the final decision. Optimal utilization

of a scarce resource implies that all the available supply of that resource is used up.

Therefore, the contribution fund can be maximised by maximising the production and

sale of the product, which earns the highest contribution per unit of the limiting factor.

Thus, to determine the optimum production plan, the contribution per unit of the

limiting factor for each product is calculated and products are ranked in descending

order of contribution per unit of the limiting factor.

Example 6.10: A firm can produce two products A and B. The following are the cost

structures:

Product A (Rs.) Product B (Rs.)

Selling price per unit 20 22

Variable manufacturing cost per unit 5 6

Variable selling expenses per unit 3 2

Labour hours per unit 2 3

144

Total available labour hours are 1,200 per week. Assuming that the availability of

labour hours is the only limiting factor, determine which product should be

manufactured and sold.

Solution:

Contribution Statement

Product A Product B

(a) Selling price Rs.20 Rs.22

(b) Variable costs:

Manufacturing 5 6

Selling expenses 3

Total cost per unit Rs. 8

Rs. 8

(d) Labour hours per unit 2 3

(e) Contribution per labour hour (c/d) Rs. 6 Rs. 4.67

If the firm utilizes all the available machine hours to produce product A, it will earn a

total contribution of Rs. 6 x 1,200, i.e. Rs. 7,200. On the other hand, if it uses the

available labour hours to produce product B, it will earn a total contribution of Rs.

4.67 x 1,200, i.e. Rs. 5,600. Therefore, product A should be manufactured. This can

also be verified as follows:

Product A Product B

(a) Available labour hour Rs. 1200 Rs. 1200

(b) Labour hours per unit 2 3

(d) Contribution per unit Rs. 12 Rs. 14

Total contribution (c x d) Rs. 7200 Rs. 5600

These calculations show that product A is more profitable than B. The same result

was reflected by the method of ranking products based on the contribution per labour

hour. Determination of the limiting factor poses problems because it changes rapidly.

A detailed analysis of the economic environment and the supply market of various

resources as well as internal factors are necessary to identify potential limiting factors.

Identification of limiting factors facilitates performance planning. The determination

145

of limiting factor is comparatively simple when only one product is produced or when

more than one product is produced using the same raw materials, labour and other

resources using the same process. However, it becomes very complex when a number

of products are manufactured from a variety of materials with different types of

labour using different types of machines or applying different processes. When there

is more than one limiting factor operating at a particular point in time, the profit

maximising budget could be determined by formulating and solving a linear

programming problem. This is beyond the scope of this book. However, simpler

decision models may be used when activities are restricted by only two limiting

factors.

6.5.2 MAKE OR BUY DECISION

If no limiting factor is in operation, the decision to buy or to manufacture a product

rests on whether the bought-out price of an article is lower than its marginal cost. The

fixed cost is irrelevant for our decision because fixed cost will not change as a result

of buying the product/component from outside. If the bought-out price of an article is

lower than its marginal cost, it will be profitable to buy the article from outside in all

circumstances. The firm will save marginal cost and will spend lower than the

marginal cost to buy the article. If the bought-out price is higher than the marginal

cost, the total cost of production will increase, if the firm decides to buy the article

from outside. Therefore, if it has a choice, it will buy the article for which the

difference between the bought-out price and the marginal cost is the lowest among

article under consideration. If a limiting factor is in operation, the excess of bought-

out price over marginal cost per unit of the limiting factor is to be considered. The

article having the lowest excess of bought out price over its marginal cost per unit of

the limiting factor will be selected for buying out from outside.

146

Example 6.11: The cost of manufacturing and bought-out prices of four articles is as

follows:

Article A B C D

Production cost per article:

Marginal cost Rs. 10.00 Rs. 12.00 Rs. 15.00 Rs. 15.00

Fixed cost 2.00 4.00 5.00 15.00

Total cost 12.00 16.00 20.00 30.00

Production per-man hour 0.25 0.20 0.20 0.33

Production per machine hour 1.00 0.50 0.25 0.20

Bought-out price Rs. 9.00 Rs. 17.00 Rs. 22.00 Rs. 26.00

Rank the products in the order of your preference for buying them from outside (a)

when there is no limiting factor; (b) if man-hour is the limiting factor, (c) if machine

capacity is the limiting factor.

Solution:

Articles A B C D

Bought-out price per unit Rs. 9.00 Rs. 17.00 Rs. 22.00 Rs. 26.00

Marginal cost (per unit) of

production 10.00 12.00 15.00 15.00

Excess of bought-out price

over

marginal cost per article

-1.00 5.00 7.00 11.00

Excess per man-hour -1.00 x 0.25

= - 0.25 5.00 x 0.20

= 1.00 7.00 x 0.20

= 1.40 11.00 x 0.33

= 3.63

Excess per machine hour -1.00 x 1

= -1.00 5.00 x 0.50

= 2.50 7.00 x 0.25

= 1.75 11.00 x 0.20

= 2.20

In case of article A, the bought-out price is lower than the marginal cost, hence to

purchase A from outside is always profitable.

Ranking of products in order of preference for buying out:

(a) When there is no limiting factor 1st A, 2nd B, 3rd C, 4th D

(b) When man-power is the limiting factor 1st A, 2nd B, 3rd C, 4th D

6.5.3 DECISION ON METHODS OF MANUFACTURING

Marginal costing technique can be used to choose from alternative methods of

manufacturing. The method, which generates the highest contribution, is the most

desirable method. The decision, therefore, rests on the contribution per unit or the

contribution per unit of the limiting factor, if a limiting factor is identified.

147

Example 6.12: An undertaking is producing an article, the selling price of which is

Rs. 20 per unit. A decision has to be taken whether:

(a) to produce by hand (Method A); or

(b) to produce by machine, one operator to one machine (Method B); or

(d) to produce by machine, one operator to three machines (Method D).

The cost of manufacturing the article by different methods is as follows:

Method A B C D

Cost per article (Rs.):

Material 1 unit 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00

Direct labour @ Rs. 3 per man-hour 5.00 3.00 1.70 1.50

Variable overhead @ Rs. 2 per man-hour 3.30 2.00 1.10 1.00

Variable overhead @ Re. 1 per machine-

Hour - 1.00 1.10 1.50

Total marginal cost 13.30 11.00 8.90 9.00

Fixed overhead @ Re. 1 per man-hour 1.70 1.00 0.90 0.50

Fixed overhead @ Rs. 6 per machine-

Hour - 6.00 6.60 9.00

Total cost 15.00 18.00 16.40 18.50

Production per man-hour 0.60 1.00 1.75 2.00

Production per machine-hour - 1.00 0.875 0.66

Solution:

Method A B C D

Selling prices per unit (Rs.) 20.00 20.00 20.00 20.00

Marginal cost per unit (Rs.) (13.30) (11.00) (8.90) (9.00)

Contribution per unit 6.70 9.00 11.10 11.00

Contribution per unit of material

6.70/1

= Rs. 6.70 9.00/1

= Rs. 9.00 11.10/1

= Rs. 11.00 11.00/1

= Rs. 11.00

Contribution per man hour

6.70 x 0.6

= Rs. 4.20 9.00 x 1

= Rs. 9.00 11.10 x 1.75

= Rs. 19.40 11.00 x 2

= Rs. 22.00

Contribution per machine hour

9.00 x 1

= Rs. 9.00 11.10 x 0.875

= Rs. 9.70 11.00 x 0.66

= Rs. 7.30

If there is no limiting factor, Method C should be selected as it generates the highest

contribution per unit. If a limiting factor is in operation, the method to be adopted

should be the one, which gives the highest contribution per unit of the limiting factor.

Thus,

(a) If material is the limiting factor, method C should be adopted.

148

(b) If man-power is the limiting factor, method D should be adopted.

6.5.4 SHUTTING DOWN DECISIONS

Marginal costing technique can be used in deciding whether to discontinue a section

of the business. If we assume that discontinuance will not influence the total fixed

costs of the firm, the decision will hinge on whether the particular section of the

business is contributing towards fixed overheads. Closure of an activity, which

generates positive contribution, reduces the current operating profit or increases the

operating loss. In certain situations, a part of the fixed cost is avoided by temporary

closure. In such a situation, if avoidable fixed cost is higher than expected

contribution, the business segment should be closed.

Example 6.13: A company making a single product has a factory at Howrah (near

Kolkata) and distributes its product through three depots situated in Kolkata, Kanpur

and Chennai. It is estimated that during the year 1, 00,000 units will be manufactured

and sold at a price of Rs. 30 per unit, the sales being spread is as follows:

Kolkata 70,000 units

Kanpur 20,000 units

Chennai 10,000 units

Standard costs of production are:

Direct materials Rs. 6 per unit

Direct wages Rs. 5 per unit

Factory variable overheads 160% of direct wages

Factory fixed overheads Rs. 6, 00,000 per annum

The cost of selling and distribution incurred by the depots are:

Calcutta Kanpur Chennai

Fixed Cost per annum 100000 70,000 30000

Variable cost (% of sales value) 10% 8% 7%

The budget for the business prepared from these figures caused the management to

consider the closure of Kanpur and/or Chennai depots. If this is done, all sales in these

areas will be lost, but sales from the Kolkata depot will remain unaffected.

149

You are required to

(a) Prepare a budget for the business from the figures provided; and

(b) Advise the management on the desirability of closing down Kanpur and Chennai

depots.

Solution:

This presentation shows that operations of Kanpur and Chennai depots have resulted

in losses and this leads the management to consider their closure. An alternative

presentation using the marginal cost approach helps the management to take correct

decision.

Kolkata Kanpur Chennai Total

Sales 2100 600 300 3000

Variable costs of production

Direct materials 600

Direct wages 500

Variable factory overheads 800

Allocated pro-rata to units 1330 380 190 1900

770 220 110 1,100

Variable costs of selling and distribution 210 48 21 279

Contribution to all fixed expenses 560 172 89 821

Fixed costs of selling and distribution assuming 100 70 30 200

that they are specific to each depot

Contribution to fixed factory overheads 460 102 59 621

Fixed factory overheads 600

Net profit. 21

Calcutta Kanpur Chennai Total

Unit 70,000 20,000 10.000 100,000

Sales Rs. '000 Rs. '000 Rs. '000 Rs. '000

2,100 600 300 3000

Production Cost :

Direct Material 600

Direct Wages 500

Factor Variable

overheads 800

Factory fixed overheads 600

Allocated pro-rata to

units 1,750 500 250 2500

Gross Profit 350 100 50 500

Selling and distribution

Variable 210 48 21 279

Fixed 100 70 30 200

Local costs 310 118 51 479

Net Profit/(loss) 40 (18) (1) 21

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This presentation shows that sales at Kanpur and Chennai depots make contribution of

Rs. 1, 02,000 and Rs. 59,000 respectively, towards fixed factory overheads.

Therefore, none of those two depots should be closed down. In the above

presentation, it is assumed that fixed selling and distribution costs could be avoided

by closing those depots. This may not happen in the short term.

6.5.5 MARGINAL COST AND PRODUCT PRICING

A long-term pricing policy should aim to recover more than the 'full cost' to ensure a

reasonable return on capital employed. A firm cannot survive if it has to sell its

products continuously below 'full cost'. Marginal cost may be used as a basis for

short-term pricing decisions. Usually, marginal cost is used to determine prices for

non-repetitive orders under difficult business conditions or to use spare capacity when

acceptance of lower contributions and profit margins may be necessary. When

capacity is unused, acceptance of an order with lower contribution helps partial

recovery of the fixed cost. Factors to be considered in fixing selling prices when

demand is below normal are the amount and the rate of contribution which the

proposed selling price would yield; probability of securing an order with higher

contribution during the period of execution of the order; proposed concession, when

compared with the normal selling price on full cost basis; probable adverse effects on

future sales. When one or more resources are scarce, (e.g. material is scarce), the first

consideration must be to reserve the same for orders that would yield the highest

contribution per unit of the scarce resource (the limiting factor). A decision to sell at a

lower price might also have an adverse effect on the firm's general level of selling

prices in its established market. This aspect should also be carefully examined before

accepting an order with contribution lower than the normal contribution.

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Other factors, which strongly justify acceptance of an order with lower contribution at

the time adverse trade situations, are to: (a) hold together the skilled labour force; (b)

keep the plant and machinery in operation and the workers busy; (c) utilize materials

already received; (d) avoid costs involved in the closing and re-opening of the plant;

(e) maintain the sales of complementary products at a satisfactory level; and (f)

maintain position in established markets to avoid additional sales promotion expenses

in reestablishing the markets.

Selling below full cost prices, even under a normal situation, may be adopted in order

to: (a) introduce a new product, (b) execute an order in a special market segment (say,

defense supply) which is immune from other market segments; (c) expand the export

market; and (d) dispose of a product which deteriorates fast.

Example 6.14: The Everest Snow company manufactures and sells direct to

consumers 10,000 jars of 'Everest Snow' per month at Rs. 1.25 per jar. The company's

normal production capacity is 20,000 jars of snow per month. An analysis of cost for

10,000 jars is given below:

Direct material Rs. 1000

Direct labour 2475

Power 140

Miscellaneous supplies 430

Jars 600

Fixed expenses of manufacturing, selling and administration 7955

Total Rs. 12600

The company has received an offer for the export, under a different brand name for

1, 20,000 jars of snow at 10,000 jars per month at 75 paise a jar. Write a short report

on the advisability or otherwise of accepting the offer.

Solution:

Statement of Contribution from the Export Order

Selling price per unit Rs. 0.7500

Variable cost per unit:

Direct material Rs. 1,000/10,000 0.1000

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Direct labour Rs. 2,475/10,000 0.2475

Power Rs. 140/10,000 0.0140

Misc. supplies Rs. 430/10,000 0.0430

Jars Rs. 600/10,000 0.0600 (0.4645)

Contribution margin per unit Rs. 2855

Contribution per month: Rs. 0.2855 x 10,000 Rs. 2855

Acceptance of the export order would result in incremental contribution of Rs. 2,855

per month. The following statement reveals monthly profit, with and without

acceptance of order.

Present position Proposed offer Total

(10,000 jars) (10000 jars) (20000 jars)

Sale Value Rs. 12,500 7500 20000

Variable cost of sales @ Rs. 0.4645 (4,645) (4,645) (9290)

Contribution 7,855 2855 10710

Fixed Cost (7,955) - (7955)

Profit -100 2855 2755

It is advisable to accept the order provided:

(a) interest on incremental working capital would be lower than the total contribution

from the export order;

(b) acceptance of the export order with lower contribution would not adversely affect

the price in home-maker or the future sales;

(d) there is no possibility of securing an order with higher contribution during the

period of execution of the order.

Example 6.15: AB Ltd. manufactures three products X, Y, and Z. Standard selling

process and costs have been established for 2003 as follows: .

X Y Z

Selling price per unit Rs. 28 Rs. 60 Rs. 125

Direct materials per unit 8 15 20

Direct wages per unit 10 20 50

Variable overheads per unit 5 10 25

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Direct wages are paid at the rate of Rs. 2 per hour in each case. Fixed overheads are

budgeted at Rs. 25,000 for the coming year.. In the short run, the company cannot

increase its direct labour strength and as a result, only 35,000 direct labour hours will

be available in the coming year. The company has commitments to produce 500 units

of each product. It has been suggested that after meeting the minimum requirements

for X, Y and Z, the balance of available direct labour hours should be used to produce

product Z. You are required:

A) To prepare an income statement showing the expected results if the proposal is

adopted.

B) Comment on the statement you have produced in (a) and prepare an income

statement for any alternative policy, which you consider would be more

profitable.

C) Basing your calculations on your suggestion in (b), show the company's break-

even point in terms of units and sales value.

D) Show the sale value which is required to produce an after tax return of 10% on

capital employed of Rs. 1, 00,000 assuming tax rate of 50%.

Solution:

(a) Income Statement Showing Results if the Proposal is Adopted (Rs. '000)

Product X Product Y Product Z Total

1. Sales value 14.00 30.00 137.50 181.50

2. Variable costs:

Direct materials 4.00 7.50 22.00 33.50

Direct wages 5.00 10.00 55.00 70.00

Variable overheads 2.50 5.00 27.50 35.00

Total 11.50 22.50 104.50 138.50

3. Contribution fund (1 - 2) 2.50 7.50 33.00 43.00

4. Fixed overheads 25.00

5. Operating profit (3 - 4) 18.00

Thus, the operating profit will be Rs. 18,000.

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Notes: (i) Total available direct labour hours 35,000

Labour hours to be utilized to meet commitments:

(500 x 5 + 500 x 10 + 500 x 25) 20,000

Balance hours available 15,000

(ii) Additional units of Z to be produced 15,000/25, i.e. 600 units

Thus, total production of Z will be (500 + 600), i.e. 1,100 units

(iii) Required direct labour hours for each unit of production of

X: 10/12, i.e. 5 hours, Y: 20/2, i.e. 10 hours and Z: 50/2, i.e. 25 hours.

(b) Profitability Statement

Product X Product Y Product Z

1. Selling price Rs.28 Rs.60 Rs. 125

2. Variable costs per unit:

Direct materials 8 15 20

Direct wages 10 20 50

Variable overheads 5 10 25

Total Rs.23 Rs.45 Rs.95

3. Contribution per unit (1 - 2) Rs. 5 Rs.15 Rs.30

4. Required labour hours per unit 5 10 25

5. Contribution per labour hour (3/4) Re. 1.00 Rs. 1.50 Rs. 1.20

6. Ranking III I II

Availability of labour hours being limited, AB Ltd. should produce as many unit of T

as possible. There being no restriction on the units of Y that can be sold, available

labour hours, after meeting the commitments for products X and Z should be allocated

to Y. Thus, optimal product mix is:

Product Units to be produced Allocated Labour hours

X 500 2500

Y 2,500 20000 (Balancing figure)

Z 500 12500

35,000

Income Statement with the above Alternative

Products Total

155

X Y Z (Rs. ‘000)

Contribution 2.5 30.00 15.00 47.50

Fixed costs 25.00

Operating profit (1 - 2) 22.50

Contribution from committed production and sales:

Production X: 500 x Rs. 05.00 Rs. 2,500

Production Y: 500 x Rs. 15.00 7,500

Production Z: 500 x Rs. 30.00 15,000

Rs. 25,000

Fixed cost being Rs. 25,000, break-even sales of AB Ltd. is sales of 500 units of each

of the three products X, Y and Z. Break-even sales in terms of value is (500 x 28 +

500 x 60 + 500 x 125), i.e. Rs. 1,06,500.

(d) Sales value to earn a post-tax return of 10% on capital employed

Required return 10% of Rs. 1,00,000 i.e. Rs. 10,000

Required operating profit = 20,000 Rs.

50.0

10,000 Rs.

0.50)(1

10,000 Rs.

ratetax (1

return Required ==

−

Committed sales will earn contribution enough to meet fixed costs. Therefore, to earn

an operating profit of Rs. 20,000 additional units of Y is to be sold to earn a

contribution of Rs. 20,000. Thus, the total number of units of Y to be sold is (500 +

Rs. 20,000/15) i.e. 1,833.33 or 1,834 units.

Thus, total sale value is

X: 500 x Rs. 28 = Rs. 14,000

Y: 1,834 x Rs. 60 = Rs. 1,10,040

Z: 500 x Rs. 125 = Rs. 62,500

Total = Rs. 1, 86,540

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Example 6.16: The costs per unit of the three products A, Band C of a company are

given below:

Product A Product B Product C

Direct material Rs.20 Rs.16 Rs. 18

Direct labour 12 14 12

Variable expenses 8 10 6

Fixed expenses 6 6 4

46 46 40

Profit 18 14 12

Selling price 64 60 52

No. of units produced 10,000 5,000 8,000

Production arrangements are such that if one product is given up the production of the

other can be raised by 50%. The directors propose that C should be given up because

the contribution from the product is the lowest. Present suitable analysis of the data

indicating whether the proposal should be accepted.

Solution:

Statement Showing Contribution per Unit

Product A Product B Product C

Selling price per unit Rs. 64 Rs.60 Rs.52

Variable costs: Direct material Rs.20 Rs. 16 Rs.18

Direct labour 12 14 12

Variable expenses 8 10 6

Rs.40 Rs.40 Rs.36

Contribution per unit Rs.24 Rs.20 Rs. 16

In the absence of any limiting factor, the company should produce as many units of A

as possible. In case a limiting factor is in operation, contribution per unit of the

limiting factor should be used to measure profitability. In this particular case, the

limiting factor is not clearly spelt out, although a restrictive condition is specified. It

indicates the discontinuance of a product, which will result in the increase in

production of other products by 50%. In this situation, a decision to abandon a

product line should consider incremental contribution from each of the three

alternatives, giving up either product A or product B or product C.

Alternative I- Discontinue product A

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Additional contribution:

Product B: 0.5 x 5,000 x Rs. 20 = Rs. 50,000

Product C: 0.5 x 8,000 x Rs. 16 = Rs. 64,000 Rs. 1,14,000

Loss of contribution A: 10,000 x Rs. 24 (Rs. 2, 40,000)

Incremental contribution (Rs. 1, 26,000)

Alternative II-Discontinue product B

Additional contribution:

Product A: 0.5 x 10,000 x Rs. 24 = Rs. 1,20,000

C: 0.5 x 8,000 x Rs. 16 = Rs. 64,000 Rs.1, 84,000

Loss of contribution B: 5,000 x Rs. 20 (1, 00,000)

Incremental contribution Rs. 84,000

Alternative III-Discontinue product C

Additional contribution:

Product A: 0.5 x 10,000 x Rs. 24 = Rs. 1,20,000

B: 0.5 x 5,000 x Rs. 20 = Rs. 50,000 Rs. 1, 70,000

Loss of contribution A: 8,000 x Rs. 16 (1, 28,000)

Incremental contribution Rs. 42,000

Incremental contribution is highest from alternative II (discontinuance of product B),

and therefore, the decision to discontinue product C is sub-optimal. Product B should

be discontinued for maximising profit and proposal to discontinue product C should

not be accepted.

6.6 SUMMARY

Cost-volume-profit (CVP) analysis is the study of the effect on future profit of

changes in fixed cost, variable cost, selling price, sales quantity and sales mix. CVP

analysis assumes that the cost structure and the relationships between fixed costs,

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variable cost and selling price will remain valid during the period under consideration.

Therefore, the analysis produces useful results for decisions within the 'relevant range'

and the ‘relevant period’. Moreover, there are certain simplistic assumptions

underlying the CVP analysis which limit the precision and reliability of the result of

the analysis. CVP analysis uses a simple equation, which captures the relationships

between different variables. Graphical methods are also used for the study. A break-

even chart represents the relationships between different variables. Managers use

different variations of the simple breakeven chart.

In this chapter, we have discussed the use of cost information for tactical decisions.

Tactical decisions are short-term decisions that aim at maximizing operating profit,

with available facilities. Therefore, usually such decisions take into consideration

marginal costs only. However, sometimes short-term decision influence fixed costs,

e.g. additional advertising expenses. Thus, incremental fixed expenses cannot be

ignored. Marginal costing technique is used to determine optimal product-mix. A firm

maximizes operating profit by producing products, which contribute highest towards

fixed costs and profit. Therefore, contribution per unit of the limiting factor is used as

profitability index. The limiting factor is the scarce resource or any other factor,

which restricts the activity level. Often other restrictive conditions determine the

optimal product-mix. Marginal costing technique is used to decide whether a

component is to be manufactured or to be purchased from outside. If spare capacity is

available, the product should be manufactured only if variable-manufacturing cost is

lower than purchase price. If spare capacity is not available, manufacturing decision

results in the discontinuance of another product. Therefore, loss of contribution due to

discontinuance should be added to the costs of manufacturing and the total should be

compared with the purchase price. If the firm has no choice but to purchase some

159

components from outside, it decides in favour of the component, manufacturing of

which generates savings lowest among the alternative products. For short-term

decisions on methods of manufacturing or temporary shut down of plant/ business,

managers use marginal costing technique-considerations are similar to those discussed

above.

6.7 SELF-TEST QUESTIONS

1. Define 'marginal costing'. How are variable costs and fixed costs treated in

marginal costing? Give a journal entry for overhead accounts under marginal

costing.

2. What are the important areas of management decisions opened up by the

application of marginal costing technique? Answer briefly and to the point.

3. Explain CVP analysis and Break-even-point analysis.

4. In a purely competitive market, 10,000 pocket transistors can be manufactured

and sold, and a certain profit is generated. It is estimated that 2,000 pocket

transistors need to be manufactured and sold in a monopoly market to earn the

same profit. Profit under both the conditions is targeted at Rs. 2, 00,000. The

variable cost per transistor is Rs. 100 and the total fixed cost is Rs. 37,000. You

are required to find out the unit selling prices both under monopoly and

competitive conditions. (Ans: A: Rs. 218.50, B: Rs. 123.70).

5. Y Company has just been incorporated and plans to produce a product that will

sell for Rs. 10 per unit. Preliminary market survey shows that demand will be

around 10,000 units per year. The company has the choice of buying one of the

two machines, each of which has a capacity of 10,000 units per year. Machine A

would have fixed costs of Rs. 30,000 per year and would yield a profit of Rs.

30,000 per year on the sale of 10,000 units. Machine B would have fixed costs of

160

Rs. 18,000 per year and would yield a profit of Rs. 22,000 per year on the sale of

10,000 units. Variable costs behave linearly for both machines. Required:

(a) Break-even sales for each machine.

(b) Sales level where both machines are equally profitable.

(Ans.: (a) 5000 units, 4500 units; (b) 6,000 units; (c) As the C/S ratio in the case

of Machine A (60%) is higher than the C/S ratio in the case of Machine B (40%),

profit in the case of Machine A increases at a faster pace as compared to the

increase in profit in the case of Machine B beyond the break-even point. From the

fact that at the output level of 6,000 units both machines are equally profitable, it

is obvious that below 6,000 units output level, profit from Machine B is higher as

compared to profit from Machine A and beyond 6,000 units output level, profit

from machine A is more).

6. A company has an opening stock of 6,000 units of output. The production planned

for the current period is 24,000 units and expected sales for the current period

amounted to 28,000 units. The selling price per unit of output is Rs. 10. Variable

cost per unit is expected to be Rs. 6 per unit while it was only Rs. 5 per unit

during the previous period. What is the break-even volume for the current period

if the total fixed costs for the current period are Rs. 86,000? Assume that the first-

in-first-out system is followed. (Ans.: 20,000 units).

7. (Closure of product line) A Ltd. manufactures three products and the cost

particulars for a year are as follows:

Product X (Rs.) Product Y(Rs.) Product Z

Sales 2, 00,000 4, 00,000 2,50,000

Material 1, 00,000 1, 50,000 1, 25,000

Labour cost 30,000 50,000 40,000

161

Variable overheads 10,000 20,000 25,000

Fixed Overheads 35,000 50,000 25,000

The company imports one of the raw materials, which is used in the manufacture

of all products. The consumption of material is as follows:

X - 2,000 kgs.

Y - 5,000 kgs.

Z - 3,000 kgs.

There is a restriction on the import of the material. The management is planning to

close down one of the lines of product and utilize the material for other two lines

to improve the profitability. As the secretary of the company, prepare a report for

the closure of one line for improving the profitability.

(Ans.: Contribution per kg of imported material X: Rs. 30, Y: Rs. 36, Z: Rs. 20).

8. (Product-mix) Mega Corporation manufactures and sells three products to the

automobile industry. All the products must pass through a machining process, the

capacity of which is limited to 20,000 hours per annum, both by equipment design

and government regulation. The following additional information is available:

Product X (Rs.) Product Y (Rs.) Product Z

Selling price Rs./ unit 1,900 2,400 4,000

Variable cost Rs./ unit 700 1200 2800

Machine requirement hrs./ unit 3 2 1

Maximum possible sales units10,000 2,000 1,000

Required: A statement showing the best possible production mix which would

provide the maximum profit for Mega Corporation, together with supporting

work.

(Ans.: Product-mix X: 5,000 units, Y: 2,000 units, Z: 1,000 units. Total

contribution = Rs. 96,000).

8. (Acceptance of export order) A company produces a single product which is sold

by it presently in the domestic market at Rs. 75 per unit. The present production

and sales is 40,000 units per month representing 50% of the capacity available.

The cost data of the product are as under:

Variable cost per unit Rs. 50

Fixed cost per month Rs. 10 lakh.

162

With a view to improve the profitability, the management has three proposals on

hand as under: (a) to accept an export supply order for 30,000 units per month at a

reduced price of Rs. 60 per unit, incurring additional variable costs of Rs. 5 per

unit towards export packing, duties etc.; (b) to increase the domestic market sales

by selling to a domestic chain stores 30,000 units at Rs. 55 per unit, retaining the

existing sales at the existing price; (c) to reduce the selling price for the increased

domestic sales as advised by the sales department as under:

Reduce selling price per unit by Rs. Increase in sales expected (in units)

5 10,000

8 30,000

11 35,000

Prepare a table to present the results of the above proposals and give your

comments and advise on the proposals.

(Ans.: Operating profits: Current Nil, Proposal (a) Rs. 1,50,000; Proposal (b) Rs.

1,50,000, Proposal (c) Selling price 70 Rs. Nil, S.P. Rs. 67, Rs. 1, 90,000, S.P. Rs.

64, Rs.50, 000).

6.8 SUGGESTED READINGS

1. Ashish K. Bhattacharya, Principles and Practices of Cost Accounting (3rd.),

New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India Private Limited, 2004.

2. Charles T. Horngren, Cost Accounting, A Managerial Emphasis, Prentice Hall

Inc., 1973.

3. D. T. Decoster and E. L. Schafer, Management Accounting, New York: John

Willey and Sons, 1979.

4. John G. Blocker and Wettmer W. Keith, Cost Accounting, New Delhi: Tata

McGraw Publishing Co. Ltd., 1976.

5. R. K. Sharma and Shashi K. Gupta, Management Accounting-Principles and

Practice (7th.), New Delhi: Kalyani Publishers, 1996.

163

Objective: The present lesson explains the various facets of a standard costing system.

LWSSON STRUCTURE

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Meaning of Standard Cost And Standard Costing

7.3 Steps involved in Standard Costing

7.4 Standard Costing Vs. Budgetary Control

7.5 Standard Costs and Estimated Costs

7.6 Advantages of Standard Costing

7.7 Limitations of Standard Costing

7.8 Preliminaries for Establishing Standard Costing System

7.9 Analysis of Variances

7.10 Accounting Treatment of Variances

7.11 Summary

7.12 Self-Test Questions

7.13 Suggested Readings

7.1 INTRODUCTION

The basic function of management accounting is to facilitate the managerial control in

a business unit or organisation. Management control is the process of evaluating

performance and applying corrected measures, if required, so that performance takes

place according to plans. The major aspect of managerial control is cost control. And

the ‘Standard Costing’ is that technique which helps management to control costs and

COURSE: MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

COURSE CODE: MC-105 AUTHOR: SURINDER SINGH KUNDU

LESSON: 07 VETTER: PROF. H. L. VERMA

STANDARD COSTING

164

business operations. It aims at eliminating wastes and increasing efficiency in

performance through setting up standards or formulating different cost plans.

7.2 MEANING OF STANDARD COST AND STANDARD COSTING

The word ‘standard’ means a benchmark or gauge. The ‘standard cost’

is a predetermined cost which determines in advance what each

product or service should cost under given circumstances. Backer and

Jacobsen define “Standard cost is the amount the firm thinks a

product or the operation of a process for a period of time should cost,

based upon certain assumed conditions of efficiency, economic

conditions and other factors”. Chartered Institute of Management

Accountants, London defines standard cost as “a predetermined cost

which is calculated from management’s standards of efficient

operation and the relevant necessary expenditure”. They are the

predetermined costs based on technical estimate of material, labour

and overhead for a selected period of time and for a prescribed set of

working conditions.

The technique of using standard costs for the purposes of cost control

is known as standard costing. Brown and Howard define “standard

costing is a technique of cost accounting which compares the

standard cost of each product or service with actual cost to determine

the efficiency of the operation so that any remedial action may be

taken immediately”. The terminology of Cost Accountancy defines

standard costing as “the preparation and use of standard costs, their

comparison with actual costs, and the analysis of variance to their

causes, and points of incidence”. The London Institute of Cost and

Works Accountants define it as "An estimate cost, prepared in

advance of production or supply correlating a technical specification of

material and labour to the price and wage rates estimated for a

selected period of time, with an addition of the apportionment of

overheads expenses estimated for the same period within a prescribed

set of working conditions”. Further, it is a system of cost accounting,

165

which is designed to find out how much should be the cost of a

product under the existing conditions. The actual cost can be

ascertained only when production is undertaken. The predetermined

cost is compared to the actual cost and a variance between the two

enables the management to take necessary corrective measures.

7.3 STEPS INVOLVED IN STANDARD COSTING

The technique of standard costing involves the determination of cost before occurring.

The standard cost is based on technical information after considering the impact of

current conditions. With the change in condition, the cost also can be modified so as

to make it more realistic. The standard cost is divided into standards for materials,

labour and overheads. The actual cost is recorded when incurred. The standard cost is

compared to the actual cost. The difference between the two costs is known as

variance. The variances are calculated element wise. The management can take

corrective measures to set the things right on the basis of different variances.

The basic purpose of standard costing is to determine efficiency or inefficiency in

manufacturing a particular product. This will be possible only if both standard costs

and actual costs are given side by side. Though standard costing system will be useful

for all types of commercial and industrial undertakings but it will be more useful in

those undertakings where production is standardized. It will be of less use in job

costing system because every job has different specifications and it will' be difficult to

determine standard costs for every job.

7.4 STANDARD COSTING Vs. BUDGETARY CONTROL

In budgetary control, budgets are used as a means of planning and control. The targets

of various segments are set in advance and actual performance is compared with

predetermined objects. In this way management can assess the performance of

different departments. On the other hand, standard costing also set standards and

enables to determine efficiency on the basis of standards and actual performance.

166

Budgetary control is essential to determine standard costs, whereas, the standard

costing system is necessary for planning budgets. In budgetary control the budgets are

prepared for the concern as a whole whereas in standard costing the standards are set

for producing a product or for providing a service. In standard costing, unit concept is

used while in budgetary control total concept is used. The budgets are fixed on the

basis of past records and future expectations. Standard costs are fixed on the basis of

technical information. Standard costs are planned costs and these are expected in

future. As far as scope is concerned, in case of budgetary control it is much wider than

standard costing. Budgets are prepared for incomes, expenditures and other functions

of the departments such as purchase, sale, production, finance and personnel

department. In contrary, standards are set up for expenditures only and, therefore, for

manufacturing departments standards are set for different elements of cost i.e.,

material, labour and overheads.

Further, in budgetary control, the targets of expenditure are set and these targets

cannot be exceeded. In this system the emphasis is on keeping the expenditures within

the budgeted figures. In standard costing the standards are set and an attempt is made

to achieve these standards. The emphasis is on achieving the standards. Actual costs

may be more than the standard costs and there can be no such thing in budgetary

control. The budgetary control system can be applied partly or wholly. Budgets may

be prepared for some departments and may not be prepared for all the departments. If

a concern is interested in preparing production budget only, it is free to do so.

Standard costing cannot be used partially; it will have to be used wholly. The

standards will have to be set for all elements of cost. In fact, the systems operate in

two different fields and both are complimentary in nature.

7.5 STANDARD COSTS AND ESTIMATED COSTS

167

The standard costs and estimated costs both are used to determine price in advance.

The purpose of both of them is to control cost. They follow the same accounting

principles. Despite similarities, they differ in terms of objects and purpose. Estimated

costs are based on historical accounting. It is an estimate of what the cost will be. It is

a cost of guesswork or reasonable estimate for the costs in future. On the other hand

standard costs are based on scientific analysis and engineering studies. Standard

costing determines what the cost should be. Standard costs are used as a device for

measuring efficiency. The standards are predetermined and a comparison of standards

with actual costs enables to determine the efficiency of the concern. Estimated costs

cannot be used to determine efficiency. It only determines the expected costs. An

effort is made that estimated cost should almost be near to actual costs. The purpose

of determining estimated costs is to find out selling price in advance to take a decision

whether to produce or to make and also to prepare financial budgets. Estimated costs

do not serve the purpose of cost control. On the other hand standard costs are helpful

in cost control. The analysis of variance enables to take corrective measures, if

necessary. Standard costs are not easily changed. The standards are set in such a way

that small changes in conditions do not require a change in standards. Estimated costs

are revised with the change in conditions. They are made more realistic by

incorporating changes in prices. Standard costs are more static than estimated costs.

Estimated costs are used by the concern using historical costing. Standard costing is

used by those concerns which use standard costing system. Standard costing is a part

of cost accounting process while estimated costs are statistical in nature and as such

they may not become a part of accounting.

7.6 ADVANTAGES OF STANDARD COSTING

Standard costing is not only helpful for cost control purposes but it is also useful in

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production planning and policy formulation. It derives following advantages:

1. Measurement of Efficiency: It is a tool for assessing the efficiency after

comparing the actual costs with standard costs to enable the management to evaluate

performance of various cost centres. By comparing actual costs with standard costs

variances are determined and management is able to identify the place of

inefficiencies. It can fix responsibility for deviation in performance. A regular check

on various expenditures is also ensured by standard costing system. The standards are

being constantly analyzed and an effort is made to improve efficiency. Whenever a

variance occurs the reasons are studied and immediate corrective measures are

undertaken.

2. Production and Price Policy Formulation: It becomes easy to formulate

production plans by taking into account standard costs. It is also supportive for

finding prices of various products. In case, tenders are to be submitted or prices are to

be quoted in advance then standard costing produces necessary data for price fixation.

3. Reduction of Work: In this system, management is supplied with useful

information and necessary information is recorded and redundant data are avoided.

The report presentation is simplified and only required information is presented in

such a form that management is able to interpret the information easily and usefully.

Therefore, standard costing reduces clerical work to a considerable extent

5. Management by Exception: Management by exception means that

everybody is given a target to be achieved and management need not supervise each

and everything. The responsibilities are fixed and every body tries to achieve his

targets. If the things are going as per targets then the management needs not to bother.

Management devotes its time to other important things. So, management by exception

is possible only when targets of work can be fixed. Standard costing enables the

169

determination of targets.

170

7.7 LIMITATIONS OF STANDARD COSTING

Besides all the above benefits derived from this system, it has a number of limitations,

which are discussed as follows:

1. Standard costing cannot be used in those concerns where non-standard

products are produced.

2. The time and motion study is required to be undertaken for the process of

setting up standards. These studies require a lot of time and money. Further, the

process of setting up standards is a difficult task, as it requires technical skill.

3. There are no inset circumstances to be considered for fixing standards. With

the change in circumstances the standards are also to be revised. The revision of

standard is a costly process.

4. This system is expensive and small concerns may not afford to bear the cost.

For small concerns the utility from this system may be less than the cost involved in

it.

5. The fixing of responsibility is not an easy task. The variances are to be

classified into controllable and uncontrollable variances. The responsibility can be

fixed only for controllable variances not in the case of uncontrollable.

6. The industries liable for frequent technological changes will not be suitable for

standard costing system. The change in production process will require a revision of

standard. A frequent revision of standard will be costly. So this system will not be

useful for industries where methods and techniques of production are fast changing.

7.8 PRELIMINARIES FOR ESTABLISHING STANDARD COSTING

SYSTEM

The establishment of a standard costing system involves the following steps:

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1. Determination of Cost Centre: A cost centre may be a department or part of

a department or item of equipment or machinery or a person or a group of persons in

respect of which costs are accumulated and one where control can be exercised. Cost

centres are necessary for determining the costs.

2. Classification of Accounts: Classification of accounts is necessary to meet a

required purpose i.e., function, asset or revenue item. Codes can be used to have a

speedy collection of accounts. A standard is a predetermined measure of material,

labour and overheads. It may be expressed in quantity and its monetary measurements

in standard costs.

3. Types of Standards: The standards are classified into three categories:

(i) Current Standard. A current standard is a standard which is established for

use over a short period of time and is related to current condition. It reflects the

performance which should be accomplished during the current period. The period for

current standard is normally one year. It is supposed that the conditions of production

will remain unchanged. In case there is any change in price or manufacturing

condition, the standards are also revised. Current standard may be ideal standard and

expected standard.

(a) Ideal Standard. The standard represents a high level of efficiency. It is fixed on

the assumption that favourable conditions will prevail and management will be at its

best. The price paid for materials will be lowest and wastages cost of labour and

overhead expenses will be minimum possible.

(b) Expected Standard. This standard is based on expected conditions. It is the target

which can be achieved if expected conditions prevail. All existing facilities and

expected changes are taken into consideration while fixing these standards. An

allowance is given for human error and normal deficiencies. It is realistic and an

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attainable and it is used for fixing efficiency standard.

(ii) Basic Standard: A basic standard is established for use for an indefinite period or

a long period. These standards are revised only on the changes in specification of

material and technology production.

(iii) Normal Standard: Normal standard is a standard which is anticipated can be

attained over a future period of time, preferably long enough to cover one trade cycle.

This standard is based on the conditions which will cover a future period, say 5 years,

concerning one trade cycle. If a normal cycle of ups and downs in sales and

production is 10 years then standard will be set on average sales and production which

will cover all the years.

4. Organisation for Standard Costing: In a business concern a standard costing

committee is formed for the purpose of setting standards. The committee includes

production manager, purchase manager, sales manager, personnel manager, chief

engineer and cost accountant. The Cost Accountant acts as a coordinator of this

committee. He supplies all information for determining the standard and later on

coordinates the costs of different departments. He also informs the committee about

the change in price level, etc. The committee may revise the standards in the light of

the changed circumstances.

5. Setting of Standards: The standard for direct material, direct labour and overhead

expenses are fixed. The standards for direct material, direct labour and overheads

should be set up in a systematic way so that they can be used as a tool for cost control

easily.

7.9 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCES

The divergence between standard costs, profits or sales and actual

costs, profits or sales respectively will be known as variances. The

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variances may be favourable and unfavourable. If actual cost is less

than the standard cost and actual profit and sales are more than the

standard profits and sales, the variances will be favourable. On the

contrary if actual cost is more than the standard cost and actual profit

and sales are less than the standard profits and sales, the variances

will be unfavourable. The variances are related to efficiency. If

variances are favourable, it will show efficiency and if variances are

unfavourable it will show inefficiency. The variances may be classified

into four categories such as Direct Materials Variances, Direct Labour

Variances, Overheads Cost Variances and Sales or Profit Variances.

7.9.1 DIRECT MATERIAL VARIANCES

Direct material variances are also known as material cost variances. The material cost

variance is the difference between the standard cost of materials that should have been

incurred for manufacturing the actual output and the cost of materials that has been

actually incurred. Material Cost Variance comprises of: (i) Material Price Variance

and (ii) Material Usage Variance: Material usage variance may further be subdivided

into material Mix Variance and Material Yield Variance.

The Chart 7.1 depicts the divisions and subdivisions of material variances.

Chart 7.1

Material Cost Variance (MCV)

Materials Price Variance (MPV) Materials Usage Variance (MUV)

Materials Mix Variance (MMV) Materials Yield Variance (MYV)

The following equations may be used for verification of material cost variances.

(i) MCV=MPV+MUV or MPV+MMV+MYV

(ii) MUV=MMV+MYV

(a) Materials Cost Variance: Material cost variance is the difference

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between standard materials cost and actual materials cost. Material cost variance

arises due to change in price of materials and variations in use of quantity of

materials. Material cost variance is ascertained as such:

Materials Cost Variance = Standard Material Cost – Actual Material Cost

Standard Material Cost = Standard Price per unit x Standard Quantity of materials

Actual Material Cost = Actual price per unit x Actual quantity

of materials.

If the standard cost is more than the actual cost, the variance will be favourable and

on the other hand, if the actual cost is more than the standard cost, the variance will be

unfavourable or adverse.

(b) Materials Price Variance: Materials price variance arises due to the

standard price specified and actual price paid. It may also arise due to: (i) Changes in

basic prices of materials, (ii) failure to purchase the quantities anticipated at the time

when standards were set, (iii) failure to secure discount on purchases, (iv) failure to

make bulk purchases and incurring more on freight, etc., (v) failure to purchase

materials at proper time, and (vi) Not taking cash discount when setting standards.

Materials Price Variance= Actual Quantity (Standard price–Actual price)

In this case actual quantity of materials used is taken. The price of

materials is taken per unit. If the answer is in plus, the variance will

be favourable and it will be unfavourable if the result is in negative.

the difference in standard quantity specified and actual quantity of materials used.

This variance may also arise due to: (i) Negligence in use of materials, (ii) More

wastage of materials by untrained workers or defective methods of production, (iii)

Loss due to pilferage, (iv) Use of material mix other than the standard mix, (v) More

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or less yield from materials than the standard set, and (vi) Defective production

necessitating the use of additional materials.

Materials usage variance= Standard Price (Standard Quantity – Actual Quantity)

The quantities of material specified and actually used are taken and standard price per

unit is used. If the answer from the above mentioned formula is in plus, the variance

will be a favourable variance but if the answer is in minus the variance will be

unfavourable or adverse. .

Example 7.1: Following is the data of a manufacturing concern. From the figures

given below, calculate (i) Materials Cost Variance, (ii) Material Price Variance, and

(iii) Material Usage Variance. The standard quantity of materials required for

producing one ton of output is 40 units. The standard price per unit of materials is Rs.

3. During a particular period 90 tons of output was undertaken. The materials required

for actual production were 4,000 units. An amount of Rs. 14,000 was spent on

purchasing the materials.

Solution:

Standard quantity of material (SQ) = (90 x 40) = 3600 units

Standard price per unit = Rs. 3

Actual price per unit = 14000/4000 = Rs. 3.50

(i) Material Cost Variance = Standard material cost – Actual material cost

Standard material cost = Standard quantity x Standard price (3,600 x 3 = Rs. 10,800)

= 10,800 – 14,000

= (–) Rs. 3,200 Adverse

(ii) Material Price Variance = Actual Quantity (Standard price per unit – Actual

price per unit)

= 4,000 (3.00 – 3.50)

= 4,000 (–0.50)

= (–) Rs. 2,000 Adverse

(iii) Material Usage Variance= Standard Price per unit (SQ – AQ)

. = 3 (3,600 – 4,000)

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= 3 (–400) = (–) Rs. 1,200 Adverse

Verification: MCV = MPV + MUV

– 3,200 = – 2,000 – 1,200

– 3,200 = – 3,200

Example 7.2: From the data given below, calculate: (i) Material Cost Variance, (ii)

Material Price Variance, and (iii) Material Usage Variance.

Product Standard Standard Actual Actual

Quantity Price Quantity Price

(Units) Rs. (Units) Rs.

A 1,050 2.00 1,100 2.25

B 1,500 3.25 1,400 3.50

C 2,100 3.50 2,000 3.75

Solution:

(i) Material Cost Variance = Standard Cost – Actual Cost

Or (SQ x Std. Rate) – (AQ. x Actual Rate)

Material A = (1,050 x 2) – (1,100 x 2.25)

2,100–2,475 = – Rs. 375

Material B = (1,500 x 3.25) – (1,400 x 3.50)

4,875–4,900= – Rs. 25

Material C = (2,100 x 3.50) – (2000 x 3.75)

7,350–7,500 = – Rs. 150

Material Cost Variance = Rs. 550 Unfavourable

(ii) Material Price Variance = Actual Quantity (Standard Price – Actual Price)

Material A = 1,100 (2.00 – 2.25)

= 1,100 (–0.25) = Rs. 275

Material B = 1,400 (3.25 – 3.50)

= 1,400 (–0.25) = – Rs. 350

Material C = 2,000 (3.50 – 3.75)

=2,000 (–0.25) = – Rs. 500

Material Price Variance = Rs. 1,125 Unfavourable

(iii) Material Usage Variance = Standard Price (SQ – AQ)

Material A = 2 (1.050 – 1,100)

= 2 (–50) = Rs. 100

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Material B = 3.25 (1,500–1,400)

= 3.25 (100) = Rs. 325

Material C = 3.50 (2,100 – 2,000)

= 3.50 (100) = Rs. 350

Material Usage Variance = Rs. 575 Favourable

Verification: MCV = MPV + MUV

– Rs.550= – Rs. l125 + Rs. 575

– Rs. 550 = – Rs. 550

(d) Material Mix Variance: Materials mix variance is that part of material usage

variance which arises due to changes in standard and actual composition of mix.

Materials mix variance is the difference between standard price of standard mix and

standard price of actual mix. The standard price is used in calculating this variance.

The variance is calculated under two situations: (i) When actual weight of mix is

equal to standard weight of mix, and (ii) When actual weight of mix is different from

the standard mix.

(i) When Actual Weight and Standard Weight of Mix is Equal

In this case the formula for calculating mix variance is :

Standard cost of standard mix – Standard cost of actual mix.

(Standard Price x Standard Quantity) – (Standard Price x Actual Quantity)

Or Standard unit cost (Standard Quantity – Actual Quantity)

In case standard quantity is revised due to shortage of one material, the formula will

be equal to Standard unit cost (Revised Standard Quantity – Actual Quantity).

Example 7.3: Calculate material mix variance from the data given as such:

Standard Actual

Materials Quantity Price Quantity Price

(Units) per unit (Units) per unit

Rs. Rs.

A 50 2.00 60 2.25

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B 100 1.20 90 1.75

Due to the shortage of material A, the use of material A was reduced by 10% and that

of material B increased by 5%.

Solution:

In this question the standards will be revised. Revised standards will be :

Material A = 50 – 5 (50 x 10/100) = 45

Material B = 100 + 5 (100 x 5/100) = 105

Material Mix Variance = Standard Unit Price (Revised Standard Quantity – AQ)

Material A = 2 (45 – 60)

= 2 (– 15) = – Rs. 30

Material B = 1.20 (105 – 90)

= 1.20(15) = Rs. 18

Material Mix Variance= – Rs. 12 Unfavourable

(ii) When Actual Weight and Standard Weight of Mix are Different

When quantities of actual material mix and standard material mix are different,

the formula will be:

Total Weight of Actual mix

Total Weight of Standard mix

– (Standard cost of actual mix)

In case the standard is revised due to the shortage of one material then revised

standard will be used instead of standard, the formula will become:

Total Weight of Actual mix

Total Weight of Revised Standard mix

Standard cost of

Revised Standard mix

Example 7.4: From the following data calculate various material variances:

Standard Actual

Material Quantity Price Quantity Price

(units) per unit (units) per unit

Rs. Rs.

A 80 8.00 90 7.50

B. 70 3.00 80 4.00

Solution:

(a) Material Cost Variance= Standard Material Cost– Actual Material Cost

(Standard Qty. x Standard Price) – (Actual Qty. x Actual Price)

x Standard cost of Standard

- (Standard cost of Actual Mix)

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Material A = (80 x 8) – (90 x 7.50)

= 640–675 = – Rs. 35

Material B = (70 X 3) – (80 X 4.00)

=210–320 = – Rs. 110

Material Cost Variance = Rs. 145 Unfavourable

(b) Material Price Variance= Actual Quantity (Standard Price – Actual Price)

Material A = 90 (8.00 – 7.50)

= 90 (0.50) = + Rs. 45

Material B = 80 (3.00 – 4.00)

= 80 (–1.00) = – Rs. 80

Material Price Variance = Rs. 35 Unfavourable

Material A = 8 (80 – 90)

= 8 (–10) = – Rs. 80

Material B = 3 (70 – 80)

= 3 (–10) = – Rs. 30

Material Usage Variance = Rs. 110 Unfavourable

(d) Material Mix Variance: In this question standard weight of mix is different from

the actual weight of mix, so the formula will be :

Total Weight of Actual Mix x Standard cost of Standard Mix)

Total weight of Standard Mix

x 80 x 8 +70 x 3 – [90 x 8 + 80 x 3]

x 850 – 960 = 963.3 – 960 = Rs. 3.3 Favourable

(e) Materials Yield Variance. This is the sub-variance of material usage variance. It

results from the difference between actual yield and standard yield. It may be defined

as that portion of the direct materials usage variance which is due to the standard yield

specified and the actual yield obtained. It may arise due to low quality of materials,

defective methods of production, carelessness in handling materials, etc.

Material yield variance is calculated with the following formula:

Standard Rate (Actual yield – Standard yield)

170

150

170

150

180

Standard Rate is calculated as follows:

There may be a situation where standard mix may be different from the actual mix. In

this case the standard is revised in relation to actual mix and the question is solved

with the revised standard and not with the original standard. The standard rate will be

calculated as follows:

In the earlier variances if the standard was more than the actual, the variance was

favourable. But, in case of material yield variance the case is different. When actual

yield is more than the standard yield, the variance will be favourable.

Example 7.5: The standard mix of a product is as under:

A 60 units at 15 P. per unit Rs. 9

B 80 units at 20 P. per unit Rs. 16

C 100 units at 25 P. per unit Rs. 25

240 Rs. 50

Ten units of finished product should be obtained from the above .mentioned mix.

During the month of January, 1996 ten mixes were completed and the consumption

was as follows:

A 640 units at 20 P. per unit Rs. 128

B 960 units at 15 P. per unit Rs. 144

C 840 units at 30 P. per unit Rs. 252

2,440 Rs. 524

The actual output was 90 units.

Calculate various material variances.

Solution:

(i) Material Cost Variance:

The standard has been given for producing 10 units in one mix. Ten mixes have been

completed, so standard production will be 100 units. .

Standard cost for 100 Units = 50 x 10 = Rs. 500

Standard Cost of Standard mix

Net standard output i.e., Gross output – Standard Loss

d. Rate =

Standard Cost of revised Standard mix

Net standard output

Std. Rate =

181

Actual yield is 90 units, so standard cost will be adjusted accordingly.

Standard cost for actual yield = 100 X 90 = Rs. 450

Material Cost Variance = Standard Cost – Actual Cost

= 450 – 524 = Rs. 74 unfavourable

(ii) Material Price Variance= Actual Quantity (Standard Price – Actual Price)

Material A = 640 (0.15 – 0.20)

= 640 (–0.05) = Rs. 32 unfavourable

Material B = 960 (0.20 – 0.15)

= 960 (0.05) = Rs. 48 favourable

Material C = 840 (0.25 – 0.30)

= 840 (–0.05) = Rs. 42 unfavourable

Material price Variance (A + B + C) = Rs. 26 unfavourable

(iii) Material Usage Variance:

The standard quantity will be revised in proportion to actual production. Revised

quantity will be :

Standard Price (Standard Quantity – Actual Quantity)

Material A : 15 P. (540 – 640)

15 (– 100) = Rs. 5 unfavourable

Material B : 20 P. (720 – 960)

20 (– 240) = Rs. 48 unfavourable

Material C : 25 P. (900 – 840)

25 (60) = Rs. 15 favourable

Material usage Variance = Rs. 48 unfavourable.

(iv) Material Mix Variance

There is a difference between standard quantity (240 x 10= 2,400) and actual quantity

(2,440), so the standard will be revised first.

Revised standard quantity will be :

240

A= 600

100 x90

B= 800

100 x 90

= 540

= 720

C= 1000

100 x 90 = 900

A= x 2,440 = 610

B= x 2,440 = 813 (approximately)

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Standard Rate =

240

Material Mix Variance: Standard Price (Revised Standard Quantity – AQ)

Material A: 15 P. (610 – 640)

.15 (–30) = Rs. 4.50 unfavourable

Material B : 20 P. (813 – 960)

.20 (–147) = Rs. 29.40 unfavourable

Material C : 25 P. (1017 –840)

25 (177) = Rs. 44.25 favourable

Material Mix Variance = Rs. 10.35 favourable

(V) Material Yield Variance= Standard Rate (Actual Yield – Standard–Yield)

= 50/10 = Rs. 5

Standard Yield =10/240 x 2440 = 101.67 units

Yield Variance = 5 (90 – 101.67) = Rs. 58.35 unfavourable.

Verification: (i) MCV=MPV+MUV or –74=–26–48 =–74

(ii) MUV = MMV+MYV or –48 = 10.35 – 58.35 = – 48

Example 7.6: KSS Ltd. produces an article by blending two basic raw

materials. It operates a standard costing system and the following

standards have been set for raw materials:

Materials Standard Mix Standard Price per kg.

A 40% Rs.4.00

B 60% Rs. 3.00

The standard loss in processing is 15%. During April, 1996, the company produced,

1,700 kg. of finished output.

The position of stock and purchases for the month of April, 1996 is as under:

Material Stock on Stock on Purchased during

1–4–96 30–4–96 April, 1996

kg kg kg Cost Rs.

A 35 5 800 3,400

B 40 50 1,200 3,000

C= x 2,440 = 1,017 (approximately)

100

240

Standard Cost of revised Standard mix

Net standard output

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Calculate the following variances:

(i) Material Price Variance; (ii) Material Usage Variance; (iii) Material Yield

Variance; (iv) Material Mix Variance; (v) Total Material Cost Variance.

Solution:

Calculation of Standard Cost of Standard Mix

Material Standard Quantity of Standard Price Standard

Material required per kg. Cost

kg. Rs. Rs.

A 800 4 3,200

B 1,200 3 3,600

Total 2,000 6,800

Standard Cost

The standard loss is 15% ; so to get 85 finished kgs. 100 kgs. of material are required.

Actual finished product is 1,700 kgs; so standard material required will be

= 2,000 kgs.

Out of 2,000 kgs ; material A will be 800 kgs. (40%) and material B will be 1,200 kgs

(60%).

Calculation of Actual Cost of material used

Material A :

Opening Stock : 35 kgs @ Rs. 4 (standard rate) Rs. 140.00

Out of Purchases : 795 kgs @ Rs. 4.25 (actual rate) Rs. 3,378.75

(Purchases – Closing Stock) Rs. 3518.75

Material B :

Opening Stock : : 40 kgs @ Rs. 3 (standard rate) Rs. 120.00

Out of Purchases : 1,150 kgs @ 2.50 (actual rate) Rs 2,875.00

(Purchase – closing stock) Rs. 6513.75

Actual Rate:

Material A = = Rs. 4.25, Material B = = Rs. 2.50

(i) Material Price Variance:

Material A = (830 kg x 4) – (35 kgs x 4 + 795 kgs x 4.25)

= Rs. 3,320 – Rs. 3,518.75

= Rs. 198.75 Adverse.

Material B = (1,190 kgs x 3) – (40 kgs x 3 + 1,150 kgs x 2.50)

= Rs. 3,570 – Rs. 2,995 = Rs. 575 (Favourable)

1,700 x100

Rs. 3400

800 kgs Rs. 3000

1200 kgs

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Total Material Price Variance = – 198.75 + 575 = Rs. 376.25 Favourable.

(ii) Material Usage Variance:

Standard Price (Standard Usage–Actual Usage)

Material A : Rs. 4 (800 kgs – 830 kgs) = Rs. 120 Adverse

Material B : Rs. 3 (l, 200 kgs – 1,190 kgs) = Rs. 30 Favourable

Total Material Usage Variance = –120 + 30 = 90 Adverse

(iii) Material Yield Variance

Standard Rate (Actual yield – Standard Yield)

= Rs. 4 (1.700 kgs –1,717 kgs)

= Rs. 68 Adverse

Standard Rate = = Rs. 4

Standard Yield = x 2,020 = 1,717 kgs.

(iv) Material Mix Variance:

–(Standard Cost of Actual Mix)

x Rs. 6,800 – (830 kgs x 4 + 1,190 kgs x 4) = Rs. 6868 – Rs. 6,890

= Rs. 22 Adverse

(v) Total Material Cost Variance:

Standard Cost of Materials – Actual Cost of Materials

Rs. 6,800 – Rs. 6,513.75 = Rs. 286.25 Favourable.

7.9.2 DIRECT LABOUR VARIANCES

Labour Variances are discussed as follows:

(a) Labour Cost Variance

Labour Cost Variance or Direct Wage Variance is the difference between the standard

direct wages specified for the activity and the actual wages paid. It is the function of

labour rate of pay and labour time variance. It arises due to a change in either a wage

rate or in time or in both. It is calculated as follows:

Labour Cost Variance = Standard Labour Cost – Actual Labour Cost (Standard time x

Standard Wage Rate) – (Actual Time x Actual Wage Rate)

Rs. 6,800

1,700 kgs

1,700

2,000

Total Weight of Actual Mix

Total Weight of Standard Mix x Standard Rate

2020

2,000

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(b) Labour Rate of Pay or Wage Rate Variance

It is that part of labour cost variance which arises due to a change in specified wage

rate. Labour rate variance arises due to (i) change in basic wage rate or piece-work

rate, (ii) employing persons of different grades then specified, (iii) payment of more

overtime than fixed earlier, (iv) new workers being paid different rates than the

standard rates, and (v) different rates being paid to workers employed for seasonal

work or excessive work load.

The wage rates are determined by demand and supply conditions of labour conditions

in labour market, wage board awards, etc. So, wage rate variance is generally

uncontrollable except if it arises due to the development of wrong grade of labour for

which production foreman will be responsible. This variance is calculated by the

formula: Labour Rate of Pay Variance = Actual time (Standard Rate – Actual Rate)

The variance will be favourable if actual rate is less than the standard rate and it will

be unfavourable or adverse if actual rate is more than the standard rate.

It is that part of labour cost variance which arises due to the difference between

standard labour hours specified and the actual labour hours spent. It helps in

controlling efficiency of workers. The reasons for this variance are: (i) lack of proper

supervision, (ii) defective machinery and equipment, (iii) insufficient training and

incorrect instructions, (iv) increase in labour turnover, (v) bad working Conditions,

(vi) discontentment along workers due to unsatisfactory personnel relations, and (vii)

use of non-standard material requiring more time to complete work.

Labour efficiency variance is calculated as: Labour efficiency variance = Standard

Wage Rate (Standard Time–Actual Time).

If actual time taken for doing a work is more than the specified standard time, the

186

x Standard Cost of Standard Labour Mix

variance will be unfavourable. On the other hand, if actual time taken for a job is less

than the standard time, the variance will be favourable.

(d) Idle Time Variance

This variance is the standard cost of actual time paid to workers for which they have

not worked due to abnormal reasons. The Reasons for idle time may be power failure,

defect in machinery, and non supply of materials, etc. Idle time variance should be

segregated from the labour efficiency variance otherwise it will show inefficiency on

the part of workers though they are not responsible for this. Idle time variance is

always adverse and needs investigation for its causes. This variance is calculated as:

Idle Time Variance-Idle Hours x Standard Rate

(e) Labour Mix or Gang Composition Variance

This variance arises due to change in the actual gang composition than the standard

gang composition. This variance shows to the management how much labour cost

variance is due to the change in labour composition.

It may be calculated in two ways:

(i) When standard and actual times of the labour mix are same. In this case the

variance is calculated as follows: .

Labour Mix Variance = Standard Cost of Standard Labour Mix – Standard Cost of

Actual Labour Mix.

Due to the non-availability of one grade of labour, there may be a change in standard

labour mix, and then revised standard will be used for standard mix. The formula will

be: Labour Mix Variance = Standard cost of Revised Standard Labour Mix - Standard

Cost of Actual Labour Mix.

(ii) When standard and actual time of labour mix are different:

In this case the variance will be calculated as follows:

Total Time of Actual Labour Mix

Total Time of Standard Labour Mix

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x Standard Cost of Revised Standard

- (Standard Cost of Actual Labour Mix)

As in the earlier case, if labour composition is revised because of non–availability of

one grade of labour then revised standard mix will be used instead of standard mix

and the formula will become:

Labour Mix - (Standard Cost of Actual Labour Mix)

Example 7.7: The information regarding the composition and the weekly wage rates

of labour force engaged on a job scheduled to be completed in 30 weeks:

Standard Actual

Category of No. of Weekly Wage No. of Weekly Wage

Workers workers rate per worker workers rate per worker

Rs. Rs.

Skilled 75 60 70 70

Semi–skilled 45 40 30 50

Unskilled 60 30 80 20

The work was completed in 32 weeks. Calculate various labour variances.

Solution:

(i) Labour Cost Variance= Standard Labour Cost– Actual labour Cost

Standard Labour Cost : Rs.

Skilled : 75 x 60 x 30 = 1, 35,000

Semi–skilled : 45 x 40 x 30 = 54,000

Unskilled : 60 x 30 x 30 = 54,000

Total 2, 43,000

Actual Labour Cost:

Skilled : 70 x70 x 32 = 1, 56,800

Semi Skilled : 30 x 50 x 32 = 48,200

Unskilled : 80 x 20 X 32 = 51.000

Total 2,56,000

Total Labour Cost Variance: 2,43,000 – 2,56,000 = Rs. 13,000 Adverse

Total Time of Actual Labour Mix

Total Time of Revised Standard Labour Mix

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(ii) Labour Rate Variance= Actual Time (Standard Rate – Actual Rate)

Skilled : 2,240 (60 – 70)

2,240 (– 10) = Rs. 22,400 Adverse

Semi Skilled : 960 (40 – 50)

960 (–10) = Rs. 9,600 Adverse

Unskilled : 2,560 (30 – 20)

2,560 (10)= Rs. 25,600 Favourable

Labour Rate Variance =Rs. 6,400 Adverse

(iii) Labour Efficiency Variance= Standard Rate (Standard Time – Actual Time)

Skilled : 60(2,250 – 2,240)

60(10) = Rs. 600 Favourable

Semi Skilled : 40(1,350-960)

40(390) = Rs. 15,600 Favourable

Unskilled : 30(1,800 – 2,560)

30 ((-760) =Rs. 22,800 Adverse.

Labour Efficiency Variance =Rs. 6,600 Adverse

Verification:

Labour Cost Variance = Labour Rate Variance + Labour Efficiency Variance

– 13,000 = – 6,400 – 6,600

–13,000=–13,000.

Example 7.8: The following data is taken out from the books of a manufacturing

company:

Budgeted labour composition for producing 100 articles

20 Men @ Rs. 125 per hour for 25 hours

30 women @ 1.10 per hour for 30 hours

Actual labour composition for producing 100 articles

25 Men @ Rs. 1.50 per hour for 24 hours

25 Women @ Re.l.20 per hour for 25 hours

Calculate: (i) Labour Cost Variance, (ii) Labour Rate Variance, (iii) Labour

Efficiency Variance, (iv) Labour Mix Variance.

Solution:

(i) Labour Cost Variance= Standard Labour Cost – Actual Labour cost

Men : (20 x 25 x 1.25) – (25 x 24 x 1.50)

625 – 900 = Rs.275 Adverse

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x Standard Cost of Revised Standard

Women: (30 x 30 x 1.10) – (25 x 25 x 1.20)

990 – 750 = Rs. 240 Favourable

Labour Cost Variance = – 275 + 240 =Rs. 35 Adverse.

(ii) Labour Rate Variance= Actual Time (Standard Rate – Actual Rate)

Men : 600 (1.25 –1.50)

600 (–0.25) = Rs. 150.00 Adverse

Women : 625 (1.10– 1.20)

625 (–0.10)= Rs. 62.50 Adverse

Labour Rate Variance = Rs. 212.50 Adverse.

(iii) Labour Efficiency Variance= Standard Rate (Standard Time – Actual Time)

Men : 1.25 (500 – 600)

1.25 (– 100) = Rs. 125 Adverse

Women : 1.10(900-625)

1.10 (275) = Rs. 302.50 Favourable

Labour Efficiency Variance = Rs. 177.50 Favourable

(iii) Labour Mix Variance:

Standard time for Men and Women = 1,400 hours

Actual time for Men and Women = 1,225 hours

When standard time of labour mix is different from the actual time of labour mix, the

formula for calculating labour mix variance is:

Labour Mix - (Standard Cost of Actual Labour Mix)

1225/1440 x (20 x 25 x 1.25) + (30 x 30 x 1.10) – (25 x 24 x 1.25) + (25 x 25 x 1.10)

1413.12- 1437.50 = Rs. 24.38 Adverse.

7.9.3 OVERHEAD VARIANCES

Overhead is the aggregate of indirect material cost, indirect wages (indirect labour

cost) and indirect expenses. Thus, overhead costs are indirect costs and are important

for the management for the purposes of cost control. Under cost accounting, overhead

costs ace absorbed by cost units on some suitable basis. Under standard costing,

overhead rates are predetermined in terms of either labour hours (per hour) or

production units (per unit of output). The formula for the calculation of overhead cost

Total Time of Actual Labour Mix

Standard Time of Revised Standard Labour mix

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variance is given below:

Overhead Cost Variance = Actual Output x Standard Overhead Rate per unit Actual

Overhead Cost

or, = Standard Hours for Actual Output x Standard Overhead Rate per hour Actual

Overhead Cost

An analytical study of the behaviour of overheads in relation to changes in volume of

output reveals that there are some items of cost which tend to vary directly with the

volume of Output whereas, there are others which remain unaffected by variations in

the volume of output achieved or labour hours spent. The former costs represent the

variable overhead and the latter fixed overheads. Therefore, overhead cost variances

can be classified as:

Total Overheads Cost Variance

Variable Overhead Variance Fixed overhead Variance

Expenditure Efficiency Expenditure Efficiency

Variance Variance Variance Variance

Capacity Calendar Efficiency

Variance Variance Variance

(i) Variable overhead variance: Variable overheads vary directly with the

volume of output and hence, the standard variable overheads very directly with the

volume of output and hence, the standard variable overhead rate remains uniform.

Therefore, computation of variable overhead variance, also known as variable

overhead cost variance parallels the material and labour cost variances. Thus, variable

overhead cost variance (VOCV) is the difference between the standard variable

overhead cost for actual output and the actual variable overhead cost. It can be

calculated as follows:

VOCV = (Actual Output x Standard Variable Overhead Rate per unit) – Actual

Variable Overheads or, = (Standard Hours for Actual Output X Standard Variable

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Overhead Rate per hour) –Actual Variable Overheads.

In case information relating to standard hours allowed, for actual output and the actual

time (hours) taken is available, variable overhead cost variance can be further

analysed into:

(a) Variable Overhead Expenditure or Spending Variance, and

(b) Variable Overhead Efficiency Variance.

(a) Variable Overhead Expenditure or Spending Variance: It is the difference

between the standard variable overheads for the actual hours and the actual variable

overheads incurred and can be calculated as:

Variable Overhead Expenditure Variance = (Actual Hours x Standard Variable

Overhead Rate per hour)–Actual Variable Overhead or, = Actual Hours (Standard

Variable Overhead Rate– Actual Variable Overhead Rate)

(b) Variable Overhead Efficiency Variance. It represents the difference between

the standard hours allowed for actual production and the actual hours taken multiplied

with the standard variable overhead rate. Symbolically:

Variable Overhead Efficiency Variance = Standard Variable Overhead Rate (Standard

Hours) – Actual Hours for Actual Output.

Example 7.9: Calculate variable overhead variances from the

following data:

Budgeted Production for January, 1996 3000 units

Budgeted Variable Overhead Rs. 15,000

Standard Time for One Unit 2 hours

Actual Production for January, 1996 2,500 units

Actual Hours Worked 4500 hours

Actual Variable Overhead Rs. 13,500.

Solution:

1. Variable Overhead Cost Variance (VOCV)= Actual Output x Standard

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Variable Overhead Rate– Actual Variable Overhead

= Rs. (2500 x 5)– 13500

= Rs. 1000 (Adverse)

(Standard Variable Overhead Rate = 15000/3000= Rs. 5 per unit).

2. Variable Overhead Expenditure or Spending Variance (VOSV)

= (Actual Hours x Standard Variable Overhead Rate)– Actual Variable Overhead

= Rs. (4500 x 2.50) – 13500

= Rs. 11250 – 13500 = Rs. 2250 (Adverse)

3. Variable Overhead Efficiency Variance (VOEV) = Standard Variable

Overhead Rate (Standard Hours for Actual Output–Actual Hours)

= Rs. 2.50 (5000 – 4500)

= Rs. 1250 (Favourable)

Verification:

VOCV = VOSV + VOEV

–1000 = – 2250 + 1250

or – 1000 = –1000

(ii) FIXED OVERHEADS VARIANCE

This variance is calculated as: Actual Output x Standard Fixed Overheads Rate–

Actual Fixed Overheads. (The standard fixed overhead rate is calculated by dividing

budgeted fixed overheads by standard output specified). It may be divided into

expenditure and volume variances.

(a) Expenditure Variance = Budgeted Fixed Overheads – Actual fixed Overheads

(b) Volume Variance:

This variance shows a variation in overhead recovery due to budgeted production

being more or less than the actual production. When actual production is more than

the standard production, it will show an over–recovery of fixed overheads and the

variance will be favourable. On the other hand, if actual production is less than the

standard production it will show an under recovery and the variance will be

unfavourable. Volume variance may arise due to change in capacity, variation in

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efficiency or change in budgeted and actual number of working days. Volume

variance is calculated as: Actual Output x Standard Rate– Budgeted Fixed Overheads

Volume variance is sub-divided into following variances:

(i) Capacity Variance: It is that part of volume variance which arises due to over-

utilization or under-utilization of plant and equipment. The working in the factory is

more or less than the standard capacity. This variance arises due to idle time caused

by strikes, power failure, and non-supply of materials, break down of machinery,

absenteeism etc. Capacity variance is calculated as: Standard Rate (Revised Budgeted

Units– Budgeted Units) or, Standard Rate (Revised Budgeted Hrs- Budget Hrs).

(ii) Calendar Variance: This variance arises due to the difference between actual

number of days and the budgeted days. It may arise due to more public holidays

announced than anticipated or working for more days because of change in holidays

schedule, etc. If actual working days are more than budgeted, the variance will be

favourable and it will be unfavourable if actual working days are less than the

budgeted number of days Calendar variance can be expressed as:

Decrease or Increase in number of units produced due to the difference of budgeted

and actual days x Standard Rate per unit.

(iii) Efficiency Variance: This is that portion of the volume variance which arises

due to increased or reduced output because of more or less efficiency than expected. It

signifies deviation of standard quantity from the actual quantity produced. This

variance is related to the efficiency variance of labour. Efficiency variance is

calculated as: Standard Rate (Actual Quantity – Standard Quantity) or, Standard Rate

per hour (Standard Hours Produced – Actual Hours). If Actual quantity is more than

the budgeted quantity, the variance will be favourable and it will be vice versa if

actual quantity is less than the budgeted quantity.

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Example 7.10: From the following information calculate various overhead variances:

Budget Actual

Output in units 12,000 14,000

Number of working days 20 22

Fixed Overheads 36,000 49,000

Variable Overheads 24,000 35,000

There was an increase of 5% in capacity.

Solution:

Standard Fixed Overheads Rate = 36000/12000 = Rs. 3

Standard Variable Overheads Rate = 24000/12000 = Rs. 2

(i) Total Overheads Cost Variance= Actual Output x Standard Rate – Actual

Overheads

14,000 x (3 + 2) – (49,000+ 35,000)

= 70,000 – 84,000 = Rs. 14,000 Adverse.

(ii) Variable Overheads Variance= Actual output x Standard Variable Overheads

Rate – Actual Variable

Overheads

14,000 x 2 – 35,000 = 28,000 – 35,000 = Rs. 7,000 Adverse.

(iii) Fixed Overheads Variance= Actual Output x Standard Fixed Overheads Rate –

Actual Standard Overheads

14,000 x 3 –49,000

42,000 – 49,000 = Rs. 7,000 Adverse.

(iv) Expenditure Variance= Budgeted Fixed Overheads – Actual Fixed Overheads

36,000 – 49,000 = Rs. 13,000 Adverse.

(v) Volume Variance= Actual Output x Standard Rate – Budgeted Fixed Overheads

14,000 x 3 – 36,000

42,000 – 36,000 = Rs. 6,000 Favourable.

(vi) Capacity Variance= Standard Rate (Revised Budgeted Units – Budgeted Units)

=3 (12,600–12,000)

=3 (600) = Rs. 1,800 Favourable.

(Revised Budgeted Units = 12,000 + 12,000 x 5/100 = 12,600)

(vii) Calendar Variance:

Change in Number of units by change in actual and standard number of days x

Standard Rate.

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There is an increase of 2 working days than budgeted.

Increase in units in 2 days = 12600/20 x 2 = 1,260 units

Calendar Variance = 1,260 x 3 = Rs. 3,780 Favourable.

(viii) Efficiency Variance= Standard Rate (Actual Quantity – Standard Quantity)

Standard Quantity = 12,000

Increase in production due to change in capacity = 600

Increase in production due to increase in working days = 1,260

Standard Quantity (Revised) = 13,860

3 (14,000 – 13,860) = Rs. 420 Favourable.

7.9.4 SALES VARIANCES

A sales value variance exposes the difference between actual sales and budgeted

sales. It may arise due to change in sales price, sales volume or sales mix. It is

important to study profit variances. It may be classified as follows:

1. Sales Value Variance: A Sales Value Variance is the difference between

budgeted sales and actual sales. It is calculated as:

Sales Value Variance = Actual Value of Sales – Budgeted Value of Sales.

If actual sales are more than the budgeted sales, the variance will be favourable and

on the other hand, the variance will be unfavourable if actual sales are less than the

budgeted sales.

2. Sales Price Variance: A sales price variance arises due to the difference

between the standard price specified and the actual price charged. It is calculated as:

Sales Price Variance = Actual Quantity (Actual Price– Standard Price).

3. Sales Volume Variance: It is the difference between actual quantity of sales

and budgeted quantity of sales. It is calculated as:

Sales Volume Variance = Standard Price (Actual Quantity of Sales – Standard

Quantity of Sales).

4. Sales Mix Variance. It is the difference of standard value of revised mix and

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standard value of actual mix.

Example 7.11: The budget and actual sales for a period in respect of two products are

as follows:

Budgeted Actual

Product

Quantity Price Value Quantity Price Value

(Units) (Rs.) (Rs.) (Units) (Rs.) (Rs.)

X 600 3 1,800 800 4 3,200

Y 800 4 3,200 600 3 1,800

Calculate Sales Variances.

Solution:

(i) Sales Value Variance= Actual Value of Sales – Standard Value of Sales

Total Actual Value: 3,200 + 1,800 = Rs. 5,000

Total Standard Value: 1,800 + 3,200 = Rs. 5,000

Sales Value Variance = 5,000 – 5,000 = Nil

(ii) Sales Price Variance= Actual Quantity Sold (Actual Price – Standard Price)

Product A 800 (4– 3) = Rs. 800 Favourable

Product B 600(3–4) = Rs. 600 Unfavourable

Sales Price Variance = Rs. 200 Favourable

(iii) Sales Volume Variance= Standard Price (Actual Units – Standard Units)

Product A 3 (800 – 600) = Rs. 600 Favourable

Product B 4(600–800) = Rs. 800 Unfavourable

Sales Volume Variance = Rs. 200 Unfavourable.

Verification:

Sales Value Variance = Sales Price Variance + Sales Volume Variance

0 = 200 + (–200)

Example 7.12: The information regarding budgeted and actual sales of two products

has been given as follows:

Budgeted Actual

Quantity Sales Price Quantity Sales Price

(units) (Rs.) (units) (Rs.)

Product 800 10 1,000 12

Product B 1,200 6 1,400 5

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Find out variances.

Solution:

(i) Sales Value Variance= Actual Value of Sales – Standard Value of Sales

Actual Value of Sales:

Product A 1,000 x 12 = 12,000

Product B 1,400 x 5 = 7,000

Total Rs. 19,000

Standard Value of Sales:

Product A 800 x 10 = 8,000

Product B 1,200 x 6 = 7,200

Total Rs. 15,200

Sales Value Variance = 19,000–15,200 = Rs. 3,800 Favourable.

(ii) Sales Price Variance= Actual Quantity Sold (Actual Price– Standard Price)

Product A = 1,000 (12 – 10)

=1,000 (2)

= Rs. 2,000 Favourable

Product B = 1,400 (5 – 6)

=1,400 (–1)

= Rs. 1400 Unfavourable

Sales Price Variance = Rs. 600 Favourable

(iii) Sales Volume Variance= Standard Price (Actual Units Sold – Standard

Units)

Product A = 10 (1,000 – 800)

=10(200)

= Rs. 2,000 Favourable

Product B = 6 (1,400 – 1,200)

=6 (200)

= Rs. 1200 Favourable

Sales Volume Variance = Rs. 3,200 Favourable.

(iv) Sales Mix Variance: There is a difference between standard quantity and

actual quantity, so the standard will be revised in proportion to actual quantity of

sales.

Revised Standard:

Product A = 800/2000 x 2,400 = 960 Units .

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Product B = 1200/2000 x 2,400 = 1,440Units

Sales Mix Variance = Standard Value of Actual Mix – Standard Value of Revised

Standard Mix

Standard Value of Actual Mix: Rs.

Product A = 10 x 1,000 = 10,000

Product B=6x 1,400 = 8,400

Total = 18,400

Standard Value of Revised Standard Mix:

Product A = 10 x 960 = Rs. 9,600

Product B = 6 x 1,440 = Rs. 8,640

Total =Rs. 18,240

Sales Mix Variance = 18,400 – 18,240 = Rs. 160 Favourable.

Verification:

Sales Value Variance = Sales Price Variance + Sales Volume Variance

Rs. 3,800 (Fav.) = Rs. 600 (Fav.) + Rs. 3,200 (Fav.)

Rs. 3,800 (Fav.) = Rs. 3,00 (Fav.)

7.9.4.1 PROFIT AND TURNOVER METHODS OF CALCULATING

SALES VARIANCES

A businessman may be interested more in knowing variations in profits and sales. The

profit and turnover methods of calculating sales variances will be useful for this

purpose. The variances are analysed as follows:

(a) Total Sales Margin Variance: Actual Profit – Budgeted Profit.

Actual Profit = Actual quantity sold x Actual profit per unit.

Budgeted Profit = Budgeted quantity of Sales x Budgeted profit per unit.

(b) Sales Margin Variance due to Selling Price. This variance arises due to the

difference between actual selling price and standard selling price. This variance is

calculated as :

Actual Quantity (Actual Price – Standard Price)

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difference between actual quantity of sales and budgeted quantity of sales. It is

calculated as: Standard Profit per Unit (Actual Quantity of Sales – Standard Quantity

of Sales).

(d) Sale Value Variance= Budgeted sales value-Actual sales value.

(e) Sales Volume Variance= Standard selling price per Unit (Actual Quantity of

Sales – Standard Quantity of Sales).

(f) Selling Price Variance= Actual Quantity (Budgeted selling Price – Actual

Selling Price).

(g) Sales Quantity Variance= Budgeted sale value-Revised standard sales value.

Budgeted sale value=Budgeted quantity x budgeted selling price per Unit

Standard sales value= Actual Quantity x budgeted selling price per Unit

Actual sales value= Actual Quantity x Actual selling price per Unit

Revised Standard sales value= Total Standard sales value x budgeted proportion.

(h) Sales Mix Variance= Revised Standard sales value -Standard sales value

Example 7.12: S. M. Ltd., has given the following budgeted and actual sales figures:

Budgeted Actual

Quantity Sale Price Value Quantity Sales Price Value

Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs.

Product A 500 60 30,000 600 65 39,000

Product B 700 40 28,000 650 38 24,700

The cost per unit of product A and B was Rs. 55 and Rs. 32 respectively. Compute

variances to explain difference between budgeted and actual profit.

Solution:

(i) Total Sales Margin Variance= Actual Profit– Budgeted Profit

or Actual Quantity x Actual Profit per Unit – Budgeted Quantity x Budgeted Profit

per Unit

Actual Profit per Unit

Actual Sales Price – Actual Cost

Product A = 65 – 55 = Rs. 10

Product B = 38 – 32 = Rs. 6

200

Budgeted Profit per Unit = Budgeted Sale Price – Actual Cost

Product A = 60 – 55 = Rs. 5

Product B = 40– 32 = Rs. 8

Actual Profit

Product A = 600 x 10 = Rs. 6,000

Product B = 650 x 6 = Rs. 3,900

Rs. 9,900

Budgeted Profit

Product A: 500 x 5 = Rs. 2,500

Product B : 700 x 8= Rs. 5,600

Rs. 8,100

Sales Margin Variance = 9,900– 8,100 = Rs. 1,800 Favourable

(ii) Sales Margin Variance due to Selling Price:

Actual Quantity (Actual Price– Standard Price)

Product A = 600 (65-60) = Rs. 3,000 Favourable

Product B = 650 (38–40) = Rs. 1,300 Unfavourable

Sales Margin Variance due to Selling Price= Rs. 1,700 Favourable

(iii) Sales Margin Variance due to Volume:

Standard Profit per unit (Actual Quantity– Standard Quantity)

Product A: 5(600–500) = Rs. 500 Favourable

Product B: 8(650–700) = Rs. 400 Unfavourable

Sales Margin Variance due to Volume

= Rs. 100 Favourable

(iv) Sale Value Variance= Budgeted sales value-Actual sales value.

=(500 x 60+700 x 40)- (600 x 65+650 x 38)= 5700 (F)

(v) Sales Volume Variance= Standard selling price per Unit (Actual Quantity of

Sales – Standard Quantity of Sales).

Budgeted Actual Diff. Budgeted Variance

Qty. Qty. Price (Rs.) Rs.

Product A 500 600 100 (F) 60 6000 (F)

Product B 700 650 50 (A) 40 2000 (A)

4000 (A)

(vi) Selling Price Variance= Actual Quantity (Budgeted selling Price – Actual

Selling Price).

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B. P (Rs.) A. P. (Rs.) Diff. AQ Variance

Product A 60 65 05 (F) 600 3000 (F)

Product B 40 38 02 (A) 650 1300 (A)

1700 (F)

(vii) Sales Quantity Variance= Budgeted sale value-Revised standard sales value.

BSV(Rs.) AQ B. P (Rs.) SSV OF AQ Revised SSV OF AQ Var.

Product A 30000 600 60 36000 62000 x 30000/58000

= (32069) 2069(F)

Product B 28000 650 40 26000 62000 x 28000/58000

= (29931) 1931 (F)

4000 (F)

(viii) Sales Mix Variance= Revised Standard sales value -Standard sales value

AQ B. P (Rs.) SSV OF AQ Revised SSV OF AQ Var.

Product A 600 60 36000 62000 x 30000/58000

= (32069) 3991 (F)

Product B 650 40 26000 62000 x 28000/58000

= (29931) 3991 (A)

Nil

7.10 ACCOUNTING TREATMENT OF VARIANCES

When the financial statements are prepared they contain actual cost figures there is no

variances. But, at the time of implementation of standard costing system, the

accounting records contain both standard costs and actual costs, by which we

calculate variances. Then the next question arises that how to deal with the variances

at the end of the accounting period? Which method should be followed for treating

them? The accountants suggest a number of methods for this purpose. Some of them

are discussed, which may be adopted for the accounting treatment of variances:

1. Transfer to Profit and Loss Account. Under this method all variances are

transferred to profit and loss account. In this method, the stock of finished goods,

work-in-progress and cost of sales are shown at standard cost. It is considered that

variances arise due to insufficiency or waste, so these should not become a part of

normal cost of production.

2. Allocation of Variances to Finished Stock. In this method, variances are

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apportioned to finished goods, work–in–progress and cost of sales either on the basis

of value of closing balances or on the basis of units. This method has the effect or

recording actual costs in the financial statements. The adjustment of variances is made

only in the general ledger and not in subsidiary books. The distribution of variances is

not made to products. The variances not being actual losses should not be taken to

profit and loss account.

3. Transfer of Variances to the Reserve Account. In this method cost

variances are taken to next accounting period as deferred items. The variances

whether favourable or adverse are transferred to a reserve account and are offset

against future fluctuations. If the variances are favourable then they are taken to the

liability side of the balance sheet and they are set off against adverse variances in

future. On the other hand, if variances are adverse then these are taken to the balance

sheet as a deferred charge and are written off against future favourable variances. This

method is not in common use but it may be useful in cases where seasonal

fluctuations occur so that favourable and adverse variances may be written off in the

course of a business cycle concerning more than one accounting period.

7.11 SUMMARY

Firms use the standard costing technique, in combination with an appropriate product

costing method, for managing costs. Engineering driven standards for usage of

resources are set, which are converted into rupee value by using budgeted process.

Therefore, while standard quantities are not revised unless warranted by changes in

product specification, design or process of manufacturing, standard prices are revised

on yearly basis. A firm may set standards at an ideal level or at the attainable level or

at the basic level depending on the objective it desires to achieve through the standard

costing system. The key to a standard costing system is variance reporting. Variances

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between actual and standards are reported for investigation and corrective actions are

taken to remove the causes of adverse variances. Favourable variances must also be

investigated and standards are reviewed and revised, if necessary. Sales variances are

presented either in term of variances in margin or in terms of variances in turnover.

Usually, a comprehensive report, which, reconciles the actual profit and the budgeted

profit, is presented showing sales and cost variances. Many firms maintain cost ledger

within a standard costing system. The three important methods of accounting are:

partial plan or output plan, single plan or input plan and dual plan. These methods

treat variances differently while basic principles of book-keeping are the same in all

three methods,

7.12 SELF-TEST QUESTIONS

1. What is meant by Standard Costing? Distinguish between Standard Cost and

Estimated Cost?

2. What are the advantages of Standard Costing? Also discuss the limitations of standard

costing.

3. Distinguish between Standard Costing and Budgetary Control.

4. Discuss the preliminary steps for establishing a system of standard costing.

5. Write short notes on the following:

(a) Current Standard

(b) Basic Standard

6. Describe the managerial uses of variance analysis.

7. Explain in brief the various types of variances used in standard costing.

8. The standard material required for production is 10,500 kgs. A price of Rs. 2 per kg

has been fixed for the materials. The actual quantity of materials used for the product

is 11,000 kgs. A sum of Rs. 24,750 has been paid for the materials.

Calculate: (i) Material Cost Variance, (ii) Material Rate Variance, and (iii) Material

Usage Variance. [Ans. (i) Rs. 3,750 Adv., (ii) Rs. 2,750 Adv.; (iii) Rs. 1,000 Adv.]

9. The standard cost of a chemical mixture is :

40% Material A at Rs. 20 per kg.

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60% Material B at Rs. 30 per kg.

A standard loss of 10% is expected in production. During a period, there is used: 90

kgs Material A at a cost of Rs. 18 per kg. 110 kgs material B at a cost of Rs. 34 per

kg. The weight produced is 182 kgs. of good product. Calculate (a) Material price

variance, (b) Material mix variance, (c) Material yield variance, and (d) Material cost

variance. [Ans. (a) Rs. 260 Adv. ; (b) Rs. 100 Fav. ; (c) Rs. 52 Fav. ; (d) Rs. 108

Adv.]

10. The standard material cost to produce a tonne of chemical S is :

200 kg of material A @ Rs. 10 per kg.

300 kg of material B @ Rs. 5 per kg.

400 kg of material C @ Rs. 7 per kg.

During the period, 100 tonnes of mixture S were produced from the usage of: 30

tonnes of material A at a cost of Rs. 9,000 per tonne

40 tonnes of material B at a cost of Rs. 6,000 per tonne

50 tonnes of material C at a cost of Rs. 7,000 per tonne.

Calculate: (a) Material Cost Variance, (b) Material Price Variance, and (c) Material

Usage Variance. [Ans. (a) Rs. 2,30,000 Adv.; (b) Rs. 10,000 Adv. (c) Rs. 2,20,000

Adv.]

11. In a factory 100 workers are engaged and the average rate of wage is 50 paise per

hour. Standard working hours per week are 40 and the standard performance is 10

units per gang hour. During a week in March, wages paid for 50 workers were at the

rate of 50.paise per hour, 10 workers at 70 paise per hour and 40 workers at 40 paise

per hour. Actual output was 380 units. The factory did not work for five hours due to

breakdown of machinery. Calculate appropriate labour variances. [Ans.(a) LCV = Rs.

20 Adv.; (b)LRV = Rs. 80 Fav. ; (c) LEV =Rs. 150 Fav.. ; (d) Idle Time Variance =

250 Adv. (e) LYV = Rs. 150 Fav.] .

12. From the following information compute: (i) Fixed Overheads Variance, (ii)

Expenditure Variance, (iii) Volume Variance, (iv) Capacity Variance, and (v)

Efficiency Variance.

Budget Actual

Fixed Overheads for November Rs. 20,000 20,400

Units of Production in November 10,000 10,400

Standard time for 1 Unit = 2 hours

Actual Hours Worked = 20, 100 hours

205

(Ans. (i) Rs. 300 Un favourable, (ii) Rs. 400 Unfavourable, (iii) Rs. 100 Favourable,

(iv) Rs. 800 Favourable, and (v) Rs. 700 Unfavourable.

13. The standard cost of a product was fixed as follows:

Standard Price of Material Rs. 5 per kg.

Standard Quantity of Material 6 kg. per unit

Standard Direct labour Cost Rs. 100 per unit.

Factory Overheads (Standard) Rs. 2,40,000 p.a.

Normal operating time for the year was estimated at 2400 hours and standard time for

production per unit was fixed at 9 machine hours. 15 identical machines were

employed by the company in the manufacture of this product. The production during

1995 was 3500 units. All machines were working throughout the year without any

breakdown and were fully employed in the' manufacturing operations. 20,000 kg. of

material was consumed at a total cost of Rs. 1,20,000. The wage bill amounted to Rs.

4,00,000. There had been no increase in wage rates as compared to the rates prevailed

at the time standards were fixed. The actual overhead for the year 1995 was Rs.

2,60,000. Compute the standard and actual cost per unit of the product and the

following variances:

(i) Material Price Variance, (ii) Material Usage Variance,

(iii) Labour Efficiency Variance, (iv) Overhead Expenditure Variance, and

(v) Overhead Volume Variance.

Ans: (i) Rs. 20,000 (Adverse), (ii) 5000 (Favourable), (iii) Rs. 50,000 (Adverse), (iv)

Rs. 20,000 (Adverse), and (v) Rs. 30,000 (Adverse).

7.13 SUGGESTED READINGS

6. Ashish K. Bhattacharya, Principles and Practices of Cost Accounting (3rd.), New

Delhi: Prentice Hall of India Private Limited, 2004.

7. Charles T. Horngren, Cost Accounting, A Managerial Emphasis, Prentice Hall Inc.,

1973.

8. D. T. Decoster and E. L. Schafer, Management Accounting, New York: John Willey

and Sons, 1979.

9. John G. Blocker and Wettmer W. Keith, Cost Accounting, New Delhi: Tata Mc Grw

Publishing Co. Ltd., 1976.

10. R. K. Sharma and Shashi K. Gupta, Management Accounting-Principles and Practice

(7th.), New Delhi: Kalyani Publishers, 1996.

206

COURSE: MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Author: Dr. B.S. Bodla

Course code: MC-105 Vetter: Karam Pal

Lesson: 8

BUDGETARY CONTROL

Objective: After going through this lesson, you should be able to

understand meaning, objectives, scope organisation and

types of budgets and budgetary control.

Structure

8.1. Definition of Budget

8.2. Objectives of Budgetary Control

8.3. Scope and Techniques of Budgetary Control

8.4. Requisites for Effective Budgetary Control

8.5. Organization for Budgetary Control

8.6. Advantages and Limitations of Budgetary Control

8.7. Types of Budgets

8.8. Summary

8.9. Self-Assessment Questions

8.10. Suggested Readings

8.1. Definition of Budget

The Chartered Institute of Management Accountants, England, defines a ‘budget’ as

under:

“A financial and/or quantitative statement, prepared and approved prior to define

period of time, of the policy to be perused during that period for the purpose of

attaining a given objective.”

According to Brown and Howard of Management Accountant “a budget is a

predetermined statement of managerial policy during the given period which provides

a standard for comparison with the results actually achieved.”

An analysis of the above said definitions reveal the following essentials of a budget:

1. It is prepared for a definite future period.

2. It is a statement prepared prior to a defined period of time.

3. The budget is monetary and/or quantitative statement of policy.

207

4. The budget is a predetermined statement and its purpose is to attain a given

objective.

A budget, therefore, be taken as a document which is closely related to both the

managerial as well as accounting functions of an organization.

Forecast Vs Budget

Forecast is mainly concerned with an assessment of probable future events. Budget is

a planned result that an enterprise aims to attain. Forecasting precedes preparation of a

budget as it is an important part of the budgeting process. It is said that the budgetary

process is more a test of forecasting skill than anything else. A budget is both a

mechanism for profit planning and technique of operating cost control. In order to

establish a budget it is essential to forecast various important variables like sales,

selling prices, availability of materials, prices of materials, wage rates etc. both

budgets and forecasts refer to the anticipated actions and events. But still there are

wide differences between budgets and forecasts as given below:

Forecasts Budgets

1. Forecasts is mainly concerned with

anticipated or probable events

1. Budget is related to planned events

2. Forecasts may cover for longer period

or years

2. Budget is planned or prepared for a

shorter period

3. Forecast is only a tentative estimate 3. Budget is a target fixed for a period

4. Forecast results in planning 4. Result of planning is budgeting

5. The function of forecast ends with the

forecast of likely events

5. The process of budget starts where

forecast ends and converts it into a

budget

6. Forecast usually covers a specific

business function

6. Budget is prepared for the business as

a whole

7. Forecasting does not act as a tool of

controlling measurement.

7. Purpose of budget is not merely a

planning device but also a controlling

tool.

Budgetary control

Budgetary control is the process of establishment of budgets relating to various activities and

comparing the budgeted figures with the actual performance for arriving at deviations, if any.

Accordingly, there cannot be budgetary control without budgets. Budgetary control is a

system which uses budgets as a means of planning and controlling.

According to I.C.M.A. England Budgetary control is defined by Terminology as “the

establishment of budgets relating to the responsibilities of executives to the requirements of a

208

policy and the continuous comparison of actual with the budgeted results, either to secure by

individual actions the objectives of that policy or to provide a basis for its revision”.

Brown and Howard defines budgetary control is “a system of controlling costs which

includes the preparation of budgets, co-ordinating the department and establishing

responsibilities, comparing actual performance with the budgeted and acting upon results to

achieve maximum profitability.”

The above definitions reveal the following essentials of budgetary control:

1. Establishment of objectives for each function and section of the organization.

2. Comparison of actual performance with budget.

3. Ascertainment of the causes for such deviations of actual from the budgeted

performance.

4. Taking suitable corrective action from different available alternatives to achieve the

desired objectives.

8.2. Objectives of Budgetary Control

Budgetary control is planning to assist the management for policy formulation, planning,

controlling and co-ordinating the general objectives of budgetary control and can be stated in

the following ways:

1. Planning: A budget is a plan of action. Budgeting ensures a detailed plan of action for

a business over a period of time.

2. Co-ordination: Budgetary control co-ordinates the various activities of the entity or

organization and secure co-operation of all concerned towards the common goal.

3. Control: Control is necessary to ensure that plans and objectives are being achieved.

Control follows planning and co-ordination. No control performance is possible

without predetermined standards. Thus, budgetary control makes control possible by

continuous measures against predetermined targets. If there is any variation between

the budgeted performance and the actual performance the same is subject to analysis

and corrective action.

8.3. Scope and Techniques of Budgetary Control

Scope:

1. Budgets are prepared for different functions of business such as production, sales etc.

Actual results are compared with the budgets and control is exercised.

2. Budgets have a wide range of coverage of the entire organization. Each operation or

process is divided into number of elements and standards are set for each such

element.

3. Budgetary control is concerned with origin of expenditure at functional levels.

4. Budget is a projection of financial accounts whereas standard costing projects the cost

accounts.

Technique:

1. Budgetary control is exercised by putting budgets and actual side by side. Variances

are not normally revealed in the accounts.

2. Budgetary control system can be operated in parts. For example, advertisement

budgets, research and development budgets, etc.

3. Budgetary control of expenses is broad in nature.

8.4. Requisites for Effective Budgetary Control

The following are the requisites for effective budgetary control:

1. Clear cut objectives and goals should be well defined.

2. The ultimate objective of realising maximum benefits should always be kept

uppermost.

209

3. There should be a budget manual which contains all details regarding plan and

procedures for its execution. It should also specify the time table for budget

preparation for approval, details about responsibility, cost centers etc.

4. Budget committee should be set up for budget preparation and efficient of the plan.

5. A budget should always be related to a specified time period.

6. Support of top management is necessary in order to get the full support and co-

operation of the system of budgetary control.

7. To make budgetary control successful, there should be a proper delegation of

authority and responsibility.

8. Adequate accounting system is essential to make the budgeting successful.

9. The employees should be properly educated about the benefits of budgeting system.

10. The budgeting system should not cost more to operate than it is worth.

11. Key factor or limiting factor, if any, should consider before preparation of budget.

12. For budgetary control to be effective, proper periodic reporting system should be

introduced.

8.5. Organization for Budgetary Control

In order to introduce budgetary control system, the following are essential to be considered

for a sound and efficient organization. The important aspects to be considered are explained

as follows:

1. Organisation chart: For the purpose of effective budgetary control, it is imperative on the

part of each entity to have definite ‘plan of organization’. This plan of organization is

embodied in the organization chart. The organization chart explaining clearly the position of

each executive’s authority and responsibility of the firm. All the functional heads are

entrusted with the responsibility of ensuring proper implementation of their respective

departmental budgets. An organization chart for budgetary control is given showing clearly

the type of budgets to be prepared by the functional heads.

Organization Chart

Chairman

Budget Officer

Budget Committee

(All Functional Heads)

Purchase Production Sales Personnel Finance Accounts

Manager Manager Manager Manager Manager Manager

(Purchase & (Production (Sales Budget (Labour (Cash Budget (Cost

Material Budget Plant Advertising Budget) & Income & Budget)

Budget) Utilization Budget & Expenditure Budget)

Cost Budget Budget)

From the above chart we can observe that the chairman of the company is the overall in

charge of the functions of the Budgeted Committee. A Budget Officer is the convener of the

budget committee, who helps in co-ordination. The Purchase Manager, Production Manager,

Sales Manager, Personnel Manager, Finance Manager and Account Manager are made

responsible to prepare their budgets.

2. Budget Center: A budget center is defined by the terminology as ‘a section of the

organization of an undertaking defined for the purpose of budgetary control’. For effective

budgetary control budget centre or departments should be established for each of which

budget will be set with the help of the head of the department concerned.

3. Budget officer: Budget officer is usually some senior member of the accounting staff who

controls the budgetary process. He does not prepare the budget himself, but facilitates and co-

210

ordinates the budgeting activity. He assists the individual departmental heads and the budget

committee, and ensures that their decisions are communicated to the appropriate people.

4. Budget committee: Budget committee comprising of the Managing Director, the

Production Manager, Sales Manager and Accountant. The main objective of this committee is

to agree on all departmental budgets, normal standard hours and allocations. In small

concerns, the Budget Officer may co-ordinate the work for preparation and implementation

of budgets. In large-scale concern a budget committee is setup for preparation of budgets and

execution of budgetary control.

5. Budget manual: A budget manual has been defined as ‘a document which set out the

responsibilities of persons engaged in the routine of and the forms and records required for

budgetary control”. It contains all details regarding the plan and procedures for its execution.

It also specifies the time table for budget preparation to approval, details about responsibility,

cost centres, constitution and organisation of budget committee, duties and responsibilities of

budget officer.

6. Budget period: A budget is always related to specified time period. The budget period is

the length of time for which a budget is prepared and employed. The period may depend

upon the type of budget. There is no specific period as such. However, for the sake of

convenience, the budget period may be fixed depending upon the following factors:

(a) Types of business

(b) Types of budget

(d) Length of trade cycle

(e) Economic factors

(f) Availability of accounting period

(g) Availability of finance

(h) Control operation Key Factor

Key Factor is also called as ‘Limiting Factor’ or Governing Factor. While preparing the

budget, it is necessary to consider key factor for successful budgetary control. The influence

of the Key Factor which dominates the business operations in order to ensure that the

functional budgets are reasonably capable of fulfilment. The key factors include- raw

materials may be in short supply, non-availability of skilled labours, Government restrictions,

limited sales due to insufficient sales promotion, shortage of power, underutilization of plant

capacity, shortage of efficient executives, management policies regarding lack of capital, and

insufficient research into new product developments.

8.6. Advantages and Limitations of Budgetary Control

The advantages of budgetary control may be summarized as follows:

1. It facilitates reduction of cost.

2. Budgetary control guides the management in planning and formulation of policies.

3. Budgetary control facilitates effective co-ordination of activities of the various

departments and functions by setting their limits and goals.

4. It ensures maximization of profits through cost control and optimum utilization of

resources.

5. It evaluates for the continuous review of performance of different budget centres.

6. It helps to the management efficient and economic production control.

7. It facilitates corrective actions, whenever there are inefficiencies and weaknesses

comparing actual performance with budget.

8. It guides management in research and development.

211

From the above it is clear that the budgetary control is an effective tool for management

control. However, it has certain important limitations which are identified below:

1. The budget plan is based on estimates and forecasting. Forecasting cannot be

considered to be an exact science. If the budget plans are made on the basis of

inaccurate forecasts then the budget programme may not be accurate and ineffective.

2. For reason of uncertainty about future, and changing circumstances which may

develop later on, budget may prove short or excess of actual requirements.

3. Effective implementation of budgetary control depends upon willingness, co-

operation and understanding among people reasonable for execution. Lack of co-

operation leads to inefficient performance.

4. The system does not substitute for management. It is like a management tool.

5. Budgeting may be cumbersome and time consuming process.

8.7. Types of Budgets

As budgets serve different purposes, different types of budgets have been developed. The

following are the different classification of budgets developed on the basis of time, functions,

and flexibility or capacity.

(A) Classification on the basis of Time:

1. Long-term budgets

2. Short-term budgets

3. Current budgets

(B) Classification according to functions:

1. Functional or subsidiary budgets

2. Master budgets

1. Fixed budgets.

2. Flexible budgets

(A) Classification on the basis of time

1. Long-term budgets: Long-term budgets are prepared for a longer period varies

between five to ten years. It is usually developed by the top level management. These

budgets summarise the general plan of operations and its expected consequences.

Long-term budgets are prepared for important activities like composition of its capital

expenditure, new product development and research, long-term finance etc.

2. Short-term budgets: These budgets are usually prepared for a period of one year.

Sometimes they may be prepared for shorter period as for quarterly or half yearly.

The scope of budgeting activity may vary considerably among different organization.

3. Current budgets: Current budgets are prepared for the current operations of the

business. The planning period of a budget generally in months or weeks. As per

ICMA London, “Current budget is a budget which is established for use over a short

period of time and related to current conditions.”

(b) Classification on the basis of function

1. Functional budget: The functional budget is one which relates to any of the functions

of an organization. The number of functional budgets depends upon the size and

nature of business. The following are the commonly used:

(i) Sales budget

(ii) Purchase budget

(iii) Production budget

(iv) Selling and distribution cost budget

212

(v) Labour cost budget

(vi) Cash budget

(vii) Capital expenditure budget

2. Master budget: The master budget is a summary budget. This budget encompasses all

the functional activities into one harmonious unit. The ICMA England defines a

Master Budget as the summary budget incorporating its functional budgets, which is

finally approved, adopted and employed.

1. Fixed budget: A fixed budget is designed to remain unchanged irrespective of the

level of activity actually attained.

2. Flexible budget: A flexible budget is a budget which is designed to change in

accordance with the various level of activity actually attained. The flexible budget

also called as Variable Budget or Sliding Scale Budget, takes both fixed, variable and

semi fixed manufacturing costs into account.

8.7.1. Control Ratios

Ratios are used by the management to determine whether performance of its activities

is going on as per estimates or not. If the ratio is 100% or more, the performance is

considered as unsatisfactory. The following are the ratios generally calculated for

performance evaluation.

1. Capacity ratio: This ratio indicates the extent to which budgeted hours of activity is

actually utilised.

Capacity Ratio = Actual hours worked production

Budget hours × 100

2. Activity ratio: This ratio is used to measure the level of activity attained during the

budget period.

Activity ratio = Standard hours for actual production

Budgeted hours × 100

3. Efficiency ratio: This ratio shows the level of efficiency attained during the budget

period

Efficiency ratio = Standard hours for actual production

Actual horus worked × 100

4. Calendar ratio: This ratio is used to measure the proportion of actual working days to

budgeted working days in a budget period.

Calendar ratio =

Numbr of actual working days in a period

Budgeted working days for the period × 100

Illustration 1. A company produces two articles A and B. Each unit takes 4 hours for A and

10 hours for B as production time respectively. The budgeted production for April, 2005 is

400 units of A and 800 units for B. The actual production at the end of the months was 320

units of A and 850 units of B. Actual hours spent on this production were 200. Find out the

capacity, activity and efficiency ratios for April 2003. Also find out the Calendar ratio if the

actual working days during the month be 28 corresponding to 26 days in the budget.

Solution.

Standard budgeted hours:

A – 400 ÷ 4 = 100 hours

B – 800 ÷ 10 = 80 hours

180 hours

213

Standard hours for actual production:

A – 320 ÷ 4 = 80 hours

B – 850 ÷ 10 = 85 hours

165 hours

(1) Capacity ratio = Actual hours worked

Budgeted hours × 100

200

180 × 100

= 111.1%

(2) Activity ratio = Standard hours for actual production

Budgeted hours × 100

165

180 × 100

= 91.66%

(3) Efficiency ratio = Standard hours for actual production

Actual hours worked × 100

165

200 × 100

= 82.5%

(4) Calendar ratio = Number of actual working days in a period

Number of working days in a budget period ×100

26 × 100

= 107.69%

Illustration 2. Product A takes 4 hours to make and B requires 8 hours. In a month 27

effective days of 8 hours a day. 500 units of A and 300 units, of Y were produced. The

company employ 25 workers in the production department. The budgeted hours are 60,000

for the year. Calculate capacity ratio, activity ratio and effective ratio.

Solution.

Standard hours for actual production:

Product A: 500 × 4 = 2000 hours

Product B: 300 × 8 = 2400 hours

4400 hours

Budgeted hours for the month = 60000

= 5000 hours

Actual hours worked = 25 × 27 × 8 = 5400 hours

(1) Capacity ratio = Actual hours worked

Budgeted hours × 100

5400

5000 × 100

= 108%

(2) Activity ratio = Standard hours for actual production

Budgeted hours × 100

4400

5000 × 100

= 91.66%

(3) Efficiency ratio = Standard hours for actual production

Actual hours worked × 100

214

4400

5400 × 100

= 81.48%

8.7.2. Sales Budget

Sales budget is one of the important functional budgets. Sales estimate is the commencement

of budgeting may be made in quantitative terms. Sales budget is primarily concerned with

forecasting of what products will be sold in what quantities and at what prices during the

budget period. Sales budget is prepared by the sales executives taking into account number of

relevant and influencing factors such as: Analysis of past sales, key factors, market

conditions, production capacity, government restrictions, competitor’s strength and weakness,

advertisement, publicity and sales promotion, pricing policy, consumer behaviour, nature of

business, types of product, company objectives, salesmen’s report, marketing research’s

reports, and product life cycle.

Illustration 3. Ashish Engineering Co. Ltd. manufacturers two articles X and Y. Its sales

department has three divisions: West, South and East. Preliminary sales budgets for the year

ending 31st December 2003, based on the assessments of the divisional executives:

Product X: West 40,000 units: South 1,00,000 units and East 20,000 units

Product Y: West 60,000 units: South 8,00,000 units and East Nil

Sales price X Rs. 2 and Y Rs. 3 in all areas.

Arrangements are made for the extensive advertising of product X and Y and it is estimated

that West division sales will increase by 20,000 units. Arrangements are also made to

advertise and distribute product Y in the Eastern area in the second half of 2003 when sales

are expected to be 1,00,000 units.

Since the estimated sales of the South division represented an unsatisfactory target, it is

agreed to increase both the estimates by 10%. Prepare a sales budget for the year to 31st

December 2003.

Solution: Sales budget for the year 2003

Product X Product Y Division

Qty. Price

Rs.

Value Rs. Qty. Rs. Price

Rs.

Value Rs.

Total Rs.

West 60,000 2 1,20,000 80,000 3 2,40,000 3,60,000

South 1,10,000 2 2,20,000 88,000 3 2,64,000 4,84,000

East 20,000 2 40,000 1,00,000 3 3,00,000 3,40,000

Total 1,90,000 3,80,000 2,68,000 8,04,000 11,84,000

Illustration 4. Natarajan Ltd. has four sales territories A, B, C, D. Each salesman is expected

to sell the following number of units during the First Quarter of 2003. Assume the average

selling price to be Rs. 10:

Month A

Units

April 500 750 1,250 1,750

May 1,000 900 1,400 2,000

June 1,250 1,000 1,500 2,250

Solution:

215

Sales budget, First Quarter 2003

Territory April May June Quter

Qty.

Unit

Price

Rs.

Value

Rs.

Qty.

Unit

Price

Rs.

Value

Rs.

Qty.

Unit

Price

Rs.

Value

Rs.

Qty.

Unit

Value

Rs.

A 500 10 5,000 1,000 10 10,000 1,250 10 12,500 2,750 27,500

B 750 10 7,500 900 10 9,000 1,000 10 10,000 2,650 26,500

C 1,250 10 12,500 1,400 10 14,000 1,500 10 15,000 4,150 41,500

D 1,750 10 17,500 2,000 10 20,000 2,250 10 22,500 6,000 60,000

Total 4,250 42,500 5,300 53,000 6,000 60,000 15,550 1,55,500

8.7.3. Production Budget

Production budget is usually prepared on the basis of sales budget. But it also takes into

account the stock levels desired to be maintained. The estimated output of business firm

during a budget period will be forecast in production budget. The production budget

determines the level of activity of the produce business and facilities planning of production

so as to maximum efficiency. The production budget is prepared by the chief executives of

the production department. While preparing the production budget, the factors like estimated

sales, availability of raw materials, plant capacity, availability of labour, budgeted stock

requirements etc. are carefully considered.

8.7.4. Cost of Production Budget

After preparation of production budget, this budget is prepared. Production cost budgets show

the cost of the production determined in the production budget. Cost of production budget is

grouped in to material cost budget, labour cost budget and overhead cost budget. Because it

break up the cost of each product into three main elements material, labour and overheads.

Overheads may be further subdivided in to fixed, variable and semi-fixed overheads.

Therefore separate budgets required for each item.

Illustration 5. From the following particular, you are required to prepare production budget

of Mittal Ltd. a manufacturing organization that has three products X, Y and Z.

Product Estimated stock at the

beginning of the

budget period

Estimated stock at the

end of the budget

period

Estimated sales as per

sales budget

X 5,000 units 6,400 units 21,600 units

Y 4,000 units 3,850 units 19,200 units

Z 6,000 units 7,800 units 23,100 units

Solution.

Particulars X (Units) Y (Units) Z (Units)

Expected sales during the period 21,600 19,200 23,100

Add: Closing stock at the end of budget period 6,400 3,850 7,800

28,000 23,050 30,900

Less: Opening stock at the beginning of the budget period 5,000 4,000 6,000

Budgeted production 23,000 19,050 24,900

Illustration 6. Production cost of a factory for a year is as follows:

Direct wages Rs. 40,000

Direct materials Rs. 60,000

216

Production overhead fixed Rs. 20,000

Production overhead variable Rs. 30,000

During the forthcoming year, it is expected that

(a) The average rate for direct labour remuneration will be far from Rs. 3 per hour to Rs. 2

per hour

(b) Production efficiency will remain unchanged

The purchase price per unit of direct materials and of the other materials and services which

comprise overheads will remain unchanged.

Draw up a budget and a factory overhead rate, the overhead being absorbed on a direct wage

basis.

Solution: Cost of production budget

Particulars Rs. Amount Rs.

Direct Materials 60,000

Direct wages ⎥

⎦

⎤

⎢

⎣

⎡×× 3

000,40.Rs 35,556

Prime cost 95,556

Add: Production overhead:

Fixed Rs. 20,000

Variable Rs. 30,000 50,000

Factor cost (or) cost of production 1,45,556

8.7.5. Material Purchase Budget

The different levels of material stock are based on planned out. Once the production

budget is prepared, it is necessary to consider the requirement of materials to carryout

the production activities. Material purchase budget is concerned with purchase and

requirement of direct materials to be made during the budget period. While preparing

the materials purchase budget, the following factors to be considered carefully:

1. Estimated sales and production.

2. Requirement of materials during budget period.

3. Expected changes in the prices of raw materials.

4. Different stock levels, EOQ etc.

5. Availability of raw materials, i.e., seasonal or otherwise.

6. Availability of financial resources.

7. Price trend in the market.

8. Company’s stock policy etc.

Illustration 7. Draw up a material purchase budget from the following information:

Estimated sales of a product are 30,000 units. Two kinds of raw materials A and B are

required for manufacturing the product. Each unit of the product requires 3 units of A and 4

units of B. The estimated opening balance in the beginning of the next year: finished goods

5,000 units; A, 6,000 units: B, 10,000 units. The desirable closing balance at the end of the

next year: finished product, 8,000 units; A, 10,000 units, B 12,000 units.

Solution:

217

Estimated production = Expected sales + desired closing stock of finished goods –

Estimated opening stock of finished goods

= 30,000 + 8,000 – 5,000

= 33,000 units

Material purchase budget for the year

Particulars

Material A

(Units)

Material B

(Units)

Material required to meet production Target

Material A – 33,000 × 3 99,000 1,32,000

Material B – 33,000 × 4

Add: Desired closing stock at the end of next year 10,000 12,000

1,09,000 1,44,000

Less: Expected stock at the commencement of next year

(opening balance) 6,000 10,000

Quantity of materials to be purchased 1,03,000 1,34,000

8.7.6. Cash Budget

This budget represents the anticipated receipts and payment of cash during the budget

period. The cash budget also called as Functional Budget. Cash budget is the most

important of the entire functional budget because, cash is required for the purpose to

meeting its current cash obligations. If at any time, a concern fails to meet its

obligations, it will be technically insolvent. Therefore, this budget is prepared on the

basis of detailed cash receipts and cash payments. The estimated cash receipts

include: cash sales, credit sales, collection from sundry debtors, bills receivable,

interest received, income from sale of investment, commission received, dividend

received and income from non-trading operations etc.

The estimated cash payments include the following:

1. Cash purchase

2. Payment to creditors

3. Payment of wages

4. Payments relate to production expenses

5. Payments relate to office and administrative expenses

6. Payments relate to selling and distribution expenses

7. Any other payments relate to revenue and capital expenditure

8. Income tax payable, dividend payable etc.

Illustration 8. Prasad and Co. wishes to prepare cash budget from January. Prepare a cash

budget for the first six months from the following estimated revenue and expenses:

Month Total sales

(Rs.)

Materials

(Rs.)

Wages

(Rs.)

Production

overheads

(Rs.)

Selling and

distribution

overheads

(Rs.)

January 10,000 10,000 2,00 1,600 400

February 11,000 7,000 2,200 1,650 450

March 14,000 7,000 2,300 1,700 450

April 18,000 11,000 2,300 1,750 500

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May 15,000 10,000 2,000 1,600 450

June 20,000 12,500 2,500 1,800 600

Additional information

1. Cash balance on 1st January was Rs. 5,000. New machinery is to be installed at Rs.

10,000 on credit, to be repaid by two equal instalments in March and April.

2. Sales commission @ 5% on total sales is to be paid within a month of following

actual sales.

3. Rs. 5,000 being the amount of 2nd call may be received in March. Share Premium

amounting to Rs. 1,000 is also obtainable with the 2nd call.

4. Period of credit allowed by suppliers- 2 months.

5. Period of credit allowed to customers- 1 month.

6. Delay in payment of overheads- 1 month.

7. Delay in payment of wages- ½ month.

8. Assume cash sales to be 50% of total sales.

Solution. Cash Budget from January to June

Particulars

January

(Rs.)

February

(Rs.)

March

(Rs.)

April

(Rs.)

May

(Rs.)

June

(Rs.)

Opening balance 5,000 9,000 14,900 13,500 12,350 16,550

Estimated cash receipts:

Cash sales 5,000 5,500 7,000 9,000 7,500 10,000

Credit sales - 5,000 5,500 7,000 9,000 7,500

Second call - - 5,000 - - -

Share premium - - 1,000 - - -

Total cash Receipts (A) 10,000 19,500 33,400 29,500 28,850 34,050

Estimated cash payments:

Materials - - 10,000 7,000 7,000 11,000

Wages 1,000 2,100 2,250 2,300 2,150 2,250

Production Overheads - 1,600 1,650 1,700 1,750 1,600

Selling & Distribution overheads - 400 450 450 500 450

Sales commission - 500 550 700 900 750

Purchase of machinery - - 5,000 5,000 - -

Total cash Payment (B) 1,000 4,600 19,900 17,150 12,300 16,050

Closing balance (A – B) 9,000 14,900 13,500 12,350 16,550 18,000

Illustration 9. From the following data, forecast the cash position at the end of April, May

and June 2005.

Month Sales (Rs.) Purchase (Rs.) Wages (Rs.) Miscellaneous

(Rs.)

February 60,000 42,000 5,000 3,500

March 65,000 50,000 6,000 4,000

April 40,000 52,000 4,000 3,000

May 58,000 53,000 5,000 6,000

June 44,000 40,000 4,000 3,000

Additional information:

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1. Sales: 10% realized in the month of sales; balance realised equally in two subsequent

months.

2. Purchases: These are paid in the month following the month of supply.

3. Wages: 10% paid in arrears following month.

4. Miscellaneous expenses: Paid a month in arrears.

5. Rent: Rs. 500 per month paid quarterly in advance due in April.

6. Income tax: First instalment of advance tax Rs. 15,000 due on or before 15th June.

7. Income from investment: Rs. 3,000 received quarterly in April, July etc.

8. Cash in hand: Rs. 3,000 on 1st April 2005.

Solution. Cash budget for the month of April, May and June

Particulars April (Rs.) May (Rs.) June (Rs.)

Opening balance of cash 3,000 7,550 700

Add: Cash receipts:

Cash sales 4,000 5,800 4,400

Receipts from debtors (Credit Sales)

Collection in 1st month 29,250 18,000 19,800

Collection in 2nd month 27,000 29,250 18,000

Income from investment 3,000 - -

Total cash receipts (1) 66,250 60,600 42,900

Less: Cash payments:

Creditors for purchases 50,000 52,000 53,000

Wages: Current (90%) 3,600 4,500 3,600

Arrears (10%) 600 400 500

Rent 500 - -

Miscellaneous expenses 4,000 3,000 6,000

Income tax - - 15,000

Total payments (2) 58,700 59,900 78,100

Closing balance of cash (1-2) 7,550 700 (-) 35,200

Working notes:

1. Out of total sales, 10% are cash sales. Balance 90% is credit sales. In any given month

50% of credit sale of the previous two months are collected (See W.N.).

2. In any given month, 90% of the wages of the same month and 10% of previous

month’s wages are paid.

3. Working notes for collection of cash from debtors and sales

Particulars

February

(Rs.)

March

(Rs.)

April

(Rs.)

May

(Rs.)

June

(Rs.)

Total sales 60,000 65,000 40,000 58,000 44,000

Less: Cash sales (10%) 6,000 6,500 4,000 5,800 4,400

Credit sales 54,000 58,500 36,000 52,200 39,600

Collection in 1st month after credit sales - 27,000 29,250 18,000 19,800

Collection in 2nd month after credit sales - - 27,000 29,250 18,000

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Total credit - - 56,250 47,250 37,800

8.7.8. Master Budget

When the functional budgets have been completed, the budget committee will prepare

a master budget for the target of the concern. Accordingly a budget which is prepared

incorporating the summaries of all functional budgets. It comprises of budgeted profit

and loss account, budgeted balance sheet, budgeted production, sales and costs. The

ICMA England defines a Master Budget as ‘the summary budget incorporating its

functional budgets, which is finally approved, adopted and employed’. The master

budget represents the activities of a business during a profit plan. This budget is also

helpful in coordinating activities of various functional departments.

Illustration 10. Pushpack and Co., a glass manufacturing company requires you to calculate

and present the budget for the next year from the following information:

Toughened glass Rs. 2,00,000

Bent toughened glass Rs. 3,00,000

Direct material cost 60% of sales

Direct wages 10 workers @ Rs. 100 per month

Factory overheads

Indirect labour:

Work manager Rs. 300 per month

Foreman Rs. 200 per month

Stores and spares 2% on sales

Depreciation on machinery Rs. 6,000

Light and power Rs. 2,000

Repairs and maintenance Rs. 4,000

Other sundries 10% on direct wages

Administration, selling and distribution expenses Rs. 7,000 per year.

Solution. Master budget for the year ending ………..

Particulars Amount Amount

Sales (as per sales budget):

Toughened glass 2,00,000

Bent toughened glass 3,00,000

5,00,000

Less: Cost of production:

(as per cost of production budget)

Direct materials 3,00,000

Direct wages 12,000

Prime cost 3,12,000

Add: Factory overhead:

Variable:

Stores and spares Rs. 10,000

Light and power Rs. 2,000

Repairs and maintenance Rs. 4,000 16,000

Fixed:

Work Manager’s salary Rs. 3,600

Foreman salary Rs. 2,400

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Depreciation Rs. 6,000

Sundries Rs. 1,200 13,200 3,41,200

Work’s cost 3,41,200

Gross profit 1,58,800

Less: Administration, selling & distribution

overheads

7,000

Net profit 1,51,800

8.7.9. Fixed Budget

A budget is drawn fro a particular level of activity is called fixed budget. According

to ICWA London ‘Fixed budget is a budget which is designed to remain unchanged

irrespective of the level of activity actually attained.” Fixed budget is usually prepared

before the beginning of the financial year. This type of budget is not going to

highlight the cost variance due to the difference in the levels of activity. Fixed

budgets are suitable under static conditions.

8.7.10. Flexible Budget

Flexible budget is also called variable or sliding scale budget, ‘takes both the fixed

and manufacturing costs into account. Flexible budget is the opposite of static budget

showing the expected cost at a single level of activity. According to ICMA, England

defined Flexible Budget is a budget which is designed to change in accordance with

the level of activity actually attained.”

According to the principles that guide the preparation of the flexible budget a series of

fixed budgets are drawn for different levels of activity. A flexible budget often shows

the budgeted expenses against each item of cost corresponding to the different levels

of activity. This budget has come into use for solving the problems caused by the

application of the fixed budget.

Advantages of flexible budget

1. Advantages of flexible budget

1. In flexible budget, all possible volume of output or level of activity can be covered.

2. Overhead costs are analysed into fixed variable and semi-variable costs.

3. Expenditure can be forecasted at different levels of activity.

4. It facilitates at all times related factor can be compared, which essential for intelligent

decision are making.

5. A flexible budget can be prepared with standard costing or without standard costing

depending upon what the company opts for.

6. A flexible budget facilitates ascertainment of costs at different levels of activity, price

fixation, placing tenders and quotations.

7. It helps in assessing the performance of all departmental heads as the same can be

judged by terms of the level of activity attained by the business.

Distinction between fixed budget and flexible budget

Fixed budget Flexible budget

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1. It does not change with the volume of

activity

1. It can be recast on the basis of volume

of cost.

2. All costs are related to one level of

activity only.

2. Costs are analysed by behaviour and

variable costs are allowed as per

activity attained.

3. If budget and actual activity levels

vary, cost ascertainment does not

provide a correct picture.

3. Flexible budgeting helps in fixation of

selling price at different levels of

activity.

4. Ascertainment of costs is not possible

in fixed cost.

4. Costs can be easily ascertained at

different levels of activity.

5. It has a limited application for cost

control.

5. It has more application and can be used

as a tool for effective cost control.

6. It is rigid budget and drawn on the

assumption that conditions would

remain constant.

6. It is designed to change according to

changed conditions.

7. Comparison of actual and budgeted

performance cannot be done correctly

because the volume of production

differs.

7. Comparisons are realistic according to

the change in the level of activity.

8. Costs are not classified according to

their variability, i.e., fixed, variable

and semi-variable.

8. Costs are classified according to the

nature of their variability.

Method of preparing flexible budget

The following methods are used in preparing a flexible budget:

1. Multi-activity method

2. Ratio method

3. Charting method.

1. Multi-Activity method: This method involves preparing a budget in response to

different level of activity. The different level of activity or capacity levels are shown

in Horizontal columns, and the budgeted figures against such levels are placed in the

Vertical Columns. The expenses involved in production as per budget are grouped as

fixed, variable and semi variable.

2. Ratio method: According to this method, the budget is prepared first showing the

expected normal level of activity and the estimated variable cost per unit at the side

expected level of activity in addition to the fixed cost as estimated. Therefore, the

expenses as per budget, allowed for a particular level of activity attained, will be

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calculated on the basis of the following formula: Budgeted fixed cost + (Variable cost

per unit of activity × Actual unit of activity).

3. Charting method: Under this method total expenses required for any level of activity,

are estimated having classified into three categories, viz., variable, semi variable and

fixed. These figures are plotted on a graph. The expenses are plotted on the Y-axis

and the level of activity is plotted on X-axis. The graphs will thus, help in ascertaining

the quantum of budgeted expenses corresponding to the level of activity attained with

the help of this chart.

8.7.11. Zero Base Budgeting (ZBB)

Zero base budgeting is a new technique of budgeting. It is designed to meet the needs

of the management in order to ensure the operational efficiency and effective

utilization of the allocated resources of a concern. This technique was originally

developed by Peter A. Phyhrr, Manager of Taxas Instrument during 1969. This

concept is widely used in USA for controlling their state expenditure when Mr.

Jimmy Carter was the president of the USA. At present the technique has for its

global recognition for many countries have implemented in real terms.

According to Peter A. Phyhrr ZBB is defined as an “Operative planning and

budgeting process which requires each manager to justify his entire budget in detail

from Scratch (hence zero base) and shifts the burden of proof to each manager to

justify why we should spend any money at all”.

In zero-base budgeting, a manager at all levels, have to justify the importance of

activity and to allocate the resources on priority basis.

Important aspect of ZBB

Zero-based budgeting involves the following important aspects:

1. It emphasises on all requisites of budgets.

2. Evaluation on the basis of decision packages and systematic analysis, i.e., in view of

cost benefit analysis.

3. Planning the activities, promotes operational efficiency and monitors the performance

to achieve the objectives.

Steps involved in ZBB

The following are the steps involved in zero base budgeting:

1. No previous year performance of inefficiencies is to be taken as adjustments in

subsequent year.

2. Identification of activities in decision packages.

3. Determination of budgeting objectives to be attained.

4. Extent to which zero base budgeting is to be applied.

5. Evaluation of current and proposed expenditure and placing them in order of priority.

6. Assignment of task and allotment of sources on the basis of cost benefit comparison.

7. Review process of each activity examined afresh.

8. Weightage should be given for alternative course of actions.

Advantages of ZBB

1. Utilization of resources at a maximum level.

2. It serves as a tool of management in formulating production planning.

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3. It facilitates effective cost control.

4. It helps to identify the uneconomical activities.

5. It ensures the proper allocation of scarce resources on priority basis.

6. It helps to measure the operational inefficiencies and to take the corrective actions.

7. It ensures the principles of management by objectives.

8. It facilitates co-operation and co-ordination among all levels of management.

9. It ensures each activity is thoroughly examined on the basis of cost benefit analysis.

8.7.12. Performance Budgeting

Performance budget has been defined as a ‘budget based on functions, activities and

projects.’

Performance budgeting may be described as ‘the budgeting system in which input

costs are related to the performance, i.e., end results.’

According to National Institute of Bank Management, Performance budgeting is, “the

process of analyzing, identifying, simplifying and crystallizing specific performance

objectives of a job to be achieved over a period, in the framework of the

organizational objectives, the purpose and objectives of the job.”

From the above definitions, it is clear that budgetary performance involves the

following:

1. Establishment of well defined centres of responsibilities:

2. Establishment for each responsibility centre- a programme of target

performance is in physical units.

3. Forecasting the amount of expenditure required to meet the physical plan laid

down.

4. Comparison of the actual performance with the budgets, i.e., evaluation of

performance.

5. Undertaking periodic review of the programme with a view to make

modifications as required.

Illustration 11. Prepare a flexible budget for overheads on the basis of the following data.

Ascertain the overhead rates at 50%, 60% and 70% capacity.

At 50% capacity (Rs.)

Variable overheads:

Indirect material 3,000

Indirect labour 9,000

Semi-variable overheads:

Electricity (40% fixed 60% variable) 15,000

Repairs (80% fixed 20% variable) 1,500

Fixed overheads:

Depreciation 8,250

Insurance 2,250

Salaries 7,500

Total overheads 46,500

Estimated direct labour hours 93,000

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Solution. Flexible budget

Particulars 50% capacity 60% capacity 70% capacity

Variable overheads:

Indirect material 2,500 3,000 3,500

Indirect labour 7,500 9,000 10,500

Semi-variable overheads:

Electricity 13,500 15,000 16,500

Repairs and maintenance 1,450 1,500 1,550

Fixed overheads:

Depreciation 8,250 8,250 8,250

Insurance 2,250 2,250 2,250

Sales 7,500 7,500 7,500

Total overheads 42,950 46,500 50,050

Estimated direct labour hours 77,500 93,000 1,08,500

Overhead rate Re. 0.55 Re. 0.50 Re. 0.46

Working notes:

1. Electricity: Rs. 15,000 is the cost of electricity at 60% capacity, of which 40% are

fixed overheads, i.e., Rs. 6,000 and variable is Rs. 9,000:

For 60% capacity variable overheads = Rs. 9,000

For 50% capacity variable overheads = 9000

60 × 50 = Rs. 7,500

Therefore electricity cost at 50% capacity = 6,000 + 7,500 = Rs. 13,500

For 70% capacity, variable overheads = 9000

60 × 70 = Rs. 10,500

Therefore electricity cost at 70% = Rs. 10,500 + Rs. 6,000

= Rs. 16,500

2. Repairs and maintenance: Rs. 1500 is the cost of repairs and maintenance at 60%

capacity, of which 80% is fixed overhead, i.e., Rs. 1,200 and variable is Rs. 300:

For 60% capacity variable overhead = Rs. 300

For 50% capacity variable overhead = 300

60 × 50 = Rs. 250

Therefore the total cost of repairs and maintenance at 50%

= Rs. 1,200 + Rs. 250 = Rs. 1,450

For 70% capacity, variable overhead = 300

60 × 70 = Rs. 350

Therefore the total cost of repairs and maintenance

= Rs. 1,200 + Rs. 350 = Rs. 1,550

Illustration 12. With the following data for a 60% activity prepare a budget for production at

80% and 100% capacity

Production at 60% capacity 300 units

Materials Rs. 100 per unit

Labour Rs. 40 per unit

Expenses Rs. 10 per unit

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Factory expenses Rs. 40,000 (40% fixed)

Administrative expenses Rs. 30,000 (60% fixed)

Solution. Flexible Budget

Particulars 60% capacity

300 units

80% capacity

400 units

100%

capacity

500 units

Direct cost:

Material Rs. 100 per unit 30,000 40,000 50,000

Labour Rs. 40 per unit 12,000 16,000 20,000

Expenses Rs. 10 per unit 3,000 4,000 5,000

Total direct costs 45,000 60,000 75,000

Add: variable factory expenses (Rs. 40 per unit) 12,000 16,000 20,000

Variable administrative expenses (Rs. 20 per unit) 6,000 8,000 10,000

Fixed factory expenses (40% of Rs. 40,000) 16,000 16,000 16,000

Fixed administrative expen. (60% of Rs. 30,000) 18,000 18,000 18,000

Total 97,000 1,18,000 1,39,000

8.8. Summary

Budgeting has come to be accepted as an efficient method of short-term planning and control. It

is employed, no doubt, in large business houses, but even the small businesses are using it at least

in some informal manner. Though the budgets, a business wants to know clearly as to what it

proposes to do during an accounting period or a part thereof. The technique of budgeting is an

important application of management accounting. Probably, the greatest aid to good management

that has ever been devised is the use of budgets and budgetary control. It is a versatile tool and

has helped managers cope with many problems including inflation.

8.9. Self-Assessment Questions

1. What do you mean by a budget? List out its essentials.

2. What are the differences between budgets and forecasts?

3. What do you understand by budgetary control? Explain briefly the characteristics of a

good budget.

4. What are the objectives of budgetary control?

5. Describe essential requisites for effective budgetary control.

6. What do you understand by organization for budgetary control?

7. What are the advantages and limitations of budgetary control?

8. What is sales budget? What are the factors considered in developing the sales budget?

9. Write short notes on: (a) Production budget, (b) cost of production budget, and (c)

materials budget.

10. What do you understand by cash budget? Discuss the procedure for preparing the cost

budget.

11. What do you understand by master budget?

12. What do you understand by fixed budget and flexible budget? What are the

advantages of flexible budget?

13. Describe the different methods of preparing flexible budget.

14. A manufacturing company submits the following figures:

Budgeted production 44 units; Actual production 40 units;

Standard hours per unit 8; Actual work hours 500.

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You are required to calculate (a) capacity ratio, (b) activity ratio, and (c) efficiency

ratio.

15. Two articles A and B are manufactured in a department. Sales for the year 2003 were

planned as follows:

Product 1st quarter

Units

2nd quarter

Units

3rd quarter

Units

4th quarter

Units

A 5,000 6,000 6,500 7,500

B 2,500 2,250 2,000 1,900

Selling price were Rs. 10 per unit for A and Rs. 20 per unit for B respectively.

Average less return are 10% of sales and the discounts and bad debts amount to 2% of

the total sales.

16. A company is expecting to have Rs. 25,000 cash in hand on 1st April 2003 and it

requires you to prepare an estimate of cash position in respect of three months from

April to June 2003, from the information given below:

Sales (Rs.) Purchase (Rs.) Wages (Rs.) Expenses (Rs.)

February 70,000 40,000 8,000 6,000

March 80,000 50,000 8,000 7,000

April 92,000 52,000 9,000 7,000

May 1,00,000 60,000 10,000 8,000

June 1,20,000 55,000 12,000 9,000

Additional information:

(a) Period of credit allowed by suppliers- two months.

(b) 25% of sale is for cash and the period of credit allowed to customer for credit

sale one month.

(d) Income tax Rs. 25,000 is to be paid in June 2003.

17. PQR company Ltd. has given the following particulars, you are required to prepare a

cash budget for the three months ending 1st December, 2003.

Months Sales Materials Wages Overheads

August 20,000 10,200 3,800 1,900

September 21,000 10,000 3,800 210

October 23,000 9,800 4,000 2,300

November 25,000 10,000 4,200 2,400

December 30,000 10,800 4,500 2,500

Credit terms are:

Sales/Debtors- 10% sales are on cash basis: 50% of the credit sales are collected next month

and the balance in the following month:

Creditors Materials 2 months

Wages 1/5 month

Overheads ½ month

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18. A factory is currently to 50% capacity and produces 10,000 units estimate the profits

of the company when it works at 60% and 80% capacity and offer your critical

comments.

At 60% working raw materials cost increases by 2% and selling price falls by 2% at

the 80% working, raw material cost increases by 5% and selling price falls by 5%.

At 50% capacity working the product costs Rs. 180 per unit and is sold at Rs. 200 per

unit. The unit cost of Rs. 180 is made up as follows:

Materials Rs. 100

Labour Rs. 30

Factory overhead Rs. 30 (40% fixed)

Administrative overhead Rs. 20 (50% fixed)

[Ans. Rs. 2,00,000; Rs. 2,12,000; Rs. 2,12,000]

8.10. Suggested Readings

1. Jain and Khan: Management Accounting, TMH, Delhi.

2. Pandey, I.M.: Financial Management, Vikas Publishing House, Delhi.

3. Periasamy, P.: Financial, Cost and Management Accounting, HPH, Delhi.

4. Maheshwari, S.N.: Accounting for Management and Control, Sultan Chand and Sons,

Delhi.

5. Van Horne: Financial Management and Analysis, Pearson Publication, Delhi.

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Objective: The objectives of the present lesson are to understand the various elements

and steps required for installation of MIS at different management levels.

Further, the chapter also intends to discuss the concepts of management

reporting system and its principles.

LESSON STRUCTURE

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Elements of MIS

9.3 Meaning and Definition of Report

9.4 Objectives of Report Preparation

9.5 Management Reporting

9.6 Methods of Reporting

9.7 Requisites of A Good Report

9.8 Kinds of Reports

9.9 Level of Management And Reporting

9.10 Reporting System

9.11 Principles of A Good Reporting System

9.12 Process of Report Writing

9.13 Summary

9.14 Self-Test Questions

9.15 Suggested Readings

COURSE: MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

COURSE CODE: MC-105 AUTHOR: SURINDER SINGH

LESSON: 09 VETTER: Dr. N. S. Malik

230

9.1 INTRODUCTION

Today, the business operates under an environment, which is more competitive and

complex as compared to earlier times. The rapid growth or size of business has

necessitated the delegation of authority at various levels of management. There are

problems of control, co-ordination and communication. The decision-making has

become a difficult task. The decisions have wider ramification for business and a

wrong decision may than lead to its closure. Management needs full information

before taking any decisions. Because, good decisions can minimise cost and optimise

return. Thus, Management Information System (MIS) can be helpful to the

management in undertaking managerial function smoothly and effectively. It is an

approach of providing timely, adequate and information to the right person in the

organization, which helps him in taking right decisions. So, management information

system is a planned and organized approach to the transferring of intelligence within

an organization for the organization of management. The information is furnished into

useful quantum of knowledge in the form of reports.

9.2 ELEMENTS OF MIS

An effective system of MIS collects data from all possible sources. The information is

properly processed and stored for use in future. Basically, the elements of MIS are:

(i) To determine the need, type and sources of information.

(ii) To process and store the collected information.

(iii) To determine the time and quantum of information needed.

(iv) To sent the desired information to different managerial levels within specified time.

(v) To involve the process of measuring the adequacy of served. Otherwise, the information

should be enlarged or modified.

9.2.1 TYPES OF MIS

Management Information System has the following types:

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(A) Management Operating System: This system is meant for meeting for

information needs of lower and middle level management. The information

supplied generally relates to operations of the business. The figures about

finance, raw materials, labour, production, sales, etc; are supplied to

concerned persons. The operational information is required to see the pace of

work and make necessary changes, if needed. The supply of information is

quick and regular. The use of electronic devices is made for processing and

analysing data.

(B) Management Reporting System: This system is designed to supply the

information to top-level management for decision taking. The information is

presented in a way, which enables the management to take quick decisions.

Sometimes, comparative information is to present before management the real

position of the enterprise. The supply to this information is slow because

information from various sources is compiled firstly. Decision-making

requires full information about all-important areas of the enterprise.

9.2.2 INSTALLATION OF MIS

The installation of management information system requires the following steps:

(i) Preliminaries: The introduction of MIS requires a proper study of the

business objectives, plans, policies, etc. It enables in deciding the type of data

required, its sources and the levels at which it is required. The organization

structure should be able to supply the required information. The organizational

levels, authorities, responsibilities, etc. should be studied for this purpose. The

success of MIS will depend upon the support of top-level management. The

management also should be able to supply the requisite finances.

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(ii) Planning: The information needs of top; middle and lower levels of

management should be studied so that the system is planned accordingly. The

functions of each level of management should also be studied. The points like

what data are needed? When is it needed? Who needs it and; in what form is it

needed? Should be studied for making the system effective.

(iii) Implementation: MIS can effectively be applied only when every person in

the organisation is involved in it. The person should also be given training for

implementing this system. Information system manuals should be prepared to

devise the procedure for it. The manual and mechanical devices necessary for

processing data should also be selected. Standard proformas, etc, should also

be decided for collecting information. The main emphasis should be on the

involvement in the organisation.

(iv) Review. The review of the system is very essential. The problems and

difficulties in the system and additional requirements should be pointed out.

The review of MIS will enable us to mark the loopholes and a corrective

action will make the system more effective. It should be determined whether

the information supplied was sufficient or not? Was the information relevant

and critical? Was the frequency of reporting justified? The answers to these

questions will help in making changes in the system. Without a proper review,

the system will cease to be effective and useful after some time. It should

constantly be reviewed with the change in the situation in the business.

9.3 MEANING AND DEFINITION OF REPORT

The word ‘Report’ is derived from the Latin word ‘portage’ that means ‘to carry’. So

‘report’ is a document, which carries the information. The word report consists of two

parts, viz, RE+PORT. The meaning of the word RE is ‘again’ or ‘back’ and PORT

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means ‘to carry’. Combining these two words it means to carry the information again.

It must be clear that reports are always written for any event, which has already

occurred. So report is a written document, which carries the information again.

Dictionary meaning of the word report is ‘to convey’ or to transmit as having been

said.’ In fact, a report is a communication from someone who has the information to

some one who wants to use that information. Report is always planned for use.

According to G.R. terry, report is “a written statement based on a collection of facts,

event and opinion and usually expresses a summarized and interpretative value of this

information. It may deal with past accomplishments, present conditions or future

developments”. Terry talks about report as a written communication prepared on the

basis of collected information related to present, past or future. In the word of Johnson

and Savage, “A good business report is a communication that contains factual

information, organised and presented in clear, correct and coherent language”.

Simply, report can be defined as “a form of statement which presents and examines

facts relating to an event, problem, progress of action, state of business affairs etc, and

for the purpose of conveying information, reporting findings, putting forward ideas

and making recommendations as the basis of action”. So report is an impartial

presentation of facts. These facts may arise out of available factual data or through

enquiry, investigation, survey, interview, experiments or research. A mere expression

of opinion without supporting factual data is not a report.

9.4 OBJECTIVES OF REPORTING

The reports are prepared and written to serve the following purpose

(i) Communication: Reports are means of upward commutation. It is a

communication from someone who has the information to someone who needs

that information for carrying out functions of management. Report provides

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information to executives, government agencies, shareholders, creditors,

customers or general public.

(ii) Record: Report provides valuable records for future reference. Reports record

facts and results of investigation. The facts can be of great importance in

future.

(iii) Legal requirements: Reports are also written and submitted to fulfill legal

requirements. For instance, annual report of company’s accounts is necessarily

to be furnished to shareholders under companies act, 1956. Similarly, audit

repot of accounts must accompany the income–tax return Income Tax Act,

1961.

(iv) Public relations: Reports of general progress of business and utilisation of

national resources to public helps in increasing the goodwill and developing

public relations.

(v) Measuring performance tool: Routine reports about the work performance

of employees help the management to measure performance in view of the

objects. The reports on performance shall become the basis for promotions and

incentives.

(vi) Control: Report is the basis of and control process. It is on the basis of report,

actions are initiated and instructions are given to improve the performance.

9.5 MANAGEMENT REPORTING

The process of providing information to the management is known as ‘Management

Reporting’. The reports are regularly sent to various levels of management so as to

enable in judging the effectiveness of their responsibility centers. These reports also

become a base for taking corrective measures, if necessary. According to Anthony

and Reece, “Reports on what has happened in a business, are useful for two general

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purposes: information and control, respectively”. Information reports are useful to tell

management what is going on. On the other hand, control reports are useful in

assessing personal performance and economic performance. Reporting is not

equivalent to communication. Communication is both downward and upward i.e.

decisions are communicated to lower levels and reactions of lower levels are

communicated to top-level management. Reporting is only upward. The reports are

prepared by the management accountant and sent for the review of top-level

management. The communication of reports may be oral, written or graphic. The

reports may be sent weekly, monthly, quarterly or yearly. The timing of reports is

linked with their nature. The sales and production reports may be weekly, whereas

profitability reports may be annually.

9.6 METHODS OF REPORTING

Reports may be presented in a number of ways. The method of reporting may depend

upon the nature of information to be conveyed, the volume of data or information to

be the media available for communications. Following methods of reporting may be

used:

9.6.1 Written Reporting

A number of written reports may be sent to different levels of management. These

reports may be:

(i) Formal financial statements: Such statements may deal with actual figures

against the budgeted ones or comparative accounting statement giving

information at different period of time.

(ii) Tabulated information: The tabulated statistics, which include analysis

according to products, time, territories etc. A particular type of information,

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for examples sales, may be tabulated as per different periods, products, areas

etc.

(iii) Accounting Ratios: Accounting ratios may be presented as a part of formal

financial statements. The ratios are useful in appropriate analysis of financial

statements. The ratios may be current ratios, efficiency ratios, long-term

solvency ratios, profitability ratios, etc.

9.6.2 Graphic Reporting

The reports may be presented in the form of charts, diagrams and pictures. These

reports have the advantage of quick grasp of trends of information presented. A look

at the chart of diagram may enable the reader to have an idea about the information.

9.6.3 Oral Reporting

Oral reporting may be of: a) Group meetings, b) Conversation with

individuals.

Oral reporting is helpful only to a limited extent. It cannot form a part of important

managerial decision making. For that purpose the reports must be in writing so that

these may be referred in future discussions too. A combination of written, graphic

and oral reporting may be useful for the concern.

9.7 REQUISITES OF A GOOD REPORT

A report is a vehicle carrying information to those who need it. A report is prepared

by putting in labour by the executives. The usefulness of the report will depend upon

its quality and the way in which it has been communicated. A report should be

prepared in a way it serves the purpose and presented at a time when it is needed.

Good reporting is thus essential for effective communication. A good report should

have the following requisites:

1. Good form and content: The following points must be taken into account

while preparing a report:

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(i) The report should be given a proper title, headings, sub headings and

paragraph divisions. The title will explain the purpose for which the report has

been prepared the title also enables to point out the persons who need the

report. A production report may be titled as ‘Production Report for the Month

of April 1992”. The title explains the purpose and period of preparing the

report.

(ii) If statistical figures are to be given in the report then only significant figures

and totals should be made a part of it and other detailed figures should be

given in appendix.

(iii) The reports should contain facts and not opinions. The opinion may come, if

essential, as a sequel to certain facts and not otherwise.

(iv) The report must contain the date of its preparation and date of submission.

(v) If the report is prepared in response to a request or letter then it should bear

reference number of such request or letter.

(vi) The contents of a report must serve the purpose for which it has been

prepared. Separate reports should be prepared for different subjects. Various

aspects of the subject should be properly conveyed.

(vii) The contents of the report should be in a logical sequence.

2. Simplicity: The report should be presented in a simple, unambiguous and

clear language. The language should be non-technical. If the report is loaded with

technical terminology, it will reduce its utility because the reader may be unfamiliar

with that language. The reader should be able to understand report without any

difficulty. The report should also be readable. The figures should be rounded so as to

make then easily understandable. If possible, chart, diagrams or graphs should be used

for presenting information.

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3. Promptness: Promptness in submitting a report is an essential element of a

good report. The reports should be sent at the earliest. These are required for studying

the progress and performance of various departments. A considerable delay in the

occurrence of an event and reporting of the same will defeat the purpose of reporting.

Information declared is information denied. The quick supply of reports will enable

the management to take corrective measures at the earliest. The reports are to be

based on information; the promptness in reporting will depend on quick collections of

facts and figures. Following steps may help in quick reporting.

(i) A proper record-keeping system should be introduced in the organisation to

meet various information needs.

(ii) To avoid clerical errors, mechanized accounting should be used.

(iii) The accounting work should be centralized to avoid bottlenecks in collecting

information.

4. Relevancy: The reports should be presented only to the persons who need

them. They should be marked to relevant officials. Sometimes reports are sent to

various departments in a routine way, then it will involve unnecessary expenditure

and the reports will not remain secret. The persons or departments to whom the report

is to be sent must be clear to the sender. People do not give much attention to reports

coming in a routine way. So, this type of practice involves unavoidable expenditure

and reduces the importance of reports.

5. Consistency: There should be a consistency in the preparation of reports. The

comparability of reports will be possible only if they are consistent. For consistency,

the reports should be prepared from the same type of information and statistical data.

This will be possible if same accounting principles and concepts are used for

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collecting, classifying, tabulating and presenting of information. Consistency in

reporting enhances their utility.

6. Accuracy: The reports should be reasonably accurate. Statistical reports may

sometimes be approximated to make them easily understandable. The production of

figures accurate upto paise may be difficult to be remembered, their reasonable

approximation may make them readable and understandable. The degree of accuracy

depends upon the nature of information and the purpose of its collection. The

approximation should not be done upto the level where information loses its form and

utility. So accuracy should be used to enhance the use of reports.

7. Controllability: The reports should be addressed to appropriate persons in

respective responsibility centres. The reports should give details of variances, which

are related to that centre. This will help in taking corrective measures at appropriate

levels. The variances which are not controllable at a particular responsibly centre may

also be mentioned separately in the report.

8. Cost Consideration: The cost of preparing and presenting the report should

also be considered. This cost should not be more than the benefits expected from such

reports. The cost should be reasonable so that all types of concerns may use reporting.

The cost-benefit analysis will help in deciding about the adopting of reporting system.

9. Comparability: The reporting system is meant to help management in taking

correct decision and improving the operational efficiency of the organisation. This

objective will better be achieved if reports give comparative information. The

comparative information can be in relation to previous period, current standards, or

budgets. This information helps in finding out deviations or variances. Where

performance is below standards or expectations, such variances can be highlighted in

the reports. The ‘management by exception’ is possible when exceptional information

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will be supplied to the management. The comparative reporting will, at once, help the

reader to reach at conclusions about his performance of the responsibility o centre

mentioned in the report.

10. Frequency of Report: Along with promptness, the frequency of reporting is

also significant. The reports should be sent regularly when they are required. The

timing of reporting will depend upon the nature of information and its purpose. Some

reports may be sent daily, some weekly, some monthly and so on. Frequency of

reports means that these should be sent when required. The reports are prepared at

appropriate times and sent to appropriate persons as per their requirements.

9.8 KINDS OF REPORTS

The reports may be classified into the following categories:

9.8.1 ACCORDING TO OBJECT AND PURPOSE

Reporting based on objectives and purpose has been further been grouped into the

following:

(A) External Reports: The reports meant for persons outside the business are

known as external reports. Outsiders interested in company reports may be

shareholders, creditors or bankers. Though the company may not be

answerable to outsiders but still some reports are meant for outside public. The

company publishes income Statement and Balance Sheet at eh end of every

financial year and these statements are filed with the Registrar of Companies

and stock Exchanges. Final statements of accounts are expected to conform to

certain basic details. In India, Companies Act has made it compulsory to

disclose some minimum information in final accounts.

(B) Internal Reports. Internal reports refer to those reports, which are meant for

different levels of management. Internal reports are not public documents and

they are not expected to conform to any standards. These reports are prepared

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by keeping in view the needs of disposal for scanning them. These reports may

be meant for top level, middle level and lower level of management. The

frequency of these reports very in accordance with the purpose they serve.

Some of the internal reports that are commonly used are: period report about

profit or loss and financial position, statement of cash flow and changes in,

working capital, report about cost of production, production trends and

utilisation of capacity, labour turnover reports, material utilisation reports,

periodic reports on sales, credit collection period and selling and distribution

expenses, report on stock position, etc.

9.8.2 ACCORDING TO NATURE

According to nature, reports are divided into three categories:

(A) Enterprise Reports: These reports are prepared for the concern as a whole.

These reports serve as a channel of communication with outsiders. Enterprise

reports may concern all activities of the enterprise or may be related to

different activities. Enterprise reports may include balance sheet, income

statement, income tax returns, employment reports, chairman’s report, etc.

These report contain standardised information and are beneficial to outsiders.

The interpretation of financial statements can also be undertaken from these

reports. The reports are important from financial analysis point of view.

(B) Control Reports. Control reports deal with two aspects. One aspect relates to

the personal performance and the second aspect deals with the economic

performance. The first type of reports is reported to judge the performance of

managers and heads of responsibility centres with that performance should

have been under the prevailing circumstances. The reasons for deviations in

performance are also identified. The second type of reports shows how well

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the responsibility centre has faired as an economic entity. Such analysis is

made periodically. This type of analysis requires the use of full cost

accounting rather than responsibility accounting. Control reports should

consider the following:

(i) Control reports should be related to personal responsibility.

(ii) They should compare actual performance with the standards.

(iii) They should highlight significant information.

(iv) These reports should be sent at a proper time as to enable taking

corrective measures.

some serious problem arises then the causes of this situation are studied and

analysed. Investigative reports are based on the outcome of special solution

studies. These reports are intermittent and are prepared only when a situation

arises. They are prepared according to the nature of every situation. They are

helpful to the management in analysing the cause of some problems.

9.8.3 ACCORDING TO PERIOD

According to period the reports may be:

(A) Routine Reports: These reports are prepared about day-to-day working of the

concern. They are periodically sent to various levels of management. These

reports may differ according to the nature of information and details to be

reported. So far as the timing is concerned they may be sent daily, weekly

monthly, or quarterly. Routine reports may relate to sales information,

production figures, capital expenditure, purchases of raw materials, market

trends, labour situations, etc. There is a tendency to ignore routine reports by

all recipients because of their routine nature. Important information in the

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report should be highlighted or presented in a different way or may be written

in a different ink.

(B) Special Reports. The management may confront some difficulties and routine

reports may not give sufficient information to tackle these situations. Under

such circumstances, special reports are required for special purposes only,

which are known as ‘Special reports’. There reports are prepared according to

the need of the situation. Available accounting information may not be

sufficient, so data may have to be especially collected. There may be a need to

put extra staff for compiling these reports. It may also involve co-ordination of

different departments and different levels of management. According to J.

Batty, special reports should be divided into sections, each covering the main

purposes: reasons for the report; investigation made; finding a conclusion and

recommendations.

Special reports may deal with the following topics.

a. Information about market analysis and methods of distribution of

competitors.

b. Technological change in the industry.

c. Problems about him purchase of raw materials, etc.

d. Reports about the change in methods of production and their

implications.

e. Trade association matters.

f. Report by the secretary on company matters.

g. Political development at home and abroad having impact on business.

9.8.4 ACCORDING TO FUNCTIONS

According to function, the reports may be divided into two categories:

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(A) Operating Reports: These reports provided information about operations of

the concern. The operating reports may consist of the following:

(i) Control Reports. These reports are used for managerial control. They

are intended to spot deviations from budgeted performance without

loss of time so that corrective action can be taken. Control reports are

also used to assess the performance of individuals.

(ii) Information Reports. These reports are prepared to provide useful

information, which will enable planning and policy formation for

future. Information reports can take the form of trend reports and

analytical reports. Trend reports provide information in comparative

form over a period of time. Graphic representations can be effectively

used in trend reports. As opposed to trend reports, analytical reports

provide information in a classified manner about composition of

certain results so that one can identify specific factors in the overall

total.

(B) Financial Reports: These reports provide information about the financial

position of the concern on specific dates or movement of finances during a

specific period. The balance sheet provides information movement of cash

during a particular period. These reports can be either static or dynamic.

Balance sheet and other subsidiary reports are examples of static reports: cash

flow, fund flow statements and other reports showing financials position as

compared to the budgeted are examples of dynamic reports.

9.9 LEVEL OF MANAGEMENT AND REPORTING

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There are generally, three levels of management and their informational needs are

different. Some type of information and in the same form and content may not be

needed at all the managerial levels. The three levels of management are:

(A) Top level management

(B) Middle Level Management

The information to be presented and the method of reporting should meet the specific

requirements of various levels of management. The guiding principles for reporting

to different levels of management are as follows:

(i) The lower the level of management the more detailed will be the reports and

higher the level of management the shorter or summarized will be the reports.

The lower level management consisting of foremen, section in-charges,

supervisors, etc. need more detailed reports because they are concerned with

actual execution of work. On the other hand, top management (i.e. Board of

Directors) has limited time and needs summarized reports. Sometimes only

exceptional matters are reported to this level.

(ii) The frequency of reports is also connected with the level of management the

lower the level of management the higher will be the frequency of reporting.

The middle and lower levels of management need the reports more frequently

because they deal with day-to-day operations of the business. The top-level

management will ask for the repots when some decision is to be taken or some

policy has to be decided.

(iii) The number of reports to be sent is also concerned with the levels of

management. The top level management will get maximum number of reports

and lower levels will get lesser number of reports. The top management is to

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get reports about every activity in the business while lower level management

is concerned with a particular department or section so it will get information

about this area only. The Board of Directors will receive a large number of

reports because it controls every function in the organisation.

9.9.1 REPORTS FOR TOP LEVEL MANAGEMENT: Top level management

consists of Board of Directors. Top level management is concerned with

policy planning and coordinating activities. The goals are set for the

organization and policies are devised to achieve these goals. The work of

executing policies is left to the top level management.

(i) Periodic report about profit and loss account and balance sheet.

(ii) Statements of funds flow and cash flow at regular intervals.

(iii) Reports on production trends and utilisation of capacity.

(iv) Reports about cost of production.

(v) Periodic reports on sales, credit collection period and selling and

distribution expenses

(vi) A statement on development and research expenditure.

9.9.2 REPORTS FOR MIDDLE LEVEL MANAGEMENT

The Middle level management is assigned the work for executing various policies.

Top management sets the objects or goals. The requisite authority is delegated to

middle level management so that organisation goals may be achieved. The reports

submitted to middle level management are detailed so that a corrective view of

performance of different departments is undertaken. Middle management also

undertakes the work of co-ordinating activites of different departments. The report

submitted to middle management could be classified as follows:

(A) Production Manager

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1. Actual production figures along with budgeted production figures for that

period. These reports are generally daily, weekly or fortnightly;

2. The figures about the availability and utilisation of workers. Figures about

normal and abnormal idle time are also reported;

3. Capacity utilisation Reports;

4. Material Usage Reports;

5. Machine and labour utilisation Reports;

6. Absenteeism and labour Turnover Reports;

7. Scrap Report;

8. Machine Hours Lost Report;

9. Stock Position Report;

10. Analysis of Budgeted cost of Production and Actual Cost of Production, etc.

(B) Sales Manager

1. Reports on actual and budgeted sales. These reports are submitted area-wise

and product wise;

2. Weekly reports on orders booked, orders executed and orders still to be

executed;

3. Reports on credit collection and bad debts, etc;

4. Reports on stock position;

5. Analysis of selling and distribution Expenses, product as well as area wise;

6. Market Survey Reports;

7. Reports on customer’s complaints;

8. Reports on effectiveness of sales promotion campaigns, etc.

1. Raw materials purchases, actual materials received and orders pending;

2. Use of raw materials for production;

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3. Raw materials balance and information when minimum level or maximum

level reaches;

4. Analysis of purchase expenses;

5. Budgeted cost of Purchases and actual cost of purchases, etc.

1. Cash and Bank position reports;

2. Periodic fund flow and cash flow statements;

3. Debtors collection period reports;

4. Average payment period;

5. Analysis of working capital;

6. Report on budgeted profit and actual profit;

7. Statement of financial position;

8. Capital expenditure reports, etc.

9.9.3 REPORTS FOR LOWER LEVEL MANAGEMENT

Lower level management consists of foremen or sectional in charges. They are

responsible for the actual execution of policies. They are in touch with the day-to-day

performance of their sections. They get daily reports from their junior. Junior level

management prepares and sends regular reports to middle level management. Reports

for foremen may include:

1. Labour utilisation report and causes of lost time;

2. Worker’s efficiency reports;

3. Scrap report;

4. Actual shop expenses against budgeted expenses;

5. Maintenance cost reports, etc.

9.10 REPORTING SYSTEM

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The reporting system involves at all levels of management. The reports originate from

junior levels of management and go upto top level management, consisting of board

of directors. The reporting system of a large-scale organisation is shown in the

Graphics 9.1, given below:

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Graphics: 9.1

The sectional incharge of every section regularly reports the progress of his section to his

superior. In this diagram, functional have deputy managers who control department sections.

The combined reports of different sections reach the department manger, called functional

manager. Different functional managers submit the progress of their departments to the

managing director. The brief summaries of departmental reports are submitted to the board of

directors for reviewing polices and making strategy for the future. An effective reporting system

will enable the top management to remain in constant touch with the progress of different

departments.

The sectional incharge of every section regularly reports the progress of his section to his

superior. In this graphics, Functional Managers have Deputy Managers who control

departmental sections. The combined reports of different sections reach the departmental

manager, called functional manager. Different functional managers submit the progress of their

departments to the Managing Directior. The brief summaries of departmental reports are

submitted to the Board of Directors for reviewing policies and making strategy for the future. An

effective reporting system will enable the top management to remain in constant touch with

progress of different departments.

9.11 PRINCIPLES OF A GOOD REPORTING SYSTEM

Reporting to Management

Sectional Incharge

Department - B

Sectional Incharge

Department - A

Sectional Incharge

Department - C

Deputy Manager

Department - A Deputy Manager

Department - A

Controller Purchase

Manager

Factory

Manager Sales Personne

Functional Area

Maintenance

of Account Incharge of

Production Incharge of

Purchase Incharge of

Marketing Incharge

MANAGER

BOARD OF DIRECTORS

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A good reporting system is helpful to the management in planning and controlling.

Every level of management needs information relating to its activities so that effective

planning may be undertaken and current activities may be controlled and necessary

corrective measures may also be taken in time, if needed. Some general principles are

followed for making the reporting system effective. These principles are discussed as

follows:

1. Proper flow of information: A good reporting system should have a proper

flow of information. The information should flow from the proper place to the

right levels of management. The information should be sent in the right form

and at a proper time so that it helps in planning and co-ordination. The

frequency of reports will depend upon the nature of report, the types of data

required for preparing the information and cost involved in preparing such

reports. The flow of reports should be such that it does not cause delay in

taking decisions. The reports should flow at regular intervals so that

information needs of different managerial levels are met at a proper time.

Flow of information is a continuous activity and affects all levels of the

organisation. Information may flow upward, downwards or sideways within

and organisation. Orders, instructions, plans etc may flow from top to bottom.

Reports grievances, suggestions etc. may flow from button to top,

Notifications, letters; settlements, complaints may flow from outside.

Information also flows sideways from one manger to another at the same level

through meetings discussions etc.

2. Proper timing: Since reports are used a controlling device so they should be

presented at the earliest or immediately after the happenings of an event. The

time required for preparation of reports should be reduced to the minimum; for

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routine reports the period should be known and strictly adhered to. It will be a

waste of time and effort to prepare information, which is too late to be of any

use. The absence of information when needed will either mean wrong

decisions or deferment of decisions on matters, which may be urgent in nature.

3. Accurate information: The information should be as accurate as possible. If

the information supplied is inaccurate it may result in making wrong

decisions. However, the degree of accuracy may differ in different reports.

Sometimes, fractional information may be supplied as a guide for future policy

making, so the degree of accuracy may be less. The supply of exact figures

may involve a problem of understanding. Approximate figures are more

understandable than accurate figures given upto paise. Accuracy should also

not involve excessive cost of preparation nor should it be achieved at the

sacrifice of promptness of presentation. It will be better to have approximate

figure at a proper time than delayed information prepared accurately.

4. Basis of comparison: The information supplied through reports will be more

useful when it is supplied in comparison with past figures, standards set or

objectives lay down. The comparison of information with past or budgeted

figures enables the reader to find out trends of variations. The decision taking

authority will be able to make use of comparative figures while taking a

decision. Corrective measures can also be initiated to improve upon the past

performance. The management accountant can make the reports more useful

by giving his own interpretations to the information.

5. Reports should be clear and simple: The purpose of preparing reports is to

help management in planning, co-ordinating and controlling. This purpose can

be achieved only when the readers easily understand the reports. The

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information should be presented in a clear manner by avoiding extraneous

data. Only relevant important information should become the part of a report.

If supporting information cannot be avoided then it should either be given in

appendix or separate chart should be attached for it. The method of presenting

information should be such that it attracts the eye, and enables the reader to

from an opinion abut the information. The graphic presentation of information

will enable the reader to find out the trends and also to determine deviations

more quickly than in other methods. The arrangement of presentation should

be brief, clear and complete. Simplicity is a good guide for reports

preparation.

6. Cost: The benefit derived from reporting system must be commensurate with

the cost involved in it. Though, it is not possible to assess the benefit of this

system in monetary terms, there should be an endeavour to make the system as

economical as possible.

7. Evaluation of Responsibility: The reporting system should enable the

evaluation of managerial responsibility. The targets are fixed for various

functional departmental heads. The record of actual performance is monitored

along with the standards so as to enable management to assess the

performance of different individuals. So, management reporting should be

devised in a way that it helps in evaluating the work assigned to various

persons.

9.12 PROCESS OF REPORT WRITING

The process of designing and writing a report consists of three stages. These stages

are as follows:

9.12.1 DECIDING THE NATURE AND PURPOSE OF THE REPORT

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The first stage is to know the type of the report. Whether the report is statutory or

non-statutory. Its type shall determine the nature and shape of the report. It is also

very essential to know the purpose or object of the report. The purpose shall

determine the other two stages.

9.12.2 PLANNING STRUCTURE OF THE REPORT

There is no one-way to design the structure of the report. But following parts are

common in any report.

(i) Heading: A short. Clear, meaningful and attractive heading or title is

necessary for a report. Title or heading should indicate the subject matter of

the report.

(ii) Address: Every report is written for some one. So it is essential to write the

name of reader or readers. Report must be addressed to some person or body

of persons.

(iii) Contents: It is a list of chapters of the report. The contents of the report are

listed in serial order along with page numbers on which such contents are to be

found. Contents should be arranged logically.

(iv) Terms of reference or introduction: It gives the reasons for writing a report.

Brief description of the problem is stated. The object and scope of

investigation are also given in this part.

(v) Body of the report: This part is most important and lengthy. The writer

presents here the facts and data collected by him. Use of tables, graphs, and

diagrams can be made here or in appendices. The analysis of data is shown in

this part.

(vi) Recommendations: This part is the summary of the report and consists of

conclusions and recommendations. The conclusions are made on the basis of

STRUCTURE OF THE REPORT

(i) Heading

(

)

Address

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the facts and collected data. Recommendations or suggestions are given on the

basis of conclusions.

(vii) Reference and appendices: It is customary to mention, list of references and

bibliography indicating the sources from where the writer has taken material

for writing the report. Appendices contain diagrams, statistical tables,

specimen forms etc.

(viii) Signature. The person responsible for its preparation should sign every report.

The chairman should sign any report submitted by a committee. It is advisable

to mention date on the report.

9.12.3 DRAFTING OF REPORT

Drafting of a report is an important stage in report writing. This stage includes

following considerations.

(i) Collection of data and its analysis. First step in drafting is collecting

information, facts and data necessary for the purpose of the report. Data can be

collected from secondary or primary sources. Data is collected by

investigations, observations, and interviews or by survey etc. Collected data

has to be classified tabulated, edited and analysed. The collected data has to be

arranged logically and conclusions are drawn.

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(ii) Format of a report. The format of a repot, which has already been explained.

It is concerned with the layout of the report and arrangement of the data. It can

be standardised for the purpose. Following is a specimen of a report form. If

report is in a letter form then it has salutation and a complimentary close. If

report is in memorandum form, both salutation and complimentary close may

be dispensed with.

Address (s) Date

Dear Sir (s)

Title

1. Terms of Reference

2. Finding of Investigation.

3. Conclusions

4. Suggestions

Prepared by

(Signature)

(iii) Writing of report: Report writing is an art, which can be developed by

practicing report writing and by studying the reports of other writers. Reports

are written for other so the needs and style preferred by the reader should be

kept in mind while writing a report. The general principles of a good reporting

system, which have been explained earlier, will help in writing the report.

(iv) Presentation of report. General layout of a report should be pleasing to the

eye. Report may be typewritten, printed or handwritten depending on the

number of copies required. Sufficient space and margin should be kept on the

left hand side. Reports should be written on one side of the paper with double

spacing. Pages, paras and sections should be numbered. Use of diagrams,

illustrations, charts, and tables may be made and these should be numbered. If

report is voluminous or is liable to constant handling it should be in bound

form.

9.13 SUMMARY

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To know the present situation of the business and to formulate the policies for future

in business, reports are very crucial item. The problems of control, co-ordination,

communication and decision-making may be handled properly with reports, which are

delivered by the subordinates to the superiors. The decisions have wider implication

for business as a wrong decision may lead to its closure. Management needs detailed

information before taking any decision. The good decisions can minimise cost and

have a long-term positive bearing on the results. In all, it is the management reporting

that furnishes useful quantum of knowledge in the form of reports.

9.14 SELF-TEST QUESTIONS

1. Explain MIS and Management Reporting.

2. What do you understand by report and its types? Why the reporting is

compulsory in the business world?

3. What are the basic principles of report writing?

4. Explain the various steps for installing the reporting system at the various

levels of management. Discuss them in detail.

5. What are the requisites for a good reporting system?

9.15 SUGGESTED READINGS

11. Ashish K. Bhattacharya, Principles and Practices of Cost Accounting (3rd.),

New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India Private Limited, 2004.

12. Charles T. Horngren, Cost Accounting, A Managerial Emphasis, Prentice Hall

Inc., 1973.

13. D. T. Decoster and E. L. Schafer, Management Accounting, New York: John

Willey and Sons, 1979.

14. John G. Blocker and Wettmer W. Keith, Cost Accounting, New Delhi: Tate

McGraw Publishing Co. Ltd., 1976.

15. R. K. Sharma and Shashi K. Gupta, Management Accounting-Principles and

Practice (7th.), New Delhi: Kalyani Publishers, 1996.

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Subject: Management Accounting

Course: M. Com Author: Dr. Karam Pal

Course Code: MC-105 Vetter: Prof. M. S. Turan

Lesson: 10

ROLE OF COMPUTER IN ACCOUNTING

Objective: The foremost objective of this lesson is to generate some awareness

among the students with regard to the role of computer in accounting.

Lesson Structure

10.1 Introduction

10.2 The History of Computer

10.3 Old Methods and Machines Used in Accounting

10.4 Role of Computers in Accounting

10.5 Advantages and Limitations

10.6 Merging Accounting and Computer Applications

10.7 Self Assessment Exercise

10.8 Suggested Readings.

10.1 INTRODUCTION

The most common method of keeping the financial records of a company was

manual. A bookkeeper kept the journals, the accounts receivable, the accounts

payable and the ledgers in his best possible penmanship. In later years, an

accounting machine, which was capable of performing normal bookkeeping

functions, such as tabulating in vertical columns, performing arithmetic

259

functions, and typing horizontal rows was used. The billing machine, which

was designed to typewrite names, addresses, and descriptions, to multiply and

extend, to compute discounts, and to add net total, posting the requisite data to

the proper accounts, and so to prepare a customer’s bill automatically once the

operator has entered the necessary information, was used. Early accounting

machines were marvels of mechanical complexity, often combining a

typewriter and various kinds of calculator elements. The refinements in speed

and capacity made possible by advances in electronics and operating

complexity of these machines. Many of the newer “generations” of accounting

machines are operated by a computer to which they are permanently connected.

Computers are rapidly changing the nature of the work for most accountants

and auditors. With the aid of special software packages, accountants summarize

transactions in standard formats for financial records and organize data in

special formats for financial analysis. These accounting packages greatly

reduce the amount of tedious manual work associated with data management

and recordkeeping. Computers enable accountants and auditors to be more

mobile and to use their clients’ computer systems to extract information from

databases and the Internet. As a result, a growing number of accountants and

auditors with extensive computer skills specialize in correcting problems with

software or in developing software to meet unique data management and

analytical needs. Accountants also are beginning to perform more technical

duties, such as implementing, controlling, and auditing systems and networks,

and developing technology plans and budgets.

Increasingly, accountants also are assuming the role of a personal financial

advisor. They not only provide clients with accounting and tax help, but also

help them develop personal budgets, manage assets and investments, plan for

retirement, and recognize and reduce exposure to risks. This role is a response

to client demands for a single trustworthy individual or firm to meet all of their

financial needs. However, accountants are restricted from providing these

services to clients whose financial statements they also prepare.

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Persons planning a career in accounting should have an aptitude for

mathematics and be able to analyze, compare, and interpret facts and figures

quickly. They must be able to clearly communicate the results of their work to

clients and managers. Accountants and auditors must be good at working with

people, as well as with business systems and computers. At a minimum,

accountants should be familiar with basic accounting software packages.

Because financial decisions are made based on their statements and services,

accountants and auditors should have high standards of integrity.

Increased awareness of financial crimes such as embezzlement, bribery, and

securities fraud will also increase the demand for forensic accountants to detect

illegal financial activity by individuals, companies, and organized crime rings.

Computer technology has made these crimes easier to commit, and it is on the

rise. But, development of new computer software and electronic surveillance

technology has also made tracking down financial criminals easier, thus

increasing the ease and likelihood that forensic accountants will discover their

crimes. As success rates of investigations grow, demand will also grow for

forensic accountants.

Proficiency in accounting and auditing computer software, or expertise in

specialized areas such as international business, specific industries, or current

legislation, may be helpful in landing certain accounting and auditing jobs. In

addition, employers increasingly seek applicants with strong interpersonal and

communication skills. Because many accountants work on teams with others

from different backgrounds, they must be able to communicate accounting and

financial information clearly and concisely. Regardless of one’s qualifications,

however, competition will remain keen for the most prestigious jobs in major

accounting and business firms.

10.2 THE HISTORY OF COMPUTER

The logical first step in becoming computer literate is to appreciate the origins

of computers. Computers are the result of a long history of mathematical

261

exploration and innovations. They have their earliest roots in primitive systems

of counting that relied on fingers and toes or stones to enumerate objects.

Historically, the most important early computing instrument is the abacus,

which has been known and widely used for more than 2,000 years. It is simply

a wooden rack holding parallel wires on which beads are strung. When these

beads are manipulated (moved along the wire) according to “programming”

rules that the user must memorize, all ordinary arithmetic operations can be

performed. Another computing instrument, the astrolabe, was also in use about

2,000 years ago for navigation.

Blaise Pascal is widely credited with building the first “digital calculating

machine” in 1642. It performed only the addition of numbers entered by means

of dials and was intended to help Pascal’s father, who was a tax collector. In

1671, Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz invented a computer that was built in

1694. It could add, and by successive adding and shifting, multiply. Leibniz

invented a special “stepped gear” mechanism for introducing the addend digits,

and this mechanism is still used. The machine of Leibniz was in a sense a

forerunner of the mechanical desk calculator invented by Charles X. de Comar

in 1820.

The first real computer didn’t change the world. It was never built. It existed, in

fantastic detail, in the mind of a grumpy English mathematics teacher named

Charles Babbage around the time of our civil war. He loved problems and

puzzles, as do computer people today. He taught himself arithmetic, and when

he went to college, he knew more algebra than his teacher. He invented

speedometers and a machine for playing tic-tac-toe. Later he built an adding

machine that could solve a particular kind of problem. Then, he began to

design an “analytical engine” that could solve any kind of arithmetic problem.

Babbage put together the idea of instructions sorted in punched cards with the

idea of a calculating machine. To set up the machine to solve a new problem—

weave a new arithmetic pattern—he would just change cards. The two ideas

added up to a sum vastly greater than its parts. Inside Babbage’s head was the

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first true computer. His design was practical, but it required cogwheels and

gears and other parts that the machinists of his time could not make, and so the

analytical engine had to wait a hundred years to be translated from a brilliant

idea to working machine. The next influential invention was the census

machine of Herman Hollerith. In the late nineteenth century, census taking had

become a major task; tabulation of such a vast amount of data was slow and

problematical. In an effort to find a faster way to compile raw statistical data,

the Census Bureau sponsored a contest. Herman Hollerith’s device was chosen

the most effective and practical.

Hollerith had designed a device that read data from punched cards and kept

track of the count. The keypunch system of data processing was popular for

many years, although recently it has succumbed to faster and less cumbersome

methods. Hollerith was so successful that he left the census Bureau in 1896 to

form the International Business Machine Corporation -IBM, a recognized

leader in the field of data-processing technology even today.

This concept led to systems using electromechanical devices, in which electric

power provided mechanical motion—such as for turning the wheels of an

adding machine. Such systems soon included features to feed in automatically a

specified number of cards from a “read-in” station; and feed out cards punched

with results. By modern standards the punch-card was slow, typically

processing from 50 to 250 cards per minute, with each card holding up to 80

decimal numbers. At the time, however, punched cards were an enormous step

forward.

Vannevar Bush, a professor at MIT, built and demonstrated a differential

analyzer in 1930. It was large, and had many gears, but it used electric motors.

It worked, and could be programmed to perform many different types of

calculating work. Bush’s machine was also the first to use titles. His machine

could store numbers or quantities of electricity in one part of the system. This

ability led some to name Bush the Father of the Electronic Computer. The day

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of the gear driven computer was almost over. Konrad Zuse, a German engineer,

and Howard Aiken, a Harvard math professor, both built hybrid (part

mechanical, part electronic) machines in the period between 1930 and 1950.

Both used binary arithmetic and both used electric relays to perform math

operations.

Professor Aiken worked in conjunction with IBM and had discovered

Babbage’s work. The ideas were so close to Aiken’s that he thought he had

received a personal message from the past. Professor Aiken was building a

computer named Mark I. Instead of punched cards, Professor Aiken used rolls

of punched paper to tell the machine what to do. Electricity turned the counter

wheels, and eight hundred thousand switches, buttons, and other electrical parts

filled a room three times as big as an ordinary living room.

In 1942, two men and their associates were at work at the Moore School of the

University of Pennsylvania on a machine which, while embodying enormous

advances in automatic computing, was less famed than the Mark I. It was not

operational until two months after the Japanese surrender and therefore did not

get credit for helping to win World War II. The co-inventors of ENIAC

(Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator) which was actually the

world’s first electric computer were Dr. J. Prosper Eckert, an electrical

engineer, and Dr. John Mauchly, a physicist. It would have been easily possible

for them to build ENIAC twelve to fifteen years earlier, as it would have been

possible to build the Mark I—all of the components and the theory required

were in existence except for the fact that nobody put up the money or had the

incentive to do so. The patron of ENIAC was the United States government,

more specifically, the Army.

The most significant feature of ENIAC was that it introduced vacuum tube

technology, and no longer were calculations and operations performed by

moving mechanical parts. This feature allowed for greatly increased speed of

performance. The next computer was developed by Mauchly, Eckert, and

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others and was called the Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer

(EDVAC). It was smaller and more powerful than its predecessors. It also had

two other important features: it used binary numbering systems, and it could

internally sort instructions in numerical form. Today, a1l data and programs are

stored in binary form. This method of storing instructions inside the computer

is far more efficient than paper tape storage used in earlier devices.

Another member of the first generation of computers was the Electronic

Delayed Storage Automatic Computer (EDSAC) built at Cambridge University

in England. This computer introduced the concept of stored programs. Before

this, computers often had to be rewired to be used for various operations. Their

memories were incapable of storing more than one program at a time. EDSAC

helped eliminate time consuming and costly rewiring procedures.

In 1946, Mauchly and Eckert formed a corporation to build computers for

commercial use; the UNIVAC (1951) was the first electronic computer used by

large business firms. This launched the major growth of computers into the

business field. The first generation of computers, which thrived from 1951

until 1964, was characterized by vacuum tube technology. Although they were

amazing devices in their time, they were large, took up valuable space, were

expensive to operate, and required almost constant maintenance to function

properly. The next generation of computers attempted to resolve some of these

problems.

The second generation of computers extended from 1959 until 1964 and was

characterized by transistor technology. The transistor was developed by John

Bardeen and others at the Bell Laboratories in New Jersey. Bardeen studied

substances that permitted a limited amount of electricity through them—

semiconductors. Transistors using semiconductor material could perform the

work of vacuum tubes and took up less space.

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Because transistors were smaller, the distance between operating parts was

reduced and speed of performance was increased significantly. Transistors

were also much cooler than vacuum tubes, reducing the need for expensive air

conditioning in areas where computers were housed. Transistors did present

several problems, though. They were relatively expensive because each

transistor and its related parts had to be individually inserted into holes in a

plastic board. Also, wires had to be fastened by floating boards in a pool of

molten solder. Even thought the distance between individual parts was reduced,

it was still great enough to limit speed of computer operations. The next

generation of computers helped to alleviate some of these problems.

The development of integrated circuits in 1963 spawned the third generation of

computers, lasting from 1964 to 1975. Integrated circuits developed from a

need to mass produce transistors in a few simple production steps. The

production process begins when tubes of silicon are sliced into wafer thin disks

that are chemically pure and cannot hold electrical charge. Then a preconceived

design is etched onto the surface of the wafer with the use of light rays.

The integrated circuit continued the trend toward miniaturization that has

resulted in the popularity of the microcomputer and the personal computer

system. Integrated circuit technology spawned a generation of computers that

had greater storage capacity and technically increased speeds of performance.

Many accessory devices were developed and marketed, such as magnetic tape

drives and disc drives. Popular programming languages were developed and

refined, many of which are still in use today.

Third generation computers are not aimed at specific applications such as

business or scientific use. Rather, they were designed as general purpose

computers. They represented a giant leap forward in the data processing field.

Not only were speed and reliability enhanced, but power consumption was

decreased markedly. Computers became smaller and less expensive, putting

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computer power into the hands of a greater number of users than ever before.

Computer Technology began to snowball.

Engineers were not satisfied with the degree of miniaturization that resulted

from the integrated circuit. Also, the integrated circuits of the third generation

were designed primarily with chips having the only function. As engineers

learned how to manufacture chips more easily, they conceived the idea of

grouping an assortment of functions on a single chip, creating a microelectronic

“system” capable of performing various tasks required for a single job. This

technology became known as Large Scale Integration (LSI). Thus, the fourth

generation of computers was born in the mid-1970.

LSI technology has also been responsible for the recent popularity of the

microcomputer. These “Litt1e giants” fit easily on a desk top and put computer

power in the hands of an increased number of people. Declining prices of

powerful computer systems have also encouraged development of the

electronics field in genera1. LSI turned computer technology into big business,

and this trend will certainly continue in the foreseeable future.

A hint of tomorrow’s computer capability can be found in the IBM 3081,

introduced in 1980. This computer is twice as powerful as its immediate

predecessor. It was designed with Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) circuitry

further increases the speed at which computers are able to function.

Multiprocessing—the simultaneous running of several programs by one

computer is likely to develop further in the fifth generation of computers.

Computers will continue to get smaller as well as prices becoming lower.

10.3 OLD METHODS AND MACHINES USED IN ACCOUNTING

The most common method of keeping the financial records of a company was

manually. A bookkeeper kept the journals, the accounts receivable, the

accounts payable and the ledgers in his best possible penmanship. In later

267

years, an accounting machine, which was capable of performing normal

bookkeeping functions, such as tabulating in vertical columns, performing

arithmetic functions, and typing horizontal rows was used. The billing

machine, which was designed to typewrite names, addresses, and descriptions,

to multiply and extend, to compute discounts, and to add net total, posting the

requisite data to the proper accounts, and so to prepare a customer’s bill

automatically once the operator has entered the necessary information, was

used. Early accounting machines were marvels of mechanical complexity,

often combining a typewriter and various kinds of calculator elements. The

refinements in speed and capacity made possible by advances in electronics

and operating complexity of these machines. Many of the newer “generations”

of accounting machines are operated by a computer to which they are

permanently connected.

10.4 ROLE OF COMPUTER IN ACCOUNTING

Because of the minute by minute change in finances, accurate record keeping is

critical. Computerizing a business’s general ledger, payroll, and other

accounting tasks increases office efficiency. With a computer, you can request

and receive an in house balance sheet, an income statement, or other

accounting reports at a moment’s notice. While keeping your checkbook on a

computer may not be practical, computers are great for handling complex home

financial records. You can get statements on net worth and year’s tax

deductible expenses within minutes.

A. Spreadsheets

Electronic spreadsheets allow you to do anything that you would normally do

with a calculator, pencil and columnar scratch pad. Spreadsheets were

primarily designed for managers who in the process of planning must do “what

if” calculations. Due to their flexibility, electronic spreadsheets have found

their way into small businesses and, to a lesser extent to homes. A typical

integrated double entry accounting system will contain some or all of the

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following components: accounts receivable, accounts payable, general ledger,

inventory, order entry, payroll, time, and billing.

It takes its name from the accountant’s spreadsheet—a sheet of paper with rules

for rows and columns—on which such work was usually done. Spreadsheet

programs are much faster, more accurate, and easier to use than traditional

accounting techniques. The programs are widely used on personal computers

for keeping sales, expense and inventory records, and for budgeting and

forecasting future sales and expenses. As a result of these and many other

applications, computer spreadsheets have become the most important of all

software tools for modern businesses.

Early programs such as VisiCalc provided 254 rows and 63 columns for

entering data and formulas for calculations. Some modern programs for

computers with large memories provide thousands of rows and hundreds of

columns. VisiCalc was introduced by Robert Frankston, a young computer

programmer, and Dan Bricklin, a Harvard Business School student who was

looking for a way to use the power of a computer to simplify complex time-

consuming financial analyses. VisiCalc proved so useful in such applications

that it provided an entry for personal computers into the business world. In

1980, the Sorcim Corporation introduced SuperCalc, a similar spreadsheet

program for personal computers using the CPM operating system.

A new generation of computer software for business began with integrated

spreadsheet programs, which can be used to prepare spreadsheets, create

graphs, and manage data. In such programs, for example, it is easy to display

spreadsheet data in the form of a graph or to transfer data from a data base to a

spreadsheet. One of the first such programs was Lotus 1-2-3, an immediate

success following its introduction in 1983.

In the third generation of integrated business software, spreadsheet, graphics,

and data management capabilities were supplemented by word processing and

269

communications capabilities. With such comprehensive programs, it became

possible to create multiple windows on the computer display. Each window

could contain a different application—a graph in one, a spreadsheet in another,

and word processing in a third. The window capabilities of integrated programs

such as Symphony and Framework make it easy, for example, to transfer a

spreadsheet or a data-base report to word processing for styling and formatting

before printing.

B. General Ledger

General Ledger is a labor saving device for the preparation of financial

statements and for establishing multiple income and cost entries.

C. Accounts Receivables

Accounts receivable, when computerized, can get your bills out the same day

you’ve performed a service. An accounts receivable module prepares invoices

and customer accounts, adds credit charges where appropriate, handles

incoming payments, flags your attention to customers that are delinquent, and

produces dunning notices. It allows you to have daily cash control. You get out

the bills on time, yet you avoid errors such as billing a customer twice for the

same item. The further advantage is that debits and credits are posted

automatically to the general ledger, order entry, and in some instances

inventory, once they are entered in accounts receivable.

D. Accounts Payables

Accounts payable, when computerized, will provide for purchase order control,

invoice processing, payment selection and handling, check writing and control,

cash-requirements, forecasting, and format preparation. It will also double-

check the accuracy of the vendor’s invoice, and some software systems will

cross-check it against the purchase order and the inventory module.

E. Inventory Control

Inventory Control module has multiple functions, including tracking inventory

for both costing and tax purposes, controlling purchasing (and the overall level

270

of expenditure) and minimizing the investment in inventory (and subsequent

loss of cash flow). The payroll module prepares and prints payroll checks,

including all itemized deductions. It is integrated with the general ledger so you

automatically set aside the correct amount for FICA and withholding.

F. Point of Sale

Point of sale module captures all sales information at (or in place of) the cash

quantity sold. It can produce sales slips or sales invoices, plus it reports on

items, customer, and salesperson activity.

G. Purchasing and Receiving

Purchasing and receiving module can represent an invaluable addition. It can

generate purchase orders and track their fulfillment. You can find out which

vendors are delivering on time and saving you the expense of having to follow

up on partial and incomplete orders.

H. Time and Billing Module

Time and billing module reduces manual and clerical work, simplifies the

billing process, prompts you and your partners to bill on time, reduces unbilled

work-in progress, minimizes unreported time, reduces unbilled time, measures

and analyzes non-chargeable time and provides criteria to analyze staff

performance. Because a computerized accounting system is basically a

computerized data management system, the disposition of labor is almost the

same. One staff member must serve as a data-base manager and be in charge of

setting up the chart of accounts, establishing the interrelationships among the

files and establishing and maintaining an audit trail.

10.5 ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF COMPUTER USE

The most important advantage of using the computer is the speed with which

we can get accounting done. In addition, we find that it is very easy to do

accounting functions. Posting to the ledger, a tedious task of double entry,

when done directly from the general ledger module, can be largely automated

271

when done through special purpose modules like accounts payable or accounts

receivable. With an accounts receivable module, you just need to enter the

actual cash totals of items purchased and the software distributes these amounts

to the general ledger so they become credits to corresponding revenue

accounts. At the same time, an offsetting entry is made automatically to the

accounts receivable account.

With a computer, one can receive a balance sheet, income statement or other

accounting reports at a moment’s notice. We also find that some day to day

data entry can be turned over to relatively unskilled workers.

When you use a computer, it is possible that data can be lost because of

hardware or software damage. Since the computer has no judgement of its own,

it does not pick up on errors as a human being does. There can be loss of data

due to accidents like fire etc... There can be loss of data or change of data due

to fraud or embezzlement. There can be loss or unavailability of data due to

loss of staff. Inaccurate data may be due to clerical error or mistakes in

programming. Total security is economically unachievable and some failures

must be expected. The right level of expenditure on security measures will

minimize the sum of the cost of the measures and the expected loss. There will

always be some risks that are best shared through insurance, rather than

prevented or avoided.

Much computer-related crime is opportunist: People who were not seeking

any advantage had temptation thrust under their noses. Copies of computer

printouts get mis-directed, or thrown in a waste paper basket in a public place.

Magnetic tapes from bankrupt companies have been sold with data still on

them. Often a programming error reveals a system flaw: someone who by

chance reads a magnetic tape file that he should have been writing discovers

interesting data on it.

272

Sabotage, vandalism, malicious damage, and arson tend to be even more

destructive than the Acts of God they emulate. Political and industrial action,

riots and civil commotions, may not be aimed specifically at the computer but

they can be very effective in preventing its operation.

Fraud and embezzlement are usually achieved on a computer system by

altering data or programs. There are numerous techniques, varying from

additions and deletions to input data, through changing the standing

information files, modifying the behavior of programs, to duplicating or

suppressing output. Although most frauds that have been reported had gone on

for some time, it could be that ‘one shot’ frauds have been more frequent but

more often escape detection.

Eavesdropping and stealing information by tapping telecommunications lines

requires the sort of technical skill which is very widely available (to the

surprise of those without technical education). It is possible to emulate a

legitimate user of a system, or discover his password through trickery or as the

result of carelessness, and thus have access to the information he would have,

such access can be very important for setting up more profitable operations,

such as taking money out of little used bank accounts, or concealing changes

made in files. There are other ways of trespassing, without using wire tapping.

For example, the magnetically encoded cards often used as keys to systems can

be copied and altered, giving the villain access to credit, cash or other valuable

assets.

Wherever a computer is used to handle an organization’s accounts, it can be

used as a means of attacking the funds it controls. In most computerized

bookkeeping systems, it is the computer which effectively causes credit

transfer; so by establishing false accounts, or diverting some of the contents of

the real ones, credit can reach a false beneficiary. The system can also be used

to conceal a change in the cost, or the illegitimate acquisition or the destruction

of tangible goods and services.

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Duplication which is designed to minimize losses in the event of deliberate or

accidental threat can be used. Duplication is designed to ensure that the system

survives damage to any individual part. Duplication is also the fundamental

method of detecting errors in processing. Defense in depth is designed to make

the attacker overcome a series of barriers before he can damage any vital part

of the system. In addition, most companies have computer auditors who ensure

the integrity and accuracy of the organizations records, protect and conserve

the organization’s assets and prevent fraud, theft and error. These auditors also

ensure that systems will survive the hazards to which they are exposed.

10.6 MERGING ACCOUNTING AND COMPUTER APPLICATIONS

There has been increasing concern recently that accounting, the "language of

business," is not expressive enough to match the potential created by the

phenomenal growth of technology. While management accountants have taken

a lead role in developing frameworks for performance evaluation that

encompass financial and nonfinancial measures, the methods by which

antiquated accounting systems are designed prevent them from taking full

advantage of advances in information technology. If management accountants

were to get more involved in the process of software design, particularly

through models such as the resources, events, and agents (REA) model, they

could become more involved in supporting firm-wide strategic management

and control.

Management accountants have a greater opportunity to support corporate

strategy when they are involved in developing IT databases using a conceptual

design tool in concert with the balanced scorecard (BSC). We try to establish a

logical link between the design potential of the REA model and the

performance measurement framework of the BSC. This link provides the basis

for an integrated conceptual database design framework that will enable

management accountants to assist in the development of meaningful

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accounting information systems and establish their role as partners in the

development and evaluation of corporate strategy and planning.

Peter Drucker spoke of the turbulence in accounting that is becoming evident

as the CFO's role in organizational strategy undergoes a transformation. Now

that structured tasks are computerized, which has resulted in reengineering and

some outsourcing of traditional accounting tasks, management accountants

who use only the traditional skills required for such tasks do so at their and the

profession's peril. The work of management accountants has become analytical

and decision oriented, but these financial professionals are unable to fully

realize the changes in their role unless they become partners in the design and

development of the information systems in their organizations. To become

partners, management accountants need to develop and identify tools that give

them greater insight into database development processes.

It is important to describe two developments in accounting: the resources,

events, and agents (REA) model and the balanced scorecard (BSC) model. The

two, operating together, can close the loop among the performance

measurement, strategic decision-making, and systems design functions of a

company.

The REA model, a conceptual model for database design, has the potential to

enable management accountants to play an intrinsic role in the design of

information systems. The balanced scorecard provides a framework for an

"integrated view" of the organization that extends beyond the traditional

financial view. It also provides a wealth of information about the firm that can

enable management accountants to define and describe entities in the database

more accurately.

Are there developments in accounting aimed to meet these challenges? The

traditional "accounting view" of the organization is insufficient to satisfy many

"information customers." Accounting systems, which are driven by

275

transaction-based financial accounting requirements, capture limited

characteristics of transactions. As a result, different functional areas maintain

parallel information systems to cater to their individual needs, causing

inefficiencies in data storage and making it difficult to integrate information

across functional areas.

The key problem is antiquated design and development of accounting systems.

The only planning in traditional accounting is the "chart of accounts," the first

step in the accounting cycle that focuses on financial transactions and

culminates in summarized, uniform financial statements. The accounting

system still depends largely on the debit-credit model that has a 700-year

history dating back to Lucas Pacioli. This model had validity in manual

systems and gave shape to accounting activities in traditional accounting. But

with changes in the nature and size of firms and the advent of databases and

online computing, this antiquated system has become a handicap to designing

information systems required for executive decision making.

This situation has largely left information systems development activities to

people in management information systems (MIS). MIS has developed the

sequence of activities called "systems development life cycle" (SDLC), which

includes systems planning, analysis, design, and implementation. Depicting the

information systems in terms of Michael Porter's value chain concepts helps us

gain insights into the issues that impact the development of corporate

information systems

The design phase of the SDLC adds value to the information system because it

helps determine the adequacy and relevance of information for decision

making. It is in this phase that the information for strategic and other decisions

is framed and determined. Currently, information systems personnel from MIS

departments, who are trained in technical aspects of information systems, play

the key role in systems design and implementation activities. Management

accountants, however, are in the position to be most knowledgeable about the

276

information value chain and the means through which it can add value.

Accordingly, as Michael Porter puts it, "No other business information system

has the ability to combine the performance of all functions of a business into

one set of measures, which has led accounting to be known as the 'language of

business.'" Peter Drucker, as quoted earlier, also predicted that the challenges

to information systems would not be technical but rather would be the ability to

translate data into information that is useful for decision making. Therefore, the

key benefit of the information value chain would be to collect and present

relevant information that would add value to control and decision-making

processes. But traditional accounting systems give only a limited view of the

organizational processes, which means management accountants are

handicapped from playing a major role in the overall systems design. What is

needed is an "integrated" and encompassing view of the organization. It can be

provided by the REA model and the balanced scorecard, with management

accountants deeply involved in both.

The REA model provides management accountants with a tool for designing

database systems. The balanced scorecard, a downstream activity in the

information value chain, provides a framework of performance measures that

can be used for communicating and measuring strategy and providing a

framework for systems design. The two tools converge in the design phase of

information systems development, and here management accountants have an

opportunity to create a new role for themselves in the information systems area.

Kaplan and Norton see "functional silos" as handicaps in the development and

implementation of strategy. They point out that, "Organizations are

traditionally designed around functional specialties such as finance,

manufacturing, marketing, sales, engineering, and purchasing. Each function

has its own body of knowledge, language, and culture. Functional silos arise

and become a major barrier to strategy implementation as most organizations

have great difficulty communicating and coordinating across these specialty

277

functions." Management accountants can play a key role in harnessing the

potential of a measurement system that encompasses the specialty functions.

Research has also helped in highlighting that systems design in the information

systems value chain can have an important impact on the effectiveness of

measurements. This confirms--and research supports--those management

accountants should be more involved in systems design and implementation. It

is at the design stage that these measures are fully integrated into the system.

The relationship between meanings attached to different measures and the data

that is collected must be consistent across functional areas and reflect business

activities. Research confirms that measures commonly used across business

units are more useful for decisions. This highlights the need for greater

uniformity and comparability of measures. In addition, the need to coordinate

and communicate strategy throughout the organization also confirms the need

for measures to cascade to different levels in the organization without changes

in meaning. For example, Kaplan and Norton have indicated a link between the

BSC implementation process and information systems when they point out that

"a newly formed team develops an implementation plan for the scorecard,

including linking the measures to databases and information systems,

communicating the balanced scorecard throughout the organization, and

encouraging and facilitating the development of second-level metrics for

decentralized units. As a result of this process, an entirely new executive

information system that links top-level business unit metrics down through

shop floor and site-specific operational measures could be developed"

(emphasis added). The design of information systems, therefore, is an

important component of implementing a BSC that conforms to corporate

strategy.

10.7 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

1. What do you think can be the major role of computer in accounting

particular in management accounting? Briefly explain any two roles

with examples.

278

2. The basic objective of computer applications in accounting is to make it

easily understandable to common users. Discuss a detailed and planned

reaction for the purpose

3. Assuming you are appointed the manager of a business organization

with an authority to put latest technology in place? Put up a detailed plan

for the purpose

4. Discuss and illustrate with suitable examples the effective role of

computer in accounting required in modern times.

10.8 SUGGESTED READINGS

1. Kenton B. Walker and Eric L. Denna, "A New Accounting System Is

Emerging," Management Accounting, July 1997, pp. 22-30.

2. Michael Porter, Competitive Advantage: Creating and Sustaining Superior

Performance, Simon & Schuster, New York, N.Y., 1985.

3. Robert S. Kaplan and David P. Norton, "Using the Balanced Scorecard as a

Strategic Management System," Harvard Business Review,

January/February 1996, pp. 75-85.

4. Mary A. Malina and Frank H. Selto, "Communicating and Controlling

Strategy: An Empirical Study of the Effectiveness of the Balanced

Scorecard," Journal of Management Accounting Research, 2001 (Volume

13), pp. 47-90.

5. Robert S. Kaplan and David P. Norton, "The Balanced Scorecard--

Measures That Drive Performance," Harvard Business Review,

January/February 1992, pp. 71-79.

6. Christopher Ittner and David F. Larcker, "Are Nonfinancial Measures

Leading Indicators of Financial Performance?: An Analysis of Customer

Satisfaction," Journal of Accounting Research, 1998 (Volume 36), pp. 1-35.

7. Rajiv D. Banker, G. Potter, and Dhinu Srinivasan, "An Empirical

Investigation of an Incentive Plan that Includes Nonfinancial Performance

Measures," The Accounting Review, January 2000, pp. 65-92.

8. Venky Nagar and Madhav V. Rajan, "The Revenue Implications of

Financial and Operational Measures of Product Quality," The Accounting

Review, October 2001, pp. 495-513.

279

Course : Management Accounting Writer : Dr. M.C. Garg

Course Code : MC-105 Vetter : Dr. B.S. Bodla

LESSON-11

INFLATION ACCOUNTING

Objective: On completion of this lesson, you should be able to (a) Explain the

impact of increase in price level on financial statements (b) to make

adjustments in (conventional) financial statements for increase in

general price level resulting in decrease in purchasing power of money

and (c) to prepare financial statements on the basis of current cost

instead of historical cost.

LESSON STRUCTURE

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Reasons for Inflation Accounting

11.3 Limitations of Historical Accounting

11.4 Methods of Inflation Accounting

11.5 Advantages of Inflation Accounting

11.6 Disadvantages of Inflation Accounting

11.7 Summary

11.8 Self Assessment Questions

11.9 Suggested Readings

11.1 introduction to inflation accounting

Inflation is a state to inflation accounting in which purchasing power of money goes

down or conversely there is more money in circulation than is justified by goods and

services. The effect of inflation is that prices of assets go up and the accounts

prepared on the basis of conventional accounting system present much distorted

figures to the users of accounts.

Accountants prepare Profit and Loss Account and Balance sheet at historical costs.

Profit is the difference between revenue and costs. Revenue reflects the current value

whereas costs represent current as well as historical costs. Thus the profit is overstated

measured in terms of money and the value of money is fluctuating due to inflation,

any measurement with fluctuating scale is unreliable and would distort the true

financial position of the organization.

In such cases to make the measurement perfect, the scale should be kept steady. If this

is not possible, an alternative should be evolved to adjust the effects of fluctuating

changes in money value and make the financial statements reflect current values in

real terms. Management Accountant has responsibility towards shareholders and

internal management of the organisation to appraise the true financial position of the

organisation.

Inflation Accounting devised to show the effect of changing cost and prices on affairs

of a company during the course of relative accounting periods. It is also known as

‘Accounting for price level changes’.

11.2 Reasons for Inflation Accounting

Financial accounts are the basis on which the success of the business is measured and

on which investors can find out whether or not their investment is safe and will

produce a reasonable return for them. Financial accounts, therefore, have a significant

effect on the business, and shareholders are particularly interested in them from the

280

point of view of not only obtaining a good return on their investment but also of

maintaining the value of that investment.

But if this value is expressed in terms of historical costs, without allowing for the

inspect of inflation, it could be illusory. Hence, the need for inflation accounting. The

purpose of inflation adjusted accounting is to restore the principle of matching current

revenues with current costs or current purchasing power to the Profit and Loss

Account, thus removing the inflationary element from historic cost profit and/or

allowing the concept of physical capital maintenance to be adopted.

Inflation accounting is a system of accounting which regularly records all items in

financial statements at their current values. The system recognizes the fact that the

purchasing power of money is decreasing day-by-day during inflation and finds out

profit or loss or states the financial position of the business on the basis of the current

prices prevailing in the economy.

11.3 Limitations of Historical Accounting

Now there is a near unanimity among the accountants that historical cost accounts

suffer from many serious limitations during the period of rapidly changing prices. The

following are the main limitations of historical accounts :

1. Utility of accounting records seriously impaired : Financial statements or

reports based on historical cost fail to reflect the effect of such changes in

purchasing power on the financial position and profitability of the firm.

Financial statements may be incorrectly interpreted unless adjustments are

made to place the data on the current price level. In this way, the utility of the

accounting records not taking care of price level changes is seriously impaired

and makes a demand on the accounts for adjusting financial accounting for

inflation to know the real financial position and profitability of a concern.

2. Unrealistic profits : Under the historical accounting system, depreciation

calculated on the basis of historical cost of old assets is usually lower than that

of those calculated at current value or replacement value. This results in more

profits on paper which, if distributed in full, will lead to various consequence

of over statement of profits as more taxes, more bonus to the employees, more

dividend to shareholders etc. Thus there will be reduction of capital and

ultimately the company may go into liquidation.

3. Insufficient provision of depreciation : Under the historical accounting

system, depreciation is calculated on the original cost of fixed assets with the

result that only an amount equivalent to the original cost of the fixed assets is

available for its replacement when its life is over. But the replacement cost of

the asset will be more than the original cost on account of inflation so that the

replacement provision made by way of depreciation charge on the original

cost will be insufficient for the purpose.

According to the Economic Survey, “there is now considerable evidence that

the steep increase in cost of machinery and equipment in recent years is

affecting not only new investment but also modernization and replacement of

existing equipment. In a period of rapidly rising prices depreciation formulae

based on historical cost cease to provide adequate resources for the

replacement of the existing worn out equipment. Moreover, in industries under

price control, so long as the calculations of permissible rates of return continue

to be based on historic cost of fixed capital in use, there is a built in

disincentive to new investment.” Most of the industrial sickness in India is due

to the insufficient funds available for replacement and renovation on account

of charging depreciation on historical cost.

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4. Fixed assets values are unrealistic : In times of rising prices, the

conventional system of accounts based on historical cost does not give a true

and fair view of the business enterprise as is required under the Companies

Act, 1956 as fixed assets are shown at their historical cost and not at current

values.

5. Different basis : In conventional system of accounting, fixed assets are

shown at the historical costs whereas operating expenses and incomes are

taken at current prices. Thus different bases adopted are not desirable for

having correct and reliable information about the business.

6. Return on capital employed misleading : Under historical cost accounting

system the profits are overstated and fixed assets are understated specially

when there is increase in the price of the old fixed assets. Return on capital

employed which is very useful for the valuation of the business by its owners,

creditors and management will not be correct and may lead to misleading

decisions. This will be clearer from the following example.

Rs.

Fixed Assets at cost 20,00,000

Less : Accumulated Depreciation

12,00,000

---------------

8,00,000

Add : Current Assets 10,00,000

---------------

Total Assets 18,00,000

Less : Current Liabilities 4,00,000

---------------

Capital Employed 14,00,000

Net profit after tax @ 50% and 10% depreciation on original cost is Rs. 2,80,000.

Replacement cost of the fixed assets is Rs. 40,00,000.

In the above example, under the historical accounting system return on capital

employed (after taxes) is 20%, i.e.

Net Profit

Capital Employed 100 Rs. 2,80,000

Rs.14,00,000 100×

J=×

But if we calculate depreciation on replacement cost of the fixed assets, return on

capital employed will not be 20% as is shown below :

(Rs.)

Net Profit as given

2,80,000

Add : 10 % depreciation on Rs. 20,00,000 fixed assets

2,00,000

written back

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Add : Tax written back (50% of profit before tax, i.e., 50% of

2,80,000

Rs. 5,60,000) ----

-----------

Profit before depreciation and tax

7,60,000

Less : 10% Depreciation on replacement cost of Rs.40,00,000

4,00,000

-----------

-----

3,60,000

Less : 50% Tax 1,80,000

-----------

-----

Profit on the basis of price level accounting

1,80,000

-----------

-----

Capital employed on the basis of replacement cost :

(Rs.)

Fixed assets at replacement cost

40,00,000

Less : Accumulated depreciation (60% as in historical accounting

24,00,000

system) -----------

-----

16,00,000

Add : Current assets

10,00,000

-----------

-----

26,00,000

Less : Current liabilities

4,00,000

-----------

-----

Capital Employed

22,00,000

-----------

-----

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Return on capital employed Rs.1,80,000

Rs.22,00,000 100 8.2%=×=

7. Matching Principle Violated : Financial accounting based on historical cost shows

closing stock at cost or market price, whichever is lower. Sales are shown at current

purchasing power of the rupee while stocks are shown at cost or market price,

whichever is lower. Thus, profit disclosed by financial accounting based on historical

cost during inflation does not represent increase in wealth of the business in terms of

current purchasing power because closing stocks are not shown at their current value.

8. Incorrect ascertainment of operating capacity : In historical cost accounting, cost

of goods sold is understated because replacement cost of inventory consumed or used

is not matched against revenue giving rise to higher figure of profit. It thus does not

give true and fair view of the operating capability of the enterprise.

9. Difficulty in comparison of profitability of two plants : In case of price level

changes, comparison of profitability of two plants set up at different dates becomes

difficult. Suppose a plant costing Rs. 10,00,000 was set up by one firm 9 years ago

and the plant of the same capacity costing Rs. 20,00,000 (price increased due to

inflation) is set up by another firm in 2003. It is the practice of the firm to charge 10%

depreciation on plant. The old firm will charge Rs. 1,00,000 as depreciation (i.e., 10%

on Rs. 10,00,000) and the new firm will charge Rs. 2,00,000 as depreciation (i.e.,

10% on Rs. 20,00,000). Consequently, profit of the old firm will be overstated by Rs.

1,00,000 because of less depreciation as compared to the new firm even though the

efficiency of the both the plants may be the same. Hence comparison of the two plants

set up at different dates is not possible.

10. Violation of the law of additivity : During inflation accounting data may not be

additive. It is argued that date may be added or subtracted if the purchasing power of

the currency remains the same. Since the value of the rupee does not remain the same

on account of price level changes, the addition and subtraction of accounting data

does not give meaningful results and violates the law of additivity.

11. Misleading interperiod and interfirm comparison : For the purpose of interperiod

and interfirm comparison, ratios are to be calculated. Financial ratios calculated based

on historical costs will not give correct view. No meaningful information will be

available for correct decisions.

From the above discussion, it is clear that conventional accounting based on historical

cost has outlived its utility when prices are changing frequently. To overcome the

drawbacks of conventional accounting, the adoption of accounting for changing prices

is advocated.

11.4 METHODS OF Inflation ACCOUNTING

Many alternatives have been proposed in accounting to minimize the limitations of

historical cost-based financial statements and to recognize the effects of inflation on

financial statements. Though no consensus has yet been reached on a specific

solution, the professional bodies in various countries have issued a number of

statements suggesting the use of different methods of accounting for changing prices.

It would indeed be a major development in the building up of a coherent and logical

structure of accounting, if an objective and useful method of accounting for changing

prices gains universal acceptance. Of the many proposals that have been put forward

for inflation accounting, the following two methods need specific consideration.

(1) Current Purchasing Power Method (CPP). Also known as Constant Purchasing

Power Accounting, General Price-Level Accounting.

(2) Current Cost Accounting Method (CCA).

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11.4.1 Current Purchasing Power (CPP) Method

Under this method of adjusting accounts to price changes, all items in the financial

statements are restated in terms of a constant unit of money i.e. in terms of general

purchasing power by using an appropriate multiplier. A general price index is used for

this purpose since it is the best indicator of the changes in the purchasing power of

money as a whole. This method takes into account the changes in the general

purchasing power of money and ignores the actual rise or fall in the price of the given

item. The values of historical costs are to be converted into value of purchasing

power as at the end of the period. Two index numbers are required one showing the

general price level at the end of the period and the other reflecting the same at the date

of the transaction.

Profit under this method, is increased in the value of the net assets over a period. All

valuations are being made in terms of current purchasing power. For the purpose of

CPP method of accounting it is necessary to distinguish between two classes of items

monetary and non-monetary items.

(a) Monetary items : Monetary items may be defined as those fixed by contract

or by their nature and are expressed in rupees regardless of changes in the

price level. They include monetary assets such as cash, debtors and loans, and

exist as money or as claims to specified sums of money. Holders of monetary

assets suffer a loss in the general purchasing power of their assets during

period of inflation.

Thus, if one holds money in the form of a bank deposit and the yearly rate of

inflation is 25 per cent the loss in the purchasing power of that money by the

end of the period will be 25 per cent. Monetary items include monetary

liabilities such as creditors, bank overdrafts and long-term loans. As the value

of money falls during a period of inflation, it follows that the value of such

liabilities in current rupees will fall similarly, and this fall represents a

purchasing power gain to the debtor.

Consequently, those who incur monetary liabilities gain at the expense of

creditors during periods of inflation, since they will settle these liabilities with

rupees possessing less purchasing power than those they have previously

received directly or indirectly at the time the liabilities were incurred.

(b) Non-monetary items : Non-monetary items are assets and liabilities such as

fixed assets, shareholders’ equity, which are assumed neither to lose nor to

gain in value by reason of inflation or deflation. This is because price changes

for these items will tend to compensate for changes in the value of money. For

example, if stock on hand at the beginning of the year remain unsold at the end

of the year, then there will be no purchasing power loss since one assumes the

sale price when they are sold would be adjusted upwards to take account of the

fall in the value of money.

Illustration-11.1 : ABC Ltd. was formed on 1st January, 2004, with a share

capital of Rs. 75,000 which was fully subscribed in cash on the date. On

the same day, equipment was purchased for Rs. 45,000, of which Rs. 20,000

was paid immediately, the balance of Rs. 25,000 being payable in 2 years from

date of purchase. The price level index was 100 on 1st January, 2004.

Goods were purchased in two installments prior to commencing business as

follows :

1st purchase of Rs. 44,000, when the price level index was 110.

285

2nd purchase of Rs. 45,000, when the price level index was 120.

All sales were made when the price level index was 130, and expenses of Rs.

16,000 were also incurred at the same index level. Stocks were valued on the

FIFO methods and the closing stock was valued at Rs. 29,000. The price level

index at 31st December, 2004 was 130.

The Profit and Loss Account and Balance Sheet in respect of year 2004,

prepared on a historical cost basis, are as follows :

Balance Sheet as at 31st December, 2004

Rs.

Fixed Assets 45,000

Less : Accumulated Depreciation 4,500

40,500

Current Assets

Stock 29,000

Debtors 19,000

Bank Balance 39,500

87,500

Less: Current Liabilities 33,500

Net Current Assets 54,000

94,500

Share Capital 75,000

Profit and Loss Account 19,500

94,500

Profit and Loss Account for the year ended 31st December, 2004

Sales 1,00,000

Cost of goods sold 60,000

Gross operating income 40,000

Expenses 16,000

Depreciation (10% of Rs. 45,000) 4,500 20,500

Net Operating Profit 19,500

Required :

(a) Calculating the purchasing power gain or loss on the monetary items.

(b) Prepare an inflation adjusted Profit and Loss Account for the year ended 31st December,

2004.

level index was 130.

(a) Calculation of purchasing power gain or loss on monetary items during the year

ended 31st December, 2004

Particulars Unadjusted

monetary

items (Rs.)

Conversion

Factor Adjusted

monetary

items (Rs.)

Net Current Monetary items on

1st January, 2004 (cash invested

75,000 130/100 97,500

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Sales 1,00,000 130/130 1,00,000

(a)

1,75,000 1,97,500

Less :

Purchases of Equipment 20,000 130/100 26,000

Purchase of Goods

(i) Index at 110 44,000 130/110 52,000

(ii) Index at 120 45,000 130/120 48,750

Expenses 16,000 130/130 16,000

(b) 1,25,000 1,42,750

Net current monetary items on 31-12-2004

(a-b)

50,000 54,750

Unadjusted net current monetary items on 31-

12-2004

- 50,000

Purchasing power loss for the year ended 31-12-

2004

4,750

(b) Preparation of inflation adjusted income statement for the year ended 31st

December, 2004

Particulars Unadjusted

(Rs.) Conversion

Factor Adjusted

(Rs.)

Sales 1,00,000 130/130 1,00,000

Cost of goods sold

At index 110 44,000 130/110 52,000

At index 120 16,000 130/120 17,333

Expenses 16,000 130/130 16,000

Depreciation 4,500 130/100 5,850

(b) 80,500 91,183

Net Profit (a-b) 19,500 8,817

Particulars Unadjusted

(Rs.) Conversion

Factor Adjusted

(Rs.)

Fixed Assets 45,000 130/100 58,500

Less : Accumulated Depreciation 4,500 130/100 5,850

(a) 40,500 130/110 52,650

Current Assets

Stock 29,000 130/120 31,417

Debtors 19,000 130/130 19,000

Bank Balance 39,500 130/130 39,500

87,500 89,917

Less : Current Liabilities 33,500 130/130 33,500

Net Current Assets

(b)

54,000 56,417

287

Total Assets (a) + (b) 94,500 1,09,067

Share Capital 75,000 130/100 97,500

Profit and Loss Account 19,500 8,817

Accumulated purchasing power gain 2,750

94,500 1,09,067

Calculation of accumulated purchasing power gain

Gain on unpaid balance of purchase price of

equipment

Adjusted balance (Rs. 25,000 x 130/100) 32,500

Unadjusted balance 25,000

7,500

Less : Loss as computed on monetary items 4,750

Net accumulated purchasing power gain 2,750

Arguments in favour of CPP

A number of arguments have been advanced in favour of CPP which are as follows :

(i) Inflation is concerned with changes in the general level of prices, therefore, only

CPP can be regarded as a true form of inflation accounting. Those who consider inflation as an

increase in general price-levels and a decline in the purchasing power of the money, favour CPP

as the best approach to inflation accounting.

(ii) As CPP uses uniform purchasing power as the measuring unit, it possesses the

qualities of objectivity and comparability. It has the further advantage of being based

on historical costs used in conventional accounting system presently in use.

Therefore, it retains all the characteristics of historical cost accounting except for the

change in unit of measurement. Also it does not involve the sometimes subjective

measurements required by the current value and current cost methods.

(iii) Several authors, e.g., Mathews, Ijiri, Agrawal and Hallbaur, have demonstrated that

the adoption of CPP helps maintain the capital of the entity in terms of its general

purchasing powers. The accompanying retention of additional resources is

accomplished by expensive the inflation-adjusted costs of non-monetary assets and

recognizing a loss on holding net monetary assets in the computation of distributable

income.

(iv) CPP provides useful information about the comparable impact of inflation across

firms. Inflation affects firms differently, depending on the age and composition of

their assets and equities. Highly capital intensive firms are likely to report

significantly larger depreciation expense under CPP method than nominal

depreciation expense. Highly leveraged firms will report a larger purchasing power

288

gain during periods of increasing prices than firms that use relatively little debt. CPP

reports these differing effects of inflation across firms.

(v) CPP improves the relevance and measurement of net income as it provides a better

matching of revenues and expenses because of a constant and common measuring

unit. On the contrary, conventional historical accounting does not measure income

properly as a result of the matching of rupees of different size (purchasing power) on

the income statement.

Also, a gain or loss under CPP is explicitly recognized for the changes in the general

purchasing power of monetary assets and liabilities held. Income before the

purchasing power gain or loss must exceed any loss of purchasing power of monetary

assets and equities if the purchasing power of the monetary or financial, capital of the

firm is to be maintained.

(vi) CPP provides relevant information for management evaluation and use. Purchasing

power gain and loss resulting from holding monetary items reflect management’s

response to inflation. The restated non-monetary items indicate the approximate

purchasing power needed to replace the assets.

(vii) CPP presents to users, in general, the impact of general inflation on profit and

provides more realistic return on investment. Financial data adjusted for price-level

changes provide a basis for a more intelligent, better informed allocation of resources,

whether those resources are in the hands of individuals, business entities or

government. Limitation of CPP

Financial statements prepared under CPP method are criticized for the following

reasons :

i) In the long term, CPP method does not remedy the deficiencies of historic cost

accounting and so it does not provide the best long term solution to the problems of

accounting for inflation.

ii) The Retail Price Index is an index of prices of wide range goods and services

purchased by domestic consumers. In many cases, such an index will give a

misleading indication of effects of inflation on individual companies.

iii) The method leads to a new set of problems by expressing company accounts in a

new writ of measurement viz., quantity of current purchasing power instead of

monetary units. The unit of current purchasing power is likely to be conceptually

difficult for most users of accounts to understand.

11.4.2 Current Cost Accounting (CCA) Method

In order to rectify the defects and meet the problems of historic cost accounting and

the Current Purchasing Power method, an accounting system to be known as ‘Current

Cost Accounting’ is devised. The CCA method matches current revenues with the

current cost of the resources which are consumed in earning them.

289

In this method, historical values of items are not taken account; rather current values

of individual items are taken as the basis for preparing profit and Loss Account and

Balance Sheet.

Important Characteristics of Current Cost Accounting

1. Fixed assets are shown in the Balance Sheet at their current values and not at

their depreciated original costs.

2. Stocks are shown in the Balance Sheet at their value to the business, i.e., at the value

prevailing on the date of the Balance Sheet. These are not shown at cost or market

price whichever is lower as is done in case of historical accounting.

3. To find out profit for the year, depreciation is calculated on the current values of the

relevant fixed assets.

4. The difference between the current values and the depreciated original costs of fixed

assets is transferred to Revaluation Reserve Account and is written on the liabilities

side of the Balance Sheet. The revaluation reserve is not available for distribution as

dividend but is utilized for increased replacement cost of fixed assets and under

provision of depreciation in the past years.

5. The cost of stock consumed during the year is taken at current value of the stock at

the date of consumption and not the purchase price of the stock consumed.

6. Monetary assets and liabilities are not adjusted under this method because they are

always recorded at their value to the business. The values of these items do not

change with changes in price level because we are not going to receive more or pay

less on account of these items.

7. Under current cost accounting approach of inflation accounting, accounting profit is

divided into three parts : (i) current operating profit, (ii) realized holding gain, and

(iii) unrealized holding gain. The above classification is made to show separately the

effect of holding non-monetary assets (i.e., holding activities) during inflation. It will

also help to assess properly the result of operating activities. Now, we may give below

the meaning of these types of profits.

Realised Holding Gain : It is the excess of the replacement cost of a non-monetary asset

sold on the date of its sale over its historical cost.

Unrealised Holding Gain : It is the excess of the replacement cost of a non-monetary asset

on the closing date over its historical cost. Such a gain is shown separately in the Balance

Sheet as revaluation reserve and is not available for distribution as dividend but is utilized for

increased replacement cost of the non-monetary asset.

Current Operating Profit : It is the excess of the sale proceeds of goods and services sold

during a particular accounting period over the replacement cost of the goods or services sold

on the dates the sales were effected.

Objective of CCA

Current Cost Accounting (CCA) aims to maintain capital of a business enterprise in

terms of its operating capability. Operating capability is denoted by the net operating assets

of the enterprise in terms of shareholders funds. As an equation,

Net Operating assets = Total tangible assets + Net monetary working capital

(current assets – current liabilities)

A change in the input prices of goods and services used and financed by the business will

affect the amount of funds required to maintain the operating capability of the business enterprise.

Therefore, maintaining the operating capability is the objective which is attempted to be achieved

under CCA while preparing Profit and Loss Account and Balance Sheet. CCA is based on UK

290

accounting standard, SSAP 16 Current Cost Accounting, issued in 1980. CCA aims to prepare

the following :

(A) Current Cost Profit and Loss Account (to determine Current Cost Operating

Profit)

(B) Current Cost Balance Sheet

Current Cost Profit and Loss Account

In CCA, the profit and loss account is prepared to determine the current cost

operating profit (CCOP). CCOP is determined after allowing for the impact of price changes,

on the funds needed to continue the existing business and maintain its operating capability

whether financed by share capital or borrowing. CCOP is calculated before interest on net

borrowings and taxation. After determining CCOP, interest and taxes are considered in

current cost profit and loss account to finally ascertain net income under CCA. Net income

under CCA can be defined as the surplus amount which can be distributed to proprietor or

shareholders after keeping the operating capability of an enterprise intact. CCOP is

determined after making the following three adjustments to historical cost profit before

interest and taxes :

(1) Cost of Sales Adjustment (CCSA)

(2) Depreciation Adjustment

(3) Monetary Working Capital Adjustment (MWCA)

(4) Gearing Adjustment

1. Cost of Sales Adjustment (COSA) : The ‘Cost of Sales Adjustment’ refers to the

difference between the current cost of stocks at the date of sale and the amount

charged as the cost of goods sold in computing the historical cost profit. Business

enterprises use standard costing systems for the purpose of obtaining timely

information about the cost of stocks.

These standard costing systems are designed to identify and to reflect, inter alia,

changes in the current cost of purchased stocks. Where a standard costing system is in

use, it is possible to derive an analysis of the variances which are differences between

historical and standard costs, and to use this analysis to identify the extent, to which

current costs differ from standard costs. This information may be used to adjust the

standard cost of goods sold to their current costs.

Where standard costing systems are not used, it is possible to average out the changes

in the cost of sales. This method involves valuing the opening and closing stocks at

the average cost for the year. The cost of sales is established as the purchases of the

year, which are already stated at their average price for the year, adjusted by the

revised values of the opening and closing stocks.

The important principle to be remembered is that current costs must be matched with

current revenues. As far as sales are concerned, it is a current revenue and, therefore,

requires no adjustment. With reference to costs all operating expenses are current and

pose no problem.

But in the case of sales certain adjustment is needed if there are stocks. This

adjustment is known as Cost of Sales Adjustment (COSA). If there are no stocks then

cost of sales will comprise only current purchases and cost of sales adjustment is not

necessary.

Illustration-11.2 Historical Cost Data : (Rs. in

‘000)

Opening stock 350

291

Add : Purchases 2,300

2,650

Less : Closing stock 540

Cost of sales at historical cost 2,110

Index for the cost of stock

At the beginning of the year 100

At the end of the year 120

Average for the year 110

(a) Revised opening and closing stocks to average cost for the year

Opening stock (350x110/100) 385

Closing stock (540x110/120) 495

(b) Computation of current cost of sales using revised amounts for

Opening and Closing stocks.

Opening stock 385

Add : Purchases 2,300

2685

Less : Closing stock 495

Cost of sales on current cost basis 2,190

Less : Cost of sales on historical cost basis 2,110

Cost of Sales Adjustment 80

Cost of Sales Adjustment can be ascertained with the help of the following

formula :

COSA =−− −CO Ia

where, O = Historical cost of opening stock

C = Historical cost of closing stock

Ia = Average index number for the period

Io = Index number appropriate to opening stock

292

Ic = Index number appropriate to closing stock

Io and Ic may be index numbers at a point of time or may be average

index numbers periods during which the opening stock and closing

stocks are built up depending on the information given in the

problem.

2. Depreciation Adjustment : The Depreciation Adjustment reflects the

difference between the depreciation calculated on the current cost of

fixed assets and the depreciation charged in computing the historical

cost profit. The accounting policy adopted for the purpose of

calculating the historical cost profit should be followed when

calculating the depreciation on the current cost of fixed assets.

Once an enterprise has established the current cost of an asset, the

determination of the depreciation adjustment is a simple matter. The

current cost depreciation charge may be computed by revising the

depreciation charge in accordance with the change in the appropriate

index level between the year of the purchase of the asset and the

current year. This calculation is illustrated below :

Illustration-11.3 :

Asset X Historical

Rs.

Index factor Current cost

Rs.

Cost in year 1 1,200 200/150 1,600

Depreciation (10% p.a.) 720 200/150 960

480 640

Index for Asset X

Mid of the year 150

End of the year 200

Calculate Depreciation Adjustment.

Calculation of Depreciation Adjustment

(Rs.)

293

Current Cost Depreciation (10% p.a. of Rs.

1,600)

160

Historical Cost Depreciation (10% p.a. of Rs.

1,200)

120

Depreciation Adjustment 40

In general, the accepted accounting practices for depreciation in

historical cost accounting apply equally in CCA. The charge for

depreciation for a period should represent the estimated consumption

of service potential during the period evaluated at current costs. The

current cost depreciation charge depends not only on the estimated

current replacement cost of the assets but also on the estimate of the

proportion of the total service potential which has been consumed.

Therefore, for the purpose of CCA, useful life of the asset must be

estimated at regular intervals.

3. Monetary Working Capital Adjustment (MWCA) – Besides showing

the adjustments to cost of sales and depreciation, it is also required to

show the financing adjustment. Financing adjustments have in

common a several recognition of the interaction between changing

prices and the financing of an enterprise, but there are differences of

opinion about the form such financing adjustment should take.

Current cost method require a financing adjustment reflecting the

effects of charging prices on net monetary assets or to a gain from

holding net monetary liabilities when prices are rising and vice versa.

Monetary working capital adjustment can be worked out with the help

of following formula :

MWCA Wc Wo Wc Wo

=−− −

Ia Ia I

where, Wo = Opening balance of monetary working capital

Wc = Closing balance of monetary working capital

Ia = Average index number for the period

Io = Index number appropriate to opening MWC

Ic = Index number appropriate to closing MWC

294

The purpose of this adjustment is to apply the concept of current

value to monetary assets, to achieve the same effect as do the

depreciation and the cost of sales adjustments in respect of fixed

assets and stocks. The MWCA represents the amount of additional

finance needed for monetary working capital as a result of changes in

input prices of goods and services.

Monetary working capital may be defined as the aggregate of :

(i) Trade debtors, prepayments and trade bills receivable, plus

(ii) Certain special categories of stocks not subject to COSA, less

(iii) Trade creditors, accruals and trade bills payable.

Any fluctuation in bank balances or overdrafts due to change in

volume of stock and other items mentioned above should also be

included in computation of ‘Monetary Working Capital’. The bank

balance or overdraft balance, to the extent it does not fluctuate,

should be taken into consideration for computation of ‘Gearing

Adjustment’.

The objective of the ‘Monetary Working Capital Adjustment’ and ‘Cost

of Sales Adjustment’ is to take account of the effects of changing

prices on the financing requirements necessary to maintain the

working capital applied to the day-to-day operations of the business.

The method used to compute the monetary working capital

adjustment should be compatible with that used to compute the Cost

of Sales Adjustment. For example, the sales of finished goods give rise

to trade debtors. Hence, all things being equal, changes in the amount

of finance required to support the increased level of trade debtors

associated with price inflation will tend to be proportional to changes

in the cost of goods finished.

Consequently, the change in the index of finished goods prices is used

to calculate that part of the monetary working capital, which relates to

295

supporting trade debtors. Equally, since the purchase of raw materials

in the case of a manufacturing company gives rise to trade creditors,

the change in the index of raw material prices is used to calculate that

part of the monetary working capital which relates to trade creditors.

Illustration-11.4 (Rs.)

Particulars Beginning

of the year

End of the

year

Historical Cost balance

Trade Debtors

Trade Creditors

60,000

50,000

80,000

65,000

Index Numbers Finished goods Raw materials

Beginning of the year 110 105

Average of the year 110

114

End of the year 118 120

Calculate Monetary Working Capital Adjustment

Particulars

(Rs.)

TRADE DEBTORS

ADJUSTMENT

Increase in Trade debtors (80,000-60,000)

20,000

Less : Index adjustment [(80,000x110/118) – (60,000 x

110/100)]

8,576

(a)

11,424

TRADE CREDITORS

ADJUSTMENT

Increase in Trade creditors (65,000-50,000)

15,000

Less : Index adjustment [(65,000x114/120) – (50,000 x

114/105)]

7,464

(b)

7,536

Monetary Working Capital Adjustment (a)- 3,888

296

(b)

It should be noted that most of the problems associated with the

calculation of the monetary working capital adjustment arise from the

needs to identify monetary assets and liabilities associated with the

net borrowing requirement. This net borrowing requirement affects the

gearing adjustment which has to be made under CCA.

4. Gearing Adjustment : The capital structure of a company has

important implications for financial management purposes. In

particular, the gearing is important, since it expresses the relationship

between fixed interest (loan) capital and fixed dividend (preference)

shares on the one hand and ordinary shares on the other. A company

that has a large proportion of fixed interest and fixed dividend bearing

capital to ordinary capital is said to be highly geared.

The purpose of the Gearing Adjustment is to allocate equitably the

current cost adjustments in order that the full burden should not fall

on ordinary shareholders; where they themselves have not financed

the entire assets in respect of which the adjustments are made. This

adjustment, subject to interest on borrowing, indicates the benefit or

cost to shareholders which is realized in the period, measured by the

extent to which a proportion of the net operating assets are financed

by borrowing.

The current cost profit attributable to shareholders is the surplus

after making allowance for the impact of price changes on the

shareholders’ interest in the net operating assets, after provision for

the maintenance of lenders’ capital in accordance with their

repayment rights.

A Gearing Adjustment to be made where a proportion of the assets of

the business are financed by borrowing. Net borrowing is defined as

the amount by which liabilities (defined in (i) below) exceed assets

(defined in (ii) below).

297

(i) The aggregate of all liabilities and provisions (including convertible

debentures and deferred tax but excluding dividends) other than those

included within monetary working capital.

(ii) The aggregate of all current assets other than those subject to a cost

of sales adjustment and those included within monetary working

capital.

The Gearing Adjustment itself results from the application of the

gearing ratio to the net adjustments made in converting the historical

cost profit to current cost profit. The gearing ratio is found in the

relationship between net borrowing (L) and the average ordinary

shareholder’s interest obtained from the opening and closing balance

sheet(S), as follows :

Gearing Ratio L

Illustration-11.5

(Rs.)

Particulars Opening

Balance

sheet

Closing

Balance

sheet

Average

Shareholders’ Interest

Share capital 100

100 100

Reserves (including the current cost reserve) 50

60 55

150

160 155

Net borrowing 100

110 105

250

270 260

Current Cost Adjustment

(Rs.)

Cost of sales 20

Add : Monetary working capital 10

Add : Depreciation 15

Current Cost Adjustment 45

298

Gearing Adjustment

Gearing Ratio = 105/(105+155) = 40.38%

Gearing Adjustment = 45 x 40.38/100 = 18%

Current Cost Reserve

Current cost accounting suggests the creation of a reserve account,

known as current cost reserve account. The current cost reserve includes (i)

current cost adjustments, i.e., depreciation backlog adjustment, cost of

sales adjustment and monetary working capital adjustment, (ii) gearing

adjustment, (iii) unrealized revaluations surpluses on fixed assets, closing

stock and investment. The gearing adjustment amount is credited to profit

and loss account and debited to Current Cost Reserve Account

Illustration-11.6 : Assume a company has a capital mix of 40 per cent

debt and 60 per cent equity. The following amounts of adjustments have

been found using CCA method :

Cost of sales adjustment Rs. 10,000

Depreciation adjustment Rs. 20,000

Monetary working capital adjustment Rs. 25,000

----------------

Total Rs. 55,000

----------------

In the above case debt constitutes 40 per cent of the total capital.

Therefore, the amount of gearing adjustment will be Rs. 22,000 (Rs.

55,000 x 40%). It means only Rs. 33,000 which represents

shareholders’ share will be charged to Profit and Loss Account. The

Current Cost Reserve Account will be credited with the amount of Rs.

33,000 on account of three adjustments. Alternatively, more

preferably, Rs. 55,000 is charged to Profit and Loss account. Since

the amount of gearing adjustment is credited to Profit and Loss

299

account, the net effect is that only Rs. 33,000 stands charged to Profit

and Loss account. Also, gearing adjustment is debited to Current Cost

Reserve account.

Preparation of Current Cost Balance Sheet

Under current cost accounting current cost balance sheet is prepared.

Balance sheet items are treated in the following manner :

(1) Fixed Assets – The fixed assets should be shown in the balance sheet

at their value to the business. The value of the business of an asset is

the amount which the business would lose if it were deprived of the

asset. Determining the value to the business, i.e. generally the current

cost of fixed assets, involves great difficulty, because usually the

assets now in use were acquired long ago than is typically the case

with inventory, and the assets in use, if replaced currently, would be

replaced by different assets.

Thus, if a used asset of like age and condition to the asset in use can

be priced, that will set the current cost. If a new asset has to be used

as the basis for pricing the old asset, adjustments have to be made for

the differences in life expectancy, productive capacity, quality of

service, and operating costs between the new and the old asset. The

concepts of gross and net current replacement cost are important in

this context. The gross current replacement cost of an existing asset is

the cost that would have to be incurred at the date of the valuation to

obtain and install a substantial identical asset in new conditions. For

example, if a plant purchased on January 1, 2001 for Rs. 80,000 can

be purchased on December 31, 2003, for Rs. 1,00,000, its gross

current replacement cost on December 31, 2003, will be Rs. 1,00,000.

The net current replacement cost of an existing asset refers to the

part of the gross current replacement cost which represents its

unexpired service potential. For example, suppose the plant in the

above example is estimated to have an economic life of five years.

300

Since it has been used for three years, its net current replacement

cost would be Rs. 40,000 (assuming that the equipment will have a

zero scrap value at the end of its economic life).

In circumstances, where the asset in use would not be replaced, if for

any reason it were taken out of service, its value to the business is not

its current cost but a lower recoverable amount. This recoverable

amount is its value if sold or its value if used, whichever is higher. Its

value if sold is its realizable value, net of selling costs. Its value in use

is the net present value of future cash flows (including the ultimate

proceeds of disposal) expected to be derived from the use of the asset

by the enterprise.

(2) Land and Buildings – The land and buildings occupied by the owner

himself, should be shown in the balance sheet at their value to the

business which will normally be the open market value for their

existing uses, plus estimated acquisition costs. However, in case

where an open market valuation of the land and buildings as a whole

cannot be made, the net replacement cost of the buildings and the

open market value of land for its existing use plus the estimated

acquisition costs should be taken as their value to the business. The

valuation should be made by professionally qualified valuers at

periodic intervals.

(3) Inventories – In the balance sheet, inventories should normally be

shown at the lower of the current replacement cost as on the date of

balance sheet and the net realizable value.

Revaluation Surplus Transferred to Current Cost Reserve

Account

Increase in the value of fixed assets like plant and machinery, land

and building, closing stock, investment is credited to current cost

reserve account. The increase in value of fixed asset is arrived at by

301

deducting the net historical cost of the asset from its net current cost

at the end of the year, both sums being calculated before taking

depreciation into account.

To take an example, assume a plant was purchased for Rs.1,20,000

having a useful life of ten years. Its replacement cost now is

Rs.1,80,000. In the fifth year, the amount to be transferred to current

cost reserve account will be Rs.36,000, calculated as follows :-

Net book value + Depreciation = Net book value before

after 5 years (Rs.) for 5th year depreciation (Rs.)

Current cost Rs.90,000 + Rs.18,000 = Rs.1,08,000

Historical cost Rs.60,000 + Rs.12,000 = Rs.72,000

---------------

Net credit to current cost reserve a/c Rs.36,00

-----------

----

The profit and loss account, balance sheet and current cost reserve

account under current cost accounting will appear as follows :-

Current Cost Accounting (CCA) Profit and Loss Account

(Rs.)

Historical profit before interest and tax

Less : Current cost operating adjustments :

(i) Depreciation adjustment --

(ii) Cost of sales adjustment (COSA) --

(iii) Monetary working capital adjustment (MWCA) --

-----------

-----

Current cost operating profit --

Less : Interest on borrowings including

debentures and dividend on preference shares

302

-----------

-----

Current cost profit after interest

Add : Gearing adjustment*

-----------

-----

Current cost profit before tax --

Less : Provision for tax --

-----------

-----

Current cost profit after tax (attributable to shareholders)

Less Dividends proposed

-----------

-----

Current cost profit retained

-----------

-----

Note - Amount of gearing adjustment is generally deducted from interest.

*Notes :

1. Alternatively, gearing adjustment amount could be deducted from the

total of current cost operating adjustments (dep. adjustment, COSA

and MWCA). The result will be the same if gearing adjustment is

deducted from current cost adjustments, or if not deducted from

current cost operating adjustment and subsequently added to current

cost profit.

303

2. Gearing adjustment is calculated only when a firm is financed partly

by borrowing. No gearing adjustment arises when a company is wholly

financed by shareholders’ capital. To find out the net borrowings, cash

balance is deducted from total borrowings. Or if cash balance is more

than the borrowings, there will be no gearing adjustment.

The above profit and loss account (prepared in a statement format)

can be shown in a ‘T’ format, as below.

Profit and Loss Account

To Depreciation adjustment -- -- By historical profit before --

To current cost reserve : interest and taxes

COSA -- By current cost reserve --

MWCA* -- -- (gearing adjustment)

To Interest --

To Profit before tax --

———————— —————

Total Total

———————— —————

* MWCA will be shown on credit side of profit and loss account in case of

negative adjustment. In this case entry will be :

Current Cost Reserve A/c Dr.

To Profit and Loss A/c

Entry for revaluation of assets is as follows :

Plant and Machinery A/c Dr.

To Current Cost Reserve A/c

Balance Sheet under CCA

————————————————————————————————————

304

Profit and Loss A/c -- Plant and Machinery

Current Cost Reserve -- (or similar assets)

(balance) (Revalued amount)

————————————————————————————————————

Current Cost Reserve A/c

————————————————————————————————————

To P. & L. A/c -- By Fixed Assets --

(gearing adjustment) (revalued surplus amount)

To depreciation By P & L A/c (COSA)

(backlog) By P & L A/c (MWCA) --

To balance c/d --

————————————————————————————————————

Illustration-11.6 : The summarized current balance sheet of Naveen Ltd.

and its 60% owned subsidiary Pracheen Ltd. are as follows :

(Rs.’000)

Naveen Ltd. Pracheen Ltd. Particulars

31-12-

2004

31-12-

2003

31-12-

2004

31-12-

2003

Fixed Assets 5,950

5,600

3,825 3,700

Investment in Pracheen Ltd. 600

600

- -

Stock 3,450

1,500

1,155 1,040

Debtorrs less Creditors 1,725

1,200

750 510

Taxation (550)

(430)

(450) (220)

Proposed Dividend (350)

(250)

- -

Total 10,825

8,220

5,280 5,030

Share Capital 3,000

3,000

1,000 1,000

Reserves 3,490

2,165,

2,250 21,300

6,490

5,165

2,250 1,300

Loan less Cash 4,335

3,055

2,030 2,730

Total 10,825

8,220

5,280 5,030

The historical cost Profit and Loss Account for the year ended 31-12-

2004 is as follows :

(Rs.’000)

Particulars Naveen

Ltd.

Pracheen

Ltd.

305

Turnover 15,500 12,100

Operating Profit 1,700 1,300

Interest payable 400 340

Profit before tax 1,300 960

Tax 550 450

Profit after tax 750 510

Proposed dividend 350 -

Retained profit 400 510

Notes :

(i) The following current cost adjustment has been calculated :

(Rs.’000)

Particulars Naveen Ltd. Pracheen Ltd.

Cost of sales 275 150

Monetary Working Capital 205 90

Depreciation 350 375

(ii) The following are the movements of the current cost reserves :

Surplus on revaluation

Fixed Assets 1200

800

Stocks 350

165

Monetary working capital adjustments (as above)

You are required to prepare :

(i) The consolidated current cost Profit and Loss Account for the year

ending 31-12-2004 for the Naveen group.

(ii) A statement of the movements on the group current cost reserve for

the year ending 31-12-2004.

306

Solution :

Group Current Cost Profit and Loss Account for the year ending

31-12-2004

(Rs.’000)

Turnover (15,500+12,100)

27,600

Profit before interest and tax on historical cost

basis

(1,700+1,300) 3,000

Less : Current Cost Operating Adjustment (Note

1,445

1,555

Gearing Adjustment (Note 2) 656

Interest payable (400+340) 740 84

Current cost profit before tax 1,471

Tax (550+450) 1,000

Current cost profit after tax 471

Less : Attributable to outside shareholders (Note

Current cost profit attributable to shareholders to

Naveen Ltd.

391

Proposed dividend 350

Retained current cost profit for the year 41

Statement of Retained profits/reserve

(Rs.’000)

Retained current cost profit for the year 41

Movement on current cost reserve (Note 5) 1,854

1,895

Retained profits/reserves at the beginning of the year (2,165+60% of

1,300)

2,945

Retained profits/reserves at year end (3,490+60% of

2,250)

4,840

Note 1 : Adjustments made in deriving Current Cost Operating

Profit (Rs.’000)

Cost of sales (275 + 150) 425

307

Monetary working capital (205 + 90) 295

Working Capital 720

Depreciation (350 + 375) 725

Current Cost Operating Adjustment 1,445

Note 2 : Gearing Adjustment (Group)

(Rs.’000)

Particulars 31-12-2004 31-12-2003

Net operating assets (Group)

Fixed Assets (5,950+3,825)

9,775

(5,600+3,700)

9,300

Stock (3,450+1,155)

4,605

(1,500+1,040)

2,540

Monetary Working Capital (1,725+750)

2,475

(1,200+510)

1,710

16,855

13,550

Financed by Net borrowing

(Group)

Loan less Cash (4,335+2,030)

6,365

(3,055+2,730)

5,785

Tax (550+450)

1,000

(430+220)

650

7,365

6,435

Gearing proportion = ,,

,, .%

7365 6 435

16 855 13550 100 45

Current Cost Operation Adjustment (Note 1) = 1445

Gearing Adjustment = 1,445 x 45.4/100 = 656

Note 3 : Gearing Adjustment – Pracheen Ltd.

(Rs.’000)

Particulars 31-12-2004 31-12-

2003

Net Operating Assets

Fixed Assets 3,825 3,700

Stock 1,155 1,040

Monetary Working Capital 750 510

5,730 5,250

Financed by Net borrowing (Pracheen Ltd.)

Loan less Cash 2,030 2,730

Tax 450 220

2,480 2,950

308

Gearing proportion = ,,

2 480 2 950

5730 5250 150 90 375 304

+++ =

Note 4 : Current Cost Profit/Loss attributable to outside

shareholders (Rs.’000)

Current cost profit of Pracheen Ltd. 510

Less : Current Cost Operation Adjustment

Cost of sales 150

Monetary working capital 90

Depreciation 375 615

(105)

Add : Gearing Adjustment (Note 3) 304

199

Minority Interest 40% 80

Note 5 : Statement of movements on group Current cost Reserve

for the year ending 31.12.2004.

(Rs.’000)

Particulars Total Minority Attributable

to Group

Surplus on revaluation

Fixed Assets (1,200 + 800) 2,000 320 1,680

Stock (350 + 165) 515 66 449

MWCA 295 36 259

2,810 422 2,388

Gearing adjustment (656) (122) (534)

Net movement for the year 2,154 300 1,854

Advantage of CCA

The following are the main advantages of this approach :

(i) If maintains intact the operative capacity of the enterprise as this method seeks to

closely approximate the impact of inflation on the enterprise.

(ii) The theory underlying in this approach (i.e., earnings and assets of an enterprise

should be measured by reference to the value to the business) is quite logical and

useful for some group of users of financial statements.

(iii) The break up of the assets and liabilities under CCA approach is more accurate

and real financial picture of an enterprise will be available as compared to historical cost

accounting as CCA figures are with reference to the current price.

309

Limitations of CCA

The following are the main limitations of this approach :

1. There is an element of subjectivity inherent in periodic valuations especially where

reliable indices are not available. Under CCA accounts are not objective so as to

provide information capable of independent verification. The valuation of assets is

influenced by the discretion and subjective judgement.

2. Under CCA approach, figures of operative profit and capital employed in different

years are not comparable as current cost accounts are prepared in monetary units

having a different purchasing power in each year.

3. Under this approach, operating profits do not reflect the real earnings of the firm.

Profits when distributed will be out of capital and will not help to maintain the

operating capability of the firm.

4. External users will not be able to predict future cash flows (as CCA will not be

applicable to cash flow statements) which is very necessary for investment decision

making.

5. Under this approach, accounts of an enterprise shall have to be adjusted even if

changes in specific prices occur without any changes in the purchasing power of

money.

6. The valuation method under this approach is ill-defined. There is no integrated and

comprehensive body of procedures which is followed for valuation in CCA.

7. The various aspects of the CCA are not easily understood as it introduces into

accounts notional concept of valuation amount in place of the existing historical cost of assets.

Thus, the method is less intelligible.

8. The ultimate aim of CCA is to replace gradually historical cost accounts but there

may be legal problems in replacement as the income tax authorities may not recognize

CCA.

In view of the above limitations, CCA may not be generally acceptable to the

enterprise and professional bodies in various countries.

11.5 Advantages of Inflation Accounting

The advantages of Inflation Accounting include the following :

1. Historical accounting tends to inflate profits because less depreciation based on

historical costs of assets (which are usually lower) is charged. Inflated profits if

distributed as dividend will lead to erosion of capital. Accounting adjusted to price

level changes tends to correct this malady by charging depreciation on current values

of assets. In this way, capital is kept intact which is essential in a limited liability

business.

2. Inflation accounting helps to maintain the physical capital (.e., fixed assets) intact

because sufficient funds are made available for replacement of fixed assets when they

are worn out by charging depreciation on their current values.

3. Balance Sheet exhibits a true and fair view of the financial position of a firm because

assets are shown at their current values.

4. For managerial decisions, the anticipated and actual profit must be expressed in

rupees of the same purchasing power. Inflation accounting does this by matching the

cost and revenue at current values.

5. Financial ratios calculated on the basis of balance sheets and profit and loss account

adjusted to current values would provide more meaningful information as compared

to the ratios based on the historical costs.

6. A rate of return on capital employed adjusted to the current price index is more useful

in the valuation of business by its owners, creditors and management.

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7. Employees, shareholders and public are not misled because inflation accounting

shows current profit based on current prices. Historical accounting shows exaggerated profits by

relying on historical values which may be very low. Exaggerated profit may induce employees

and shareholders to make a claim for higher wages and dividends.

11.6 Disadvantages of Inflation Accounting

1. Charging depreciation on current values of fixed assets is not acceptable to income

tax authorities, so no useful purpose will be served by following accounting for

changing prices so for as income tax is concerned.

2. Charging depreciation is a process of distribution of original cost of a fixed asset over

its effective life, so charging anything is excess over the effective life of an asset is

against the concept of depreciation.

3. Adjusting accounts to changing prices is a never ending process because prices

go on changing every day.

4. Price level accounting is not free from prejudice. Assets are recorded at current values

which will be according to the whims of an individual or group of individuals. It

would enable people to dress up their balance sheets according to their whims. On the

other hand, actual cost recorded in historical accounting is an objective evidence and

is free from prejudice.

5. The profit disclosed by system of price level accounting by taking items at current

values is not a realistic profit and, therefore, to that extent, it should not be distributed

as dividend. Distribution of unrealized profit as dividend amounts to erosion of

capital which is not desirable.

6. In times of deflation, lower depreciation will be charged because assets will have

lower current value. It will increase profit which will lead to payment of excessive

dividend. It is not desirable because it amounts to payment of capital profit.

11.7 Summary

Inflation accounting is a system of accounting which regularly records all items in

financial statements at their current values. The system recognizes the fact that the

purchasing power of money is decreasing day-by- day during inflation and finds out

profit or loss or states the financial position of the business on the basis of current

prices prevailing in the economy. At present there are two methods which help to take

the inflationary effect while preparing financial statements. These methods one(a)

current purchasing power method and (b) current cost accounting method. In current

purchasing power method, the historical accounting data are adjusted on the basis of

any established and approved general price index at a given date. This method takes

care of changes in the value of money but it does not account for changes the value of

individual items. The value of an item may be increased on the basis of general price

index whereas the act u al value of that item might have deceased. To remove this

drawback, in current cost accounting method, historical values of items are not taken

into account, rather current values of individual items are taken as the basis for

preparing profit and loss account and balance sheet.

11.8 Self Assessment Questions

1. Discuss the shortcomings of conventional accounting based on historical

cost during inflation.

2. Define inflation accounting. Give its advantages and disadvantages.

3. Discuss the methods which can be adopted to adjust price level changes,

while determining income.

4. Explain under CCA method what is meant by -

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(a) Cost of Sales Adjustment

(b) Monetary Working Capital Adjustment

5. Discuss the features of CPP method for accounting under condition of

changing price levels. What are the limitations of this method ?

11.9 SUGGESTED READINGS

1. D Solomons, Making Accounting Policy, Oxford University Press, New York

2. American Institute of Certified Public Accountants, Reporting the

financial effects of price level changes, AICPA, New York

3. M O Alexnder, Effects of changing prices andvalues in John C Burton

et.al. (Ed), Handbook of Accounting and Auditing, Gorham and Lanont,

Warren

4. Report of the Inflation accounting Committee, HMSO, London

5. Shukla and Grewal, Advanced Accounting, S. Chand and Sons, New Delhi

6. Financial Reporting and Changing Prices, Financial Accounting Standards Board.

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Course : Management Accounting Writer : Dr. M.C. Garg

Course Code : MC-105 Vetter : Dr. B.S. Bodla

LESSON-12

HUMAN RESOURCE ACCOUNTING

Objective : The objective of the present lesson is to discuss the concept,

objectives assumptions and methods of Human Resource

Accounting

LESSON STRUCTURE

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Concept of Human Resource Accounting

12.3 Objectives of HRA

12.4 Need for HRA

12.5 Assumption of HRA

12.6 Benefits of Human Resource Accounting

12.7 Methods of Accounting for Human Resources

12.8 Requirements under the Companies Act

12.9 Recording and Disclosure in Finance Statements

12.10 Problems and Limitation of HRA

12.11 Summary

12.12 Self Assessment Questions

12.13 Suggested Readings

12.1 introduction

It is widely recognized that human resources are no lesser important than other

productive resources. However the recognition of importance of people in

organisations as productive resources by the accountants is a recent origin. In

conventional accounting practices, human work force, a core element, did not find its

place. The expenses incurred in respect of acquisition, selection, layoff, training,

promotion and development etc. of employee are treated as revenue expenditure

which yield benefits to an enterprise in the form of service rendered by the manpower

and such expenditure should be quantified as well as capitalised and shown in the

Balance Sheet. But the managers failed to recognize and treat them as an asset in the

financial statements.

It was in 1960's, the behavioural scientists attacked the conventional accounting

practice for its failure to value the human resources of the organisation along with

other productive resources and pointed out that this was a serious handicap for

effective management. As a consequence, valuation of human resources has received

widespread recognition. In the course of time a number of accounting models have

been developed to value and report human resources of an organisation. In the

management terminology this is called “Human Resource Accounting” (HRA).

Human resources have certain distinct characteristics from other physical assets, like

personality, self control, devotion, quality, skill, talents, loyalty and initiativeness. An

organisation's basic need of present time is to improve productivity, that can be

improved by the human force. Hence to encourage, it is necessary to take progressive

decisions for them. Advocates of HRA stresses on the importance of the human

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element in organisations and the failure of conventional accounting in dealing with it

as an asset. In its simplest form HRA involves the identification of the costs of

recruitment, training, and maintenance of an entity's human assets.

The basic premise underlying the theory of HRA are:

 People are valuable resources of an enterprise.

 The usefulness of manpower as an organizational resources is determined by the way

in which it is managed.

 Information on investment and value of human resources is useful for decision-

making in the enterprise.

Just like financial capital structure, which consists of various types of capital, the

human capital structure consists of various types of employees employed in an

organisation. The type of employees may be executives, supervisory, artisans, clerical and

skilled staff or semi-skilled staff. The composition and proportion of various types of

employees play an important role in development of an organisation. The human capital

structure is highly related with HRA and the techniques to value human resource.

12.2 Concept of Human Resource Accounting

Human resource accounting is the process of measuring and reporting the human

resources of an organisation. It is the process of providing information about

individuals and groups of individuals, within an organisation to decision-makers both

inside and outside the organisation. The American Accounting Association’s

Committee on Human Resource Accounting (1973) defines HRA as “the process of

identifying and measuring data about human resources and communicating this

information to interested parties”. According to Flamholtz. “Human resource

accounting may be defined as the measurement and reporting of the cost and value of

people as organizational resources. It involves accounting for investments in people

and their replacement cost. It also involves accounting for the economic value of

people to an organisation.”

According Davidson and Weil "it is the process of measuring and reporting the human

dynamics of an organisation. It is the assessment of the condition of human resources

within an organisation and the measurement of the change in the condition through

time.”

According to the above definitions, the requirements of HRA are as follows :

o Valuation of human resources.

o Recording of human resources as per accounting principles.

o Disclosure of human resource information in the financial statements.

HRA is the measurement of cost value of people for organisation. HRA is the

systematic recording of the transactions relating the value of human resource. The

importance of people in the organisation as productive resource was ignored by the

management, but now a days it has received increasing attention and widespread

interest in developing the system of HRA.

The productivity of a company's investment is known for the rate of return, which is

calculated on the basis of physical assets investment only. There is need to find out

productivity of investment on human beings in any organisation. It is an effective tool

for decision making.

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Human resources have certain distinct characteristics from the physical assets like

personality, self control, devotion, quality, skill, talent, loyalty, initiativeness etc. It is

a basic need of present time to improve productivity, that can be improved by the

human force. Hence to encourage, it is necessary to account them and to take

progressive decisions for them.

12.3 Objectives of HRA

HRA is basically adopted to treat human resources as assets, to generate human data

about human resources, to assign value to human resources and to present human

assets in the balance sheet. The following are the main objectives of an HRA system :

1. To furnish cost value information for making management decisions about

acquiring, allocating, developing and maintaining human resources in order to

attain cost effective organisation objectives.

2. To allow management personnel to monitor effectively the use of human

resources.

3. To provide a determination of asset control i.e., whether human assets are

conserved, depleted or appreciated.

4. To aid in the development of management principles by classifying the financial

consequences of various practices.

5. To recognize the nature of all resources used or cultivated by a firm and

improvement of the management of human resources so that the quality and

quantity of goods and services are increased.

6. To facilitate the effective and efficient management of human resources.

7. To evaluate the return on investment in human resources.

12.4 Need for HRA

HRA is required to be implemented in the organisation for the following reasons : 1.

The Balance Sheet and Profit and Loss Account of a firm cannot show true and fair

view of its affairs unless all resources and assets including human resources are

properly shown.

2 The expenditure on hiring, training and acquiring experience and efficiency on the

human element is huge amount in these days. Firms spend large amount on the

training and development of the skilled workers, the technical personnel, the

accountants and the managers. It is essential that the true position regarding the

nature of this expenditure and its role is prominently highlighted for the benefit of

all concerned.

3. Management is required to take important decisions regarding the appointment,

promotion, training, internal transfers, work distribution, merit rating, job evaluation,

layoff, discharge etc. in respect of its personnel. In the absence of proper accounting data,

sometimes the decisions are faulty and the organisation suffers on this account.

4. Employee also is well informed about the investment made by the employer on him

and his true value to the organisation, so that he adopts and enlightened attitude when

faced with certain important decisions regarding himself and react properly.

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5. Strikes, lockouts, go slow, work to rule, absenteeism, high labour turnover rate etc.

which plague industry are natural in a system where the human resource are not

properly valued and prominently shown in the books. Wastage of human resource

and time due to the above would be checked to a large extent if its cost to the

different parties is calculated. Such information could also form the basis of wage

agreements.

6. Comprehensive manpower inventory is also essential for manpower planning

projections regarding the future requirements of manpower and their development

within the organisation or hiring from outside will be possible only if proper

records are maintained.

7. In the context of the country as a whole, while there is no scarcity of unskilled

workers and the inter-firm mobility is also low, there is relative scarcity of skilled and

technical manpower like the technicians and engineers, the accountants, the managers

etc. Precise estimates of the value of these scarce human resources is essential for their

systematic development.

12.5 Assumptions of HRA

The following assumptions which underly HRA :

1. Human resources provide benefits to an organisation in a fashion similar to the

manner in which financial and physical resources provide benefits.

2. The benefits associated with both conventional assets and human resources have

value to the organisation because these benefits contribute in some way to the

accomplishment of the organizational goals.

3. The acquisition of human resources typically involved an economic cost and the

benefits associated with such resources can personally be expected to contribute to the

economic effectiveness. It follows, therefore, that these benefits are essentially

economic in nature and are subject to measurement in financial terms.

4. Since the usual accounting definition of an asset involves the right to receive

economic benefits in future, human assets are appropriately classified as accounting

assets.

5. It is theoretically possible to identify and measure human resource costs and benefits

within an organisation.

6. Information with respect to human resource costs and benefits should be useful in the

process of planning, controlling, evaluating and predicting organizational

performance.

12.6 BENEFITS OF HUMAN RESOURCE ACCOUNTING

The concept of human resource accounting covers the people who

constitute a valuable resource of an enterprise and information on the

investment and value of such resources is useful for internal and

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external decision–making. Such accounting is of peramount

importance to the nation and also to individual organisations. The

following are the main benefits of Human Resource Accounting :

1. Helpful in proper interpretation of Return on Capital Employed :

The human resource accounting will disclose the value of human

resources. This will help in proper interpretation of return on capital

employed. Such information will give long-term perspective of the

business performance which could be more reliable than the return.

on capital employed based on net profit only.

2. Improves managerial decision–making : The maintenance of

detailed records relating to internal human resources (i.e. employees),

will improve managerial decision- making specially in situations like

direct recruitment versus promotion, transfer versus retention,

retrenchment or relieving versus retention, utility of cost reduction

programme in view of its possible impact on human relations and

impact of budgetary control on human relations and organizational

behaviour and decision on relocating plants, closing down existing

units, developing overseas subsidiaries etc. Thus, the use of HRA will

definitely improve the quality of management.

3. Serves social purpose : It will serve social purpose by identification of

human resource as a valuable asset which will help in prevention of

misuse an under use due to thoughtless or rather reckless transfers,

demotions, lay offs and day to day maltreatment by supervisors and

other superiors in the administrative hierarchy; efficient allocation of

resources in the economy; effecting economy and efficiency in the use

of human resources and proper understanding of the evil effects of

avoidable labour unrest/disputes on the quality of the internal human

resources.

4. Increase productivity : It will have the way for increasing

productivity of the human resources because, the fact that a monetary

value is attached to human resources, and that human talent,

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devotion and skill considered as valuable assets and allotted a place

in the financial statements of the organisation, would boost the

morale, loyalty and initiative of the employees, creating in their mind a

sense of belonging towards the organisation and would act as a great

incentive, giving rise to increased productivity.

5. Invaluable contribution to humanity. HRA will be an invaluable

contribution for accounting to humanity and it will lead to improve

human efficiency while preserving human dignity and honour. For

this, a basic change in individual behaviour, attitude and thinking is

required. HRA will help in realizing the value of human resources and,

thus, will influence the individual behaviour, attitude and thinking in

the desired direction.

6. Essential where the human element is the prime factor. HRA is

absolutely essential in such organisations where human element is

the prime factor, e.g., a professional accounting firm, a drama

company, a solicitor and attorney firm, an educational institution.

7. Completes MIS. Human resource data would create a more complete

management information system as it can provide information of vital

importance for both short-term and long-term decision-making as well

as performance measurement. It will provide adequate basis for

decision on allocation of resources e.g., budgeting, capital expenditure

decisions and better measurement of resources of an organisation.

Performance measurement helps in assessing the strengths and

shortcomings of an organisation and helps in making better

promotion policies.

8. For successful operation of an organisation. The success of an

organisation very much depends on the build up of quality work force

at all levels. The success stories of BHEL, ITC, Hindustan Lever,

Larsen & Toubro and several other enterprises are largely due to the

emphasis on human resource development. If this vital asset is not

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shown in the balance sheet, to that extent the public and investors are

handicapped.

12.7 methods of accounting for human resources

Traditional accounting system treats human resources as current cost and charge such

cost as of revenue nature. On the basis of contractual obligation, the organisation,

pays only salaries, wages and related fringe benefits for human resources, i.e. what

the organisation pays in under normal methods of accounting chargeable to revenue

only and no human resource is carried over as asset in the Balance Sheet. The latest

thinking on HRA considers such resources as capital items and involving human

resources. The following are relevant :

- They render future service that have economic value,

- The value would depend upon how the resources are utilized.

Various management actions such as training, development and technological

advances have the effect of conserving, enhancing and depleting the value of human

resources. Like the accounting for any other assets, HRA involves :

- Capitalising the human resources and recording them as investments.

- Recording the routine expiration of the resources on the basis of amortisation.

- Record the loss of resources due to obsolescence and labour turnover.

- Valuation of the human resources after adjustments.

From time to time many methods have been suggested for the valuation of human resources. These methods can broadly be

classified into Cost Methods and Present Value Methods.

12.7.1 Cost methods

The HRA methods based upon cost involve computation of cost of human resources

to the organisation. The HRA models based upon cost are described as under :

1. Historical Cost Model

2. Replacement Cost Model

3. Opportunity Cost Model

4. Standard Cost Model

1. Historical or Acquisition Cost Model : This model is also known as 'Acquisition

Cost Model'. This model of accounting of human resources was first initiated by

Rinses Likert at R.G. Bary Corporation in Ohio Columbia (USA) in 1967. This model

involves capitalization of the actual cost incurred on developing the human resources

of the organisation. This historical cost consists of recruitment, selection, hiring

training and development etc.

Again historical cost may be categorized into two namely Acquisition cost and

Learning costs. Recruitment cost, selection cost, hiring cost and placement costs are

the examples of acquisition cost. Training and development costs are examples of

learning costs. The sum of such costs for all the employees of the organisation

represents the value of the human resources of the organisation.

This value is amortised over the expected length of service of individual employees.

The unexpired cost is considered to be the investment in human resources. If an

employee leaves the organisation due to resignation, death, dismissal etc., whole of

the amount not written off is charged to the current revenue.

Under this method, the actual cost of recruiting, selection, training, developing of an

employee are capitalized and written off over the his length of service. If an employee

expires or leaves the organisation within his tenure of service the remaining value is

charged off against revenue.

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Advantages : Historical costs based HRA have several advantages. Because they use

primarily accounting techniques which have been in common use for many years, this

method is relatively easy to develop and apply. In addition management would have

little difficulty in understanding the meaning of the information supplied by cost-

based systems since the underlying concepts are consistent with those of the

conventional (historical) accounting data which management often rely upon. Another

important advantage is that the accumulation of the cost of human resources

investments in individuals is a much simpler process than attempts to measure the

value of these individuals. Thus, historical cost-based approaches avoid some of the

behavioural problems which are found in HRA.

Historical cost based HRA would be useful to business managers interested in

personnel control, evaluation, and lower labour turnover. The availability of human

resource costs bring home to managers the sums of money invested in personnel of

the relevant department, and the likely costs of replacing staff by persons of similar

competence. This approach can be used in personnel cost control where departments

are required to operate under a budgetary system.

Disadvantages : Historical cost based HRA has the following disadvantages :

(i) The principal shortcoming of historical cost approaches relates to the limitations

inherent in any accounting system based on historical costs, viz., past costs are not

particularly relevant to decisions about the present and the future. Historically cost-

based accounting for human resources has serious limitations for decision-making

purposes just as it does for financial or physical resources. It can be argued that a

balance sheet should reflect the economic value of an organisation’s assets and claims

thereon, and income measurement should assess the changes in these economic values

for specific time periods.

(ii) The measurement problems in historical cost approaches to HRA can be summarized

as follows. First, it is necessary to define and identify those items which are, in fact,

human resource costs. A second measurement problem involves distinguishing

between those costs which are to be capitalized and those costs which are to be treated

as expenses of the period in which they are incurred. An additional measurement

difficulty relates to the selection of reasonable procedures for the amortisation of

capitalized human resource costs. Although the significance of the measurement

problems associated with cost-based systems should not be underestimated, these

problems appear to be solvable at least for practical purposes.

(iii) Historical cost data must always be interpreted carefully keeping in mind the scope

and function of the measurement system which has generated the data.

2. Replacement Cost Model : This method of valuation of human resources was

developed by Eric G. Flamholty on the basis of concept of replacement cost suggested

by Rensis Likert. Replacement cost refers to the sacrifice that would have to be

incurred to replace resources presently owned or employed. It is the measure of the

cost to replace a firm's existing human assets. These costs consist the cost of selecting,

recruiting, hiring, training, placing and developing new employees to reach the level

of competence of the existing employees.

It has the advantage of adjusting the employee value to the current market value. This

approach is regarded as, “a good surrogate for the economic value of the asset in the

sense that, market considerations are essential in reaching a final figure. Such a final

figure is also generally intended to be conceptually equivalent to a notion of a person's

economic value.”

This method is based on current value or replacement cost. Under this system, an

organisation values an employee at the estimated cost of replacement with a new

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employee of equivalent ability. The application of such a method, however, is made

difficult by the problems of defining and measuring replacement costs.

In the context of human resources, it refers to the cost that would have to be incurred

to replace human resources presently employed. Flamholty has referred to two

different concepts of replacement cost viz, Individual replacement cost and Positional

replacement cost.

(a) Individual Replacement Cost : The replacement cost of individuals in an

organisation as conceptualised by Flamholty comprises of :

(i) The present estimated cost of hiring, training and developing individuals upto the

normal level of productivity of the existing individuals, i.e. it includes the basic cost

elements like :

- Recruiting outlay cost

- Acquisition cost

- Formal training and orientation cost

- Informal training cost

- Efficiency recovery cost

- Extra supervision cost

- Familiarisation cost

- Cost of lost productivity during training

- Investment building experience cost

- Development cost

- Others

(ii) Costs associated with moving the existing position holders either out of the

organisation or to new positions within the organisation, i.e.

- The cost of carrying a vacancy until a suitable replacement can fill it i.e. likely cost of

contribution during the period when vacancies remain unfilled.

- Cost of moving and displacement.

- Loss of productivity of the employees and their co-workers prior to their separation.

- The effect of a vacant position on other employees.

(b) Positional Replacement Cost : Besides the assessment of replacement cost of

individuals, such a cost item may be estimated with reference to different positions in

an organisation rather than specific individuals to be referred to as positional

replacement cost. It may be difficult to identify a suitable replacement of an

individual employee in an orgnisation. One good design engineer may be produced

from a batch of thirty graduate trainee engineers after twenty years. Recognising this

fact, Flamholtz has introduced the concept of marginal value of replacement cost and

full replacement cost.

The marginal value replacement cost has been defined as the summation of :

(i) The cost to recruit one person at the entry level.

(ii) The cost to select one person at the entry level.

(iii) The cost to develop one person at each intermediate level.

(iv) The separation cost for one person at the critical level.

The full replacement cost refers to the summation of all such cost elements not for

only one person but for number of persons as needed so as to make available the

replacement for one individual.

Limitations : The following are the limitations of Replacement Cost Models :

 This model claims to incorporate the current value of company’s human resources in

its annual accounts at the year end. However its utility in actual practice is limited as

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it is very difficult to find exact replacements for individuals as no two human beings

are alike in terms of abilities.

 The estimation of the replacement cost of individuals or the rebuilding cost of human

orgnisation would be based on the best judgment of the managers rather than facts and

figures, thus being subjective in nature, may not be acceptable to the traditional

accountants.

 The replacement cost of individuals may affect their behaviour significantly and

might feel themselves indispensable, leading to subsequent increase in the cost of

retaining them.

 Decrease in the rebuilding cost of human organisation may also be cause of concern

for the employees.

 Market imperfections may make the replacement of an individual having specific skill

more costly. Moreover, costs are escalated due to inflationary conditions and other

influencing factors like union agreements, government legislations and external

labour market situations.

 An increase in the capitalized value due to increase in replacement/rebuilding cost

may reflect spurious organizational profit primarily attributable to the operational

inefficiency, the effects of inflation, external factors and constraints whereas a

decrease in the cost reflect apparent loss due to operational efficiency and better

management of the human resource.

3. Opportunity Cost Model : This model of HRA seeks to measure the value of human

resources on the basis of economic concept of opportunity cost. This model was proposed

by Hekimian and Jones to overcome the limitations of replacement cost model. This

model is also known as ‘Competitive Bidding Model’.

It attempts to estimate the value of human resources by establishing an internal labour

market in an organisation through the process of competitive bidding. Under this model,

all managers of profit centres are encouraged to bid for any scarce employee they want.

This is largely artificial method involving the concept of the competitive bidding process.

In competitive bidding process, the opportunity cost of an employee or group of

employees in one department is calculated on the basis of the bids (offers) by other

departments for those employees. Thus the value of human resource is determined on the

basis of the value of an individual employee in alternative use.

Under this system, profit center managers are encouraged to bid for scarce employees, the

successful bid being included in the organisation’s human investment calculations.

Employee abilities are related to profit generation, and may lead to a more efficient

allocation of human resources. The employee is allotted to the highest bidder among the

divisional managers and the bid price is included in that division’s investment base. The

maximum bid price may go to the extent of the capitalized value of extra profits likely to

be generated by the ability and competence of the executives.

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Example I : XYZ Ltd. has a capital base of Rs.10,00,000 and it earned profits of

Rs.1,00,000. The return on investment of the same group of firms is 12%. If the services

of a particular Engineer are required, it is expected that the profits will raise by Rs.30,000

over and above the target profit.

Capitalised value of Rs.30,000 at 12% rate of return = 30,000 x

100/12 = Rs.2,50,000

Limit upto which the company may bid for an Engineer =

Rs.2,50,000

New Capital base = 10,00,000 + 2,50,000 =

Rs.12,50,000

Required rate of return on new capital base = 12,50,000 x 12/100 =

Rs.1,50,000

Profit generated at old capital base = Rs.

1,00,000

Additional profit generated by the Engineer = 1,50,000 – 1,00,000 = Rs.50,000

Therefore, the maximum bid can go upto the capitalized value of additional profit of

Rs. 4,16,667 (i.e. 50,000 x 100/12).

Advantages : The advocates of this approach claim that this bidding process is helpful in :

 More optimal allocation of human resources, and

 Planning, developing and evaluating human resources of a business as it provides a

quantitative base for decision making.

Limitations : The following are the limitations of Opportunity Cost Model :

 It excludes the value of employees who can be readily hired. In other words, it does

not consider those employees as an asset who are not scarce.

 A person specialized in one type of work and having no alternative work may get zero

valuation.

 It would mislead the information collected on the basis of whole orgnisation.

4. Standard Cost Method : This approach was given by David Watson. In this method the

standard cost of recruiting, hiring, training and development is accumulated every year

for each grade of employees. However, this method is found to be suitable for control

purposes and variance analysis, it has also the disadvantage of amortisation etc.

12.7.2 Present Value Models

The present value models use capital budgeting techniques to assess human resources,

the argument being that the value of firm’s employees is their discounted future

earnings. Present Value methods try to measure economic value rather than simply

record investment in human resources at historic or replacement cost.

Present value models seek to measure the value of human resources on the basis of

present value of the services to be generated by the employees of an organisation in

future. The following two approaches have been suggested for this purpose :

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 By discounting the future salaries and employee related capital costs (such as cost

incurred on recruiting, training and developing employees) by a certain rate of

discount, and

 By discounting the future earning of an orgnisation at a certain date by a suitable rate

and allocating a part of such present value to human resources.

Based upon these premises the following HRA models have been developed :

1. Lev and Schwartz Model

2. Hermanson’s Models

3. Stochastic Rewards Valuation Model

4. Jaagi and Lau Model

5. Morse Model

6. Chakraborty Model

7. Dasgupta Model

I. Levand Schwartz Model. This model has been developed by Brauch Lev and Aba

Schwartz in 1971. They are of the opinion that determination of the total value of a

firm’s labour force is a straight forward extension of the measurement procedure of an

individual value to the organisation. This model is also known as ‘Present Value of

Future Earning Model’. The model is a salary based model. It is based on certain

assumption. One of the most important assumption is that the employee will not

leave the organisation till retirement. The aggregate present value of different groups

represents the capitalized future earnings of the firm as a whole. They have advocated

the use of cost of capital rate for the purpose of capitalizing the present value of the

future earning of the employees. According to them, the value of human capital

represented by a person of age ‘X’ is the present value of his remaining future

earnings from his employment. They have given the following formula for calculating

the value of an individual :

Vr It

=+−

∑

Where Vr = the value of an individual r years old

I(t) = the individual’s annual earnings upto the retirement

t = retirement age

R = discount rate

However, the model suffers from the following limitations :

(i) A person’s value to an organisation is not determined entirely by the person’s

inherent qualities, traits and skills but also by the organizational role in which the individual is

placed. Moreover, the individual’s skill and knowledge are not valuable to an organisation in an

abstract form. They are valuable only when such qualities serve as a means to achieve the

organizational goals.

(ii) The model ignores the possibility and probability of an individual leaving the

organisation for reasons other than death or retirement. People may leave the

organisations for a variety of reasons.

(iii) If fails to correctly evaluate the team work involved. Team work is something more

than the sum of the values of individuals. The valuation does not reflect the

contribution of the team as a whole.

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(iv) This model ignores security, bargaining capacity, skill and experience etc. which may

affect the payment of higher or lower salaries. Again salaries paid to the employees

may not reflect the real worth of the employees to the organisation.

2. Hermanson’s Models : Roger H. Hermanson has suggested two models for the

measurement of human resources : (i) Unpurchased Goodwill Model, and (ii)

Adjusted Discounted Future Wages Model.

(i) Unpurchased Goodwill Model

Under the model, it is argued that super normal profits in a firm are the indicators of

presence of human resources. The model requires computation of the ratio of net

income after taxes (EAT) to total assets (excluding human assets) of each firm. This

in turn is compared with the ratio for the industry as a whole. The value of human

resources of a firm is then measured with the help of differential rates.

In this the value of human assets of an organisation may be calculated by capitalising

earnings in excess of normal earnings for the industry or the group of companies of

which the firm is a part. It has been assumed that the excess profit earned by the

concern is due to the extra ability of employees.

Example 2 : The investment made in ABC Ltd. is Rs.5,00,000. The normal earnings are

10%. The company is earning at the rate of 15%.

Rs. 75,000

Rs. 50,000

Rs. 25,000

Company’s actual earnings (5,00,000 x 15/100)

Less : Normal earnings (5,00,000 x 10/100)

Excess earnings

Capitalised value of excess earnings (25,000 x 100/15)

Rs. 1,66,667

Therefore, the capitalized value of excess earnings i.e. Rs.1,66,667 is the value of human

assets under this model.

(ii) Adjusted Discounted Future Wages Model

This model uses compensation as a surrogate measure of a person’s value to the firm.

Compensation means the present value of future stream of wages and salaries to

employees of the firm. The discounted future wages stream is adjusted by an

‘efficiency ratio’ which is weighted average of the ratio of the return on investment of

the given firm to all the firms in the economy for a specified period, usually the

current year and the preceding four years. The weights are assigned in the reverse

order i.e., 5 to the current year and 1 to the proceeding fourth year. The following

formula is used :

RF(0) RF(1) RF(2) RF(3)

RF(4)

Efficiency Ratio = 5 -------- + 4 -------- + 3 -------- + 2 --------

+ --------

RE(0) RE(1) RE(2) RE(3)

RE(4)

Where,

RF(0) = Rate of accounting income on owned assets of the firm for the

current year.

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RE(0) = Rate of accounting income on owned assets of all the firms in

the economy for the current year.

RF(4) = Rate of accounting income on owned assets of the firm for the

fourth previous year.

RE(4) = Rate of accounting income on owned assets of all the firms in

the economy for the fourth previous year.

The efficiency ratio measures the rate of effectiveness of the human

resources operating in the given entity over a five year period. A ratio

greater than one implies that the rate of return of the firm is above the

average rate of return for all firms in the economy. The efficiency ratio

has been criticized by certain authors as subjective because of

arbitrary weighting scheme and restricting the valuation period to five

years only.

The main drawback of the approach is the subjectivity in the method

of calculation of efficiency ratio. While calculating the efficiency ratio,

Hermanson assumed that the performance of the firm was entirely

due to the efforts of employees and not due to any other extraneous

cause.

Stochastic Rewards Valuation Model : This model has been

suggested by Flamholtz. It identifies the major variables that

determine an individual’s value to an organisation, i.e., his

expected realizable value. The expected realizable value of an

individual is the present worth of future services expected to be

provided during the period he is expected to remain in the

organisation. The model is based on the presumption that a

person’s value to an organisation depends upon the positions to be

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occupied by him in the organisation. The movement of people from

one organizational role to another is stochastic process with

rewards. As people move and occupy different organizational

roles, they render services (i.e., rewards) to the organisation.

However, the roles they will occupy in future will have to be

determined probabilistically for each individual. The model

suggests a five steps approach for assessing the value of an

individual to the organisation :

1. Forecasting the period a person will remain the organisation i.e., his expected

service life.

2. Identifying the services states, i.e., the roles that he might occupy including, of

course, the time at which he will leave organisation.

3. Estimating the value derived by the organisation when a person occupies a

particular position for a specified time period.

4. Estimation of the probability of occupying each possible mutually exclusive

service state at specified future times.

5. Discounting the value at a predetermined rate to get the present value of human

resources.

4. Jaggi and Lau Model : The model suggested by Jaggi and Lau is based

on valuation of groups rather than individuals. A group implies

homogeneous employees who may or may not belong to the same

department or division. It might be difficult to predict an individual’s

expected service tenure in the organisation or at a particular level or

position, but on a group basis it is easier to ascertain the percentage of

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people in a particular group likely either to leave the firm during each of

the forthcoming period, or to be promoted to higher levels.

In order to consider the role movements of employees within the

organisation a Markov Chain representation can be used. The model

required the determination of Rank Transitional Matrix and the expected

quantities of services for each rank of service. The matrix can be

prepared from the historical personnel records of the employees available

in the organisation. For the purpose of measurement of quantities of

services, a certain service or performance criteria is used.

The value of the services an organisation’s current employee render in

a future period is computed by multiplying the estimated number of

current employees that will be in each service state in that period, by the

value of the services an employee in each state (i.e. rank) renders to the

organisation.

The equation for the computation of value of human resources of an

organisatioin using Jaggi and Lau model is given below :-

TV = (N) r n (T) n (V)

Where,

TV = Column vector indicating the current value of all

current employees in each rank.

(N) = Column vector indicating the number of employees

currently in each rank.

n = Time period

r = Discount rate

(T) = Rank transitional matrix indicating the probability that

an employee will be in each rank within the

organisation or terminated in the next period given his

current rank.

(V) = Column vector indicating the economic value of an

employee of rank 1 during each period.

The model given by Jaggi and Lau tries to simplify the calculations of

the value of human resources by taking groups of employees as

valuation base. However this method is also difficult to apply in

practice because of difficulty in obtaining reliable data.

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This model suggests valuation of human assets on a group basis

rather than on an individual basis. In this model ‘group’ means a

homogeneous group of employees who may not necessarily be working

in the same department. It is difficult to estimate the future period of

stay and chances of promotion on an individual basis.

5. Morse Model : Under it the value of human resources is equivalent to

the present value of the net benefits derived by the enterprise from the

service of its employees. The following steps are involved under this

approach :

a) The gross value of the services to be rendered in future by the

employees in their individual and collective capacity.

b) The value of direct and indirect future payments to the employees is

determined.

c) The excess of the value of future human resources (as per (a) above)

over the value of future payments (as per (b) above) is ascertained.

This represents the net benefit to the enterprise because of human

resources.

d) By applying a predetermined discount rate (usually the cost of capital)

to the net benefit, the present value is determined. This amount

represents the value of human resources to the enterprise.

6. Chakraborty Model : This model also known as Aggregate Payment

Model has been suggested by Prof. S.K. Chakraborty, the first Indian to

suggest a model on human resources of an enterprise. In his model, he

has valued the human resources in aggregate and not on an individual

basis. However, managerial and non-managerial manpower can be

evaluated separately. The value of human resources on a group basis can

be found out by multiplying the average salary of the group with the

average tenure of employment in that group. The average annual salary

payments for next few years could be found out by salary structure and

promotion schemes of the organisation.

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He has further suggested that the recruitment, hiring, selection,

development and training cost of each employee can be recorded

separately. These could be treated as deferred revenue expenditure to be

written off over the expected average stay of the employee in the

organisation. The deferred portion should be shown in the position

statement of the organisation. If there is a permanent exist on account of

death, retrenchment etc. then the balance on deferred revenue

expenditure for that year attributable to that person should be written off

against the income in the year of exist itself.

The discount rate for the purpose of ascertaining the present value of

estimated payments in the future should be taken as the expected

average after tax return on capital employed over the average tenure

period. He suggested the adoption of such a long-term rate to avoid

fluctuations in human asset valuation from year to year simply due to

changing rates of return.

7. Dasgupta Model : Prof N. Dasgupta (1978) suggested this approach. The

various approaches (discussed in the previous pages) take into account

only those persons who are employed and ignore those who are

unemployed. According to him both employed and unemployed persons

should be brought in its purview for determination of the value of human

resources of the nation. Thus, for the preparation of the balance sheet of

the nation, the system should be such so that it fits and shows the

human resources not only a firm but also of the whole nation.

According to him, the total cost incurred by the individual up to that

position in the organisation should be taken as the value of a person

which is further adjusted by his intelligence level. It will include not only

all expenses incurred by the individual for his education and training but

also by the organisation on recruitment, training, familiarizing and

development human beings employed in the organisation. The valuation

can be done groupwise, if the number of employees is large. The value

thus, determined should be further adjusted at the end of each year by

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organisation on the basis of his age, seniority, status, performance,

experience, leadership, managerial capabilities etc. The psychologists and

other concerned experts will be helpful for such measurement. The

revised value would be the value of the employee at the end of the year.

Theoretically this model may be sound but its practical application

may be difficult as it will involve a number of factors which may not be

capable of being expressed precisely and objectively in monetary terms.

Human resources valued according to this model should be shown

both on the assets and liabilities sides of the balance sheet. On the

assets side it should be shown after the fixed assets as Human Assets

classified into two parts : (i) value of individual (ii) value of firm’s

investment. On the liabilities side, it should be shown after the capital as

Human Assets by the amount at which it has been shown on the assets

side against the value of individuals. This will be more clear from the

following example.

Example 3 : A firm has started its business with a capital of Rs. 5,00,000.

It has purchased fixed assets worth Rs. 2,50,000 in cash. It has kept Rs.

1,30,000 as working capital and incurred Rs. 1,20,000 on recruitment,

training and developing the engineers and a few workers. The value of

engineers and workers is assessed as Rs. 4,00,000. Show these items in the

Balance Sheet.

BALANCE SHEET

(including Human Resources)

Liabilities Rs. Assets Rs.

Capital

Human Assets

5,00,000

4,00,000

Fixed Assets

Human Assets :

(i) Individual Value

(ii)Value of Firm’s

Investment

Current Assets

2,50,000

4,00,000

1,20,000

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Less : Current Liabilities 1,30,000

9,00,000

12.8 Requirements under the Companies Act

At present, companies in India are expected to furnish information

relating to their employees such as name, age, qualification,

designation and nature of duties, remuneration, data of

commencement of employment, experience as per Section 217(2A) of

the Indian Companies Act,1956, read with the Companies (Particulars

of Employees) Amendment Rules, 1988 forming part of the Director’s

Report.

The particulars provided by companies relating to their employees are

only specific in nature. In other words, details of remuneration drawn

by the managerial employees alone are shown in the annual reports

and the details of remuneration of non-managerial personnel are not

shown.

The provisions includes only those employees whose remuneration

falls within certain specified limits. Moreover, only those companies

who have their employees drawing remuneration in excess of the

specified limits had to give an account of such details as required

under section 217(2A) of the Companies Act, 1956.

12.9 Recording and Disclosure in Financial Statements

The various models dealing with the mode of valuation of human resources as an

asset have been explained. In India Human Resource Accounting has not been

included so far as a system. India Companies Act, 1956 does not provide any scope

for furnishing any significant information about human resources in financial

statements. Beyond it, there is no rigid instruction on behalf of the Companies Act,

1956 to attach information about the value of human resources and the results of their

performance during the accounting year in notes and schedules. In India, a growing

trend towards the measurement and reporting of human assets, particularly in the

public sector, is noticeable during the past few years. There are about twelve

companies in India which have adopted the concept of human resource accounting so

far. The data of only four companies is compatible for comparison. The companies

are :

(i) Bharat Heavy Electrical Limited (BHEL), which is the first Indian company to

publish human resource accounts from 1974-75 onwards and is one of the FORTUNE

500 companies listed outside U.S.A.

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(ii) Steel Authority of India Ltd. (SAIL), which is a holding company consisting of five

integrated steel plants and two alloy steel units in the public sector.

(iii) Minerals and Metals Trading Corporation (MMTC), which is the biggest trading

organisation in India.

(iv) Southern Petrochemical Industries Corporation Ltd. (SPIC), which is one of the

biggest diversified organisations in the Joint Sector, producing fertilizers, chemical,

electronic etc.

Most of the Indian enterprises observed Lev and Schwartz model in the sense that

they have computed the present value of future direct and indirect payment to their

employees as the basic frame work of human resource valuation.

12.10 PROBLEMS AND LIMITATIONS OF HRA

No doubt HRA can provide valuable information both for management

and outsiders, yet its development and application in different

industries and organisations has not been very encouraging. This

accounting concept is not popular like social accounting because it

may not result in providing immediate and tangible benefits and on

account of the fact of lack of consensus among accountants and other

concerned about the basis of measurement of the value of human

resources. The reluctance on the part of the organisation to introduce

the HRA system can be attributed to the following :

1. There are no specific and clear–cut guidelines for finding cost and

value of human resources of an organisation. The existing valuation

system suffers from many drawbacks.

2. The life of human resources is uncertain and therefore, valuing them

under uncertainty seems unrealistic.

3. There is a possibility that HRA may lead to dehumanizing and

manipulations in employees. For example, a person having a low value

may feel discouraged and thus, in itself, may affect his competency in

work.

4. The much needed empirical evidence is yet to be found to support the

hypothesis that HRA, as a managerial tool, facilitates better and

effective management of human resources.

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5. Human resources, unlike physical assets, are not capable of being

owned, retained and utilized at the pleasure of the organization.

Hence, treating them as ‘asset’ in the strict sense of the term, could

not be appropriate.

6. There is a constant fear of opposition from the trade unions. Placing

the value on employees would prompt them to seek rewards and

compensation based on such valuation.

7. Tax laws do not recognize human beings as assets. So human

resource accounting has been reduced to a merely theoretical concept.

12.11 summary

Human resource accounting (HRA) is the art of valuing recording and presenting

systematically the work of human resources in the books of accounts of an

organization. The objectives of HRA is to inform the general public about human

capital measures taken by the enterprises and their effect on the human resources.

HRA is helpful in proper interpretation of return on capital employed, improves

managerial decision making increase productivity, serves social purpose, helps in

investment decisions, creates a complete management information system and leads

to improve human efficiency several methods for valuation of human resources have

been developed and can be broadly classified into cost models and Present Value

Models. HRA models based upon cost methods involve computation of cost of

human resources to the organization while present value methods use capital

budgeting techniques to assess human resources. Sourer companies in India have

adopted these models after modifications to suit Indian conditions. The absence of

general acceptance of the measurement criteria for valuation of human resources

would prove to be an impediment towards its wider adoption. However, as more

experience is gathered in the use of various models, it is expected that in the year to

come corporate reporting practices will ascribe greater importance to this emerging

diversion of accounting.

12.12 Self Assessment Questions

1. What do you mean by Human Resource Accounting ? Give the objectives of this

system.

2. Discuss the different methods of Human Resource Accounting. Which one of them will

you recommend for adoption in India under the prevailing circumstances ? Give

reasons.

3. In what way HRA information would be useful to management ?

4. Give the main problems and limitations of Human Resource Accounting.

5. Compare Lev and Schwartz model with Flamholtz model of measuring human

resources. Discuss their short comings.

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12.13 SUGGESTED READINGS

1. American Accounting Association’s Committee on Human resource Accounting, The

accounting Review Supplement

2. Bikki Jaggi and H S Lau, Towards a model for Human Resource Valuation, Accounting

Review

3. E G Flamholtz, The impact of Haryana Resource Valuation on Management decisions,

Accounting, Organizations and Society.

4. E C Flamholtz, Human Resource accounting, Dickenson Publishing Co., Clifornia

5. American Accounting Association, report of the committee on accounting for Human

resources, The Accounting review Supplement.

6. Roger H Hermanson, Accounting for Human Assets, Michigan State University,

Michigan

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Course : Management Accounting Writer : Dr. M.C. Garg

Course Code : MC-105 Vetter : Dr. B S Bodla

LESSON-13

SOCIAL ACCOUNTING

Objective : The objective of the present lesson is to discuss the concept,

objectives, scope approaches, benefits and limitations of Social

Accounting.

LESSON STRUCTURE

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Meaning of Social Accounting

13.3 Objectives of Social Accounting

13.4 Need for Social Accounting

13.5 Uses of Social Responsibility Accounting

13.6 Scope of Social Accounting

13.7 Social Benefits and Social Costs

13.8 Measurement of Social Costs and Benefits

13.9 Approaches in Social Accounting

13.10 Benefits of Social Reporting

13.11 Limitations of Social Reporting

13.12 Social Disclosure Practices in India

13.13 Summary

13.14 Self Assessment Questions

13.15 Suggested Readings

13.1 introduction

Conventional financial accounting primarily focuses on the measurement and

reporting of business transactions between two or more business firms. Financial

statements prepared under financial accounting are basically meant to serve the needs

of shareholders and potential investors in making sound economic decisions.

Exchanges between a firm and its social environment are practically ignored. The

conventional financial reporting system is designed to gather, process and report

financial results and operating statistics with no regard to social performance

information of business enterprises. This nature of financial accounting has led to, in

recent years, a serious debate that business activity should conform to socially,

desirable ends, e.g., that products should not be harmful to users, the pursuit of profit

should be constrained by social considerations; the environment should be protected

from industrial malpractices in the form of pollution of every kind; and employees

should have a right to security of employment. As business enterprises respond to

pressures of new dimension–social, human and environmental–they may not

necessarily change their basic (business) goals, but they will alter them to reflect the

new constraints to be satisfied.

American Accounting Association Committee on Measurement of Social Costs has

emphasized on operational objectives for the corporate enterprises such as increase in

annual profit by 8 per cent, an increase in sales by 20 per cent, a reduction in pollution

levels by 30 per cent and an employee mix that reflects the mix of minorities in

communities where plants are located. Recently a study conducted by Spicer

concludes that the most profitable, larger companies, in general, were judged by

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investors to be less risky in terms of both total and systematic risk. In addition, these

companies were awarded generally higher price-earnings ratios than those with poorer

pollution–control records. Social accounting is based on the following hypothesis :

“The technology of an economic system imposes a structure on its society which not

only determines its economic activities but also influences its social relationships and

well–being. Therefore, a measure limited to economic consequences is inadequate as

an appraisal of the cause-effect relationships of the total system; it neglects the social

effects.”

13.2 MEANING OF SOCIAL ACCOUNTING

The term ‘social accounting’ is of recent origin and many other terms like, ‘social

audit’ ‘socio-economic accounting’, ‘social cost benefit analysis’, ‘report on corporate

social policies’, ‘social information system’, ‘social accounting’, ‘social responsibility

accounting’ etc. are often interchangeably used for this. Now –a –days it is being

realized that commercial evaluation of business units is not sufficient to justify

commitment of funds to a business unit. Rather evaluation will be complete only if it

takes into consideration social cost and benefits associated with them.

In order to gain understanding of the term social accounting, various points of view

given by some eminent accounting authorities are reproduced below:

Ralph Eates defines the term as “The measurement and reporting, internal and

external, of information concerning the impact of an entity and its activities on

society”.

Elliot uses the term social responsibility accounting which, according to him, “is a

systematic assessment of and reporting on those parts of a company’s activities that

have a social impact. Social responsibility accounting, therefore; describes the impact

of corporate decisions on environment pollution, the consumption of non-renewable

resources, and ecological factors; on the rights of individuals and groups; on the

maintenance of public services; on public safety; on health and education and many

other such social concerns.”

According to G.C. Maheshwari, social accounting is “identification, measurement,

recording and reporting of corporate activities which may permit informed decision-

making with respect to social activities of the firm having direct or indirect effect on

the very fabric of the society at large, while ‘social audit’ would mean enquiry into

the corporate social accounting records by an outside agency that can opine with a

view to attestation and authentication of such records and reports.”

It can be said that social accounting is rational assessment of and reporting on some

meaningful, definable domain of a business enterprise’s activities that have social

impact.

13.3 Objectives of Social Accounting

The objective of social accounting is to inform the general public about social welfare

measures taken by the enterprise, and their effects on the society. How far the

enterprise is successful in fulfilling the social obligations, also comes to light through

social accounting. The eminent objectives of social accounting are as follows :

 To know the contribution of individual firms towards the society.

 Through social accounting, firms strategies and practices that directly affect relative

resources can be determined.

 Relevant information on firm’s goals and policies is made available to general public.

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 Social accounting aims at development of models of quantification and proper

presentation of social costs and benefits of an enterprise.

13.4 Need for Social Accounting

The practice of social accounting is followed only by a handful of enterprises in

public sector. There is a greater need for social accounting in a developing economy

is needed for the following reasons :

 The management fulfils its social obligations and informs its members, the

government and the general public.

 The management responds through social accounting to the criticisms leveled by

hostile media and voluntary social organisations.

 There are certain legal obligations that have to be fulfilled by the business, such as

social security obligations and welfare measures etc. The management informs the

public and government about its efforts in this regard through social accounting.

 The management gets feedback on its efforts and policies aimed at the welfare of the

society.

 Social accounting is necessary from the view point of public interest groups, social

organisations and government bodies.

 Through social accounting the company proves itself that it is not a society unethical

in view of moral cultures and environment degradation.

13.5 Uses of Social Responsibility accounting

Social responsibility information about business enterprises is mainly

useful to internal users (management), external users (shareholders

and other investors), and in influencing the share prices of a

company.

Internal Users

Within a company, the greatest need and the greatest demand for

social responsibility information comes from top management, or

board of directors. Top management, especially the chief executive

officer, needs social performance information to respond to a critical

press, to answer shareholders’ questions, and to ensure that company

policies are followed. Corporate directors, especially because of their

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growing legal liability, need to know in some detail what sort of social

programmes the company is having, and what result it is getting.

Directors also need complete information about the effects of the

company on society; it is probably more important that they be fully

informed as to negative effects, since this is where the criticism will be

directed and this is where the directors may have to defend

themselves. Labour unions can also be expected to seek social

performance information about their companies.

External Users

The external users’ demand for social accounting information is even

more diverse. Social accounting and reporting are needed by present

and potential investors, by large institutions and individuals. Some

studies conducted in this area show the impact of social disclosure on

investment decisions. In a survey of institutional investors, Longstreth

and Rosenbloom found that 57 per cent of the respondents indicated

that they considered social factors in addition to economic factors

when making investment decision.

Impact on Share Prices

The disclosure of social information helps investors in studying the

negative effects of social awareness expenditures on earnings per

share alongwith any compensating positive effects that reduce risk or

create greater interest from a particular investment. Between firms

competing in the capital markets those perceived to have the highest

expected future earnings in combination with the lowest expected risk

from environmental and other factors will be most successful at

attracting long term funds. Others believe that ‘ethical investors’ form

a clientele that responds to demonstrations of corporate social

concern. Investors of this type would like to avoid particular

investments entirely for ethical reasons and would prefer to favour

socially responsible companies in their investment decisions.

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13.6 Scope of Social Accounting

Brummet has identified five possible areas in which corporate social

objectives may be found :

1. Net income contribution

2. Human resource contribution

3. Public contribution

4. Environmental contribution

5. Product or service contribution

1. Net Income Contribution

The term ‘contribution’ includes both benefits and costs associated

with an organization’s activities. Implicit in this definition of the scope

of corporate social responsibility are a variety of users having different

purposes in using accounting information.

The growing attention which other social objectives are receiving does

not reduce the importance of the income objective. A business

organisation can not survive without an adequate financial surplus.

The recognition of the importance of other social objectives does not

diminish the importance of the income objectives. On the contrary, it

adds meaning to the significance of corporate net income by drawing

attention to the circumstances under which it has been produced. In

this sense, there is a clear correlation between income and other

objectives. The failure to recognize a social responsibility may well

affect the organization’s income performance either in the short term

or the long them. Thus, excessive hours of work under bad working

conditions may damage the ability of workers to maintain the level of

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output. Failure to pay adequate attention to the quality of the

products and customer’s reactions to poor product quality may

ultimately affect sales and income. For this reasons, many would

argue that the income objective is the complete test of business

efficiency, both as regards financial and social goals.

2. Human resource contribution

This contribution reflects the impact of organizational activities on the

people who constitute the human resources of the organisation. These

activities include; recruiting practices; training programmes;

experience building; job rotation; job enrichment; wage and salary

levels; fringe benefit plans; management-union relations; employee

skills; employee knowledge; employee attitudes; employee self-

actualization; congruence of employee and organizational goals;

mutual trust and confidence; job security, stability of work force, lay-

off and recall practices; transfer and promotion policies; occupational

health; freedom from undue stress; on-the-job physical environment,

and on-the-job safety.

3. Public contribution

This area considers the impact of organizational activities on

individuals generally outside the organisation. For example, general

philanthropy—contributions to educational, cultural, or charitable

organisations; financial or manpower support for public

transportation; health services, urban housing, day-care centres,

minority business, community problem solving, minority group

programmes and general volunteer community activities; equal

opportunity employment practices; training and employment of

handicapped persons; and taxes paid.

The contribution which corporate enterprise may make towards the

public good are generally overlooked in the debate on social

accounting. It should be noted, for example, that the creation of jobs

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and the provision of employment are important public contributions,

as well as the development of local services which often accompanies

corporate expansion into a community. The training and employment

of the handicapped is an important corporate social contribution.

4. Environmental contribution

This area involves the environmental aspects of production, covering the use of

resources, the production process and the product itself, including recycling and other

positive environmental activities. Attention has been drawn in recent years to the

negative aspects of organizational activities such as the pollution of air and water,

noise, and spoiling of the environment. Moreover, industrial activities lead to a net

use of irreplaceable resources and a net production of solid wastes.

Corporate social objectives are to be found in the abatement of these negative external

social effects of industrial production, and in adopting more efficient technologies to

minimize the use of irreplaceable resources and the production of waste.

5. Product or service contribution

This area concerns the qualitative aspects of the organization’s product or service, for

example, product utility, product life-durability, product safety, serviceability as well

as the welfare role of the product or service. Moreover, it includes customer

satisfaction, truthfulness in advertising, completeness and clarity of labeling and

packaging. Many of these considerations are important already from a marketing

point of view. It is clear, however, that the social responsibility aspect of the product

contribution extends beyond what is advantageous from a marketing angle.

13.7 Social Benefits and Social Costs

Corporate social accounting and reporting focuses, primarily, on the

measurement and reporting of social benefits and costs arising due to

social responsibilities and activities of business enterprises. It is

necessary to know what social benefits and costs are associated with

such social responsibilities and activities.

Social benefits

Generally speaking, the term ‘social benefits’ includes the following

benefits :

1. Products and services provided – Business enterprises generally

provide products and services; these are purchased by customers,

which provides prima facie evidence of benefit to society. The starting

point for valuing such benefits is the exchange prices usually arrived

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at in response to demand and supply factors. In other words, an

automobile that sells for Rs. 1,00,000, presumably, is expected to

provide to the purchaser, one element of social, benefit having a

present value of at least Rs. 1,00,000. Included in this category of

benefits are facilities, equipment, and space provided to other

elements of society, for which rent is received.

Care must be exercised, however, to value only direct effects from the

products and services provided. Suppose that the automobile referred

to above provided the purchaser utility having an estimated present

value of Rs. 1,20,000, and that in turn used the auto to provide free

transportation to and from work for several neighbours, resulting in

additional benefits to the neighbours (but not to the owner) estimated

to Rs. 15,000. The amount to be reported by the selling firm, including

Rs. 20,000 in consumer surplus, would be Rs. 1,20,000 not Rs.

1,00,000 or Rs. 1,35,000 (the automobile owner could report social

benefits provided of Rs. 15,000). Significant indirect effects should be

reported in footnotes, but not integrated into the model, since they are

not actually provided by the reporting entity.

2. Payments to other elements of society – Companies render benefits to various

elements of society as they pay for goods and services used. The value of employment

provided should be separately disclosed; that is, payments to employees represent a

social benefit in the amount of money transmitted to such employees and made

available for their use. Since the value of human services used is separately reported

as a social cost, compensation that is less than the value of services used results in a

lower net social surplus (or greater social deficit).

Other significant payments included in this section include loans, contributions,

dividends, interests, taxes, and assessments. It should be noted that the benefit

provided by a firm disbursing money is the money itself; what the recipient entity

does with that money should be credited to that separate entity. In this case significant

indirect effects might be reported in a footnote but should not be integrated into the

model.

3. Additional direct employee benefits – The value of most fringe benefits should be

reported in this category, e.g., the value of experience provided, training programmes,

special opportunities provided, and rewarding work that provides utility to the

employee over and above the monetary remuneration.

4. Staff, equipment, and facility services donated – When business firms make

available their officers and employees to other organisations, benefits are provided

separate from the compensation paid to the employees. These benefits might be

estimated at the cost that would have been incurred by the outside organisation if it

had hired persons with the qualifications required.

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5. Environmental Improvements – When companies provide clean areas, plant trees,

landscape eroded terrain, and clean polluted lakes, benefits accrue to society. The

company is charged for the social costs of environmental damage done, hence it

should receive credit for benefits provided through restoration of a previously

damaged environment. Valuation is difficult for these benefits and is, probably, not

accurately reflected by the amount of outlay. Community survey, shadow pricing, and

economic studies might be used to develop suitable estimates.

6. Other benefits – Companies may provide to society benefits not falling within the

above categories. These would include such programmes as free day-care centers,

special assistance to minority enterprises, and sponsorship of public interest television

programmes at a cost exceeding the advertising value.

Social costs

‘Social costs’, generally, include the following costs :

1. Goods and materials acquired – Raw materials acquired by an entity represent a

sacrifice to society to the extent of the value in alternative use.

2. Building and equipment purchases – When the reporting entity acquires a building

or piece of equipment, the utility from that item is lost to the rest of society for as long

as it is held by the entity. This cost to society should be approximated by the

exchange price, adjusted downward for producers’ surplus. In fact, in this approach,

there is no cost to society as the fixed assets are used by their owner. The full cost

occurs at the moment of transfer from the rest of society to the reporting entity, and is

measured by the discounted present value of the future stream or benefits that the

seller would have received had they not been sacrificed in the exchange.

3. Labour and services used – The cost to society of human services used is the

sacrifice in time and effort made by the employees (as elements of society); this can,

probably, be approximated by the benefits that they could obtain in alternative

employment and other activities. This raises difficult measurement problems. When

the measurements involve excessive subjectivity, it may be reasonable to value

employee services at the amount paid for them, with some adjustment for

underutilization, nepotism, favouritism, producers’ surplus and the like.

4. Discrimination – Entities may engage in two forms of discrimination : external

discrimination, or discrimination in hiring, and internal discrimination, or

discrimination in placement, advancement, and training. External discrimination

imposes direct cost on those women and minorities (or any other targets of

discrimination, for that matter) that would otherwise have been hired by the company.

Their social cost is the present value of income lost and the value of experience

forgone.

The social cost of internal discrimination is the present value of lifetime scarified

income and experience caused by a delay in advancement of one year (continuing

discrimination in succeeding years would be charged in the social reports of those

years). Internal discrimination should be easier to value, since a limited number of

specifically identifiable individuals are involved.

5. Work-related injuries and illness – Any injury and/or illness attributed to the entity

and its activities should be reported as a social costs. The cost of an injury or illness

might be estimated as the present value of lost income plus an increment for

discomfort, frustration, and delayed experience. This cost can, of course, be reduced

by installation of safety devices, elimination of unhealthy conditions, health

monitoring and similar efforts.

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6. Public service and facilities used – This category includes the reporting entity’s

share of police and fire protection, the legislative and judicial system, and government

activities at all levels. Many of these services are so pervasive as to make estimation

of one entity’s share exceptionally difficult. The amount of taxes paid might be used

as a starting point. In addition, industry studies might be undertaken to produce

guidelines or adjustment factors for firms within the industry.

7. Environmental damage – The entity imposes damage on the environment most

noticeably through the production and waste disposal processes, but damage is also

done by delivery trucks, salesmen’s automobiles, construction, and some advertising.

The damage comes in several forms – air and water pollution, noise, plant-life

destruction, terrain damage, trash and litter, and even visual pollution. In measuring

environmental damage, the objective is to estimate the utility lost to society through

the entity’s activities or omissions. In the case of water pollution, estimates may be

sought for lost recreational utility, value of fish and plant life destroyed, increased

treatment cost down-stream, and impairment of living conditions proximate to the

waterway. Air pollution may require estimates of lost utility due to pollution-related

illness (medical costs, lost productivity, shortened life span, and discomfort), damage

to exterior finishes, impairment of living conditions, and plant-life damaged or

destroyed.

8. Payments for other elements of society – Customers, lenders, investors, and others

make payments to the reporting entity; in so doing they are sacrificing the utility that

such purchasing power could command. This sacrifice is a cost to society vis-à-vis the

reporting entity. Payments from customers might be netted against the value of the

products and services provided, but the proposed gross disclosure would be more

informative especially when market imperfections result in a significant difference

between the value of products or services and the amount paid.

13.8 Measurement of social costs and benefits

The greatest problem in social accounting and reporting is an apparent lack of valid

and reliable measurement technique. Social measurement often requires valuation of

goods, services and effects that have not been exchanged in the market and

consequently do not have recorded exchange or market prices. Exchange prices are

considered to be the foundation of business accounting. However, exchange prices are

often not available and are not very good indicators of social value. Therefore, some

other measures of social benefits and costs need to be developed. Social measurement

requires the estimation of benefits or utility provided by an entity, and the costs or

sacrifices imposed on elements of society. Several approaches for social

measurements can be used.

1. Surrogate Valuation

When a desired value can not be directly determined, a surrogate value needs to be

estimated, that is, some item or phenomenon that is logically expected to involve

approximately the same utility or sacrifice as the item in question. For example,

assume that we want to estimate the value of building facilities loaned by a company

to some community groups. In this case, a surrogate valuation can be obtained by

determining the amount of rent such groups would have to pay if they rented

commercial facilities having the same utility. Surrogate valuation has weaknesses; a

wrong thing could be measured or a surrogate may be selected which is not

sufficiently related in value to the item under consideration. In spite of this drawback,

surrogate valuation is one of the most useful tools available in social accounting.

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2. Survey Techniques

Survey techniques involve obtaining information from those affected – elements of

society who make the sacrifice or who receive the utility – for measurement of social

cost and benefits. In this, a simple approach is to ask individuals directly what

something is worth to them. In this direct inquiry method, several criteria must be

fulfilled :

(a) The user of affected individual must have a clear appreciation of the impact on him of

the item under consideration.

(b) He must be able to relate this impact to monetary units, either directly or through the

use of surrogates.

reason for lying.

3. Restoration or Avoidance Cost

Certain social costs may be valued by estimating the monetary outlay necessary to

undo or prevent the damage. Some social effects can not be undone and, in such

cases, the restoration cost estimate is supplemented with estimates of such additional

damage. An example would be the damage to automobiles and vehicles from streets

and roads during rainy season. This damage can be prevented if proper care is taken.

Suppose the damage to a car amounted to Rs. 3,000 , but the cost of preventive

measures would have been only Rs. 1,500. Therefore, Rs. 1,500 is the proper value to

be assigned to this social cost.

4. Appraisals

Independent appraisals may be useful for valuing certain goods, buildings, and land.

These will often reflect nothing more than an expert estimate of market value and are,

thus, analogous to surrogate valuation performed by an outside expert. When

appraisals are used, it is necessary that we understand the basis for them and interpret

the results accordingly. 5. Analysis

Many times an economic and statistical analysis of available data produces a valid

and reliable measure of value. Estimates of the increased earnings value of education

have relied on present value analysis of comparative earnings rates and life

expectancies.

The above measurement approaches generally provide an adequate set of choice for

virtually any social measurement problem. They must be used, however, with care

and proper understanding in full recognition of their respective weaknesses and

especially with careful attention to the attributes that are ultimately intended to be

measured. The Sachar Committee Report has suggested that company social report

needs to be developed both in quantity and monetary terms.

13.9 Approaches in Social Accounting

Many different are used in corporate social accounting. However, no one approach is

widely recognized as the most appropriate for social accounting. Some of these

approaches in social accounting are as follows :-

(i) Cost-Benefit Analysis approach

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(ii) Socio-Economic Operating Statement Approach

(iii) Integral Welfare Theoretical Approach

(iv) Descriptive or Narrative Approach

(v) Goal Oriented Approach

(vi) Value Added Approach

(vii) Pictorial Approach

(viii) Regulatory Requirements

(i) Cost-Benefit Analysis Approach

This approach has been developed and used by Abt Associates in the United States.

Under this approach presentation of social information in a quantitative form is made.

It consists two parts viz., (i) Social Income Statement and (ii) Social Balance Sheet.

The objective of this approach is to determine the full impact of corporate activities

on different constituents.

The Social Income Statement part provides social benefits and social costs to staff,

local community and general public. The Social Balance Sheet part depicts the social

investment of capital nature on the assets side such as township, water supply, roads,

buildings, hospital, ambulances, school, club etc. and shows organisation equity and

social equity on the liabilities side.

The main objective of this approach is to determine the full impact of corporate

activities on different social aspects. The format of Social Income Statement is given

in Table 13.1. It explains (i) Social benefits and costs to staff, (ii) Social benefits and

costs to community and (iii) Social benefits and costs to the general public.

Ultimately, it discloses net social income to staff, community and general public.

The Social Income Statement provides monetary quantification for the firm’s social

benefits. These benefits are defined as resources generated by the company operations

having a positive impact, or increasing the society’s resources. The social costs are

resources used in the company’s operations at a ‘cost sacrifice’. The net social income

is social gain or loss to the society’s resources due to the firms operations.

The format of Social Balance Sheet is given in Table 13.2. The balance sheet part of

social accounting contains information on social assets and social liabilities. The

utility of this approach lies in the presentation of information in quantitative

information is provided. Any other additional information is provided in footnotes.

Table 13.1

Social Income Statement of XYZ Ltd. for the year ended 31st March, …….

Particulars Amount

(I) Social Benefits and Costs to Staff

(a) Social Benefits to Staff

1. Medical and Hospital facilities

2. Educational facilities

3. Canteen facilities

x x x

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4. Recreation, Entertainment and Cultural activities

5. Housing and Township facilities

(b) Social Cost to Staff

1. Layoff and Voluntary termination

2. Extra hours worked by Executives but not paid

Net Social Benefits to Staff

(II) Social Benefits and Costs to Community

(a) Social Benefits to Community

1. Local Taxes paid to Panchayat/Municipality

2. Environmental Improvements

3. Generation of Job Potential

4. Generation of Business

(b) Social Costs to Community

1. Increase in cost of living in the vicinity on account of

Company’s plants

Net Social Benefits to Community

(III) Social Benefits and Costs to General Public

(a) Social Benefits to General Public

1. Taxes and Duties paid to State Governments

2. Taxes and Duties paid to Central Governments

(b) Social Costs to General Public

1. State Services consumed – Electricity service

2. Central Services consumed – Telephone, Telegrams,

Postal services and Banking

Net Social Benefits to General Public

Net Social Income (I) + (II) + (III)

x x

x x x

--------------------------

x x x

-------------------------

x x x

--------------------------

x x x

-------------------------

x x x

--------------------------

x x x

-------------------------

x x x

Table 13.2

Social Balance Sheet of XYZ Ltd. as on 31st March,.…….

Liabilities Amount Assets Amount

I. Organisation Equity

II. Social Equity Contribution x x x

I. Social Capital Investment

Township Land

x x x

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by Staff

x x x

------------

---

x x x

Building

(i) Township

(Residential & Welfare Buildings)

(ii) Canteen Buildings

Township Water Supply & Sewerage

Township Roads

Township Electrification

II. OTHER SOCIAL ASSETS

Hospital Equipments

Hospital Vehicles and Ambulances

School Equipments

Club Equipments

Playground/Park

School Buses

Others

III. HUMAN ASSETS

x x x

------------

---

x x x

(ii) Socio-Economic Operating Statement Approach

This approach was suggested by David Linowes and Ralph W. Estes. Linowes

proposes the development of a ‘Socio-Economic Operating Statement’ for social

reporting which aims at focusing on ‘what corporation has done for society’ on one

hand and ‘what it has failed to do’ on the other.

He suggested that a firm should prepare a social statement periodically along with the

Corporate Balance Sheet and Income Statement. It would include a tabulation of the

corporation’s voluntary expenditures to benefit its employees, public or environment,

offset against the cost of programmes which were not undertaken but which would

have resulted in improvement.

Estes proposed a comprehensive model to report and permitting the disclosure of all

direct benefits and costs of an entity in terms of its net contribution to society. The

main assumption under this approach is that, a firm gives something to the society and

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uses something of society and this interaction be presented in a statement format

which is called the ‘Socio-Economic Operating Statement (SEOS)’. According to this

approach, the firm presents the positive and negative aspects of its social activities.

The positive aspects are termed as ‘social benefits’ and negative aspects as ‘social

costs’.

The net social contribution of a firm is represented by the difference between social

benefits and social costs. This approach suggests that a firm should prepare a social

statement periodically showing the expenditure made for ‘improvement in social

areas, offset the cost of programmes which were not undertaken but which would

have resulted in improvements’.

Typical basic guidelines for the preparation of SEOS are :

• If a socially beneficial action is required by enforceable law or union regulations, it is

not included in the SEOS.

• If a socially beneficial action is required by law but is ignored, the cost of such item is

a ‘detriment’ for the year. The same treatment is given to an item if postponed, even

with government approval.

• A prorated portion of salaries and related expenses of personnel who spend time in

socially beneficial actions or with social organisations is included.

• Cash and product contributions to social institutions are included. The cost of setting

up facilities for the general good of employees or the public, if done voluntarily

without union or government mandate, is included.

• Expenditure made voluntarily for the installation of safety devices on the premises or

in products and not required by law or other contract are included.

• The cost of voluntarily building a playground or nursery facility for employees and /

or neighbours is included. Operating costs of the unit are also included for each

succeeding year applicable.

• Extra costs of designing and building business facilities to upgrade health, beauty or

safety standards are included.

The format of Social Economic Operating Statement is given in Table 13.3. Further

Lee Seidler developed another approach for Social Accounting and reporting and

suggested two Income Statement formats, one for a profit seeking organisation and

another for a non-profit seeking organisation the result of which is a net social profit

or loss reflecting the net contribution of the entity to the society.

TABLE 13.3

Socio Economic Operating Statement of XYZ Ltd. for the year ended 31st March, 2004

(I) Social actions – People related

(a) Improvements

Minority enterprise technical assistance programme

4,000

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Emergency flood relief

Training programme for handicapped workers

Executive time – hospital trusteeship

Minority hiring programme – extra training and

turnover costs

Day-care center for children of employees setup and

maintenance cost – voluntarily established

(b) Less : Detriments

Postponed installation of hydraulic safety control

system-cost of unit

Net Improvements for the year

(II) Social actions – Environment related

(a) Improvements

Cost of installing water quality monitoring system to

control pollution

Cost of clearing landscaping company-owned

ravaged area and dump

Executive time-free consulting service to state

environmental protection agency

(b) Less : Detriments

Deferral of liquid waste treatment facility

Postponed installation of higher smoke stacks to

reduce air pollution

Net Deficit for the year

(III) Social actions – Product related

(a) Improvements

Voluntary discontinued product judged unsafe for

home use- Projected annual net income.

Salary of safety engineer on loan to government

product safety committee.

3,000

8,000

5,000

6,000

11,000

---------------------

37,000

16,000

---------------------

16,000

---------------------

21,000

22,000

41,000

4,000

---------------------

67,000

60,000

19,000

---------------------

79,000

---------------------

12,000

23,000

21,000

---------------------

44,000

---------------------

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(b) Less : Detriments

Cost of process redesign to reduce manufacturing

hazard – recommended by Safety Council, but

implementation deferred

Net Improvement for the year

Total Socio-economic improvements during the year

2003-04

Add : Net cumulative Socio-Economic Improvements

as at 1.4.2003

Net Socio-Economic Improvements upto 31st

March, 2004

36,000

---------------------

36,000

---------------------

8,000

17,000

1,76,000

---------------------

1,93,000

(iii) Integral Welfare Theoretical Approach

This approach deals with all activities which are expected to be undertaken by

business enterprises. The conceptual approach of this school of thought is well

summarized by Eichhorm (1974) in his book on ‘Social Accounting’. It intends to

develop an integral assessment of all activities on the part of business corporations

from the view point of society.

This school of thought involves the preparation of a social report comprising social

benefits and social costs. These social costs and social benefits are presented in Table

13.4, from which it is understood that corporate social accounting framework includes

social costs such as labour, material, fixed assets and capital costs.

In the same manner social benefits are provided in the form of qualitative products,

safety of products, rational prices and regular supply of products. It also prevents

value of negative external effects and value of positive external effects on the part of

business corporations.

Table 13.4 : Social Statement

Social Costs Rs. Social Benefits Rs.

(I) Producers’ Surplus for :

1. Labour Performance

2. Fixed Assets

3. Materials

4. Capital

5. Entrepreneurial Performance

6. Performance paid in advance

(II) Value of Negative

external effects on :

1. Employees

2. Population

3. Companies

4. Public Entites

x x x

------------

x x x

------------

x x x

(I) CONSUMERS’ SURPLUS

FOR :

1. Product A

2. Product B

3. Product C

4. Product D

(II) CONSUMERS’ SURPLUS

FOR :

1. Employees

2. Population

3. Companies

4. Public Entites

x x x

-----------

x x x

-----------

x x x

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Net Social Benefits

x x x

------------

x x x

------------

x x x

Net Social Costs

x x x

-----------

x x x

-----------

x x x

(iv) Descriptive or Narrative Approach

The American Accounting Association’s Committee on ‘Environmental

Effects of Organisational Behaviour’ has proposed this method to

include certain environmental disclosures. The nature of such type of

narrative disclosure is non-quantitative. These disclosures would be

attached to the annual financial statements. Under this approach, a

firm highlights the positive aspects of its social activities. The

Committee recommended that the present reporting model be more

fully utilized to :

(a) Display environmental control expenses on a separate line in the

Income Statement.

(b) Disclose separately total environmental control expenditures in the

Funds Statement.

Sheet.

(d) Use accrual accounting for Environmental Liabilities.

The Committee further recommended that the present reporting

system should help to identify the environmental problems facing the

organisation and the disclosure of material environmental effects on

financial position, earnings and business activities of the

corporations.

Under this method, the schedules representing employees benefit and

services, social overheads, township maintenance, etc., are prepared

and shown as part of annexure in the Annual Report. Social overhead

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includes medical, education, canteen, transportation facilities etc.

Schedules of township maintenance contains expenditure on building,

water, sewerage etc. It consists of quantitative measurements on the

social involvement of the firms. This is to be included as an additional

footnote in the financial statement section of the annual report.

(v) Goal Oriented Approach

It is based on the recognition of the fact that companies usually have elaborate goals

and purposes describing the economic and social objectives which they have set for

themselves. Therefore, it involves two aspects :

(a) The selection of social goals, and

(b) The reporting and assessment of company’s performance according to these goals.

Compared to the other social approaches, this concept has the advantage because

indicators to be used to report on company’s achievements are not arbitrarily selected

but are derived from the specific goals and objectives under consideration. The

detailed activities are measured and analysed in pursuit of these goals. It also has the

advantage of integrating traditional financial reporting and social reporting.

(vi) Value Added Approach

Under the Value added Accounting, the income accruing to the enterprise after

external payments is taken into account. It represents the value added to goods and

services, required by the enterprises as a result of the efforts of management and

employees. (vii) Pictorial Approach

Under this approach, photographs of health care center, school and hospital etc. run

by the firm are presented in annual reports.

(viii) Regulatory Requirements

The reporting is done by other methods also which include mention of social activities

by an enterprise in the Chairman’s Report, Director’s Report or Auditor’s Report.

This approach is followed by many public and private sector enterprises, because it is

simple to present.

The Companies (Disclosure of Particulars in the Report of Board of Directors) Rules,

1988 require information regarding Conservation of energy, Technology absorption

and Foreign earnings and outgo. Disclosures requirement under this rule has covered

some aspects of social reporting.

Indian economy is based on the principle to democracy and socialism and as such the

social audit has greater importance for our country. For this reason an order for social

audit was issued by the Government of India by amending Section 227(4A) of the

Companies Act, 1956 and by passing the Manufacturing and Other Companies (Audit

Report) order, 1988.

13.10 Benefits of Social Reporting

Several benefits may be realized by an organisation by the publication of a social

statement. These may include :

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• Presentation of a complete picture to the society and the management to enable

everybody to form correct opinions.

• Assist management in formulating appropriate policies and priorities.

• Avoidance of adverse publicity.

• Improved image leading to greater support from government and public.

• Help in marketing and greater customer support.

• Evidence of social commitment.

• Improved employee motivation.

• Better business relations with all concerned e.g. banks, insurance, government.

• Resolution of social problems can assist in long term growth of the organisation.

• Attracting and retaining high quality staff.

• Obtaining feedback from the public as to the changes required in the focus.

• Improve confidence of shareholders or members.

• Several companies are realizing that being a socially responsible organisation can be

good for productivity, morale and loyalty amongst employees.

In addition to the benefits derived by the individual organisation, various other interested

parties like government agencies, consumer council, shareholders associations, trade

associations, news media etc. also benefit because of ready availability of the

information.

13.11 Limitations of Social Reporting

Though the importance of social responsibility and reporting is being recognized by

many companies in India, yet its progress and performance is hindered due to the

following reasons :

• Not Mandatory : Disclosure of social responsibility information is not mandatory for

private sector units. In the case of public sector units also ‘order for social overheads

schedule’ does not at all fulfil the requirements of social audit.

• No Standard format : There are no well established concepts, conventions,

postulates and axioms to guide the Social Accountant in drafting his accounts and

reporting.

• Lack of clear cut definition of social reporting : Every enterprise adopts different

methods for measuring, reporting and evaluating social responsibility as there is no

clear cut definition and procedure for social reporting.

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• No cadre of social auditors : There is no separate cadre of social auditors and it is

not clear how and who will conduct such audit.

• Auditing social cost and benefit is an intricate function : It is highly doubtful if

only accountancy scholars would be able to perform the stupendous task of

identifying and documenting the many sided social effects of business behaviour and

auditing social costs and benefits.

13.12 Social Disclosure Practices in India

In India, the Companies Act, 1956 deals with the preparation of balance sheet and

profit and loss account. The Act requires the auditor to make a report under section

227 to members (shareholders) and express an opinion whether the company’s

balance sheet and profit and loss account exhibit ‘true and fair’ view of the company’s

state of affairs. Although, this Act has been amended from time to time, no specific

provision has been made requiring companies to provide social responsibility

disclosures in their annual reports. The Government of India appointed a Committee

under the chairmanship of Justice Rajinder Sachar to consider and report on the

changes that are necessary in the form and structure of the Act. The Committee

recommended the inclusion of the following, inter alia, in the director’s report :

“Steps taken by the company in various spheres with a view to discharging its social

responsibilities towards different segments of the society, quantifying where possible and in

monetary terms. The Board should also report on the future plans of the company towards the

discharge of its social responsibilities and duties.”

In 1981, The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India after making a survey found

that 123 out of 202 companies provided some information in their directors reports

about company contribution in social responsibility areas.

The TISCO performed the first social audit (the company has used the term audit)

ever undertaken by any company public or private, in India. The purpose of the audit

was to examine and report whether, and the extent to which the company had fulfilled

objectives regarding its social and moral responsibilities to the consumers, employees,

shareholders, society and the local community. In its 65 page report, the Audit

committee has given the background of the idea (social audit) and explained the

company’s responses (action and inaction) towards Jameshedpur, pollution,

employer-employee relations, consumers, shareholders, community development and

social welfare programme, rural development programme, etc. The report about social

audit performed by the company is very descriptive and not structured and

accounting-oriented.

Some Indian Companies have made attempts to provide information on their social

responsibility activities in published annual reports. Some such companies have been

given social income statements and social balance sheet in their annual reports; some

have preferred to give narrative disclosures on social responsibility actions. Also,

social reporting policy of Indian Companies has not been consistent. Some Indian

Companies, after giving social responsibility reports for a few years, have

discontinued it without stating any reasons in this regard.

Social Accounting in Oil India Ltd.

In today’s corporate world, no organization can afford to ignore its responsibility to

society. Corporate reporting can no longer confine itself to the conventional form of

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reporting. Society expects and in some countries the law recognizes that corporate

reporting should incorporate description of the employment policies (In Indian

context its policy towards employment of SC/ST and handicapped personnel), action

being taken for industrial health and safety of its personnel, policies towards

environment and expenditure on pollution control, fulfilling community obligations,

customer satisfaction and fulfilling national priorities. In the case of OIL, being a

public sector undertaking, fulfillment of social obligations assumes greater

significance.

OIL does not lag behind its commitment to fulfil its social obligations and

responsibilities. It recognizes its responsibility towards community in and around its

operational area and extends help towards community’s requirements of education,

medical, social, cultural, sports and other community welfare measures such as family

planning, immunization against communicable diseases etc. OIL encourages

indigenous industry by giving due attention to development of ancillary units making

available its technical know-how to achieve better quality of indigenous production

and giving price preference to indigenous supplies on global tenders.

OIL recognizes its basic responsibility to contribute towards National priority of self

sufficiency in production of crude oil. Success achieved by OIL in its exploratory and

development efforts towards discovery of hydrocarbon reserves is explained in the

directors report on current year’s performance.

Social accounting is termed as a process by which an organization’s social

performance is analyzed and interpreted to produce a set of social accounts. For a

number of years OL has been incorporating in its Annual Reports, Social Accounts

considered for evaluating the impact of OIL’s activities on society.

Social accounts have been prepared based on ‘Abt Associates approach’ with such

modifications as to suit Indian conditions and made the statement meaningful in the

context of OIL.

Some of the items incorporated in Social Accounts require special mention.

I. INCREMENTAL HYDRO-CARBON RESERVES

Since, 1996 OIL has decided to incorporate in social accounts, effect of its efforts

towards increase in hydrocarbon reserves. As a measure of abundant caution, OIL has

decided to restrict its reporting to increase in reserves of proved and developed

properties only. Cost of production has been based on actual cost incurred during the

current year.

II. FLARING OF GAS

In the past , flaring of gas has been reported by OIL as Social Cost to General Public.

OIL has constantly been endeavouring to minimize the extent of gas flaring. Success

achieved by OIL in its efforts is reflected hereunder :

Year Percentage of gas

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Flare to total Production

1995-96 18.76

1996-97 11.59

1997-98 11.09

1998-99 11.90

1999-2000 10.43

OIL experts consider that the extent of flaring has been brought down to a level which

is now considered as unavoidable/inescapable. As there is no loss of natural

resources, social accounts do not include flaring of gas as a social cost.

III. PRICE DIFFERENCE

If OIL had sold its production in the International market then not only it would have

earned foreign exchange but would also have increased its profitability to the extent

of difference between International price and the current price received by OIL for

sale of its products. Such price difference has been exhibited as a benefit to general

public in social accounts.

IV. PROFITS

Being a public sector undertaking, OIL has considered it appropriate that dividends

paid and retained profits relating to Government share holdings, should be

incorporated as Social Benefit.

Social Income Statement as at 31st March, 2000

Rs. In lakhs

1999-00 1998-99

Social Benefit & Cost to Staff

I. A Social benefits to staff

1. Housing & Township facilities (including

Supply of Water, electricity & Gas) 2699 2779

2. Medical & Hospital Facilities 1477 1321

3. Transport 535 383

4. Holiday benefits 4071 2576

5. Educational facilities 306 296

6. Interest concession 364 599

7. Provident fund, Gratuity & Pension 2923 2367

8. Bonus & Ex-gratia payments. 660 688

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9. Training to staff 385.33 713

10. Welfare activities including canteen facilities 781.63 477

11. Medical benefits to retired employees 52.81 61

12. Other benefits 58.84 89

Total Social Benefits to Staff 14314 12347

B. Social Costs to Staff

1. Involuntary Termination 39 3

Net Social Benefits to Staff (A-B) 14275 12344

II. Social Benefits & Costs to Community

A. Social Benefits to Community

1. Social Welfare to community 1045 1103

2. Environmental improvements 242 141

3. Generation of job potential 3959 18143

4. Generation of business 20545 14111

Total Social Benefits to Community 25792 33498

B. Social Costs to Community 0 0

Net Social Benefits & Costs to Society (A-B) 25792 33498

III. Social Benefits & Costs to Society

A. Social Benefits to General Public

1. Taxes & Duties paid to

(a) Central Government 53379 44090

(b) State Government 30028 24854

2. Difference between International Price

and

Administered Price received by OIL for Crude

Oil, Natural Gas & Liquefied Petroleum Gas

161339

62414

3. Price difference on Global tenders to

Indigenous suppliers

35 33

4. Evaluation of Increase in Hydro-carbon

Reserves (refer note 1 below) 402227 284075

5. Energy Conservation 730 437

6. Dividend paid to Central Government 10500 7700

7. Retained profits for the year relating to

Government share holding 28019 20067

8. Other benefits to general public 405 26

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Total Social Benefits to General Public 686663 443696

B. Social Costs to General Public

1. Foreign exchange spent (refer not 2 below) 5842 7346

Total Social Cost to General Public 5842 7346

Net Social Benefits to Society (A-B) 680821 436350

Net Social Income to Staff, Community and General Public

(I+I+III) 720887 482192

Note :

1. Increase in Hydro-carbon reserves is restricted to proved and development

properties. Out of the value of such reserves at International price, deduction has

been made for its cost of production estimated at current year's actual cost.

2. In addition to social benefits as above, OIL has further contributed towards saving

in foreign exchange, to the extent of Rs. 3,29,637 lakhs(previous year Rs. 204, 493

Lakhs) by producing Crude Oil, Natural Gas and Liquefied Petroleum Gas.

Source : Oil India Ltd., Annual Report 1999-2000 Pp. 143-149

13.13 summary

The conceptual thinking about corporate social accounting has grown at a rate faster

than what has been done in practice. The social accounting information about

business enterprises are not only important for external users, public interest groups,

government, etc., but also for managements in planning and decision-making areas. In

pursuance of their basic goals, all organisations have a social commitment. The debate

on a suitable corporate social reporting model is continuing. At present, the primary

objectives for business enterprises should be to provide disclosure about their society

related activities. If a business enterprise decide to wait for a perfect model,

completely reliable measures, generally accepted reporting standards, and qualitative

characteristics applicable to social information, it would be failing in its

responsibilities as a stable and forward looking employer and a good citizen. Business

enterprises should be ready to accept growing challenged emerging in social

accounting and reporting area.

13.14 self assessment questions

1. What do you mean by Social Accounting ? Discuss the objectives and need for social

accounting.

2. Explain the various methods of measurement of social costs and social benefits.

3. How should social accounting information be reported in published annual reports?

Which method of disclosure, do your think, will be most appropriate ?

4. Discuss the effect of social disclosures on the share prices of a company. Explain the

limitations of social reporting also.

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13.15 SUGGESTED READINGS

1. K V Ramananthan, Towards a theory of corporate social accounting, Accounting

Review

2. Sachar Committee Report of the High-Powered Expert committee on companies and

MRTP Acts, Minisrty of Law, Justice and Comapnt Affairs, New delhi

3. R L Gupta, Advanced Accounting, Sultan Chand and Sons, New delhi

4. A Belkaoui, Socio- Economic Accounting, Quorum Books, Westport.

5. Longstreth and Rosenbloom, Corporate social reporting and the institutional investor,

Praeger, New York

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Course : Management Accounting Writer : Dr. M.C. Garg

Course Code : MC-105 Vetter : Dr. B.S. Bodla

LESSON-14

ECONOMIC VALUE ADDED (EVA) STATEMENTS

Objective : The objective of this lesson is to enable the readers to understand the

concept of Economic Value Added and procedure for its computation.

This would also familiarize about superiority of EVA over traditional

measures, drawbacks of EVA and EVA disclosure practices in India.

LESSON STRUCTURE

14.1 Introduction

14.2 Concept of EVA

14.3 Computation of EVA

14.4 Improving EVA

14.5 Superiority of EVA over Traditional Measures

14.6 Implementing EVA

14.7 EVA vs. Residual Income

14.8 Drawbacks of EVA

14.9 Market Value Added

14.10 EVA Disclosures in India

14.11 Summary

14.12 Self Assessment Questions

14.13 Suggested Readings

14.1 introduction

The goal of financial management is to maximize the shareholder’s value. The

shareholder’s wealth is measured by the returns they receive on their investment.

Returns are in two parts, first is in the form of dividends and the second in the form of

capital appreciation reflected in market value of shares.

The market value of share is influenced by number of factors, many of which may not

be fully influenced by the management of firm. However, one factor, which has a

significant influence on the market value, is the expectation of the shareholders

regarding the return on their investment.

The share prices are influenced by the extent to which the management is able to

meet the expectation of the shareholders. Various measures like Return on Capital

Employed, Return on Equity, Earnings per Share, Net Profit margin, Operating Profit

margin have been used to evaluate the performance of the business. The problem with

these performance measures is that they lack a proper benchmark for comparison. The

shareholders require at least a minimum rate of return on their investment depending

on the risk in the investment. Sometimes, the industry average or the competitor’s

performance may be considered as a benchmark, which may not be acceptable to meet

the shareholder’s minimum expectations.

14.2 concept of EVA

The New York based financial advisory Stern Stewart and Co. postulated a concept of

economic income in 1990 in the name of ‘Economic Value Added’ (EVA). EVA is a

modified version of residual income concept. EVA has provided financial discipline

in many U.S. companies and encouraged managers to act like owners and boosted

shareholders’ returns and the value of their companies.

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The company creates shareholder value only if it generates returns in excess of its

cost of capital. The excess of returns over cost of capital is simply termed as

Economic Value Added (EVA). EVA measures whether the operating profit is

sufficient enough to cover cost of capital.

Shareholders must earn sufficient returns for the risk they have taken in investing

their money in company’s capital. The return generated by the company for

shareholders has to be more than the cost of capital to justify risk taken by the

shareholders. If a company’s EVA is negative, the firm is destroying shareholders

wealth even though it may be reporting positive and growing EPS or Return on

Capital employed.

EVA is just a way of measuring an operation’s real profitability. EVA holds a

company accountable for the cost of capital it uses to expand and operate its business

and attempts to show whether a company is creating a real value for its shareholders.

EVA is a better system, than ROI, to encourage growth in new products, new

equipment and new manufacturing facilities. EVA measurement also requires a

company to be more careful about resource mobilization, resource allocation and

investment decisions. It effectively measures the productivity of all factors of

production.

14.3 Computation of EVA

Operationally defined, EVA is the difference between the net operating profits after

taxes (NOPAT) and capital charge i.e., cost of capital employed (COCE) or the

product of capital employed with the difference between the Return on Capital

Employed (ROCE) and the Cost of Capital Employed (COCE) i.e.,

EVA = Net operating profits after taxes (NOPAT) – Capital Charge

(WACC × CE)

where WACC = Weighted Average Cost of Capital

CE = Capital Employed

NOPAT = Profits after depreciation and taxes but before interest cost

EVA = Capital Employed (CE) × (Return on Capital Employed –

Cost of Capital

Employed)

1. NOPAT refers to quantum of net operating profit remained in the business after the

payment of taxes but before interest. Addition and subtraction of non-operating income

and expenses to the net profit figure and making certain other adjustments for turning

accounting profits into economic profits is also advocated. To convert the Generally

Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP) earning into EVA, Stern Stewart has identified

about 164 potential adjustments to GAAP. But due to diverse accounting disclosure

practices adopted in India and abroad following are the adjustments being felt quite

sufficient in Indian context to convert the accounting profit, also known as GAAP

earnings, into economic profit or EVA.

• Accounting principles allows companies to write-off Research & Development

expenses. But these expenses may not be truly revenue in nature. For successful R&D

projects, EVA calculations writes back the R&D expenses and amortises them over a

period during which benefits of the successful R&D projects will be reaped. The

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NOPAT figure calculated from Profit and Loss account is adjusted by adding back the

R&D expenses and capitalizing them in the balance sheet. Only those R&D expenses

that have no future value are charged to the income statement.

• During periods of rising prices companies save taxes by adopting the LIFO system of

inventory valuation. Under the LIFO method, costs of the recently acquired raw

material are charged to the production while the costs of earlier purchases are

accumulated in inventory thereby understating the inventory and the profits. For

calculating EVA the LIFO system of valuation is changed to FIFO basis which is a

better basis for estimating current replacement costs. NOPAT and Equity are adjusted

for this change from LIFO to FIFO by adding the difference between the LIFO and

FIFO inventory (or LIFO and FIFO cost of goods sold) to the equity and NOPAT.

This way the tax benefits of LIFO are retained.

• Deferred taxes arise due to the difference in timing of recognition of revenues and

expenses for financial reporting versus reporting for tax purposes. It is basically the

accumulation of the difference between accounting provision of taxes and the tax

amount actually paid under the head ‘Reserve for Deferred Taxes’. NOPAT is

adjusted for the tax actually paid instead of the accounting provisions. The reserves

for deferred taxes are added to the equity.

• The depreciation charge if excessive needs adjustments.

• Certain marketing expenses like advertising or sales promotion for a new brand

launch are capitalized and amortised over the period during which benefits will be

reaped.

• Goodwill of an acquired business, if written off, is capitalized and adjusted in

NOPAT and equity.

• Expenses incurred on employee training again will provide benefits over a period so

these expenses are also capitalized.

• Operating leases are to be capitalized. The net present value of the lease payments is

capitalized.

• Restructuring expenses and such other expenses which will benefit the firm in the

long run are capitalized and written-off over a period.

• Other adjustments like adding back the provision for warranty claims, provisions for

bad and doubtful debts are also made. They are accounted for on the cash basis.

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Similarly other non-cash book-keeping entries are adjusted and accounted for on cash

basis.

• Provision for gratuity and pension should be recognized and provided for properly.

2. WACC is the weighted average of the cost of debt (ki), cost of equity (ke) and cost of

preference capital (kp), if any, with weights equivalent to the proportion of each in the

total capital, i.e.,

WACC ke X s

vki X b

vkp X p

where,

ke = Cost of equity

ki = Effective cost of debt i.e., kd (1-t),

kp = Cost of preference capital,

v = Total value of business,

s = Value of equity capital,

b = Value of debts,

p = Value of preference capital.

Ki refers to the average rate of interest the company pays for its debt obligation i.e., a

company’s effective debt cost is taken by measuring interest paid against total

borrowings and then adjusting it for taxes.

kp is the discount rate that equates the present value of after tax interest payment cash

outflows to current market value of the Preference Share Capital. Ke, Cost of equity can

be calculated opting for a number of theories e.g.,

− Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM)

− Bond yield plus risk premium approach.

− Earnings price (E/P) Approach.

− Realised yield Approach.

− Dividend Capitalisation Approach.

Under CAPM cost of equity capital is expressed as :-

Ke = Rf + β (Rm – Rf). Rf represents the most secure return that can be

achieved and in Indian context, it represents current yields available in long-term

government bonds.

β refers to the sensitivity of the security returns to changes in the market returns.

The suitability of a particular approach to calculation of cost of equity capital differs

from country to country depending on their distinct disclosure and reporting practices

and other environmental conditions.

3. Capital Employed (CE) is the next element required for calculating EVA and can be

calculated through the assets side or the liabilities side of a balance sheet.

From the assets side of the balance sheet :-

CE = Current Assets – Non interest bearing current liabilities (i.e., Net Working Capital

+ Net Fixed Assets)

From the liability side of the balance sheet :-

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CE = Interest bearing debt (short term as well as long term) + Net worth less any non-

operating assets.

The mechanism of EVA is very simple. Applying the above mentioned methodology

if the result is positive, the firm in question has created value over the period and if

the EVA is negative, it will be termed as a value destroyer. A company having

consistently high EVA implies that it has been successful in creating value for the

business. It has effectively utilized the resources in the most profitable use. On the

other hand, a company having oscillating EVA or consistently negative EVA

indicates that there is something wrong with the Company.

The procedure of computing EVA is further explained herein with the help of a

hypothetical company’s income statement and balance sheet :-

Income Statement

(Rs.)

Net Sales 26,000

Cost of goods sold 14,000

Selling & distribution expenses 4,000

Depreciation 1,500

Other operating expenses 1,000 20,500

Operating Income 5,500

Interest expenses -2,000

Income Before Tax 3,500

Income tax (35%) -1,225

Net Profit After Tax 2,275

Balance Sheet

Liabilities Amount

(Rs.) Assets Amount

(Rs.)

Total Equity Capital : Land & Building 6,500

Share Capital 3,000 Equipment 4,100

Retained Earnings 4,300 Other long-term assets 4,900

Profit & Loss A/c 2,100 9,400 Inventory 2,500

Long –term Debt 7,600 Accounts Receivable (A/R) 4,000

Account Payable (A/P) 1,000 Cash 1,500

Accrued Expenses (A/E) 2,500

Short Term Debt 3,000

23,500 23,500

Step I : Calculate Net Operating Profit After Tax (NOPAT)

(Rs.)

Operating Income 5,500

- Tax (35%) 1,925

NOPAT 3,575

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Net Profit 2,275

+ Interest expense (1-Tax Rate) 1,300

NOPAT 3,575

Step II : Identify Company’s Capital

(Rs.)

Total Liabilities 23,500

Less : Rs.

Account Payable (A/P) 1,000

Accrued Expenses (A/E) 2,500 3,500

Capital (C)* 20,000

*Company’s Capital = Total Liabilities – Non-interest bearing liabilities

Step III : Determine Capital Cost Rate (CCR)

Here, CCR = 10%

The reason is that owners expect 13% return for using their money because less than

that is not attractive to them; this is about the return that investors can get by investing

long-term with equal risk (stock, mutual funds of other companies). The company has

9400/23500 = 40% (or 0.4) of equity with a cost of 13%. It has also 60% debt and

assumes that it has to pay 8% interest for it. So the average capital costs would be

CCR = Average equity proportion × Equity Cost + Average Debt Proportion × Debt Cost

= (40% ×13%) + (60% × 80%)

= 0.4 × 13% + 0.6 × 8%

= 5.2% + 4.8%

= 10%

Step IV : Calculate Company’s EVA :

———————————————————————————————————

EVA = NOPAT - C X CCR

= Rs. 3,575 - Rs. 20,000 ×10%

= Rs. 3,575 - Rs. 2,000

= Rs. 1,575

———————————————————————————————————

Thus, it is clear that the company has created in EVA of Rs. 1,575.

14.4 Improving EVA

EVA can be improved in any of the following ways :

• Increasing NOPAT with the same amount of capital.

• Reducing the capital employed without affecting the earnings i.e. discarding the

unproductive assets.

• Investing in those projects that earn a return greater than the cost of capital.

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• By reducing the cost of capital, which means employing more debt, as debt is cheaper

than equity or preference capital.

14.5 Superiority of EVA over Traditional Measures

Performance measurement systems that were successful in the past are becoming

obsolete and in some cases are dysfunctional and obstructive to improvements. A

dynamic and more competitive environment requires dynamic benchmarks to get a

clear picture of :-

• What is really happening to the performance of a business firm?

• Whether the firm is a value generator or a value destroyer?

Ultimately, the value-based performance measures e.g., Cash Flow Return On

Investment (CFROI), Cash Value Added (CVA), Shareholder Value Added (SVA)

and Economic Value Added (EVA) have appeared on the scene. Out of these new

‘trendier’ performance measures the popularity graph of EVA is touching new heights

day-by-day and when compared with the traditional measures it occupies a place of

pride on the following grounds :

(i) EVA is a performance measure most directly linked to the definitive and

reliable measure of wealth creation which is Market Value Added (MVA), the

difference between the market value of an enterprise and the capital

contributed by shareholder and lenders. MVA is in fact the cumulative amount

by which a company has enhanced or diminished shareholder wealth.

(ii) ROCE, RONW, ROI etc. consider only one side of the performance i.e., they

consider the borrowing cost but ignore the cost of equity. This leads the

decision makers and financial analyst toward a failure to highlight whether the

return is commensurate with the risk of underlying assets. In turn, it ultimately

results into biased and inappropriate decisions regarding rejection of

economically profitable project or acceptance of unviable projects. For

instance, a company’s current ROCE 20% and its overall cost of capital is

16%. It receives a new investment opportunity with an estimated ROCE of

18%, cost of capital remains the same (i.e., at 16%). To maximize ROCE one

will reject the said opportunity. But actually, if accepted, it would have added

two per cent economic surplus to the shareholders’ wealth. In another case, the

present ROCE of a company is 12% and cost of capital is 16%. It receives a

new investment opportunity with an estimated ROCE of 14% with no change

in cost of capital. Again, to maximize ROCE the said opportunity will be

accepted by the company. But this will destroy shareholder’s wealth as

shareholders want to maximize the absolute return above the cost of capital

and not to maximize percentages.

On the contrary, EVA mechanism gives due recognition to the cost of equity

in all managerial decisions from board room to the shop floor and thus

provides a comprehensive and reliable yardstick to measure the shareholders’

value creation (or destruction) by an individual business entity focusing

towards maximization of absolute return above the cost of capital.

(iii) The EVA financial management system eliminates all the inconsistencies

among various parameters resulting from the use of different

criteria/financial measures for different corporate functions under the typical

traditional financial management system, by incorporating all business issues,

for instance, reviewing a capital budgeting process, valuing an acquisition,

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considering strategic plan alternatives, assessing performance, communicating

or rewarding management into an integrated criteria of creating value. This

would unite all employees in the pursuit of the single goal of creating value.

Managers will certainly have to consider margins, turnover ratios, unit costs

and a host of other variables, but the anxiety is always in the context of their

impact on EVA. EVA system, thus, covers the full range of managerial

decisions against a typical traditional system with inconsistent standards, goals

and terminology.

(iv) Further, it links the management compensation to the shareholder value in a

much refined manner. With EVA the bonus targets are set every year as a

percentage gain in EVA and there is no cap on the maximum amount of bonus

payment. A part of the bonus earned is banked and paid in later years. EVA

results that are below target will shrink the banked bonus and vice-versa.

Thus, EVA-based compensation system ties management’s interest with those

of shareholders and the value creation motion will permeate the whole

organisation.

(v) EVA captures the performance status of corporate system over a broader

canvas i.e., to arrive at true profits, cost of borrowed capital as well as cost of

equity should be deducted from net operating profits. Further to maximize

earnings is not sufficient, at the same time consumption of capital should be

minimum/optimum under an EVA based system.

(vi) The utility of EVA simply does not end by indicating the degree of wealth

creation. It goes beyond that to pinpoint the lacunae in the business

performance. A regular monitoring of EVA throws light on the problem areas

of a company and thus helps managers to take corrective actions.

(vii) EVA does have an extremely important role in strategy formulation. It is used

to assess the likely impact of competing strategies on shareholder wealth and

thus helps the management to select the one that will best serve shareholders.

It can be particularly effective in this regard when it is augmented by new

tools such as Real Option Analysis, Balanced Score Card, Activity–Based

Costing and Activity–Based Management.

(viii) It also fits well with the concepts of corporate governance and thus is

considered to be the best corporate governance system. EVA bonus system

does this by giving employees an ownership stake in improvements in the

EVA of their divisions or operations. This causes employees to behave like

owners and reduces or eliminates the need for outside interference in decision

making.

(ix) The issue of capital charge compels operating managers to use assets more

diligently by focusing directly on the costs associated with inventories,

receivables and capital equipment. It enables managers to routinely and

automatically consider the cost of capital in every decision and accurately

assess the tradeoff between operating costs and capital costs. Combining

operating costs and capital costs in a single profit measure that is expressed in

rupee rather than a rate of return gives EVA another unique quality. Hence

managers could use EVA to guide their future resource allocation decisions

and economic income of the firm by any of the following strategies or a

combination of these.

(x) EVA is also an ideal technique for companies operating in new-age sectors. The

typical knowledge industry is not capital intensive, and the companies operating in

these industries are not faced with too many decisions involving huge amounts of

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capital. Moreover in such industries returns on the capital invested are immediate. As

a result, EVA is almost a made-to-order performance metric for the knowledge

industries.

14.6 Implementing EVA

Measuring EVA is not enough-rather one needs to adopt it and implement it.

Implementing EVA is a 4-step process, also called as ‘the 4-M process’ and these 4-

Ms are :-

1. Measurement,

2. Management System,

3. Motivation,

4. Mindset.

(1) Measurement – Any company that wishes to implement EVA should institutionalize

the process of measuring the metric regularly. This measurement should be done after

carrying out the prescribed accounting adjustments, using the formula :--

EVA = (ROCE – COC) × Capital Employed

EVA = NOPAT – (WACC × Capital Employed)

(2) Management System – Further, the company should be willing to align its

management system to the EVA process. The EVA based management system is the

basis on which the company should take decisions related to the choice of strategy,

capital allocation, merger & acquisitions, divesting business and goal setting. In

effect, each one of a company’s activities should be aligned to, and derived from the

company’ EVA process.

(3) Motivation – Companies should decide to implement EVA only if they are prepared

to implement the incentive plan that goes with it. This plan ensures that the only way

in which managers can earn a higher bonus is by creating more value for

shareholders. Sales-based incentives reward managers for incremental sales without

considering the costs involved, and profits based reward systems can be the source of

resentment, at least among those managers who believe that their rewards are based

on variables beyond their control. An EVA based incentive system, however,

encourages managers to operate in such a way as to maximize the EVA, not must of

the operations they oversee but of the company as whole.

(4) Mindset - Like other transformation techniques, the effective implementation of

EVA necessitates a change in the culture and mindset of the company. All

constituents of the organisation need to be taught to focus on one objective

maximizing EVA. This singular focus leaves no room for ambiguity and also it is not

difficult for employees to know just what actions of their will create EVA, and what

will destroy it.

Other major issues related to the implementation of EVA are the geographical or

cultural context, the relative simplicity or complexity in adopting it as a measure of

corporate performance in some countries, the characteristics of a company,

identifying the particular stage in the organizational life style when it works best and

its suitability to one particular industry. A lot of attempts have been made to

investigate and solve these issues. It has been found that there is no particular

geographical or cultural context and no particular stage in a firm’s lifecycle where and

when EVA can be best implemented. The ideal company to implement it is one in

which the board of directors and the senior management want to improve the

efficiency of a firm, take advantage of opportunities quickly and align the interests of

the management and shareholders. As far as the industry is concerned, the nature of

industry is far less important than the attitude of management. The management must

surely wish to have the benefits of EVA. This is the key driver of its success.

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14.7 EVA vs. Residual Income

It is strange but a fact that EVA has gained so much of popularity in recent years

even though the concept of residual income has been in existence even before EVA.

EVA is just a refinement of residual income. Residual income is defined as the

difference between profit and the cost of capital. It differs from EVA in the fact that

profits and capital employed are book figures i.e. the same as appearing in the

financial statements. No adjustments to profit and capital employed figures as

reported in Profit & Loss account and Balance sheet are made unlike EVA.

In fact in most of the articles in Indian newspapers and magazines the EVA figures

calculated for Indian companies are actually residual income and not EVA. The

information relating to most of the adjustments that need to be made to the NOPAT

and capital employed figures does not appear with the financial statements and is

available only to internal management, so an outsider can only calculate the residual

income.

14.8 Drawbacks of EVA

The following are the drawbacks of EVA :

One important drawback of EVA is that it ignores inflation. So it is biased against

new assets. Whenever a new investment is made capital charges is on the full cost

initially, so EVA figure is low. But as the depreciation is written off the capital charge

decreases and hence EVA goes up. This problem existed with measures like ROI

also.

Second problem is that since EVA is measured in rupee terms it is biased in favour of

large, low return businesses. Large business that has returns only slightly above the

cost of capital can have higher EVA than smaller business that earn returns much

higher than the costs. This makes EVA a poor metric for comparing businesses.

Thirdly, in the short term EVA can be improved by reducing assets faster than the

earnings and if this is pursued for long it can lead to problems in the longer run when

new improvements to the asset base are made. This new investment can have a high

negative effect on EVA because the asset base would have been reduced to a large

extent and improvements will involve huge investments.

14.9 Market Value Added (MVA)

A term closely related to EVA is MVA. MVA is the market value of the capital

employed in the firm less the book value of capital employed. MVA is calculated by

summing up the paid value of equity and preference share capital, retained earnings,

earnings, long term and short term debt and subtracting this sum from the market

value of equity and debt.

MVA is a cumulative measure of corporate performance. It measures how much a

company’s stock has added to or taken out of investors’ pocket book over its life and

compares it with the capital those same investors put into the firm. EVA drives the

MVA. Continuous improvements in EVA year after year will lead to increase in

MVA.

14.10 EVA DISCLOSURES IN INDIA

The number of companies that have turned to economic value added (EVA) over the

past few years as a new and modified way to gauge corporate financial performance is

going up. Highly rated companies like Coca Cola, AT&T, Quaker Oats, Briggs and

Stratton have set up separate EVA measurement systems in their organization. India

corporate world is also recognizing the importance of EVA. Particularly, after the

liberalization on foreign holdings in Indian Companies, the concept of shareholder

value is gaining grounds. Some companies e.g., Hindustan Lever, NIIT, Infosys

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Technologies, Hyderabad based Dr. Reddy Laboratories have already made EVA a

part of their published Annual Reports and others e.g., Ranbaxy Laboratories, Samtel

India Ltd. have started calculating EVA as an internal report. EVA has become a part

of doing business at NIIT. EVA has enabled the management to link key decisions to

shareholder value. Several hundred front line management have already undergone

orientation and training in implementing EVA in their business activities.

ITC began consciously examining its shareholder value creating capabilities in 1996.

According to the CEO of ITC, the concept of EVA has been followed as it enables the

company to clearly identify value drivers from the perspective of the capital market,

and once they are identified, it becomes possible for the company to focus their

internal processes on them and take every strategic decision in a manner that

contributes to the enhancement of shareholder value.

Economic Value Added (EVA) Statement in Infosys Ltd.

Year ended March 31 2003 2002 2001 2000 1999

1. Average capital employed (Rs. in crore) 2470.48 1734.97 1111.47 703.87 245.42

2. Average debt/total capital (%) - - - - -

3. Beta variant 1.57 1.41 1.54 1.48 1.48

4. Risk-Free debt cost (%) 6.00 7.30 10.30 10.45 12.00

5. Market premium 7.00 7.00 7.00 8.00 9.00

6. Cost of equity (%) 16.99 17.17 21.08 22.29 25.32

7. Cost of debt (post tax) (%) N.A N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A.

8. Weighted average cost of capital (WACC) (%)

16.99 17.17 21.08 22.29 25.32

9. PAT as a percentage of average capital

employed (%)

38.78 46.57 56.08 40.63 54.16

10. Economic Value Added (EVA)

Operating profit

(In Rs. Crore)

(PBT excluding extraordinary income) 1158.93 943.39 696.03 325.65 155.86

Less : Tax 201.00 135.43 72.21 39.70 22.94

Less : cost of capital 419.73 297.90 234.30 156.89 62.14

Economic value added 538.20 510.06 389.02 129.06 70.78

11. Enterprise value (In Rs. Crore)

Market value of equity 26847.33

24654.33

26926.35 59338.17

9672.80

Less : cash and cash equivalents 1638.52 1026.96 577.74 508.37 416.66

Add : debt - - - - -

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Enterprise value 25208.82

23627.37

26348.61 58829.80

9256.14

12. Ratios

EVA as a percentage of average capital

employed(%)

21.79 29.40 35.00 18.34 28.84

Enterprise value/average capital employed 10.20 13.62 23.71 83.58 37.72

Note :

1. The cost of equity is calculated by using the following formula :

return on risk-free investment + expected risk premium on equity

investment adjusted for beta variant for Infosys in India.

2. Till last year, we had used the average beta variant for software stocks

in the US in the above calculation.

3. The figures above are based on Indian GAAP financial statements.

14.11 summary

The basic objective of the EVA technique is to identify whether the organisation’s

Net Operating Profit After Tax generated during a given period is capable of covering

the cost of capital for the same period, thus generating value for its owners. Though

the technique is very simple to understand, it is tricky to implement. Companies

trying to implement EVA are asked to incorporate up to 164 changes to their

financial accounts. However, despite the computational difficulties, it emphasizes the

intrinsic truth that the equity capital of an organisation is expensive and risky and an

organisation capable of monitoring the net profit position with the cost of capital

would generate value for its owners in the long-run. Thus any system will bear fruits

only when it is well implemented and has the support of all the parties concerned and

EVA is no exception to this rule. Moreover, as with any other system EVA too has

limitations but it still stands as an improvement over measures like ROI and ROE and

if implemented well, by taking the limitations into account, will yield better results.

14.12 Self Assessment Questions

1. What is EVA concept ? State the conceptual issues involved in calculating EVA.

2. Discuss the ways in which EVA can be improved.

3. Discuss the considerations to be kept in mind for implementing EVA.

4. How is EVA superior to traditional performance measures.

14.13 SUGGESTED READINGS

1. E.C. Wood, “Added Value : They Key to Prosperity”, Business Books.

2. E.S. Hendriksen, Accounting Theory, Irwin.

3. Ahindra Chakrabarti, “Economic Value Added (EVA) Performance Metric to Sustain

Competitiveness”, Global Business Review.

4. K.P. Singh & M.C. Garg “EVA in Indian Corporates” Deep & Deep Publication

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Course : Management Accounting Writer : Dr. M.C. Garg

Course Code : MC-105 Vetter : Dr. B.S. Bodla

LESSON-15

BRAND VALUATION AND ACCOUNTING

Objective : After reading this lesson, you should be able to describe the meaning

of brand, objectives of corporate branding, objectives of brand

accounting etc.

LESSON STRUCTURE

15.1 Introduction

15.2 Meaning of Brand

15.3 Identification of Brands as on Asset

15.4 Objectives of Corporate Branding

15.5 Meaning of Brand Accounting

15.6 Objectives of Brand Accounting

15.7 Difficulties in Brand Accounting

15.8 Valuation of Brands

15.9 Whole Organization as a Brand

15.10 Co-Branding

15.11 Brand Accounting Practices

15.12 Summary

15.13 Self Assessment Questions

15.14 Suggested Readings

15.1 introduction

The asset structure of corporate entities consists of both tangible and intangible assets.

Traditionally, accountants regarded tangible assets like land, building, plant and

machinery, cash and bank balances etc. as the only productive or earning generating

assets and gave undue importance in their maintenance and accounting. Accounting

principles and standards also laid stress on accounting for these tangibles.

In modern competitive environment, the corporate value and earning power are

decided and generated by both the classes of assets, often more by intangibles than

tangibles. In a turbulent marketing environment, brand gives tremendous competitive

advantage to corporate. It can be said that rather than product selling itself, it is brand

that sells the product. Vast sums are being spent by corporate to propagate and

perpetuate the brand identity among product or service users. Brands are strategic

assets. The key to survival of companies is their brands in the modern world of

complex and competitive business environment.

15.2 meaning of Brand

According to American Marketing Association “the word ‘brand’ means a name,

term, sign, symbol or design or a combination of these intended to identify the goods

or services of one seller or group of sellers and to differentiate them from those of

competitors.”

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Corporate branding can be taken to means the strategic exercise, by managerial

decision making of creating, developing, maintaining and monitoring the identity,

image and ownership of a product/corporate entity. Among various intangibles such

as goodwill, patents, copyrights, brands etc., brands comprise an important item in

that they greatly determine the corporate market value of a firm.

Brand achieves a significant value in commercial operation through the tangible and

intangible elements. Brands may be that which is acquired from outside source while

acquiring business or may also be nurtured internally by a company, which are known

as “Home-grown brands”. By assigning a brand name to the product, the

manufacturer distinguishes it from rival products and helps the customers to identify it

while going in for it. The necessity of branding of products has increased enormously

due to the influence of various factors like growth of competition, increasing

importance of advertising etc.

Power brands make such a lasting impact on the consumers that it is almost

impossible to change his preferences even if cheaper and alternative products are

available in the market. Brands have major influence on takeover decisions as the

premium paid on takeover is almost always in respect of the strong brand portfolio of

the acquired company and of its long-term effect on the profits of the acquiring

company in the post –acquisition period.

15.3 Identification of brands as an asset

There are various definitions of the term ‘asset’. Asset as a concept, is generally

characterized by the following features :

• For an asset there must exist some specific right to future benefits or service

potentials.

• Rights over asset must accrue to a specific individual or firm.

• There must be a legally enforceable claim to the right or services over the asset.

• The asset must be the result of a past transaction or event.

The companies with valuable brands register those names and are legally entitled to

sole ownership and use of them. Brands are created through marketing efforts over

time, they are the result of several past transactions and events.

15.4 Objectives of Corporate Branding

Corporate managers have to continuously monitor the brand strengths in terms of

various brand attributes. Brand identification, market share, competitive strength,

international acceptance, brand availability, market stability etc. are some of the

attributes which build the brand strengths.

The cost incurred to propagate and popularize the brand does not automatically

guarantee the brand value. A proper linkage should always be envisaged between cost

and attributes. A cost in the form of advertisement etc. which strength the brand

attributes should add to the brand value and brand equity. The important objectives of

corporate branding are as follows :

1. Corporate Identity : Brands help companies in creating and maintaining an identity

for them in the market place. This is facilitated by brand popularity and the eventual

customer loyalty attached to the brands.

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2. Total Quality Management (TQM) : By building brand image, it is possible for a

body corporate to adopt and practice Total Quality Management (TQM). Brands help

in building a lasting relationship between the brand owner and the brand user.

3. Customer Preference : The need for branding a product or service arises on account

of the perceived choice and preferences which are built up psychologically by the

customers. In fact, branding gives them the advantage of status fulfillment.

4. Market Segmentation : Segmenting a market requires classification of markets into

more strategic areas on a homogeneous pattern for efficient operations to enable firms

to effectively target consumers and to meet the competition. This segmenting of a

market is facilitated through the built-up strong brand values.

5. Strong Market : By building strong brands, firms can enlarge and strengthen their

market base. This would also facilitate programmes, designed to achieve maximum

market share.

15.5 meaning of Brand Accounting

The term brand accounting refers to “the practice of valuation and reporting of the

value of brand of a product or service in the financial statements of a corporate entity,

the value of a brand being ascertained either as a result of revaluation in the case of

home-grown brands or as a result of acquisition/merger in the case of newly acquired

brands”.

Accounting is basically a measurement and communication system. Corporate brand

accounting can be defined as a process of identification, measurement and

communication of brand value and brand equity to permit informed judgment and

decisions by the users of the information.

15.6 Objective of Brand Accounting

The accounting for brands is motivated by the following reasons :

1. Real Economic Value : By showing brand value in the Balance Sheet of a firm, an

objective and realistic assessment of the company’s real economic value could be

made possible. This would facilitate the ascertainment of correct Net Asset Value

(NAV) which would be useful in times of business acquisitions and mergers.

2. Future Profitability : A brand generated or purchased, could be very useful for

ascertaining the future income making ability of companies. In fact, enormous sums

of money spent on promoting and supporting brands would go to appreciate the value

of the firm. Companies which enjoy brand equity will have the market value of their

share enhanced. Brand equity refers to the value added to the equity of a firm by the

brand popularity and loyalty.

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3. Preventing Predation : By building and explicitly disclosing brands in financial

statements, companies could put up a powerful defense against potential predators and

thereby ward off possible acquisition and take-over bids.

4. Leverage Benefits : By enhancing the NAVs through brand disclosure separately in

the Balance sheet, it is possible for companies to resort to easy debt borrowing as this

causes an increase in NAV. In fact, the borrowing limits a firm enhances with the

increase in NAV. This ultimately paves the way for sound capital structure and an

improved gearing ratio.

5. Quality Decisions : Inclusion of brand values not only enhances NAV, but also

ensures fair valuation of the firm. This promotes quality managerial decision making.

Brand valuation may help managers in placing importance on brand promotion and

strategic brand positioning which hold the key for corporate marketing success.

6. Quality Accounting : Brand value inclusion enhances the quality of accounting

practice since the value added by corporate brands are considered significant in

financial statements. This could ultimately improve the financial accounting system

and management control.

7. Social Obligation : Brand valuation and its disclosure would help managers and

shareholders alike appreciate the significant role of brands in maintaining and

enhancing the market value of firms. This could help especially the shareholders in

making an objective evaluation of companies (rating) before investing their money.

This exercise, in a way, helps firm fulfill their social obligations.

8. Other Benefits : Brand accounting provides a strong basis for self-evaluation of its

value by corporate. This could help firms in making a perfect estimate of the ability to

take on the competitors. It not only helps in tackling competitors locally, but could be

of much greater advantage to the foreign joint ventures and collaborations.

15.7 Difficulties in Brand Accounting

Intangibles are not easily measurable and it poses severe challenges in valuation of

brands also. Some of the difficulties faced by the accountants in brand valuation are

as follows :

1. Distinctiveness : Brands need to be valued distinctively as different from other

intangibles such as goodwill. For instance, any attempt to commonly treat brand as a

part of goodwill as is done at present may create serious distortions in accounting

position. Besides, this would create handicaps in brand accounting. This is because, a

brand cannot be treated like any other item such as patents and copyrights. In fact,

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brand needs to be separately disclosed in the balance sheet, because of its significant

contribution to corporate image and identity.

2 Disclosure : There is always a problem of making disclosure of brand values in

financial statements. This is because, there is no standard accounting practice

requiring statement and disclosure of brand values in a particular way.

3 Uncertainty : The problem that is associated with the brand, as an item of

intangibles, is that its possible returns are uncertain, immeasurable and non-current in

nature. Any expected on such intangibles are usually either written off or treated as

deferred revenue expenditure.

4 The Dilemma : Another area of challenge posing brand accounting is whether to

amortize or capitalize the value of brand. There is no question of amortizing brand

values as either the economic life of the brand cannot be determined in advance or its

value depreciates over time. In fact, it is to be noted that a brand can be purchased or

generated and maintained, thus enhancing the corporate future income earnings

capacity. The challenge could, however, be overcome by categorizing the brand

expenditure into maintenance and investment. Whereas the maintenance expenditure

could be charged to Profit and Loss Account and the capital expenditures be shown in

the Balance Sheet and where the brand value is shown separately and explicitly in the

Balance Sheet, the leverage position of the company can be shown enhanced.

5 No Market : The prevailing practice is that the intangibles are not required to be

revalued according to some accounting standards on account of the non-existence of

an active secondary market for them. In fact, the need for brand accounting arises

mainly on account of conditions warranted by acquisition and merger.

6 New Brands : A related problem in accounting for such intangibles as brands is that

it is often difficult to determine whether a new one is being gradually substituted for

an existing brand. This raises the issue as to how to account for it in subsequent

years. In such case, the relevant question is : Should the original cost of brand be

written-down as it erodes? It may be difficult to determine whether a brand remains

the same asset over time as it is subtly reshaped to meet new market opportunities.

7 Joint Costs : The contribution to the value of a brand is made not simply by

investing a desirable product with a customer seductive name, but by building market

share by the skilful exploitation of the product in a whole host of ways of general

efficiency with which a business is conducted by expending money on a joint cost

basis. It is very difficult to segregate and account for joint costs that are incurred and

the cost of brand developed as a result of general operations of the business.

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15.8 Valuation of brands

The methods of brand valuation would depend on one or more of the following

variables :

− Exclusive earning power of brand.

− Product as a brand and hence, product life cycle.

− Separating a brand from other less important value drivers

− Cost of acquisition of brand.

− Expenses incurred on nurturing a home grown brand.

− Impact of other brands as new entrants to the market.

− Intrinsic strength of the people and process handling the brand.

− Accuracy in projecting the super or extra earnings offered by a brand and rate of

discounting such cash flows.

− The cost of withdrawing or replacing the brand.

− Internationalization of a brand and therefore, local earning power of a brand in

various countries or markets.

Several approaches have been evolved over a period of time for determining the value

of brands. These models lay emphasis on ascertaining the ‘Brand Strength’ of a

product or service of a corporate entity, which is defined as the sum total of all

benefits flowing from different dimensions of a brand such as quality of market

leadership (ML) of the brand, relative stability of market (SM) enjoyed by the brand,

the extent of market share (MS) of the brand, the levels of international acceptance

(IA) of the brand, ability of the brand to meet the changing modern marketing trends

(MT), the extent of strategic support (SS) provided by the brand to the corporate’s

survival and growth, competitive strength (CS) offered by the brand and above all the

legal and social brand protection (BP). Thus, the brand value/strength can be stated as

follows :

Brand value = (ML + MS + SM + IA + MT + SS + CS + BP)

Here, ML = Market Leadership

MS = Extent of Market Share

SM = Stability of Market

IA = Levels of international acceptance

MT = Ability to meet the changing modern marketing trends

SS = Extent of Strategic support

CS = Competitive strength

BP = Social Brand protection

The valuation of brands is discussed from the angle of (i) Acquired brands, and (ii)

Self generated brands.

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Valuation of Acquired Brands

A purchased brand is one, which is acquired from other existing concerns. The

acquiring company may acquire only the brand name(s). The value of acquired

brands would be the price paid for acquisition of that brand.

On the other hand, a company may acquire an existing business concern along with its

brands. There are the cases of business mergers and amalgamations. The sum

involved in these transactions provides an indication of the financial value of the

brands. At the maximum this value is equal to the difference between the price and

the value of the net assets indicated on the acquired company’s balance sheet.

Brand value = Purchase consideration - Net assets taken over

However, it is questionable to say that the excess price paid always represents the

brand value. The excess is only an amount of purchased goodwill and the acquiring

company may have paid the excess price for varied factors also, location of the

factory, long term contracts with suppliers, better employee morale, better

manufacturing technology etc. besides for brands.

It would be difficult to say what part of the excess price paid is attributable to brands.

Besides, the price payable is always decided by forces of demand and supply

conditions of mergers and amalgamations market. Competitive force may make the

acquirer to increase the bid price thereby increasing the amount of purchased

goodwill. This inseparability of brand from other intangible assets makes it difficult to

value the brands.

Valuation of Self-generated Brands

Several approaches have been evolved over a period of time for determining the brand

values. The important methods in valuation of self-generated brands are discussed

below :

1. Historical Cost Model : According to this approach, the valuation of a brand is

determined by taking into account the actual expenses incurred in the creation,

maintenance and growth of corporate brands. The value of the brand is computed as

follows:

Brand value = Brand Development Cost + Brand Marketing and Distribution Cost

+ Brand Promotion Costs including advertising and other costs.

The historical cost method is specifically applicable to home-grown brands for which

various costs like development costs, marketing costs, advertising and general

communication costs. are incurred. The sum total of all these costs would represent

the value of brands. However, the entire advertisement costs cannot be regarded as

incurred for brand. Further, several heavily advertised brands today show hardly any

value of presence.

The chief advantage of this model is that the various types of costs that are actually

incurred are considered. This facilitates easy computation of brand values. However,

it does not explain the impact of brand value on the profitability of a firm.

2. Replacement Cost Model : Under this model, the brands are valued at the costs,

which would be required to recreate the existing brands. The method is based on the

assumption that the existing brands can be recreated exactly by new brands. It is the

opportunity cost of investments made for the replacement of the brand.

Brand value = Replacement Brand Cost

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The main disadvantage with this model is that this model gives an estimation of brand

value but it is near impossible to replace the existing brands by new brads. Further,

such values are only subjective ones.

3. Market Price Model : The probable value that a company would get for sale of its

brands is taken as the value of the brands under this model. Therefore, the brand value

is net realizable value from sale of a brand.

However, this value is only an assumed value because there exists no ready-made

market for many brands. Further, brands are created or bought by corporate not for

sale or resale. Value payable by the purchaser depends upon the benefits expected

from the purchase of brand. But the method determines the value from the seller’s

point of view.

4. Current Cost Model : According to this approach, the current corporate brands are

valued at the current value (current costs) to the group, which is reviewed annually

and is not subject to amortization. This basis of valuation ignores any possible

alternative use of brand, any possible extension to the range of products currently

marketed under a brand, any element of hope value and any possible increase in value

of a brand due to either a special investment or a financial transaction (e.g. licensing)

which would leave the group with different interest from the one being valued.

Brand value = Current use value

Market Current Value

Appreciation of the brand

Initial cost of Corrective and Cost of making

Leadership

acquisition or Sustenance it exclusive Cost

promotion Costs

FIGURE 15.1 CURRENT VALUE OF THE BRAND

5. Potential Earning Model : The Potential Earnings (PE) model is based on the

estimated potential earnings that would be generated by a brand and their

capitalization by using appropriate discount rate. The volume of revenues raised by a

brand in the market determines its value. Accordingly, the value of a brand at any

one point of time is given by :

Total Market value of brand = Net Brand Revenue/Capitalisation Rate

Where,

Net Brand Revenues = (Brand units x Unit brand price) – (Brand units

x Unit brand cost) – (Marketing cost + R

& D cost + Tax costs)

Though the model sounds objective, problem lies in ascertaining the actual marketing

cost incurred for a particular brand of a product. Moreover, it is difficult to select an

appropriate capitalization rate.

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6. Present Value Model - According to present value model, the value of a brand is the

sum total of present value of future estimated flow of brand revenues for the entire

economic life of the brand plus the residual values attached to the brand. This model

is also called Discounted Cash Flow model which has been wisely used by

considering the year wise revenue attributable to the brand over period 5,8 or 10

years. The discounting rate is the weighted average capital cost, this being increased

where necessary to account the risks arising out of a weak brand. The residual value is

estimated on the basis of a perpetual income, assuming that such revenue is constant

or increased at a constant rate.

Brand value R

sidual value

ttN

=+++

bgbg

Where,

R = Anticipated revenue in year t, attributable to the brand

t = Discounting rate

Residual value beyond year N

Brands supported by strong customer loyalty, may be visualized as a kind of an

annuity, since, mathematically, an annuity is a series of equal payments made at equal

internals of time. Brands backed up by the loyalty of hard-core customers offer strong

probability of having steady long –term incomes. Great care must be taken to estimate

as much correctly as possible, the future cash flow likely to emanate from a strongly

positioned specific brand. A realistic present value of a particular brand having strong

loyalty of customers can thus is obtained from summation of discounted values of the

expected future incomes from it.

The DCF model for evaluating brand values has got three sources of failure : (i)

Anticipation of cash flow, (ii) Choice of period, and (iii) Discounting rate.

7. Sensitivity Model : According to this approach, the brand revenues are determined as

a functional inflow of such market factors as level of awareness of brand (AB), level

of customer influence (BI) and level of brand autonomy (BA) in the market, all these

factors in the first place predominating the sales revenues and then the brand revenues

or the brand value. In other words, sensitivity of each of the above forces determines

the brand value.

Brand value = (Brand units sold x Unit Brand price) x AB x

BI x BA –

(BDC + BMDC + BPC)

Where,

AB, BI and BA are sensitivity index of brand values.

BDC = Brand Development Cost

BMDC = Brand Marketing and Distribution Cost

BPC = Brand Promotion Cost

The demerit of this model is that it gives more importance to subjective variables in

the estimation of brand value and this renders the whole exercise less reliable.

8. Life Cycle Model : Under this approach, the brand value is indicated by means of

relating the brand dimensions to the brand strength. This model is applicable to home

grown brands, where the brands are generated, nurtured and developed throughout

their life which resembles a product life cycle, The model is so called because the

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various brand dimensions behave in a way over a period of time thus forming the

brand value, to its life. This results in the formation of S-curve. The model merely

gives a diagrammatic representation of formation and behaviour of brand strength.

The various dimensions assumed in this approach are difficult to be quantified. Figure

15.2 depicts the life cycle model of corporate brand strength.

Brand Dimension & Time

FIGURE 15.2 : LIFE CYCLE MODEL

9. Incremental Model : Under this approach, the value of a brand is measured in terms

of incremental benefits accruing to a firm on account of additions made to the brand

value as a result of acquisition or revaluation of brands. The brand value is computed

as follows:

Brand value = Total expected benefits after acquiring or revaluing brands – Total

benefits of brands owned

10. Super Profits Model : This is the most commonly used method for brand valuation.

The simple formula of valuation under this method is as follows :

Brand value = Discounting Factor × (Total profit of an enterprise in ‘n’ years ×

Profit of an enterprise without the brand in ‘n’ years)

The disadvantages in this method are as follows:

- How many years (‘n’) profits to be considered ?

- What should be the discounting rate ?

- How do we decide the profit of an enterprise without the brand ?

11. Market Oriented Approach : This method is much outward looking and emphasizes

on the market forces and competition, to arrive at a brand’s value. The method

requires very good understanding of the market, new entrants, exit of old competitors,

market expansion and shrinkage and impact of other macro–level variables on the

market. The valuation process demands due amount of conservation in projecting the

market size and company’s market share.

Brand value = Discounting Factor × Company’s profitability ratio x (Cumulative

market’s size in next ten years –Cumulative total of market share

enjoyed by other branded and non-branded products in next 10

years)

The advantage of this method is, it looks at macro aspects governing the brand’s

growth or shrinkage. It also takes the cognizance of non-branded products and their

threat to the company’s brand. Company’s profitability ratio and the accounting

factor are a matter of strategic benchmarking.

Brand Strength

Brand Value

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15.9 Whole Organisation as a brand

Normally one cannot identify a product or process or programme as an exclusive

brand, the premium enjoyed by such enterprise becomes the value of the brand.

Brand value = Intrinsic value of an enterprise – Net asset value of the assets

of an enterprise

This method is useful under the following circumstances :

 The buyer acquires the whole of the enterprise.

 A going concern values itself and exhibits such premium enjoyed by it, in its Balance

Sheet.

 One company becomes the brand equity or brand name for whole of the group.

 Valuation of an enterprise as a brand is to be used as a base for computing the brand

value of each value driver in the value chain of the enterprise.

This method is a very accurate choice of performance indicators and their weight ages

which together decide the intrinsic value of the enterprise.

Vendors Value chain of the organisation Distributors

Interval Value Drivers

People Processes Programmes Policies Products Practices

FIGURE 15.3 : ORGANISATION AS A BRAND

15.10 Co-Branding

From an organizational perspective, co-branding represents an opportunity for a win-

win scenario. As we move from the era of transaction brand marketing to relationship

brand marketing, co-branding is becoming more important strategy for co-producing

an enhanced value.

Co-branding brings in royalty income, boosts sales, brings new markets, brings

additional consumer benefits, minimizes investments, avoids barriers to entry, reduces

risks, brings quicker returns, get price premiums, brings customer reassurance,

provides access to leading edge technologies, communicates high product/service

quality, contributes to market priming, reinforces advertising manager, builds brand’s

exposure, creates consumer interest and above all offers enhancement for the core

brand value.

Co-branding is also called as Partnership Branding, brings in better retailer

collaboration and clearly it is a powerful tool, offering major strategic and financial

advantages.

15.11 Band Accounting Practices

Accounting to the GAAP (Generally Accepted Accounting Principles) of ASB

(Accounting Standards Board), UK, there is a growing intensity among companies

wanting to include in their list of intangible assets, for the purpose of disclosure in

financial statements such items as brands for the purposes of acquisitions and

mergers etc. The board has laid down the following conditions in this regard :

a. Knowledge of historical costs of brand creation.

b. Ready ascertainability of brand costs.

c. Clear separability of brand from the characteristics of Goodwill.

d. Independent measurement of cost as different from Goodwill.

There has been, in fact, a raging debate as to whether to include brand and other items

under the broad head “Intangible fixed assets” which could be used for computing

NAV necessary at the time of acquisitions.

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There has not been noticed any practice of accounting formally framed, regulated and

followed in any part of the world relating to brands. However, it is interesting to note

that (though the ASB has not allowed) some companies in UK make disclosure of

brand values and state the relevant accounting policy in their financial statements. For

instance, some companies have the practice of including brand values in the

computation of fair value of business acquired and of interest taken in associated

undertakings. This is recognized where the brand has a value which is substantial and

long-term. Acquired brands are only recognized where title is clear, brand earnings

are separately identifiable, the brand could be sold separately from the rest of the

business and where the brand achieves earnings in excess of those achieved by

unbranded products.

Similarly, amortization is not provided except where the end of the useful economic

life of the acquired brand can be foreseen. The useful economic lives of brands and

their carrying value are subject to annual review and any amortization or provision for

permanent impairment would be charged against the profit for the period in which

they arose. Moreover, the cost of the brands is calculated at acquisition, as part of the

fair value accounting for businesses acquired, on the basis of after tax multiples of

pre-acquisition earnings after deducting attributable capital employed.

According to the accounting practice of some companies, intangibles represent

significant owned brands acquired and valued at historical cost. No amortization is

charged as the annual results reflect significant expenditure in support of these brands

and the values are reviewed annually with a view to writing down if a permanent

diminution arises.

For some other companies, intangible fixed assets comprise certain acquired separable

corporate brand names. These are shown at a valuation of the incremental earnings

expected to arise from the ownership of brands. The valuations are based on the

present value of notional royalty savings arising from ownership of those brands and

on estimates of profits attributable to brand loyalty. The valuations are subject to

annual review. No depreciation is provided where, in the opinion of the directors,

brands do not have a finite useful economic life. Corporate brand names represent

the directors’ valuation of the brand names. These assets have been valued in

accordance with the Group’s accounting policy for intangible fixed assets.

It is pertinent to note that the ASB, UK, holds the view that the inclusion of brands

and other similar intangible assets in the Balance Sheet are undesirable developments

unless the conditions laid down under GAAP are fulfilled.

The ICAI (Institute of Chartered Accountants of India) makes a small mention as to

how the Goodwill must be disclosed as part of fixed asset in the Balance Sheet. The

Institute is yet to evolve a method for valuation, accounting and disclosure of

corporate brands. According to AS-6 of ICAI : Goodwill should be recorded in the

books only when some consideration in money or money’s work has been paid for

it. Whenever a business is acquired for a price (payable in cash or in shares or

otherwise) which is in excess of the value of net assets of the business taken over, the

excess should be termed as Goodwill.

15.12 Summary

Any item of financial transaction/asset which requires valuation (if any), and

disclosure in the accounting statements need a regulatory framework. The

development of brand valuation method and accounting framework are very

important in this regard. Not much headway, however, has been made in the sphere

of accounting for brands. Enervated by the benefits of brand value, many firms in the

West saw the sage of mega-mergers and acquisitions in the late eighties. This was

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attributed to enhanced NAVs made possible by brands’ disclosure in the Balance

Sheet. However, there is a biggest handicap of reliable and independent assessment

of the brand value. This is the single most important reason for the brands not

allowed to be placed on the Balance Sheet by the Authorities concerned. Though,

value is assigned to externally acquired brands, there is no effective way for

assessment of home-grown brands. Nevertheless, it is gratifying to note that the

Institute of Chartered Accountants of England and Wales (ICAE & W), has given due

recognition to the internally generated brand values and allow disclosure in the

Balance Sheet which necessitates periodic revaluation.

The brands are to be explicitly recognized, as part of purchased Goodwill, by the

ICAI of India, which would make possible the recognition of brand values. Rules and

methodologies necessary for the valuation accounting and disclosure of brands may

be framed in this regard. This would go a long way in governing the brand

accounting practice and contribute to healthy business combinations in India,

especially where the brand values are given serious consideration in the emerging

strategic alliances, mergers and acquisitions fueled by the entry of MNCs. This

assumes special significance in the environment of globalization, liberalization and

privatization of Indian economy.

It emerges from the above discussions that Goodwill, brand valuation and

accounting are definite to take the world of accounting by storm in the near future

which would mark the beginning of a new era of accounting practice. Thus, there

exists a strong and a clear case for brand accounting, especially in view of the

imminent benefits of brand accounting to the corporate bodies and the investors alike.

15.13 Self Assessment Questions

1. Define Brand. Discuss the objectives of corporate branding ?

2. What is the necessity of brand accounting in the competitive business environment?

3. Discuss the difficulties in accounting the brands.

4. Explain various models available for valuation of home-grown brands.

5. How would you value the acquired brands ?

15.15 SUGGESTED READINGS

1. Kotler Philip, Armstrong Gary, Principles of Marketing, Printice-Hall of India (Pvt.)

Ltd.

2. ASB, Goodwill and Intangible Asset, U.K.

3. Pyne Radhanath, Valuing brands, The Accounting Debate, The Chartered Accountant.

4. Datta Manipadma, Brand Equity : A paradigm shift in firm valuation, Chartered

Secretary.

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