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FM 3-06 (FM 90-10)
URBAN
OPERATIONS
JUNE 2003
HEADQUARTERS, DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY
DISTRIBUTION RESTRICTION: Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.
*FM 3-06 (FM 90-10)
Field Manual HEADQUARTERS
No. 3-06 DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY
Washington, DC, 1 June 2003
Urban Operations
Contents
Page
FIGURES.................................................................................................................... iv
HISTORICAL VIGNETTES ....................................................................................... vii
PREFACE .................................................................................................................viii
Chapter 1 URBAN OUTLOOK .................................................................................................1-1
The Prospect of Urban Operations ..........................................................................1-2
Urban Perspective ....................................................................................................1-2
Historical Significance of Urban Areas in Warfare ...................................................1-3
Modern Army Urban Operations ............................................................................. 1-8
Chapter 2 URBAN ENVIRONMENT.........................................................................................2-1
A Complex Environment...........................................................................................2-2
Urban Terrain ...........................................................................................................2-3
Urban Society .........................................................................................................2-14
Urban Infrastructure ...............................................................................................2-19
Chapter 3 URBAN THREAT.....................................................................................................3-1
Asymmetry................................................................................................................3-2
Weapons of Mass Destruction .................................................................................3-2
Threat Operational Principles...................................................................................3-3
Urban Threat Tactics................................................................................................3-6
Negative Effects of Urbanization ............................................................................3-11
Chapter 4 CONTEMPLATING URBAN OPERATIONS ...........................................................4-1
Necessity of Urban Operations ................................................................................4-2
Characteristics of Major Urban Operations ..............................................................4-7
Integration into Land Operations ............................................................................4-10
Distribution Restriction: Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.
*This publication supersedes FM 90-10, 15 August 1979.
i
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
Chapter 5 FOUNDATIONS FOR URBAN OPERATIONS....................................................... 5-1
Urban Operational Framework ................................................................................ 5-1
Fundamentals of Urban Operations....................................................................... 5-12
General Effects on Operations .............................................................................. 5-16
Chapter 6 URBAN OFFENSIVE OPERATIONS...................................................................... 6-1
Purpose of Urban Offensive Operations.................................................................. 6-1
Characteristics of Urban Offensive Operations ....................................................... 6-2
Urban Offensive Operations and Battlefield Organization....................................... 6-6
Forms and Types of Urban Offense ........................................................................ 6-9
Urban Offensive Considerations............................................................................ 6-15
Chapter 7 URBAN DEFENSIVE OPERATIONS...................................................................... 7-1
Purpose of Urban Defensive Operations ................................................................. 7-1
Characteristics of Urban Defensive Operations ...................................................... 7-2
Urban Defensive Operations and Battlefield Organization...................................... 7-5
Types of Urban Defense .......................................................................................... 7-5
Urban Defensive Considerations ........................................................................... 7-10
Chapter 8 URBAN STABILITY OPERATIONS AND SUPPORT OPERATIONS ................... 8-1
Purpose of Urban Stability Operations and Support Operations............................. 8-2
Characteristics of Urban Stability Operations and Support Operations .................. 8-2
Urban Stability Operations, Support Operations, and Battlefield Organization....... 8-3
Types and Forms of Stability Operations and Support Operations ......................... 8-4
Considerations of Urban Stability Operations and Support Operations .................. 8-6
Chapter 9 URBAN COMBAT SERVICE SUPPORT................................................................ 9-1
Urban CSS Characteristics ...................................................................................... 9-2
Logistics Preparation of the Theater........................................................................ 9-4
CSS Functions ......................................................................................................... 9-7
General Engineer Support ..................................................................................... 9-26
Civil-Military Operations ......................................................................................... 9-28
Appendix A SIEGE OF BEIRUT: AN ILLUSTRATION OF THE FUNDAMENTALS OF
URBAN OPERATIONS ...........................................................................................A-1
Overall Strategic Situation .......................................................................................A-1
Israeli Military Position .............................................................................................A-2
PLO Military Position................................................................................................A-2
Role of Civilians .......................................................................................................A-3
Information Operations ............................................................................................A-3
ii
Contents
iii
Conduct of the Urban Operations............................................................................ A-4
Lessons ................................................................................................................... A-6
Summary ............................................................................................................... A-10
Appendix B URBAN INTELLIGENCE PREPARATION OF THE BATTLEFIELD..................... B-1
Urbanization of IPB.................................................................................................. B-1
Significant Characteristics ....................................................................................... B-4
Threat Considerations ........................................................................................... B-11
Urban IPB Tools and Products.............................................................................. B-16
Appendix C OPERATIONS IN SOMALIA: APPLYING THE URBAN OPERATIONAL
FRAMEWORK TO SUPPORT AND STABILITY ................................................... C-1
General Situation..................................................................................................... C-1
Somali Operations ................................................................................................... C-2
Assess ..................................................................................................................... C-5
Shape ......................................................................................................................C-7
Dominate ................................................................................................................. C-7
Transition................................................................................................................. C-8
Summary ................................................................................................................. C-9
Appendix D JOINT AND MULTINATIONAL URBAN OPERATIONS ....................................... D-0
Purpose ................................................................................................................... D-0
Service Urban Capabilities ...................................................................................... D-1
Urban Functional Combatant Command Capabilities............................................. D-5
Multinational Considerations ................................................................................. D-10
SOURCE NOTES.................................................................................Source Notes-0
GLOSSARY ................................................................................................ Glossary-0
BIBLIOGRAPHY ....................................................................................Bibliography-1
INDEX................................................................................................................Index-0
Figures
Figure Page
1-1. Full Spectrum Urban Operations .................................................................. 1-3
1-2. UO and the Army Imperatives..................................................................... 1-10
2-1. Keys to Understanding the Urban Environment ........................................... 2-2
2-2. The Multidimensional Urban Battlefield ........................................................ 2-4
2-3. Broad Urban Patterns ................................................................................... 2-7
2-4. Basic Internal Street Patterns ....................................................................... 2-9
2-5. An Urban Model .......................................................................................... 2-10
2-6. Toxic Industrial Chemicals and Their Industrial or Commercial Uses ........ 2-12
2-7. Key Aspects of the Urban Society............................................................... 2-14
2-8. Urban Areas by Population Size ................................................................. 2-16
2-9. Simplified Analysis of Urban Society .......................................................... 2-16
2-10. UO–Society Cycle of Effects ....................................................................... 2-19
2-11. Urban Infrastructure .................................................................................... 2-20
3-1. Threat Operational Principles........................................................................ 3-3
3-2. Urban Threat Tactics..................................................................................... 3-7
3-3. Favored Threat Weapons ........................................................................... 3-11
3-4. Negative Effects of Urbanization................................................................. 3-12
3-5. Worldwide Population Projections .............................................................. 3-13
4-1. Risk Management and the Risks Associated with Urban Operations .......... 4-2
4-2. Organization of Historic Joint Urban Operations .......................................... 4-8
4-3. Urban ISR Considerations .......................................................................... 4-16
4-4. IO Elements and Related Activities............................................................. 4-19
4-5. Public Affairs Principles............................................................................... 4-23
5-1. The Urban Operational Framework and Battle Command ........................... 5-1
5-2. Urban Isolation .............................................................................................. 5-3
5-3. Panama ......................................................................................................... 5-8
5-4. The Fundamentals of Urban Operations..................................................... 5-11
5-5. Urban Maneuver Challenges and Means to Overcome Them ................... 5-17
5-6. Urban Effects on Fire Support Systems...................................................... 5-20
5-7. Methods to Overcome Urban Communications Challenges....................... 5-29
5-8. Compressed Tactical Factors ..................................................................... 5-31
6-1. Initial Attack in Brittany.................................................................................. 6-3
6-2. Subsequent Disposition of Forces in Brittany ............................................... 6-4
iv
__________________________________________________________________________________ Figures
6-3. Envelopment Isolates an Urban Area............................................................ 6-9
6-4. Turning Movement.........................................................................................6-9
6-5. Infiltration ....................................................................................................... 6-9
6-6. Penetration ..................................................................................................6-10
6-7. Frontal Attack............................................................................................... 6-10
6-8. Metz Envelopment ....................................................................................... 6-11
6-9. Metz Final Assault .......................................................................................6-12
6-10. Required Urban Reconnaissance Capabilities............................................ 6-17
6-11. Shaping Through Isolation...........................................................................6-18
6-12. Critical Sensor-to-Shooter Links.................................................................. 6-20
6-13. Reactions to Isolation .................................................................................. 6-20
6-14. Initial Attack to Isolate Hue ..........................................................................6-21
6-15. Subsequent Attack to Isolate Hue ............................................................... 6-22
6-16. Final Attack to Isolate Hue...........................................................................6-23
6-17. Coordination of SOF and Conventional Capabilities ................................... 6-24
6-18. Inchon-Seoul Campaign, September 1950 .................................................6-31
7-1. An Urban Area Incorporated Into a Larger Mobile Defense.......................... 7-6
7-2. German Attacks to Seize Stalingrad..............................................................7-7
7-3. German Attacks to Seize Stalingad, September 1942.................................. 7-8
7-4. Soviet Attack Traps German 6th Army .......................................................... 7-8
7-5. Retrograde Through an Urban Area.............................................................. 7-9
8-1. Characteristics of Stability Operations and Support Operations ................... 8-1
8-2. Urban Stability Operations and Support Operations ..................................... 8-4
8-3. Adaptability .................................................................................................. 8-12
9-1. CSS Characteristics....................................................................................... 9-2
9-2. The Urban Environment and Essential Elements of Logistic Information ..... 9-5
9-3. CSS Functions............................................................................................... 9-8
9-4. General Principles of the Law of War ..........................................................9-25
9-5. General Engineer Support........................................................................... 9-27
9-6. Civil Affairs Functional Skills........................................................................9-29
9-7. ASCOPE and the Urban Environment.........................................................9-30
A-1. The Steps of IPB............................................................................................A-1
A-2. Changing Relevance of Key Elements of the Urban Environment................A-3
A-3. Significant Urban Terrain Characteristics......................................................A-5
A-4. Significant Urban Societal Characteristics ....................................................A-7
A-5. Significant Urban Infrastructure Characteristics ............................................A-9
A-6. Civilian Threat–Friendly Continuum ............................................................A-13
A-7. Urban IPB Tools and Products ....................................................................A-15
v
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
B-1. USAF E-8 JSTARS Platform......................................................................... B-1
B-2. USN MK45 Lightweight Gun System ............................................................ B-4
B-3. USN MK V Special Operations Craft ............................................................ B-9
B-4. USAF AC-130 Gunship ................................................................................. B-9
C-1. The City of Beirut...........................................................................................C-0
C-2. Initial Conduct of the Urban Operation..........................................................C-3
C-3. Israeli Probe of PLO Defenses......................................................................C-3
C-4. Initial Israeli Attack ........................................................................................C-4
C-5. Final Israeli Attack .........................................................................................C-4
D-1. Phases of US Involvement in Somalia ..........................................................D-1
D-2. Map of Somalia .............................................................................................D-3
vi
Historical Vignettes
Page
Rome: A Microcosm of Urban Warfare ...................................................................1-4
Seeing the Urban Area and Its Parts.....................................................................2-26
Tempo...................................................................................................................... 3-4
Identifying Soldiers from Civilians ...........................................................................3-8
Information and the Media.....................................................................................3-10
Cultural and Religious Instability ...........................................................................3-14
Food and Water Shortages ...................................................................................3-14
Urban Insurgencies ............................................................................................... 3-16
Crime and Criminal Organizations ........................................................................3-18
Applying the Urban Operational Framework: Panama – December 1989.............. 5-7
Example of Simple Communications Innovation: Israel’s Six-Day War – 1967....5-30
The Operational Context of Urban Operations: Brittany Ports – August to
September 1944 ..............................................................................................6-2
Forms of Attack in the Urban Offense: Metz – 1944 ............................................. 6-11
Isolating the Urban Area: Hue City – January to February 1968 ..........................6-21
Creative Task Organization: Using Artillery in the Direct Fire Role ...................... 6-27
Bold Operational Maneuver to Seize an Urban Area: Inchon and
Seoul, Korea – September 1950 ...................................................................6-30
Urban Defense in a Major Operation: Stalingrad – August 1942 to
January 1943 ................................................................................................... 7-7
Defensive Combat Power: Suez City, Egypt – October 1973............................... 7-13
Assessment of Security and Force Protection: Belfast, Northern Ireland............... 8-9
Support of and Coordination with Civilian Authorities: The 1992 Los
Angeles Riots................................................................................................. 8-13
Base Security: Tan Son Nhut, Vietnam and Tet 1968 ............................................ 9-3
Combat Stress: Chechnya—1994 to 1996............................................................9-19
Analysis of an Urban Area’s Underlying Terrain: Mitrovica, Kosovo ......................A-6
Shifting Civilian Interests and Intent ......................................................................A-13
The Siege of Beirut: An Illustration of the Fundamentals of Urban Operations ..... C-0
Operations in Somalia: Applying the Urban Framework to Stability and Support.. D-1
vii
Preface
Doctrine provides a military organization with a common philosophy, a language,
a purpose, and unity of effort. To this end, FM 3-06 discusses major Army opera-
tions in an urban environment. This environment, consisting of complex terrain,
a concentrated population, and an infrastructure of systems, is an operational
environment in which Army forces will operate. In the future, it may be the pre-
dominant operational environment. Each urban operation will be distinct from
any other—any other urban operation as well as similar types of operations in
other environments. Each operation will differ because of the multitude of combi-
nations presented by the threat, the urban area itself, the major operation of
which it may be part (or the focus), and the fluidity of societal and geo-political
considerations. Therefore, there will always exist an innate tension between
Army doctrine, the actual context of the urban operation, and future realities.
Commanders are responsible to strike the proper balance between preparing for
future challenges and maintaining the capability to respond to current threats.
PURPOSE
This manual provides the analytical tools for evaluating an urban operation to
determine if the operation is necessary for overall mission success. It also pro-
vides the means to understanding and determining the impacts of the urban
environment on military operations and provides information on managing,
taking advantage of, and mitigating the effects of those impacts as appropriate.
As such, this manual demonstrates how to apply the doctrinal principles in
FM 3-0 to this unique environment.
SCOPE
Chapter 1 introduces theoretical and historical perspectives of urban operations
that serve as the underlying basis for the rest of the manual. Chapter 2 discusses
the characteristics of urban centers and populations as well as their impact on
operations. It is unlikely that Army forces will ever operate in a benign urban
environment; therefore, Chapter 3 discusses the varied nature of potential urban
threats. An understanding of the complexities of the urban environment and the
nature of the enemy is essential to sound decisionmaking. Chapters 4 and 5 dis-
cuss the potential costs of urban operations as well as the effects on each battle-
field operating system that the commander and his staff consider early in their
planning. These chapters also outline an urban operational framework and spe-
cific urban considerations that create the foundations necessary for successfully
applying operational doctrine to an urban environment.
The second half of the manual (Chapters 6 – 9) discusses how urban operations
are conducted and resourced. Urban operations include major offensive and de-
fensive operations in urban environments as well as stability operations and sup-
port operations ranging from peace operations and combatting terrorism to
domestic support operations and foreign humanitarian assistance. For the dif-
ferent types of operations—offense, defense, stability, and support—the purpose,
characteristics, organization, and considerations are discussed. However, com-
viii
FM 3-06 ___________________________________________________________________________________
manders consider that most urban operations will involve some aspect of all four
types of operations (although one may dominate) and plan accordingly.
APPLICABILITY
This manual is intended for commanders and their staffs at the brigade through
corps level. It addresses the range of operations (both violent and nonviolent)
throughout the spectrum of conflict that Army units will execute in urban
settings. However, users should also consult JP 3-06 for specific joint
information. Additionally, users should be familiar with FM 3-06.11, TC 90-1,
and urban operations chapters, appendices, or sections found in other infantry,
armor, combined arms, and proponent field manuals for the tactics, techniques,
and procedures (TTP) and appropriate proponent information necessary to
conduct tactical urban operations at the brigade level and below.
ADMINISTRATIVE INSTRUCTIONS
Chapter 2 defines “city” according to a the population size. However, in historical
vignettes and accounts, the term “city” is applied in its common usage without
specific regard to size to maintain conformity with most other historical reports.
In this manual, the term “threat” is applied broadly to include an enemy force
(conventional or unconventional), an armed belligerent in a peace operation, an-
tagonistic or unfriendly elements of the civilian population, or some other hazar-
dous condition in the urban environment that negatively influences mission ac-
complishment. The term “hostile” is used as a subset of the threat and denotes a
particular element of the urban population (individual, group, or organization) or
one or more opposing armed factions in a peacekeeping operation. Both an enemy
and a hostile have the intent to exploit Army vulnerabilities and negatively affect
the urban operation. A hostile, however, is not engaging Army forces in
protracted combat operations.
The term military operations on urban terrain (MOUT) is replaced by urban
operations (UO). MOUT is an acronym from FM 90-10 Military Operations on
Urban Terrain that is superseded by this manual.
Otherwise, the glossary lists most terms used in FM 3-06 that have joint or Army
definitions. Where Army and joint definitions are different, (Army) follows the
term. Definitions for which FM 3-06 is the proponent manual (the authority) are
marked with an asterisk (*). The proponent or amplifying manual for other terms
is listed in parentheses after the definition.
The manual attempts to incorporate historical vignettes into each chapter where
the account supports the doctrinal line of reasoning. Two historical vignettes,
however, were included as appendices (A and C) because of their longer lengths.
Unless this publication states otherwise, masculine nouns or pronouns do not
refer exclusively to men.
This publication contains copyrighted material.
The proponent for this publication is HQ TRADOC. Send comments and recom-
mended changes directly to Commander, US Army Combined Arms Center and
Fort Leavenworth, Combined Arms Doctrine Directorate, ATTN: ATZL-FD-CD,
Futures Development and Integration Center, 1 Reynolds Avenue, Fort
Leavenworth, KS 66027-1352.
ix
Chapter 1
Urban Outlook
The ambiguous nature of the operational environment requires Army
leaders who are self-aware and adaptive. Self-aware leaders under-
stand their operational environment, can assess their own
capabilities, determine their own strengths and weaknesses, and
actively learn to overcome their weaknesses. Adaptive leaders must
first be self-aware—then have the additional ability to recognize
change in their operating environment, identify those changes, and
learn how to adapt to succeed in their new environment.
FM 1
Given the prevalence of large cities throughout the world, Army forces,
division size and larger, will likely be required to conduct operations in
and around large urban areas. These operations will be in support of a
joint force commander (JFC) conducting military operations pursuant to
United States (US) national security policy. This manual is designed to
facilitate the planning and conduct of the full range and spectrum of land
operations in a complex urban environment. Each urban environment and
urban operation is unique; prescribing specific doctrinal “solutions” for
situations is impossible. Instead, this manual provides a framework to
commanders and their staffs for understanding the urban environment,
for analyzing and deciding whether urban operations (UO) are necessary
or feasible, and for applying operational doctrine to this complex environ-
ment. It also provides historical vignettes to help develop a refined analy-
tical perspective and some planning points and tactics and techniques to
assist in preparing for and conducting UO. Together, this information
provides a foundation for approaching major UO, which, combined with
other joint and Army doctrine, will help commanders and their staffs
learn to adapt and succeed in this challenging environment.
CONTENTS
The Prospect of Urban Operations .............1-2
Urban Perspective.........................................1-2
Historical Significance of Urban
Areas in Warfare........................................1-3
Strategic Importance of Urban
Areas .........................................................1-4
US Army’s Experience in Urban
Operations ................................................1-6
Modern Army Urban Operations................. 1-8
Major Theater War .................................... 1-8
Smaller-Scale Contingencies.................. 1-9
Peacetime Military Engagements ........... 1-9
Preparing for Future Urban Operations. 1-9
1-1
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
THE PROSPECT OF URBAN OPERATIONS
1-1. The world is in a period of massive urbanization. A trend of migration
from rural to urban areas is occurring throughout the globe. This trend is
especially evident in developing nations. Combined with the exponential
growth of the global population in the last quarter century, this migration
has created massive urban areas that hold the centers of population,
government, and economics in their respective regions. In Western Europe,
for example, over 50 percent of the land area is urbanized. Just over 30 years
ago, only three urban areas in Asia contained at least eight million people.
By 2015, estimates show that Asia will have 17 urban areas over ten million,
and three of those will top 20 million residents. Almost half of today’s
population resides in urban areas. Trends also indicate that less developed
nations have more centralized societies in a few urban areas. Developed
nations spread their centralized societies in several urban areas. In many
cases, rapid urbanization has overburdened already weak infrastructures,
scarce resources, and a fragile economic base. Given the global population,
Army forces will likely conduct operations in and around urban areas—not as
a matter of fate but as a deliberate choice linked to national objectives and
strategy and at a time, place, and method of the commander’s choosing.
Army Urban Operations
Army forces conduct UO either as one component of a larger operation or as a
single operation focused totally on a specific urban environment. Major Army UO
are often part of a joint and multinational effort requiring interagency and civil-
military coordination that may include the full spectrum of Army operations.
Commanders of Army major operations must determine if UO are essential to
mission accomplishment. If so, commanders must carefully integrate the opera-
tions into campaign planning to support the operational objectives of the JFC.
Army leaders conducting UO must—
• Assess the urban area to determine decisive points.
• Shape the operation to set the conditions for success.
• Precisely mass the effects of combat power to rapidly dominate the area.
• Then transition the urban area to the control of another agency or back to
legitimate civilian control.
URBAN PERSPECTIVE
1-2. As a subset of all Army operations, UO are operations focused on an
urban environment. UO include the full range of Army operations—offensive,
defensive, stability, and support—that may be executed, either sequentially
or simultaneously, during the conduct of a single urban operation. Depending
on the mission, enemy, terrain and weather, troops and support available,
time available, civil considerations (METT-TC), urban operations may—or
may not—be conducted predominantly within the urban area (see
Figure 1-1). Furthermore, UO may be the sole mission of the commander or
one of several tasks nested in a larger operation. Regardless of the types of
operations conducted or whether the urban area is the single focus of the
operation or only one component of a larger operation, the complex urban
environment significantly affects the overall conduct of the mission.
1-2
Urban Outlook
ENEMY ARMY CIVIL
Control of the
Urban Area
Type of
Operation
START
STOP
Combat Service Support
UO May Continue Under
Civilian Control of the
Urban Area
UO
Framework
Offense
Defense
Stability
Support
UO are often full
spectrum and
therefore NOT
necessarily
focused only on
urban combat
Political Objectives and METT-TC Make All UO Unique
ASSESS
DOMINATE TRANSITIONSHAPE
URBAN OPERATIONS
Time Duration of UO Can Be Measured in Days or
Years Depending on Factors of METT-TC
Figure 1-1. Full Spectrum Urban Operations
1-3. When conceptualizing urban operations, commanders understand two
important terms: urban area and urban environment. The first is a subset of
the second. An urban area is a topographical complex where man-
made construction or high population density is the dominant
feature. Focusing on urban areas means concentrating on the physical
aspects of the area and their effects on tactics, techniques, and procedures.
The urban environment includes the physical aspects of the urban
area as well as the complex and dynamic interaction and
relationships between its key components—the terrain (natural and
man-made), the population, and the supporting infrastructure—as
an overlapping and interdependent system of systems. Critical
elements of the infrastructure may lie far beyond the area’s physical con-
fines. For example, the generating source providing power to the urban
energy system is part of that system but may be located well outside of the
urban area. Similarly, effects of the interaction between components of the
infrastructure, located both inside and outside the urban area, extend well
into smaller, neighboring urban areas and surrounding rural areas and often
form their political, economic, and cultural focus. Understanding the total
urban environment is essential to planning and conducting the full range of
Army urban operations across the spectrum of conflict.
HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF URBAN AREAS IN WARFARE
1-4. Urban areas always have been central to, or have significantly
influenced, military operations. One of the first urban-centered battles was
the siege of Troy at the beginning of Greek history. Moreover, much of the
history of early Greece revolved around wars between its city-states or with
Persia and centered on the conquest, siege, or blockade of cities. Five
1-3
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
hundred years later, the Roman Empire replaced Greece as the dominant
world power although urban areas remained central to Roman warfare. Even
Rome’s history can be viewed as a microcosm of urban warfare over the past
two thousand years. Though military operations within the physical confines
of many of these historic urban areas were not the norm, the focus of these
operations was their conquest or control.
Rome
A Microcosm of Urban Warfare
During two millennia, Rome has been the center of at least 12 battles. The Gauls
lay siege to Rome first in 387 BC. That first siege lasted six months and ended
after the barbarians burnt much of the city. The surviving patrician families paid a
ransom for the withdrawal of Brennus’ army. From 408 to 410 AD, the Goth
leader, Alaric, successfully besieged Rome no less than three times. The
Byzantine General Belisarius captured Rome twice from the Goths and withstood
siege inside the city once between 536 and 549. Five hundred years later in
1084, Norman adventurer Robert Guiscard captured medieval Rome and sacked
the city during a dispute between the Pope and the Holy Roman Empire. Forces
of the Holy Roman Empire again stormed and captured the city to punish the
Pope in 1527. During the Italian Revolution in 1849, a French army supporting
the Pope captured the city from the Italian revolutionary army under Garibaldi. In
1944, the last military action took place in and around Rome when the US Fifth
Army captured the city from the retreating German army. Rome’s turbulent
history—fought over ethnic and religious differences, prestige, and military
necessity—demonstrates the importance of urban areas in warfare and the
various causes and combatants within this complex environment.
1-5. Although Rome last saw combat in 1944, urban areas have been no less
prominent in warfare since that time. Beirut in Lebanon, Grozny in
Chechnya, and Sarajevo in Bosnia-Herzegovina have been centers of conflict
in the last 50 years. Urban areas, now more pervasive than ever before, will
continue to be essential to successful operational and strategic warfighting.
Today, armies cannot execute major military operations without the
influence of surrounding urban environments (with the possible exception of
the open desert).
STRATEGIC IMPORTANCE OF URBAN AREAS
1-6. Several reasons have attracted (and continue to attract) armies to
combat in urban areas:
• A military force chooses to position itself in an urban area to capitalize
on the perceived advantages offered by the environment. In contrast,
an opposing force, by analyzing the factors of the situation, determines
that it must enter the urban area to attack and destroy its enemy (or
devote essential combat power to their isolation).
• The urban area’s infrastructure, capabilities, or other resources have
significant operational or strategic value.
• The urban area has significant symbolic importance.
1-4
Urban Outlook
• The urban area’s geographical location dominates a region or avenue of
approach.
1-7. Russia’s 1994 experience in Chechnya illustrates an increasingly impor-
tant motivation for conducting urban operations. The Chechen rebels, after
failing to engage Russian forces outside the city, chose to turn Grozny into
the battlefield. Leaders of the defeated Chechen conventional forces recog-
nized that fighting in the urban area provided them their best chance for
success. The complexities of urban combat and the perceived advantages of
defending an urban area mitigated their numerical and technological
inferiority. The urban area provided the Chechens protection from fires,
resources, interior lines, and covered and concealed positions and movement.
Given such advantages offered by the environment, smaller or less-
sophisticated military forces have similarly chosen to fight in urban areas.
1-8. Such advantages of operating in an urban environment also prompt
forces to conduct an urban operation to facilitate a larger campaign plan and
decisive battle in another location. The urban operation can focus the enemy
on the urban area and allow other forces to conduct operations elsewhere.
From a defensive perspective, an urban defense may gain time and space to
reorganize forces in new defensive positions, to divert enemy forces from
other critical tasks, or to prepare to conduct offensive operations. To some
extent, these reasons motivated Soviet forces defending Leningrad and
Stalingrad from the Germans in World War II. The stubborn defense per-
mitted the Soviets to reorganize for later offensive operations. From an offen-
sive perspective, an attack on an urban area may be a shaping operation
used to divert resources from the decisive operation that will follow.
1-9. Armies also fight in an urban area to obtain some critical feature or
resource in the area, such as a port facility. The desire to control an
important seaport and access to the Persian Gulf largely motivated the
Iranian and Iraqi struggle for Basra in the 1980s. Earlier, in 1944, British
forces fought German units in Arnhem for control of the Rhine River Bridge.
Other infrastructure of the urban environment may have operational or
strategic significance and can compel military forces to attack or defend the
area. As urban areas account for an increasing share of a country’s national
income, often generating over 50 percent of gross national product, the stra-
tegic implications for their control or influence become even greater.
1-10. Urban areas are often located on terrain that dominates a region or an
avenue of approach. In these cases, offensive armies capture these areas to
proceed with security to another objective. Conversely, defensive forces
commonly defend the area to deny the area of operations. To illustrate,
Cassino, Italy stood astride the critical highway approach up the Liri valley
to Rome. The allies had to attack and capture the monastery to facilitate the
allied offensive north. Cassino’s location made bypassing virtually
impossible. Likewise, Israeli army urban operations in Beirut were (and have
continued to be) a result of its strategic location near the Israeli security
zone; various Arab insurgent and terrorist groups used Beirut as a base for
attacks against Israel. Beirut evolved as the major base of the Palestine
Liberation Organization, a major opponent of Israel. Beirut’s location made it
a security threat to Israel and thus compelled several major Israeli
operations in the urban area (see Appendix A).
1-5
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
1-11. Another reason for engaging in urban operations is the symbolic—
historical, cultural, political, and even economic—importance of many urban
areas. Often, capital cities—such as Rome, Paris, Seoul, and Berlin—are
identified as the strategic centers of gravity of their respective nations.
Possessing or threatening these urban areas may impact directly on the out-
come of a conflict. The objective of Germany’s wars with France in 1870 and
1914 was ultimately Paris. Napoleon’s 1812 campaign had as its objective
Moscow, as did Hitler’s 1941 offensive into Russia. The objective of the Soviet
1945 offensive was Berlin, and the North Vietnamese 1975 offensive had as
its objective the South’s capital of Saigon. Still, history also reminds us that
commanders assess the sustainability and decisiveness of operations directed
toward these “prestige” objectives. For example, in 1812, Napoleon captured
Moscow but had to evacuate it within 30 days. He lacked supplies and
shelter, failed to destroy the Russian Army, and failed to defeat the political
will of the Czar and the people. Similarly, the North Korean occupation of
Seoul during the Korean War was equally indecisive.
US ARMY’S EXPERIENCE IN URBAN OPERATIONS
1-12. The US Army has a varied history of conducting operations to attack or
defend larger urban areas. The American Revolution saw the Army conduct
several urban operations. These operations included the unsuccessful defense
of New York, the successful attack on Trenton, and the decisive siege and
attack on British forces at Yorktown. The Mexican War also had a successful
assault on the fortified city of Monterey and the decisive siege of Mexico City.
During the American Civil War, the armies, in the tradition of Napoleonic
maneuver warfare, avoided urban areas and fought in the open. However,
the opposing armies frequently made urban areas their objective because of
their importance as railheads. Success in the siege of several key urban
areas—Vicksburg, Atlanta, and Petersburg—contributed to the Northern
victory.
1-13. Following the Civil War, the US Army faced no large-scale urban
combat for several generations. The Indian Wars, the Spanish-American
War, the Philippine Insurrection, and even World War I did not require the
Army to fight in large urban areas. Between the Civil War and World War II,
the US Army fought in several urban areas worldwide supporting US com-
mitments. These limited urban combat operations were small but essential
parts of what were urban stability operations. From 1900 to 1901, the Army
provided public security for a sector of Peking, China of around 50,000
inhabitants. The Army conducted UO and, in the course of the operation, the
9th US Infantry suffered 20-percent casualties while fighting in Tientsin.
Punitive expeditions to places such as Siberia, Cuba, Philippines, Central
America, and Mexico put the Army in various urban situations that required
using military power, notably, the occupation and security of Vera Cruz,
Mexico in 1914. In the context of these smaller-scale contingencies (SSCs),
UO became a staple of US Army employment.
1-14. World War II forced the Army to grapple with the issues of large-scale
urban combat almost immediately. In his 1941 defense of the Philippines,
General MacArthur examined how to defend Manila. Manila represented a
large, modern, friendly urban area, which was the capital city of a close US
1-6
Urban Outlook
ally. Defending the urban area posed numerous challenges. Ultimately
General MacArthur determined that he could best conduct its defense
outside the city by defeating the enemy forces in combat on the invasion
beaches or shortly after they landed. When Japanese forces defeated
MacArthur’s Philippine Army in a series of engagements, MacArthur had to
decide how best to protect the friendly populace of Manila. He had two
choices: abandoning the city or waging a costly defense that would likely
result in the city’s destruction, thousands of noncombatant casualties, and no
operational advantage. He had little choice but to declare Manila an open
city and move his forces to Bataan to wage an operational defense in the vain
hope that a counteroffensive could relieve his isolated force. On 2 January
1942, Japanese forces entered Manila unopposed.
1-15. Had General MacArthur decided to defend Manila, his forces would
have found scant doctrine in the Army regarding how to fight in an urban
area. Doctrine for urban operations did not appear until early 1944, when
faced with the possibility of fighting through the larger urban areas of
Western Europe. At his time the US Army published FM 31-50, Attack on a
Fortified Position and Combat in Towns. This manual had the first formal
discussion of how the Army viewed urban combat. It was based on the Army’s
limited experiences in the Mediterranean theater and the study of German
and Soviet experiences on the Eastern front.
1-16. FM 31-50 emphasized a deliberate pace, individual and small unit ini-
tiative, the liberal use of direct and indirect firepower, and decentralized
command and execution. It focused on the urban area (as opposed to the envi-
ronment); however, it did include policies towards the noncombatants. The
manual was also focused at the regimental combat team level. Comple-
menting the doctrine of FM 31-50 was the 1944 operations manual, FM 100-5.
This latter manual emphasized the importance of combined arms actions and
the need for extensive reconnaissance of prepared and defended cities. The
Army successfully implemented this doctrine in several major instances of
urban combat, most notably the capture of the first German city, Aachen, and
hundreds of small-scale urban assaults on cities, towns, and villages across
France, the Benelux, and Germany. Army forces also successfully employed
this urban combat doctrine during the liberation of Manila in 1945.
1-17. The legacy of this era of Army operations was an effective tactical solu-
tion to urban offensive combat: isolate the urban area, seize a foothold, and
expand the foothold block by block until occupying the entire urban area and
destroying the enemy. The doctrine’s emphasis on firepower kept friendly
casualties to a minimum. Unfortunately, when enemy forces stoutly defended
the urban area, the emphasis on firepower resulted in its virtual destruction
and high casualties among noncombatants.
1-18. The doctrinal approach honed in World War II remained the accepted
Army approach to urban combat to the century’s end. The last successful
implementation occurred when liberating Seoul during the Korean War. The
Vietnam conflict did not offer the Army opportunities or the requirement to
practice urban combat or test and refine doctrine on a large scale. The largest
urban battle, Hue, was a chaotic tactical battle that validated most of the
historical lessons of urban combat without generating any new doctrinal
insights for large-scale urban warfare.
1-7
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
1-19. From the mid-1950s through the 1990s, the Army conducted UO in the
United States in support of civil authorities during civil unrest and anti-
Vietnam protests. Some operations involved numerous active and reserve
component forces engaged in restoring public order. The Detroit riots of 1967
and the Los Angeles riots of 1992 required the commitments of active and
National Guard units. In 1968, the Army deployed over 35,000 troops to
Washington D.C., Chicago, and Baltimore following the death of Dr. Martin
Luther King, Jr.
1-20. In the 1970s and 1980s, Army doctrine predominantly focused on urban
areas and successfully fighting a conventional ground war against Soviet and
Warsaw Pact forces in Central Europe. The 1979 FM 90-10, Military Opera-
tions on Urbanized Terrain (MOUT), described how to conduct urban opera-
tions against Soviet forces in Germany. Its concepts were never tested other
than in simulation, and its approach to urban combat was not substantially
different from that practiced by the Army since World War II. Despite
previous doctrine’s admonition to avoid cities, the Army has had to fight in
them in diverse circumstances.
MODERN ARMY URBAN OPERATIONS
1-21. Modern urban operations span the full range of possible applications of
military power. At the high end of the spectrum of conflict is major theater
war (MTW) dominated by offensive and defensive operations that, when
undertaken, will commonly include urban operations. At the lowest level are
a multitude of urban peacetime military engagement (PME) activities. These
activities foster and strengthen alliances and coalitions as well as deter
aggression on the part of potential threats. At mid-level between MTW and
PME are SSC urban operations. As a result of being mid-range, any type of
operation may potentially dominate an SSC; however, the various urban
stability operations form the majority. At higher echelons, these separations
are often viewed as levels of intensity. For the tactical units conducting
urban operations, these divisions appear indistinct, as the intensity is often
high despite where the operation falls within the level of conflict.
MAJOR THEATER WAR
1-22. While UO in a MTW can encompass the full range of Army operations,
the offense and defense will be central and decisive to success. Although
mindful of collateral damage and noncombatants, urban operations in a
MTW (compared to urban operations in SSCs or as part of PME activities)
will be the least constrained because vital national interests will be at stake.
UO in a MTW, therefore, will require a significant investment of resources of
all types. Specialized units such as psychological operations, civil affairs, and
other special operations forces (SOF) will likely be in high demand. UO in a
MTW will require an abundance of infantry and may require significant
casualty replacements and medical support. Logistics to support the distinc-
tive urban environment includes large amounts of lethal and nonlethal
specialty munitions, such as smoke, precision field artillery rounds, demoli-
tions, and hand grenades.
1-23. Of potential urban scenarios confronting the future Army, urban
offensive and defensive operations in an MTW are the most dangerous and
1-8
Urban Outlook
challenging. They will take one of two principal forms: fluid or siege. In a
fluid urban combat operation, both sides may contend for position and advan-
tage in the urban battlespace. The attacker will seek to quickly seize decisive
points before the enemy is able to establish a cohesive defense. This will
likely require the attacker to bypass enemy defensive positions whose occupa-
tion or reduction are not critical to mission success. Conversely, the defender
may use interior lines to shift forces in a fluid defense. In a siege, one side
clearly has the initiative as the attacker, and the other side has the advan-
tages of the defense. A siege situation can develop as a result of an initial
fluid urban battle, or it may be a function of previous military operations
that occurred outside the urban area. The Army doctrine’s emphasis on
initiative, agility, depth, synchronization, and versatility generally supports
the fluid form of urban combat; however, commanders also understand that
the factors of METT-TC may support a longer-term, siege approach.
SMALLER-SCALE CONTINGENCIES
1-24. SSCs encompass a wide range of military operations that fall between
MTW and PME and frequently involve urban operations. SSCs are conducted
to facilitate diplomacy and support political initiatives, protect American lives
and interests, and disrupt illegal activities. Joint task forces (JTFs) typically
conduct SSCs although one service may provide the bulk of the force. During
these urban contingencies, resources are often more limited and the
restraints on applying combat power are greater as the need to maintain legi-
timacy will grow in importance. Typically, Army forces will need the assis-
tance of multinational partners, other agencies, local noncombatants, and
nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) to successfully complete the mission.
PEACETIME MILITARY ENGAGEMENTS
1-25. UO, at the lowest level of conflict, may also take many forms. They
serve to strengthen alliances and coalitions, discourage arms races, combat
terrorism, and generally reduce the potential for instability and conflict.
Combat in PME activities is not the norm. They are least likely to involve the
use of force (when necessary, nonlethal is preferred). The presence of Army
forces performing PME activities in foreign urban areas provides a visible
sign of US commitment to peace and stability in that region. In many of these
lower-intensity UO, Army forces often support other agencies. These other
agencies actually plan and lead the operation. Army forces provide military
capabilities (to include organization and leadership), manpower, equipment,
and other resources not readily available. As with UO in SSCs, proactive and
aggressive interaction and coordination with multinational partners,
governmental and nongovernmental organizations, and the urban populace
will be vital to success.
PREPARING FOR FUTURE URBAN OPERATIONS
1-26. To operate successfully in a complex urban environment requires
rigorous, realistic UO training. Training is conducted by the complete
combined arms team and covers the full range of Army operations. It also
replicates—
1-9
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
• The psychological impact of intense, close combat against a well-
trained enemy.
• The effects of noncombatants in close proximity to Army forces.
• The medical and logistic problems associated with operations in an
urban area.
It recognizes the constraints of collateral damage and, therefore, emphasizes
the development of flexible, effective, and understandable rules of engage-
ment (ROE). These ROE help preclude soldiers from randomly using deadly
force while allowing them sufficient latitude to accomplish the mission and
defend themselves. Training in ROE also includes significant and periodic
changes that test and develop flexibility in and adaptability to a fluid
environment. Additionally, force preparedness mandates integrating simula-
tions, exercises at urban training sites, and the actual use of urban terrain
into tactical- and operational-level intra- and interservice training.
Concurrent training extends from the individual soldier to the joint level.
Additionally, preparedness also includes enhancing interoperability in
regards to urban multinational and interagency operations.
1-27. Realistic UO training
(as well as the conduct of real
world operations) has the
added benefit of identifying
operational requirements and
resultant changes necessary
in our doctrine, organizations,
materiel design, leadership,
and soldier support (see Fig-
ure 1-2). While technology
(material) and organizational
changes are critical, soldiers
remain the decisive means for
success. The technology and
organizational changes will be a critical enabler to achieve the agile, simul-
taneous, and precise lethality required in urban operations. In the future,
technology may lead to a radically new operational concept and approach to
urban operations. Still, competent leaders and well-trained and disciplined
soldiers will remain the decisive means for the Army to succeed in this
complex, multidimensional, and noncontiguous urban environment.
TRAINING
ORGANIZATIONS
LEADER
DEVELOPMENT SOLDIERS
DOCTRINE
MATERIAL
UO
Figure 1-2. UO and the Army Imperatives
1-10
Chapter 2
Urban Environment
From a planning perspective, commanders view cities not just as a
topographic feature but as dynamic entities that include hostile forces,
local population, and infrastructure. Planning for urban operations
requires careful IPB, with particular emphasis on the three-
dimensional nature of the topography and the intricate social struc-
ture of the population.
FM 3-0
Of all the environments in which to conduct operations, the urban envi-
ronment confronts Army commanders with a combination of difficulties
rarely found elsewhere. Its distinct characteristics result from an intricate
topography and high population density. The topography’s complexity
stems from the man-made features and supporting infrastructure super-
imposed on the natural terrain. Hundreds, thousands, or millions of civil-
ians may be near or intermingled with soldiers—friendly and enemy. This
second factor, and the human dimension it represents, is potentially the
most important and perplexing for commanders and their staffs to under-
stand and evaluate. The intelligence preparation of the battlefield (IPB)
process remains unaffected by urban areas (see FM 34-130 and Appen-
dix B); this chapter provides information essential to the conduct of the
IPB for an urban environment.
Although urban areas possess general similarities, each environment is
distinct and will react to and affect the presence and operations of Army
forces differently. A tactical technique effective in one area may not be
effective in another area due to physical differences, such as street
CONTENTS
A Complex Environment ............................2-2
Urban Terrain...............................................2-3
Multidimensional Battlefield .................2-3
Broad Urban Patterns ............................2-6
Lesser Street Patterns ...........................2-8
An Urban Model......................................2-9
Urban Society ............................................2-14
Potential Center of Gravity..................2-14
General Population Size ......................2-15
Group Size, Location, and
Composition ........................................2-16
Leadership and Organization..............2-17
Interests and Actions...........................2-17
Interaction, Influence, or Control........2-18
A Cycle of Effects................................ 2-18
Urban Infrastructure ................................ 2-19
Interdependence.................................. 2-19
Separate Parts of a Whole.................. 2-19
Structures and People ........................ 2-20
Impact on Future Operations ............. 2-20
Resource Intensive ............................. 2-20
Communications and Information..... 2-21
Transportation and Distribution ........ 2-23
Energy .................................................. 2-23
Economics and Commerce ................ 2-24
Administration and Human
Services............................................... 2-24
2-1
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
patterns or the type of building construction. An Army policy popular with
one urban group may cause resentment and hostility in another due to
diverse cultural differences. All difficulties potentially exist, but they
increase the complexity for Army forces operating in urban areas. These
difficulties range from conventional military forces to disease and
starvation (see Chapter 3) to a pervasive media—often acutely present in
intricate combinations. Thus, commanders at all levels make extraordi-
nary efforts to assess and understand their particular urban environment
to plan, prepare for, and execute effective urban operations (UO).
A COMPLEX ENVIRONMENT
2-1. Urban areas vary depending on their history, the cultures of their
inhabitants, their economic development, the local climate, available building
materials, and many other factors. This variety exists not only among urban
areas but also within any particular area. The ever-changing mix of natural
and man-made features in urban areas present commanders with some of the
most difficult terrain in which to conduct military operations.
2-2. Although urban areas possess similar characteristics, no two are iden-
tical. The sprawl of Los Angeles, for example, bears little physical resem-
blance to New Delhi. Societal characteristics most significantly affect each
area’s uniqueness and complexity. While complex, information about the ter-
rain, its potential effects on operations, and how it changes over time may be
determined with some degree of certainty. However, the human dimension is
much more difficult to understand and assess, particularly its effects on mili-
tary operations. Like any environment, the side that can best understand and
exploit the effects of the urban environment has the best chance of success.
TERRAIN SOCIETY
INFRA-
STRUCTURE
Figure 2-1. Keys to Understanding
the Urban Environment
2-3. Whether a large metropolis or
a small village, each urban environ-
ment has an identifiable system of
components that constantly change
and interact. This “system of sys-
tems” consists of the terrain, the
society, and the infrastructure that
links the two (see Figure 2-1).
(These categories highlight the key
aspects to understanding the urban
environment and will be used
throughout the manual; however,
the civil-military operations (CMO)
discussion in Chapter 9 provides an alternate method for categorizing and
assessing the effects of civil considerations in any operational environment.)
2-4. These systems are not separate and distinct categories but rather over-
lapping and interdependent. Thoroughly analyzing these elements, along
with the other factors of mission, enemy, weather, troops and support
available, time, and civil considerations—
• Contributes to commanders’ situational understanding.
• Potentially lessens the number and cost of close combat engagements.
2-2
Urban Environment
• Allows them to develop courses of action that apply appropriate
resources against decisive points.
2-5. In stability operations and support operations, this understanding
allows commanders to engage and dominate the decisive points critical to
maintaining peace or restoring normalcy to the urban environment. Although
each system is categorized into subordinate components or subsystems, com-
manders often “step back” and visualize each system, the complex urban
environment, and their area of operations (AO). This “systems thinking” aids
commanders in uncovering key relationships and intersections that can help
reveal centers of gravity (COGs) and decisive points.
2-6. To comprehend the urban environment and its components to the fullest
extent possible, commanders carefully integrate and employ special opera-
tions forces (SOF)—to include psychological operations (PSYOP) and civil
affairs units—and a myriad of other human intelligence (HUMINT) assets
and regional, language, and cultural experts. The societal aspects and inte-
grating infrastructure will challenge commanders’ assessment and under-
standing. These aspects will also require greater dependence on nonmilitary
and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and host-nation agencies for
their information, knowledge, and expertise. This last consideration requires
commanders to develop effective techniques and procedures for coordinating
and interacting with these agencies.
URBAN TERRAIN
2-7. Although complex and difficult to penetrate with many intelligence, sur-
veillance, and reconnaissance (ISR) assets, the terrain is the most recogniz-
able aspect of an urban area. Truly understanding it, however, requires com-
prehending its multidimensional nature. The terrain consists of natural and
man-made features, with man-made features dominating; an analysis con-
siders both. Buildings, streets, and other infrastructure have varied patterns,
forms, and sizes. The infinite ways in which these factors can intertwine
make it difficult to describe a “typical” urban area. However, these elements
provide a framework for understanding the complex terrain in an urban area.
Furthermore, man-made features significantly affect military systems and
soldiers, and thus tactics and operations. General effects on urban operations
are discussed in this chapter. Specific effects on battlefield operating systems
(BOS) (see Chapters 5 and 9) and the range of operations (see Chapters 6, 7,
and 8) are interwoven throughout the manual.
MULTIDIMENSIONAL BATTLEFIELD
2-8. Urban areas present an extraordinary blend of horizontal, vertical,
interior, exterior, and subterranean forms superimposed on the natural
relief, drainage, and vegetation. An urban area may appear dwarfed on a
map by the surrounding countryside. In fact, the size and extent of the urban
battlespace is many times that of a similarly sized portion of natural terrain.
The sheer volume and density created by urban geometry can make UO
resource intensive in time, manpower, and materiel.
2-9. Like natural disasters, UO can radically alter the physical character of
the urban terrain in ways not experienced in other environments. They may
2-3
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
cause (either intentionally or not) uncontrollable fires or the loss of electri-
city. A power outage can cause flooding (especially in subsurface areas) by
shutting down pumping stations. Entire buildings may be destroyed, elimina-
ting reference points and leaving large piles of rubble. Additionally, buildings
and other urban structures, damaged but not destroyed, can still be effective
obstacles and possible booby traps. Their weakened construction and
unstable structure increase the risk of injury to soldiers and civilians moving
within them. (Engineers often determine whether the buildings can support
occupation by Army forces or civilians.) The likely presence of toxic industrial
materials (TIM) can create additional obstacles.
2-10. Commanders in other environments normally address the depth,
breadth, and height of their AO in terms of two areas: airspace and surface.
In an urban environment, they broaden their scope to include supersurface
and subsurface areas (see Figure 2-2). Although spatially separated, each
area may be used as an avenue of approach or mobility corridor, line of com-
munications (LOC), and engagement area.
Figure 2-2. The Multidimensional Urban Battlefield
Airspace
External Space
Surface
(External)
Subsurface
Supersurface
(External)
Supersurface
(Internal)
or
Intrasurface
Internal
Spaces
Internal
Spaces
Stories
or
Levels Stories
or
Levels
Top
Top
2-11. Supersurface and subsurface areas magnify the complexity of the
urban physical environment. Commanders consider activities that occur
outside buildings and subterranean areas (the external space) as well as the
activities that occur unseen in buildings and subterranean systems (the
internal space). The internal space further challenges command, control, and
intelligence collection activities and increases the combat power required to
conduct UO. Commanders develop methods to help themselves, their staffs,
and their subordinate commanders and staffs to represent and visualize the
multiple dimensions. Such dimensions can change rapidly simply due to
continued urban growth or, as described earlier, the effects of nature and UO
themselves.
2-4
Urban Environment
Airspace
2-12. Aircraft and aerial munitions use the airspace as rapid avenues of ap-
proach in urbanized areas. Forces can use aviation assets for observation and
reconnaissance, aerial attack, or high-speed insertion and extraction of sol-
diers, supplies, and equipment. Some surface obstacles, such as rubble, do
not affect aviation assets. However, buildings of varying height and the
increased density of towers, signs, power lines, and other urban constructions
create obstacles to flight and the trajectory of many munitions (masking).
These obstacles can limit low-altitude maneuverability in the urban airspace.
Excellent cover and concealment afforded enemy gunners in an urban area
increases aviation vulnerability to small arms and man-portable air defense
systems (MANPADS), particularly when supporting ground forces.
Surface
2-13. Surface areas apply to exterior ground level areas, such as parking lots,
airfields, highways, streets, sidewalks, fields, and parks. They often provide
primary avenues of approach and the means for rapid advance. However,
buildings and other structures often canalize forces moving along them. As
such, obstacles on urban surface areas usually have more effect than those in
open terrain since bypass often requires entering and transiting buildings or
radical changes to selected routes. Where urban areas abut the ocean or sea,
large lakes, and major rivers, the surface of these bodies of water may pro-
vide key friendly and threat avenues of approach or essential LOCs and,
therefore, may be a significant consideration for Army commanders. As such,
amphibious and river-crossing operations may be an integral part of the over-
all urban operation.
2-14. Larger open areas—such as stadiums, sports fields, school play-
grounds, and parking lots—are often critical areas during urban operations.
They can provide locations for displaced civilians, interrogation centers, and
prisoner of war holding facilities. These areas also can afford suitable aircraft
landing and pickup zones and artillery firing locations. They can provide
logistic support areas and aerial resupply possibilities because they are often
centrally located.
Supersurface
2-15. These areas include the internal floors or levels (intrasurface areas)
and external roofs or tops of buildings, stadiums, towers, or other vertical
structures. They can provide cover and concealment; limit or enhance obser-
vation and fields of fire; and restrict, canalize, or block movement. However,
forces can move within and between intrasurface areas creating additional,
though normally secondary, avenues of approach. Rooftops may offer ideal
locations for landing helicopters for small-scale air assaults and aerial resup-
ply. First, engineers analyze buildings for their structural integrity and
obstacles. Such obstacles include electrical wires, antennas, and enemy-
emplaced mines (although personnel may be inserted by jumping, rappelling,
or fast roping from a hovering helicopter and extracted by hoist mechanisms).
Some rooftops are designed as helipads. Roofs and intrasurface areas may
also provide excellent locations for snipers; lightweight, handheld antitank
weapons; and MANPADS. They enable top-down attacks against the weakest
2-5
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
points of armored vehicles and unsuspecting aircraft. Overall, elevated firing
positions reduce the value of any cover in surrounding open areas and permit
engagement at close range without risk of immediate close assault. This area
(and the subsurface area) requires commanders to think, plan, and execute
ground operations vertically as well as horizontally. In this latter regard, UO
share strong similarities with mountain operations (see FM 3-97.6).
Subsurface
2-16. These areas are subterranean or below surface level. They may serve as
secondary and, in fewer instances, primary avenues of approach at lower
tactical levels. When thoroughly reconnoitered and controlled, they offer
excellent covered and concealed LOCs for moving supplies and evacuating
casualties. They may also provide sites for caching and stockpiling supplies.
Subsurface areas include the subways, tunnels, sewers, drainage systems,
cellars, civil defense shelters, and other various underground utility systems.
In older cities, they may include ancient hand-dug tunnels and catacombs.
Both attacker and defender can use subsurface areas to gain surprise and
maneuver against the rear and flanks of a threat and to conduct ambushes.
However, these areas are often the most restrictive and easiest to defend or
block. Their effectiveness depends on superior knowledge of their existence
and overall design. Army commanders may need to consider potential ave-
nues of approach afforded by the subsurface areas of rivers and major bodies
of water that border urban areas. This particularly applies when operating as
part of a joint task force (JTF) task organized with SOF or when opposing a
threat with similar capabilities.
BROAD URBAN PATTERNS
2-17. Four major urban patterns can influence UO (see Figure 2-3). Central
to two of the patterns (satellite and network) is the hub or dominant urban
area or pattern around which outlying urban areas or patterns radiate. (A
segmented urban area, because it tends to be a larger urban area, can often
be a hub.) In offensive and defensive operations, the hub serves as a pivot or
strong point; as such, it often becomes a major obstacle to an attacker. If the
attacker chooses to bypass the urban area (hub) located along his axis of
advance without first isolating the area, he may expose his flank to attack
from the hub as well as dependent urban areas or subordinate satellite
patterns. Because the focus of stability operations and support operations is
on people, commanders understand the value and influence of the hub to the
economic, political, or cultural well being of the surrounding area. Whether
or not a hub, commanders must remember that urban areas are not islands;
all are connected to the surrounding rural (and other urban) areas through
fluid and permeable boundaries and LOCs.
Satellite Pattern
2-18. This common pattern consists of a central hub surrounded by smaller,
dependent urban areas. LOCs tend to converge on the hub. The natural ter-
rain throughout this pattern is relatively homogenous. Outlying areas often
support the principal urban area at the hub with means of reinforcement,
resupply, and evacuation. In some instances, they may serve as mutually
2-6
Urban Environment
supporting battle positions. Commanders should consider the effects of the
outlying urban areas on operations within the hub, and, conversely, the
effects of operations within the hub on outlying urban areas. Information
operations (IO), for example, targeted primarily at the hub of a satellite
pattern may subsequently influence outlying urban areas and achieve neces-
sary effects without having to commit specific resources to these areas.
Linear Segment
NetworkSatellite
Central
Hub
Dependent
Urban
Areas
Dependent
Urban
Areas
Subordinate
Satellite
Patterns
Dominant
Satellite
Pattern
and Hub
for the
Network
Figure 2-3. Broad Urban Patterns
Network Pattern
2-19. The network pattern represents the interlocking of the primary hubs of
subordinate satellite patterns. Its elements are more self-sufficient and less
supportive of each other, although a dominant hub may exist. Major LOCs in
a network extend more than in a satellite pattern and take more of a rec-
tangular rather than a convergent form. Its natural terrain may vary more
than in a single satellite array. Operations in one area may or may not easily
influence, or be influenced by, other urban areas in the pattern.
Linear Pattern
2-20. Potentially a subelement of the previous two patterns, the linear
pattern may form one ray of the satellite pattern or be found along
connecting links between the hubs of a network. Most frequently, this
pattern results from the stringing of minor urban areas along a confined
natural terrain corridor, such as an elongated valley, a body of water, or a
man-made communications route. In offensive and defensive operations, this
latter form of the linear pattern facilitates developing a series of strong
defensive positions in depth, effectively blocking or delaying an attacking
force moving along the canalized terrain.
2-7
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
Segment Pattern
2-21. When dominant natural terrain, such as a river or man-made features
(canals, major highways, or railways), divides an urban area, it creates a seg-
mented pattern. This pattern often makes it easier for commanders to assign
areas of operations to subordinate commanders. However, this pattern may
fragment operations and increase risk to an operation requiring mutual
support between subordinate units. Still, the segmented urban areas may
allow commanders to isolate threats more easily in these areas and focus
operations within segments that contain their decisive points. Although an
integral part of the whole (the urban area), each segment may develop
distinct social, economic, cultural, and political characteristics. This social
segmenting may benefit commanders faced with limited assets to influence or
control the urban populace. After thoroughly analyzing the society, they may
be able to focus IO and populace and resources control measures against only
specific segments that affect decisive operations. Commanders may need only
to isolate other segments or may need to just monitor for any significant
changes in the attitudes, beliefs, or actions of the civilians located there.
LESSER STREET PATTERNS
2-22. Lesser patterns in the urban area result from the layout of the streets,
roads, highways, and other thoroughfares. They evolve from influences of
natural terrain, the original designer’s personal prejudices, and the changing
needs of the inhabitants. Street patterns (and widths) influence all BOS;
however, they greatly affect maneuver, command and control, and combat
service support. (In some portions of older Middle Eastern urban areas, the
labyrinths of streets were designed only to allow two loaded donkeys to pass
each other; tanks are too wide.) Urban areas can display any of three basic
patterns and their combinations: radial, grid, and irregular (see Figure 2-4).
Figure 2-4. Basic Internal Street Patterns
Radial Grid Irregular
Radial
2-23. Societies of highly concentrated religious or secular power often con-
struct urban areas with a radial design: all primary thoroughfares radiating
out from the center of power. Cities with this design may signal an important
historical aspect in the overall analysis of the urban society. Terrain per-
mitting, these streets may extend outward in a complete circle or may form a
semicircle or arc when a focal point abuts a natural barrier, such as a coast-
line or mountain. To increase mobility and traffic flow, societies often add
2-8
Urban Environment
concentric loops or rings to larger radial patterns. Unless commanders
carefully plan boundaries, routes, and axes of advance, their subordinate
units’ movement or maneuver may be inadvertently funneled toward the
center of urban areas with this pattern resulting in congestion, loss of
momentum, and an increased potential for ambush or fratricide.
Grid
2-24. The most adaptable and universal form for urban areas is the grid
pattern: lines of streets at right angles to one another forming blocks similar
to the pattern of a chessboard. A grid pattern can fill in and eventually take
over an original radial pattern. Grid patterns often appear to ease the assign-
ment of boundaries for subordinates units. However, commanders also con-
sider how the natural terrain influences operations and the establishment of
control measures. They also consider the influence of the buildings and other
structures lining these streets, such as their height and construction, before
assigning boundaries and developing other control measures.
2-25. Describing boundaries and phase lines by easily recognizable features
is as important in urban areas as elsewhere. If available, natural features
are a better descriptor than man-made features that may be altered or
unrecognizable. When Army forces work closely with local law enforcement
agencies, commanders may not need to assess the effect of street patterns on
the assignment of boundaries. Instead, commanders may assign boundaries
overlaid on existing administrative boundaries used by local law enforcement
agencies to increase interoperability and aid in unity of effort.
Irregular
2-26. In most urban areas, regardless of the original intent, plan, or vision,
existing street patterns emerge from successive plans overlaid one on
another. Some are well planned to fit with previous plans while others a hap-
hazard response to explosive urban growth. The result may mix patterns.
Urban engineers and planners may specifically design irregular patterns for
aesthetic reasons (as in many suburban housing developments) or to conform
to marked terrain relief. Irregular street patterns may alert commanders and
analysts that the underlying natural terrain may exert greater influence over
operations than in other portions of the urban area. Finally, irregular street
patterns make the movement and maneuver of forces less predictable.
AN URBAN MODEL
2-27. Throughout the world, urban areas have similar form and function. In
form, urban areas contain like characteristics, readily divisible into distinct
sections or areas. Functionally, they tend to be the centers of population,
finance, politics, transportation, industry, and culture. While urban areas
may be modeled by several different means, Figure 2-5 on page 2-10 illus-
trates the general forms and internal functions. Some forms and functions
may overlap. For example, high-rise buildings are located in core areas as
well as in outlying areas and may be used for residential purposes. With the
rapid urbanization associated with developing nations, the areas displayed in
this urban model often manifest themselves less clearly there than in
developed nations.
2-9
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
Figure 2-5. An Urban Model
CORE
CORE
PERIPHERY
COMMERCIAL
RIBBON AREA
RESIDENTIAL
AREA
INDUSTRIAL AREA
OUTLYING HIGH-
RISE AREA
2-28. This analysis helps to determine, in general terms, potential advan-
tages and disadvantages each portion of the urban area may have toward
accomplishing the urban operation. However, construction materials and
methods can vary drastically. Commanders identify specific building types
and construction and understand weapons effects on them. If a commander
desires precise effects, the chosen munitions or weapons system must be
sufficiently accurate, capable of penetrating the target structure (without
exiting the other side), and achieve effects within. Often noncombatants,
critical infrastructure, or protected targets are in the vicinity. Commanders
may need to determine if the surrounding walls or structures will sufficiently
absorb or negate the blast or thermal effects of the weapon. Regardless,
understanding the structure of buildings in the urban AO allows
commanders to determine the best means to accomplish the mission.
Core
2-29. The core is the heart of the urban area, the downtown or central
business district. Relatively small and compact, it contains a large
percentage of the urban area’s shops, offices, and public institutions. Often, it
houses the headquarters for commercial and financial activities and contains
important cultural, historical, and governmental buildings. These activities
prefer the core because of its accessibility. As the focal point of the
transportation network, residents find the core the easiest part of the urban
area to reach. It normally has the densest concentration of multistory
buildings and subterranean features (underground parking garages, under-
ground shopping centers, and basements).
2-30. High-rise buildings, varying greatly in height (possibly 50 stories above
ground and four stories below ground), make up the cores of today’s urban
areas. Buildings routinely abut one another, with little or no setback from the
sidewalks. Building height and density (except in outlying high-rise areas)
often decreases from the core to the edge of the residential areas, while the
amount of open areas frequently increases. Modern urban planning allows for
more open spaces between buildings than found in the cores of older urban
2-10
Urban Environment
areas. Most core areas have undergone constant redevelopment resulting in
various types of construction. Commonly, brick buildings abound in the
oldest part of the core; framed, heavy-clad structures in the next oldest part;
and a concentration of framed, light-clad buildings in the newest part. The
outer edge of the core, the core periphery, has ordinarily undergone less
change than the core resulting in buildings of uniform height (commonly two
to three stories in towns and five to ten stories in larger urban areas).
2-31. Generally, offensive operations focused in core areas (even when effec-
tively isolated) will require greater resources—particularly manpower, time,
and information—than in many other parts of the urban area. Mounted
maneuver often proves more difficult in core areas because of fewer open
areas, buildings closer to the streets, and more civilian vehicles. Rubbled
buildings in central core areas (especially high-rise buildings) become greater
obstacles to mobility as they can collapse on and easily block thoroughfares.
Rubble piles can afford excellent covered and concealed positions for
dismounted threat forces. Consequently, commanders use more dismounted
forces as part of their combined arms operations. Conversely, the core may be
critical to urban defensive operations, particularly older areas of heavier
construction that afford greater protection. Despite potential difficulties, the
core area may be key to accomplishing many stability or support missions
since it houses much of the human activity that occurs in the urban area.
Industrial Area
2-32. Industrial areas often develop on the outskirts of the urban areas
where commercial transportation is easiest (along airfields and major sea,
river, rail, and highway routes). These areas will likely displace farther from
the core and residential areas as urban planners recognize the potential
threat of TIM. The dispersed pattern of the buildings provides sufficient
space for large cargoes, trucks, and materiel handling equipment. These
areas may provide ideal sites for logistic bases and maintenance sites. While
older, heavier-clad structures may be found, new construction consists of low,
large, flat-roofed factory and warehouse buildings with large parking areas
and work yards. These structures generally have steel frame and lightweight
exterior walls. Multistory structures usually have reinforced concrete floors
and ceilings.
2-33. Toxic industrial chemicals and other TIM may be transported through
an urban area (by rail, barge, truck, or pipeline) or found stored throughout.
However, larger concentrations will exist in industrial areas, and their
presence should concern Army forces operating near them.
2-34. Each year, over 70,000 different chemicals are produced, processed, or
consumed globally. An estimated 25,000 commercial facilities around the
world produce, process, or store chemicals that have a legitimate industrial
use yet are also classified as chemical warfare agents. Many other chemicals
(not classified as weapons) may still be sufficiently hazardous to pose a con-
siderable threat to Army forces and civilians in urban areas as choking
agents or asphyxiates, flammables or incendiaries, water contaminants, low-
grade blister or nerve agents, or debilitating irritants. These chemicals can
be released either accidentally or deliberately. On 2 December 1984, nearly
40 tons of methylisocyanate used to produce pesticides leaked from a storage
2-11
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
tank at Bhopal, India, killing thousands and injuring hundreds of thousands.
Figure 2-6 contains a small sampling of other toxic industrial chemicals
along with their industrial or commercial usage that commanders may
encounter in an urban area. The most common chemicals that pose a risk to
Army forces are highly toxic irritant gases such as ammonia, chlorine,
hydrogen chloride, and sulfur dioxide.
Toxic Industrial
Chemical Industrial/Commercial Uses
Ammonia Commercial Refrigerant, Fertilizer and Food Production, Petroleum,
Explosives, Other Chemicals
Arsine Semiconductor Industry
Boron Trichloride Organic Catalyst, Soldering Magnesium
Boron Trifluoride Chemical Catalyst, Aluminum Refining
Carbon Disulfide Industrial Solvent, Dry-Cleaning, Agriculture, Petroleum, Electroplating
Chlorine Potable Water, Disinfectants, Metal Treatment, Plastics & Rubber
Diborane Plastics and Rubber
Ethylene Oxide Industrial Alcohols, Fumigant, Industrial Sterilant
Fluorine Uranium Processing, Rocket Fuel
Formaldehyde Plastics, Fertilizers, Preservative/ Corrosion Inhibitor, Fungicide and
Germicide, Pesticide, Pharmaceuticals
Fuming Nitric Acid Fertilizers, Explosives, Metal Processing, Pesticides, Rocket Fuel
Hydrogen Bromide Chemical Industry, Pharmaceuticals
Hydrogen Chloride Fabrics, Semiconductors
Hydrogen Cyanide Pesticides, Other Chemicals, Pharmaceuticals, Electroplating
Hydrogen Fluoride Glass Production, Chemical Catalyst
Hydrogen Sulfide Metallurgy, Agricultural Disinfectant
Phosgene Dyes, Pharmaceuticals, Herbicides & Insecticides
Phosphorus Trichloride Metallurgy, Pesticides and Germicides, Gasoline Additive
Sulfur Dioxide Paper, Food Processing, Ice Production, Disinfectant, Leather Processing
Sulfuric Acid Fertilizers, Petroleum, Iron and Steel Production, Battery Electrolyte
Tungsten Electronics, Other Chemicals
Figure 2-6. Toxic Industrial Chemicals and Their Industrial or Commercial Uses
2-35. Standard chemical defense equipment may not protect against (and
chemical detection devices may fail to detect) many toxic industrial chemi-
cals. Therefore, the risk to soldiers operating near the chemicals may
increase. Commanders vigilantly identify these potential hazards, carefully
consider them as part of their overall vulnerability analysis, factor the anal-
ysis into their risk assessment, and execute necessary contamination avoid-
ance measures. Any assessment includes the chance that toxic industrial
chemicals may be deliberately released by a threat to gain advantage or
accidentally released by friendly actions (see FM 3-21 and FM 3-14).
Outlying High-Rise Area
2-36. High-rise areas consist of multistoried apartments, commercial offices,
and businesses separated by large open areas, such as parking lots, parks,
and individual one-story buildings. High-rise buildings are framed, light-clad
construction with thin walls of brick, lightweight concrete, or glass. The
automobile, mass transit systems, and improved road networks encourage
these areas to grow and function further from the urban core.
2-12
Urban Environment
2-37. Similar to the urban core, units given the mission to clear these areas,
or even portions therein, will need more resources—most notably personnel
and time—to accomplish their mission. Commanders should consider courses
of action that isolate these entire areas, multiple sections within these areas,
or even individual buildings before assigning tasks. The tasks could rapidly
drain a unit’s resources or unhinge other portions of the major operation.
When defending, commanders who can integrate these areas in the defense
will present the attacker with similar resource problems and may be appro-
priate in a defense to delay. However, defending commanders ensure that the
defense is arranged so that this portion cannot be easily isolated and
bypassed. Defensive positions in structures may require extensive reinforce-
ment due to light-clad construction.
Residential Area
2-38. Residential areas can be found dispersed throughout the urban area;
however, large suburban areas (or sprawl) normally form on the outskirts.
Residential areas often consist of row houses or single-family dwellings set in
a grid or ringed pattern in a planned development project. Yards, gardens,
trees, and fences usually separate the buildings in a residential area. Modern
residential construction is often of light-clad, framed wood construction, or
brick. The combined population of surrounding suburban areas often far out-
numbers that of the urban area proper. Specific suburbs tend toward homo-
geneity based on ethnicity, religion, economics, or some other social aspect.
Commanders locate and analyze these areas to determine their impact on
operations—often the most critical importance is the people located there
(see the subsequent discussion in this chapter on the urban society).
2-39. In offensive and defensive operations, commanders determine whether
operations pose an unacceptable physical risk to civilians. If so, they may
have to relocate civilians to a safer area, perhaps another residential area. If
not, commanders may implement a “stay-put” policy for that area and
attempt to isolate the effects of the operation from them. During support
operations, residential locations may be the initial focal point for operations
since most of the permanent population is located there.
2-40. This area also contains a relatively recent urban phenomenon known
as shantytowns. These areas are commonly on unoccupied, low-value land in
and around many urban areas in underdeveloped countries. Shantytowns
may contain over 50 percent of the total urban population. They usually lack
streets and public utilities. The lean-to structures tend to be irregularly laid
out, connected by walking paths, and made of any scrap material available:
lumber, brick, sheet metal, cardboard, cloth, or vegetation. The random
arrangement of structures, the absence of formal street naming and num-
bering, and often the lack of easily identifiable buildings and terrain create
challenges. These challenges include navigating, coordinating, and transmit-
ting accurate information and intelligence. Depending on the operation, the
temporary nature of the structures can also mean that mobility can be either
more or less restricted than other sections of the urban area. A military force
may easily knock down and traverse structures without affecting mobility at
all. However, their destruction may cause unacceptable civilian casualties, in
which case mobility becomes more restrictive as the narrow paths often do
2-13
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
not accommodate vehicular traffic. Similarly, the makeshift materials inhibit
weapons effects less than many other parts of the urban area built more
solidly. A tank round, for example, may go much farther and injure many
more noncombatants than in an area where the primary building material is
stone. Regardless, commanders consider the effects of their operations in this
area, to include vehicles and weapons, as the weak structures increase the
risk of fratricide, civilian casualties, and large, rapidly spreading fires.
Commercial Ribbon Area
2-41. Commercial ribbon areas are rows of stores, shops, and restaurants
built along both sides of major streets that run through and between urban
areas. These same types of areas often develop along the roads that connect
one urban area to another (strip areas). The buildings uniformly stand two to
three stories tall (about one story taller than the dwellings on the streets
behind them).
URBAN SOCIETY
2-42. Although intricate,
understanding the urban
terrain is relatively
straightforward in com-
parison to compre-
hending the multifaceted
nature of urban society.
UO often require Army
forces to operate in close
proximity to a high den-
sity of civilians. Even
evacuated areas can have
a stay-behind population
in the tens of thousands.
This population’s pres-
ence, attitudes, actions,
communications with the
media, and needs may affect the conduct of operations. Homogeneity de-
creases drastically as the size of the urban area increases. Commanders take
into account the characteristics of a population whose beliefs and interests
vary based on factors. Figure 2-7 lists the factors. Civilian populations con-
tinually influence, to varying degrees, operations conducted in an urban area.
Thoroughly understanding these societal aspects and avoiding “mirror-
imaging”—overlaying one’s own values and thought processes on top of the
person or group one is trying to assess—will help to accurately anticipate
civilian actions and response.
?
Ethnicity and
Culture
Government
and Politics
Religion
Population
Demographics
Health
Leadership and
Prominent
Personalities
History
KEY ASPECTS OF THE
URBAN SOCIETY
Figure 2-7. Key Aspects of the Urban Society
POTENTIAL CENTER OF GRAVITY
2-43. A COG during an urban operation, particularly in stability operations
and support operations, may be the civilian inhabitants themselves—specifi-
cally their behavior. However, supportive behavior is generally an advantage
in any type of operation. Correspondingly, neutral behavior toward friendly
2-14
Urban Environment
forces is an advantage over hostile behavior. To influence or control their
behavior, commanders first understand the society’s complex nature and
character. Second, they understand and accept that every military action (or
inaction) may influence the relationship between the urban population and
Army forces, and, by extension, mission success. Lastly, they understand that
Army forces may play only a supporting (but essential) role as part of an inte-
grated and synchronized multiagency effort focusing all aspects of national
power. With this awareness, commanders can take one or more actions:
• Coordinate and plan operations.
• Implement effective programs.
• Take the immediate action necessary to maintain support of a friendly
populace, neutralize or gain the support of hostile or neutral factions,
or do any combination of these activities to achieve precise effects and
accomplish the mission.
Without this understanding, commanders increase the risk that their actions,
particularly concerning the urban population, may not have the intended and
necessary effects.
2-44. Although the factor of civil considerations takes on added significance
in UO, it is just one that commanders evaluate. Sometimes it may be the
most important factor to consider as a COG. At other times it may be the
least important as to be almost negligible. Its importance is not constant; it
changes over time (like all factors). At the beginning of the operation, civil
considerations may not be essential to mission accomplishment, but as the
operation progresses this factor’s importance to success may increase. In
other circumstances, the opposite may be true. Overall, commanders consider
three objectives regarding the civilians of the urban area:
• Minimize their interference with urban operations. In offensive and
defensive operations this means moving them away from combat
operations. In all operations, it often requires centralizing them in one
or more locations.
• Maximize their support of Army, joint, and multinational forces and
government agencies.
• Observe the necessary legal, moral, and humanitarian obligations.
GENERAL POPULATION SIZE
2-45. Urban areas are com-
monly classified according
to the general size of their
population instead of land-
mass. Figure 2-8 lists cate-
gories of urban areas with
their defining population.
Category Population
Village 3,000 or less.
Town Over 3,000 to 100,000.
City Over 100,000 to 1 million.
Metropolis Over 1 million to 10 million.
Megalopolis Over 10 million.
Figure 2-8. Urban Areas by Population Size
2-46. These categories are useful to establish commonality and standardize
terms that shape ideas, discussion, and concepts. Smaller populations usually
suggest homogeneity among the inhabitants. Homogeneity can make consen-
sus or compromise easier to achieve because fewer opposing viewpoints exist.
Given this homogeneity, effects of change are more certain and often easier to
determine. However, homogenous does not mean identical. If major social
2-15
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
divisions do exist (either physical or ideological), commanders can more
easily determine those divisions and their fundamental causes with smaller
populations.
2-47. As urban areas expand, the urban patterns begin to blur and the social
complexity increases. For example, as satellite patterns continue to grow, the
LOCs between a central hub and outlying urban areas may develop and
begin to assume a linear urban pattern. Simultaneously, a hub and outlying
urban areas may continue to expand until they merge into a single, large
metropolis. On a larger scale, a network pattern can grow and unite as a
single megalopolis. This growth physically unites smaller urban areas but
cannot force conformity of needs and beliefs. It also increases the physical
and social complexity of an urban area.
GROUP SIZE, LOCATION, AND COMPOSITION
2-48. Understanding
how specific elements
of the urban society
affect operations (and
vice versa) normally
begins with analyzing
their size, location,
and composition (see
Figure 2-9). Because
commanders must
minimize civilian cas-
ualties, size and loca-
tion (without regard
to composition) are
important initial
demographic consid-
erations. After deter-
mining the presence
and numbers of civilians relative to decisive points, commanders can then
decide whether civilian proximity and density represent a significant risk to
their mission—refugees clogging LOCs, for example. If civilians are the
primary focus of the operation, as in many stability operations and support
operations, this same analysis may help to determine decisive points. In this
analysis, commanders consider that urban areas, on many levels, are in
constant motion. The densities of circulating people and other traffic often
vary according to the time of day, such as rush hours and market times. In
planning urban operations, commanders may need to consider the timing or
rhythms of population and vehicular movements in the urban area.
Size
&
Density
Composition
Location
&
Proximity
Beliefs
Needs
Agendas
Interact
Influence
Control
Who Does What to Whom? And Why?
With What
Effects?
Necessitating What
Changes?
Actions
Leadership
and
Organization
Interests
Figure 2-9. Simplified Analysis of Urban Society
2-49. Commanders determine the composition of, or the identifiable groups
or organizations within, the civilian urban population. Groups may be cate-
gorized by race, religion, national origin, tribe, clan, economic or social class,
party affiliation, education level, union memberships, age, gender, occupa-
tion, or any other significant social grouping. Physical and ideological over-
laps (and divisions) often exist between groups. Overlaps may provide early
focus for analysis and suggest ways to affect more than one group
2-16
Urban Environment
2-17
simultaneously. In some cases, groups may have radically different ideologies
but are (or can be) united by a single characteristic. Commanders understand
the intricacies of “who does what to whom.” Such understanding furthers
identifying the urban society’s sources of power, influence (both formal and
informal), and decisive points that hold the keys to controlling or protecting
this potential COG. (See also the discussion of competing power structures in
Chapter 3.) Commanders have expert, detailed, and current knowledge and
information to avoid developing simple formulas of social interaction that
may actively mislead and add to a flawed course of action.
LEADERSHIP AND ORGANIZATION
2-50. Commanders also understand how authority and responsibility is held
or shared within and between each of the identified groups. For groups to
exert meaningful influence, leadership provides vision, direction, and
organized coherence. This leadership can be a function of personality as well
as organization. Some groups depend on a charismatic leader to provide cohe-
sion. Others de-emphasize individual leadership and provide redundancy and
replacement in decisionmaking. Others combine elements of both these types
of leadership and organization. Based solely on personality, a leader may cen-
tralize power or, while still being in ultimate control, decentralize decision-
making and execution to subordinates. In contrast, a single person may head
a group while a ruling council actually makes and executes policy. Groups
centered on one leader (which may or may not be the officially designated
leader) can often produce decisions and initiate actions rapidly but are
vulnerable to disruptions if key personalities are removed or co-opted.
Groups with shared or redundant leadership take longer to make decisions
yet are more resistant to change and outside influence.
INTERESTS AND ACTIONS
Me and Somalia against the world,
me and my clan against Somalia,
me and my family against the clan,
me and my brother against my
family, me against my brother.
Somali Proverb
2-51. Identifying and analyzing
groups also helps commanders
focus on specific segments of the
urban society to determine their
beliefs, needs, and agendas. It also
helps commanders determine how
those interests motivate groups to
future action (or inaction)—
previous patterns of activity are critical in this regard. This analysis seeks to
determine why groups (and their leaders) act as they do. Commanders con-
sider political, economic, cultural, and religious factors in this analysis. These
factors affect all groups to some extent and often provide the basis for their
beliefs, needs (actual or perceived), and subsequent behavior. Size and loca-
tion considerations also apply to each group to help determine to what extent
its beliefs or ideologies, needs, and actions may impact the urban operation.
However, size and proximity may not accurately indicate actual or potential
capabilities. Individuals, small groups, and groups located some distance
from the actual conduct of the urban operation may be able to influence large
portions of the population. These individuals or groups may have a capability
disproportionate to their size and proximity—especially against objectives
that are not terrain oriented (as in the case of many stability operations).
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
INTERACTION, INFLUENCE, OR CONTROL
2-52. As shown above, commanders cultivate an understanding of a group’s—
• Size, location (and proximity to operations), and composition (to
include leadership and organization).
• Interests.
• Capabilities.
• Potential actions (intent) and their effects—if any—on operations.
Then they can develop or modify courses of action as appropriate. Certain
courses of action may be needed to improve the interaction between Army
forces and civilians (and between other agencies) to accomplish common
goals. Others may be needed to influence favorable support, stabilize neutral
groups, or neutralize hostile groups. Still others may require more forceful
means to control and protect civilians. The latter can include establishing
buffer zones and restricted areas; setting up checkpoints and roadblocks with
other travel restrictions, controlling rations; enforcing curfews; inspecting
facilities; conducting internment and resettlement operations; or maintaining
a “stay-put” policy.
2-53. Commanders remember that many measures will require significant
resources that may initially be beyond the capabilities of the Army force to
impose and enforce. (Where possible, commanders should attempt to use local
law enforcement to accomplish controlling activities.) The other elements of the
environment, terrain and infrastructure, may fragment efforts and make it
difficult to consistently impose controls throughout the urban area. A careful
assessment of the urban society’s interests (beliefs, needs, and agendas) is
essential before implementing any populace and resources control measures.
Otherwise, inappropriate controls may only aggravate the situation. Finally,
an appropriate course of action may require no specific action towards the
urban society. In most cases, training and discipline, grounded in cultural
understanding and sensitivity, will help mitigate many potential adverse
effects resulting from military-civilian interaction. Soldier training should
also include learning basic commands or phrases in the most common
language to their AO. (Commanders should review FM 3-15 and FM 3-19.40
for additional civilian control measures and considerations.)
A CYCLE OF EFFECTS
2-54. Since the urban society is so dynamic and the relationship between
various elements of the society so complex, commanders continually assess
how their operations will affect the society’s interests and intent and vice
versa. Specifically, they assess how effectively their measures improve
interaction with, influence of, and control over civilians’ (see Figure 2-10).
There is always a difference between intended and actual effects of a specific
course of action. Nowhere is this more prominent than dealing with the urban
society. This cycle of effects frustrates assessment during UO. Therefore,
commanders continuously monitor these effects to make decisions and modi-
fications while planning, preparing, executing, and transitioning UO.
Initially certain aspects of the society, such as religion, may not affect the
operation. However if the threat successfully shapes the perceptions of the
urban populace that Army forces are biased against them (or at least critical
segments are affected by propaganda), this element may become extremely
2-18
Urban Environment
important. In this instance, the
urban commander may need to
adjust his IO (to include PSYOP),
public affairs (PA) activities, and
CMO to counter this propaganda
while diverting other combat
power to control the populace.
URBAN INFRASTRUCTURE
2-55. Urban infrastructures are
those systems that support urban
inhabitants and their economy.
They link the physical terrain to
the urban society. Destroying,
controlling, or protecting vital
parts of the infrastructure can
isolate a threat from potential
sources of support. A threat force
operating in an urban area may
rely on the area’s water, electricity, and sources of bulk fuel to support his
forces. This is true particularly when his bases or facilities are physically
located in or near the area. Isolating this threat from these sources may
require him to generate his own electricity and transport his own water and
fuel from outside the urban area. To transport supplies, the threat may rely
on roads, airfields, sea- or river lanes, and rail lines. Controlling these
critical transportation nodes may prevent the threat from resupplying his
forces. The control of key radio, television, and newspaper facilities may
isolate him from the urban populace (another potential source of support).
Figure 2-10. UO–Society Cycle of Effects
INTERDEPENDENCE
2-56. Commanders understand that destroying or disrupting any portion of
the urban infrastructure can have a cascading effect (either intentional or
unintentional) on the other elements of the infrastructure. Yet, they may be
able to gain an operational advantage while minimizing unwanted effects.
Commanders can seize or secure an essential facility or structure by using
precision munitions, electronic disruption of communications, or SOF and
conventional ground forces. To gain this advantage, commanders will rely
more on the expertise of engineer and civil affairs units, local urban engi-
neers and planners, and others with infrastructure-specific expertise. After
understanding the technical aspects of the area’s systems, they can develop
the best course of action.
SEPARATE PARTS OF A WHOLE
2-57. Hundreds of systems may exist. Each system has a critical role in the
smooth functioning of the urban area. Simple or complex, all systems fit into
five broad categories (see Figure 2-11 on page 2-20). Commanders analyze
key facilities in each category and determine their role and importance
throughout all phases of the urban operation. This analysis considers each
2-19
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
infrastructure system individually and
in relation to others to determine an
appropriate course of action toward it.
ommunications
and
Information
Transportation
and
Distribution
Energy
Administration
and Human
Services
Economics
and
Commerce
C
STRUCTURES AND PEOPLE
Figure 2-11. Urban Infrastructure
2-58. As depicted in Figure 2-1, each
element of the infrastructure consists
of both a terrain (physical) and human
component. For example, the physical
component of the electrical segment of
the energy infrastructure consists of
power stations, substations, a distri-
bution network of lines and wires, and
necessary vehicles and repair supplies
and equipment. The human compo-
nent of this same segment consists of the supervisors, engineers, linemen,
and electricians who operate the system. Commanders understand and recog-
nize the physical and human components in their assessments.
IMPACT ON FUTURE OPERATIONS
2-59. Destroying or incapacitating of any of these elements may impact
future operations and inhabitants of the urban area. Destroying urban infra-
structure during initial phases of an operation may require commanders to
assume responsibility for repair, maintenance and clean up, and operation of
those same facilities later. Although exceptions will exist, commanders
cannot destroy or significantly damage the infrastructure of a foreign urban
center during operations and expect the population to remain friendly to US
or allied forces. Still, support from the urban society (albeit of increased
importance in UO) is only one factor that commanders weigh while develop-
ing appropriate courses of action.
RESOURCE INTENSIVE
2-60. Requirements to protect, restore, or maintain critical infrastructure
may divert substantial amounts of resources and manpower needed else-
where and place additional constraints on subordinate commanders. Civilian
infrastructure is often more difficult to secure and defend than military infra-
structure. The potentially large and sprawling nature of many systems (such
as water, power, transportation, communications, and government) make
their protection a challenge. Yet, the infrastructure of an urban area can
provide commanders with essential logistics and combat service support.
Therefore, the initial expenditure of time and other resources may be
necessary to support concurrent or future operations. Legal considerations,
however, may affect using the infrastructure and acquiring the urban area’s
goods and services. Commanders, their staffs, and subordinates (often down
to the individual soldier) know their limits concerning Army authority to
commandeer civilian supplies or equipment to facilitate mission accom-
plishment (see the legal support discussion in Chapter 9). In stability opera-
tions and support operations, the safeguard or restoration of critical urban
infrastructure for military or civilian use may be a decisive point in the
overall operation.
2-20
Urban Environment
COMMUNICATIONS AND INFORMATION
2-61. This system is comprised of the facilities and means to transmit infor-
mation from place to place. It includes—
• Telecommunications, such as telephones (to include wireless), tele-
graphs, radios, televisions, and computers.
• Police, fire, and rescue communications systems.
• The postal system.
• Newspapers, magazines, and other forms of print media.
• The human interaction that conveys information.
Perhaps more than any other element of the infrastructure, communications
and information link all the other elements in an interdependent “system of
systems.”
2-62. Urban communications and information systems can serve as an alter-
nate for both friendly and threat forces and can be easily secured with
civilian, off-the-shelf technologies. Threats may make use of commercial sys-
tems intertwined with legitimate civilian users, making it unpalatable to
prevent use of these assets. Forces can also use these systems to influence
public opinion, gain intelligence information, support deception efforts, or
otherwise support IO.
Increasing Impact of Computers
2-63. In many urban areas, computers link other elements of the urban infra-
structure. They link functions and systems in the urban area and connect the
area to other parts of the world. This latter aspect creates important implica-
tions for commanders of a major operation. Operations involving this cyber-
netic function may produce undesirable effects on a greater scale than ini-
tially intended. For example, commanders may be able to close or obstruct an
urban area’s banking system; however, this system may impact the interna-
tional monetary exchange with unwanted or even unknown effects. The auth-
ority to conduct these types of IO will often be retained at the strategic level.
Whoever coined the phrase ‘The Theatre of Operations’ was very prescient. We are
conducting operations now as though we are on a stage, in an amphitheatre, or
Roman arena; there are at least two producers and directors working in opposition to
each other, the players, each with their own idea of the script, are more often than not
mixed up with the stage hands, ticket collectors and ice cream vendors, while a fac-
tional audience, its attention focused on that part of the auditorium where it is noisiest,
views and gains an understanding of events by peering down the drinking straws of
their soft drink packs.
General Sir Rupert Smith
Deputy Supreme Allied Commander Europe
Pervasive Media
2-64. The media is central to the communications and information infrastruc-
ture and a critical operational concern. Compared to other operational environ-
ments (jungles, deserts, mountains, and cold weather areas), it has more
access to urban operations. This is due largely to airports, sea- and river
2-21
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
ports, and major road networks; ready access to power sources and
telecommunications facilities; as well as access to existing local media struc-
tures. Hence, media presence may be pervasive and IO even more critical to
success in UO than operations in many other environments.
2-65. A Complex Relationship. A complex relationship exists among infor-
mation, the public, and policy formulation. Although the degree and manner
in which public opinion shapes government policy are uncertain, negative
visual images of military operations presented by the media can change polit-
ical objectives and, subsequently, military objectives. As important, media
reporting can influence civilian activity in an urban AO to either the advan-
tage or disadvantage of the commander.
2-66. Induce Cooperation Through Credibility. Commanders do not con-
trol the media; however, they monitor the flow of information that the news
media receives and subsequently reports. Consequently, commanders plan
and execute PA operations that will induce cooperation between the media
and Army forces. Successful relations between urban Army forces and the
news media evolve from regular interaction based on credibility and trust.
More information is usually better than less, except when the release of such
information may jeopardize security and the success of the operations and
threaten the safety of soldiers. However, commanders cannot simply withhold
information to protect the command from embarrassment. They consider
media interests as part of the normal planning process and work to ensure
that information presented to the news media is accurate, timely, and consis-
tent with operations security. Since the media will likely arrive in the urban
area before the conduct of operations, early deployment of PA assets may be
critical. Commanders synchronize PA activities with CMO and PSYOP. Such
action eliminates duplicated effort and ensures a unity of purpose consistent
with the IO concept of support (see Chapter 4 for more details involving IO
and PA during UO).
2-67. Failure to provide sufficient information can hamper a commander’s
ability to conduct the mission. Poor relationships with the media can result
in inaccurate and even biased reporting. Such reporting can cause a public
reaction that influences the ability to achieve operational objectives. During
the Russian 1994-95 battle against Chechen separatists in Grozny, for
example, the Russian military refused to communicate with reporters. The
media reported primarily from the perspective of the Chechen rebels. This
encouraged both local and international support for the rebels. It also allowed
the Chechens, who lacked sophisticated information systems, to use the
media to broadcast operational guidance to their forces. (During their second
Chechnya campaign of 1999-2000, Russia learned this lesson well and the
Russian view of the war dominated domestic public opinion.) On the other
hand, successfully engaging the media can serve as a force multiplier. The
Army’s open and responsive interaction with the media during peacekeeping
operations in Bosnian urban areas helped to explain the challenges and
successes of Army forces in the Balkans to the public. This helped maintain
domestic, international, and local political support for NATO operations and,
with a successful command information program, helped maintain soldiers’
morale.
2-22
Urban Environment
TRANSPORTATION AND DISTRIBUTION
2-68. This element of the infrastructure consists of—
• Cableways and tramways.
• Networked highways and railways to include bridges, subways and
tunnels, underpasses and overpasses, ferries, and fords.
• Ports, harbors, and inland waterways.
• Airports, seaplane stations, and heliports.
• Mass transit.
• Trucking companies and delivery services that facilitate the movement
of supplies, equipment, and people.
Similar to communications and information, this facet provides the physical
link to all other elements of the infrastructure.
2-69. Army forces deploying into a theater of operations depend on ports and
airfields; seizure of these assets may impact the projection of combat power.
Once in theater, transportation and distribution systems in the urban area
can contribute greatly to the movement of forces, maneuver, and logistic
operations throughout the entire AO. Control of decisive points in this infra-
structure may be important to the military operation and to the normal func-
tioning of the urban area (and surrounding rural areas). Supplies traveling
through the transportation and distribution system may be military-specific
supplies (such as ammunition and repair parts) and supplies for both the
military and urban population (such as food, medicine, oil, and gas). The
system may also support the movement of military forces and the urban
area’s population (for which it was designed). Therefore, commanders of a
major operation may have to develop innovative methods that limit the
transit of threat supplies and reinforcements while facilitating the movement
of their own resources and those of civilians’. This last consideration
attempts to minimize hardship and promote normalcy in the urban area and
will increase in significance as the need for legitimacy increases.
2-70. Most urban areas (particularly in developing countries) have two forms
of transportation systems that exist simultaneously: a formal system and an
informal or paratransit system. Large organizations, bureaucracy, imported
technology, scheduled services, and fixed fares or rates characterize formal
systems. Low barriers to entry; family and individual entrepreneur organiza-
tions; adapted technology; flexible routes, destinations, and times of service;
and negotiated prices characterize the informal system. The informal system
is more decentralized and covers a much greater portion of the urban area
than the formal system. The informal transportation and distribution system
often includes a waterborne element, is more likely to function through
turbulence and conflict, and can extend hundreds of kilometers beyond the
urban area. Accordingly, commanders assess both systems to establish
effective movement control.
ENERGY
2-71. The energy system provides the power to run the urban area. It
consists of the industries and facilities that produce, store, and distribute
electricity, coal, oil, and natural gas. This area also encompasses alternate
energy sources, such as nuclear, solar, hydroelectric, and geothermal power.
2-23
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
2-72. Sources of energy may be tens or hundreds of miles away from the
urban area itself. Therefore, commanders may exert control without applying
combat power directly to the urban area itself by controlling or destroying
the source (power generation or refinement plant) or the method of
distribution (pipe- or power lines). With electrical energy that cannot be
stored in any sizable amount, the latter may be the best means as most major
urban areas receive this energy from more than one source in a network of
power grids. However, control may be as simple as securing a power station
or plant and turning off switches or removing a vital component that could
later be restored. On the other hand, lengthy pipe- and power lines may
compound security and protection of this element of the infrastructure.
2-73. The number of nations that have invested in nuclear power and
nuclear research is increasing. With this increase, the potential for Army
forces to operate in urban areas that include (or are near) these facilities also
increases. Damage to one of these facilities and potential radiation hazards
will present special challenges to commanders of a major operation. To
safeguard friendly forces and civilians, commanders will need to employ a
blend of peacetime and tactical nuclear contamination avoidance principles
(see FM 3-14).
ECONOMICS AND COMMERCE
2-74. This system encompasses—
• Business and financial centers to include stores, shops, restaurants,
hotels, marketplaces, banks, trading centers, and business offices.
• Outlying industrial and agricultural features to include strip malls,
farms, food storage centers, manufacturing plants, and mills.
The latter elements also consist of the production and storage of toxic indus-
trial chemicals used in agriculture (insecticides, herbicides, and fertilizers),
manufacturing, cleaning, and research (to include biological agents). (See
concerns of TIM previously discussed under Industrial Areas.) Recreational
facilities such as amusement parks, golf courses, and stadiums are also part
of this element of the infrastructure. In their overall assessment of this area
of the infrastructure, commanders consider the activities and influence of
criminal organizations or elements.
2-75. A critical aspect of this area during operations may be the political
sensitivity of US or allied industries investing and operating in a foreign
country, particularly during stability operations and support operations. An
enemy or a disgruntled civilian population may attack or disrupt commercial
activities as a political statement against the US or our allies. Food produc-
tion facilities also may assist commanders in Army food services and may be
of critical concern during relief operations.
ADMINISTRATION AND HUMAN SERVICES
2-76. This broad system covers urban administrative organizations
concerned with urban area’s public health, safety, and welfare. It also
includes many organizations and structures that provide the urban populace
with its social identity. Together, it encompasses—
2-24
Urban Environment
• Governmental services that include embassies and diplomatic organi-
zations.
• Activities that manage vital records, such as birth certificates and
deeds.
• The judicial system.
• Welfare systems.
• Schools and universities.
• Religious organizations and their churches and shrines.
• Historic monuments and other cultural resources.
• Hospitals and other medical services.
• Water supply systems.
• Waste and hazardous material storage and processing facilities.
• Emergency services, such as police, fire, and rescue.
2-77. Losing many of these services often has an immediate, destabilizing,
and life-threatening impact on the inhabitants of the urban area. In stability
operations and support operations, numerous administrative and human ser-
vices often rise to critical importance before all other elements. However, res-
toration of these services is often a lengthy civil-military operation.
Seeing the Urban Area and Its Parts
The summer of 1944 confronted German General Dietrich von Choltitz with a
dilemma. As military commander of greater Paris, he was to eliminate French
Resistance internal to the city while defending against approaching Allied units,
missions for which he had insufficient forces. Choltitz’s situation was further
complicated by Hitler’s demand that he destroy the city, an action the general
saw as needlessly destructive (and infeasible given his scant resources).
Choltitz’s seniors directed the preparation, and later the destruction, of Paris’s
45 Seine River bridges. They were the only remaining crossing points over that
waterway given Allied bombing of others outside the French capital. Premature
destruction would trap German forces defending to their north, a second-order
effect that Choltitz used to justify his disobedience of orders demanding the
bridges’ demolition.
The German general also recognized that some mission-critical elements were
part of Paris’s social rather than physical infrastructure: the leadership of the
various resistance groups and the relationships between them. Choltitz under-
stood that he lacked resources to defeat the many separate factions; he
therefore chose the unorthodox (asymmetric) approach of accepting an inter-
mediary’s offer of a truce with these groups. Such an agreement provided some
measure of the stability needed while Choltitz awaited promised reinforcements.
Further, he realized that the resistance factions were by no means united in
their goals. Communist elements sought a much different end than those
looking toward a de Gaulle-led postwar government. A truce thus set the French
Communists (who sought an uprising so as to legitimize their claims to power)
against others trying to buy time until Allied forces arrived, forces that included
Free French units supportive of de Gaulle.
2-25
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
2-26
Although his defense of the capital failed, Choltitz succeeded in harboring his
available resources, reducing the effectiveness of the resistance organizations
fighting his soldiers, and maintaining withdrawal routes for units north of the
Seine. The German commander’s analysis in support of these efforts was
effective in part because of his insightful (1) identification of critical points that
included elements of terrain, citizenry, and infrastructure; (2) understanding of
the relationships between these parts; and (3) use of an asymmetric approach
to address his lack of sufficient force to otherwise handle the densities that
challenged him.
Chapter 3
Urban Threat
. . . [T]he United States could be forced to intervene in unexpected
crises against opponents with a wide range of capabilities. Moreover,
these interventions may take place in distant regions where urban
environments, other complex terrain, and varied climatic conditions
present major operational challenges.
Quadrennial Defense Review Report, 30 September 2001
As the strategic environment has become less stable, more uncertain, and
more dangerous, Army forces are trained and ready to address urban
threats. These threats range from regional conventional military forces,
paramilitary forces, guerrillas, and insurgents to terrorists, criminal
groups, and angry crowds. Although uncertain about events, Army forces
can be clear about trends. Increasingly, the Army will face threats that
severely differ in doctrine, organization, and equipment, yet can fully in-
teract with the three other components of the urban battlefield—terrain,
society, and infrastructure. In stability operations and support operations,
commanders broaden their concept of the threat to include natural
disasters, hunger and starvation, and rampant disease. Further, com-
manders plan to contend with many passive urban threats, such as
psychological illnesses and toxic industrial materials (TIM). These threats
may be found in isolation, but most likely commanders will encounter
them in various combinations. Moreover, each new threat will pose a
different combination and likely have new capabilities that previous oppo-
nents lacked.
CONTENTS
Asymmetry .................................................... 3-2
Weapons of Mass Destruction .................... 3-2
Threat Operational Principles ..................... 3-3
Deny Access ............................................. 3-3
Neutralize Technology Overmatch ......... 3-4
Control the Tempo.................................... 3-4
Change the Nature of the Conflict .......... 3-5
Cause Politically Unacceptable
Casualties................................................. 3-5
Allow No Sanctuary.................................. 3-5
Conduct Dispersed and Decentralized
Operations................................................ 3-6
Urban Threat Tactics.................................... 3-6
Use the Population to Advantage ........... 3-6
Win the Information War ..........................3-9
Manipulate Key Facilities .......................3-10
Use All Dimensions ................................3-10
Employ Urban-Oriented Weapons ........ 3-10
Engage Entire Enemy Force ..................3-11
Focus Attacks on Support Areas,
Isolated Groups, and Individuals .........3-11
Negative Effects of Urbanization ..............3-11
General Instability................................... 3-12
Food and Water Shortages ....................3-13
Disease and Pollution ............................3-14
Competing Power Structures ................3-15
3-1
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
ASYMMETRY
3-1. An emphasis on asymmetric means to offset United States (US) military
capability has emerged as a significant trend among potential threats and
become an integral part of the threat principles and tactics discussed below.
Asymmetry results when one opponent has dissimilar capabilities—values,
organization, training, or equipment—that the other cannot counter. It is not
a new concept. It naturally evolves from a sound mission, enemy, terrain and
weather, troops and support available, time available, civil considerations
(METT-TC) analysis by an intelligent, freethinking, and adaptive threat.
These asymmetric approaches will include the most advanced, commercially-
available technology innovatively applied and mixed with crude, simple, and
unsophisticated weapons, tactics, techniques, and procedures.
WEAPONS OF MASS DESTRUCTION
3-2. A chief asymmetric means of engaging the national power of the US is to
employ weapons of mass destruction (WMD) against the US or its allies.
These weapons can be used against military forces by military forces and
include high-yield explosives as well as nuclear, biological, and chemical
weapons. Operations in urban areas may require concentrating forces and
may create a lucrative target for a threat that possesses fewer numbers and
less equipment.
3-3. A threat’s WMD use will adversely affect the Army’s abilities to conduct
urban operations (UO) to various degrees. For example, the intervening
structures and the effects of urban microclimates complicate the ability to
detect and identify radiological, chemical, or biological attacks from a
standoff distance. Also, the individual soldier’s ability to recognize his
leaders, understand oral and visual commands, and operate increasingly
sophisticated equipment is difficult when wearing protective clothing and
equipment—particularly if his training proficiency is low. Despite the
increased challenges and complexity, Army forces have the training and
equipment necessary to respond to such an attack compared to most armies
around the world, but certainly when compared to the civilian sector.
3-4. Although initial casualties could be high, the public can accept military
casualties before those of civilians. Therefore, threats may gain an initial tac-
tical advantage but would achieve less asymmetric benefit by directly at-
tacking Army forces. They may attempt to achieve an extraordinary asym-
metric strategic advantage by employing WMD against US or allied civilian
populations. In doing so, threats hope to use political sensitivity to high
civilian casualties to reduce popular support for the US or its allies. The
chance of these attacks occurring in an urban area increases because—
• The area facilitates weapons’ effects and camouflages delivery means.
• The dense civilian population ensures a high casualty rate.
• The attack (or even the threat of attack) often will receive more
publicity and public attention.
• The urban area’s infrastructure is especially vulnerable to WMD, par-
ticularly the systems of the economics and commerce infrastructure
located in large urban areas, and may have far-reaching national and
global effects.
3-2
Urban Threat
THREAT OPERATIONAL PRINCIPLES
3-5. The threat may apply
several key operational prin-
ciples to oppose Army forces
operating in an urban envi-
ronment (see Figure 3-1).
These principles focus more
on how a threat might fight
in an urban area rather than
specifically whom the threat
might be or in what region of
the world the conflict might
occur. They are more effec-
tive in an urban environment
due to—
• The high costs in time,
material, and man-
power involved in UO.
• The limiting effects of
urban areas on many technological advantages.
Deny
Access
Neutralize Technology
Overmatch
Conduct Dispersed
and Decentralized
Actions
Control the Tempo
Change the Nature
of the Conflict
Allow No Sanctuary
Cause Politically
Unacceptable
Casualties
Figure 3-1. Threat Operational Principles
• The proximity of airfields and ports to urban areas.
• The potential moral dilemmas created by exposing numerous civilians
to harm or injury.
These principles complement and overlap each other; however, at their core
is the need to defeat an enemy of superior numbers, technology, or both.
DENY ACCESS
3-6. The Army may not be located where future conflicts are fought. Thus,
the Army maintains the ability to rapidly project and sustain combat power
over long distances and time spans. This capability demands that Army forces
quickly gain and maintain control of seaports or aerial ports of embarkation or
debarkation, particularly where the density of US basing and en route
infrastructure is low. Commanders gain control of these ports by unopposed
(assisted or unassisted) or forcible entry operations. In either case, these
phased-entry operations may present potential vulnerabilities, particularly—
• Unsuitable composition of initial or early entry forces lacking
necessary combat power for immediate decisive operations.
• Initial command and control difficulties and an immature situational
understanding.
• Lack of developed theater support.
3-7. Consequently, threats may attack during initial force projection opera-
tions to oppose, disrupt, or prevent the build-up of essential combat power
into a theater of operations. These attacks may occur anywhere deploying
Army forces are located, at overseas bases, at home stations, and even in
military communities. Increasingly, deployment facilities such as airfields
and ports exist as integral components of urban areas. Threats will invariably
use the complex and concealing nature of these urban areas, coupled with the
vulnerabilities, to create favorable conditions for their attacks.
3-3
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
NEUTRALIZE TECHNOLOGY OVERMATCH
3-8. Threats will always strive to force engagements at a time and place
most advantageous to them. They may locate military forces and vital
military capabilities in urban areas to achieve sanctuary from the effects of
Army capabilities and make Army forces and systems more vulnerable to
less-sophisticated weapons.
3-9. The clutter of the physical structures, electromagnetic radiation, and
population diminishes Army capabilities. This clutter makes it difficult for
Army forces to acquire and effectively engage targets at long ranges. In
urban areas, the terrain often allows a threat to operate in closer proximity
to friendly forces. Therefore, the threat may “hug” friendly forces to avoid the
effects of high-firepower standoff weapon systems and degrade their ability
to gain or maintain a thorough common operational picture. Additionally,
this threat tactic attempts to inhibit friendly commanders from employing
some weapon systems and munitions for fear of fratricide.
CONTROL THE TEMPO
3-10. Threats will try to achieve a decisive advantage by setting and con-
trolling the tempo necessary to achieve their objectives. To prevent the
Army’s entry into theater, threats may try to create a high operational tempo
to take advantage of the inherent weaknesses in power projection operations
outlined earlier. As other efforts deny entry, threats may seize the initiative,
achieve surprise, and exploit the tempo differential by attacking with heavy
conventional forces potentially possessing greater firepower and more rapid
ground mobility than the Army’s initial-entry forces.
3-11. If they cannot deny entry or end the conflict quickly, threats may use
any preparations made in the initial high-tempo period to prolong the event,
aiming to degrade US or allied commitment. The complex nature of the urban
environment slows operations conducted in and around these areas. Threats
may maximize this characteristic by fighting for key urban complexes and
infrastructure, forcing friendly forces to operate within these areas. If Army
operations focus on one or more urban areas, the overall campaign slows.
However, even when UO make up only one component of a much larger
campaign, they may consume valuable resources needed for other operations
and delay the entire campaign.
Tempo
The battle for Aachen, Germany, in the fall of 1944, developed during the US
First Army’s offensive to breach the Westwall fortifications. Aachen, the ancient
capital of Charlemagne, had symbolic political and psychological significance for
the Germans and Americans. Furthermore, it was the first city on German soil to
face an assault by the Allies. Consequently, the symbolic importance of this first
major battle in Germany ensured bitter resistance against American attackers.
The Germans surrendered only after the city was destroyed. Expected to take a
few days, instead, the battle took weeks. Although the Army had achieved a
clear tactical victory, the German defense of Aachen cost the First Army valuable
time and resources, and delayed the planned attack to the Rhine River.
3-4
Urban Threat
CHANGE THE NATURE OF THE CONFLICT
3-12. Threats may attempt to change the fundamental nature of the urban
conflict to exploit ambiguous or tenuous political-military objectives. Many
nations gain and maintain domestic popular support to use their armies for
political objectives. The threat may attempt to change the nature of the con-
flict by modifying its strategy and tactics, the environment, or any combina-
tion, ultimately hoping to reduce friendly popular support. For example,
introducing an urban terrorist threat to US civilians or soldiers not directly
engaged in operations changes the nature of the conflict. This type of threat
may not have been an initial consideration, and this change may reverse pub-
lic support for the operation. Another example, growing US coalition combat
power may cause the threat to switch from open maneuver warfare to UO to
avoid decisive combat with superior forces and achieve a stalemate. Origi-
nally expecting a quick solution or victory, the political leadership may now
envision a longer deployment with less chance of lasting success.
CAUSE POLITICALLY UNACCEPTABLE CASUALTIES
3-13. Threat forces may gain an advantage against superior friendly forces
by capitalizing on a perceived weakness of many Western nations: the
inability to endure continuous losses or casualties for other than vital
national interests or losses for which they are psychologically unprepared. A
secondary US interest may equate to national survival on the part of a
threat. Therefore, the threat (particularly with fanatical leadership) may
willingly sacrifice excessive amounts of money, equipment, and people
(soldiers and civilians) to achieve victory. Threats may attempt to weaken US
resolve and national will to sustain the deployment or conflict by inflicting
highly visible, embarrassing, and if possible, large losses on Army forces,
even at the cost of similar losses to themselves. Many threat forces will use
UO to inflict mass casualties and destroy premier Army weapon and
information systems. The physical characteristics of the urban environment
support these ambush techniques. Light infantry or insurgents with readily
obtainable, hand-held antiarmor weapons can effectively attack armored
vehicles and helicopters, no matter how sophisticated, in an urban area.
ALLOW NO SANCTUARY
3-14. Threats will attempt to deny Army forces safe haven anytime and any-
where. Terrorism may be one of the tactics used to deny sanctuary to Army
forces. They will attack Army forces anywhere, particularly while operating
in urban areas where the fear from being attacked from any quarter is often
greater. Threats may be or employ state-sponsored or independent terrorists,
well equipped and motivated to accomplish their assigned missions.
3-15. Military buildings, facilities, and installations in urban areas are par-
ticularly vulnerable to high-yield explosive munitions as well as other clever
means to create large explosions. The close-in nature of urban areas, large
populations, and high volume of vehicle traffic provide a good environment
for target reconnaissance, explosives positioning (conventional or high-yield),
and cover for an attack. These attacks will likely be preceded by extensive,
careful reconnaissance, necessitating a solid friendly counterterrorism and
counterintelligence effort.
3-5
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
CONDUCT DISPERSED AND DECENTRALIZED OPERATIONS
3-16. To a certain extent, dispersed and decentralized operations are an
integral part of all threat principles. However, this concept warrants separate
emphasis as a principle since threat forces will likely place great significance
on it on future urban battlefields. Both dispersed and decentralized
approaches seek to reduce threat vulnerabilities to air power and precision-
guided munitions (PGM) while increasing their agility, flexibility, and overall
maneuverability in an urban environment.
3-17. Urban terrain tends to fragment and separate forces that operate in it.
Threat forces recognize this characteristic, accept it, and make it work to
their advantage. They conduct operations from dispersed urban locations to
reduce their vulnerability to friendly decisive operations and massed fire-
power. Although separated, threat forces will attempt to retain the ability to
assemble and mass quickly so to strike as opportunities present themselves.
Once threat forces complete the operation, they will return to separate loca-
tions to avoid potential counterattack. The fluidity and seemingly disjointed
appearance of these threat UO will challenge friendly efforts to conduct
templating and pattern analysis. Ambushes (air and ground) will be used to
deny friendly ground and air reconnaissance of their dispersed locations.
3-18. Dispersed operations normally depend on good command and control to
achieve synchronization and massed effects. Threat forces also understand
the debilitating effects of the urban terrain on communications and the exe-
cution of operations. When they cannot mass their forces or effects, they will
depend on decentralized operations to achieve their objectives. They will op-
erate autonomously, guided only by a higher authority’s purpose and intent.
These operations make them even less vulnerable to massed attacks and
PGM as smaller threat forces do not present an objective or target that will
allow friendly decisive operations. Again, pattern analysis and templating
will be extremely difficult. Using this principle often prolongs the conflict but
is central to implementing the other threat principles.
URBAN THREAT TACTICS
3-19. Urban areas provide a casualty-producing and stress-inducing environ-
ment ideally suited for using specific urban threat tactics. Moreover, urban
areas provide threats with an unmatched degree of cover and concealment
from friendly information and firepower systems. While active urban threats
may vary widely, many techniques will be common to all. Figure 3-2 outlines
a set of threat tactics available to potential threats opposing mission accom-
plishment in urban areas. Army forces may use many of the threat tactics,
except those that violate the law, ethics, and morals, to defeat urban threats.
Moreover, using asymmetric means is not the sole domain of the threat.
Army commanders can also leverage capabilities, create conditions, and plan
operations to develop asymmetric advantages to accomplish the mission.
USE THE POPULATION TO ADVANTAGE
3-20. Many urban areas may be too large to evacuate completely (if at all).
Even if desirable, a military force may have no place to safeguard and secure
the inhabitants. Therefore, future UO may see large segment of the populace
3-6
Urban Threat
3-7
remain. Offensive and defensive operations may be constrained not only by
the terrain and by the presence of many civilians. Army forces involved in
urban stability operations and support operations will certainly conduct
missions in and amongst the residents. These residents may restrict
operations and, when gathered in large numbers, may (even without initial
hostile intent) present a critical force protection issue for the commander.
Figure 3-2. Urban Threat Tactics
•Use the Population to
Advantage
•Win the Information War
•Manipulate Key Facilities
•Use All Dimensions
•Employ Urban-Oriented
Weapons
•Engage Entire Enemy Force
•Focus Attacks on Support
Areas, Isolated Groups, and
Individuals
ENEMY
ENEMY
Use as Key Terrain and Concealment
Chechen fighters sometimes disguised
themselves as Red Cross workers,
donning the identifying armbands.
They also passed themselves off as
civilians and offered to guide Russian
forces through the city, instead
leading them into ambushes.
Olga Oliker
Russia’s Chechen Wars 1994
-
2000
3-21. From the threat stand-
point, the populace is similar to
key terrain: the side that man-
ages it best has an advantage.
Threat forces may gain this ad-
vantage by using civilians as
camouflage, concealment, and
a means of deception. Guerrilla
and terrorist elements may
look no different from any
other member of the commu-
nity. Many foreign conventional and paramilitary troops often have a
“civilian” look. Western military forces originally adopted the clean-shaven
and close-cut hair standards to combat disease and infection, but future oppo-
nents may not adhere to those standards. They may adopt grooming
standards, civilian-looking clothing, and other “nonmilitary” characteristics
to make themselves indistinguishable from the civilians.
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
Identifying Soldiers from Civilians
During Russia’s 1994-95 conflict with Chechnya, Russian forces had difficulty
identifying Chechen guerrilla forces from Grozny’s noncombatant population.
Because their appearance was identical to that of the urban populace, Chechen
soldiers could freely walk around the city, suddenly disappear, and then abruptly
reappear firing their weapons from basements, windows, or dark alleyways. To
distinguish fighters from peaceful city dwellers, Russian forces began looking at
men’s shoulders to see if they were bruised (from firing weapons) and their
forearms to see if there was burned hair or flesh (from the extraction of
cartridges). They closely examined their clothing and smelled for gunpowder
residue. To identify a Chechen artilleryman, Russian soldiers checked for glossy
spots left by artillery and mortar rounds on the bends and cuffs of sleeves. They
also turned pockets inside out to check for a shiny, silvery-leaden hue indicating
the former presence of small arms ammunition. Russian forces also recognized a
grenade launcher operator or mortar man from fibers and crumpled pieces of gun
cotton on their clothing. US Army commanders may need to develop similar,
imaginative means to identify the threat.
Gain Cover, Protection, and Increased Mobility
3-22. Threat forces may attempt to gain cover by using the urban inhabitants
as human shields. With this increase in protection, they simultaneously
increase their mobility. They recognize the Army’s focus on developing and
applying rules of engagement (ROE). They will take advantage of the
restraining effects of international law and the Army ethical values to
enhance their mobility in proximity to friendly positions. Knowing the
Army’s reluctance to cause noncombatant casualties and collateral damage,
threats may operate in areas containing civilians and essential facilities to
restrict the Army’s use of massed or nonprecision firepower. They may also
employ “rent-a-crowds”—civilians paid to demonstrate against military
forces—armed only with sticks, stones, and Molotov cocktails (a potential
asymmetric challenge).
Make Moral Responsibilities a Weakness
3-23. Depending on their successes, threats may use these tactics and skillful
information operations that attack national will and coalition sensitivities in
an attempt to force the Army to establish more restrictive ROE. Threat forces
may also take advantage of the Army’s moral responsibilities. By herding
refugees into friendly controlled areas, threat forces try to make the civilians
a burden on the Army’s logistic and security resources. Threat forces, on the
other hand, may not abide by international agreements, such as the Geneva
conventions. They may not take prisoners unless they can be ransomed or
made part of a local prisoner exchange. They may even execute friendly
prisoners in front of the media to show their “strength” and, more impor-
tantly, to cause friendly forces to overreact and lose their legitimacy. Threat
forces can then use such an overreaction to unite others with their cause.
Acquire Intelligence and Logistic Support
3-24. Indigenous threat forces can normally use the local population for intel-
ligence and logistic support far more effectively than can an alien army.
3-8
Urban Threat
Threat forces may manipulate local hires serving among US soldiers, such as
those contracted by the Army for base operation purposes or translator
duties. In addition, refugees moving through friendly controlled sectors may
provide the threat with information on friendly dispositions, readiness, and
intent. Even friendly residents may become unwitting or unwilling inform-
ants, providing an enemy or a hostile with vital information on friendly
activities, dispositions, and capabilities. However, a threat employing
particularly cruel, abusive, or repressive measures may easily turn certain
groups in the urban area against them, even when they share a common
history, culture, and ethnicity with the civilians. This is more likely in those
areas with high population densities.
3-25. Threat forces may also seek to use some nongovernmental organiza-
tions (NGOs). They may try to obtain relief supplies either through the
organizations’ legitimate relief operations or as a target for theft. Some
organizations may even be fronts for weapons, food, ammunition, money, and
fighters. For example, during Russia’s second conflict in Chechnya (1999-
2000), documents purportedly found in Grozny by the Russians listed nations
such as Sudan, Nigeria, Niger, and Ivory Coast as sending fighters to
Chechnya under the guise of the International Islamic Relief Organization.
(Chechen fighters also disguised themselves as Red Cross workers.) This
deception increases the need for strict security and force protection
measures, close coordination with NGOs operating in urban areas, and closer
monitoring of suspect organizations’ activities by civil affairs personnel.
WIN THE INFORMATION WAR
3-26. Threat forces will try to win the information war as much as they will
directly oppose Army UO. Threat urban campaigns need not be tactical mili-
tary successes. They need only to weaken legitimacy and make the opposi-
tion’s campaign appear unpalatable to domestic and world support. As a
critical part of their overall information operations, threats will use the ever-
present media to tell their story. Portable video cameras, commercial radios,
and cellular telephones, available and easily concealed, will be as important
to many threat actors as weapons and ammunition. Internet access, already
firmly established in many urban areas, provides the means to easily
disseminate threat propaganda, misinformation, and disinformation through
web sites and electronic mail. Hackers, covered and concealed in the interior
spaces of the urban area, may gain access to US sites to manipulate infor-
mation to the threat’s advantage.
Information and the Media
The media coverage of the urban battle for Hue, South Vietnam, although only
one of hundreds of different attacks of the Tet Offensive, affected the will of both
the American people and their political leadership. On January 31, 1968, two
North Vietnamese Army (NVA)/Vietcong (VC) regiments and two sapper
battalions, moving rapidly and with the element of surprise, attacked and seized
part of the walled city (Citadel) of Hue. It was the third largest city in South
Vietnam, the former capital of a united Vietnam, the capital of Thua Thien
province, and a spiritual and cultural center. Initially intending to hold the city for
3-9
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
seven days, the NVA/VC retained portions of the city for approximately three
weeks against determined US and South Vietnamese attempts to retake it.
Hue marked a revolution in the coverage of war by modern media. It was the first
time Americans could sit at home and watch an ongoing battle on the evening
news. One of the most intense and savage battles of the Vietnam conflict, it was
televised every evening for almost a month. Although the battle for Hue was a
tactical victory for the US, the North Vietnamese clearly achieved strategic
success by searing the American consciousness with the high costs of urban
warfare. Had US leaders made winning the information war a central part of the
overall campaign plan—for example, exposing the American people to the NVA’s
brutality by publicizing the civilian executions in Hue—civilian support for the war
may have been bolstered and a different outcome achieved. See Chapter 6 for a
more detailed account of the battle for Hue.
MANIPULATE KEY FACILITIES
3-27. Threat forces will attempt to identify and quickly seize control of criti-
cal components of the urban area to help shape the battlespace. Urban tele-
phone exchanges, for example, provide simple and reliable communications
that can be easily secured with off-the-shelf technologies. Sewage treatment
plants and flood control machinery can be used to implement WMD
strategies or to make sections of the urban area uninhabitable. Media
stations significantly improve the information operations abilities of the
controlling force. Power generation and transmission sites provide means to
control significant aspects of civilian society over a large area.
USE ALL DIMENSIONS
3-28. Threats will think and operate throughout the depth, breadth, and
height (including supersurface and subsurface areas) of the urban environ-
ment. Conventional lateral boundaries will often not apply as threat forces
control some stories of the same building while friendly forces control others.
3-29. Intrasurface areas and roofs provide urban threats with excellent
observation points and battle positions above the maximum elevation of
many weapons. Shots from upper floors strike armored vehicles in vulnerable
points. Basements and other subsurface areas also provide firing points
below many weapons’ minimum depressions and strike at another weakness
in most armor. Sewers and subways may provide covered and concealed
access throughout the area of operations.
EMPLOY URBAN-ORIENTED WEAPONS
3-30. Whether purpose-built or adapted, many weapons are more useful in
an urban environment while others may have significant disadvantages.
Urban threat weapons are much like the nature of urbanization and the ur-
ban environment: inventive and varied. Many threats will integrate widely
available off-the-shelf technologies into their weapon systems and armed
forces. However, sniper rifles and small, man-portable, fire-and-forget
weapons and demolitions and other improvised explosive devices will likely
dominate the urban environment. Figure 3-3 lists examples of threat
weapons favored in UO.
3-10
Urban Threat
ENGAGE ENTIRE ENEMY FORCE
Weapons With No Minimum
Depression or Maximum
Elevation
Mortars
Grenade Launchers
(Automatic and Rifle-
Mounted)
RPGs and Other Shoulder-Fired
Antiarmor Weapons
Weapons With Little or No Backblast
(Gas-Metered, Soft Launch, or
Recoilless)
Sniper Rifles
Machine
Guns
Grenades
Mines, Booby Traps,
and Other
Improvised
Explosive Devices
Flame, Incendiary, and Blast
Weapons (Thermobaric and Fuel-
Air Explosives)
Riot Control and
Tranquilizer Gases
Figure 3-3. Favored Threat Weapons
3-31. Threats may
attempt to keep all or
significant portions of
Army forces engaged in
continuous operations to
increase their suscepti-
bility to stress-induced
illnesses. UO, by their
nature, produce an
inordinate number of
combat-stress casual-
ties. Continuous opera-
tions exacerbate this
problem. Threat forces
that employ this tactic
will often maintain a large reserve to minimize the psychological impacts on
their own forces.
3-32. To accomplish this, threat UO will likely involve decentralized maneu-
ver, precision fires, and simultaneous operations involving unconventional
and special purpose forces. Threat forces will take advantage of any exposed
weakness and engage in battles as opportunities present themselves.
FOCUS ATTACKS ON SUPPORT AREAS, ISOLATED GROUPS, AND INDIVIDUALS
3-33. To supplement the previous tactic, threat forces will seek to target sup-
port areas, small groups, leaders and their headquarters, and individual
soldiers. Their focus on resupply, casualty evacuation, and other sustainment
activities, coupled with the compartmented terrain, navigational challenges,
and multiple three-dimensional avenues of approach often makes these
locations and soldiers more susceptible to surprise raids and ambushes.
Attacks on these areas and groups are conducted to erode the Army’s ability
to sustain UO, to inflict maximum casualties, and to induce psychological
stress. These attacks can be mitigated by careful, regular evaluation of choke
points and other restrictive terrain, regular awareness training for units and
individuals operating in or transiting through potential incident-prone areas,
and thorough after-action analysis of incidents.
NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF URBANIZATION
3-34. Many urban areas are the engines for increased industrialism and eco-
nomic growth as an expanding population provides the labor for manufac-
turing and service needs. However, rapid and inadequately planned growth
can result in undesirable consequences. Uncontrolled urbanization may
result in an infrastructure and economic base unable to support the growing
population. A large transient, ill-housed, and idle population in a close geo-
graphic space may produce strife. Classes, cultures, ethnic groups, and races
that might otherwise peacefully coexist can clash under the stress of sur-
vival. Uncontrolled urban growth has resulted in the negative effects listed in
Figure 3-4 on page 3-12. In many urban stability operations and support
operations, these may be the primary “threats” to mission accomplishment.
3-11
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
3-35. Not all urban
areas prevail as inher-
ently unstable or hot-
beds for unrest. Urban
growth due to migration
may remove sources of
conflict, or it may
provide the catalyst for
violence. Commanders
recognize the possible
effects of uncontrolled
urbanization. During
their intelligence prepa-
ration of the battlefield
(IPB), they determine if
these conditions exist. Throughout mission analysis and the development of
courses of action, commanders consider the impact (if any) on their opera-
tions. At the same time, they recognize that UO may create similar problems
that may affect the current operation as well as the overall campaign.
Negative
Negative
Effects of
Effects of
Urbanization
Urbanization
Competing
Power
Structures
Disease &
Pollution
Food & Water
Shortages
General
Instability
Figure 3-4. Negative Effects of Urbanization
GENERAL INSTABILITY
3-36. Urbanization can enhance stability by generating industrialization and
economic growth resulting in more jobs, a higher overall standard of living,
and an educated, relatively satisfied populace. However, the population dy-
namics associated with urbanization can also have an opposite, destabilizing
effect. Radical population growth may create overcrowding and generate or
aggravate resource and quality of life issues. Intense and destructive compe-
tition for employment, housing, and social status may develop in this climate
of economic deprivation. The inability of some governments to handle these
problems—
• Makes their urban areas potential sources of unrest.
• Increases the likelihood of the Army’s involvement in stability
operations and support operations.
• Complicates operations conducted in such an urban environment.
Weak civil administrations have difficulty controlling their society, safe-
guarding their military armaments, and preventing their urban areas from
serving as sanctuaries to terrorists and criminal organizations.
3-37. Urbanization in developing countries warrants more concern. Their re-
sources necessary for urban growth are scarce and the rate of urbanization
disproportionately large. Between 1970 and 1993, the urban population of
developed countries grew by 208 million compared to 910 million in the de-
veloping countries of the world. Over the next two decades, developing coun-
tries are projected to gain another 1.6 billion inhabitants, 72 percent more
than in the previous two decades. Figure 3-5 graphically portrays the
widening demographic differences between the developed and developing
regions. Each day, over 160,000 people in these developing nations migrate to
urban areas. By 2015, 24 of the 30 largest urban areas may exist in the
developing world. Intense migration and growth, coupled with the forced
closeness of people once separated by the rural countryside, may stress
3-12
Urban Threat
already struggling
institutions, hasten
conflict, and lead to
overall instability.
Commanders under-
stand that UO,
depending on the op-
eration, may either
cause massive popu-
lation movement out
of or into urban
areas.
n il
3-38. Urban areas
with a large youth
population may also help to generate conditions for instability. Rural-to-
urban migrants tend to be relatively young. In 1999, Cairo, for example, had
more than 40 percent of its population younger than 15 years. Young urban
populations generate enormous demands for social resources, primarily
education and jobs. Even a strong urban economy may fold under the
economic expectations of a tremendous influx of young migrants. Disorder
and violence may result as hostiles (many nonstate actors) easily mobilize
and manipulate the idle young to act politically and criminally. Urbanization
and population growth are more dangerous when they combine to produce a
cohort of young urban dwellers separated from traditional social controls,
such as village elders and clan leaders.
0
2
4
6
8
10
1996 2010 2030 2050
Populatio (b lions)
Developed
Regions
Developing
Regions
Source: UN Department for Economic and
Social Information and Policy Analysis
Figure 3-5. Worldwide Population Projections
3-39. Ethnic, religious, and other social issues may become the vents for
anger and frustration produced by the high tension of urban life. Major acts
of violence and destruction, such as occurred in 1992 in India, can directly
threaten a nation’s security. Army forces may have to conduct large-scale,
stability operations and support operations to promote peace and protect
national interests. In these cases, all levels of command will be particularly
concerned with maintaining impartiality and perceived legitimacy.
Cultural and Religious Instability
The 1992 bombing of the Babri Masid Mosque in Ayodya, India, enflamed an
already intense cultural and religious rivalry between Hindus and Muslims and
led to rioting throughout many Indian urban areas. Of the 1,500 who died in
conflicts and riots, almost 95 percent died in urban areas. The violence struck
Ahmedabab and Bombay most seriously, with acts of murder, gang rapes, and
arson occurring months after the destruction of the mosque.
FOOD AND WATER SHORTAGES
3-40. Rapid urbanization, primarily in developing nations, may lead to
severe food shortages that could influence Army forces (or lead to their use).
Such shortages may cause instability, massive migration, revolts, or
increased support of armed opposition groups. Armed factions may target
NGOs that supply aid as a means of furthering dissatisfaction among the
populace. In effect, food may become a weapon. Deployed troops may need to
3-13
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
provide or support humanitarian food aid networks to keep the humanitarian
situation from escalating.
3-41. Normally, commanders should use centralized feeding centers as a last
resort. Instead, Army forces should bring the food closest to the population to
encourage civilians to stay in their homes. If safe areas or camps are created,
they should be designed for use over as short a time as is feasible. The
general rule should be to return the urban population to their homes as soon
as possible. Army forces conducting domestic support or foreign humani-
tarian assistance operations that cannot maintain the safe food supplies may
find the frustrations and hostility of the local population focused on them.
3-42. Water shortages (and quality) are becoming a serious problem in many
regions. Commanders operating in an urban environment need to know the
water supply origins and its treatment, purification, distribution, and vul-
nerabilities. Before beginning operations, commanders must know if they are
providing water for the noncombatants as well as their own forces. Across the
range of operations, controlling and protecting a limited water supply is, or
may become, an essential operational consideration during UO.
Food and Water Shortages
Countries as varied as Indonesia and Algeria exported their food surpluses only
two generations ago but now import up to two-thirds of their basic staples. This
cycle has resulted in many countries, which once exported agricultural products,
facing the growing cost of imports to feed their urban populations. Estimates
predict that by the 2010, at least 65 countries (including 30 of Africa’s 51 coun-
tries) may depend completely on food imports. For some countries, it is even
worse. Congo (Zaire), once a net food exporter, now faces mass starvation.
Over the last four decades in China, irrigated farmland has tripled and urban
populations have quintupled. In Indonesia, urban areas such as Jakarta may use
six times more water in 2005 as it did in 1990, and Indonesia currently has
limited capability to meet this increased demand.
DISEASE AND POLLUTION
3-43. Urban areas frequently spawn epidemics; therefore, widespread
disease may pose a significant threat to Army forces that operate there. In
many developing nations, rapid urbanization has occurred without a
corresponding upgrade, expansion, or even development of adequate sewage
and water systems. Some urban areas have only one toilet for every 750
people or more. In these areas, hundreds of thousands live much as they
would in poor villages, yet so confined as to ensure high transmission rates
for airborne, waterborne, sexually transmitted, and contact-transmitted
microbes.
3-44. In urban areas lacking adequate trash and waste management infra-
structure, insect-spread diseases proliferate. Mosquitoes that breed in pol-
luted water, open water tanks, and irrigated urban gardens carry malaria
and dengue fever—the leading causes of sickness and death from infectious
disease in Latin America and Africa. The problem compounds with growing
numbers of bacteria resistant to various antibiotics, a shortage of trained
3-14
Urban Threat
medical personnel, inadequate or insufficient medical facilities and supplies,
and unclean agricultural and food-processing practices.
3-45. Pollution also creates critical health problems in developing areas and
a potential health risk for intervening Army forces. Urban areas in China
have recorded five to ten times the levels of sulfur dioxide found in the air of
urban areas in the developed world. In parts of Poland, toxic waste has so
polluted the land and water that ten percent of the babies have birth defects.
Pollution may cause immediate health problems but more often, the insidious
effects appear months or years after exposure. As discussed earlier, UO may
contribute, either intentionally or unintentionally, to an increase in
pollution. Destruction of industrial complexes that use, produce, and store
hazardous material may produce toxic gas and smoke pollutants that
contributed to significant health concerns to exposed soldiers.
3-46. Commanders initiate combat health support (CHS) planning early, in-
cluding analysis of the medical threat and other critical medical information
requirements during the IPB process. A medical surveillance system monitors
the daily status of Army personnel throughout the operation. In preparation,
all personnel receive a predeployment medical examination. This exam estab-
lishes an accurate baseline health status of the force and ensures that Army
forces do not introduce new diseases to an urban area, possibly exacerbating
the situation. Conversely, soldiers not immune to native viruses or
possessing a weakened immune system due to continuous operations and the
stress associated with UO may put Army forces at a significant disadvantage.
An outbreak of plague during an operation would have an effect similar to a
chemical or biological attack. The closer that Army forces operate to civilians
(the humanitarian assistance operations conducted in Port-au-Prince, Haiti,
and Mogadishu, Somalia, for example), the more probable that these
situations may occur. See Chapter 9 for further CHS considerations.
COMPETING POWER STRUCTURES
3-47. Many groups can exist that become strong enough to rival the power of
the governing officials and eventually turn the urban area into a system of
divergent and competing power structures. These groups can consist of insur-
gent forces, a merchant class or an economic elite, criminal organizations, or
some other significant source of power such as religious organizations, clans,
or tribes. In the absence of a legitimate authority, armed factions headed by
“warlords” may vie to fill the power void. Sometimes these groups or organi-
zations, normally at odds with each other, may form alliances to achieve spe-
cific goals. Commanders recognize, identify, and understand these alternate
urban power bases and, if necessary, develop engagement strategies to
neutralize or harness them to accomplish the Army mission.
Urban Insurgencies
3-48. As urban migration increases in the developing world, rural guerrillas
appear to follow. This transition of insurgencies from rural to urban areas oc-
curs because urban areas offer a rich field of targets for insurgent attacks.
People immediately notice any disruption of urban infrastructure, thus
having great propaganda value. A concentrated urban population is often
more susceptible to propaganda and political organization. Insurgents can
3-15
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
easily arrange mass demonstrations using available communications facili-
ties, both overt and covert. Travel is effortless and large urban populations
provide cover and concealment. On the whole, urban areas may provide a
fertile environment for guerrillas to apply their rural insurgent strategies.
However, even with a rural-based insurgency, operations in urban areas offer
distinct opportunities to disrupt, discredit, and demoralize the government
(see FM 3-05.20 and FM 3-07).
Urban Insurgencies
In Africa, a strategy of capturing urban areas, while trapping government forces
within others, has become a common tactic of insurgent forces. Similarly, insur-
gents in Liberia concentrated their efforts in the capital city of Monrovia while
guerrillas in Sierra Leone have battled the government repeatedly for the urban
diamond mining hubs. Even Shiite rebels in Afghanistan took their conflict with
the government into the heart of Kabul, the capital.
Merchant Class
3-49. Urban areas normally possess a merchant class or an economic elite as
part of their social structure. In some urban areas, they may carry more
power than the local or central state government. They may isolate them-
selves physically and socially from the sprawling poor yet wield enormous
power over the country’s political and economic activities. The degree of eco-
nomic separation between the merchant class and the poor may be small but
still socially or politically significant.
3-50. In a vastly impoverished area where the economy of the urban area is
severely disrupted, the merchant class will often continue to operate and
function and, as a result, achieve a measure of influence. To continue to
operate under acute economic turmoil, they may form alliances in criminal
organizations and secure loyalties within the government. Outside resources
introduced into a crisis area (such as food, water, fuel, and pharmaceuticals)
take on increased value, may replace currency as the medium for exchange,
and often become the means to amass and hold wealth. One of the primary
ways to obtain wealth may be to steal it.
3-51. In some turbulent situations that lead to the need for stability opera-
tions or support operations, commanders may harness the power of the
merchant class as a force for peace and stability instead of one that uses
crime to achieve economic goals. For example, in a relief situation, instead of
competing with the merchant class by distributing food directly to the needy
and possibly creating an environment of looting and black marketeering, it
may be possible to monetize food. Food assistance from donor governments
could be sold to merchants at an attractive price so they have a reliable
source of supply. This could, in turn, create a healthy economic system and
separate merchants from criminals and gangs.
Criminal Organizations
3-52. Organized criminal groups have grown common in urban areas; have
also become an important part of the urban social structure (gangs for ex-
ample); and can exert considerable influence on governments, people, and
3-16
Urban Threat
military forces conducting UO. Some large criminal organizations relying on
international connections often have better resources and equipment than
their insurgent counterparts. Their large financial resources, long-reaching
connections, and ruthlessness provide them the means to corrupt or intimi-
date local officials and government institutions. In any operation, but
especially support operations, they may violently confront and oppose Army
forces during mission execution.
3-53. The tactics of urban criminal groups parallel those of insurgents. They
have developed an intuitive cultural understanding of slum neighborhoods
and the ability to lure civilians into criminal activities. They have also
mastered the management of mobs. They recruit teenagers and young adults
in their efforts against rivals and authorities, just as insurgents muster
armies from the youth of rural villages. In many developing nations, there
exists an alliance between insurgents and organized criminal groups. In
these alliances, the insurgents defend the criminals and the criminals fund
the insurgents. During many UO, particularly during or following combat,
civil disturbances, or large natural disasters, looting (organized or
unorganized) may become of critical concern. Therefore, UO may often
require a combined law enforcement and military response.
Crime and Criminal Organizations
Crime and poverty plague urban areas such as Rio de Janeiro, Brazil’s second
largest urban area and would affect military operations conducted in their limits.
Rio has some of the nation’s highest negative urban indicators: the largest num-
ber of slum dwellers (1 million), the highest murder rate (1 of 700 residents per
year), and the highest kidnapping rate (4 per week). In 1989, the homicide rate of
the urban area was three times higher than New York City’s and the rate of
urban violence continues to rise. Therefore, law enforcement management may
be a critical issue for Army forces operating in urban environments similar to that
of Rio de Janeiro.
However, criminal elements or organizations may not always work against Army
commanders. They can be co-opted or influenced to serve friendly objectives.
For example, during World War II the US Navy worked covertly with the Mafia in
New York City to secure the New York harbor from German U-boats believed to
be torpedoing ships there. The Mafia controlled most dock activities New York
harbor and was perfectly positioned to monitor other subversive waterfront
activity. This capability provided needed information to the Navy for its
counterintelligence and security tasks. New York civil authorities therefore
agreed to permit a Navy-Mafia alliance to operate at the port for the greater good
of the country. Although the Mafia was not the preferred ally of the Navy, it had
the capability to protect US ships and the interest (patriotism) to help in the war
effort. In those circumstances, the temporary alliance worked (see also the
civilian threat discussion in Appendix B).
Warlords
3-54. A characteristic of many recent stability operations and support opera-
tions has been the deterioration or complete collapse of political authority in
the country or urban area in crisis. In some cases, warlords have attempted
3-17
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
to fill the power vacuum (see Appendix C for an example). These individuals
often have no particular claim to legitimacy. Their power issues from their
weapons, not necessarily from their political skills, human services provided,
or popular consent (although they have some popular support to remain in
their relative position of authority). In dealing with these urban warlords
during support operations or stability operations, it may appear that there
are two options: either ignore them completely or work with them visibly or
regularly. Commanders may reduce some of the greater risks involved in
these extremes by adopting a middle-ground approach. Nevertheless, the
technique chosen must clearly support political and military objectives.
3-55. Refusal to acknowledge warlords may increase the threat to Army
forces and NGOs. Their militias may attack Army forces to achieve recogni-
tion or simply due to misunderstanding or inherent friction between armed
forces. On the other hand, dealing with them may provide legitimacy to the
exclusion of other elements of the urban population such as professional
groups (for example, doctors or teachers), religious groups, and traditional
clan or tribal chiefs—which may have a greater claim to legitimacy and
better form the foundation for a reconstituted urban society.
3-56. A compromise between these two extremes may offer the best chance
for success. Commanders generally recognize these warlords or they risk
incidents; however, this recognition can be kept at staff levels to avoid be-
stowing any legitimacy on them. Instead, commanders themselves visibly
meet the other elements of society that have a more legitimate claim to politi-
cal, social, or economic leadership. Inevitably, commanders may need to meet
with warlords. In those circumstances, clan or tribal elders, and others who
represent traditional authority should attend and commanders should ask
for, and give deliberate consideration to, their opinions.
3-18
Chapter 4
Contemplating Urban Operations
We based all our further calculations on the most unfavorable
assumptions: the inevitability of heavy and prolonged fighting in the
streets of Berlin, the possibility of German counter-attacks from
outside the ring of encirclement from the west and south-west,
restoration of the enemy’s defence to the west of Berlin and the
consequent need to continue the offensive.
General of the Army, S. M. Shtemenko
describing the operational level planning for taking Berlin
The Soviet General Staff at War
In any potential situation and in
any area, Army commanders will
likely need to assess the rele-
vance and impact of one or more
urban areas on their operations.
They will also need to determine
whether full spectrum urban
operations (UO) will be essential
to mission accomplishment. UO
may be the commander’s sole
focus or only one of several tasks nested in an even larger operation.
Although UO potentially can be conducted as a single battle, engagement,
or strike, they will more often be conducted as a major operation
requiring joint resources. Such actions result from the increasing sizes of
urban areas. Army commanders of a major urban operation then ensure
that UO clearly support the operational objectives of the joint force
A
major operation
is a series of
tactical actions (battles, en-
gagements, strikes) conducted
by various combat forces of a
single or several services, co-
ordinated in time and place, to
accomplish operational, and
sometimes strategic objectives
in an operational area.
CONTENTS
Necessity of Urban Operations ................... 4-2
Force Strength .......................................... 4-2
Type of Forces .......................................... 4-2
Casualities................................................. 4-3
Munitions and Equipment........................ 4-4
Collateral Damage .................................... 4-4
Time and Momentum................................ 4-4
Vulnerabilities ........................................... 4-5
Escalation.................................................. 4-5
Consider Alternatives and Risk
Reduction Measures................................ 4-6
Characteristics of Major Urban
Operations................................................ 4-7
Joint............................................................4-7
Full Spectrum Operations........................ 4-7
Integration into Land Operations..............4-10
Concept of the Operation...................... 4- 10
Rules of Engagement .............................4-10
Resource Allocation ...............................4-12
Urban ISR.................................................4-13
Information Operations ..........................4-18
Integration of Conventional and
Special Operations Forces ...................4-24
Coordination with Other Agencies ....... 4-25
4-1
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
commander (JFC), requesting and appropriately integrating critical joint
resources. Whether the urban operation is the major operation itself or
one of many tasks in a larger operation, Army commanders assess and
thoroughly shape the conditions so subordinate tactical commanders can
dominate in the complex urban environment.
NECESSITY OF URBAN OPERATIONS
4-1. Early in plan-
ning, commanders of
a major operation
address the necessity
of conducting opera-
tions in urban areas
located throughout
their areas of opera-
tions (AOs). Chap-
ter 1 discussed stra-
tegic and operational
considerations that
compel forces to
operate in urban
areas. These reasons
include the location of
the threat force; cri-
tical infrastructure or
capabilities that are operationally or strategically valuable; the geographic
location of an urban area; and the area’s political, economic, or cultural signi-
ficance. Several considerations exist, that may make UO unnecessary, unwar-
ranted, or inefficient. When determining whether to operate in an urban
environment, commanders consider the operational (and accidental) risks and
balance them with mission benefits. The factors shown in Figure 4-1 high-
light some measures to evaluate the risks associated with UO.
FORCE STRENGTH
4-2. When facing prospective UO, commanders consider if they have troops
available to conduct the operation properly and with acceptable risk. Under
normal circumstances, large urban areas require many forces merely to
establish control. New York City police department has over thirty thousand
officers simply to conduct peacetime law enforcement. Major UO, particularly
those that are opposed, will often require a significant number of forces. If
commanders lack sufficient force to conduct effective operations, they may
postpone or consider not initiating those operations until they have the
necessary strength. Commanders add to their analysis the requirements for
troop strength elsewhere in the AO.
Force
Strength
Force
Strength
Type of
Forces
Type of
Forces
Casualties
Casualties
Munitions
and
Equipment
Munitions
and
Equipment
Collateral
Damage
Collateral
Damage
Time and
Momentum
Time and
Momentum
Escalation
Escalation
ulnerabilities
ulnerabilities
Risk management is the
process of identifying,
assessing, and controlling
risk arising from operational
factors, and making an
informed decision that
balances risk cost with
mission benefits.
Figure 4-1. Risk Management and the Risks
Associated With Urban Operations
V
V
TYPE OF FORCES
4-3. Along with force strength, commanders consider the type of forces
available. This consideration includes an assessment of their level of training
4-2
Contemplating Urban Operations
in urban operations. All UO put a premium on well-trained, dismounted
infantry units. Therefore, Army forces conducting UO should be force tailored
to include a large infantry component. In addition, special operations forces
(SOF) are invaluable in UO. SOF include psychological operations (PSYOP)
and civil affairs (CA) forces. They should always be considered as part of the
task organization.
4-4. UO include combined arms to ensure tactical success in combat.
Although masses of heavy forces are not normally required, successful UO
require all the combined arms capabilities of all Army forces. Even if an
urban operation is unlikely to involve offensive and defensive operations,
field artillery may be essential to force protection. In urban stability opera-
tions and support operations, successful mission accomplishment requires
more robust CA organizations. They are also valuable in urban offensive and
defensive operations. While commanders may have sufficient combat and
combat support forces, they may lack enough combat service support forces to
provide the logistic support to maintain the tempo. Commanders without
balanced types of forces, to include their proficiency in operating in urban
environments, should consider alternatives to UO or delaying UO until
proper force types are trained and available in sufficient numbers.
CASUALTIES
4-5. Casualties in UO are more likely than in operations in other
environments. In urban offense and defense, friendly and threat forces often
engage at close range with little space to maneuver. The urban terrain
provides numerous advantages to the urban defender; higher casualties occur
among troops on the offensive, where frontal assaults may be the only tac-
tical option. Conversely, defenders with limited ability to withdraw can also
suffer high casualties when isolated and attacked. Casualties can be more
difficult to prevent in urban stability operations and support operations
because of the dense complex terrain, the close proximity of the urban popu-
lation, and the possible difficulty in distinguishing friend from foe. The
potential for high casualties and the subsequent need for casualty evacuation
under difficult circumstances make the positioning and availability of
adequate medical resources another important consideration.
4-6. Though casualties occur in all operations, commanders recognize the
likelihood of more casualties during large-scale or high-intensity UO. During
the battle for Hue in 1968, for example, many company-size units suffered
more than 60 percent casualties in only a few days of offensive operations.
Commanders conducting urban stability operations and support operations
know the casualty risk and how it relates to national and strategic objectives.
While a lower risk normally exists in stability operations and support
operations than in offensive and defensive operations, just one casualty may
adversely impact the success of the stability or support mission. A realistic
understanding of the risk and the nature of casualties resulting from UO
critically affect the decisionmaking process. If commanders assess the
casualty risk as high, they ensure that their higher headquarters under-
stands their assessment and that the objectives sought within the urban area
are commensurate with the anticipated risk.
4-3
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
MUNITIONS AND EQUIPMENT
4-7. Offensive and defensive operations in an urban environment put a pre-
mium on certain types of munitions and equipment. Forces may want to use
vast amounts of precision munitions in the urban environment. At the tac-
tical level, they will likely use more munitions than during operations in
other environments. These munitions include—
• Grenades (fragmentation, concussion, stun, riot control, and smoke).
• Mortar ammunition (due to its rate of fire, responsiveness, and high-
angle fire characteristic).
• Explosives.
• Small arms.
Soldiers need access to special equipment necessary to execute small-unit
tactics effectively. In urban stability operations and support operations, this
equipment may include antiriot gear, such as batons, protective clothing, and
other nonlethal crowd control devices. In urban offensive and defensive
operations, special equipment can include sniper rifles, scaling ladders, knee
and elbow pads, and door busters. Soldiers can conduct UO with standard
clothing and military equipment. However, failure to equip them with the
right types and quantities of munitions and special equipment will make
mission success more difficult and costly. When commanders consider
whether to conduct UO, they evaluate the ability of combat service support to
provide the resources (see Chapter 9).
COLLATERAL DAMAGE
4-8. UO require an expanded view of risk assessment. When considering risk
to Army, joint, and multinational forces, commanders analyze the risk to the
area’s population and infrastructure. This comprehensive analysis includes
the second- and third-order effects of significant civil casualties and infra-
structure damage. Collateral damage can influence world and domestic
opinion of military operations and thus directly affect ongoing operations. It
also influences the postconflict physical environment and attitudes of the
population. Negative impressions of the civilian population caused by col-
lateral damage can take generations to overcome. Destroying an urban area
to save it is not a viable course of action for Army commanders. The density
of civilian populations in urban areas and the multidimensional nature of the
environment make it more likely that even accurate attacks with precision
weapons will injure noncombatants. Unavoidable collateral damage of suffi-
cient magnitude may justify avoiding UO, which, though it may be tactically
successful, may run counter to national and strategic objectives.
TIME AND MOMENTUM
4-9. Commanders conducting major operations analyze the time required to
conduct UO successfully. UO can be time consuming and can require large
quantities of resources. The density of the environment, the need for addi-
tional time to conduct a thorough reconnaissance, and the additional stress
and physical exertion imposed on Army forces operating in urban areas con-
sume time and slow momentum. Commanders cannot permit UO conducted
as a shaping operation to divert resources from the decisive operation. Nor
can they allow UO to interrupt critical time lines, unnecessarily slow tempo,
4-4
Contemplating Urban Operations
or delay the overall operation. Threat forces may conduct UO with the pri-
mary purpose of causing these effects. Commanders should avoid or minimize
UO that might delay or disrupt a larger operation to an unacceptable degree.
VULNERABILITIES
4-10. Commanders weigh the potential for increased vulnerabilities when
executing UO. The density of the environment makes protection (safety, field
discipline, force protection, and especially fratricide avoidance) much more
difficult. Forces operating in a large urban area increase their risk of
isolation and defeat in detail. Joint capabilities, such as air power, work less
effectively to support a close urban battle than in some other environments.
Thus, responding to unexpected situations or augmenting disadvantageous
force ratios when applying joint capabilities is significantly more difficult.
Although organized, trained, and equipped for success in any environment,
the Army vulnerability to weapons of mass destruction (WMD) increases
when forces concentrate to conduct UO. Commanders may consider not
committing forces or limiting the size of a force committed to an urban area
because of increased vulnerability to (and likelihood of) attack by WMD.
4-11. Fratricide avoidance is a matter of concern for commanders in all
operations. The complex urban terrain and density of participating forces
coupled with typical battlefield effects—smoke, dust, burning fires—and
weather effects—fog, snow, rain, and clouds—immensely increase the poten-
tial for urban fratricide. Therefore, commanders increase emphasis on fratri-
cide prevention measures during UO. Causes can be procedural, technical, or
a combination of the two and include—
• Combat identification failures due to poor situational understanding,
lack of communication, and short engagement ranges coupled with the
need for quick reaction.
• Location errors involving either the target or enemy forces due to poor
situational understanding.
• Inappropriate command and control and fire support coordinating mea-
sures; a failure to receive, understand, or adhere to these measures.
• Imprecise weapons and munitions effects such as, an antitank round
that penetrates several walls before exploding near friendly forces.
4-12. The effects of fratricide can be devastating to UO and spread deeply
within the Army force. Critical effects include—
• Needless loss of combat power.
• Decreased confidence in leadership, weapons, and equipment. These
lead to a loss in initiative and aggressiveness, failure to use supporting
combat systems, and hesitation to conduct limited visibility operations.
• Disrupted operations and decreased tempo.
• General degradation of cohesion and morale.
ESCALATION
4-13. In the urban environment, Army forces cannot avoid close contact with
enemy forces and civilians that may potentially become hostiles. In urban
stability operations and support operations, commanders consider the chance
of this contact escalating into confrontation and violence, which may become
4-5
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
destabilizing. This consideration may limit or altogether preclude UO using
Army forces.
CONSIDER ALTERNATIVES AND RISK REDUCTION MEASURES
4-14. Since UO are often high risk, commanders should consider courses of
action that provide alternatives. When the objective of an urban operation is
a facility, commanders should consider replicating that facility outside of the
urban area. For example, a critical requirement for an airfield to sustain
operations may lead commanders to consider UO to seize or secure one
located in an urban area. However, if adequate resources exist, Army forces
may build an airfield outside of the urban area and eliminate the need to
conduct the urban operation. Similarly, logistics over-the-shore operations
may be an alternative to seizing a port facility. In some situations, the objec-
tive of UO may be to protect a political organization such as a government.
Relocating the government, its institutions, and its personnel to a safer area
may be possible. Commanders can also design an operation to avoid an urban
area. For example, if an urban area dominates a particular avenue of
approach, use a different avenue of approach. This differs from isolating and
bypassing because the entire operation specifically makes the urban area
irrelevant.
4-15. If commanders execute UO, they assess potential hazards, and then
they develop controls to either eliminate or reduce the risks to Army forces.
The first means to offset risk is always to ensure a thorough understanding
of the urban environment and its effects on operations by all members of the
force. Other measures to bring risk to acceptable levels may include—
• Detailed planning to include thorough intelligence preparation of the
battlefield and appropriate branches and sequels.
• Integrated, accurate, and timely intelligence, surveillance, and
reconnaissance (ISR).
• Clear missions and intent, which includes a well-articulated end state.
• Sufficient reserves and rotation of forces.
• Vigilant physical security precautions to include increased use of bar-
riers and other defenses, particularly when urban areas are used as
support areas.
• Operative communications and other information systems (INFOSYS).
• Effective populace and resources control measures.
• Comprehensive and flexible rules of engagement (ROE) continuously
reviewed to ensure they remain adequate for the situation.
• Sufficient command and control measures and standard marking and
identification techniques. Measures should allow commanders to satis-
factorily control UO and minimize fratricide without unreasonably
restricting subordinate commanders’ ability to accomplish assigned
missions.
• Proper targeting procedures (including effective fire support coordina-
ting measures and a streamlined legal review of targets), positive iden-
tification of targets, and controlled clearance of fires. The goal is
achievement of precise (yet rapid) effects with both lethal and
nonlethal means.
4-6
Contemplating Urban Operations
• Well-synchronized information operations (IO) that begin before intro-
ducing Army forces into the urban environment and well through tran-
sition. Commanders emphasize vigilant operations security (OPSEC)
particularly when operating closely with nongovernmental organiza-
tions (NGOs) and elements of the civilian population.
• Active and effective integrating, synchronizing, and coordinating
among all forces, agencies, and organizations involved in the operation.
• Responsive, sustainable, and flexible urban combat service support.
• Forces well trained in joint, multinational, and combined arms UO.
• Thorough after-action analyses conducted during actual operations as
well as after training exercises. A system exists to allow hard-won,
lessons learned and tactics developed to be immediately passed on to
other units and soldiers—even in the midst of an operation.
CHARACTERISTICS OF MAJOR URBAN OPERATIONS
JOINT
4-16. Major UO are inherently joint. Major United States (US) UO conducted
since World War II have all included multiple services. Often, they may
include a multinational component (see Figure 4-2 on page 4-8). Joint urban
operations (JUOs) in which Army forces are a major component will be land
operations. These operations may take place within the context of a joint
campaign conducted by a joint force land component commander or a joint
task force (JTF) commander. Or they may be an Army operation under an
ARFOR commander who himself operates for a JFC, depending on the
organization of the theater’s joint command structure. In the later case, the
JFC will manage joint issues in the urban area.
4-17. The JFC conducting JUOs will focus on effectively organizing his forces
for UO and tasking them in accordance with their service capabilities. His
guide for the conduct of the JUO will be the joint operational tasks described
in JP 3-0. JP 3-06 will provide the JTF commander specific guidance
regarding the conduct of joint operational tasks in the urban environment.
Army commanders will execute tasks assigned by the JFC and advise him on
using Army forces and capabilities. Army commanders will also ensure that
Army UO are nested within the JFC’s concept of operations. Also, the
ARFOR commander will request support through the JFC from other service
and functional commanders who have urban capabilities critical to the
success of Army UO. See Appendix D for more information on joint
capabilities in an urban environment.
FULL SPECTRUM OPERATIONS
4-18. Army forces will conduct the full range of operations across the spec-
trum of conflict within urban areas. The situation will mandate that one type
of operationoffense, defense, stability, or supportdominates the urban
operation. However, commanders will often find themselves executing all
types of operations—often simultaneously. The mission determines the domi-
nant type of operation, with the other types of Army operations conducted to
shape the AO for mission success.
4-7
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
SEOUL, KOREA 1950
(N A VY )
HUE, REPUBLIC OF VIETNAM, 1968
Note: Only SHADED
units actually
conducted UO in
and around Hue
OPERATION JUST CAUSE, PANAMA 1989
82
XX (–)
16
X
MP
470
X
MI
525
X(–)
MI 96
I I
CA
1
XX (–)
CO SCO M
1109
X
AIR FOR CES
PANA MA
(J O IN T )(N A VY )(AIR FORCE)(A RM Y)(A RM Y)(A RM Y)
Naval gunfire support
provided by the g uided
missile destroyer USS
Lynde McCormic
ADVISOR
3MACV
HQ
ARVN
HQ
I
XXX
(A RVN)
I
XX
(A RVN)
(+ )
(J O IN T )
(A R M Y )
XX
17TAC
AIR X CORPS
(A RMY) (M ARINE) (M ARINE/NAVY )
17 (R O K )
32 (U S)
I I I
7
5
1
I I I
(M ac A rt h ur)
XXX
10
(A R M Y )
HQ
CINC FE
HQ
USS Sicily
USS Badoeng Strait
X CORPS
TROOPS
XX (–)
AT SEA:
12
ASHORE
33 MAG
I I I I I I
JTF
XXX
SO UT H
TF
X-RAY
XX
1
(–)
I I I
1
I I
25
I I
15
I I
11
35
X(–)
4
I I I (–)
XX
7
(–)
L
NAVAL FORCES
PANAMA
SEMPER FI
I I
(M ARINE)X
ATLANTIC
X
AV IAT IO N
XX
PACIFIC
JSOTF
X
BAYONET
(J O IN T )
HQ
MACV
FWD
HQ
MACV
(J O INT )
(JOINT) (M ARINE) (A RMY)
212 CAV
I I
I I
57 CAV
I I
17 CAV
XX
1
X
1
(–)
LANDING
CRAFT
(M AG ) (M AG )
SEOUL, KOREA 1950
(N A VY )
HUE, REPUBLIC OF VIETNAM, 1968
Note: Only SHA DED
units actually
conducted UO in
and around Hue
OPERATION JUST CAUSE, PANAMA 1989
82
XX (–)
16
X
MP
470
X
MI
525
X(–)
MI 96
I I
CA
1
XX (–)
CO SCO M
1109
X
AIR FOR CES
PANA MA
(J O IN T )(N A VY )(AIR FORCE)(A RM Y)(A RM Y)(A R M Y)
Naval gunfire support
provided by the g u ided
missile destroyer USS
Lynde McCormic
ADVISOR
3MACV
HQ
ARVN
HQ
I
XXX
(A RVN)
I
XX
(A RVN)
(+ )
(J O IN T )
(A R M Y )
XX
17TAC
AIR X CORPS
(A RMY) (M ARINE) (M ARINE/NAVY )
17 (R O K )
32 (U S)
I I I
7
5
1
I I I
(M ac A rt h ur)
XXX
10
(A R M Y )
HQ
CINC FE
HQ
USS Sicily
USS Badoeng Strait
X CORPS
TROOPS
XX (–)
AT SEA:
12
ASHORE
33 MAG
I I I I I I
JTF
XXX
SO UT H
TF
X-RAY
XX
1
(–)
I I I
1
I I
25
I I
15
I I
11
35
X(–)
4
I I I (–)
XX
7
(–)
L
NAVAL FORCES
PANAMA
SEMPER FI
I I
(M ARINE)X
ATLANTIC
X
AV IAT IO N
XX
PACIFIC
JSOTF
X
BAYONET
(J O IN T )
HQ
MACV
FWD
HQ
MACV
(J O INT )
(JOINT) (M ARINE) (ARM Y)
212 CAV
I I
I I
57 CAV
I I
17 CAV
XX
1
X
1
(–)
LANDING
CRAFT
(M AG ) (M AG )
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
4-8
Figure 4-2. Organization of Historic Joint Urban Operations
4-8
Contemplating Urban Operations
Offense
4-19. Against a large conventional enemy in a major urban area with a large
civil population present, offensive operations require the greatest commit-
ment of Army resources. They also entail the greatest risks to Army forces
and noncombatants. Within defensive or stability operations, forces may
conduct tactical offensive UO, such as counterattacks to maintain the initia-
tive or raids to eliminate elements disrupting the stability operation.
Defense
4-20. Defensive UO are generally conducted as a shaping operation within a
larger major operation. These temporary operations often set conditions for
successful offensive operations, stability operations, or support operations.
Commanders conduct defensive UO within other types of operations to pro-
tect essential facilities in the urban area, protect flanks against counter-
attack, prevent the breakout of isolated enemies, or protect valuable supply
bases or vulnerable convoy routes. Army forces conducting defensive UO use
the environment to enhance their combat power.
Stability
4-21. Stability operations in an urban environment require offensive, defen-
sive, and support operations, combined with other tasks unique to each sta-
bility operation. Army forces conduct urban stability operations for various
reasons, including noncombatant evacuation operations, peace operations, or
support to insurgencies (see Chapter 8). Urban stability operations will re-
quire an offensive capability to destroy any military capability that overtly
threatens its objectives before that military threat can adversely affect the
operation. Army forces employ defensive capabilities to safeguard themselves
as well as secure critical places, populations, or infrastructure in the urban
area. Commanders may also employ defensive capabilities to separate and
protect one faction from another. Various stability tasks require urban sup-
port operations, such as distributing food or aid and protecting or assisting
agencies conducting economic or humanitarian activities.
Support
4-22. Army support operations in an urban environment aid other agencies
either in domestic emergencies or for humanitarian relief. Support
operations require the equipment, personnel, or organizational abilities of
Army forces rather than the Army’s combat capabilities. In a support
mission, these capabilities often involve Army transportation, medical,
quartermaster, or engineer forces. Although urban support operations may
seldom require combat, commanders determine if hostile threats exist that
could hamper Army support operations. Defensive and offensive capabilities
may be required to mitigate threats to support operations. In addition, the
emergency that prompts the need for Army support operations may require
stability, offensive, or defensive operations to shape the situation so units can
execute support tasks.
4-9
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
INTEGRATION INTO LAND OPERATIONS
4-23. The commander of the major operation, after determining that urban
operations are required, then integrates the urban operation into his overall
operation. He does this by articulating his intent and concept for the urban
operation to his subordinates. The commander of the major operation also
sets the conditions for successful tactical urban operations by his subordi-
nates. He defines ROE, focuses ISR efforts, task organizes his capabilities,
ensures information superiority, designs the operational framework, and
coordinates with other agencies (see FM 6-0).
CONCEPT OF THE OPERATION
4-24. The commander’s concept of the operation should address all opera-
tionally important urban areas in his AO. It articulates his vision of the
urban operation through directions to his staff and subordinates.
Subordinate commanders address urban areas that the higher commander
does not specifically address. The commander’s concept discusses each urban
area in terms of task and purpose (see FM 101-5). The commander also
describes his vision of the situation’s end state in terms of—
• The threat.
• The urban environment (terrain, society, and infrastructure).
• Friendly forces.
• The conditions necessary to transition control of urban areas within his
AO to another agency or back to legitimate civilian control.
RULES OF ENGAGEMENT
4-25. National- or joint-level command authorities may develop urban-
specific ROE. If not, Army commanders, as part of their assessment, deter-
mine if urban-specific ROE are required for their situation and provide sup-
plemental ROE. However, commanders forward any conflicts or incongruities
to their higher headquarters for immediate resolution.
4-26. Developing effective ROE relies on thoroughly understanding the
national and strategic environment and objectives. It also relies on under-
standing how to conduct urban operations at the tactical level including
weapons effects. For example, broad ROE may result in significant collateral
damage and civilian casualties. Even in a major theater war (MTW), signifi-
cant collateral damage caused during UO can make postcombat operations
difficult. Such damage may even change national and international public
opinion or threaten the achievement of national and strategic objectives. In
contrast, restrictive ROE can hamper tactical operations causing mission
failure, higher friendly casualties, or both. ROE are often part of essential
elements of friendly information (EEFI), protected to reduce the potential for
threat exploitation. Even in a limited urban operation, ROE will frequently
need to change as circumstances warrant. Therefore, commanders should
plan ROE “branches” for anticipated changes in the operational environment.
4-27. In urban operations, ROE are flexible, detailed, and understandable.
They should preclude the indiscriminate use of deadly force while allowing
soldiers latitude to finish the mission and defend themselves. ROE should
recognize that the urban area is not homogenous and may vary according to
4-10
Contemplating Urban Operations
the key elements of the threat and environment: terrain, society, and
infrastructure. To be effective, ROE are consistent throughout the force (an
increased challenge in multinational urban operations), and soldiers are
thoroughly trained and familiar with them.
Enemy Effects
4-28. The nature of an urban enemy affects ROE as well. Commanders
consider the type of enemy weapon systems, the degree of defensive prepa-
ration, the ability to target enemy vulnerabilities with precision systems, and
the ability to distinguish combatant from noncombatant.
Terrain Effects
4-29. ROE may vary according to the terrain or physical attributes of an
urban area. Physical factors may drive the ROE to preclude certain types of
munitions. For example, if the construction of a portion of the area is sensi-
tive to fire, then ROE may preclude using incendiary munitions in that area.
The ROE may lift this prohibition when units move into areas of mason con-
struction. Toxic industrial chemicals or radiological contaminants in an
industrial area may also affect ROE.
Societal Effects
4-30. The societal or human dimension of the urban environment will often
affect ROE the most. Commanders base the ROE development on a thorough
understanding of the civilian population and threat. They evaluate the
loyalty of the population, its dynamic involvement in activities that affects
the operation, and its size and physical location. A population that is present
and supports Army forces will likely elicit more restrictive ROE than a hostile
population actively supporting forces opposing the Army forces. A neutral
population, not actively involved in behavior affecting Army forces, supports
consideration of more restrictive ROE. In all cases, ROE conforms to the law
of war. However, ROE may be much more restrictive than the law of war
requires.
4-31. The location of the population also affects ROE. The evacuation or con-
solidation of noncombatants into controlled, safe areas may result in less
restrictive ROE. An allied population that remains in the urban area con-
ducting routine business in and amongst Army forces during noncombat UO
will normally require the most stringent ROE.
Infrastructure Effects
4-32. Commanders consider the urban infrastructure when developing ROE.
An urban infrastructure vital to current or future Army operations may
dictate that commanders adjust ROE to ensure that critical elements of the
infrastructure remain intact during the conduct of operations. If Army forces
conduct an urban operation to capture port facilities, the ROE address
damage to the key facilities that are the objective of the operation.
4-11
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
RESOURCE ALLOCATION
4-33. Commanders of a major operation ensure that subordinate tactical
commanders have the resources necessary to conduct UO effectively. They
assign appropriate forces to subordinate commanders tasked to conduct UO;
support them with Army forces at the operational level; and request and
coordinate their support by joint resources.
Task Organization
4-34. Task organizing subordinate units for urban operations depends
largely on the nature of the operation. Some units, however, are always part
of the task organization to ensure the success of UO. Infantry, CA, aviation,
military police, PSYOP, military intelligence, and engineers are units
required for all urban operations across the full range of Army operations.
Other type forces—such as armor, artillery, and chemical—have essential
roles in specific types of urban operations but are less applicable across the
range of Army operations. Commanders and staffs of a major operation
understand their mission, the particular urban environment in which they
operate, and the general effects of the environment across the battlefield
operating systems (BOS) to allocate the appropriate forces to their tactical
commanders. See Chapter 5 for details.
Operational-Level Support
4-35. Commanders of a major operation also support the tactical commander
with forces remaining under their direct control. These forces can include
Army SOF, such as CA, PSYOP, and Special Forces, ground and air cavalry,
aviation, logistics, engineers, and communications support. These forces may
not be under operational control of the supported command, but their efforts
are synchronized and coordinated.
Coordinating and Requesting Joint Support
4-36. Commanders of a major operation provide forces to the JFC as well as
receive assets. They also coordinate for and integrate joint assets to support
the tactical battle. These assets will usually include air support, such as close
air support, tactical airlift, and aerial reconnaissance and surveillance. Intel-
ligence support comes in the form of reachback to strategic and national
intelligence capabilities and to space-based systems. This reachback to space
assets provides reliable, robust long-range communications, environmental
monitoring, and warning of enemy missile launch. Joint special operations
capabilities can assist the tactical mission with special operations aviation,
special reconnaissance, and direct action against high-payoff targets. Joint
resources also provide the Army forces augmentation by Marine ground
forces. In coastal areas, Naval forces and Coast Guard elements assist Army
forces with security, sealift, and fire support. Commanders of a major opera-
tion coordinate with the JFC regarding available joint resources and their
allocation. They then ensure that their efforts coordinate with and comple-
ment those of tactical Army forces in the urban area. Appendix D discusses
the potential contribution of joint capabilities to Army UO.
4-12
Contemplating Urban Operations
URBAN ISR
4-37. Commanders at all levels require accurate and timely information to
conduct assessments for successful urban operations. This is critical to
planning and execution. Senior commanders have a large role in coordinating
the urban ISR effort. National strategic sources (as well as open sources)
provide most of the information that commanders and staffs require on the
characteristics of the human dimension, the physical properties of the
terrain, and the infrastructure. The general characteristics of these aspects of
the urban environment do not change drastically over time, with one excep-
tion. Military operations or natural disasters can change physical charac-
teristics drastically. Analysts can obtain crucial information through diligent
research of intelligence databases and open sources. However, the disposition
and composition of the urban threat is time sensitive and not likely to be
discovered through this type of investigation. Due to the effects of the urban
environment, deceptive efforts may influence the threat more easily. The
urban population is dynamic and updated or confirmed as a prelude to urban
operations. Surveillance and reconnaissance provide accurate and timely
information regarding threat dispositions, composition and the state of the
population, and the specifics of the urban terrain. Successful urban opera-
tions depend on the successful conduct of urban reconnaissance (see also the
discussion of effects on the intelligence and command and control BOS in
Chapter 5).
Challenges
4-38. The most significant challenge to urban ISR is physical. The physical
organization and complexity of the urban terrain, both man-made and
natural, challenges national strategic, operational, and tactical ISR capabili-
ties. Commanders understand the challenges when planning and allocating
time and resources to their ISR efforts. They acknowledge that subordinate
commanders will face similar challenges. Therefore, commanders consider
subordinate capabilities, limitations, and needs when planning, requesting,
allocating, and prioritizing ISR assets and capabilities.
4-39. Imagery Capabilities. A significant national and strategic ISR capa-
bility is imagery. However, the structures of the urban area significantly
degrade the information that imagery acquires and may make it susceptible
to physical deception measures. Current imagery capabilities cannot pene-
trate intrasurface or subsurface areas. Yet, imagery is an excellent source
regarding the arrangement and nature of many other physical aspects. It can
provide significant detail of major portions of the infrastructure. Imagery can
also reveal what may be happening in structures through detailed study of
patterns and other exterior indicators. Yet, the bulk of a skillful threat’s
forces, well positioned and concealed inside or underneath structures in the
urban area, are largely immune from rapid detection by overhead imaging
systems. The volume of movement in an urban area will itself provide a
degree of camouflage and increase the difficulty of employing pattern
analysis. The success in 1999 of the Yugoslavian army concealing heavy
forces when confronting NATO indicates the limits of these assets to
penetrate an urban area.
4-13
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
4-40. Electronic Capabilities. The physical attributes of the urban area
also diminish the effectiveness of electronic ISR capabilities. Buildings and
other structures significantly disrupt radio communications in an urban
area. Buildings not only make tactical radio communications difficult for the
user, they also make them difficult to locate, intercept, and jam. The range
and clarity of frequency modulation (FM) signals significantly diminish when
antennas are located inside buildings or when buildings block line of sight
between the source and receiving station. To mitigate this effect, detection
capabilities often move closer to the transmission source. Without losing tac-
tical surprise and increasing risk, units cannot effectively use many electronic
detection and surveillance capabilities until urban combat is imminent or
perhaps already begun. Thus, the threat’s vulnerability to compromise by
means of his FM and other wireless communications in an urban environ-
ment is much less than in many other environments.
4-41. Human Capabilities. The limits on imagery and electronic ISR capa-
bilities place a premium on human-based visual reconnaissance. Com-
manders have three types of human reconnaissance assets to augment elec-
tronic reconnaissance resources: special reconnaissance, conventional combat
reconnaissance, and human intelligence (HUMINT) gathered by military
intelligence from individuals. The urban environment poses several chal-
lenges to these capabilities.
4-42. The urban area challenges special reconnaissance in several ways.
First is the access the urban area. Although avenues of approach may be
numerous, concealed avenues of approach into a defended urban area may be
limited and thoroughly covered. Air access is also more difficult because
aircraft are detected more easily, airspace is smaller, drop and landing zones
are limited or not secure, and more air defense systems probably exist. Still,
special reconnaissance efforts to penetrate the urban area can be successful
using unconventional techniques including high-altitude low-opening
parachutes or underwater penetration.
4-43. Special reconnaissance then faces a second challenge: moving in and
identifying targets in the urban area. Stealth movement in an occupied
urban area is exceptionally difficult. Repositioning to new or alternate posi-
tions is also dangerous. The soldiers’ ability to conceal themselves among the
civil population can mitigate some of these challenges but includes inherent
risks of a different nature. Also difficult is establishing observation positions
that provide a field of view of several targets.
4-44. Finally, special reconnaissance may face navigational and reporting
challenges. Special reconnaissance’s ability to locate themselves and commu-
nicate critical locations and routes are challenged by—
• Differences in language and numbering systems.
• Irregular street patterns.
• Outdated maps.
• Intervening structures that impede communications and global posi-
tioning systems.
• Changes to the landscape due to the effects of UO or natural disasters.
• Featureless shantytowns.
4-14
Contemplating Urban Operations
4-45. Conventional reconnaissance faces many of the same challenges as
special reconnaissance. Conventional reconnaissance also may lack the
advantage of surprise and the special equipment and training that provides
special reconnaissance stealth capability. Conventional reconnaissance is not
likely to operate undetected by the civilian population. Given the constraints
discussed above on other sources, conventional reconnaissance units will
likely begin their mission with much less information than they would have
on threat dispositions in a less complex environment. Commanders may
choose to have their reconnaissance elements fight for information in the
urban area. While this high-risk option is more favorable under fluid
conditions, it can be used at any time. It requires careful planning, rehearsal,
and formulation of information requirements.
4-46. Human intelligence may be one of the most valuable sources for infor-
mation regarding the situation inside an urban area. HUMINT may take ad-
vantage of the proximity and large numbers of potential informants to gather
information about threat activities and capabilities. It is especially valuable
because it can address all elements of the environment. HUMINT sources
can describe political and religious nuances significant to commanders. Such
information is useful for insights regarding the human dimension but
extremely difficult to obtain from other means. This intelligence also can
describe the infrastructure relating essential details of how the infrastruc-
ture functions. Obtaining good HUMINT requires skilled interrogators and
linguists. Commanders know and account for some of the possible short-
comings of HUMINT:
• It is susceptible to the influence of the threat; the threat can threaten
and influence the source.
• It is limited by the accuracy of the source’s perceptions.
• It may not be timely. The process of identifying and cultivating a
source (particularly in an environment where most civilians support
threat forces), gathering information, analyzing the information, and
providing the intelligence to commanders can be extremely time
consuming.
• Some informants may come from unscrupulous or sordid elements of
the urban society and may have their own agenda. They may attempt
to use protection afforded them by their relationship with Army forces
to conduct activities (even atrocities) that will compromise political and
military objectives.
Conducting Urban ISR
4-47. To be successful, ISR efforts (national to tactical level) are exceptionally
comprehensive and synchronized. Success requires integrating all ISR
sources into operational and tactical planning. This requires that ISR assets be
deployed and execute early, diversify, properly focus, and integrate into a
comprehensive ISR plan. It also requires flexibility to adapt to the opera-
tional and tactical needs of the commander (see Figure 4-3 on page 4-16).
4-48. Early Deployment. One of the first requirements for effective urban
ISR is the early deployment and employment of assets. The complex urban
terrain presents a significant challenge. It will normally take longer for ISR
assets to gather data amid the complexity.
4-15
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
4-49. Limited national, strategic, and opera-
tional imagery intelligence (IMINT) and sig-
nals intelligence (SIGINT) capabilities are
requested. If they are approved, they are
tasked and deployed or repositioned to begin
urban ISR operations. This takes time.
Spacing the ISR effort over time permits the
analysis of the information or data as it is
received. Such time also permits subsequently
refining the ISR effort before all assets are
committed.
4-50. SOF or conventional units will require
significantly more time to execute reconnais-
sance missions and maintain an acceptable
survivability rate. Urban reconnaissance
operations require additional time for stealthy
insertion into the urban area. IMINT and
SIGINT capabilities are used to identify
possible locations of high-value targets and
corresponding observation positions; this helps minimize time-consuming
and high-risk repositioning in the urban area. Again, reconnaissance units
may require extensive time to observe from observation positions for
indicators of threat activity and disposition and identify patterns.
Early Deployment
Early Deployment
Diversity
Diversity
Focus
Focus
Integration
Integration
Flexibility
Flexibility
Figure 4-3. Urban ISR
Conside
r
ations
4-51. As conventional combat forces prepare to commit to the urban area,
conventional reconnaissance precedes their actions. Conventional reconnais-
sance will often be a slow and methodical effort. Such forces need time to
reconnoiter the interior of structures for snipers and other small threat
teams. They also need time to deploy and destroy snipers and small delaying
elements and to breach harassing obstacles. If necessary, they need time to
mass the combat power necessary to fight through security forces and
continue reconnaissance.
4-52. Diversity. No single ISR capability can solve the riddle of the urban
defense. The only way to successfully gain a thorough common operational
picture of the complex urban terrain—so commanders can focus combat
power on decisive points—is to employ diverse ISR capabilities. These capa-
bilities will each contribute pieces of relevant information to permit iden-
tifying operational objectives and leveraging tactical combat power to achieve
those objectives quickly. Higher-level commanders know that tactical recon-
naissance capabilities alone often cannot provide all the tactical information
required for success at lower echelons.
4-53. Using diverse capabilities challenges the threat’s ability to defeat the
friendly ISR effort. A threat who focuses on minimizing his vulnerability to
satellite imagery may increase his reliance on communications and thus his
vulnerability to SIGINT. At the same time, he may decrease his ability to
detect the actions of ground reconnaissance units. A threat that actively
campaigns to detect ground reconnaissance may make himself more vul-
nerable to SIGINT and IMINT.
4-16
Contemplating Urban Operations
4-54. Diverse capabilities also facilitate the tactical ISR effort. Tactical recon-
naissance units often consist of small dismounted teams and small combined
arms teams with a dismounted element and an armor-protected mounted
element. Engineers and breaching capability are essential to the combined
arms reconnaissance effort. The teams’ movements are synchronized and
coordinated with other assets, such as unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) and
air cavalry reconnaissance. These teams use several movement techniques
including infiltration, with the primary objective of conducting zone recon-
naissance along key axes that support brigade and battalion actions against
decisive points. To accomplish this mission, reconnaissance reconnoiters the
proposed routes and alternate approaches. This supports deception and
contingency planning. Infiltration of dismounted reconnaissance is made
easier when a threat focuses on combined arms reconnaissance teams. Aerial
reconnaissance, such as air cavalry and UAVs, provides early warning of
threat elements to ground reconnaissance, identifies obstacles and ambush
sites, and helps select the routes for ground reconnaissance. Air elements
may also reduce the mobility of counterreconnaissance forces.
4-55. Focus. Another key to successful ISR is the ability to focus the assets
on commander’s critical information requirements (CCIR). This focus begins
with the mission and the commander’s initial planning guidance. It is incre-
mentally refined throughout planning and execution as each ISR effort
provides information and permits more specific focus in subsequent efforts.
The size and complexity of the urban environment require that the ISR effort
center strictly on decisive points or centers of gravity (COGs). Therefore, the
overall ISR effort will have two major focuses. The first is to confirm and
develop information on the decisive points and COG. The second is the
approaches to the decisive points and COG. The first focus will likely drive
ISR in support of major operations. The second focus will likely provide the
impetus for tactical ISR efforts. For example, special operations reconnais-
sance might focus on a major command center that controls the entire urban
area and that is one of a corps CCIR. Tactical reconnaissance might focus on
the nature of the defense along a particular avenue of approach to the
objective.
4-56. Integration. Another important aspect of urban ISR is integration. All
reconnaissance capabilities provide both distinctive information as well as
information that confirms and adds to that coming from other sources. Essen-
tial to urban ISR is the link between all of these sources, either directly or
through an integrating headquarters.
4-57. ISR operations are vertically and horizontally linked. Vertical links
ensure that ISR operations among the various levels of command are comple-
mentary and that the information flow between these levels is rapid. Hori-
zontal links ensure that forces operating in close proximity (particularly
adjacent units), where areas of interest overlap, can rapidly share results of
their individual ISR efforts. Together, this helps ensure that all Army forces
share a common operational picture and permits the greatest flexibility and
survivability of ISR resources.
4-58. ISR operations also are integrated into the planning system, especially
the targeting process. As part of targeting, positioned reconnaissance and
surveillance elements may become the trigger and terminal control for
4-17
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
applying precision fires when appropriate and after considering the risks of
compromise of the position or platform.
4-59. Flexibility. The urban ISR effort is more flexible than in other opera-
tions. This flexibility permits the ISR effort to meet unforeseen circumstances
and to deal with the challenges of the urban environment. As indicated
previously, the urban environment is particularly difficult to penetrate. The
practical effects of this characteristic are that—
• The initial ISR effort may not be as successful as in other operations.
• More intelligence requirements may be discovered later while exe-
cuting ISR operations than otherwise.
• The threat may be more successful in active counterreconnaissance
because of the concealment advantages of the urban environment
(hiding in structures as well as among the urban population).
Therefore, tactical and operational commanders consider requesting greater
than usual ISR support from higher headquarters. Higher headquarters is
proactive in augmenting units conducting urban operations with additional
ISR assets. Additionally, ISR assets remaining under the control of the
higher headquarters respond more quickly to the CCIR of supported com-
manders. Sequencing reconnaissance missions over time provides flexibility
by creating uncommitted reconnaissance assets.
4-60. Time sequencing of ISR assets is essential to flexibility. It makes ISR
assets more survivable and allows the intelligence cycle to mature the CCIR.
It also creates a ready ISR capability to augment committed forces in critical
areas if required or diverts them around centers of threat resistance. If not
required, it executes original tasks as envisioned in planning. Cueing allows
a high-value ISR asset to be capable to respond to multiple targets based on
an ongoing assessment of the overall reconnaissance effort and the changing
CCIR. Redundancy permits the effort to overcome line of sight restrictions,
the destruction of an ISR asset, and the ability to combine ISR resources to
create combat power if required. Maximizing the ISR effort requires applying
all available ISR assets to support the urban operation. Additionally, assets—
such as air defense artillery and field artillery radars and engineer squads—
are integrated into the ISR effort. In urban operations, units will also commit
infantry and armor elements (plus their organic reconnaissance elements)
into the tactical reconnaissance effort. These units increase the dismount
capability and the ability of reconnaissance elements to fight for information
and fight through security zones.
INFORMATION OPERATIONS
4-61. Information operations are an integral part of all Army operations and
a critical component in creating and maintaining information superiority.
The information environment is the sum of individuals, organizations, or
systems that collect, process, and disseminate information; it also includes
the information itself. In UO, the information environment is extremely
dense due to the proliferation of INFOSYS and widespread access to those
systems. In urban operations, commanders consider how the urban environ-
ment, particularly the human component, uniquely relates to executing IO.
4-18
Contemplating Urban Operations
4-62. IO are executed using
core and supporting elements
and related activities (see Fig-
ure 4-4 and FM 100-6). The
elements of IO are employed in
either an offensive or defensive
role. Many elements of IO are
not affected differently in an
urban environment from any
other environment. The fol-
lowing sections outline some
IO considerations unique to
urban operations.
Figure 4-4. IO Elements and Related
Activities
¾Operations Security
¾Psychological
Operations
¾Counterpropaganda
¾Military Deception
¾Electronic Warfare
¾Computer Network
Defense
¾Computer Network
Attack
¾Physical Destruction
¾Counterintelligence
¾
¾
¾Counterdeception
Counterdeception
Counterdeception
¾
¾
¾Physical Security
Physical Security
Physical Security
¾
¾
¾Information Assurance
Information Assurance
Information Assurance
Information Operations Public
Affairs
Civil-
Military
Operations
Offensive
Offensive
Defensive
Defensive
Operations Security
4-63. In the urban environment, Army forces can leverage existing urban
infrastructure, including the communications and information infrastructure,
to enhance Army operations. The danger in integrating these systems is vio-
lating OPSEC. Commands ensure that Army forces use only approved
systems and proper safeguards exist. Commands also supervise subordinate
units for inadvertent breaches of OPSEC policies when using existing urban
systems.
4-64. The close proximity of the Army operations to a civil population, parti-
cularly in stability operations and support operations, makes Army activities
themselves an OPSEC concern. Hostiles or other threats integrated into the
urban population may have more chances to observe Army activities closely.
Such observations can provide insight into tactics, techniques, and proce-
dures (TTP) and expose operational vulnerabilities. However, threats may
coerce even friendly civilians to provide a threat EEFI, and are supplemented
with military deception efforts. Commanders in an urban environment
ensure that civilians cannot observe critical TTP. Any observable patterns
and TTP vary and are supplemented with deception efforts. Physical security
is increasingly important in urban areas to control civilians’ access. Although
many urban operations require close coordination with NGOs, commanders
screen information provided to them to protect EEFI. Release of EEFI to
NGOs is controlled and done with full recognition and understanding of
potential consequences—the benefits must far outweigh the risks involved.
Psychological Operations
4-65. PSYOP aim to influence the behavior and attitude of foreign audiences,
both military and noncombatant, in the urban environment. PSYOP are a
force multiplier and contribute in many ways to mission success (see
FM 33-1-1). Their ability to influence the attitudes and disposition of the
urban population cannot be overstated. While the complexity of the societal
component of the urban environment can make PSYOP challenging, it also
offers many options and resources. Potentially, PSYOP (with other political
and economic actions) may help limit or preclude the use of military force in
urban areas. In some circumstances, military operations may be relevant
only in terms of their psychological effect.
4-19
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
4-66. The positive influence created by PSYOP is often essential to develo-
ping an effective HUMINT capability particularly in an urban area where
many civilians actively or passively support the threat. Persuading and influ-
encing a few to support friendly forces may pay great dividends. These few
supporters may allow Army forces to penetrate the urban area and obtain
essential information. Such information can apply to threat capabilities,
threat intentions, and even the urban environment itself.
4-67. PSYOP, combined with other elements of offensive IO, aid in isolation
of a threat—a critical shaping action for any urban operation. For example,
commanders may use PSYOP to inform civilians about new food distribution
points located away from urban combat operations. This action supports the
UO fundamental of separating combatants from noncombatants and helps to
further isolate the threat (both physically and psychologically) from the
civilian populace. Aside from projecting a positive image of friendly forces
over threat forces, PSYOP also isolates the threat. These operations identify
and exploit ethnic, cultural, religious, and economic differences between the
elements of the civilian populace and threat forces as well as the differences
among supportive and unsupportive civilian factions. The complexity of the
urban environment enables quick changes in opinion or attitude. Com-
manders continually evaluate the results of PSYOP for mission relevance.
Counterpropaganda
4-68. Because propaganda is aimed at both combatants and noncombatants,
UO are especially concerned with its use. Propaganda can rapidly and dra-
matically affect the attitudes of the urban population and will probably occur
after urban operations have begun. Thus, it can create situations in the
human dimension of the environment quite different from those discovered in
the pre-operations assessment. Counterpropaganda is, therefore, essential to
urban operations. To negate, deflect, or destroy the threat’s propaganda
capability, counterpropaganda requires—
• Monitoring the threat’s propaganda efforts.
• Evaluating the effectiveness of those efforts.
• Determining methods using all Army force capabilities, especially
PSYOP and PA units.
Military Deception
4-69. Urban operations present numerous challenges to tactical commanders;
however, higher-level commanders may help to mitigate some challenges.
Commanders can use military deception efforts designed to mislead threat
decisionmakers as to friendly force disposition, capabilities, vulnerabilities,
and intentions. Military deception actions may allow commanders to achieve
tactical surprise or improve relative combat power at a selected location. For
example, allowing the threat to observe certain activities on a selected
avenue of approach may cause the threat to shift his forces (and effort) to the
area perceived to be threatened. (This movement may also aid in determining
the overall disposition of threat forces and intentions.) Repositioned forces or
effort to activities or locations that are not decisive to the achievement of
friendly objectives, combined with other IO designed to overwhelm his
information and intelligence systems, may create the force and tempo
4-20
Contemplating Urban Operations
differential necessary to achieve success. Commanders tailor urban deception
plans to the specific urban area, paying close attention to the societal charac-
teristics of the target population.
Electronic Warfare
4-70. Electronic warfare (EW) includes all actions that use electromagnetic or
directed energy weapons to control the electromagnetic spectrum or to attack a
threat. Conducting EW in urban areas seeks to achieve much the same
results as in other environments. A major consideration in urban areas is
collateral effects on portions of the urban infrastructure that rely on the
electromagnetic spectrum for service. Thus, precision is a major factor in
planning for EW operations. For example, EW attacking a threat’s television
broadcasts avoids affecting the television broadcasts of neutral or friendly
television. Likewise, EW attacking military communications in a large urban
area avoids adversely affecting the area’s police and other emergency service
communications. Urban offensive and defensive operations will have the least
restrictions on EW operations while urban stability operations and support
operations may have significant constraints on using EW capabilities.
Computer Network Operations
4-71. Computer network operations (CNO) include computer network attack
(CNA), computer network defense (CND), and computer network exploitation
(CNE). CNO are not applicable to units at corps and below. Echelons above
corps (EAC) units will conduct CNA and CNE. If tactical units require either
of these network support, they will request it of EAC units.
4-72. Computer Network Defense. In urban operations, CND will require
extreme measures to protect and defend the computers and networks from
disruption, denial, degradation, or destruction. The nature of the urban
environment and configuration of computer networks provides the threat
with many opportunities to interdict local area networks (LANs) unless
monitored by military forces. LANs controlled by military forces are normally
more secure than the civilian infrastructure. Commanders prepare for oppor-
tunities by the threat to insert misinformation.
4-73. Computer Network Attack. Considerations regarding the execution
of CNA in urban operations are similar to those of EW: CNAs that do not dis-
criminate can disrupt vital civilian systems. However, possible adverse
effects on the civilian infrastructure can be much larger—potentially on a
global scale. In the short term, CNAs may serve to enhance immediate
combat operations but have a debilitating effect on the efficiency of follow-on
urban stability operations. Because of these far-reaching effects, tactical
units do not execute CNA. CNA is requested of EAC units. EAC units will
receive all requests from lower echelons, carefully consider second- and third-
order effects of CNA, and work to ensure its precise application.
4-74. Computer Network Exploitation. CNE is an enabling operation and
intelligence collection to gather data from target or adversary automated
INFOSYS or networks. Tactical units do not have the capability for CNE.
CNE contributes to intelligence collection at EAC. In UO, CNE will be
centrally controlled.
4-21
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
Information Assurance
4-75. Information assurance in UO takes on an added dimension. As with
other operations, availability of information means timely, reliable access to
data and services by authorized users. In UO, the timeliness of information
may be restricted because structures block the transmission waves. The need
for retransmission facilities will overwhelm the signal community. The
reliability can be questioned because of the blockage between units and com-
munications nodes. Unauthorized users may intercept the communications
and input misinformation or disinformation. Commanders protect the
integrity of all information from unauthorized changes, including destruction.
INFOSYS with integrity operate correctly, consistently, and accurately. The
authentication of information may be accomplished by sophisticated elec-
tronic means. However, it is more likely that communications-electronics
operating instructions authentication tables will authenticate the informa-
tion. Commanders consider the confidential nature of all information in UO.
The G6 protects the information from unauthorized disclosure. Information
being passed cannot be repudiated. The density of the infrastructure in urban
areas may inhibit receipt by the intended individual or unit. The sender may
have no means to determine if the message was received.
Counterdeception
4-76. In UO, threat forces can easily accomplish deception operations. The
force that controls the area above and below ground will have freedom of
movement. Deception aimed at friendly commanders will cause them to
deploy combat power at the wrong place and the wrong time. Counter-
deception by friendly commanders will identify and exploit threat attempts to
mislead friendly forces. Counterdeception is difficult. Cultures of certain
rhetoric and actions are more predisposed to deception than others. Knowing
a threat’s previous deception methods is important. Dismissing tactical indi-
cators because they conflict with preconceptions may allow a hostile
deception operation that plays on the preconception to succeed.
Physical Destruction
4-77. Physical destruction includes those actions—including direct and
indirect fires from air, land, sea, space, and Special Forces—taken with, to
augment, or supplement IO actions. Like many other IO elements, major
concerns with employing physical destruction in UO are precision and follow-
on effects. Thus, commanders using physical destruction to support IO
adhere to the same constraints as all other fires.
Counterintelligence
4-78. Counterintelligence (CI) in the context of IO focuses on detecting
threats against INFOSYS. The urban environment, particularly in stability
operations and support operations, is ideal for espionage, other intelligence
activities, sabotage, or assassination. Threats can approach, conduct recon-
naissance, and escape under the concealment of the urban terrain and
population.
4-22
Contemplating Urban Operations
4-23
Civil-Military Operations
4-79. Civil-military operations (CMO) are a critical aspect of virtually every
urban operation and are included here as a closely related activity of IO.
CMO activities enhance the relationship between military forces, civilian
authorities, and the urban population. They promote the development of fav-
orable emotions, attitudes, or behavior. CMO range from support to combat
operations to assisting in establishing political, economic, and social stability.
Chapter 9 has a more detailed discussion of CMO and CA units. However,
because of its criticality to UO, CMO and its effects are thoroughly integrated
throughout this manual.
Public Affairs
Four hostile newspapers
are more to be feared than
a thousand bayonets.
Napoleon Bonaparte
4-80. Another related activity to IO is
public affairs (PA). PA influences urban
operations by transmitting information
through the media to internal (in urban
Army forces as well as in the urban
civilian populace) and external audiences.
At higher levels of command, PA can help maintain popular national support
for the urban operation by clarifying the links between strategic goals and
operational objectives. At both the operational and tactical levels, it links
Army units, the urban inhabitants, the US and international public, and the
media. PA can help determine potential media issues that may influence
planned UO. It can also aid commanders in assessing the impact of UO on the
environment (particularly its citizens) and other agencies and organizations
operating in the urban area. PA also helps to counter rumors, uncertainty,
fear, loneliness, confusion, and other factors that cause stress (to both
soldiers and civilians) and undermine effective UO. If the populace does not
understand the mission, false expectations may be created that Army forces
may not be able to meet. PA can help prepare the American public for the
possibility of high casualty rates. Overall, PA supports urban commanders in
their goals to achieve information superiority and preserve public support.
4-81. PA does not distort, direct, or manipulate information. Its effectiveness
stems directly from establishing and maintaining credibility with the urban
population and media. Commanders synchronize PA with the integral ele-
ments of IO (particularly PSYOP and counterpropaganda) to ensure that all
Army sources send only one message. Urban commanders plan for the media
and integrate PA into their decisionmaking and (through IO) targeting
processes.
4-82. The density of information sources and reporters in UO ensures that all
Army activities will be subject to media and public scrutiny. Many reporters
will congregate in cities for their own comfort and take advantage of estab-
lished communications networks. Urban areas are densely populated and,
together with Army forces and NGOs operating there, will present the
greatest number of human-interest stories. The local urban or host-nation
media, however, will often have their own agendas developed over a longer
period of time. This local media will also have a greater influence over the
urban population than the international media. The indigenous media may
not follow international norms. Commanders are responsible to understand
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
4-24
the media (particularly the local media), its role, and its potential influence.
They cannot allow themselves to be intimidated by it. Commanders support
open and independent reporting and grant access to their units as early and
as far forward as the situation permits.
• Truth is Paramount
• If News is Out, It is Out
• Public Affairs Must be Deployed Early
• Not All News is Good News
• Practice Security at the Source
• Media are Not the Enemy
• Telling Our Story is Good for the Army
•
Soldiers and Families Come First
Figure 4-5. Public Affairs Principles
4-83. The PA principles listed in
Figure 4-5 and addressed in
FM 46-1 summarize PA. They
serve as useful guides toward
planning and executing PA
operations regardless of the en-
vironment. However, the princi-
ples of “practice security at the
source,” and “truth is para-
mount” particularly apply to the
urban environment. The com-
partmented nature of most UO impede commanders’ and their PA officers’
ability to be at all places where the media will likely be. Therefore, all
soldiers are trained, provided with clear and understandable PA guidance,
and prepared to communicate to the civilian media. The keys at all levels are
understanding, prepared acceptance, and truthfulness tempered with an
essential concern for OPSEC.
INTEGRATION OF CONVENTIONAL AND SPECIAL OPERATIONS FORCES
4-84. One important Army and joint resource that commanders of a major
operation can use to influence urban operations is SOF. Several types of these
forces exist, each with unique and complementary capabilities. They can be
extremely valuable in UO for their ability to execute discrete missions with a
higher degree of precision than conventional forces, to provide information,
and to enhance cultural understanding. However, the challenges of using
SOF include command and control, integration, and coordination with con-
ventional forces that will normally command, control, and conduct the bulk of
UO tasks. The density and complexity of UO make close coordination and
synchronization of conventional forces and SOF essential to mission success.
The nature of the environment dictates that both forces will work in close
proximity to each other; the separation in space and time between SOF and
conventional forces will often be much less in urban areas than in other envi-
ronments. Overall, the nature of the environment demands a synergistic com-
bination of capabilities to achieve effects on the threat and mission success.
4-85. Successfully integrating SOF occurs with proper integration into, or
coordination with, the command structure of the force conducting the UO.
SOF within a theater (less PSYOP and CA) ordinarily fall under joint com-
mand and control. Therefore, the commander of the major operation respon-
sible for an urban area, if he is not a JFC, will have to coordinate through the
JFC to integrate SOF capabilities into the UO. Examples of critical coordina-
tion elements include boundaries, no-fire areas, coordination points, and re-
quirements to support search and rescue contingencies.
4-86. A special operations command and control element (SOCCE) is usually
formed at Army corps level, specifically to coordinate integrating the SOF
with conventional forces. The SOCCE links conventional force commanders
Contemplating Urban Operations
with the SOF units operating in their AOs. It primarily deconflicts conven-
tional and SOF targets, positions, and missions. The synchronization and
unity of action necessary between conventional and SOF in an urban AO may
still require the Army force headquarters to further coordinate SOF integra-
tion through the JTF commander. The special operations coordination
element (SOCOORD) is the ARSOF element within the Army corps or
Marine expeditionary force (MEF) G3 section responsible for coordinating
special operations requirements. As an integral part of the corps or MEF
staff, the SOCOORD provides a focal point for SOF command, control,
communications, computers, and intelligence structure to synchronize special
operations activities in support of corps missions.
COORDINATION WITH OTHER AGENCIES
4-87. The population density of the urban environment, its economic and
political importance, and its life-supporting infrastructure attracts many
types of organizations. These organizations include—
• Other US governmental agencies.
• International governmental organizations.
• Allied and neutral national governments.
• Allied and coalition forces.
• Local governmental agencies and politicians.
• NGOs.
Even in a MTW, many organizations operate in the area as long as possible
before combat or as soon as possible after combat. Therefore, coordination
with these organizations sharing the urban AO will be essential; however,
effective coordination is challenging, time consuming, and manpower inten-
sive. The staffs of larger headquarters (divisions or higher) normally have the
breadth of resources and experience to best conduct the coordination. They
can effectively use or manage the organizations interested in the urban area
and mitigate their potential adverse effects on UO. By taking on as much of
the coordination requirements as possible, the operational headquarters
permits its tactical subordinates to remain focused on accomplishing their
tactical missions. The higher headquarters should assume as much of the
burden of coordination as possible. However, the density of the urban
environment will often require that smaller tactical units coordinate with
other agencies simply because of their physical presence in the units’ AOs. In
urban stability operations and support operations, mission accomplishment
will require effective civil-military coordination activities and measures at all
levels as either a specified or implied task.
Civil-Military Operations Centers
4-88. To coordinate activities among the varied agencies and organizations
operating in an urban area and the local population, urban commanders can
establish a civil-military operations center (CMOC). The CMOC synchronizes
Army activities and resources with the efforts and resources of all others
involved (see FM 41-10). This can be particularly important in stability opera-
tions and support operations where combat operations are not the dominant
characteristic of the operation. CMOCs can be established at all levels of com-
mand. Hence, more than one CMOC may exist in an AO, particularly large
4-25
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
urban areas. CMOCs may be organized in various ways and include
representatives from as many agencies as required to facilitate the flow of
information among all concerned parties. Commanders still ensure that force
protection and OPSEC requirements are not compromised. Effective CMOCs
can serve as clearinghouses for the receipt and validation of all civilian
requests for support, can aid in prioritizing efforts and eliminating redun-
dancy, and, most importantly, can reduce wasting the urban commander’s
scarce resources.
Liaison Officers
4-89. Liaison officers (LNOs)—sufficiently experienced and adequately
trained in liaison duties and functions—are necessary to deal with the other
agencies that have interests in the urban area. Army LNOs work with the
lead agency or other organizations that the commander has identified as criti-
cal to mission success. Together they work to rapidly establish unity of effort
and maintain coordination, often before a CMOC is established. The addi-
tional coordination afforded by the physical presence of LNOs within these
organizations may be required even after the CMOC is fully functional.
When commanders lack enough LNOs to meet requirements, they prioritize
and often assign a single LNO to several organizations. That LNO will then
share his time and presence to those organizations based on the situation
and his commander’s guidance.
Commander’s Personal Involvement
4-90. Overall, establishing a close relationship with other agencies will often
be a major, positive factor in successful mission accomplishment, particularly
in urban stability operations. Commanders that develop a direct and personal
relationship with the leaders and staff of other agencies can often avoid
conflict, win support, and help eliminate the “us versus them” mentality that
frequently frustrates cooperation among Army forces and civilian organiza-
tions.
4-26
Chapter 5
Foundations for Urban Operations
Utilities such as electricity and water are as much weapons of war as
rifles, artillery pieces or fighter aircraft. . . . In the case of Manila,
where there was a noncombatant, civilian population of one million in
place, it was the attacker’s aim to capture the utilities which the
defender planned to destroy.
The Battle for Manila
Commanders conducting major urban operations (UO) use their ability to
visualize how doctrine and military capabilities are applied within the
context of the urban environment. An operational framework is the basic
foundation for this visualization. In turn, this visualization forms the
basis of operational design and decisionmaking. To accurately visualize,
describe, and direct the conduct of UO, commanders and their staffs
understand the basic fundamentals applicable to most UO. They also
understand how the urban environment affects the battlefield operating
systems (BOS) and the tactical urban battle.
URBAN OPERATIONAL FRAMEWORK
5-1. Army leaders who have an urban area in their area of operations (AO) or
are assigned missions in an urban area follow an urban operational
framework. They identify the portion of the urban area essential to mission
success, shape the area, precisely mass the effects of combat power to rapidly
dominate the area, and then transition control of the area to another agency.
This framework divides into four essentials: assess, shape, dominate, and
transition. These four components provide a means for conceptualizing the
application of Army combat power and capabilities in the urban environment.
The Army framework modifies the joint urban operations framework
CONTENTS
Urban Operational Framework ....................5-1
Assess........................................................5-3
Shape..........................................................5-4
Dominate....................................................5-6
Transition...................................................5-7
Fundamentals of Urban Operations..........5-12
Perform Focused Information
Operations ..............................................5-12
Conduct Close Combat ..........................5-13
Avoid the Attrition Approach.................5-13
Control the Essential ..............................5-13
Minimize Collateral Damage...................5-14
Separate Noncombatants from
Combatants.............................................5-14
Restore Essential Services ....................5-15
Preserve Critical Infrastructure .............5-15
Understand the Human Dimension .......5-15
Transition Control ...................................5-16
General Effects on Operations ..................5-16
Battlefield Operating Systems ...............5-16
Tactical Considerations..........................5-32
5-1
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
(understand, shape, engage, consolidate, and transition) to further clarify the
JUO concepts within the context of Army capstone doctrine found in FM 3-0.
The framework for joint urban operations (JUO) provides the joint force
commander a framework for planning and conducting JUO. FM 3-0 provides
Army commanders with the operations process that provides a framework for
planning, preparation, execution, and continuous assessment. Army capstone
doctrine, supported with the Army UO framework, is fully compatible with
the concepts and purpose of the JUO framework.
5-2. The urban operational framework assists commanders in visualizing
urban operations. This framework is simply an aid to the commander. Com-
manders combine the framework with—
• The principles of war.
• The tenets of Army operations.
• The components of operational design.
• Considerations for stability operations and support operations.
• Characteristics of combat service support (CSS).
• Staff estimates.
• Commander’s critical information requirements (CCIR).
• Each commander’s experience.
The framework contributes to the visualizing, describing, and directing
aspects of leadership that make commanders the catalysts of the operational
process (see Figure 5-1). In the same manner, the urban operational
framework contributes to the overall operations process (see FM 3-0).
Figure 5-1. The Urban Operational Framework and Battle Command
Visualize Describe Direct
•The urban operational frame-
work highlights critical
aspects of conducting UO.
•Combined with other analy-
tical tools, the UO framework
assists the commander in
visualizing his mission and
mission requirements. The
framework also provides a
means for describing and
directing subordinates.
•The commander’s vision of
the UO is then translated
through planning guidance
and intent into plans and
orders.
URBAN OPERATIONAL
FRAMEWORK
Operational Process
Plan
Prepare
Execute
Assess
Estimates
Estimates
Principles of War
&
Tenets of Army
Operations
Principles of War
&
Tenets of Army
Operations
METT-TC
METT-TC
Elements of
Operational Design
Elements of
Operational Design
Considerations for
Stability Operations
and Support
Operations
Considerations for
Stability Operations
and Support
Operations
Experience
Experience
Characteristics
of Combat
Service
Support
Characteristics
of Combat
Service
Support
CCIR
CCIR
UO FRAMEWORK
Assess
Shape
Dominate
Transition
5-2
___________________________________________________________ Foundations for Urban Operations
ASSESS
5-3. Assessment is the continuous monitoring—throughout planning prepa-
ration, and execution—of the current situation and progress of an operation,
and the evaluation of it against criteria of success to make decisions and
adjustments (FM 3-0). Commanders use visualization as their assessment
method, staff officers use staff estimates, and all use the intelligence prepara-
tion of the battlefield (IPB) process. Commanders and staffs begin the assess-
ment process by observing and then collecting information about the situa-
tion. They observe and learn about the urban environment, and factors of
METT-TC—mission, enemy, terrain and weather, troops and support
available, time available, civil considerations. They use intelligence, surveil-
lance, and reconnaissance means; information systems (INFOSYS); and
reports from other headquarters, services, organizations, and agencies. Then
they orient themselves to the situation and achieve situational under-
standing based on a common operational picture (COP) and continuously
updated CCIR. Largely, the ability to rapidly and accurately assess the
situation contributes to the commanders’ abilities to seize, retain, and exploit
the initiative during UO.
Disproportionately Critical
5-4. The Army operations process requires continuous assessment; it pre-
cedes and guides every activity. In UO, however, assessment is disproportion-
ately critical for several reasons. First, each urban environment is unique.
Other environments can be studied and their characteristics quantified in a
general manner with accuracy. This is fundamentally not true of different
urban areas. The characteristics and experience in one urban area often have
limited value and application to an urban area elsewhere. This characteristic
sets UO apart from operations in other environments.
Extremely Dynamic
5-5. The urban environment is also extremely dynamic. Either deliberate
destruction or collateral damage can quickly alter physical aspects of the
urban environment. The human aspect is even more dynamic and potentially
volatile. A friendly civil population, for example, can become hostile almost
instantaneously. These dynamics (combined with initial difficulty of under-
standing and describing this unique environment) make it difficult for com-
manders and staffs to initially develop and maintain a COP and establish
situational understanding. Furthermore, public reaction to media coverage of
the urban operation and political changes influence national objectives and
overall strategy. Such changes can affect the basic nature of an operation,
especially after it has commenced. Anticipating these potential effects and
developing appropriate branches and sequels based on an accurate assess-
ment often determines how quickly commanders can achieve the desired end
state.
Risk Assessment
5-6. As in any environment, UO pose both tactical and accident risks.
However, the level of uncertainty, ambiguity, and friction can often be higher
than that of many other environments. Such challenges increase the
5-3
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
probability and severity of a potential loss due to the presence of the enemy, a
hostile civilian group, or some other hazardous condition within the urban
environment (see Necessity of Urban Operations in Chapter 4). Therefore,
commanders—
• Identify and assess hazards that may be encountered in executing their
missions.
• Develop and implement clear and practical control measures to elimi-
nate unnecessary risk.
• Continuously supervise and assess to ensure measures are properly
executed and remain appropriate as the situation changes.
Risk decisions are commanders’ business. Staffs, subordinate leaders, and
even individual soldiers also understand the risk management process and
continuously look for hazards at their level or within their area of expertise.
Any risks identified (with recommended risk reduction measures) are quickly
elevated to the appropriate level within the chain of command (see
FM 100-14).
Complex and Resource Intensive
5-7. The urban environment is the most complex of all the environments in
which the Army conducts operations. It is comprised of a diverse civil popu-
lation and complex, ill-defined physical components. A sophisticated net of
functional, social, cultural, economic, and political institutions unites it.
Thus, the analysis to understand the environment is also complex and time
and resource intensive. The nuances of the urban environment can take years
to uncover. Hence, constant analysis of the environment requires greater
command attention and resources. Accurately assessing the environment is a
prerequisite to shaping it, and both are critical to achieve domination.
SHAPE
5-8. Shaping operations, part of all Army operations, are essential to suc-
cessful UO. They set the conditions for decisive operations at the tactical
level in the urban area. Rapid action, minimum friendly casualties, and
acceptable collateral damage distinguish this success when the AO is
properly shaped. Failure to adequately shape the urban AO creates unaccept-
able risk. The commander of a major urban operation has several resources
with which to begin shaping the AO. Important capabilities include—
• Fires.
• Information operations.
• Special operations capabilities.
• The maneuver of major subordinate units.
Isolation
5-9. Isolation of an urban environment is often the most critical component of
shaping operations. Commanders whose AO includes operationally signifi-
cant urban areas often conduct many shaping operations to isolate, or
prevent isolation of, those areas from other parts of the AO. Likewise, com-
manders operating in the urban area focus on isolating decisive points and
objectives in the urban area or from being isolated. Isolation is usually the
5-4
___________________________________________________________ Foundations for Urban Operations
key shaping action that affects UO. It
applies across the range of Army opera-
tions. Most successful UO have effec-
tively isolated the urban area. Failure
to do so often contributed to a difficult
or failed UO. In fact, the relationship
between successful isolation and suc-
cessful UO is so great that the threat
often opposes isolation actions more
strongly than operations executed in
the urban area. In some situations, the
success of isolation efforts has been
decisive. This occurs when the isolation
or imminent isolation of the urban area
compels a defending enemy to withdraw or to surrender before beginning or
completing decisive operations. In UO that are opposed, Army forces attempt
to isolate the threat three ways: physically, electronically, and psychologically
(see Figure 5-2).
PSYCHOLOGICAL
PHYSICAL
ELECTRONIC
ISOLATION
ISOLATION
ISOLATION
Figure 5-2. Urban Isolation
5-10. Physical Isolation. In offensive UO, physical isolation keeps the
threat from receiving information, supplies, and reinforcement while
preventing him from withdrawing or breaking out. Conversely, a defending
Army force attempts to avoid its own physical isolation. Simultaneously, this
force conducts operations to isolate the threat outside, as they enter, or at
selected locations in the urban area. Physical isolation can occur at all levels.
In many situations, particularly major theater war (MTW), the commander of
a major operation may attempt to isolate the entire urban area and all enemy
forces defending or attacking it. At the tactical level, forces isolate and attack
individual decisive points. In stability operations, physical isolation may be
more subtly focused on isolating less obvious decisive points, such as a hostile
civilian group’s individual leaders. In many operations, isolation may be
temporary and synchronized to facilitate a decisive operation elsewhere. To
effectively isolate an urban area, air, space, and sea forces are necessary in
addition to the capabilities of ground forces.
5-11. Electronic Isolation. Electronic isolation is achieved through offen-
sive information operations (IO). Electronic warfare (particularly two of its
components: electronic warfare support and electronic attack) and computer
network attack are critical to electronic isolation (see FM 100-6 and Informa-
tion Operations in Chapter 4). At the operational level, offensive IO aims to
quickly and effectively control the information flow into and out of an urban
area. This isolation separates the threat’s command and control (C2) system -
in the urban area from its operational and strategic leadership outside the
urban area. Offensive IO also focuses on preventing the threat from com-
municating with civilians through television, radio, telephone, and computer
systems. At the tactical level, IO aim to isolate the threat’s combat capability
from its C2 and leadership within the urban area, thus preventing unity of
effort within the urban area. Defensive IO are key to preventing isolation of
friendly forces defending in an urban area.
5-12. Psychological Isolation. Psychological isolation is a function of
public affairs, physical actions, electronic warfare, and other forms of IO,
5-5
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
especially military deception and psychological operations. Psychological iso-
lation denies the threat political and military allies. It separates the enemy
or hostile civilian group from the friendly population, nongovernmental
organizations (NGOs) operating in the urban area, and from political leaders
who may consider supporting Army forces. Psychological isolation destroys
the morale of individual enemy soldiers or hostile civilians. It creates a
feeling of isolation and hopelessness in the mind of the threat. It undermines
the confidence of the threat in their leadership. On the other hand, IO, as
well as the disciplined conduct of Army personnel, can help to forge legiti-
macy for Army operations. In stability operations, psychologically isolating
the threat results in the friendly urban population and NGOs positively sup-
porting Army operations.
Other Shaping Actions
5-13. Other shaping actions can include the proper sequencing and deploy-
ment of forces, reconnaissance operations, and force protection. These actions
contribute equally to the success of any urban operation. Commanders
understand how the urban environment affects their ability to accomplish
these shaping actions. However, civil-military operations (CMO), another
closely related activity of IO, are important to shaping the urban battlespace
for decisive operations. The specific civil-military task can vary greatly and
may include affecting a cooperative relationship with the civil political
system, protecting portions of the civil population or infrastructure, or estab-
lishing refugee camps or safe areas for noncombatants. This is most true in
stability operations and support operations. Successful CMO also can con-
tribute to the psychological isolation of the threat. (See Civil-Military Opera-
tions in Chapters 4 and 9 for more detailed discussions.)
Training and Education
5-14. Finally, Army commanders know that critical shaping actions often
occur prior to the urban operation in the form of professional education and
training. Commanders can enhance training through joint, interagency,
multinational, and combined arms exercises and effective rehearsals. Capa-
bilities and competencies of units include—
• A general understanding of the urban environment to include effects on
soldiers, weapon systems, and equipment. Significantly, commanders
cultivate a firm understanding of urban time-distance relationships.
• Multicultural understanding.
• A solid grounding in urban combat to include appropriate tactics, tech-
niques, and procedures (see FM 3-06.11 and TC 90-1).
DOMINATE
5-15. Army forces dominate by establishing pervasive and lasting control and
influence over the urban environment until responsibilities are transferred to
other legitimate military or civilian control. Decisive operations, at all
echelons across the full spectrum of operations, are critical to a commander’s
ability to dominate. Decisive operations take advantage of the Army force’s
superior training, leadership, and, within the constraints of the environment,
technology. These operations apply overwhelming combat power or
5-6
___________________________________________________________ Foundations for Urban Operations
capabilities to achieve maximum effects. Army forces dominate a situation
when they have fulfilled all mission requirements and established preemi-
nent military control over the threat, geographical area, or population.
Achieving domination in a specific urban operation depends, of course, on the
situation and the assigned mission.
Offense: Attack Decisive Points
5-16. In urban offensive operations, forces achieve dominance by successfully
striking at the enemy’s center of gravity using multiple offensive actions from
unexpected directions and throughout all dimensions. Army forces aim to
dominate identifiable decisive points. Successful efforts against decisive
points lead to effects on the center of gravity. The center of gravity will differ
in each offensive situation. It may be an individual enemy leader, the
enemy’s combat power, the enemy’s communications capability, or a physical
structure of cultural, political, or economic significance.
Defense: Deny Vital Functions and Critical Infrastructure
5-17. In urban defensive operations, domination translates into denying the
enemy control of the vital functions and critical infrastructure of the urban
area. Forces achieve this by leveraging the defensive advantages of the urban
terrain, defending essential areas in depth, using economy of force in nones-
sential areas, controlling the enemy direction of attack with natural and
man-made obstacles, and retaining the initiative through counterattacks.
Stability and Support: Apply Innovation and Imagination
5-18. The ability to dominate in urban stability operations hinges on the type
of stability operation commanders execute. In a noncombatant evacuation
operation, forces limit domination to finite geographic areas and times. In
contrast, a peace operation may require domination of a large urban area for
an extended time. In this operation, dominate is defined as using the array of
Army capabilities to create specific conditions among the belligerents. Thus,
the techniques used for domination in stability operations vary according to
the situation and as situations mature during long-term operations.
5-19. In urban support operations, dominating the situation may require
innovative and subtle application of Army capabilities. Since Army forces
usually support other agencies that lead the operation, achieving domination
results from carefully and discretely applying Army capabilities to the tasks
assigned by the lead agency. In a humanitarian relief situation, Army forces
may be tasked to transport supplies in the urban area. Domination of this
activity then becomes the goal of Army forces and may be achieved by
providing, managing, and protecting transportation assets.
TRANSITION
5-20. When planning UO, commanders ensure that they plan and prepare for
transitions. Transitions are movements from one phase of an operation to
another. They involve significant changes in the type of operation, concept of
the operation, mission, situation, task organization, forces, resource allo-
cation and support arrangements, or C2. Transitions occur in all operations,
but in UO they occur with greater frequency and intensity, are more complex,
5-7
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
and often involve agencies other than US military organizations. For
example, a successful attack may transition to a defend mission that includes
not only defense tasks but also stability tasks. Unless planned and executed
effectively, transitions can reduce the tempo of the urban operation, slow its
momentum, and cede the initiative to the threat.
Mental and Physical Preparation
5-21. Transitions occur as conditions warrant. They can be carefully planned
and controlled, or they can be quick and dramatic, such as the swift transfor-
mation of a stability operation into offense or defense. Units prepare mentally
and physically to address rapid transitions. Accordingly, plans include
branches and sequels that address anticipated or possible transition points.
When the dominant type of operation changes from an offense to stability,
the types of units originally conducting the UO may no longer be appropriate.
A large mobile reserve may permit increased flexibility to react to unplanned
transition requirements. Operations in one part of an urban area may
transition before operations in a different part of the same urban area. This
will require commanders to execute various types of operations and asso-
ciated tasks simultaneously.
Transition to Legitimate Civilian Authorities or Agencies
5-22. In UO, a distinct aspect of transition is the requirement to quickly and
efficiently transition the major portions of Army responsibilities to civil
agencies. Some tasks to which units will transition are not traditional combat
tasks but rather stability tasks more closely associated with CMO. In
stability operations and support operations this is often a near-term critical
mission objective. In these operations, commanders aim to alleviate the
circumstances requiring Army forces and ensure that other civilian agencies
assume the functions provided by Army forces. In combat operations, civilian
agencies quickly resume specific support activities—such as providing
sanitary services, food services, law enforcement, and health services—
because of their high demand on Army resources.
Clearly Visualize and Describe the End State
5-23. Army UO conclude when Army forces depart and have no further
mission requirements in the urban area. At the outset, commanders visualize
and describe the intended end state of a unit’s execution of UO. Commanders
then clarify and update this visualization as the political or strategic situa-
tion is refined or changes. This enables subordinate units to identify likely
transitions and ensures that current operational planning takes into account
second- and third-order effects. As long as an active Army AO contains an
urban area, some type of urban operation will exist. After urban combat
successfully ends, combat forces may move on. Support forces conducting
sustaining operations may then occupy the area and continue to conduct a
different form of UO.
5-8
___________________________________________________________ Foundations for Urban Operations
5-9
Panama
Panama
Caribbean
Sea
Pacific
Ocean
Panama City
Madden Dam
Coco Solo
Colon
Pecora River
Bridge
Rio Hato
Fort Cimarron
La Chorrera
Pan-American Highway
Torrijos-Tocumen
Airport
Fort Sherman
Fort Davis
Fort Espinar
Albrook Air
Station
Fort Amador
Bridge of the
Americas
Fort
Kobbe
Howard A.F.B.
Rodman Naval
Station
N
Panama Canal
N
Panama City Area
Fort Armador
Comandancia
Presidential
Palace Paltilla Airport
Marriott Hotel
US Embassy
Balboa
Quarry
Heights
USSOUTHCOM
Albrook Air
Station
Applying the Urban Operational Framework
Panama – December 1989
The US conducted OPERATION JUST CAUSE in December 1989 to remove the
illegal ruler of Panama, Manuel Noriega, and to restore that country to a democ-
racy. It also conducted the operation to ensure the safety of a substantial number
of US personnel as well as the security of US interests in Panama. The major
focus of JUST CAUSE was in Panama City, the country’s capital. Most opera-
tions occurred in this large urban area, one of the numerous smaller urban areas,
or the urban-like military bases. These bases proliferated the AO and were
directly linked to operations in the capital city. This successful operation illus-
trates how commanders can apply the urban operational framework to visualize,
describe, and direct the critical aspects of urban operations.
Assess
The synchronization achieved during the operation may have obscured the chal-
lenges faced in the initial assessment process in Panama. However, it was not
as simple as it may have seemed. Using the framework of the urban environ-
ment, US forces required details of the physical characteristics of the environ-
ment, the infrastructure, and the human dimension including the capabilities of
the Panamanian military.
Figure 5-3. Panama
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
5-10
Because Army forces had a long history in Panama, commanders clearly under-
stood the physical challenges and layout of critical urban areas (see Figure 5-3
on page 5-9), particularly Panama City. They also understood how the infrastruc-
ture in each urban area functioned and which parts would be key to success.
Examples of key portions of the infrastructure included the Madden Dam, which
controlled the water flow through the Panama Canal, and the Cerro Azul
television tower, which was the main Panamanian broadcast tower.
Collecting information and developing intelligence on the human elements of the
urban environment was critical to operational success and a challenge. Because
the Panamanian Defense Force (PDF) had traditionally been an ally of the US,
Army forces did not have a systemic database that adequately depicted their
order of battle and their true capabilities. Additionally, much of the situation in
Panama was colored in political terms making it more difficult for traditional mili-
tary sources to evaluate the status of PDF forces. For example, Army planners
needed to know if PDF military units (when faced with a formidable US force)
would fight at all for Noriega and if they did fight, how hard and long would they
fight. The answers depended largely on their political loyalty to Noriega and on
the individual loyalty of the unit officers to the Panamanian president. Thus, Army
commanders needed to understand the military characteristics of PDF units and
their political affiliations and tendencies.
Because transition from combat to noncombat tasks would be critical to
achieving all objectives, particularly the restoration of democracy, Army forces
also needed an accurate assessment of the political opposition to Noriega—
including that opposition’s capabilities and vulnerabilities. Again, Army forces
were required to make assessments outside those needed solely for combat
operations. Ultimately, assessing the political opposition’s vulnerabilities led to
assigning Army units to protect them throughout the operation so that they could
serve as a foundation for a new democratic government.
Finally, the commander’s assessment included an evaluation (often subjective)
of the attitudes and disposition of the Panamanian people. Human intelligence
(HUMINT) was the primary source of information on the population. Army forces
had good access to the population because of their close proximity and historical
ties to Panama. Many soldiers were married to Panamanians, and the Army had
total access to local media and to prominent individuals.
National imagery and special operations forces (SOF) also contributed to the
ability of Army forces to assess the urban environments of JUST CAUSE. All
units executing operations had detailed satellite photos of objective areas. Addi-
tionally, key objectives were placed under SOF surveillance well in advance. This
surveillance revealed unit readiness, vulnerabilities, detailed disposition, and
other patterns critical to mission success. The combination of the two capabilities
allowed units to plan and achieve the synchronization necessary for such a
complex urban operation.
Shape
During OPERATION JUST CAUSE, commanders conducted numerous shaping
operations to establish the conditions for the decisive operations. Many opera-
tions were designed to control information, such as an assault on the Azul tele-
vision tower identified during the assessment of the infrastructure. Planners
designed many shaping operations to isolate various garrisons and PDF units.
___________________________________________________________ Foundations for Urban Operations
5-11
An example of tactical isolation was the plan for the Pacora River Bridge to
prevent reinforcements from reaching the garrison at Torrijos-Tocumen Airport.
Operational isolation was achieved through the Ranger Regiment’s and 82nd Air-
borne Division’s assault on targets at Rio Hato in the west and Fort Cimarron in
the east. These actions in conjunction with the securing of Maddam Dam had the
primary objective of isolating Panama City. They were also the largest of the
major actions occurring during OPERATION JUST CAUSE. The airborne assault
was also the largest airborne operation conducted by US forces since World
War II. This large-scale shaping operation demonstrates that shaping operations
are critical to mission success and can be more resource intensive than the
actual operations that achieve domination.
Dominate
US Army forces achieved domination in OPERATION JUST CAUSE by estab-
lishing unchallenged military control over Panama City and eliminating Noriega’s
capability to challenge that control. Toward this end, the operation attacked two
decisive points. The first was the assault on the PDF headquarters located in
Panama City: the Comandancia. The second was the operation undertaken to
locate and seize Noriega himself.
Three battalions of task force (TF) Bayonet (5-87th Infantry, 1-508 Infantry
[Airborne], and 4-6th Infantry [Mechanized]) executed the attack on the Coman-
dancia and Fort Amador. They were also tasked to protect the American Em-
bassy in downtown Panama City. To execute these missions, they moved from
various staging areas located throughout the city to their assigned objectives
using air assault, mounted, and dismounted approaches. The ground movement
through the city proved to be the most difficult and hazardous part of the mission
due to the vulnerability of the troops in their armored personnel carriers and
trucks. The dismounted movement was slower than the mounted movement but
allowed the soldiers greater cover and concealment.
The strongest opposition to TF Bayonet occurred at the Comandancia. Elements
of three PDF companies and two public order companies held out for three
hours. The troops moving to Comandancia were subject to a large volume of
sniper fire, and in the assault, unidentified indirect fire caused significant casual-
ties among the mechanized forces. TF Bayonet forces, supported by airborne
armored reconnaissance vehicles and Hellfire missiles from Apache helicopters,
captured the Comandancia. Commanders noted in particular the precision of the
supporting fires from attack helicopters. The assault by fire from supporting
AC-130 gunships destroyed most of the reinforced Comandancia building.
Simultaneously, SOF attacked several targets where Noriega might be located.
These initial attacks were unsuccessful. However, many subsequent actions
neutralized Noriega’s influence and eventually resulted in his apprehension on
3 January 1990. These actions included the well-organized and relentless
manhunt conducted by SOF units, the isolation of Panama City itself, population
control efforts, sophisticated IO, and cooperation with other US agencies.
Transition
OPERATION JUST CAUSE demonstrated the vital need for a thought-out plan
that adequately addresses the transition from combat to noncombat before com-
manders initiate operations. Normally in complex UO, commanders cannot leave
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
the details of transition until after the operation has begun without unacceptable
risk to overall mission accomplishment. The follow-on stability operation,
OPERATION BLIND LOGIC (later renamed OPERATION PROMOTE LIBERTY)
began 24 hours after the initial assault and thus both operations were occurring
simultaneously. This simultaneity of different types of operations is typical in
major operations conducted in a large urban area. The stability operations
involved more time than the combat operation and continued well after the close
of OPERATION JUST CAUSE and after most of the major combat units had
redeployed. It involved significant resources without the same level of risk to US
forces as the combat operations.
Civil affairs (CA) were a dominant part of the transition from combat to stability
operations. The 96th Civil Affairs battalion was central to this operation. CA
forces established a civil police force, emergency food distribution, property
protection, production and distribution of newspapers, cleanup of the city, and
building support for a new civil government. Most tasks were coordinated through
Army CA forces and executed by other Army forces under the supervision of CA.
IO were also a major aspect of affecting a stable transition and successful post-
combat operations. These operations built support for the US operation among
the population. They emphasized that the US conflict was with Noriega and not
the Panamanian people and that the US forces would depart as soon as a new
Panamanian government could take over.
Other US agencies played critical roles in stability operations in Panama. The US
Drug Enforcement Agency and Justice Department were important to the
negotiations that led to Noriega’s capture. The US State Department helped to
negotiate for Noriega and develop military policies and plans during the stability
operation. The American Embassy advised commanders regarding the large
diplomatic community that existed in Panama City.
FUNDAMENTALS OF URBAN OPERATIONS
5-24. UO often differ from one operation to the next. However, some funda-
mentals apply to UO regardless of the mission, geographical location, or level
of command. Some of these fundamentals are not exclusive to urban environ-
ments. They are particularly relevant to an environment dominated by man-
made structures and a dense noncombatant population (see Figure 5-4).
Appendix A provides an historical example of how these fundamentals apply
to an actual conflict situation.
PERFORM FOCUSED INFORMATION OPERATIONS
5-25. Information operations aimed at influencing non-Army sources of infor-
mation are critical in UO. Because of the density of noncombatants and
information sources, the media, the public, allies, coalition partners, neutral
nations, and strategic leadership will likely scrutinize how Army forces
participate in UO. The proliferation of cell phones, Internet capability, and
media outlets ensure close observation of the activities of Army forces. With
information sources rapidly expanding, public information of Army opera-
tions will be available faster than the internal military INFOSYS can process
it. Army forces should aggressively integrate IO into every facet and at all
5-12
___________________________________________________________ Foundations for Urban Operations
levels of the opera-
tion to prevent
negative impacts.
Under media scru-
tiny, the actions of
one soldier may
have significant
strategic implica-
tions. IO aim to
make the infor-
mation accurate;
placed in the
proper context of
the Army’s mis-
sion; and available
to all interested
parties: the public,
the media, and
other agencies.
Perform Focused
Information
Operations
Perform Focused
Information
Operations
Conduct Close
Combat
Conduct Close
Combat
Avoid the Attrition
Approach
Avoid the Attrition
Approach
Control the Essential
Control the Essential
Minimize Collateral
Damage
Minimize Collateral
Damage
Separate
Noncombatants from
Combatants
Separate
Noncombatants from
Combatants
Restore Essential
Services
Restore Essential
Services
Preserve Critical
Infrastructure
Preserve Critical
Infrastructure
Understand the
Human Dimension
Understand the
Human Dimension
Transition Control
Transition Control
Figure 5-4. Fundamentals of Urban Operations
CONDUCT CLOSE COMBAT
5-26. Close combat is required in all offensive and defensive UO. This core
capability is also present and visible in urban stability operations and may be
required in urban support operations. Close combat in any urban operation is
resource intensive, requires properly trained and equipped forces, and has
the potential for high casualties. However, the ability to close with and
destroy enemy forces as a combined arms team remains essential. This
ability allows Army forces to morally dominate a threat, destroy his means to
resist, and terminate urban conflicts on the Army commander’s terms. There-
fore, nothing in this manual should lead commanders to compromise this
decisive capability.
AVOID THE ATTRITION APPROACH
5-27. Previous Army doctrine was inclined towards a systematic linear
approach to urban combat. This approach emphasized standoff weapons and
firepower. Army force structure does not support this approach towards UO.
It can result in significant collateral damage, a lengthy operation, and an
inconsistency with the political situation and strategic objectives. Enemy
forces that defend urban areas want Army forces to adopt this approach
because of the likely costs in resources. Commanders should only consider
this approach to urban combat as an exception and justified by unique cir-
cumstances.
CONTROL THE ESSENTIAL
5-28. Many modern urban areas are too large to be completely occupied or
even effectively controlled without an enormous force. Therefore, Army forces
focus their efforts on controlling only the essentials to mission accomplish-
ment. At a minimum, this requires control of key terrain. Key terrain is
terrain whose possession or control provides a marked advantage to one side
or another. In the urban environment, commanders determine key terrain
5-13
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
based on its functional, political, economic, or social significance. A power
station or a church may be key terrain.
5-29. All principles of war can apply to UO. The principle of mass and the
principle of economy of force (in addition to the principle of unity of command
discussed later in this chapter) are particularly important in guiding UO and
providing mission focus. Army forces mass combat power only to control those
requirements essential for mission success. This permits conservation of
combat power. It also implies economy of force and associated risk in those
areas where Army forces choose not to exercise control.
MINIMIZE COLLATERAL DAMAGE
5-30. Forces should use
precision fires, IO, and non-
lethal tactical systems con-
sistent with mission accom-
plishment while decreasing
the potential for collateral
damage. Commanders
develop unique rules of
engagement (ROE) for each
urban operation and pro-
vide necessary firepower
constraints. IO and non-
lethal systems may com-
pensate for some restric-
tions, especially in stability
operations and support
operations. Commanders continually assess the short- and long-term effects
of firepower on the population, infrastructure, subsequent missions, and
national and strategic objectives.
SEPARATE NONCOMBATANTS FROM COMBATANTS
5-31. Promptly separating noncombatants from combatants (psychologically
and physically) may make the operation more efficient and diminish some of
the threat’s asymmetrical advantages. This separation also may reduce
restrictions on the use of firepower, enhance force protection, and strip the
threat from its popular support base. This important task becomes more diffi-
cult when the threat is an unconventional force that can mix with civilians.
5-32. In recent operations, threats have sought to integrate their military
capabilities as closely as possible into the civilian population and infrastruc-
ture. In these conditions, commanders increase their efforts to discriminate
between the two. Soldiers managing violence in this setting require the
highest level of individual and organizational discipline and judgment. The
training, effort, and command emphasis in this area is as important as fully
successful results. Such efforts strongly impact national and international
perceptions of the operation.
5-14
___________________________________________________________ Foundations for Urban Operations
RESTORE ESSENTIAL SERVICES
5-33. Army forces plan to restore essential services that may fail to function
before or during an operation. Essential services include power, food, water,
sewage, medical care, and law enforcement. When planning for and con-
ducting Army UO, units can use nonlethal and less destructive munitions
and capabilities to keep potentially vital infrastructure intact. Initially, Army
forces may be the only force able to restore or provide essential services.
Failure to do so can result in serious health problems for the civilians, which
can affect the health of Army forces and negatively impact overall mission
success. Army forces transfer responsibility for providing essential services to
other agencies, NGOs, or the local government as quickly as possible.
PRESERVE CRITICAL INFRASTRUCTURE
5-34. Commanders analyze the urban area to identify critical infrastructure.
They attempt to preserve the critical elements for postcombat sustainment
operations, stability operations, support operations, or the health and well-
being of the indigenous population. Urban areas remain in the AO after
combat operations have ceased. Postcombat UO are unavoidable. Different
from simply avoiding collateral damage, Army forces may have to initiate
actions to prevent an enemy or a hostile civilian group from removing or
destroying critical infrastructure. Such infrastructure may include cultural
resources such as religious and historical places. In some cases, preserving
the infrastructure may be the assigned objective of the urban operation.
UNDERSTAND THE HUMAN DIMENSION
5-35. Commanders carefully consider and manage the perceptions, alle-
giance, and morale of the civilians. Their assessment of the environment
needs to accurately identify the attitudes of the people toward Army forces.
Operational guidance to subordinates—including ROE, protection, logistics
operations, and fraternization—is based on this assessment. Commanders
expect and consider the demographic variance in the attitudes of an urban
population. They cannot inadvertently apply Western cultural norms to a
non-Western urban population. Commanders can only make assessments
based on understanding and appreciating the local culture.
5-36. Sound policies, proper discipline, and adequate consideration for local
culture will positively affect the attitudes of the population toward Army
forces. Additionally, well-conceived and executed IO will enhance the position
of Army forces relative to the urban population. Even during high-intensity
urban combat, heightened awareness of and sensitivity toward the civilians
can lead to a better postcombat situation than if civil considerations were
unobserved or diminished in importance. An improved postcombat situation
enhances transition. As the environment of conflict becomes more complex,
the human dimension (and associated moral aspects) takes on greater
importance and may have the greatest potential for affecting the successful
outcome of UO. Therefore, the human aspect creates a discrete overall
planning area.
5-15
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
TRANSITION CONTROL
5-37. Because UO are resource intensive, commanders plan to end them
quickly, yet consistently with successful mission accomplishment. The end
state of all UO transfers control of the urban area to another agency or
returns it to legitimate civilian control. Quick transition releases Army
resources for use elsewhere and improves the civilian morale and disposition
toward Army forces. This requires the successful completion of the Army
force mission and a thorough transition plan. The transition plan may
include returning control of the urban area to another agency a portion at a
time as conditions permit.
GENERAL EFFECTS ON OPERATIONS
5-38. Commanders understand the general effects that the environment has
on the BOS. They also understand the effects that the environment has on
lower-level tactics to properly plan, prepare, and execute major operations
that may include UO. Otherwise, commanders may ask their subordinates to
achieve effects, accomplish objectives, or adhere to a timetable that is unsup-
portable due to the constraints imposed by the urban environment. However,
commanders do more than simply understand the impossible, rather they
determine what it will take to make it possible.
BATTLEFIELD OPERATING SYSTEMS
5-39. Understanding the effects of the BOS
permits the urban commander to better vis-
ualize the battlespace. See Figure 5-5. With
this appreciation, he can conduct a more
thorough assessment and thereby determine
the most efficient means of employing Army
forces. The staff can be intimately familiar
with effects in their area of expertise and use
that knowledge to understand the problem
and develop creative and innovative solutions
to achieve their commander’s intent.
•
Intelligence
• Maneuver
• Fire Support
• Air Defense
• Mobility, Countermobility,
and Survivability
• Combat Service Support
• Command and Control
Figure 5-5. Battlefield
Operating Systems
Intelligence
5-40. The intelligence system plans, directs, collects, processes, produces, and
disseminates intelligence on the threat and the environment. The urban envi-
ronment affects this critical system in many ways. Impacts of the environ-
ment on the intelligence system include degraded reconnaissance capability,
more difficult IPB process, and increased importance of credible HUMINT.
The Army forces’ response to these effects can result in timely, accurate, and
actionable intelligence that permits the effective application of other BOS to
the mission within the urban environment.
5-41. Degraded Reconnaissance and Surveillance Capability. The
physical environment creates a major challenge to the intelligence system.
The man-made construction in the urban areas provides nearly complete
cover and concealment for threats. Current sensor capabilities cannot pene-
trate the subsurface facilities and much of the space within intrasurface
5-16
___________________________________________________________ Foundations for Urban Operations
areas. The mass of buildings can also defuse electronic signatures. Tall
buildings shield movement within urban canyons from aerial observation ex-
cept from directly overhead. Urban threats may be less technology dependent
and may thwart some signals intelligence efforts simply by turning off their
radios and using messengers. Threat forces will likely use elements of the
civilian telecommunications infrastructure for C2. These systems may
include traditional landline phones, cellular telephones, and computer-to-
computer or Internet data communications. Most urban telecommunications
systems use buried fiber or cables or employ modern digital signaling tech-
nology. Such systems are difficult to intercept and exploit at the tactical level.
These characteristics make it difficult for the intelligence system to use
electronic means to determine threat dispositions and, in offensive and defen-
sive UO, identify decisive points and centers of gravity.
5-42. Challenging IPB Process. The complexity of the environment also
challenges the intelligence system. The intelligence system applies the IPB
process to the urban environment in accordance with Army doctrine (see
Appendix B). With more data points for the IPB process to identify, evaluate,
and monitor, this application becomes more demanding. The human and
societal aspects of the environment and the physical complexity primarily
cause this difference. Relationships between aspects of the environment, built
on an immense infrastructure of formal and informal systems connecting the
population to the urban area, are usually less familiar to analysts. Thus, the
urban environment often requires more intelligence resources to penetrate,
identify, monitor, and assess than other environments.
5-43. Compounding the challenges is the relative incongruity of all urban
environments. No two urban areas are alike physically, in population, or in
infrastructure. Thus, experience in one urban area with a particular popula-
tion and pattern of infrastructure does not readily transfer to another urban
area. Any experience in UO is valuable and normally serves as a starting
point for analysis, but the intelligence system cannot assume (and treat as
fact) that patterns of behavior and the relationships in one urban area mirror
another urban area. The opposite is as likely to hold true. The intelligence
system will have to study each urban area individually to determine how it
works and understand its complex relationships.
5-44. Each characteristic of the urban environment—terrain, society, and
infrastructure—is dynamic and can change radically in response to UO or
external influences. Civilian populations pose a special challenge to com-
manders conducting UO. Civilians react to, interact with, and influence to
varying degrees Army forces. Commanders know and account for the poten-
tial influence these populations may have on their operations. Intelligence
analysts revisit or continuously monitor the critical points looking for
changes.
5-45. The actions of Army forces will affect, positively or negatively, their
relationship with the urban population and, hence, mission success. NGOs
may deliberately or inadvertently influence civilians. The intelligence system
can monitor and predict the reactions of the civil population. Predictive
analysis of a large population requires specific training and extensive
cultural and regional expertise.
5-17
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
5-46. Increased Importance of Human Intelligence. The intelligence
system adjusts to the degradation of its technical intelligence gathering
systems by increasing emphasis on HUMINT in UO. HUMINT operations
may be the primary and most productive intelligence source in UO. In urban
offensive and defensive operations, HUMINT gathers information from
refugees, former citizens (especially previous civil administrators), civilian
contractors, and military personnel who have operated in the area. Credible
intelligence of this type can help meet requirements, provide more detail, and
alleviate some of the need to physically penetrate the urban area with recon-
naissance forces.
5-47. In urban stability operations and support operations, HUMINT identi-
fies threats and monitors the intentions and attitudes of the population. A
chief source of HUMINT is reconnaissance forces. However, the physical
nature of the urban area also poses an obstacle to these intelligence assets.
Chapter 4 discusses these challenges. Reliable and trustworthy HUMINT is
particularly important in foreign internal defense, combatting terrorism, and
support to counterdrug operations. Leaders organize intelligence resources
appropriately, and learn and apply valuable techniques, such as pattern and
link analysis (see FM 34-7).
5-48. NGOs can be extremely beneficial sources of credible information about
the urban environment. During the 1999 fighting in Kosovo, for example, the
Red Cross provided the most accurate figures regarding the number of
Kosovar refugees, helping US and other coalition forces to estimate the
appropriate level of support required to handle their needs. NGOs may also
have—
• A developed network of influential contacts including local leaders and
business people.
• Historical archives.
• Extensive understanding of the urban infrastructure.
• Key knowledge of political and economic influences.
• Up-to-date web sites and maps.
Maneuver
5-49. Army maneuver forces—
infantry, armor, cavalry, and
attack aviation—move to
achieve a position of advan-
tage. Entire urban areas or
specific threat forces located
within may be isolated from
affecting other operations and
then bypassed. However, when
the situation requires entering
the urban area to accomplish
the mission, the environment
will significantly affect the
Army’s ability to maneuver
(See Figure 5-6). These
negative effects include
CANALIZES AND
COMPARTMENTALIZES
&
INCREASES
VULNERABILTY
Effective Combined
Arms Task
Organization with an
Increased Dismounted
Maneuver Capability
Continuous Operations
Technological
Enhancements
Figure 5-6. Urban Maneuver Challenges
and Means to Overcome Them
5-18
___________________________________________________________ Foundations for Urban Operations
canalization, compartmentalization, and increased vulnerability. However,
tactics and techniques equip Army forces to overcome these challenges and
maneuver successfully. One tactic, effective combined arms task organiza-
tion, includes an increased dismounted maneuver capability, continuous
operations, and technological enhancements.
5-50. Canalization and Compartmentalization. The urban terrain will
often canalize and compartment forces maneuvering through it. Buildings
pose obstacles to both mounted and dismounted movement, forcing units to
be canalized along streets. The buildings also block movement between
streets, thus compartmenting units. Changing directions, repositioning com-
mitted forces, reinforcing forces in contact, bypassing threats, and maneu-
vering to the threat flank become extremely difficult. Units often breach
obstacles to help solve this problem. Using helicopters to quickly move forces,
both forward into contact and to rear areas as part of repositioning, also
permits Army forces to overcome some terrain constraints.
5-51. The canalized and compartmented effects can slow maneuver consid-
erably. However, slowed maneuver also results from the physically
demanding soldier tasks required in an urban environment. Soldiers operate
dismounted across rubble and hard surfaces. Operating in three dimensions,
they constantly move up the intrasurface areas of building interiors and
down into basements, cellars, and other subsurface areas. They breach many
obstacles and use upper-body strength, ropes, and ladders to scale heights.
The inability to see into the next room, floor, or building magnifies stress.
The resulting fatigue slows the overall rate of Army force maneuver.
5-52. Increased Vulnerability. The urban environment increases the vul-
nerability of Army forces executing maneuver in offensive, defensive, sta-
bility, and support operations. Both the physical terrain and the urban popu-
lation provide threat cover and concealment. Air maneuver is vulnerable for
many of the same reasons. In offensive or defensive operations, enemy forces
can remain undetected in buildings and in position to ambush Army forces.
Forces clear buildings along maneuver routes prior to mounted movement
along those axes. Failure to clear routes (and effectively mark cleared
portions) exposes mounted movement to ambush at close range. Movement
back across streets and obstacles may be difficult particularly if the element
of surprise was essential in the initial crossing or breach. The same buildings
also provide cover and concealment to enemy air defense capabilities, particu-
larly man-portable air defense systems. In all operations, but especially
stability operations and support operations, civilians can conceal threat
elements. The threat can then initiate offensive operations against Army
forces from close range and where ROE will hamper applying combat power.
Thus, maneuver through a dense population can be a high-risk operation.
5-53. Combined Arms Task Organization. Effective combined arms task
organization ensures that forces are task organized with infantry—the essen-
tial building block for all organizations conducting UO. Infantry protects
mounted elements as the combined arms unit maneuvers through the urban
area. The infantry destroys the enemy in buildings and bunkers where they
cannot be defeated by mounted forces. Combined arms also ensure that engi-
neers support dismounted maneuver by assisting in covered and concealed
maneuver through buildings and off exposed streets. Field artillery aids in
5-19
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
dismounted and mounted (to include air) maneuver by suppressing known
and suspected enemy positions with precision fires. Armored elements protect
soldiers from small arms fire and destroy or suppress enemy positions with
direct fire. Artillery may also be used in this direct fire role. Armored forces
and attack helicopters also can facilitate maneuver through shock action that
can have a psychological effect, particularly against less well-trained threats
and, in discrete instances, hostile crowds.
5-54. A major difference of UO combined arms is in proportion and organiza-
tion. UO require an increased proportion of dismounted infantry and engi-
neer capabilities. Armor is not required in the same high numbers. The level
at which combined arms operations occur is also lower. Commonly, company
level will require true combined arms capability and may include engineers,
military intelligence, reconnaissance, and artillery. Combined arms teams
can then form at platoon and squad levels. Because of this, larger units such
as divisions will need more CA, military intelligence, and engineers than
those included in the typical division structure, or as habitually attached for
combat in more open terrain.
5-55. Continuous Operations and Technology Enhancements. Two
other means to improve Army forces’ ability to maneuver in urban terrain is
through continuous operations and the leveraging of technology, such as the
Army’s night operations capability. Historically, urban battles have been
fought primarily during daylight because of technological limitations and
fatigue. By utilizing night vision technologies, accurate situational under-
standing, COP, training, and rotated units, Army forces can defeat threats
who use the same soldiers in day and night operations and who are less well-
equipped and adept at night operations. Night operations are also a means of
mitigating the air defense threat against air maneuver. Continuous opera-
tions through night maneuver with fresh forces are challenging, but it can
overcome many advantages that a stationary force has against maneuver in
the urban environment. Commanders also consider that streetlights, fires,
and background illumination (as well as dark building interiors without
ambient light) may limit the effectiveness of night vision devices and make
thermal imagery identification difficult.
Fire Support
5-56. The fire support
system includes the
collective and coordi-
nated use of several
means to attack targets
in the urban area (see
Appendix D for joint
capabilities). These
means include target
acquisition data, indirect
fire weapons, rotary- and
fixed-wing aircraft, offen-
sive IO, and other lethal and nonlethal means. The urban environment
affects these components of the fire support system and their employment.
5-20
___________________________________________________________ Foundations for Urban Operations
5-57. Target Acquisition. Target acquisition in an urban environment faces
several challenges. First, forces have difficulty penetrating the urban envi-
ronment’s increased cover and concealment using sensors and reconnais-
sance. Acquiring targeting information and tracking targets throughout the
depth of the urban area may prove challenging. Moving personnel or vehicu-
lar targets are normally easiest to acquire. However, the cover and conceal-
ment provided by urban terrain gives moving targets short exposure times
requiring firing systems to act rapidly on targeting data. Targeting of
opposing indirect fire units by acquisition radar works more effectively in
urban terrain because of the necessary high angles of indirect fire. The urban
environment presents similar difficulties for battle damage assessment.
5-58. Targeting challenges are met by innovatively integrating reconnais-
sance capabilities. These capabilities include SOF, long-range reconnaissance
units, cavalry, unmanned aerial vehicles, and aerial observers as well as the
standard reconnaissance assets of a division. More artillery systems may
need to be used to ensure the responsiveness (rather than the weight) of fires.
Positioning numerous artillery systems reduces the dead space (as discussed
below) and permits units to establish more direct sensor-to-shooter links.
5-59. Urban Effects on Fire Support
Systems. Both the physical and human
components of the urban area affect
how units use fire support weapon
systems (see Figure 5-7). The physical
aspects of the urban environment, such
as the heights and concentration of
buildings, cause significant masking
and dead space. Buildings that stand
three or more stories tall hinder close
indirect fire support. Tall buildings can potentially mask several blocks of
area along the gun-target line of artillery. For low-angle artillery fire, dead
space is about five times the height of the building behind which the target
sits. The potential for collateral damage to adjacent buildings may also
prevent engagement with artillery. Such damage might cause noncombatant
and friendly troop casualties and unintentional rubbling. Commanders can
offset these effects by carefully placing artillery positions, repositioning
artillery as targets change, and using mortars. Mortars have a steep angle of
fall and short minimum ranges as a high-angle alternative to field artillery
fire. In comparison to artillery, dead space for mortar fire is only about one-
half the height of the building. Collateral damage concerns may also cause
commanders to restrict attacks to certain times of day, give warning prior to
an attack so that noncombatants can evacuate the area, or even abort an
attack unless precision effects can be achieved.
•
Masking and Dead Space
• Collateral Damage Limitations
• Acquisition and Arming Ranges
• Type and Number of Indirect
Fire Systems
• Positioning
• Mix of Munitions
Figure 5-7. Urban Effects on
Fire Support Systems
5-60. Vertical structures interrupt line of sight (LOS) and create corridors of
visibility along street axes. The result is thereby shortened acquisition and
arming ranges for supporting fires from attack helicopters and subsequently
affected engagement techniques and delivery options. Pilots maintain LOS
long enough to acquire targets, achieve weapons delivery solutions, and fly to
those parameters. Tube-launched, optically tracked, wire-guided heavy anti-
tank missile systems require 65 meters to arm. The Hellfire missile requires
5-21
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
at least 500 meters to reliably arm and stabilize on the intended target. Thus,
attack helicopters firing from longer ranges actually improve the probability
of a hit. Heavy smoke and dust rising from urban fires and explosions may
hinder target identification, laser designation, and guidance for rotary- and
fixed-winged aircraft. The close proximity of friendly units and noncom-
batants requires units to agree on, thoroughly disseminate, and rehearse
clear techniques and procedures for marking target and friendly locations.
5-61. The urban environment also affects the type and number of indirect fire
weapon systems employed. Commanders may prefer high-angle fire because
of its ability to fire in close proximity to friendly occupied buildings. Tac-
tically, commanders may consider reinforcing units in UO with mortar pla-
toons from reserve units. This will increase the number of systems available
to support maneuver units. Multiple Launch Rocket Systems (MLRSs) may
be of limited use in urban areas due to their exceptional destructive capabili-
ties and the potential for collateral damage. However, commanders may use
MLRSs to isolate the urban area from outside influence. Commanders may
also employ field artillery systems as independent sections, particularly self-
propelled systems, in the direct-fire role; decreasing volume and increasing
precision of artillery fire helps minimize collateral damage. While discretely
applying the effects of high-explosive and concrete-piercing munitions, these
self-propelled systems take advantage of the mobility and limited protection
of their armored vehicles.
5-62. The urban area may affect the positioning of artillery. Sufficient space
may not exist to place battery or platoon positions with the proper unmasked
gun line. This may mandate moving and positioning artillery in sections
while still massing fires on specific targets. Commanders protect artillery
systems, particularly when organized into small sections. Threats to artillery
include raids and snipers. Therefore, firing units will have to place increased
emphasis on securing their positions.
5-63. The mix of munitions used by indirect fire systems will change
somewhat in urban areas. Units will likely request more precision-guided
munitions (PGM) for artillery systems to target small enemy positions, such
as snipers or machine guns, while limiting collateral damage. Only conven-
tional tube artillery, not mortars, has this capability. However, large
expanses of polished, flat reflective surfaces common in urban areas may
degrade laser designation for these munitions (as well as attack helicopter
PGM). The vertical nature amplifies the geometrical constraints of many
precision munitions. Remote designators need to be close enough to accu-
rately designate but far enough away not to be acquired by the PGM during
its flight path.
5-64. The urban environment also affects the use of nonprecision munitions.
Building height may cause variable time fuses to arm prematurely. Tall
buildings may also mask the effects of illumination rounds. Units may choose
not to use dual-purpose conventional munitions if—
• The enemy has several building floors for overhead protection.
• Dismounted friendly units need rapid access to the area being fired on.
• Large numbers of civilians will operate in the target areas soon after
combat operations have ceased.
5-22
___________________________________________________________ Foundations for Urban Operations
5-65. Depending on the building construction, commanders may prohibit or
limit illumination, smoke, and other munitions because of fire hazards. (Of
course, in particular instances, they may specifically use them for that effect.)
Structure fires in an urban area are difficult to control and may affect
friendly units. Conventional high-explosive munitions may work best against
concrete, steel, stone, and other reinforced structures. When not used in the
direct-fire role, a greater mass of indirect fire is often required to achieve
desired effects. Commanders balance firepower and collateral damage since
the rubbling caused by massive indirect fires may adversely affect a unit’s
ability to maneuver and provide a threat with additional cover and conceal-
ment.
5-66. Nonlethal weapons can help commanders maintain the desired balance
of force protection, mission accomplishment, and safety of noncombatants by
expanding the number of options available when deadly force may be
problematic. As additional nonlethal capabilities are developed, they are
routinely considered for their applicability to UO. In determining their use
and employment, commanders consider—
• Risk. The use of nonlethal weapons in situations where lethal force is
more appropriate may drastically increases the risk to Army forces.
• Threat Perspective. A threat may interpret the use of nonlethal
weapons as a reluctance to use force and embolden him to adopt
courses of action that he would not otherwise use.
• Legal Concerns. Laws or international agreements may restrict or
prohibit their use (see Chapter 9).
• Environmental Concerns. Environmental interests may also limit
their use.
• Public Opinion. The apparent suffering caused by nonlethal
weapons, especially when there are no combat casualties with which to
contrast it, may arouse adverse public opinion.
Air Defense
5-67. The air defense system protects the force from air surveillance and air
and missile attack. This system uses—
• The careful massing of air and missile defense combat power at points
critical to the urban operation.
• The proper mix of air defense weapon and sensor systems.
• Matched (or greater) mobility to the supported force.
• The integration of the air defense plan into the overall urban operation.
• The integration of Army systems with those of joint and multinational
forces.
Properly planned and executed air defense prevents air threats from inter-
dicting friendly forces and frees the commander to synchronize maneuver and
other elements of firepower. Even in an MTW, the enemy will likely have
limited air and missile capabilities and so seek to achieve the greatest payoff
for the use of these systems. Attacking Army forces and facilities promises
the greatest likelihood of achieving results, making urban areas the most
likely targets for air and missile attack.
5-23
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
5-68. Rotary- and Fixed-Winged Aircraft. Enemy rotary-wing aircraft can
be used in various roles to include air assault, fire support, and CSS. Some
threats may use unmanned aerial vehicles to obtain intelligence and target
acquisition data on friendly forces. Increased air mobility limitations and
targeting difficulties may cause enemy fixed-wing aircraft to target key
logistics, C2 nodes, and troop concentrations outside the urban area, simul-
taneously attacking key infrastructure both in and out of the urban area.
5-69. Increased Missile Threat. The intermediate range missile capability
of potential threats has increased to be the most likely air threat to an urban
area. Urban areas, particularly friendly or allied, make the most attractive
targets because of the sometimes-limited accuracy of these systems. By firing
missiles at an urban area, a threat seeks three possible objectives:
• Inflict casualties and materiel damage on military forces.
• Inflict casualties and materiel damage on the urban population.
• Undermine the confidence or trust of the civil population (particularly
if allied) in the ability of Army forces to protect them.
5-70. If facing a missile threat, commanders conducting UO work closely
with civil authorities (as well as joint and multinational forces) to integrate
the Army warning system with civil defense mechanisms. Similarly, Army
forces may support urban agencies reacting to a missile attack with medical
and medical evacuation support, survivor recovery and assistance in
damaged areas, and crowd control augmentation of local police forces. Before
such an attack, Army engineers might assist and advise the urban area’s
officials on how to construct shelters.
5-71. Increased Security of Assets. When defending against an air or
missile threat in a neutral or hostile urban environment, air defense assets
are concerned with security. Separating air defense locations from high popu-
lation and traffic centers, as well as augmenting these positions with
defending forces, can prevent or defeat threat efforts to neutralize them.
Additionally, increased density of UO means increased concentration of all
friendly and enemy systems engaged in air and counter-air operations. This
density may increase friend and foe identification challenges, air space
management challenges, and the overall risk in the conduct of air operations.
Finally, limited air defense assets, difficulties in providing mutual support
between systems, potential mobility limitations, and other effects of the
urban environment increase the need for (and effectiveness of) a combined
arms approach to air defense (see FM 44-8).
Mobility, Countermobility, and Survivability
5-72. Mobility operations preserve the freedom of maneuver of friendly
forces. Countermobility operations deny mobility to threat forces so that they
can be destroyed. Survivability operations protect friendly forces from the
effects of enemy weapons systems and from natural occurrences. All three
aspects of this system have distinct and important applications in UO.
5-73. Mobility. The urban environment presents constant challenges to
urban mobility. Combined arms task organization and effectively using engi-
neers to conduct mobility missions significantly reduces these challenges.
Commanders consider all urban buildings obstacles to movement. Engineers,
5-24
___________________________________________________________ Foundations for Urban Operations
trained and equipped for UO, can turn these obstacles into an advantage by
breaching them with “mouse holes” made by explosives, sledgehammers,
bulldozers or armored vehicles, or high-strength (diamond or carbide-tipped)
cutting devices. These breaches permit dismounted movement through
buildings under both cover and concealment.
5-74. Engineers are also trained and equipped to facilitate mounted mobility
in the urban environment. Buildings are essentially unbreachable obstacles
that restrict mounted movement to the compartmented and canalized streets.
Threats can block streets with roadblocks ranging from sophisticated log and
concrete cribs reinforced with antitank and antipersonnel mines to expedient
cars, buses, and trucks. Engineers breach these obstacles to maintain the co-
herence of the combined arms team (mounted and dismounted). Engineers
are forward, often task organized down to platoon level, and have the exper-
tise and equipment to rapidly reduce point obstacles. It even may be neces-
sary that every armored vehicle (or section of two vehicles) be task organized
with an associated engineer squad and combat engineer vehicle.
5-75. In all UO, mobility
operations may allow civilian
traffic and commerce to
resume, letting the urban area
return to some semblance of
normalcy (often a critical
objective). In stability opera-
tions, mobility often focuses on
keeping lines of communi-
cations open and reducing the
threat of mines to soldiers and
civilians. In support opera-
tions, mobility may focus on removing storm debris or reducing obstacles
caused by destroyed property.
5-76. Countermobility. Countermobility capabilities in urban terrain are
essential in all UO, not just defensive. In defensive operations, commanders
use countermobility capability to control where the enemy moves in the urban
area. Repositioning defensive forces in the urban area can be difficult and
obstacles are essential to limiting the enemy’s maneuver options. During
offensive operations, countermobility protects exposed flanks and air
assaulting forces from counterattack. In stability operations, countermobility
operations may take the form of constructing barriers to assist in populace
and resources control at critical urban locations.
5-77. Survivability. Survivability in the urban environment is a significant
force multiplier. Properly positioned Army forces can take advantage of the
increased survivability afforded by the physical terrain. Even a limited engi-
neer effort can significantly enhance the combat power of small Army forces.
In stability operations, properly planned and constructed survivability posi-
tions can enable small groups of soldiers to withstand the assaults of large
mobs, sniping, and indirect fire. These survivability positions are often criti-
cally essential to minimizing casualties during long-term stability operations.
5-25
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
5-78. While executing MTW combat operations, in particular defensive opera-
tions, well planned and resourced engineer efforts can enhance the surviva-
bility characteristics of the urban area. These efforts, though still requiring
significant time and materiel, can establish defensive strong points more
quickly and with greater protection than can be done in more open terrain.
Skillfully integrating the strong point into the urban defense greatly
increases the overall effectiveness of the defense disproportionately to the
number of forces actually occupying the strong point (see Chapter 7).
5-79. The Army’s urban survivability operations can become complex if the
Army is tasked to support survivability operations for civilians. Such opera-
tions can range from constructing civil defense shelters or evacuating the
population to assisting the population in preparing for or reacting to the use
of weapons of mass destruction. However, Army forces are not organized or
equipped to support a major urban area’s requirements as well as its own
mission needs. Normally, Army forces can render this type of support only as
a focused mission using a unique, specially equipped task organization.
Combat Service Support
5-80. Combat service support incorporates technical specialties and func-
tional activities, to include maximizing available host-nation infrastructure
and contracted logistics support. It provides the physical means with which
forces operate. CSS operations relate to UO in two ways. The first is CSS
operations conducted to support units conducting UO. The second way is
conducting CSS operations from locations positioned in an urban area.
5-81. Commanders using CSS to support the full range of Army operations
across the spectrum of conflict understand diverse CSS requirements of units
conducting UO. They also understand how the environment (to include the
population) can impact CSS support. These requirements range from
minimal to extensive, requiring Army forces to provide or coordinate all life
support essentials to a large urban population.
5-82. CSS commanders and staffs consider and plan for Army sustaining
operations that are based in a major urban area. These operations are located
in major urban areas to exploit air- and seaports, maintenance and storage
facilities, transportation networks, host-nation contracting opportunities, and
labor support. These operations are also UO. The CSS commander gains
additional factors to consider from basing the CSS operation in an urban
environment. See Chapter 9 for a detailed discussion of urban CSS.
Command and Control
5-83. Command and con-
trol is the exercise of
authority and direction by a
properly designated com-
mander over forces made
available in the accomplish-
ment of the missions. He
exercises authority and
direction through a
Fighting in a city is much more involved
than fighting in the field. Here the “big
chiefs” have practically no influence on
the officers and squad leaders com-
manding the units and subunits.
Soviet General Vasili Chuikov
during the 1942-43 Battle for Stalingrad
5-26
___________________________________________________________ Foundations for Urban Operations
command and control system (FM 6-0). The urban environment influences
both components of command and control: the commander and the C2 system
(which includes INFOSYS). The leader’s ability to physically see the battle-
field, his interaction with the human component of the environment, his
ability to effectively execute the targeting process, and his intellectual flexi-
bility in the face of change all impact the mission. The C2 system faces diffi-
culties placed on the tactical Internet and system hardware by the urban
environment, by the increased volume of information, and by requirements to
support the dynamic decisionmaking necessary to execute successful UO.
5-84. Unity of Command. Although severely challenged, the principle of
unity of command remains essential to UO. However, the number of tasks
and the size of the urban area often require that Army forces operate noncon-
tiguously. Noncontiguous operations stress the C2 system and challenge the
commander’s ability to unify the actions of his subordinates, apply the full
force of his combat power, and achieve success. To apply this crucial principle
in an urban environment requires centralized planning, mission orders, and
highly decentralized execution. The method of C2 that best supports UO is
mission command (see FM 6-0). Mission command permits subordinates to be
innovative and operate independently according to clear orders and intent as
well as clearly articulated ROE. These orders and ROE guide subordinates to
make the right decision when facing—
• A determined, resolute, and knowledgeable threat.
• A complex, multidimensional battlefield.
• Intermittent or complete loss of communications.
• Numerous potentially hostile civilians close to military operations.
• The constant critique of the media.
Decentralized execution allows commanders to focus on the overall
situation—a situation that requires constant assessment and coordination
with other forces and agencies—instead of the numerous details of lower-
level tactical situations. Fundamentally, this concept of C2 requires com-
manders who can accept risk and trust in the initiative, judgment, and tacti-
cal and technical competence of their subordinate leaders. Many times, it
requires commanders to exercise a degree of patience as subordinate com-
manders and leaders apply mental agility to novel situations.
5-85. Political and Media Impact. Commanders of a major operation
consider how the need to maintain a heightened awareness of the political
situation may affect their exercise of C2. A magnified political awareness and
media sensitivity may create a desire to micromanage and rely solely on
detailed command. Reliance on this method may create tactical leaders afraid
to act decisively and with speed and determination—waiting instead for ex-
pected guidance from a higher-level commander. Threats may capitalize on
this hesitation by conducting operations faster than Army forces can react.
Mission orders that express the overarching political objectives and the im-
pact of inappropriate actions, combined with training and trust, will decrease
the need for detailed command. Leaders reduce a complex political concept to
its simplest form, particularly at the small-unit level. Even a basic under-
standing will help curtail potentially damaging political actions and allow
subordinates to make the often instantaneous decisions required in UO—
decisions that support military and political objectives.
5-27
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
5-28
5-86. Commander’s Visualization. Leaders at all levels need to see the
battlefield to lead soldiers, make effective decisions, and give direction.
Sensors and other surveillance and reconnaissance assets alone cannot
provide all the information regarding the urban environment that com-
manders will need. The focus of lead elements narrows rapidly once in
contact with a hostile force limiting their assessment to the local area.
Therefore, tactical commanders will not be able to observe operations from
long, stand-off ranges. Their personal observation remains as critical in
urban areas as elsewhere and helps to preclude commanders from demanding
their subordinates accomplish a task or advance at a rate inconsistent with
the immediate situation. In urban offensive and defensive operations, seeing
the battlefield requires that commanders move themselves and their
command posts forward to positions that may be more exposed to risk. Thus,
commanders modify their C2 system capabilities to make them smaller,
reduce their signature, and increase their mobility. Because of the greater
threat to C2, security efforts may be more intense.
5-87. In stability operations, commanders often intervene personally to
reassure the urban population and faction leaders about the intentions of
Army forces. To achieve results, commanders personally negotiate and inter-
vene with various faction and community leaders. In these type operations,
threats may attack leaders to gain the greatest payoff with the least expendi-
ture of resources. Commanders carefully evaluate risk and potential benefits
of such exposure. These risks however, cannot stop them from seeing the
battlefield, personally intervening in situations as appropriate, and leading
their soldiers.
I heard small-arms fire and RPG
explosions and felt shrapnel hit the
vehicle. . . . Land navigation at this
time was impossible; every time I
tried to look out, I was thrown in a
different direction. . . . At this time,
I was totally disoriented and had
not realized we were on our own.
Captain Mark Hollis
“Platoon Under Fire”
5-88. Commander’s visualization
also requires having detailed
maps, other appropriate intelli-
gence products, and INFOSYS
that accurately depict the urban
environment and help establish a
COP. The reliability of these
items is as important to planning
major operations as it is to
tactical-level operations. The
commander of the major
operation ensure that subor-
dinate tactical-level commanders have the necessary products to achieve
accurate situational understanding and dominate the urban environment as
subordinate commands often lack the personnel or assets to develop these
products. Frequently, satellite or aerial imagery is requested to compensate
for the drastic changes that can occur due to UO, natural disasters, and out-
dated or imprecise maps. (Even maps developed and maintained by urban
area’s administrative activities may not be up-to-date. Extensive and con-
tinually expanding shantytowns, for example, may not be mapped at all.
Maps may have even been purposefully distorted.)
5-89. Other critical intelligence products needed to visualize, describe, and
direct UO may include overlays or gridded reference graphics (see also
___________________________________________________________ Foundations for Urban Operations
Appendix B). Overlays and graphics portray important societal information
or urban infrastructure, such as—
• Religious, ethnic, racial, or other significant and identifiable social
divisions.
• Locations of police, fire, and emergency medical services and their
areas, boundaries, or zones of coverage.
• Protected structures such as churches, hospitals, or other historical
and culturally significant buildings or locations.
• Underground subway, tunnel, sewer, or water systems.
• Bridges, elevated roadways, and rail lines.
• Electrical generation (to include nuclear) and gas storage and produc-
tion facilities and their distribution lines.
• Water and sewage treatment facilities.
• Telephone exchanges and television and radio stations.
• Toxic industrial material locations.
5-90. The Targeting Process. Heightened concerns for collateral damage
will require that commanders pay particular attention to their targeting
process. This process ensures that all available combat power, both lethal and
nonlethal (including IO), is effectively integrated and synchronized to accom-
plish the mission. Commanders ensure that techniques and procedures are in
place, rehearsed, and understood by all members of their staffs. Additionally,
the C2 system is responsive and agile; otherwise, an elusive and adaptable
threat will likely disappear before units can employ the appropriate weapon
systems.
5-91. Greater concerns exist for the safety and health (environmental
matters) of the urban populace and the protection of critical infrastructure
and cultural structures. Hence, CA and staff judge advocates (see Chapter 9)
will play a greater role for the expert advice they can provide regarding these
elements of the urban environment. Nonetheless, all members of the staff
ensure that operations minimize collateral damage. That responsibility does
not end with identifying potential collateral damage; the goal, as always, is
successful mission accomplishment. Again, staffs are guided by the com-
mander’s intent and work to develop courses of action that incorporate col-
lateral damage concerns (short- and long-term) yet accomplish the mission.
This requires a keen understanding of the legal issues and both friendly and
enemy weapon systems’ effects in an urban environment.
5-92. Mental Flexibility. Commanders conducting UO remain mentally
flexible. Situations can change rapidly because of the complexity of the
human dimension. Typical of the change is a stability operation that
suddenly requires the use of force. Commanders then quickly adjust their
mental focus from a noncombat to combat situation. Equally important is the
requirement to deal with populations when executing combat operations.
They easily adjust plans and orders for sudden stability and support tasks
that emerge during or soon after a combat mission. The commander’s vision
includes the second- and third-order effects of UO.
5-93. Information Systems. The urban environment will also challenge
INFOSYS that support the commander. Perhaps the largest physical
5-29
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
challenge will be communications. Urban structures, materials, densities,
and configurations (such as urban canyons) and power constraints associated
with man-portable radios significantly degrade frequency modulation (FM)
communications. This causes problems at brigade-level and below where com-
manders rely heavily on constant FM radio contact with subordinates.
Tactical communication problems might also cause an inability to maintain a
COP, to give orders and guidance, to request support, or to coordinate and
synchronize elements of the combined arms team. Communication problems
in urban areas can prevent the achievement of information superiority and
contribute directly to mission failure. In UO, allocating critical or high-value
communication assets will be significant and essential to weighting the main
effort.
Figure 5-8. Methods to Overcome Urban Communications Challenges
To ensure urban communications, commanders can increase the
“supply” of communications, decrease the “demand, ” or both.
INCREASE
COMMUNICATIONS
SUPPLY (OR ABILITY)
•Increased Retransmission
and Relay Sites
•Positioning of Commanders,
Command Posts, and Antennas
•Airborne C2 Platforms
•Use and Integration of Satellite
and High-Frequency
Communications
•Visual Signals and Markings
•Wire, Messengers, and LNOs
•Co-opt Urban Communications
Infrastructure
•Technology Improvements
DECREASE
COMMUNICATIONS
DEMAND (OR
NEED)
•Simple Orders
•Clear Mission and Intent
•Mission Command and
Mission Orders
•High UO Training Level and
Effective SOPs
•Well Rehearsed Operations
•Well Thought-Out Control
Measures – Clearly Defined
•Scheme of Maneuver
Specifically Designed to
Mitigate or Avoid
Electromagnetic Dead Space
5-94. In an urban environment, units and staffs properly prepare for and
mitigate the communication problems in urban areas (see Figure 5-8). Ade-
quate communications, in most cases, are ensured by—
• Training in and use of retransmission and relay sites and equipment.
• Airborne command posts, satellite communications, high-frequency
radios, and other redundant communication platforms.
• Careful positioning of commanders, command posts, and antennas to
take advantage of urban terrain characteristics.
• Correct procedures will permit adequate communications in most
situations.
Standing operating procedures (SOPs) for visual markings (both day and
night) may assist in command and control. SOPs indicate unit locations and
5-30
___________________________________________________________ Foundations for Urban Operations
other essential information. They coordinate with units across common
boundaries. Given adequate consideration to limitations on multinational
capabilities, SOPS may assist in command and control and preclude
fratricide incidents resulting from loss of FM communications. However,
visual signals, particularly pyrotechnics, are less effective in buildings and
enclosed spaces.
5-95. In defensive, stability, or support operations, positions do not change as
frequently as in offensive operations. Urban commanders then rely more on
military wire (properly camouflaged amongst the civilian communications
infrastructure), commercial communications, and messengers. Even in com-
bat, some if not all of the urban area’s organic communications structure
remains intact for Army use. For example, every building may have one or
more telephone distribution boxes that can control up to 200 individual
telephone lines. Setting up wire communications using these points is
relatively simple but, like all wire communications, is susceptible to wire-
tapping. Cellular telephones can usually work well in urban areas; however,
locating and destroying the repeater stations or the central cellular telephone
system easily disables them. Consequently, the C2 system may use these
alternatives to FM communications but with proper operations and physical
security procedures in place.
Example of Simple Communications Innovation
Israel’s Six-Day War – 1967
In the 1967 battle for Jerusalem, the Israeli Defense Force placed flags on top of
cleared buildings so that aircraft providing close air support could monitor the
Israeli forward line of troops. They also used a spotlight during the night to mark
specific buildings as close air support targets.
5-96. Command posts above brigade-level ensure that they can communicate
in an urban area without significant disruption. In stability operations and
support operations, immediate and reliable communications between tactical
and strategic levels may be necessary. Higher commanders anticipate that
although the urban area does not significantly challenge their INFOSYS, the
area may severely challenge systems at the lower tactical levels. For this
reason, information flow from lower to higher may take longer. If the situa-
tion is not acceptable, the higher headquarters takes steps to mitigate it,
such as increasing the number of liaison officers operating with units
engaged in decisive operations. In some instances, the scheme of maneuver
may be specifically designed to account for communications interference,
propagation characteristics, and electromagnetic dead space. (However, this
will require more time, resources, and a detailed communications IPB of the
urban area.)
5-97. Finally, urban areas can overload the INFOSYS with information. UO
across the spectrum of conflict and throughout the range of operations can
generate large volumes of information when crises threaten. This sheer
volume can easily overwhelm UO commanders and command posts. Training
prepares command posts to handle this volume of information and to filter
5-31
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
the critical from the merely informative. Staffs work hard to create products
(visual or textual) that help their commanders understand the urban envi-
ronment, not just present them information to know.
TACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS
5-98. Commanders and planners of
major UO thoroughly understand
the tactical urban battle. They
especially understand the effects of
the environment on men, equip-
ment, and systems. The complexity
of urban environment changes and
often compresses many factors
typically considered in the
planning process. Figure 5-9 shows
some of these compressed factors.
Time
5-99. The time available to think
and act is compressed in urban
combat operations. The tactical
engagements that comprise battles
and major UO are often quick and
decisive; therefore, higher-level
decisionmaking is correspondingly
fast. The impact of decisions (or lack of) and the outcome of battle can occur
in mere minutes. Often the amount of information and the number of deci-
sions can overwhelm the overall ability of INFOSYS to respond. Commanders
have little time to influence tactical actions with resources kept in reserve.
Reserves and fire support assets are close to the point of decision so that they
can respond in time to make a difference. The terrain causes C2 challenges
that further inhibit commanders from responding quickly to changes in the
situation. Small unit leaders receive training that emphasizes understanding
the commander’s intent so that they can recognize tactical opportunities and
can act quickly to take advantage of them.
Figure 5-9. Compressed Tactical
Factors
Distances and Density
5-100. Distances in UO are compressed to correspond to the density of threat
forces and noncombatants. In open terrain, squads, platoons, and companies
may be able to control or influence thousands of meters of space. In UO, large
buildings can absorb the efforts of several companies or battalions. Crowds of
thousands can assemble in areas of a few hundred meters requiring corre-
spondingly large forces for control. Maximum engagement ranges, as
influenced by the urban terrain, are usually closer. Units may require field
artillery for direct fire at targets ranging fewer than a hundred meters.
Commanders and staffs understand the telescoping nature of the battlefield,
the density of threat forces, and the density of noncombatants. In addition to
the actual conduct of urban tactical operations, these factors will directly
affect planning, force deployment, and strength.
5-32
___________________________________________________________ Foundations for Urban Operations
5-101. Time-distance considerations are especially important throughout
planning cycles. Though distances may be short, the physical nature of the
environment can drastically change the planning factors for unit movements.
The advance of a battalion may be measured in hundreds of meters per day.
Thus, all time and distance calculations that relate to sequencing of forces,
synchronizing combat power and other capacities, and making decisions
require reevaluation based on the urban conditions.
Combat Power
5-102. The urban terrain can also compress combat power. This terrain
increases the utility and effects of some weapons and systems, increasing
overall combat power. One system that dramatically demonstrates this effect
is the sniper. In open terrain, snipers slightly influence operations. In UO,
snipers—well concealed, positioned, and protectedcan take on significance
disproportionate to their combat capability in other situations.
5-103. The density of ground combat power in a given size area is also
increased because of the effect of the terrain on ranges. The complex terrain
precludes standoff engagement from extended ranges by dispersed forces.
Commanders often position weapon systems closer together and at shorter
ranges to mass effects on the same target. Thus, commanders may position
armored vehicles, which typically position themselves hundreds of meters
from friendly troops and other vehicles, within a few meters of each other to
provide mutual support. Targets, which in open terrain are engaged at
thousands of meters, are engaged in tens of meters on the urban battlefield.
5-104. The dense clutter of the urban environment also affects target acquisi-
tion. Systems, such as radar optimized for open terrain, will not be able to ac-
quire targets as effectively. Decreased acquisition capability equates to
diminished combat power. It may also require increasing the density of acqui-
sition systems to compensate for reduced capability.
5-105. Finally, the density of combat power may also increase the vulnera-
bility of Army forces. Many Army systems are protected from enemy systems
at longer ranges. The number of enemy systems that can threaten Army
forces at a short range increases dramatically. Lack of dispersal will make it
more likely that multiple Army systems can be targeted by a single enemy
threat.
Levels of War
5-106. The levels of war are also compressed in the urban area. The tactical
actions of individuals and small units can directly influence operational and
even national and strategic objectives. Conversely, the decisions of the Presi-
dent can directly affect the conduct of tactical operations. UO have short
cause and effect links between the tactical, operational, and strategic levels of
operations. Because of the close media scrutiny of UO, the President can
sometimes observe the actions of platoons in real time. For example, the
media may film a platoon applying nonlethal force for crowd control. The
President can view that film on the nightly news before the platoon even dis-
engages from the action, much less reports formally through the various
levels of command. If appropriate, the President can decide and direct the
5-33
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
strategic and operational commanders to adjust ROE before the platoon has
reported. Therefore, commanders at all levels know the urban environment’s
potential compressive effects on the levels of war. A major impact of these
effects can be a lower tolerance for tactical errors and a greater need for
detailed planning and precision in execution and weapons’ effects (lethal and
nonlethal).
Decisionmaking
5-107. The nature of the urban environment compresses the time available to
make decisions and increases the number of decisions to make. This is
particularly true at the lower tactical levels. Units observing an urban AO
face more potential unknowns than in other situations. A large structure
presents many more potential firing positions that are observed than simpler
terrain. Movement in one of those windows forces the soldier or unit to
quickly make a decision regarding the nature of the target—deciding whether
it is a threat or a noncombatant.
5-34
Chapter 6
Urban Offensive Operations
. . . Capture Suez City “provided it does not become a Stalingrad
situation.”
Order to the Adan Armored Division
prior to its 1973 attack on Suez City
On the Banks of the Suez
Offensive urban operations (UO) are one of the most challenging opera-
tions that military forces can undertake. Campaigns and wars have some-
times hinged on their success or failure. Costly in resources, even when
successful, they are not lightly entered into. Once engaged, they are
executed rapidly and decisively. For reasons already discussed, threat
forces defending in UO may gain advantages from the environment while
Army force capabilities may diminish. Despite the challenges, Army
forces conduct successful urban offensive operations by combining the
Army’s existing offensive doctrine with a thorough understanding of the
environment.
PURPOSE OF URBAN OFFENSIVE OPERATIONS
6-1. Like all offensive operations, urban offensive operations are designed to
impose the will of commanders on the threat. The urban offense often aims to
destroy, defeat, or neutralize a threat force. However, the purpose may be to
achieve some effect relating to the population or infrastructure of the urban
area. Army forces may conduct offensive operations to secure a port or a com-
munications center, to eliminate a threat to a friendly government or the
urban population, or to deny the threat use of urban infrastructure. No
matter the purpose, commanders use a combined arms approach for suc-
cessful urban offensive operations.
CONTENTS
Purpose of Urban Offensive Operations ....6-1
Characteristics of Urban Offensive
Operations ................................................6-2
Surprise......................................................6-2
Concentration ............................................6-2
Tempo.........................................................6-2
Audacity .....................................................6-6
Urban Offensive Operations and
Battlefield Organization...........................6-6
Sustaining Operations..............................6-7
Shaping Operations ................................. 6-8
Decisive Operations................................. 6-8
Forms and Types of Urban Offense ........... 6-9
Forms of Offensive Maneuver............... 6-10
Types of Offensive Operations ............. 6-13
Urban Offensive Considerations .............. 6-15
Assess ..................................................... 6-15
Shape....................................................... 6-18
Dominate ................................................. 6-29
Transition ................................................ 6-33
6-1
FM 3-06 ___________________________________________________________________________________
CHARACTERISTICS OF URBAN OFFENSIVE OPERATIONS
6-2. All offensive operations contain the characteristics of surprise, concen-
tration, tempo, and audacity (see FM 3-0). These characteristics also apply to
urban offensive operations.
SURPRISE
6-3. Army forces can achieve offensive surprise at two levels: operational and
tactical. In urban offensive operations, operational surprise can be decisive.
The goal is to attack the urban area before the threat expects it, from a direc-
tion he doesn’t expect, or in a manner he doesn’t expect. In major operations,
this requires an attack against an area that appears to the threat to be safe
from attack. Urban areas that meet this criterion are not easily accessible.
Army forces launch such an attack in different ways: through a vertical
assault using airborne or air assault forces, through an amphibious assault,
or through a penetration followed by a rapid and deep advance. All three
attacks aim to achieve surprise and to deny the threat time to prepare and
establish a defense. Surprise in a major urban operation prevents a threat
from falling back to occupy prepared positions in and around an urban area.
6-4. At lower tactical levels, forces achieve surprise by attacking asymmetri-
cally. An asymmetric method attacks the threat so he cannot respond effec-
tively. This may be achieved by using special operations forces (SOF) against
a threat prepared for a conventional attack, by attacking decisively with
heavy forces when the threat expects an effort by light forces or SOF, or by
leveraging Army forces’ extensive information operations (IO) capability.
Offensive IO—primarily using IO elements of deception, electronic warfare,
and operations security (OPSEC)—can help achieve surprise at all levels (see
Chapter 4). Attacking at night surprises the threat and maximizes the Army
forces’ training, command and control (C2), and technological advantages.
Attacking from unexpected or multiple directions achieves surprise by
leveraging Army information systems (INFOSYS) and superior synchroni-
zation of combat power and capabilities.
CONCENTRATION
6-5. In UO, the attacking force creates a major advantage by concentrating
the effects of combat power at the point and time of its choosing. The area
and its compartmented effects naturally disperse and dissipate combat capa-
bility. The environment also hinders repositioning forces rapidly. Such effects
can work equally against defending and attacking forces. However, in a well-
prepared defense, the defender often has the advantage of interior lines. The
defender can reinforce or reposition forces more quickly using covered and
concealed routes (such as, sewers, tunnels, or prepared holes made in walls).
Successful UO need synchronized air and ground maneuver with over-
whelming effects from fires at decisive points on the urban battlefield. To
achieve proper synchronization and precise effects, commanders consider the
unique time and distance relationships set by the environment.
TEMPO
6-6. Tempo is the rate of military action. Commanders understand that the
tempo of urban operations differs from operations in more open terrain. The
6-2
Urban Offensive Operations
complexity and the potential risk of the urban environment may invoke a
cautious and methodical response on the part of commanders and their staffs.
While preparing and planning urban operations, commanders conducting
major operations that include urban areas strive to maintain an active tempo
in offensive operations. Often, the primary purpose of the threat’s urban
defense is to disrupt the rapid tempo of Army offensive operations. The
synchronized application of combat power and anticipation of threat reactions
achieve tempo. The rapid tempo of events places Army forces in positions of
advantage and helps achieve surprise. Controlling operational tempo and not
allowing the different tempo of urban operations to adversely affect other
operations is a challenge for commanders of major operations.
The Operational Context of Urban Operations
Brittany Ports – August to September 1944
The plan for the invasion of Normandy, France, in June 1944 was meticulously
developed. The plan not only addressed the invasion itself, but also contained
detailed planning for the campaign to follow. A major concern of the detailed
campaign planning was logistics. To address this critical concern, and specifi-
cally the problem of ports to supply the allied armies once ashore, the pre-
invasion planning called for the major ports of the French province of Brittany—
Brest, Lorient, and Saint Nazaire—to be objectives of General Patton’s Third
Army, once it was activated.
Early August 1944, almost two months after the successful Normandy invasion,
the operational situation significantly differed from that envisioned by the D-Day
planners. General Montgomery’s Twenty-first Army Group was still fighting in the
Bocage of Normandy. In contrast, General Bradley’s Twelfth Army Group had
just achieved a major breakthrough at Saint Lo, secured the Cotentin Peninsula,
and reached the city of Avranches. Here was a decision point. Bradley and
Eisenhower had to decide whether to adhere to the original plan and turn west
with Patton’s forces to secure the peninsula or to take advantage of the breakout
at Saint Lo and turn east to exploit the disruption of the German defenses.
Ultimately they reached a compromise. General Middleton’s VIII Corps was
tasked to secure the peninsula, and the bulk of Patton’s Army, three Army corps,
was turned northeast to exploit the operational collapse of the main German
defenses. See Figure 6-1 on page 6-4.
Middleton’s corps sprinted into the peninsula with the 4th and 6th Armored Divi-
sions leading the way. However, poor communications, disagreements between
commands, and contradictory orders caused the corps to hesitate before pushing
the two divisions to continue to exploit toward the ports. The result: the 6th
Armored Division missed an opportunity to seize Brest against light resistance by
one day. The 4th Armored Division, after capturing the smaller port of Vannes,
was also frustrated on the approaches to Lorient. The American reaction to the
inability to rapidly seize the ports demonstrated an understanding of changing
circumstances. The 6th Armored Division turned the attack at Brest to the 8th
Infantry Division and then relieved the 4th Armored Division at Lorient. The 4th
Armored was moved to rejoin the rest of Third Army exploiting to the east and
north. Ultimately Brest fell to VIII Corps on 19 September after a 43-day siege by
three infantry divisions. The victory yielded 36,000 German prisoners of war
6-3
FM 3-06 ___________________________________________________________________________________
6-4
XXX
HQ
VIII
BREST
VANNES
LORIENT
SAINT NAZAIRE
AVRANCHES
BRITTANY
BAY OF BISCAY
ENGLISH CHANNEL
XX
6
XX
4
XXXX
HQ
3
Figure 6-1. Initial Attack in Brittany
(POWs). However, the German defense and demolitions of the port left the port
without an impact on the logistic situation of the allies. Brest cost the US Army
almost 10,000 casualties and the commitment of significant supplies. The
experience convinced commanders to surround and bypass the other major Brit-
tany ports. Lorient and Saint Nazaire remained under German control, deep in
allied territory, until the war ended ten months later (see Figure 6-2).
The operational lessons of the Brittany campaign are numerous. First, com-
manders are responsible to continually assess assumptions and decisions made
during planning based on the changing circumstances of the battlefield. This
includes the planning decision to conduct urban offensive operations. When the
allies arrived at the Brittany Peninsula, the focus of the operational maneuver
was no longer securing logistics facilities but exploiting the breakthrough at Saint
Lo and the disintegrating the German defense. The bulk of Third Army then was
turned to the north and east rather than west into the peninsula.
The Brest experience also demonstrates that the costs of urban offensive opera-
tions are continually assessed against the operational value of the objective. This
lesson was applied to the cities of Lorient and Saint Nazaire. The cities were
never seized from the Germans because their logistic value failed to warrant the
required resources. German retention of the ports had no major adverse effect
on the overall campaign.
Another lesson is that commanders cannot allow urban operations to disrupt the
tempo of other offensive operations. One German goal of defending the ports
was to disrupt the rapid tempo of the US exploitation. They failed to achieve this
Urban Offensive Operations
XX
2
XXX
HQ
VIII
XXXX
HQ
9
XX
8XX
6
BREST
VANNES
LORIENT
SAINT NAZAIRE
AVRANCHES
BRITTANY
BAY OF BISCAY
ENGLISH CHANNEL
XX
4
XX
29
Figure 6-2. Subsequent Disposition of Forces in Brittany
goal because General Bradley continued the exploitation with the bulk of Third
Army and executed the original plan with only a single corps.
Finally, commanders cannot allow emotion to color their decision to conduct or
continue UO. The failure of 6th Armored Division to seize Brest rapidly caused
some commanders to believe that Brest had to be captured because the prestige
of the Army was committed to the battle. Costs of the continuing combat
operations to seize Brest were significant. These resources might have been
better committed elsewhere in the theater.
6-7. Tactical tempo is also important in urban combat. Because of the com-
plex terrain, defending forces can rapidly occupy and defend from a position
of strength. Once Army forces initiate tactical offensive operations, they
cannot allow the threat to set the tempo of the operation. Instead, attacking
forces seek to maintain a high tempo of operations. However, the tactical
tempo of urban operations differs from operations in other terrain. Not neces-
sarily slow, it requires a careful balance of preparation, speed, and security.
In terms of unit fatigue, resource consumption, and contact with the threat,
the tempo of most urban offensive operations may be rated as very high. On
the other hand, in distances traveled and time consumed to achieve objec-
tives, the tempo of many urban offensive operations might be rated as slow.
The urban battlefield’s density concentrates activity and consumes resources
in a relatively small area. The lack of terrain seized or secured is not to be
construed to mean a low tempo in the battle. In reality, the natural tempo of
urban operations is not faster or slower than other types of operations,
6-5
FM 3-06 ___________________________________________________________________________________
merely different. A higher tempo of operations, however, can favor forces
which are better led, trained, prepared, and resourced.
6-8. A high tactical tempo in urban offensive operations challenges logisti-
cians to provide for the increased consumption of munitions and degrades
soldiers’ physical capabilities. Commanders anticipate these challenges and
develop the means and abilities to overcome them. In the past, these chal-
lenges forced commanders to conduct urban offensives cyclically. They used
night and other periods of limited visibility to resupply, rest, and refit forces.
The environment influenced the tempo of their operations. This type of
“battle rhythm” resulted in the forces spending each new day attacking a
rested threat that was in a well-prepared position.
6-9. Army forces must maintain the tempo. Offensive operations continue
even during darkness. Moreover, Army forces increase the tempo of opera-
tions at night to leverage the limited visibility capabilities, increased situa-
tional understanding, training, and INFOSYS that give an advantage to
Army forces in all environments. To overcome the physical impact of the envi-
ronment on soldiers, commanders retain a large reserve to rotate, continuing
offensive operations at night. The force that fights in daylight becomes the
reserve, rests, and conducts sustaining operations while another force fights
at night. Army forces can then maintain the tempo of operations and leverage
technological advantages in urban offensive combat.
6-10. Tempo in UO does not necessarily mean speed. Offensive operations
balance speed, security, and adequate firepower. Commanders plan for the
complex tactical environment and the requirements to secure flanks and air-
space as the operation progresses. Mission orders allow subordinate units to
make the most of tactical advantages and fleeting opportunities.
AUDACITY
6-11. Audacity is a simple plan of action, boldly executed. Superb execution
and calculated risk exemplify it. In an urban attack, a thorough assessment
of the physical terrain can mitigate risk. The terrain’s complexity can be
studied to reveal advantages to the attacker. Audacity can also be embodied
in an operation by inventively integrating the direct action tasks of SOF
throughout the operation. Combining SOF actions with conventional attacks
can asymmetrically unhinge a defensive plan.
URBAN OFFENSIVE OPERATIONS AND BATTLEFIELD
ORGANIZATION
6-12. Urban offensive operations, like all operations, are framed in the
overall doctrinal framework of sustaining, shaping, and decisive operations.
Each operation is essential to the success of an urban offensive, and usually
two or more of these operations occur simultaneously. Sustaining operations
in urban offensive operations ensure freedom of action. They occur through-
out the area of operations (AO) and for the duration of the operation. Shaping
operations in urban offensive operations create the conditions for decisive
operations. In UO, much of the shaping effort focuses on isolation, which is
critical in both major operations and tactical battles and engagements. Deci-
sive operations are attacks that conclusively determine the outcome of UO.
6-6
Urban Offensive Operations
These attacks strike at a series of decisive points and directly lead to neutra-
lizing the threat’s center of gravity.
SUSTAINING OPERATIONS
6-13. Commanders conducting urban offensive operations ensure security of
the sustaining operation and bases; in many situations, sustaining operations
may be the greatest vulnerability of the attacking force. Those supporting an
urban offensive are tailored to the urban environment and are well forward.
Ideally, the supporting forces closely follow the combat forces and move
within or just outside the urban area as soon as they secure an area. Opera-
ting in the urban area during offensive operations allows the sustaining
operation to take advantage of the defensive attributes of the environment for
security purposes.
6-14. Counterattacks against sustaining operations may take the form of
special operations activities aimed at lines of communications (LOCs) leading
to or within the urban area. Choke points—such as bridges, tunnels, and
mountain passes—are vulnerable to these attacks and may require combat
forces to protect them. Threat forces attack the LOC to blunt the Army’s
combat power advantage in the urban area.
6-15. Attacks against the LOC into the urban area may also attempt to
isolate the attacking Army forces from its sustainment base. Isolated forces
in an urban area are greatly disadvantaged. Commanders plan and aggres-
sively execute strong measures to protect their LOC, even if it requires
reduced combat power to execute their offensive operation.
6-16. Sustaining operations anticipate the volume and unique logistics
requirements of urban operations. Specialized individual equipment—such as
grappling hooks, ladders, and pads—is identified and provided to troops in
quantity before they are needed. Forces stockpile and distribute their
attacking units’ special munitions requirements including small arms, explo-
sives, and grenades of all types, precision artillery munitions, and mortar
ammunition. Forces also supply transport to move the resources rapidly
forward, both to and through the urban environment. Sustaining operations
cannot rely on “operational pauses” to execute their tasks. Commanders plan
to continuously supply resources and capabilities to the most forward com-
batants as offensive operations advance.
6-17. Sustaining operations also anticipate the growth of sustainment
requirements as Army forces secure and take responsibility for large portions
of the urban area. The success of Army urban offensive operations will often
uncover the civil population in former threat occupied areas. It may attract
the civil population from sections of the urban area where the Army is not
operating to areas occupied by Army forces. Rural populations may migrate
to the urban area as the result of successful Army offensive operations.
6-18. Army forces may be required to take initial responsibility to provide for
the urban population. This consideration is integrated into logistics planning
and organization from the start of the planning process. To be successful and
efficient in such a situation, logistics planning includes Army civil affairs
(CA) specialists and local government representatives. It also integrates and
6-7
FM 3-06 ___________________________________________________________________________________
consults with the international community and nongovernmental organiza-
tions (NGOs) that might augment or supplement Army logistics capabilities.
SHAPING OPERATIONS
6-19. Shaping operations that support the urban attack separate into those
focused on isolating the threat and all others. Army forces isolate the threat
to ensure successful urban offensive operations. Depending on the threat
reaction to isolation efforts and the nature of the threat center of gravity, this
task may become decisive. Other shaping operations include those common to
all offensive operations and others unique to urban operations. Unique urban
shaping operations may include securing a foothold in a well-fortified defen-
sive sector, securing key infrastructure, or protecting noncombatants.
Because of the nature of UO, shaping operations may consume a much larger
proportion of the force than during other operations and may take place both
inside and outside the urban area (see Applying the Urban Operational
Framework: Panama in Chapter 5). By successfully isolating a threat force,
the force needed to conduct the decisive operation may be relatively small.
DECISIVE OPERATIONS
6-20. A tactical commander fights decisive urban combat, whereas com-
manders conducting a larger major operation influence urban combat by
setting the conditions for tactical success. Higher commanders may directly
influence urban offensive operations by operational maneuver, by coordi-
nating joint fires, by closely coordinating conventional forces, or with SOF.
6-21. Tactical urban offensive operations quickly devolve into small-unit
tactics of squads, platoons, and companies seizing their objectives. The com-
partmented effect of the terrain and the obstacles to command and control of
small units, especially once they enter close combat inside buildings or under-
ground, often restricts the higher commander’s ability to influence opera-
tions. Commanders influence the actions of subordinates by clearly identi-
fying the center of gravity and decisive points; using mission orders (as
discussed in Chapter 5); developing effective task organizations; and synchro-
nizing their sustaining, shaping, and decisive operations.
6-22. Like all operations, successful decisive operations in UO depend on
identifying the decisive points so the forces can destroy or neutralize the
threat’s center of gravity. Seizing a key structure or system that makes the
threat’s defense untenable; interdicting a key resupply route that effectively
isolates the threat force from his primary source of support; or isolating the
threat so that his force can no longer influence friendly activity may be more
effective than his outright destruction.
6-23. Commanders select the right subordinate force for the mission and
balance it with appropriate attachments. Higher commanders do not direct
how to organize the small tactical combined arms teams, but they ensure that
subordinates have the proper balance of forces from which to form these
teams. Successful urban offensive operations require small tactical combined
arms teams. Urban offensive operations require abundant infantry as the
base of this force. However, successful urban combat requires a combined
arms approach (of which armored and mechanized forces will be essential)
6-8
Urban Offensive Operations
adjusted for the conditions of the environment. Precision-capable artillery
systems generally support urban operations better than rocket artillery.
6-24. Divisions entering urban combat may require additional resources.
These resources include military intelligence support in the form of linguists,
human intelligence (HUMINT) specialists, and unmanned aerial vehicles
(UAVs). Engineering assets will be at a premium; the task organization of a
task force executing the decisive operation may require a one-to-one ratio of
engineer units to combat units. Corps and higher engineering support may be
necessary to meet these requirements and to repair vital and specialized
infrastructure. A tailored and dedicated corps support battalion or corps sup-
port group may need to assist in providing anticipated support to a displaced
and stressed civil population. Finally, divisional CA units may require
augmentation to deal with NGOs and civilian government issues.
6-25. Successfully conducting decisive operations in the urban environment
requires properly synchronizing the application of all available combat power.
Army forces have a major advantage in the command and control of opera-
tions. Commanders use this advantage to attack numerous decisive points
simultaneously or in rapid succession. They also use it to attack each indi-
vidual decisive point from as many directions and with as many different
complementary capabilities as possible. Commanders completely understand
urban environmental effects on the battle operating systems to envision and
execute the bold and imaginative operations required. Significantly, these
operations require that C2 systems account for the mitigating effects of the
environment as execution occurs.
6-26. Properly synchronized actions considerably enhance the relative value
of the combat power applied at the decisive points. They present to the threat
more requirements than he has resources with which to respond. Synchro-
nized IO and multiple maneuver actions paralyze the threat’s decisionmaking
capacity with information overload combined with attacks on his C2 systems.
Additionally, well-synchronized actions limit the time the threat has to make
decisions and forces him into bad decisions. In the urban environment, these
effects are enhanced because C2 systems are already strained, poor decisions
are harder to retrieve, and units that do not react are isolated and destroyed.
FORMS AND TYPES OF URBAN OFFENSE
6-27. Traditional forms of offensive maneuver include envelopment, turning
movement, infiltration, penetration, and frontal attack. Traditional types of
offensive operations are movement to contact, attack, exploitation, and pur-
suit. These traditional forms listed apply to urban combat. Some have greater
application to an urban environment than others do. Moreover, success will
belong to commanders who imaginatively combine and sequence these forms
and types throughout the depth, breadth, and height of the urban battlefield.
This is true at the lowest tactical level and in major operations.
6-9
FM 3-06 ___________________________________________________________________________________
FORMS OF OFFENSIVE MANEUVER
Envelopment
6-28. The envelopment is the
ideal maneuver for isolating
threat elements in the urban area
or isolating the area itself. A deep
envelopment effectively isolates
the defending forces and sets the
conditions for attacking the urban
area from the flank or rear. Yet,
enveloping an objective or threat
force in the urban area is often
harder since achieving speed of
maneuver in the environment is
so difficult (see Figure 6-3).
Vertical envelopment, however,
works effectively if Army fires can
effectively suppress or neutralize
the threat air defense.
Turning Movement
6-29. Turning movements can
also be extremely effective in
major operations (see Figure 6-4).
By controlling key LOCs into the
urban area, Army forces can force
the threat to abandon the urban
area entirely. These movements
may also force the threat to fight
in the open to regain control of
LOCs.
XX
ENY
ENY
XX
Figure 6-3. Envelopment Isolates
an Urban Area
Figure 6-4. Turning Movement
XX
OBJ
ROXIE
ENY
ENY
ENY
ENY
XX
X
Infiltration
6-30. Infiltration secures key ob-
jectives in the urban area while
avoiding unnecessary combat
with threat defensive forces on
conditions favorable to them (see
Figure 6-5). This technique seeks
to avoid the threat’s defense using
stealthy, clandestine movement
through all dimensions of the
urban area to occupy positions of
advantage in the threat’s rear (or
elsewhere). It depends on the
careful selection of objectives that
threaten the integrity of the
threat’s defense and superior
COP. Well-planned and resourced deception operations may potentially play
Figure 6-5. Infiltration
==
OBJ
DUDE
ENY ENY
ENY ENY
ENY
ENY
6-10
Urban Offensive Operations
a critical role in masking the movement of infiltrating forces. The difficulty of
infiltration attacks increases with the size and number of units involved. It is
also more difficult when Army forces face a hostile civilian population. Under
such circumstances, infiltration by conventional forces may be impossible.
Armored forces are generally inappropriate for infiltration operations.
However, they may infiltrate large urban areas if the threat is not
established in strength and had insufficient time to prepare defenses.
Penetration
6-31. Penetration is the
most useful form of attack
against a prepared and
comprehensive urban de-
fense (see Figure 6-6). It
focuses on successfully
attacking a decisive point.
Ideally in urban combat,
multiple penetrations in
all dimensions are focused
at the same decisive point
or on several decisive
points simultaneously. In
urban combat, the flanks
of a penetration attack are
secure, and resources are positioned to exploit the penetration once achieved.
Frontal Attack
6-32. Frontal attacks are
the least favorable form of
maneuver against an ur-
ban area (see Figure 6-7).
They require many resour-
ces to execute properly,
risk dispersing combat
power into nonessential
portions of the area, and
risk exposing more of the
force than necessary to
threat fires. In urban of-
fensive combat, forces
most effectively use the
frontal attack at the
lowest tactical level once
they set conditions to
ensure that they have
achieved overwhelming combat power. Then the force of the frontal attack
overwhelms the threat with speed, firepower, and shock action.
Figure 6-6. Penetration
OBJ
SASSY
OBJ
GINGER
ENY
ENY
X
X
XX
ENY ENY
ENY ENY
ENY ENY
Figure 6-7. Frontal Attack
X
6-11
FM 3-06 ___________________________________________________________________________________
6-12
9 NOV
9 NOV
12 NOV
9 NOV
11 NOV
10 NOV
Metz
Moselle River
Fort
XX
XX
METZ
GAR
I I I
35 25
XX
90
XX
5
I I I
11 5
I I I
10 5
I I I
25
X
B6
XX
19VG
I I I
25
X
B6
XX
17SS
ENY
ENY
I I I
377 95
XX
95
N
Forms of Attack in the Urban Offense
Metz – 1944
In November 1944, the US Third Army launched its final effort to take the French
city of Metz from the defending Germans. This was the Army’s third attempt. The
first attempt had been a surprise, mounted attack. This was followed by a series
of piecemeal infantry assaults on the surrounding fortresses. Finally, a deliberate
effort was made to take the city in a coordinated effort by XX Corps.
The initial failures stemmed from a shortage of resources on the US side, to in-
clude fuel and units—especially infantry. This added to the ad-hoc nature of the
first two efforts. The third effort, though more deliberate, was still constrained by
resources. XX Corps could only muster three nearly full-strength infantry divi-
sions to attack the German’s defending with four under-strength divisions.
The third attempt to
take Metz demon-
strates how a corps
operates with mul-
tiple divisions using
various forms of
attack to achieve its
objective in urban
offensive operations.
Figure 6-8. Metz Envelopment
The opening phase
of the Metz battle
had attacks by the
90th and 5th Infantry
Divisions to envelop
the city from the
north and south (see
Figure 6-8). This iso-
lated the city and
ensured the garrison
could not escape nor
be reinforced. The
garrison was under orders from Hitler not to conduct a breakout and to resist to
the last man; thus, German forces strongly counterattacked both wings of the
envelopment to prevent isolation.
The second phase of the operation was the penetration of the city defenses from
multiple directions. The 5th Infantry Division penetrated into the city with the 10th
and 11th Infantry Regiments from the south. The 95th Infantry Division pene-
trated into the city from the north with the 377th Infantry Regiment and TF Bacon.
Simultaneously, the 95th Infantry Division infiltrated battalions through the string
of fortress positions guarding the western approaches into the city, isolated, and
bypassed these positions with its other two regiments.
The final reduction of the defense was a series of battalion frontal attacks, which
took place against the last remaining strongholds within the city. Even in these
final engagements, however, the infantry battalions isolated, bypassed, then
attacked from the flanks and rear whenever possible (see Figure 6-9).
Urban Offensive Operations
12-13 NOV
14 NOV
14-18 NOV
15-19 NOV
15-17 NOV
LINK UP 19 NOV
18 NOV
Moselle River
Fort
Metz XX
17SS
XX
5
I I I
10 5
XX
10
XX
90
I I I
11 5
I I I
1216
I I I
1010
I I I
1217 VG
I I I
377 95
I I I
378 95
XX
95
I I I
379 95
X
BACON 95
I I I
25
X
B6
ENY
ENY
N
The city was de-
clared secured on
19 November. How-
ever, at that point
more than a half-
dozen of the for-
tresses had yet to be
reduced. The 95th
Infantry Division,
after a four-day rest,
quickly moved for-
ward to rejoin the still
rapidly advancing
corps forward ele-
ments. Elements of
the 5th Infantry Divi-
sion remained in
siege posture around
the remaining strong points, the last of which surrendered on 19 December 1944
when it ran out of food. US forces made no efforts to attempt to assault these
bypassed fortresses although extensive psychological operations (PSYOP) were
used.
Figure 6-9. Metz Final Assault
TYPES OF OFFENSIVE OPERATIONS
Movement to Contact
6-33. In an urban area where the threat situation is vague, Army forces con-
duct a movement to contact to establish or regain threat contact and develop
the situation. Often a movement to contact in an urban area occurs as both
sides try to establish their influence or control over a contested population
center. The situation determines whether the movement to contact or its spe-
cific technique, the search and attack, is appropriate. A conventional force-
oriented movement to contact will likely take place when friendly and threat
conventional forces attempt to establish control simultaneously. Initially,
neither side is defensive. The friendly force aims to quickly locate and fix the
threat while establishing control of the urban area and its key infrastructure.
The search and attack technique works well when a smaller threat has estab-
lished a noncontiguous defense in an urban area. This operation is charac-
terized by the friendly point defense of key infrastructure, robust reconnais-
sance, and rapidly concentrated combat power to fix and defeat or destroy
threat resistance once located.
6-34. A meeting engagement often results from the movement to contact. It
occurs when a moving force that is partially deployed for battle collides with
and engages a threat at an unexpected time and place. In a meeting engage-
ment in an urban area, the unit that reacts most quickly and decisively will
likely win. Rapid and accurate decisionmaking depends heavily on under-
standing the nature of the urban area and its impact on operations. Thus, in
a meeting engagement, commanders quickly assess the impact and role of all
components of the urban environment (terrain, infrastructure, and society)
6-13
FM 3-06 ___________________________________________________________________________________
on the operation. Responsive reconnaissance and situational understanding
are also important. This permits accurate decisionmaking regarding where to
attack, where to defend, and how to allocate resources. Situational under-
standing enhanced by digital INFOSYS that provide an enhanced common
operational picture (COP) facilitates the rapid reaction of Army units and a
synchronized response. This reaction and response allow Army forces to seize
the initiative and dominate the threat.
Attack
6-35. The attack is the most common and likely offensive operation that
Army forces will conduct in an urban environment. Commanders conducting
major operations and commanders of large tactical units usually execute
deliberate attacks. In the urban environment, units larger than battalion-size
rarely conduct hasty attacks. Hasty attacks are common below company level
as units use their initiative to take advantage of tactical opportunities.
Larger units will conduct hasty attacks when threat defenses are disrupted
or unprepared, to take advantage of an unexpected situation, and to prevent
the threat from establishing or re-establishing a coherent defense.
Exploitation
6-36. Exploitation follows a successful attack to disrupt the threat in depth.
Commanders of major operations consider focusing exploitation attacks on
urban areas. A threat defeated in an attack will attempt to rally units, rein-
force with reserves, and reorganize his defense. With its information and
communications capability, transportation network, and defensive attributes,
the urban area is the natural focal point to reestablish a disrupted defense.
By establishing urban centers as the objectives of the exploitation, com-
manders deny the threat the location he needs to reestablish his defense. The
exploitation focuses on the urban area as well as on the remnants of the
threat. A successful exploitation to seize an urban area works efficiently
because the attack preempts the defense and denies the threat the full
advantages of urban terrain.
6-37. Commanders conducting exploitation acknowledge the vulnerability of
their forces to counterattack and ambush in urban areas. An urban area
provides ideal cover and concealment to hide threat reserves, reinforcements,
or reorganized forces. Constrictions of routes into and through the urban area
make exploitation forces a potentially dense target and limit maneuver
options. Robust and well-coordinated reconnaissance, tactical dispersal, and
use of advance guard security forces protect against this threat (see Defen-
sive Combat Power: Suez City vignette in Chapter 7).
Pursuit
6-38. The pursuit is designed to destroy threat forces attempting to escape. It
focuses on the threat and not on urban areas. When conducting a pursuit,
Army forces move through undefended urban areas and bypass those in
which threat forces successfully take refuge. The threat will likely attempt to
use urban areas to disrupt the pursuit and permit the threat main body to
escape. Commanders prevent escape by denying the threat the time to
establish forces in urban areas that cannot be bypassed. The agility of Army
6-14
Urban Offensive Operations
aviation forces for attack, reconnaissance, and transportation is essential to
execute a successful pursuit around and through urban areas.
URBAN OFFENSIVE CONSIDERATIONS
6-39. The urban operational framework (assess, shape, dominate, and transi-
tion) provides a structure for developing considerations unique to urban
offensive operations. The considerations vary depending on the situation and
scale of the operation. Some considerations applicable to major operations
that include an urban area will also be considerations at the tactical level
focused in the urban area. However, no set rules exist. All urban operations
are unique. Issues addressed at the operational level in one situation may be
addressed in a new situation only at the tactical level. Under the right cir-
cumstances, a consideration may become an operational issue, a tactical
issue, or a combination of the two. The following identifies some planning and
execution issues that commanders conducting major operations address.
ASSESS
6-40. The first requirement, and a continuing requirement throughout the
conduct of urban operations, is the assessment of the situation. Commanders
base this assessment on detailed information regarding the particular urban
area. Since the threat will likely dominate or control most of the urban area
during the planning phase of offensive operations, accurate assessment of the
urban environment will be difficult. A comprehensive intelligence, surveil-
lance, and reconnaissance (ISR) effort in support of a rigorous intelligence
preparation of the battlefield (IPB) process overcomes this obstacle.
Integrated Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance
6-41. The commander of a major operation that includes an urban area,
unlike his subordinate commanders, can target reconnaissance deep into the
AO and area of interest. This begins the application of ISR resources against
the urban area that may lead to decisive ground operations. This ISR effort
and the assessment it supports continue as long as the urban area remains in
the AO. Commanders of major operations initially direct ISR assets on those
information requirements that support determining whether or not to con-
duct urban offensive operations. Once decided, ISR resources shift to support
the planning and execution of the operation in the urban area.
6-42. The first resources that a senior commander can use are national and
strategic sensors. He requests them through the appropriate joint force com-
mander. The commander aggressively pursues full use of these systems to
begin building an initial database for analyzing the significant aspects of the
terrain; key infrastructure considerations; the status and disposition of the
population; and the size, type, and disposition of threat forces in the area.
6-43. Simultaneously, multiple intelligence sources contribute to the data-
base. The sources collect, process, store, display, and disseminate the
relevant information on large urban areas through open and classified
resources. These information sources include—
• Historical research.
• Travel brochures that include cultural information and recent maps.
6-15
FM 3-06 ___________________________________________________________________________________
• Classified debriefings of diplomats, businesses, DOD personnel, and
allies.
• Military maps of the urban area.
• Previous intelligence assessments of the country, government, and
population.
The gathering and analysis of human intelligence plays a critical part of this
process and assists commanders in understanding ethnic, cultural, religious,
economic, and political facets of the environment.
6-44. As the intelligence and the national reconnaissance and surveillance
efforts progress, commanders will insert, if available and feasible, Special
Forces reconnaissance assets into the urban environment. These elements
will seek to confirm or deny the information received from imagery intelli-
gence (IMINT), signals intelligence (SIGINT), and HUMINT sources. Among
many factors, using SOF depends on their availability, the particular urban
area, the area’s ethnic composition, and the relationship between the urban
population and the threat. Other joint operational reconnaissance and sur-
veillance assets that higher-echelon commanders may have available might
include the Joint Surveillance Target Attack Radar System, Guard Rail tar-
geting aircraft, UAVs, and space-based systems.
6-45. The commander’s staff will use all sources of information—IMINT and
SIGINT sensors, HUMINT, historical research, and reconnaissance—to
refine his ability to assess the urban environment. Digitally linking subordi-
nate commanders with information sources helps to develop a COP essential
to their situational understanding of the urban environment. The IPB process
guides this assessment. As operations progress, additional reconnaissance
and surveillance assets may become available. These may include corps intel-
ligence assets including UAVs, corps long-range reconnaissance and surveil-
lance units, counterfire radar, and air and ground cavalry. As these assets
are employed, they are linked into the net of sources sharing information and
further refine a common situational understanding of the environment. The
major limitation shared by most corps assets is range. Corps reconnaissance
has only a limited capability to conduct ISR with organic assets when out of
contact with the AO. Thus, corps reconnaissance efforts, once in range, are
most efficiently used against the most high-value information requirements.
Focused Assessment Efforts
6-46. In urban offensive operations, the tactical commander’s assessment
focuses on defeating the threat in the urban area within the constraints of
the environment. Toward this end, identifying and assessing decisive points
to attack is a commander’s priority assessment task. Some unique aspects of
the urban environment also require the focus of the commander’s assessment
efforts. These include the character of the urban defense, collateral damage
considerations, and the effects of the environment on friendly and threat
courses of action.
6-47. Character of the Urban Defense. To be both efficient and effective,
Army urban offensive operations focus on what is decisive. Decisive points for
an urban attack depend primarily on the mission within the urban area.
They can vary widely in composition and size. Since commanders only focus
6-16
Urban Offensive Operations
on the essential, they may determine the decisive point to be a single building
or a limited sector of an urban area. It could be an entire system within the
urban infrastructure such as communications and information, or a limited
subsystem of the transportation and distribution infrastructure such as a
single airfield. Sometimes what is decisive in the urban area is the threat
military capability, but even this large an objective, when carefully analyzed,
may not require destruction of all threat forces or control of all a large urban
area. Decisive points relate directly to the threat’s center of gravity and to
mission success. Some decisive points related to the urban threat’s center of
gravity may be physically located outside the urban area.
6-48. To gain specifics on threat dispositions within the urban area requires
reconnaissance capability to see into the depths of the area and the intelli-
gence capability to determine the threat’s likely defensive course of action.
With this information, commanders can determine decisive points and apply
Army combat power discretely against them. Effective urban offensive opera-
tions require detailed situational understanding of an area of interest that
extends well beyond the perimeter of the urban area.
River
River
Reconnaissance
on the Perimeter
Reconnaissance
Throughout the Depth
Linked Digital Systems
Provide Common
Operational Picture
Not Visible
Visible
River
River
River
River
Better
Better
Figure 6-10. Required Urban Reconnaissance Capabilities
6-49. Commanders see throughout the depth of the urban area using several
actions (see Figure 6-10). First, they evaluate sensor data and imagery. This
guides targeting of special reconnaissance. Simultaneously, HUMINT is con-
ducted using any persons who might know the urban area and threat. This
includes civilians (allies, aides, neutrals, obstacles, and hostiles) and POWs.
Finally, tactical conventional reconnaissance assets including reconnaissance
forces, aviation, artillery radar, signals intelligence, and UAVs are directed
at the urban area. All these sources and data are linked through digital
6-17
FM 3-06 ___________________________________________________________________________________
INFOSYS to provide commanders and their subordinates with improved
situational understanding and a COP.
6-50. Collateral Damage Considerations. Commanders also assess the
collateral damage risks that his operation may include. This assessment
helps to initially determine the viability of a course of action. However,
commanders reassess their courses of action at frequent intervals in urban
offensive operations based on known information to determine if the original
evaluations remain valid. This reassessment minimizes potential collateral
damage from a change in mission or a change in a course of action. Many
aspects of the environment can change during mission execution.
6-51. The Environment’s Effects on Courses of Action. The urban envi-
ronment’s unique aspects can significantly impact the course of action chosen
by Army forces and the threat. Commanders assess these effects in planning,
but they also verify and monitor these effects as forces execute offensive
missions. In particular, commanders will want to confirm the civilian popula-
tion’s locations, beliefs, and actions and to monitor any changes. They will
need to validate terrain considerations and monitor how any changes based
on rubble and other damage to structures. In urban terrain, dead space,
cover, and concealment can only be identified physically and will change
considerably as operations affect the terrain.
SHAPE
6-52. Commanders of major operations have a primary contribution to urban
operations: the planning and conduct of effective shaping operations that set
the conditions for subordinate tactical success. In urban operations, isolation
will be a critical condition. Effective isolation will require persistent, contin-
uous surveillance and reconnaissance, innovative use of fires and maneuver
(including effective force allocation decisions), and well-established sensor-to-
shooter links. These efforts—combined and synchronized with SOF’s direct
actions, IO that minimize noncombatant influences, and necessary shaping
attacks (particularly the seizure of a foothold)—establish the conditions
necessary for the subsequent offensive domination of the area.
Isolation is Essential
6-53. One key to success in the history of urban operations has been the
effective isolation of the threat force (see Figure 6-11). This applies today and
equally well to major urban offensive operations as it does to smaller-unit
attacks. This isolation not only denies access to the urban area from outside
but also contains threat forces within. In a modern metropolis or megalopolis,
this can appear a daunting task. Operational isolation requires dominating
all physical and electronic contact between the threat in the urban area and
supporting threat forces outside the urban area. This does not necessarily
require physically encircling the urban area, but it does require that Army
forces be able to exert control over the area’s entire perimeter, as well as
decisive points within. For a sprawling urban area, successful isolation may
require the commitment of a large amount of resources.
6-54. Successful isolation of the urban area depends as much on the nature of
the threat as it does on any other factor. A conventional threat in a large
6-18
Urban Offensive Operations
urban area may
be much easier to
isolate than an
insurgent threat
in a much smaller
urban area. The
forces needed in
the former situa-
tion may be less
than those needed
in the latter. The
more the charac-
teristics of the
threat are con-
ventional in
nature generally
the easier it will
be to isolate him
using standard
combat methods and equipment. Isolating a more unconventional force
requires many of the same techniques as used against conventional forces. It
also requires a much greater ability to conduct offensive IO, to integrate CA
units and civil-military operations (CMO), and to work with allies and local
authorities. Fundamentally, isolating a less conventional threat puts
increased emphasis on separating combatants from noncombatants.
OBJ
BUDDY
ELECTRONIC AND
PSYCHOLOGICAL ISOLATION
THROUGH INFORMATION
OPERATIONS
RECONNAISSANCE
AND FIRES
SENSORS AND
FIRES
PHYSICAL ISOLATION
THROUGH POSITIONAL
ADVANTAGE
ENY
ENY
X
XX
XX
PHYSICAL ISOLATION
THROUGH FIRES AND
MANEUVER
Figure 6-11. Shaping Through Isolation
6-55. Offensive Isolation Objectives. Isolation seeks to achieve two pri-
mary objectives with respect to defeating a threat’s urban defense:
• Weaken the overall coherence of his defense.
• Manipulate or limit his maneuver options.
Isolating the threat in the urban area from external support, as well as
isolating him from sources of support within the urban area, weakens his
overall defense. The defense is weakened through a combination of attrition
(the threat cannot replace his losses) and the diversion of his combat power
from the defense to operations to counter the isolation effort. Isolation can
also prevent the threat from shifting his forces to reinforce decisive points in
the urban area or to conduct counterattacks.
6-56. Persistent Surveillance. Persistent surveillance of the urban area is
essential to all types of actions used to isolate an urban area and as complete
as resources will allow. Surveillance of the urban area relies on either recon-
naissance forces or sensors continuously observing or monitoring urban ave-
nues of approach. This network of ISR assets updates the commander’s
assessment of the situation and provides the means to quickly identify and, if
necessary, attack threat elements as they move. However, particularly with
sensors, commanders know that not each detection is necessarily an enemy to
be attacked. Noncombatant activity clutters the environment making it
easier for threats to disguise themselves and increasing the burden (and the
number of resources required) on Army forces to distinguish friend from foe.
6-57. Fires and Maneuver. Fires and maneuver may be used to achieve
isolation, either singly or in combination. (As always, effective obstacles,
6-19
FM 3-06 ___________________________________________________________________________________
monitored by sensors or observation, are integral to any isolation technique.)
First, attacking forces can pre-position themselves along avenues of approach
to deny entry and exit through positional advantage. Relying primarily on
this method of isolation, particularly around a large urban area with multiple
avenues of approach, can be resource intensive. Instead, the pairing of fires
and maneuver provides attacking commanders more flexibility and allows
them to isolate several avenues of approach with fewer resources. Highly mo-
bile attack helicopters are ideal for this purpose as long as these operations
occur outside the threat-controlled portions of the urban area. In these
threat-controlled areas, it is more difficult to identify, eliminate, or effectively
suppress the air defense threat. The threats may have numerous man-
portable air defense weapons and enhanced effects of small arms used for air
defense. Therefore, the risk to using this equipment may outweigh the poten-
tial benefits. However, mobile ground units—such as an air assault (subject
to the same air defense threat considerations as attack aviation), armored, or
mechanized forces—can also rapidly move to attack and destroy a threat
moving in or out of an urban area. Potential disadvantages of the combined,
fires and maneuver, option are that the—
• Critical assets, on standby and dedicated to isolation efforts, may be
unavailable for other missions.
• Attacking force may not locate the threat in time to complete its
mission (an inherent risk to any attack).
6-58. Another alternative
relies on indirect or joint
fires alone to destroy the
threat force. Its disadvan-
tage is that fires alone rarely
destroy or even stop a force
from moving into or out of
an urban area. Although
targets and avenues of
approach will require con-
tinual surveillance, it is
usually a less resource-
intensive option than those
that include maneuver. It
also does not normally require fires assets to remain on standby to
accomplish the mission. However, fires must be able to reliably and quickly
respond, which may not be the case for joint fires—particularly aircraft. For
Army field artillery units and naval gunfire, the units must be in range,
which requires careful positioning. A skilled threat can avoid interdiction
fires by using the geometry of the area to identify gaps due to obstructing
terrain or the firing unit’s range limitations. It can also use concealment and
weather to avoid observation. However, effective sensor-to-shooter links
throughout the urban battlefield will reduce the threat’s ability to hide (see
Figure 6-12). A resolute threat may risk significant losses to fires to prevent
isolation or may attempt to use noncombatants as a shield. Ultimately,
commanders use innovative combinations of all techniques discussed. Some
units will physically block key avenues of approach. Surveillance will monitor
less important routes and avenues. Artillery fires, joint fires, and maneuver
Nonlethal Fires
River
River
Figure 6-12. Critical Sensor-to-Shooter Links
6-20
Urban Offensive Operations
units will then respond to the results of surveillance depending on the
circumstances.
6-59. Threat Reac-
tions. The reaction of
the threat to the effects
of isolation will depend
on his mission, morale,
force structure, and
overall campaign plan.
The threat may recog-
nize isolation actions
early and withdraw
from the urban area
before isolation is com-
pleted instead of risking
destruction. On the
other hand, the threat,
based on a different or
flawed assessment (perhaps a perception shaped by the Army force com-
mander), may choose to—
Figure 6-13. Reactions to Isolation
X
X
INFILTRATION
IN
INFILTRATION
OUT
BREAK IN
ATTACK
COMBINATION
BREAK IN/OUT
ATTACK
BREAK OUT
ATTACK
CONTINUE TO
DEFEND
X
ENY
ENY
X
X
X
ENY
ENY
ENY
ENY
X
X
X
ENY
ENY
ENY
ENY
• Continue to defend and conduct local counterattacks.
• Attack to break into the urban area or infiltrate forces and supplies in.
• Attack to break out of the urban area or infiltrate forces out.
• Or any combination of the above (see Figure 6-13).
6-60. Attacking commanders consider how the threat leadership’s subse-
quent actions will affect the continuance of overall offensive operations. They
deliberate many considerations, to include—
• The allocation of more forces to the shaping operations to isolate the
urban area.
• The allocation of more combat power to achieve rapid penetration and
seizure of objectives to take advantage of developing threat dispositions
in the urban area.
• Effects of the isolation on the urban population—either as a direct
effect or as a response of the threat force being isolated.
Isolating the Urban Area
Hue, Vietnam – January to February 1968
On 31 January 1968, the 4th and 6th North Vietnamese Army (NVA) regiments
and attached NVA and Vietcong (VC) sapper battalions attempted to seize con-
trol of Hue from the South Vietnamese Army’s (ARVN) 1st Division as part of the
North Vietnamese Tet Offensive. The attack, which was launched with complete
surprise, successfully established temporary control over most of the city and
occupied strong defensive positions within the city’s ancient fortress known as
the Citadel. However, it did not capture the headquarters of the ARVN 1st
Division located in the Citadel nor the US military assistance command—Vietnam
(MACV) compound located in the southeast part of the city.
6-21
FM 3-06 ___________________________________________________________________________________
6-22
3 Feb Attack by 2/12 Cav
Thon La Chu
Thon Que Chu
Thon Lieu Coc Thuong
HUE
ll
212
4 Feb NVA Counterattack
4-5 Feb Night March by 2/12 Cav
HWY
1
HWY
1
Thon Bon Tri
Tri Thien - Hue
Front
USMC Attacks S. Hue
ARVN Attacks N. Hue and Citadel
Perfume River
NVA SUPPLY ROUTE
ll
212
ENY
ENY
N
DaNang
(108 km)
Hanoi
(689 km)
HQ
III
5 NVA
III
4 NVA
III
6 NVA
Both ARVN and US forces swiftly reacted to the NVA attack. Within 24 hours,
ARVN infantry and cavalry units counterattacked to recapture the Citadel. South
of the Perfume River, the 1st Marine Division began attacking to clear the
southern portion of the city (see Figure 6-14).
Figure 6-14. Initial Attack to Isolate Hue
On 2 February, the first Army unit was committed to Hue. The 2-12th Cavalry (an
infantry battalion) was ordered to attack southeast along Highway 1 and clear
enemy interdicting that route. On 3 February, 2-12th Cavalry began their attack
moving along the south side of the highway. The plan was to clear a series of
small hamlets in succession en route to the city itself. The first hamlet, Thon Lieu
Coc Thuong, was cleared easily. Moving toward the second hamlet, Thon Que
Chu, the battalion encountered a strong enemy force that was well entrenched.
Air and artillery supported the battalion as it attacked and captured the hamlet
against strong resistance. The battalion dug in for the night and prepared to
resume the attack against the third hamlet, Thon La Chu, on 4 February.
Unknown to the 2-12th Cavalry, Thon La Chu was the headquarters of the Tri
Thien-Hue Front, and it was defended by the NVA’s 5th Infantry Regiment. Also
important, the hamlet sat astride the NVA’s primary supply route to the regiments
fighting in Hue. The NVA was determined that 2-12th Cavalry’s attack would not
succeed; the NVA would destroy the threat to the Hue LOCs.
As the 2-12th Cavalry prepared to resume the attack on 4 February, the NVA
fiercely counterattacked with all three battalions of the 5th NVA Regiment. It soon
became apparent that 2-12th Cavalry could not continue to attack. As the day
continued and the NVA pressure steadily increased, the battalion began to lose
its position in Thon Que Chu. To avoid destruction, the battalion broke contact.
As darkness fell on 4 February, 2-12th Cavalry broke contact with the NVA. How-
ever, instead of retreating north back to its start line, the battalion moved west
and then south to good defensive high ground deeper in the NVA AO. Eleven
hours later the battalion was set in its new defensive position.
Urban Offensive Operations
6-23
12 Feb Attack by 5/7 Cav
Thon Que Chu
Thon Lieu Coc Thuong
HUE
Tri Thien - Hue
Front
ll
57
ll
212
10 Feb Attack by 2/12 Cav
HWY
1
HWY
1
=
Thon Bon Tri
Perfume River
Thon La Chu
NVA SUPPLY ROUTE
N
III
5 NVA
HQ
At dawn on 5 February, 2-12th Cavalry was established 5 kilometers west of
Hue. The battalion soon observed enemy forces and supplies moving toward
Hue. From its high ground position, the battalion directed artillery and air strikes
against the NVA forces. By its bold move to bypass the 5th NVA Regiment, the
battalion held perfect position to direct fires on the primary NVA supply line into
Hue. These fires were the first step toward isolating the NVA in Hue.
The fires controlled by the 2-12th Cavalry shut down the NVA LOCs into Hue
during the daytime. However, under the cover of darkness supplies and rein-
forcements were still entering the city (see Figure 6-15). The isolation of the NVA
in Hue required the capture of Thong La Chu. The problem facing American
forces was concentrating combat power against the NVA. All US units at this time
were actively engaged against the numerous NVA attacks that constituted the
NVA’s 31 January Tet Offensive.
Figure 6-15. Subsequent Attack To Isolate Hue
The first additional American unit was not available until 12 February when the
5-7th Cavalry attacked Thong Que Chu much like the 2-12th Cavalry had
attacked previously. The 5-7th Cavalry had even less success against the totally
alert 5th NVA. The 5-7th Cavalry was forced to occupy defensive positions in
Thon Lieu Coc Thuong and await the build up of combat power before it could
continue to attack. In the interval, 2-12th Cavalry had moved off the high ground
and captured the hamlet of Thon Bon Tri, south of the 5th NVA Regiment.
On 21 February, the 1st Cavalry Division had moved enough resources to the
area to launch an effective attack to isolate Hue (see Figure 6-16 on page 6-24).
In addition to the 5-7th and 2-12th Cavalry, the 1-7th Cavalry arrived in the AO
and the 2-501st Airborne Infantry of the 101st Airborne Division was attached.
On 21 February, after a combined artillery, air, and naval gunfire bombardment,
the four battalions attacked the Thon La Chu stronghold. Elements of the 5th
NVA Regiment were either destroyed in place or fled northeast. The next day
resistance in Hue was noticeably lighter. US Marine and ARVN units began the
last phase of fighting to recapture the Imperial Palace. On 26 February, the North
Vietnamese flag was removed from the Citadel and the ARVN I Corps declared
the city secured.
FM 3-06 ___________________________________________________________________________________
Thon Que Chu
HUE
Tri Thien - Hue
Front
ll
57
HWY
1
HWY
1
Perfume River
ll
212
ll
17
ll
2501
Thon La Chu
21 Feb Simultaneous Attack by 4 Bns of
3rd Bde, 1 Cavalry Division
NVA SUPPLY ROUTE
Thon Bon Tri
ENY
ENY
N
III
5 NVA
HQ
II
Figure 6-16. Final Attack to Isolate Hue
The actions of the 1st Cavalry Division forces northwest of Hue demonstrated the
importance and the difficulty of isolating an enemy fighting in an urban area.
Isolating Hue was difficult not only because of the dispersion and surprise with
which the Tet Offensive caught US forces, but also because of the tenacity of the
NVA. At least one-third of the combat power of the NVA in the Hue AO was
focused on maintaining access to the city.
Hue’s isolation had an immediate and important, if not decisive, impact on the
operations. It not only resulted in restriction and then elimination of supplies and
reinforcements, but it also immediately impacted the conduct of the defending
NVA forces. Isolation caused an immediate drop in NVA morale and changed the
nature of the defense. Once the enemy was isolated from external support and
retreat, the objective of the NVA in the city changed from defending to avoiding
destruction and attempting to infiltrate out of the city.
Direct Action by Special Operations Forces
6-61. Although SOF in ur-
ban offensive operations
will likely conduct essential
reconnaissance, they also
have a direct action capa-
bility to shape the offensive
operation (see Figure 6-17).
Special Forces and Rangers
can use direct action capa-
bilities to attack targets to
help isolate the urban area
or to directly support deci-
sive actions subsequently or
simultaneously executed by
conventional forces. Suc-
cessful attacks against
OBJ
2
(RANGER)
OBJ 1
II
R
X
X
River
River
Figure 6-17. Coordination of SOF and
Conventional Capabilities
6-24
Urban Offensive Operations
6-25
urban infrastructure, such as transportation or communications centers,
further the area’s physical and electronic isolation. Direct action against com-
mand centers, logistics bases, and air defense assets can contribute to the
success of conventional attacks by destroying or disrupting key threat capa-
bilities. Direct action can also secure key targets such as airports, power
stations, and television stations necessary for subsequent operations. Direct
action by Special Forces and Rangers in these operations can reduce potential
damage to the target or noncombatant casualties.
Information Operations
6-62. Regardless of how Army forces physically isolate the urban area, they
combine physical isolation with IO to electronically isolate the threat and un-
dermine his morale. Electronic isolation will cut off communications between
forces in the urban area from their higher command to deny both from
knowing the other’s status. IO combined with isolation may persuade the
threat’s higher command or leadership that its forces located in the urban
area are defeated. Thus, the command or leadership’s intentions to break
through to the besieged threat forces may be affected. PSYOP can undermine
the morale of the threat in the area and reinforce electronic isolation and
perceptions of abandonment. IO can be used to reduce any loyalty the civil
population may have to the threat. IO can also ensure that civilians have the
information that minimizes their exposure to combat and, as a result, overall
noncombatant casualties. In addition, IO aim to deceive the threat regarding
the time and place of Army force operations and intentions.
Detailed Leader Reconnaissance
6-63. Army commanders clearly see the urban environment to understand
the challenges facing their brigades, battalions, companies, platoons, and
squads. Urban terrain can be deceptive until viewed from the soldier’s
perspective. Commanders are responsible to intimately know the conditions
to allocate resources effectively to subordinate units. Often, particularly at
battalion level and above, commanders will not be able to command and
control dispersed forces from positions forward, but be forced by the terrain to
rely on semifixed command posts. Detailed leader reconnaissance of the AO
by commanders, their staff, and their subordinates before the mission can
compensate for this challenge. This reconnaissance will give commanders a
personal feel for the challenges of the terrain and will facilitate more accu-
rate planning and better decisionmaking during operations.
Mission Orders
6-64. Before contact,
commanders mitigate
some terrain chal-
lenges to effective C2
using mission orders.
Subordinates have
mission orders to take
advantage of oppor-
tunities before C2
systems can adversely
Often what seems to be the correct decision at
one level of command may be otherwise at
other echelons. It is essential that leaders con-
sider not only the perspective of their own unit,
but that of other relevant participants as well,
to include the enemy, adjacent friendly units,
higher headquarters, and noncombatants.
Lesson Number 18
An Attack on Duffer’s Downtown
FM 3-06 ___________________________________________________________________________________
impact the environment. To see the battle and provide effective and timely
direction, tactical leaders will follow closely behind units as they assault
buildings, floors, and rooms. Thus, only the most mobile INFOSYS can
accompany tactical leaders into combat, and they will suffer the degrading
effects of the environment. Mission orders permit rapid and decisive execu-
tion without commanders intervening at battalion level and above. Higher-
level commanders facilitate mission orders through their subordinates by
articulating their desired end state, clearly stating their intent, and building
flexibility into the overall plan.
Effective Task Organization
6-65. Commanders can shape urban offensive operations through effective
and innovative task organization. Combined arms, starting with an infantry
base, are essential to success and may be an asymmetric means of defeating
an urban threat. Urban attacks will quickly break down into noncontiguous
firefights between small units. To achieve the tactical agility for mission
success in this nonlinear environment, many Army capabilities are task orga-
nized down to the company, platoon, and squad levels. Infantry provides the
decisive capability to enter buildings and other structures to ensure threat
destruction. Tanks, gun systems, and fighting vehicles provide additional
mobility, direct firepower, and protection. Field artillery provides the indirect
(and if necessary, direct) firepower. Such mobility and firepower create the
conditions necessary for the dismounted infantry to close with and destroy a
covered threat in an urban defense. When a threat skillfully uses the urban
area to limit ground maneuver, vertical envelopment or aerial attack using
precision-guided munitions from Army aviation may circumvent his defenses
and achieve necessary effects. Generally, ground systems used within the
urban area will not be able to operate independently from dismounted
infantry. The infantry will be required to protect armor and mechanized
systems from close antiarmor weapons, particularly when those weapons are
used from rooftops and basements.
6-66. In urban offensive operations, direct fire support can be critical. Armor
vehicle munitions types do not always achieve decisive effects against some
urban structures. In some cases, field artillery high explosive munitions work
better than armor for direct fire support of infantry. Large caliber (105 or
155mm) high explosives directly fired at a structure often produce a more
severe shock effect than tank and fighting vehicle cannon and machine guns
produce. This is not just a weapon but a weapon system. As such, artillery
may be placed under tactical control (TACON) of maneuver commanders,
such as a platoon of three guns TACON to a company or a battery to a
battalion, not just one gun to a company or other maneuver unit. Self-
propelled artillery has some of the mobility characteristics of armor; however,
it provides minimal ballistic protection from fragmentation for the crew.
Although these systems seem formidable, they provide less crew protection
than a Bradley fighting vehicle, for example, and contain large amounts of
onboard ammunition and propellant. They are susceptible to catastrophic
destruction by heavy automatic weapons, light cannon, and antitank fire.
Therefore, infantry units carefully secure and protect these systems (even
more so than armored vehicles) when employed in urban offensive operations,
particularly when forward in the direct fire role.
6-26
Urban Offensive Operations
6-67. Army aviation may also be inventively task organized. It can support
urban operations with lift, attack, and reconnaissance capabilities. Tactical
commanders down to company may use all these capabilities to positively
influence ground close combat. Army attack and reconnaissance aircraft can
provide flank security for attacking ground forces. Attack aircraft may also
provide direct fire support to individual platoons or squads. Lift may move
entire battalions as part of brigade operations, or it may move single squads
to a position of advantage (such as a roof) as part of a small unit assault.
Army aviation can assist with C2 by providing airborne retransmission
capability, airborne command posts, and the confirmed status and position of
friendly forces. However, Army aviation is a limited and high-value asset;
commanders review its use in innovative task organizations. It is particularly
vulnerable to urban air defense threats unless used over terrain secured by
ground forces. From these positions, aircraft can use enhanced sensors to con-
duct reconnaissance and use precision weapons with standoff capability.
Creative Task Organization:
Using Artillery in the Direct Fire Role
Task organizing artillery to permit its use in a direct fire role demonstrates the
innovative task organization required for urban operations. The following pro-
vides three historical examples of task organizing and using field artillery for a
direct fire role.
————————————————————
In 1944, US Army units of the 1st Infantry Division were assigned to attack and
seize the German city of Aachen. The city’s internal defense included bunkers
designed to serve as air raid shelters. These positions, buildings of stone, were
impervious to direct fire tank weapons, demolitions, and small arms. To reduce
the positions, the 1st Infantry Division relied on the artillery’s direct fire.
Field artillery used this way had physical and psychological effects on the
defenders. The 26th Regimental Combat Team’s history of the battle describes
the German reaction to the artillery pieces:
The chief shock to the defenders, Colonel Wilck (Aachen defense com-
mander) said, came from the self-propelled 155s and tanks. The colonel
spoke with considerable consternation of the 155mm self-propelled rifles.
A shell from one of the guns, he said, pierced three houses completely
before exploding and wrecking a fourth.
The 26th Infantry Regiment also described how the artillery, one piece attached
to each assaulting infantry battalion, helped the infantry to penetrate buildings.
With solid blocks of buildings comprising most of the city, there wasn’t
any easy way to get at the Germans in the buildings. The eight-inch gun
solved the problem. Beginning on the eastern outskirts the gun would
plow a round into the side of the built up block of buildings at about
ground level. One shell would usually open an entrance into the first tier
of floors, i.e. the first building. Then several more shells were fired
through the first hole. Thus a tunnel would be rapidly made all the way to
the next cross street. Soldiers could then rush the newly formed
entrance, clear the upper floors with hand grenades and rifles and then
move on to the next building to repeat the process. When a block or
6-27
FM 3-06 ___________________________________________________________________________________
6-28
square, was thus completely cleared of Germans—soldiers, skulkers, or
even snipers—the next square was treated in the same way, working
forward square by square, right and left, thereby avoiding nearly all
exposure in the streets.
————————————————————
In 1982, Israeli forces invaded southern Lebanon to destroy base camps of the
Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO). This operation involved significant
fighting in urban areas including major operations in Beirut. Artillery, firing in a
direct fire role, played a major part of the tactical solution. Artillery was particu-
larly effective in the 33-day siege of Beirut. During this siege, Israeli forces used
artillery in its traditional role as well as in the direct fire role.
The Israeli army was committed to a policy of disproportionate response during
the Beirut siege. When fired on with small arms, crew-served weapons, tanks, or
indirect artillery, the Israeli forces responded with intense, high-caliber direct and
indirect fire from tanks and artillery positioned around the city. Many firing
positions were on heights to the south and southwest that dominated much of the
city. These positions had almost unrestricted fields of view. Israeli artillery fired
from these positions directly into high-rise buildings concealing PLO gunners and
snipers. The artillery, using direct fire, destroyed entire floors, collapsed floors on
top of each other, and completely removed some upper floors. Such a response,
as in Aachen in 1944, had as much a psychological impact as it did a physical
impact on the PLO defenders.
————————————————————
In the early hours of 20 December 1989, the US launched OPERATION JUST
CAUSE. One of this operation’s objectives was removing the Panamanian dic-
tator, Manuel Noriega. US forces carefully planned using all fires before the
operation to minimize casualties and collateral damage. Part of this detailed fire
planning called for applying artillery in a direct fire role.
The Panamanian Defense Force’s (PDF) 5th Rifle Company based at Fort
Amador was one of the key objectives of US forces at the start of hostilities. This
unit was high priority because it was the closest PDF unit to Noriega’s head-
quarters, the Comandancia. US forces expected the 500-man company to react
first to OPERATION JUST CAUSE by reinforcing the defense of the Coman-
dancia. It also posed a threat to US military dependents housed at Fort Amador.
To quickly neutralize this force, the US assembled a three-company force com-
posed of A, B, and headquarters elements of 1-508th Infantry (Airborne),
supported by 105mm towed howitzers of 320th Field Artillery and M113 armored
personnel carriers. The howitzers and the personnel carriers were covertly pre-
positioned at the fort. At approximately 0100, helicopters transported the two
airborne rifle companies into position. The howitzers then suppressed any
personnel in the PDF-controlled buildings on Fort Amador while demonstrating
the firepower of the US task force. They used direct fire into the PDF barracks.
The impact of the 105mm high explosives and .50-caliber fire from the M113s
convinced the PDF infantry to give up after token resistance. Following the direct
fire, US infantry assaulted and cleared the dozen PDF buildings, finding that
most occupants had fled or surrendered. For more details of OPERATION JUST
CAUSE, see Applying the Urban Operational Framework: Panama in Chapter 5.
Urban Offensive Operations
————————————————————
The three examples cited indicate the importance of the innovative task organi-
zation of artillery and its use in the direct fire role. Using artillery helps overcome
some challenges of offensive operations in the urban environment, and it has an
important psychological effect on a defending threat. Such task organization
takes a traditional tool of a higher-level tactical commander and uses it to directly
influence the company-level battle. This philosophy of task organization can be
applied to other types of forces—not just artillery. PSYOP teams, interpreters,
CA specialists, armor, and reconnaissance teams may require task organization
different from traditional organization. The compartmented urban environment
drives the requirements for these assets lower in the tactical scheme than in
open operations. Consequently, commanders understand and account for more
of these assets for UO than for operations in less restrictive environments.
Shaping Attacks
6-68. In a large urban area, the defending threat cannot be strong every-
where. Shaping operations can also take the form of attacks against vul-
nerable positions to force the threat to maneuver and redeploy his forces in
the urban area. This prevents him from merely defending from prepared posi-
tions. Forcing the threat to move negates many of the defensive advantages
of urban terrain, confirms his dispositions, exposes vulnerable flanks, and
permits target acquisition and engagement with precision standoff fires.
6-69. A critical shaping operation in urban offensive operations is usually an
initial attack to seize a foothold. Once Army forces establish this foothold,
they accrue some of the defensive advantages of urban terrain. From this
protected location, Army forces continue offensive operations and have a
position of advantage against neighboring threat defensive positions.
DOMINATE
6-70. Commanders may employ several methods to dominate the urban area
during offensive operations. These include—
• Bold maneuver.
• Appropriate use of SOF.
• Precise application of fires and effects.
• Proper balance of speed and security.
None is unique to UO. Their effective execution, however, allows Army com-
manders to dominate in this challenging environment by effectively using
resources with the least amount of collateral damage. Overall, domination
results from urban offensive operations when forces achieve the objective of
the assigned mission and establish preeminent control over the necessary
terrain, population, and infrastructure. Largely, the Army commander’s
ability to dominate is based on understanding and accepting the challenges
posed by the urban environment and using that knowledge to his advantage.
Bold Maneuver
6-71. Commanders of major operations may have or create the opportunity to
seize an urban area with bold maneuver. Such maneuver requires striking
6-29
FM 3-06 ___________________________________________________________________________________
while the area remains relatively undefended—essentially preempting an
effective defense. This opportunity occurs when the urban area is well to the
rear of defending threat forces or before the onset of hostilities. Under such
conditions, an attack requires striking deep behind threat forces or striking
quickly with little time for the threat to make deliberate preparations.
Attacks under such conditions may entail significant risk; the potential
benefit of audacious offensive operations may be well worth possible losses.
Such attacks can be accomplished three ways (and their combinations):
• Airborne or air assault.
• Amphibious assault.
• Rapid penetration followed by an exceptionally aggressive exploitation,
for example, a heavy force using shock, armor protection, and mobility.
6-72. Commanders analyze all potential urban operations to seek an oppor-
tunity or advantage to apply bold operational maneuver to the task. Using
operational maneuver to avoid urban combat against an established threat
defense potentially marks a significant operational achievement and can
have decisive strategic consequences. Just influencing the threat’s morale can
positively affect all future operations. However, commanders evaluate the
challenges of such a course of action. These challenges may include sus-
taining the operation; avoiding isolation and piecemeal destruction; success-
fully conducting shaping attacks; and achieving the necessary tactical, opera-
tional, and strategic surprise.
6-73. Commanders also build on the shaping effects of isolating the urban
area internally and externally by attacking urban decisive points from
multiple directions. They can attack multiple decisive points either simultan-
eously or in a systematic, synchronized manner. This complicates the threat’s
situational understanding of the urban environment, further impedes his
decisionmaking, and allows Army commanders to dictate the tempo.
Bold Operational Maneuver to Seize an Urban Area
Inchon and Seoul, Korea – September 1950
In August 1950, UN forces in Korea were desperately attempting to stave off
defeat by establishing a viable defense in southern Korea. This defense, known
as the Pusan Perimeter, was the focus of the world’s attention. The commander
of US Forces Far East, General Douglas MacArthur, was not focused on the US
Eighth Army in Pusan. Instead, he focused on how to dramatically and decisively
transition to the offense—the recapture of the South Korean capital of Seoul.
Seoul was more than just the South Korean political capital, although that was an
important consideration. Seoul was the key to the Korean transportation system,
the hub of the national communications system, and the center of the country’s
economy and culture. It was also strategically placed astride maneuver corridors
to the north, south, and northeast. It had been Korea’s capital since 1394 when
King Taejo Yi Sung-Gye established it as the center of the Chosun dynasty. It
had been captured by the surprise communist invasion of the south in June
1950, and the key to success in Korea was its recapture. The question was how.
The obvious military solution to the Korean situation in August 1950 was to build
military strength within the Pusan Perimeter and then, when sufficiently strong, to
6-30
Urban Offensive Operations
6-31
lll
32
Ascom City 19 Sep
Inchon 15 Sep
Yongdungpo 21 Sep
lll
5
lll
5
lll
1
lll
7
lll
32
Seoul 22-
26 Sep
Suwon 22 Sep
Kimpo AF 17 Sep
lll
5
Pusan
Inchon
Seoul
XXX
10
Han River
Han River
YELLOW SEA
lll
ROK17
lll
1
XXXX
8
counterattack north and recapture Seoul. The disadvantage of this course of
action was that the counterattack would be through hundreds of miles of moun-
tainous terrain, through several major cities, and across numerous rivers. The
North Korean People’s Army (NKPA) would be able to fall back from one moun-
tain defense and one river line to another and would have weeks or months to
prepare the defenses of Seoul.
MacArthur’s solution was to delay a conventional counterattack, boldly maneuver
by sea deep into the flanks of the NKPA, land on the Korean west coast at
Inchon, and quickly seize Seoul before the enemy could react (see Figure 6-18).
This course of action had numerous disadvantages: achieving surprise;
assembling a landing force trained in amphibious operations; few good landing
sites; supplying a large force once landed; and needing to simultaneously con-
tinue to defend and prepare a counterattack with the Eighth Army from Pusan.
MacArthur understood the challenges of the operation but believed that the
potential value compensated for the risk.
Figure 6-18. Inchon-Seoul Campaign, September 1950
The potential value of a quick assault on Seoul through a deep amphibious
operation was immense. The operation would trap the bulk of the NKPA in South
Korea and facilitate its destruction. It would also capture Seoul before the NKPA
could prepare a defense. The quick recapture would immeasurably impact the
morale of UN forces and South Korea. MacArthur felt the payoff of success justi-
fied the risks and challenges of the operation.
On 15 September, elements of the 1st Marine Division landed in Inchon taking
the NKPA completely by surprise. On D+1 they were joined by elements of the
7th Infantry Division, both divisions under the control of US X Corps. Naval
gunfire and Marine close air support flying from Navy aircraft carriers supported
the landings. Seven days later, the 5th Marine Regiment had battled 25 miles to
the outskirts of Seoul and began attacking the city from the north. Three days
later, on 25 September, the 1st Marine Division and elements of the 7th Infantry
Division had defeated the 10,000 defenders of the NKPA’s 18th Rifle Division.
FM 3-06 ___________________________________________________________________________________
Most of MacArthur’s predictions for the Inchon-Seoul campaign were accurate.
Superb staff work, excellent logistics operations, and unmatched training per-
mitted the UN forces to assemble a trained landing force, land it over one of the
most difficult shores in the history of military amphibious operations, and keep it
supported. More importantly, the operation achieved total strategic and opera-
tional surprise. Seoul was recaptured quickly and, although resistance was
fierce, the NKPA could not react fast enough to influence the outcome. In con-
junction with the Eighth Army counterattack from Pusan, 75 percent of the NKPA
was destroyed. The Inchon-Seoul campaign was an important turning point in the
war, and had not the Chinese People’s Army intervened two months later, it
would have been the decisive campaign of the war.
Appropriate Use of Special Operations Forces
6-74. Sometimes Army forces can dominate (instead of simply shape) the
urban area using the direct action capability of SOF. When the threat fails to
develop a comprehensive defense and does not possess large, capable conven-
tional forces, then Army forces can achieve operational surprise. Com-
manders, by synchronizing conventional and SOF effects, may actively con-
trol offensive operations to dominate the area. Then, although SOF may be
the primary striking force, conventional forces still are available to reinforce
and assume the mission because of SOF limited logistic capability. OPERA-
TION JUST CAUSE offers several examples of this type of synchronization
(see Applying the Urban Operational Framework: Panama in Chapter 5).
Precise Application of Fires and Effects
6-75. Precisely applied fires and the massed effects of combat power charac-
terize successful urban attacks. The fires can be direct fire from combined
heavy or light ground teams; direct or indirect fires from supporting Army
aviation standing off from the target and any possible air defense threat; or
precision indirect fires from conventional tube artillery. All efforts strive to
reduce collateral damage around the point of attack, consistent with mission
success. Forces use fires to deny the threat the ability to maneuver in the
urban area and to destroy the threat when he attempts to maneuver. When
the threat exposes himself by moving, the environment no longer protects
him, and fires can effectively engage him.
Proper Balance of Speed and Security
6-76. Attacking units balance speed and security. Forces secure flanks as
units advance, control dominating terrain (buildings), evacuate civilians, and
keep the integrity and synchronization of the combined arms team. Obstacles
are anticipated and rapidly breached. Commanders choose avenues of
approach to—
• Provide cover and concealment for following aviation and support
units.
• Permit travel by all classes of vehicles.
• Easily defend from counterattack.
• Avoid nonessential centers of threat resistance.
• Avoid population centers
6-32
Urban Offensive Operations
6-77. Army aviation is one resource to protect flanks. Another resource is
engineers who seal off surface and subsurface entries and avenues along the
flanks of the attack. Finally, as in all offensive operations, ground and air
cavalry are ideal mobile forces to perform security in an economy of force role
along flanks allowing decisive forces more freedom of maneuver.
TRANSITION
6-78. Effective transitioning allows commanders to continue the full range of
Army operations in the urban area and elsewhere in the AO without unneces-
sary delays. Commanders accomplish this by thorough planning—including
appropriate branches and sequels (revised as the situation changes)—that
gives adequate consideration to postoffensive organizational, training,
psychological, and civilian requirements. If properly prepared, commanders
can anticipate potential mission changes and defeat a counterattack.
Early and Concurrent Transition Planning
6-79. Commanders can ensure smooth transitions of urban offensive opera-
tions by planning for postoffensive operations early. Based on the mission
envisioned, they determine which subordinates and what type of force
structure to use. Postoffensive missions, like all urban operations, encompass
the full range of Army operations. At the successful conclusion of offensive
operations, Army forces transition to some type of stability operation
conducted concurrently with support operations. Commanders may leave the
subordinate unit in place to execute the new mission, may reorganize the
subordinate unit for the mission, or relieve the unit that just completed
offensive operations with a new unit.
6-80. Changes to Task Organization. Commanders consider the organiza-
tion of forces following offensive operations. Hostile civilians may require
significant combat forces or military police forces to maintain stability.
Friendly civilians may require a minimum of military police or combat forces,
but significant logistic support. Commanders carefully consider the urban
situation before deciding how to use combat forces that recently participated
in a high-intensity offensive operation.
6-81. Training and Psychological Considerations. Many Army combat
tasks may not support follow-on stability operations or support operations
without considerable modification (if at all). Often, noncombat skills—not
normally part of a unit’s mission essential task list such as negotiating or
mediating skills—will be required. However, the greatest modification re-
quired applies to each soldier’s mental outlook. Forces that transition directly
from combat to stability operations may not be psychologically prepared for a
rapid and drastic change of mission. Commanders cannot expect troops who
have just completed high-intensity offensive operations to exercise the
sensitivity and judgment required in most stability operations. This
especially applies if the population is hostile to Army forces. If combat forces
assist in stability operations, particularly in hostile civilian situations, they
should not have recent experience in high-intensity urban operations and
they should have trained for the mission.
6-33
FM 3-06 ___________________________________________________________________________________
6-82. Return to Civil Agencies. Commanders also have the role of tran-
sitioning aspects of the urban offensive operation to civil, allied, NGOs, and
other agencies as appropriate. Planning for transition is detailed and aims to
quickly return as much civil control of the area as is feasible after the attack.
Beyond civil control, civil agencies and NGOs assume tasks as completely
and as rapidly as possible. These organizations are consulted and integrated
into the planning process as early as possible. Commanders begin planning
for transition when planning for offensive operations. They consider relin-
quishing control of urban areas to civil government, law enforcement, or
NGOs before completing offensive operations. During the conduct of urban
operations, these transition operations are closely synchronized with the
execution of the attack.
Preparation for Potential Mission Changes
6-83. In urban offensive operations, like other offensive missions, the change
in mission after a successful urban attack may be to a hasty defense or a con-
tinuation of offensive operations outside the area. However, in urban offen-
sive operations the mission will just as likely change to a support or stability
mission. This is particularly true if the unit has had special training and is
task organized for urban operations. Stryker brigades, already optimized for
urban environment by organization and training, are even more likely to
remain after completing the mission.
6-84. Even more challenging than transition at the end of the mission is
transition during the conduct of the mission. Soldiers may have a difficultly
transitioning from stability to support, to offense and defense, and back again
multiple times during an urban offensive operation. Soldiers may apply the
tactics, techniques, and procedures of urban offensive operations to the
stability or support missions with potentially disastrous results. Com-
manders need to segregate missions in time and space, and, if sufficient
forces exist, by unit. Units below battalion level cannot have rapid mission
changes from combat to noncombat or be expected to conduct more than one
type of urban mission simultaneously. Whenever feasible given mission
requirements, commanders permanently designate units to conduct stability
or support tasks and not rotate units between offensive and defensive tasks
to stability or support tasks.
Preparation to Defeat Counterattacks
6-85. Immediately after the conduct of successful urban operations, units are
alert to rapid and violent counterattack. Rapid and decisive counterattacking
in urban operations is extremely important to the defense because a quick
counterattack can regain terrain before the offensive forces have consolidated
and assumed the advantages of defending on urban terrain. Delaying a
counterattack in UO, even for a few minutes, permits the environment’s
advantages to shift to the successful attacker. Thus, attacking units
anticipate this reaction during planning and are prepared to defeat it during
execution.
6-34
Chapter 7
Urban Defensive Operations
Generally, a modern city magnifies the power of the defender and robs
the attacker or his advantages in firepower and mobility. A city can
ingest an invading army, paralyze it for weeks on end, and grind it
down to a state of ineffectiveness.
“Military Operations on Urbanized Terrain:
The 2d Battalion, 26th Infantry, at Aachen, October 1944”
The skillful defense of an urban area can decisively affect a campaign.
The urban area offers many advantages to defending forces. An adroit
defender can use the advantages of the urban environment to negate
combat power disparities, blunt the tempo of an attack, attrit threat
forces, and sap the morale of attacking troops. The defender gains an
opportunity to concentrate resources, reconstitute attrited units, and
transition to the offense. A successful defense of an urban area can also
deny the threat vital resources. Defense in the urban environment is an
essential Army capability and can significantly affect the outcome of
entire campaigns and the achievement of national objectives.
PURPOSE OF URBAN DEFENSIVE OPERATIONS
7-1. Army forces defend urban areas for various reasons: defeating a threat
attack, buying time, economizing forces, protecting an ally’s political insti-
tutions and economic infrastructure, protecting an urban population, shaping
conditions for decisive offensive operations, and shaping conditions for exe-
cuting stability operations or support operations. During force projection
operations, urban areas may be used as initial lodgment areas that Army
commanders may need to defend at the outset until they build sufficient
combat power. Usually two or more of these purposes apply to the urban
defense. Urban defensive operations provide commanders great opportunities
CONTENTS
Purpose of Urban Defensive Operations....7-1
Characteristics of Urban Defensive
Operations ................................................7-2
Preparation ................................................7-2
Security ......................................................7-3
Disruption ..................................................7-3
Massing Effects.........................................7-4
Flexibility....................................................7-4
Urban Defensive Operations and
Battlefield Organization...........................7-5
Types of Urban Defense ...............................7-5
Area Defense .............................................7-5
Mobile Defense ..........................................7-5
Retrograde .................................................7-9
Urban Defensive Considerations...............7-10
Assess......................................................7-10
Shape........................................................7-11
Dominate ..................................................7-16
Transition .................................................7-17
7-1
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
to turn the environment’s characteristics to the advantage of Army forces.
Urban areas are ideal for defensive operations and greatly enhance the
combat power of defending units.
CHARACTERISTICS OF URBAN DEFENSIVE OPERATIONS
7-2. There are five general characteristics of the successful defense: prepara-
tion, security, disruption, massing effects, and flexibility. All apply to the suc-
cessful urban defense and to the higher commander supporting a subordinate
defending in the urban area.
PREPARATION
7-3. The urban area suits the defense since the area’s physical characteristics
naturally enhance the combat power of defending units. These characteristics
include protection, obstacles, and concealment. Urban terrain provides
superb defensive positions with minimum preparation. With deliberate
preparation, urban defensive positions can rapidly become strong points.
7-4. One primary characteristic of urban terrain that enhances the defense is
protection. With little or no advance preparation, buildings, subsurface struc-
tures, and walls protect soldiers from direct and indirect fire, interdict
indirect fire, limit observation, and limit engagement ranges. Nearly all
buildings provide some ballistic protection from direct and indirect fire.
Mason and stone buildings with basements and cellars can protect soldiers
from most fires except the largest caliber or tonnage bomb. Minimal addi-
tional preparation turns them into formidable, defensive strong points.
7-5. Buildings in urban areas, because of their height and close proximity,
also can protect soldiers by masking them from indirect fire. The height of a
building may interdict the flight path of an artillery round, rocket, missile, or
bomb at a point short of the intended target. Masking protects static
defending forces and protects forces moving along routes bordered with tall
buildings that form urban “canyons”. These protected routes can be used for
logistics, counterattacks, and maneuver.
7-6. Structurally significant buildings in an urban area can create major
obstacles to maneuver. These obstacles immediately canalize maneuver into
existing streets and routes without any preparation by the defense. These
obstacles then become kill zones for well-positioned and sited defensive
forces. Minimal obstacle construction as point obstacles blocking streets and
routes can further restrict the maneuver options of the attacking force.
Rubble from structures collapsing into streets after fires (intentional or
unintentional) can also block routes.
7-7. Buildings also conceal the location, disposition, and intent of the
defense. They limit visual observation to the external perimeter of the urban
area. They degrade radar and electronic position identifiers and decrease the
utility of overhead imagery. The physical aspect of the urban environment
greatly enhances the defense by degrading the opposition’s intelligence,
surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR) capabilities. Buildings can conceal
static defensive positions and the maneuver of defensive forces in the urban
area. Although the environment constrains defensive mobility in much the
same manner as offensive mobility, the defense has the time and opportunity
7-2
_________________________________________________________________Urban Defensive Operations
to conduct careful reconnaissance and select and prepare routes. This gives
the defender the ability to move reserves, maneuver counterattack forces,
and plan logistics without observation. Careful preparation provides the
defense a mobility advantage over attacking forces.
SECURITY
7-8. The urban area can be an advantage or a disadvantage to the security of
defending forces. This largely depends on the nature of the human dimension
of the environment. If the population is evacuated or allied with Army forces,
then the environment may assist in the security of defending Army forces.
However, if the population is present and hostile, then the environment may
make security difficult.
7-9. The physical aspects of the urban environment, uninfluenced by the
human dimension, may assist in the security of defending Army forces. The
combat power of small security forces manning observation posts is greatly
enhanced. Forces can more easily restrict and monitor avenues of approach
for threat reconnaissance. Defending forces positioned mostly in structures
are difficult to locate.
7-10. The physical aspects of the environment may also present some
security challenges, primarily with observation. The compartmented terrain
limits the field of observation from any one point. The defense may require
more security forces to adequately observe the mounted and dismounted
avenues to prevent infiltration. Threat forces that successfully infiltrate will
be more difficult to locate. These forces will gain numerous hide positions for
small reconnaissance units in complex terrain and the effect the terrain has
in masking electronic signatures.
7-11. Friendly civilians in the urban area can help identify threat forces
attempting to conduct reconnaissance. Civilian activity will also help to mask
defense preparations. However, a hostile element of the population may pass
intelligence information to the threat. They may assist threat reconnaissance
to infiltrate the urban area or provide guides, manpower, or resource support
for threat forces. Commanders take measures to ensure strict control of
hostile populations. If resources permit, commanders may consider removing
potentially hostile civilians from the area.
DISRUPTION
7-12. The urban environment’s attributes assist defending Army forces to
disrupt the attacker. It does this through compartmentalization, inhibiting
command and control (C2), and facilitating counterattacks.
7-13. The physical aspects of the urban area force the attacking threat into
compartmented urban canyons that make mutual support between attacking
threat columns difficult. Shifting resources from one portion of the threat
attack to another is also difficult. Physically, the urban area disrupts tactical
communications making synchronization of combat power difficult.
7-14. The urban terrain hinders the mobility capabilities of the defense. How-
ever, careful planning, preparation, and rehearsals can facilitate more rapid
movement of larger forces. Defending forces can assemble counterattacks
7-3
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
undetected, move them along covered and concealed routes, and achieve sur-
prise at the point of the counterattack. Attacking forces, using the compart-
mented terrain, often leave forward elements in position to be isolated or
expose long and vulnerable flanks to friendly counterattack and interdiction.
MASSING EFFECTS
7-15. The urban environment allows defenders to better protect their centers
of gravity and decisive points. The restrictive terrain reduces the attacker’s
maneuver options. Defenders can position forces in protected and mutually
supportive positions oriented on deadly engagement areas. Relatively few
well-positioned defenders can generate significant combat power. Without the
positional advantage and the corresponding protective effects of the terrain,
attacking forces often mass numbers to achieve the necessary combat power.
7-16. Knowing the complex terrain permits defending forces to plan
engagement areas that maximize the effects of their combat power.
Defending forces can remove fences, walls, rooftops, and even entire buildings
to facilitate fields of fire and unmask indirect fire flight paths. Forces care-
fully choose firing positions for indirect fire systems so that flight paths
travel between buildings into engagement areas. By leveraging this
knowledge of the terrain, numerically inferior defenders can synchronize
devastating fires on offensive forces that are forced by terrain and reinforcing
obstacles to mass in confined spaces where fires can have the greatest effect.
FLEXIBILITY
7-17. Defensive flexibility results from detailed planning and mental agility.
Defensive planning flexibility forms branches and sequels that include alter-
nate and subsequent positions and emphasize counterattack options. The
urban area facilitates defensive flexibility because the urban terrain can be
quickly adapted for defensive operations with little or no preparation. The
effect is similar to having multiple, prepared positions on nearly every pos-
sible approach. The urban area can also permit rapid, covered movement on
interior lines. This permits swift movement to and occupation of strong defen-
sive positions with little or no preparation. The defense also has more flexi-
bility since defenders often know and better understand the urban terrain’s
effects on operations. Normally, defenders will not get lost as easily, will
know complex lines of sight and masking effects, and will best understand
the ballistic characteristics of individual structures.
7-18. Mental agility allows commanders to see that the best urban defense
may actually be to defend outside of the area. Such a defense mitigates the
danger to the urban population and potentially reduces collateral damage. It
takes advantage of Army long-range engagement capabilities and denies the
threat the opportunity to “hug” Army forces or noncombatants as protection
from fires. This defense may be appropriate when Army forces have enough
resources to defend more open terrain, when time permits deploying exten-
sive obstacles and constructing protected positions, and when natural terrain
such as river obstacles aids the defense.
7-4
_________________________________________________________________Urban Defensive Operations
URBAN DEFENSIVE OPERATIONS AND BATTLEFIELD
ORGANIZATION
7-19. Urban defensive operations are organized within the overall doctrinal
framework of sustaining, shaping, and decisive operations. The success of
urban defense depends on each operation, but commanders synchronize these
simultaneous operations as one action. Sustaining operations in defensive
urban operations (UO) ensure freedom of action. Critically, urban sustaining
operations ensure security of the lines of communications and establish effec-
tive movement control. Shaping operations in defensive UO create the condi-
tions for decisive operations. Shaping operations vary greatly depending on
the type of defense. For example, in a mobile defense the shaping operation
may be the fixing force. In contrast, in an area defense the fixed defense may
be the decisive operation. In the urban defense, decisive operations focus on
accomplishing the commander’s mission. The decisive operation may not
defeat the threat’s main effort, and it may not prevent threat occupation of
large portions of the urban area if those tasks are not essential to mission
accomplishment. For example, if the defense’s objective is to protect a critical
communications node, then, depending on the commander’s overall intent,
threat actions to secure an airfield elsewhere may not be important.
TYPES OF URBAN DEFENSE
7-20. Commanders view urban area defensive operations two ways: as
conducting a major defensive operation with an urban area in their area of
operations and as defending entirely in an urban area.
AREA DEFENSE
7-21. At the operational level, an area defense may include both urban areas
and open maneuver areas. The most common defense in an urban area and
the most suitable for the characteristics of this distinct environment is the
area defense. As a defensive operation, the area defense concentrates on
denying threat forces access to designated terrain for a specific time rather
than destroying the threat outright. Although an area defense in an urban
area does not directly seek to destroy or defeat attacking threat forces, as an
objective it does aim to force culmination of the threat’s attack. The urban
area defense often works effectively to exhaust threat resources and shape
conditions for a transition to offensive operations. The urban area may also
be used as a strong point to force threat movement in a different direction or
to fix threat forces as part of a large, mobile defense taking place in the area
of operations (AO) outside the urban area (see paragraphs 7-22 to 7-24).
MOBILE DEFENSE
7-22. A mobile defense can operate in an urban area but only under specific
conditions. It focuses on destroying or defeating the threat through a decisive
attack by a striking force. It requires the defender to have greater mobility
than the attacker. To shape a mobility advantage, the urban defender effec-
tively uses the terrain and correctly task organizes his forces mobility. The
principles of applying the mobile defense in the urban area remain the same:
a small fixing force stops the threat and limits any ability to maneuver while
a striking force quickly maneuvers and counterattacks to destroy him.
7-5
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
7-23. One key to executing a mobile defense in the urban area is to entice a
threat force into the depths of the urban area where it begins to lose mobility
options. A well-placed fixing force augmented with man-made obstacles and
taking advantage of the naturally constrictive terrain can stop a much larger
force. If the attacking force is largely mounted and armored, its mobility in
the urban area may be reduced to less than that of dismounted infantry. In
addition, if the attacking force’s movement into the urban area is mounted
and rapid, the commander’s situational understanding also diminishes. Then
the striking force, consisting of dismounted infantry forces, can execute the
counterattack with surprise from multiple directions and dimensions (sub-
surface, surface, supersurface to include intrasurface, and airspace). Man-
portable antiarmor weapons—firing from flanks and top down and supported
by precision indirect fires from both organic and joint systems—can rapidly
destroy the threat.
7-24. From the perspective
of commanders of the major
operation, the urban envi-
ronment can help de-
fending forces achieve a
mobility advantage over an
attacker in a broader sense.
Defending commanders
attempt to shape the
battlefield so that the
attacker commits signifi-
cant resources into an ur-
ban area, where his maneu-
ver capabilities are reduced
(see Figure 7-1). A dis-
proportionately small de-
fending force, which relies
on the defensive combat
power advantages of the urban environment, reduces and fixes the attacker’s
maneuver capabilities. Other defending forces mass outside the urban area
then strike the threat with a combined mobility and firepower advantage.
Striking
Force
Fixing Force
Econom
y
of Force
I I
I I
X
X
X
ENY
ENY
XXX
Figure 7-1. An Urban Area Incorporated
Into a Larger Mobile Defense
Urban Defense in a Major Operation
Stalingrad – August 1942 to January 1943
The German and Soviet battle for Stalingrad in late 1942 and into early 1943
illustrates how a tactical urban area defense integrates into a larger mobile
defense. Stalingrad was a battle fought on a huge scale: it involved army groups
on both sides and thousands of square kilometers. Though the city was small, it
remained the focus of both German and Soviet offensive and defensive opera-
tions during the six-month battle.
In the summer of 1942, the Germans launched a strategic offensive in southern
Russia. Its goal was the valuable oil fields of the Caucasus. German forces
turning south into the Caucasus exposed a vulnerable flank to Soviet forces
positioned between the Don and Volga Rivers. For the German Caucasus
7-6
_________________________________________________________________Urban Defensive Operations
7-7
Stalingrad
Volga R.
010km
Front line, 30 Sept 1942
389
XX
295
XX
XX
100
16
XX
XX
60
XX
29
XX
76
XX
71
XX
24
XX
94
XX
14
ENY
ENY
ENY
ENY
ENY
ENY
ENY
ENY
Kalach Stalingrad
Volga R.
Don R.
Chir R.
0 60 km
0 60 km
XXXX
62
4 PZ
XXXX
ENY
ENY
6
XXXX
operation to succeed, it had to destroy Soviet forces between the Don and Volga,
establish a good defensive line, and capture Stalingrad. This city would anchor
the German defense and interdict the critical flow of supplies from the Caspian
Sea via the Volga River into central Russia. Stalingrad, by virtue of its name, also
had important political and cultural value to the Germans and Soviets.
The opening phases of
the German offensive
were successful; Ger-
man forces—the 6th
Army and 4th Panzer
Army—entered the out-
skirts of Stalingrad in
late August 1942 (see
Figure 7-2). After a
month of intense
fighting, the Germans
possessed nearly 90
percent of the city. At
this point, the 6th Army
commanded all German
forces in and around
Stalingrad. The Soviet 62nd
Army’s defense was reduced to
a front only a few hundred
meters deep and a couple of
kilometers long on the banks of
the Volga. The Soviet defenses
hinged on fortress-like concrete
industrial buildings and the
fanatical bravery and tenacity of
soldiers and civilians fighting in
the city’s remains (see Fig-
ure 7-3).
Figure 7-2. German Attacks to Seize Stalingrad
Beginning in mid-September,
the Soviet command began
looking at how to convert the
defense of Stalingrad into an
operational opportunity. During
October and November, the
62nd Army held on to its toehold
in Stalingrad. While maintaining
the defense of the 62nd Army,
the Soviets secretly began to
build up strength on both flanks
of the German 6th Army. The
Germans increased their vul-
nerability by securing the Ger-
man 6th Army’s flanks with less
capable Romanian, Hungarian,
and Italian armies. Also, the 6th
Figure 7-3. German Attacks to Seize
Stalingrad, September 1942
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
7-8
0 60 km
Kalach Stalingrad
xxxx
5 Tk xxxx
21 xxxx
65 xxxx
24
xxxx
66
xxxx
62
xxxx
64
xxxx
57
xxxx
61
German Front After Soviet Attac
k
Soviet Front Prior to Soviet Attack
Isolated German Forces
Volga R.
Don R.
Chir R.
6
XXXX
4 ROM
XXXX
3 ROM
XXXX
ENY
LVII PZ
XXX
Army moved powerful German divisions into the city and rotated with German
divisions that were exhausted by urban combat.
On 19 November, the Soviets launched OPERATION URANUS that attacked two
Romanian armies with seven Soviet armies. Simultaneously, the 8th Russian
Army attacked to aid the 62nd Army in further fixing the German 6th Army. Within
five days, the Soviet armies of the Don Front, Southwest Front, and Stalingrad
Front met near the city of Kalach and sealed the fate of the German 6th Army’s
300,000 troops in Stalingrad (see Figure 7-4).
Figure 7-4. Soviet Attacks Trap German 6th Army
On the third day of the Soviet offensive, when encirclement seemed inevitable
but not yet complete, the 6th Army commander asked permission to withdraw
from the trap. The German high command denied permission believing that the
Army could be supplied by air and then a renewed offensive could break through
to the city. On 12 December, the German LVII Panzer Corps launched an offen-
sive north to break through to Stalingrad. This offensive made progress until
another Soviet offensive on 16 December forced its cancellation. This ended any
hope of recovering Stalingrad and the 6th Army. On 31 January 1943, the 6th
Army surrendered after sustaining losses of almost two-thirds of its strength. The
Soviets took over 100,000 prisoners.
Many lessons emerge from the successful defense of Stalingrad. Tactically, the
defense showed how using the terrain of a modern industrial city wisely could
increase the combat power of an inferior, defending force and reduce the
maneuver options of a mobile, modern attacking force. Another element in the
Soviet’s tactical success was the Germans’ inability to isolate the defenders. The
Germans never threatened the Soviet supply bases east of the Volga and, de-
spite German air superiority, the Soviets continuously supplied and reinforced the
62nd Army across the Volga River. Also, Soviet artillery west of the river was able
to fire in support of Soviet forces and was never threatened with ground attack.
_________________________________________________________________Urban Defensive Operations
At the operational level, the Soviets demonstrated a keen understanding of using
an urban area within the context of a mobile defense. The 62nd Army’s stubborn
area defense of Stalingrad drew the bulk of the German combat power into the
urban area where they were fixed by a smaller and quantitatively inferior
defending force. This allowed the Soviets to build combat power outside the
urban area. The Soviets set the conditions for a mobile defense by positioning
powerful Soviet armor forces in open terrain outside the urban area against
quantitatively inferior German allied forces. In OPERATION URANUS, the mobile
defense’s strike force destroyed the enemy outside the urban area and trapped
the greater part of the best enemy formations inside the urban area. The trapped
units were then subjected to dwindling resources and extensive psychological
operations, further isolated into pockets, and defeated in detail.
RETROGRADE
7-25. A retrograde
involves organized
movement away from
the threat. Retro-
grade operations
include withdrawals,
delays, and retire-
ments. These defen-
sive operations often
occur in an urban
environment. The
urban environment
enhances the de-
fending force’s ability
to conduct retrograde
operations success-
fully (see Figure 7-5).
E
Air
Rail
Ground
Sea
PL
MANDY
PL
MANDY PL
PHOEBE
PL
PHOEBE
PL
BALLIE
PL
BALLIE
NY
ENY
Figure 7-5. Retrograde Through an Urban Area
7-26. The cover and concealment afforded by the urban environment facili-
tates withdrawals where friendly forces attempt to break contact with the
threat and move away. The environment also restricts threat reconnaissance,
which is less able to detect friendly forces moving out of position, and
presents excellent opportunities for deception actions. Finally, a small
security force’s ability to remain concealed until contact in the urban envi-
ronment significantly slows threat attempts to regain contact once Army
forces have broken contact and begun to move.
7-27. The urban environment’s natural cover and concealment, as well as the
compartmented effects, facilitates delays. Delays can effectively draw the
threat into the urban area for subsequent counterattack or as an integral
part of a withdrawal under threat pressure. Delaying units can quickly dis-
place from one covered and concealed position to another; the repositioning
options are vast. Compartmented effects force the attacking threat to move
on well-defined and easily interdicted routes and limit the threat’s ability to
flank or bypass delaying positions.
7-9
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
7-10
7-28. The urban area’s transportation and distribution network facilitates
retiring forces that are not in contact. Properly used, the urban transpor-
tation system can quickly move large forces and associated resources, using
port facilities, airfields, railheads, and well-developed road networks.
URBAN DEFENSIVE CONSIDERATIONS
What is the position about London? I
have a very clear view that we should
fight every inch of it, and that it would
devour quite a large invading army.
Winston Churchill
War in the Streets
7-29. The urban operational
framework—assess, shape,
dominate, and transition—
provides structure to devel-
oping considerations for
defensive operations. The
considerations can vary
depending on the level of war at which the operation is conducted, the type of
defense, and the situation. Most issues discussed may, in the right circum-
stances, apply to both commanders conducting major UO and commanders at
lower tactical levels of command.
ASSESS
7-30. The commander defending in the urban area assesses many factors. His
mission statement and guidance from higher commanders focus his assess-
ment. If the mission is to deny a threat access to port facilities in an urban
area, the commander’s assessment will focus much differently than if the
mission is to deny the threat control over the entire urban area. The
METT-TC—mission, enemy, terrain and weather, troops and support
available, time available, civil considerations—structure guides the com-
mander’s assessment. Of these, the impacts of the threat and environment—
to include the terrain, weather, and civil considerations—are significant to
the commander considering urban defensive operations.
The Threat
7-31. In the urban defense, a key element is the commander’s assessment of
the threat. One of his primary concerns is to determine the attacker’s general
scheme, methodology, or concept. Overall, the attacker may take one of two
approaches. The most obvious would be a direct approach aimed at seizing
the objectives in the area by a frontal attack. A more sophisticated approach
would be indirect and begin by isolating Army forces defending the urban
area. Innumerable combinations of these two extremes exist, but the threat’s
intentions toward the urban area will favor one approach over another. The
defending Army commander (whose AO includes but is not limited to the
urban area) conducts defensive planning, particularly his allocation of forces,
based on this initial assessment of threat intentions. This assessment deter-
mines whether the commander’s primary concern is preventing isolation by
defeating threat efforts outside the area or defeating a threat attacking the
urban area directly. For the higher commander, this assessment determines
how he allocates forces in and outside the urban area. For the commander in
the urban area, this assessment clarifies threats to sustainment operations
and helps shape how he arrays his forces.
_________________________________________________________________Urban Defensive Operations
The Environment’s Defensive Characteristics
7-32. A second key assessment is the defensive qualities of the urban envi-
ronment. This assessment, as in any defensive scenario, is based on mission
requirements and on a systemic analysis of the terrain in terms of observa-
tion and fields of fire, avenues of approach, key terrain, obstacles, and cover
and concealment (OAKOC). This assessment accounts for the unique
characteristics of urban terrain, population, and infrastructure as discussed
in Chapter 2.
SHAPE
7-33. Commanders of a major operation shape the urban battle according to
the type of defense they are attempting to conduct. If conducting an area
defense or retrograde, they use shaping actions like those for any defensive
action. Important shaping actions that apply to all defensive UO include—
• Preventing or defeating isolation.
• Separating attacking forces from supporting resources.
• Creating a mobility advantage.
• Applying economy of force measures.
• Effectively managing the urban population.
• Planning counterattacks.
Preventing or Defeating Isolation
7-34. Failure to prevent isolation of the urban area can rapidly lead to the
failure of the entire urban defense. Its importance cannot be overstated. In
planning the defense, commanders anticipate that the threat will attempt to
isolate the urban area. Defensive planning addresses in detail defeating
threat attacks aimed at isolation of the urban area. Commanders may defeat
this effort by allocating sufficient defending forces outside the urban area to
prevent its isolation. Defensive information operations (IO) based on decep-
tion can also be used. It can mislead the threat regarding the defensive array
in and outside the urban area. Such information can convince the threat that
a direct attack against the urban area is the most favorable approach.
7-35. If the threat has successfully isolated the urban area, commanders of a
major operation have several courses of actions. Two options are ordering the
defending force to exfiltrate or conduct a breakout attack of the urban area or
an attack by forces outside the urban area to relieve the siege. A third option
combines the first two: counterattacks from both inside and outside the urban
area to rupture the isolation (see breakout operations in FM 3-90). Time is
critical to the success of either operation. Commanders plan for both contin-
gencies to ensure rapid execution if necessary. Delay permits threat forces
surrounding the urban area to prepare defenses, permits reorganization of
the attacking force, and permits the threat to retain the initiative and
continue offensive operations. The passage of time also reduces the resources
of defending forces and their ability to breakout. Therefore, commanders and
staff of a major operation vigilantly avoid isolation when Army forces are
defending urban areas in their AO.
7-11
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
Separating Attacking Forces from Supporting Resources
7-36. Commanders of the major operation primarily use fires and IO for
separating in space and time threat forces attacking the urban area from
echelons and resources in support. The purpose of this shaping action is the
same as for any conventional area defense. It aims to allow the defending
forces to defeat the threat piecemeal as they arrive in the urban area without
support and already disrupted by deep fires and IO against information
systems. This separation and disruption of the threat also sets the conditions
for a mobile defense if commanders choose to execute that type of defense.
These operations also prevent the threat commander from synchronizing and
massing his combat power at the decisive point in the close battle.
7-37. If the urban area is part of a major mobile defense operation, the urban
defense becomes the fixing force. Commanders shape the defense to
encourage the threat to attack into the urban area. They lure the threat
using a combination of techniques depending on the situation. They may
make the urban area appear only lightly defended while other alternative
courses of action appear strongly defended by friendly forces. Placing the bulk
of the defending forces in concealed positions well within the urban area and
positioning security forces on the periphery of the urban area portray a weak
defense. In other situations, the opposite is true. If the urban area is an
important objective to the threat, friendly forces can make the urban area
appear heavily defended, thus ensuring that he commits sufficient combat
power to the urban area to overwhelm the defense. Both cases have the same
objective: to cause a major commitment of threat forces in the urban area.
Once this commitment is made, the mobile defense striking force attacks and
defeats the threat outside the urban area. This isolates the threat in the
urban area and facilitates its destruction.
7-38. In the urban tactical battle, many shaping actions mirror those in all
defensive operations. The size and complexity of the urban area prevents
defending forces from being strong everywhere; shaping operations designed
to engage the threat on terms advantageous to the defense have particular
importance. Shaping actions include reconnaissance and security operations,
passages of lines, and movement of reserve forces prior to their commitment.
In addition, shaping operations critical to urban defense include mobility and
countermobility operations, offensive IO, economy of force operations, and
population management operations.
Creating a Mobility Advantage
7-39. In urban terrain, countermobility operations can greatly influence
bringing the threat into the engagement areas of defending forces. Counter-
mobility operations—based on understanding the urban transportation sys-
tem, design, and construction characteristics—can be unusually effective (see
Chapter 2). Demolitions can have important implications for creating
impassable obstacles in urban canyons as well as for clearing fields of fire
where necessary. Careful engineer planning can make the already constric-
tive terrain virtually impassable to mounted forces where appropriate, thus
denying the threat combined arms capabilities. Countermobility operations in
urban terrain drastically increase the defense’s ability to shape the attacker’s
approach and to increase the combat power ratios in favor of the defense. As
7-12
_________________________________________________________________Urban Defensive Operations
with all aspects of UO, countermobility considers collateral damage and the
second- and third-order effects of obstacle construction.
7-40. Well-conceived mobility operations in urban terrain can provide
defending forces mobility superiority over attacking forces. This is achieved
by carefully selecting routes between primary, alternate, and subsequent
positions, and for moving reserves and counterattack forces. These routes are
reconnoitered, cleared, and marked before the operation. They maximize the
cover and concealment characteristics of the terrain. Using demolitions,
lanes, and innovative obstacles denies the defense of these same routes.
Applying Economy of Force Measures
7-41. Economy of force is extremely important to effective tactical urban
defense. A megalopolis is too large and too easily accessible for defending
forces to be strong everywhere. Forces used effectively in an economy of force
role enable the defending force to mass effects at decisive points. Forces used
in an economy of force role execute security missions and take advantage of
obstacles, mobility, and firepower to portray greater combat power than they
actually possess. They prevent the threat from determining the actual dispo-
sition and strength of the friendly defense. If, contrary to expectations, they
are strongly attacked, their mobility—stemming from a mounted maneuver
capability, planning, and an intimate knowledge of the terrain—allows them
to delay until reserves can meet the threat. Security forces in an economy of
force role take position in parts of the urban area where the threat is less
likely to attack.
Defensive Combat Power
Suez – October 1973
At the end of October, the Israeli Army was in the midst of effective counterattack
against the Egyptian Army. The Israelis had success attacking west across the
Suez Canal. Their armored divisions were attempting to achieve several objec-
tives, to include destroying Egyptian air defense sites and completing the en-
circlement of the Egyptian 3rd Army, which was trapped on the canal’s east side.
To completely encircle the Egyptian 3rd Army, the Israelis had to seize all
possible crossing sites to it from the canal’s west bank and the Red Sea. Also, as
international negotiations towards a cease-fire progressed, the Israeli govern-
ment wanted to capture as much Egyptian territory as possible to improve their
negotiating position after hostilities.
Consequently, the Israeli Adan Armored Division was tasked to seize the Egyp-
tian Red Sea port of Suez on the morning of 24 October. A cease-fire was to
begin at 0700, and the Israeli intent was to be decisively engaged in the city by
that time and then consolidate their position as part of the cease-fire compliance.
The Adan Division plan to seize Suez was a two-part operation. Each of the divi-
sion’s armored brigades would have a role. The 460th Brigade would attack west
of the city and complete the city’s encirclement. Simultaneously, the 217th
Brigade would attack in columns of battalions through the city to seize three key
intersections in the city. This was in accordance with standard Israeli armored
doctrine for fighting in an urban area. The 217th Brigade would seize its
7-13
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
7-14
objectives through speed, firepower, and shock action. Once the objectives were
seized, infantry and armored teams would continue attacking from the secured
objectives to mop up and destroy pockets of resistance. The Israeli commanders
expected to demoralize the defending Egyptians—two infantry battalions and one
antitank company—by this rapid attack. The armored division commander was
specifically advised by his commander to avoid a “Stalingrad” situation.
The attack got off to an ominous beginning as mist greatly inhibited a scheduled
aerial bombardment in support of the attack. The 217th Brigade began its attack
without infantry support and was quickly stopped by antitank missiles and anti-
tank fire. Infantry was quickly integrated into the brigade and the attack resumed.
At the first objective, the Israelis encountered their first problems. A withering
barrage of small arms, antitank missiles, and antitank fire hit the lead tank
battalion, including direct fire from SU-23 anti-aircraft guns. Virtually all the offi-
cers and tank commanders in the tank battalion were killed or wounded, and
several tanks were destroyed. Disabled vehicles blocked portions of the road,
and vehicles that turned on to secondary roads were ambushed and destroyed.
The battalion, however, successfully fought its way through the first brigade
objective and on to the final brigade objective.
Hastily attached paratroop infantry in company strength were next in column
following the tanks. They were traveling in buses and trucks. As the lead tank
battalion took fire, the paratroopers dismounted, and attempted to secure adja-
cent buildings. The tank battalion’s action of fighting through the objective caused
the paratroopers to mount up and also attempt to move through the objective.
Because of their soft skinned vehicles the paratroopers were unable to remain
mounted and again dismounted, assaulted, and secured several buildings that
they could defend. Once inside the buildings, the paratroopers found themselves
cut off, pinned down, and unable to evacuate their considerable casualties, which
included the battalion commander. The paratroopers were on the initial brigade
objective but were unable to maneuver and were taking casualties.
A second paratroop company also dismounted and quickly became stalled in
house-to-house fighting. The brigade reconnaissance company in M113 per-
sonnel carriers brought up the rear of the brigade column and lost several
vehicles and was also unable to advance.
By 1100 the Israeli attack culminated. Elements of the 217th Brigade were on all
three of the brigade’s objectives in the city. However, the armored battalion,
which had achieved the deepest penetration, was without infantry support and
under severe antitank fire. Both paratroop companies were isolated and pinned
down. In addition, an attempt to link up with the paratroopers had failed. At the
same time, the civilian population of the city began to react. They erected
impromptu barriers, ambushed isolated Israeli troops, and carried supplies and
information to Egyptian forces.
The Israeli division commander ordered the brigade to break contact and fight its
way out of the city. The armored battalion was able to fight its way out in daylight.
The paratroop companies were forced to wait until darkness and then infiltrated
out of the city carrying their wounded with them. Israeli casualties totaled 88
killed and hundreds wounded in addition to 28 combat vehicles destroyed. Egyp-
tian casualties were unknown but not believed to be significant.
_________________________________________________________________Urban Defensive Operations
7-15
The fight for Suez effectively demonstrates numerous urban defensive tech-
niques. It also vividly demonstrates the significant effect on defensive combat
power of the urban environment.
The Egyptian defense demonstrates how the compartmented urban terrain
restricts the mobility and the massing of firepower of armored forces. Trapped in
column on the road, the Israelis were unable to mass fire on particular targets nor
effectively synchronize and coordinate their fires. The short-range engagement,
also a characteristic of urban combat, reduced the Israeli armor protection and
eliminated the Israeli armor’s ability to keep out of small arms range. Thus, hand
held antiarmor weapons were more effective in an urban area. Additionally,
Egyptian small arms and sniper fire critically affected Israeli C2 by successfully
targeting leaders.
The Egyptian defenders effectively isolated the mounted Israelis by defending
and planning engagement areas in depth. The Egyptians synchronized so that
they engaged the entire Israeli force simultaneously. This forced the Israelis to
fight in multiple directions. It also separated the Israeli infantry from the armor
and prevented the formation of combined arms teams necessary for effective
urban offensive operations.
Suez also demonstrated how civilians come to the advantage of the defense.
After the battle was joined, the population—by threatening isolated pockets of
Israelis and building barricades—helped prevent the Israelis from reorganizing
while in contact and hindered the Israelis breaking contact. The population was
also a valuable source of intelligence for the Egyptians and precluded covert
Israeli movement in daytime.
Suez shows the ability of a well-placed defense in depth to fix a superior force in
an urban area. Despite the Israeli commander’s caution to avoid a “Stalingrad,”
the Israeli division, brigade, and battalion commanders were quickly trapped and
unable to easily break contact. Even a successful defense on the parameter of
the city would not have been nearly as effective, as the Israelis would have easily
broken contact once the strength of the defense was recognized.
Another key to the success of the Egyptian defense was the Israelis’ inadequate
reconnaissance. While the Israelis knew the approximate size of the defending
forces, they had no idea of the Egyptian dispositions. In this case, time prevented
adequate reconnaissance. Key to a successful defense is adequate security to
obscure defense dispositions, which permits surprise and shock effect.
The Suez defense was a decisive defeat of elite Israeli forces by regular infantry
units inferior in training, morale, and numbers. Total disaster was averted only
because of the professionalism of the Israeli armored forces and paratroopers
that permitted them to continue to fight and eventually exfiltrate the urban trap.
The Israeli forces thus escaped total destruction. Suez strongly demonstrates
how the enhancing effects of the urban environment on defensive combat power
are significant enough to permit inferior regular forces to defeat elite formations.
Since the 1973 Suez battle, US forces in Mogadishu, Somalia, and Russian
forces in Grozny, Chechnya have faced similar urban defensive ambushes.
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
Effectively Managing the Urban Population
7-42. Another way to shape the urban defensive battle is population manage-
ment. In most cases, defending force commanders are in the urban area
before combat. This time gives them the chance to manage civilians. Con-
sequently, they can better manage and protect the population (a legal
requirement) and gain more freedom of action for his forces.
7-43. Managing the civilians during the defense is a function of the size,
disposition, and needs of the population and the resources available to the
commander. Requesting higher support or coordinating with nongovern-
mental organizations, private voluntary organizations, and the local civil
leadership for support may make up shortages of resources. Resources
devoted to population management are carefully weighed against availa-
bility, military mission requirements, and possible collateral damage
affecting tactical, operational, or strategic success. It may prove impractical
to evacuate an urban area’s population; still, commanders attempt to create
and move most civilians to protected areas. Moving the population allows
defending forces to more liberally apply fires, emplace obstacles, and relieve
combat units and support units of requirements to continue life support for
civilians while executing combat operations. Overall, effective civil-military
operations can turn a friendly (or a neutral) population into an effective force
multiplier providing support to every battlefield operating system.
Planning Counterattacks
7-44. Counterattacks are also an important tool in shaping the battlefield for
defensive success. Counterattacks as a shaping tool have two applications:
retaining the initiative and separating forces. However, opportunity for effec-
tive counterattacks will be brief and, therefore, timing will be critical. If
conducted too soon, the counterattack may expend resources required later; if
conducted too late, it may not be effective. Commanders understand the effect
of the urban environment on time-distance relationships; otherwise, the
timing of the attack may be upset and the operation desynchronized. Addi-
tionally, commanders develop plans beyond the counterattack to exploit
potential success.
DOMINATE
7-45. Dominating the urban area in a defensive operation requires decisively
defeating the threat’s attacks. Defensive forces use the terrain to their advan-
tage, employ precision supporting fires, and use direct fire from protected
positions aligned against carefully selected avenues of approaches and kill
zones. The combat power of the defense augmented by shaping actions and
the characteristics of urban terrain force culmination of the threat attack.
Like urban offensive operations, domination in urban defensive operations
typically results from successful actions at the tactical level of war. These
actions include—
• Performing aggressive ISR.
• Creating depth.
• Executing an effective obstacle plan.
• Conducting coordinated counterattacks.
7-16
_________________________________________________________________Urban Defensive Operations
Performing Aggressive ISR
7-46. ISR efforts of the defender are focused initially on identifying relevant
information about the location and nature of the threat’s main effort. Once
identified, the defender’s ISR focus shifts to assessing the rate at which the
threat attack moves to its culminating point. Indicators of culmination may
be physical fatigue of soldiers, a breakdown in C2 capability, difficulty
providing logistics support, or the increasing time required to reorganize
small units to attack. When that culmination is achieved, friendly forces
counterattack before the threat has a chance to transition to a hasty defense.
Creating Depth
7-47. Depth in the defense is the key to forcing the threat to culminate. The
urban defense cannot allow itself to be penetrated nor permit forward
elements to be destroyed. The defense is designed with the greatest depth
possible. Defending forces weaken the threat to the fullest extent possible by
attack from each position but not permit themselves to be destroyed by fires
or close assault. Instead, as threat combat power builds up against individual
positions, the use of mission orders permits subordinate leaders to disengage
on their own initiative and move on preplanned routes to subsequent
positions. Positions are designed to be mutually supporting—withdrawing
from one position to a subsequent one while supporting positions cover by
fires. The attacker is constantly forced to deploy and reorganize without
being able to achieve decisive effects against the defender.
Executing an Effective Obstacle Plan
7-48. Obstacles in the urban defense are designed to break up the threat’s
combined arms capability. Separating dismounted forces from mounted forces
disrupts the cohesion of the attacker and reduces his combat power. It also
exposes his individual elements to the effects of asymmetric counterattack.
The leading threat dismounted force can be effectively counterattacked by a
friendly combined arms element while the threat armored force in the
remains vulnerable to antiarmor attack by dismounted forces.
Conducting Coordinated Counterattacks
7-49. The counterattack is one of the key actions of the urban defense.
However, the commanders do not counterattack unless there is a reasonable
chance of success. As the attacker moves into the depth of the urban area, his
forces become fatigued, attrited, and increasingly disorganized. He likely also
creates an increasingly long and exposed flank. At all levels, forces defending
in urban terrain look for opportunities to counterattack. As the offensive force
reaches the culmination point where it can no longer continue to attack with
the available forces, the defensive commander executes a preplanned and co-
ordinated counterattack. The counterattack aims to regain the initiative and
to make the threat fight in multiple directions. Infiltration using superior
knowledge of the terrain (including intrasurface and subsurface capabilities)
permits attacking the threat throughout the depth of his formations. Small-
scale counterattacks focus on C2 and combat service support capabilities.
These counterattacks can set the conditions for a deliberate attack leading to
the ultimate destruction of the attacking threat force.
7-17
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
TRANSITION
7-50. Transitions in urban defensive operations occur at all levels. As with
offensive operations, commanders of major operations address which units
are assigned to continue to operate in the area after defensive operations
have ceased. In defensive UO, this task is not as challenging as an occupation
mission during urban offensive operations. The psychology of troops
defending an urban area differs from those attacking into it. Defending forces
become accustomed to the environment, having experience in the environ-
ment before combat. In terms of training, it is easier for follow-on missions to
be assigned to a unit that has successfully defended the urban area. This
course of action takes advantage of the defending units’ experience in the
area and its relationships with other agencies—agencies that were operating
alongside the units before and possibly during the defense. In defensive
operations, regardless of the civilians’ attitudes, policies regarding that
population are established before the successful defense, and the command
likely has experience executing operations with civil authorities and other
agencies. Thus, these relationships are not new nor as significant an issue as
in offensive operations. Therefore, commanders are prepared to execute
various stability operations and support operations or use a successful
defense to springboard into more decisive offensive operations elsewhere in
the commanders’ AO.
Transition to Stability Operations and Support Operations
7-51. At the end of a successful urban defense, operational commanders
expect civil authority, control, and jurisdiction to increase. Additionally, the
civil population will be anxious to return. Defensive combat will require vir-
tually complete military control of the urban area; however, after the suc-
cessful defense, a rapid transition will occur from military control to civil or
joint military and civil control afterward. This transition will require stability
operations and support operations and will include tasks such as demilita-
rizing munitions, clearing obstacles, and searching for isolated threat pockets
of resistance. Conclusion of the defensive operations also requires transition
to joint civil-military tasks, such as evaluating structures for safety, restoring
essential services, and possibly creating joint law enforcement. Commanders
of major operations, using a civil-military operations center and G5, antici-
pate these requirements to ensure a smooth, successful transition.
Transition to Offensive Operations
7-52. Units that have successfully defended the urban area may then
transition to offensive operations. A rapid transition to offensive operations
will require identification, preparation, and training of units designated to
assume missions as the defending units leave the urban area. This prepa-
ration emphasizes continuity of policies and relationships already estab-
lished. A relief in place occurs. The new occupying units provide not only a
continuity of policy, but also a continuity of attitude toward the urban area,
its population, and its institutions.
7-18
Chapter 8
Urban Stability Operations and Support Operations
The Rangers were bound by strict rules of engagement. They were to
shoot only at someone who pointed a weapon at them, but already this
was unrealistic. It was clear they were being shot at, and down the
street they could see Somalis with guns. But those guns were intermin-
gled with the unarmed, including women and children. The Somalis
were strange that way. Most noncombatants who heard gunshots and
explosions would flee. Whenever there was a disturbance in Moga-
dishu, people would throng to the spot. . . . Rangers peering down
their sights silently begged the gawkers to get the hell out of the way.
Black Hawk Down
The fundamental shared aims between stability operations and support
operations and any operation conducted in an urban environment are the
increased significance and influence of the civil population and nonmili-
tary organizations. Often, no military victory is to be achieved. The center
of gravity for these operations normally cannot be attacked through
military means alone; the Army (and the military in general) is often but
one tool supporting a larger, civil-focused effort. Without a tightly coordi-
nated civil-military effort, success will be difficult or impossible to
achieve. Commanders who can understand and cope with the complexities
of stability operations and support operations gain insights that directly
apply to executing any urban operation. Urban stability operations and
support operations may complement urban offensive and defensive
operations, or may dominate the overall operation. Army forces may need
to conduct offensive and defensive operations to defend themselves or
destroy urban threats seeking to prevent the decisive stability or support
mission. During hostilities, urban stability operations may keep armed
conflict from spreading, encourage coalition and alliance partners, and
secure the civilian population’s support in unstable urban areas (and the
surrounding rural areas under their influence). Following hostilities,
CONTENTS
Purpose of Urban Stability Operations
and Support Operations ....................... 8-2
Characteristics of Urban Stability
Operations and Support Operations ... 8-2
Urban Stability Operations, Support
Operations, and Battlefield
Organization........................................... 8-3
Decisive Operations............................... 8-3
Shaping Operations ............................... 8-4
Sustaining Operations .......................... 8-4
Types and Forms of Stability Operations
and Support Operations ................... 8-4
Stability Operations............................ 8-4
Support Operations............................ 8-5
Considerations of Urban Stability Opera-
tions and Support Operations.......... 8-6
Assess ................................................. 8-6
Shape ................................................. 8-11
Dominate ........................................... 8-12
Transition .......................................... 8-15
8-1
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
urban stability operations may provide a secure environment for civil
authorities to rebuild. Urban support operations can range from trans-
porting, feeding, and sheltering the population made homeless as a result
of combat operations or natural disasters to providing medical care during
urban counterinsurgency operations.
PURPOSE OF URBAN STABILITY OPERATIONS AND SUPPORT
OPERATIONS
8-1. Army forces conduct stability operations and support operations to deter
war, resolve conflict, promote peace, strengthen democratic processes, retain
United States (US) influence or access abroad, assist US civil authorities,
and support moral and legal imperatives. Stability operations promote and
sustain regional and global stability. In contrast, support operations meet the
urgent needs of designated groups, for a limited time, until civil authorities
can accomplish these tasks without military assistance. Nearly every urban
operation will involve some type or form of stability operation or support
operation combined and sequenced with offensive and defensive operations.
CHARACTERISTICS OF URBAN STABILITY OPERATIONS AND
SUPPORT OPERATIONS
8-2. Worldwide urbanization, mi-
gration trends from rural to urban
areas, and more centralized popu-
lations in urban areas increase
the chance that Army forces will
conduct stability operations and
support operations in or near
urban areas. Simply put, many
people live in urban areas, and
their welfare will be the primary
reason for conducting these opera-
tions. Urban areas that serve as
economic and government centers
(the ideal location for US and
allied embassies) are often the
focal point for many threat activities. Therefore, Army forces may need to
conduct stability operations in these cities to counter those threats. Addi-
tionally, urban areas may contain the resources and infrastructure to support
both types of operations, regardless of whether the overall focus is in urban
or rural areas. Repairing or restoring the infrastructure may be a critical
task in accomplishing a support mission. Supported governmental and
nongovernmental agencies are not as logistically self-sufficient as the Army.
As such, these agencies may need to center their operations in and around
urban areas to use the area’s infrastructure to support themselves and their
objectives. These agencies may require military protection to accomplish
their missions. Figure 8-1 lists some defining characteristics of these wide-
ranging operations.
Figure 8-1. Characteristics of Stability
Operations and Support Operations
• Long or Short Duration
• Unilateral or Multinational
• Domestic or Foreign
• Joint and Interagency
• Increased Civil-Military and Legal
Considerations
• Greater Potential for Ambiguity
• Increased Constraints Necessitating
More Restrictive ROE
• Amplified Need for Cultural and
Political Sensitivity
8-2
Urban Stability Operations and Support Operations
8-3. Stability operations and support operations are diverse, varied in dura-
tion, unilateral or multinational, and domestic or foreign. Like all urban
operations (UO), they are usually joint. Unlike urban offensive and defensive
operations, they are more often interagency operations and require more
restrictive rules of engagement (ROE). The multiplicity of actors involved
usually increases the scope and scale of required coordination and communi-
cation. In urban stability operations or support operations, adverse con-
ditions arising from natural or man-made disasters or other endemic
conditions—such as human suffering, disease, violations of human rights, or
privation—will significantly modify the urban environment. Unresolved poli-
tical issues and tenuous agreements, difficulties discriminating combatants
from noncombatants or between parties of a dispute, and the absence of basic
law and order all serve to complicate an already complex and uncertain envi-
ronment. Civil-military and legal considerations take on added significance
in all urban operations (see Civil-Military Operations and Legal Support in
Chapter 9), but even more so in urban stability operations and support opera-
tions. Finally, recognizing and achieving the desired end state is often more
difficult than in offensive and defensive operations.
8-4. Overall, commanders of major operations involving urban stability opera-
tions and support operations do not expect clear guidance. They learn, adapt,
and live with ambiguity. They cannot expect to operate in a political vacuum
(even commanders at the tactical level) and do not expect an easily
identifiable enemy located across a clearly demarcated line. In fact in many
peace operations, commanders and their soldiers resist the need to have an
enemy—difficult at best when one side or another (or both) may be sniping at
them. They also expect changing and additional missions and tasks, without
being allowed to use every means at their disposal to carry out those mis-
sions. Many tasks required may be ones for which their units have never, or
rarely, trained. Finally, commanders expect to show restraint with a keen
sensitivity to political considerations and to alien cultures, either or both of
which they might find confusing or even repugnant.
URBAN STABILITY OPERATIONS, SUPPORT OPERATIONS, AND
BATTLEFIELD ORGANIZATION
8-5. Each type of urban stability operation or support operation is distinct.
These operations differ even more when applied to a specific urban area. Due
to the complexity of the environment, commanders carefully arrange their
forces and operations according to purpose, time, and space to accomplish the
mission. In most UO the terrain, the dense population (military and civilian),
and the participating organizations will further complicate this arrangement.
DECISIVE OPERATIONS
8-6. In urban stability operations, decisive operations may take many years
and include multiple actions before achieving the desired end state. This par-
ticularly applies to the strategic and operational levels. Oppositely, decisive
operations involved in an urban support operation for mitigating or reducing
disease, hunger, privation, and the effects of disasters normally achieve faster
results. However, an operation that attacks the underlying cause and seeks
to prevent or relieve such conditions is more a stability operation than a
8-3
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
support operation and will usually take longer. In urban areas, establishing
law and order to protect critical infrastructure and the inhabitants from
lawlessness and violence is often critical and often the decisive operation.
SHAPING OPERATIONS
8-7. Shaping operations establish and maintain the conditions for executing
decisive operations. In urban stability operations and support operations,
shaping operations always include information operations (IO) that influence
perceptions and maintain legitimacy. Often, various participants, and their
potentially divergent missions and methods, are involved. Army commanders
coordinate their planning and efforts (early and continuously) to ensure that
their decisive, shaping, or sustaining operations are not working against
other agencies’ efforts and operations—agencies that may have the lead role
in the operation. Thus, a critical shaping operation may be to establish the co-
ordination to help develop a common purpose and direction among agencies. In
some instances and with some organizations and agencies, particularly
nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), genuine unity of effort may not be
achievable; however, recognizing the differences in aims and goals will allow
Army commanders to conduct operations with less friction. Commanders
include NGOs and appropriate governmental agencies in mission readiness
exercises or any other training for stability operations or support operations.
SUSTAINING OPERATIONS
8-8. Sustaining operations enable decisive and shaping operations and
include combat service support, rear area and base security, movement
control, terrain management, and infrastructure development. Sustainment
bases, especially those located in urban areas, become an attractive target for
hostile civilians; therefore, commanders actively and aggressively protect
these bases as well as lines of communications (see Chapter 9).
TYPES AND FORMS OF STABILITY OPERATIONS AND SUPPORT
OPERATIONS
8-9. Figure 8-2 defines stability operations and support operations and lists
their subordinate types and forms. If necessary, commanders can refer to
FM 3-07 to develop a more detailed understanding of the specifics of these
diverse operations.
STABILITY OPERATIONS
8-10. Urban areas will be decisive to accomplishing many types of stability
operations because urban areas are the centers of population, culture,
economy, and government. Much of the support provided by Army forces will
aim to assist local, regional, or national governments. Their location (urban
areas) will, by necessity, be a dominating factor in accomplishing the mission.
As importantly, many stability operations—enforcing peace in Bosnia for
example—will require interacting, influencing, controlling, or protecting all
or parts of the civilian population. Assessing, understanding, and gaining the
support of civilians in key economic, cultural, or political urban areas may
influence surrounding regions (smaller urban areas and the rural country-
side) and may be decisive to achieving stability objectives. Finally, the
8-4
Urban Stability Operations and Support Operations
support and assistance that Army forces will provide is only temporary
although often of long duration. Commanders execute operations with that
thought always in mind. Eventually, the government and administration
secure and support their population by themselves.
Stability
Support
Operations that promote
and protect US national
interests by influencing the
threat, political, and
information dimensions of
the operational environment
through a combination of
peacetime developmental,
cooperative activities and
coercive actions in
response to crisis.
Operations that employ
Army forces to assist civil
authorities, foreign or
domestic, as they prepare
for or respond to crisis and
relieve suffering.
•Peace Operations
•Foreign Internal Defense
•Security Assistance
•Support to Insurgencies
•Humanitarian and Civic Assistance
•Support to Counterdrug Operations
•Combatting Terrorism
•Noncombatant Evacuation Operations
•Arms Control
•Show of Force
•Domestic Support Operations
•Foreign Humanitarian Assistance
Definition Types or Forms
•Relief Operations
•Support to Domestic Chemical,
Biological, Radiological, Nuclear,
and High-Yield Explosive
Consequence Management
•Support to Civil Law Enforcement
•Community Assistance
Forms
Figure 8-2. Urban Stability Operations and Support Operations
SUPPORT OPERATIONS
8-11. Support operations consist of domestic support and foreign humani-
tarian assistance operations. They can occur in a foreign urban environment
as a result of military operations affecting the infrastructure or from a
natural disaster, such as an earthquake. Support operations can also occur
domestically when a natural or man-made emergency overwhelms local
resources. Such a situation could result from a chemical, biological, radiologi-
cal, nuclear, and high-yield explosive (CBRNE) incident, hurricane, flood, or
civil disturbance in a domestic urban area.
8-12. CBRNE incidents are disastrous. In urban areas, the potential for cata-
strophic loss of life and property is enormous. The Army categorizes CBRNE
incidents separately from other natural and man-made disasters because it
has specific expertise with these weapons. CBRNE incidents usually result
from a military or terrorist threat (adding a law enforcement dimension to
the disaster).
8-13. Subways and other subsurface areas offer ideal areas for limited
chemical or biological attacks. Nuclear attack (and high-yield explosives) can
produce tragic results due to the effects of collapsing structures, flying debris,
8-5
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
8-6
and fires. Dispersion patterns are affected by the urban terrain and are more
difficult to predict and monitor. Large-scale incidents may produce hundreds
of thousands of casualties, but even a limited attack may require evacuating
and screening large numbers of civilians. Requirements for medical support,
basic life support, and, if necessary, decontamination may quickly overwhelm
the Army force’s capabilities even with augmentation.
8-14. Panic and disorder may accompany the event. Fleeing civilians may
clog elements of the transportation and distribution infrastructure. Physical
destruction may also affect other components of the infrastructure of critical
and immediate concern, such as energy and administration and human ser-
vices (water, sanitation, medical, fire fighting, and law enforcement).
Because all elements of the infrastructure may be affected, the overall
recovery time may be lengthened and the effects broadened to include much
of the surrounding area. The effects of a single urban CBRNE event
potentially could be felt nationally or globally.
In wars of intervention the essentials
are to secure a general who is both a
statesman and a soldier; to have clear
with the allies as to the
part to be taken by each in the princi-
pal operations; finally, to agree upon
an objective point which shall be in
harmony with the common interests.
Lieutenant General Antoine-Henri,
Baron de Jomini
stipulations
8-15. The urban operational
framework (assess, shape,
dominate, and transition)
provides a structure for
developing considerations
unique to urban stability
operations and support opera-
tions. Many considerations
presented in urban offensive
and defensive operations
apply to urban stability opera-
tions and support operations,
particularly those that address how to assess the urban and overall
operational environment. Because the situations in which stability opera-
tions and support operations normally occur share strong similarities with
any urban environment, many of these considerations are closely linked to
the urban fundamentals presented in Chapter 5. Taken together, com-
manders will often find them useful in conducting UO throughout the full
range of operations and across the spectrum of conflict. Appendix C has a
historical example of how to apply the urban operational framework to sup-
port operations and stability operations.
CONSIDERATIONS OF URBAN STABILITY OPERATIONS AND
SUPPORT OPERATIONS
ASSESS
8-16. In urban stability operations and support operations, commanders care-
fully assess the political dimension of the operational environment, as well as
their role and the media’s part in managing information. These operations
are inherently tied to the exercise of diplomatic power. All operations in
urban areas are often the focus of the media and thus gain considerable
public and political attention. Therefore, military objectives in urban stability
operations and support operations are more directly linked with political
objectives. The relationship between the levels of war—strategic, operational,
Urban Stability Operations and Support Operations
8-7
and tactical—is often closer than in urban offensive and defensive operations.
Military objectives are carefully nested within political objectives. Com-
manders ensure that the ways and means to accomplish their objectives, to
include security and force protection measures, will hold up to media scrutiny
and are appropriate for the situation and environment. All levels of command
understand the link between political and military objectives, to include a
basic understanding at the individual level. One uncoordinated, undisci-
plined, or inappropriate action, even at the lowest level, could negate months
or years of previous, disciplined effort. Commanders balance security and
force protection measures with mission accomplishment. Ineffective
measures can put soldiers at too great a risk and jeopardize the mission.
Conversely, overly stringent measures may make it difficult for forces to
interact with the population closely—essential in many of these operations.
Finally, commanders will need a thorough assessment of the governmental
and nongovernmental organizations and agencies that will be operating in or
near urban areas that fall within their area of operations.
Political and Military Objectives
Commanders consult the US Agency for
International Development’s (USAID)
Field Operations Guide for Disaster
Assessment and Response when
conducting their assessments and
developing measures of effectiveness
for many urban relief operations.
8-17. Commanders translate
political objectives into mili-
tary objectives that are clear
and achievable (clear tasks
and purposes) and can lead to
the desired end state. Political
objectives may be vague
making it difficult for com-
manders to conduct their mission analysis. This applies to tactical- and even
operational-level commanders, unskilled at higher level, strategic political-
military assessments. Each type of stability operation or support operation is
distinct, often unfamiliar to the executing unit, and unique to the specific
situation. These factors often make it difficult to confidently determine the
specific tasks that will lead to mission success. Therefore, commanders also
establish measures of effectiveness that aid in understanding and measuring
progress and help gauge mission accomplishment.
8-18. These criteria should be measurable (in some circumstances, a quali-
tative assessment may be most appropriate) and link cause with effect. They
help determine the changes required and are essential to the assessment
cycle required for urban stability operations and support operations. In a
humanitarian relief operation to aid the starving, commanders could deter-
mine that the decisive effort is delivering safe food to the urban area. To
judge success or effectiveness, they could determine that the measure is the
number of food trucks dispatched daily to each distribution site; the more
trucks, the more effective the efforts. However, this measure must correlate
with the overarching measure of effectiveness: decline in the mortality rate.
If no significant decrease in deaths due to starvation occurs, they may need
to reassess and modify the tasks or measure of effectiveness. A better
measure may be to track the amount of food consumed by those in need
instead of simply counting the number of trucks dispatched.
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
8-19. However, planners also be wary of the unintended consequences of
well-intentioned urban support operations. For example, providing free, safe
food may alleviate starvation, but could also undercut the local agricultural
system by reducing demand in the market. If the food is distributed through
urban centers, urbanization could increase, further reducing the food supply
and adding to the existing strains on the infrastructure. Areas around which
measures of effectiveness can be formed for many stability operations and
support operations (including the example above) and which will help return
most societies to some degree of normalcy and self-sufficiency include:
• Decreasing morbidity and mortality rates.
• Securing safe food.
• Resettling the population.
• Reestablishing economic activity.
• Restoring law and order.
Although not military in nature, commanders can often develop measures of
effectiveness to address these areas in terms of providing security or logistics.
8-20. Political objectives are fluid and modified in response to new domestic
and international events or circumstances. Thus, assessment is continuous,
and commanders adjust their own objectives and subsequent missions ac-
cordingly. In urban stability operations and support operations, commanders
often develop military objectives that support or align with the objectives of
another agency that has overall responsibility for the urban operation. In
this supporting role, commanders may receive numerous requests for soldier
and materiel assistance from the supported agency and other supporting
agencies operating in the urban area (to include elements of the urban
population). With such unclear lines of authority and areas of responsibility,
they ensure that the tasks, missions, or requested Army resources fall clearly
in the intended scope and purpose of the Army’s participation in the
operation. They do not develop or execute missions based on inadequate or
false assumptions, misinterpreted intent, or well-meaning but erroneously
interpreted laws or regulations by any organization, to include even the lead
agency. When missions appear outside their scope, commanders quickly relay
their assessment to their higher headquarters for immediate resolution.
Security and Force Protection Measures
8-21. Commanders plan
for and continually assess
the security of their forces
operating in an urban area
as well as constantly re-
view protection measures.
Establishing a robust
intelligence—particularly
human intelligence
(HUMINT)—network that
can determine the inten-
tions and capabilities of
the threat and the urban
populace is the basis for
8-8
Urban Stability Operations and Support Operations
establishing force protection for Army forces operating in the urban
environment. However, many such operations, particularly stability
operations, require extra time to forge a lasting change. Over time, and
particularly in peacetime when objectives center on helping others and
avoiding violence, even the complex urban environment may seem benign.
Without continued, aggressive command emphasis, soldiers may become
lulled into complacency. It is usually then that Army forces are most
vulnerable to terrorist tactics, such as bombings, kidnappings, ambushes,
raids, and other forms of urban violence.
8-22. Although force protection will not ensure successful urban stability
operations or support operations, improper assessment and inadequate force
protection measures can cause the operation to fail. In either operation,
keeping a neutral attitude toward all elements of the urban population, while
maintaining the appropriate defensive posture, enhances security. One
threat principle discussed in Chapter 3 was that threats would seek to cause
politically unacceptable casualties. An improper threat assessment and a
lapse in security at the tactical level could result in casualties. That result
could affect strategy by influencing domestic popular support and subse-
quently national leadership decisions and policy.
8-23. Emphasizing security and force protection measures does not mean
isolating soldiers from contact with the urban population. On the contrary,
commanders balance survivability with mobility according to the factors of
METT-TC—mission, enemy, terrain and weather, troops and support
available, time available, civil considerations. Survivability measures—such
as hardening or fortifying buildings and installations, particularly where
large numbers of soldiers are billeted— may be required. On the other hand,
mobility operations are essential in preserving freedom of action and denying
a threat the opportunity to observe, plan, and attack urban forces. Mission
degradation and increased risk to the force can result if force protection
measures prevent Army forces from conducting prudent missions and estab-
lishing an active and capable presence.
Assessment of Security and Force Protection
Belfast, Northern Ireland
Since 1969, Belfast has significantly affected the British military campaign for
stabilizing the area. British operations in Belfast illustrate the difficulty of
balancing the security and protecting forces with maintaining the stabilizing
presence necessary to uphold law and order, minimize violence, and control the
urban population.
British successes in protecting Belfast’s infrastructure and government facilities
from terrorist attacks compelled various terrorist cells, especially the Irish Repub-
lican Army and the Provisional Irish Republican Army, to attack more military
targets. At the time, British soldiers and bases presented relatively unprotected
targets to these factions, and attacks against them solidified their legitimacy as
an “army.” In response, British commanders implemented extreme security and
force protection measures—from ballistic protection vests and helmets to
fortress-like operational bases and large unit patrols. These protection measures
8-9
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
successfully decreased the violence against British soldiers in Belfast. However,
they also decreased the soldiers’ interaction with the population and their ability
to stabilize the city. The large patrols, while protecting the soldiers, inhibited
effective saturation of neighborhoods. These patrols, coupled with fortress-like
bases and bulky protective clothing, created an “us-versus-them” mentality
among civilians and soldiers.
As force protection increased and stabilizing effects decreased, the terrorists
were provided more targets of opportunity among the civilians and infrastructure.
British commanders reassessed the situation, identified this “see-saw” effect,
and adapted to strike a better balance between force protection and effective
presence patrols. For example, British forces switched to four-man patrols to
enable greater mobility and wore berets instead of helmets to appear less
aggressive.
Participating Organizations and Agencies
8-24. Across the spectrum of urban operations, but more so in these opera-
tions, numerous NGOs may be involved in relieving adverse humanitarian
conditions. Dense populations and infrastructure make an urban area a
likely headquarters location for them. In 1994 during OPERATION
UPHOLD DEMOCRACY, for example, over 400 civilian agencies and relief
organizations were operating in Haiti. Therefore, commanders assess all
significant NGOs and governmental agencies operating (or likely to operate)
in or near the urban area to include their—
• Functions, purposes, or agendas.
• Known headquarters and operating locations.
• Leadership or senior points of contact (including telephone numbers).
• Communications capabilities.
• Potential as a source for critical information.
• Financial abilities and constraints.
• Logistic resources: transportation, energy and fuel, food and water,
clothing and shelter, and emergency medical and health care services.
• Law enforcement, fire fighting, and search and rescue capabilities.
• Refugee services.
• Engineering and construction capabilities.
• Other unique capabilities or expertise.
• Previous military, multinational, and interagency coordination exper-
ience and training.
• Rapport with the urban population.
• Relationship with the media.
• Biases or prejudices (especially towards participating US or coalition
forces, other civilian organizations, or elements of the urban society).
Commanders then seek to determine the resources and capabilities that
these organizations may bring and the possible problem areas to include
resources or assistance they will likely need or request from Army forces.
8-10
Urban Stability Operations and Support Operations
SHAPE
8-25. Commanders conduct many activities to shape the conditions for
successful decisive operations. In urban stability operations and support
operations, two rise to the forefront of importance: aggressive IO and security
operations.
Vigorous Information Operations
8-26. IO, particularly psychological operations (PSYOP) and the related
activities of civil affairs (CA) and public affairs, are essential to shape the
urban environment for the successful conduct of stability operations and
support operations. Vigorous IO can influence the perceptions, decisions, and
will of the threat, the urban population, and other groups in support of the
commander’s mission. IO objectives are translated to IO tasks that are then
executed to create the commander’s desired effects in shaping the battlefield.
These operations can isolate an urban threat from his sources of support;
neutralize hostile urban populations or gain the support of neutral popu-
lations; and mitigate the effects of threat IO, misinformation, rumors,
confusion, and apprehension.
Security Operations
8-27. Protecting Civilians. Security for NGOs and civilians may also be an
important shaping operation, particularly for support operations. Com-
manders may need to provide security to civil agencies and NGOs located
near or operating in the urban area so that these agencies can focus their
relief efforts directly to the emergency. Commanders may also need to protect
the urban population and infrastructure to maintain law and order if the
urban area’s security or police forces are nonexistent or incapacitated.
8-28. Preserving Resources. Just as forces are at risk during urban
stability operations or support operations, so are their resources. In urban
areas of great need, supplies and equipment are extremely valuable. Criminal
elements, insurgent forces, and people in need may try to steal weapons,
ammunition, food, construction material, medical supplies, and fuel. Pro-
tecting these resources may become a critical shaping operation. Otherwise,
Army forces and supporting agencies may lack the resources to accomplish
their primary objectives or overall mission.
Prioritize Resources and Efforts
8-29. Urban commanders will always face limited resources with which to
shape the battlefield, conduct their decisive operations, and accomplish their
objectives. They prioritize, allocate, and apply those resources to achieve the
desired end state. Especially in urban support operations, they tailor their
objectives and shape their operations to achieve the greatest good for the
largest number. Commanders first apply the urban fundamental of
preserving critical infrastructure to reduce the disruption to the residents’
health and welfare. Second, they apply the urban fundamental of restoring
essential services, which includes prioritizing their efforts to provide vital
services for the greatest number of inhabitants possible.
8-11
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
8-12
DOMINATE
If there is any lesson to be derived from the
work of the regular troops in San Francisco,
it is that nothing can take the place of
training and discipline, and that self-control
and patience are as important as courage.
Brigadier General Frederick Funston
commenting on the Army’s assistance following
the 1906 San Francisco earth
q
uake and fire
8-30. The focus of the
Army is warfighting.
Therefore, when Army
commanders conduct
many urban stability
operations and support
operations, they adjust
their concept of what it
means to dominate.
Commanders will most often find themselves in a supporting role and less
often responsible for conducting the decisive operations. They accept this
supporting function and capitalize on the professional values instilled in each
soldier, particularly the sense of duty to do what needs to be done despite
difficulty, danger, and personal hardship. Commanders also put accom-
plishing the overall mission ahead of individual desires to take the
leaddesire often fulfilled by being the supported rather than supporting
commander. Success may be described as settlement rather than victory. Yet,
the Army’s professionalism and values—combined with inherent adapta-
bility, aggressive coordination, perseverance, reasonable restraint, and reso-
lute legitimacy—will allow Army forces to dominate during complex urban
stability operations and support operations.
Adaptability
8-31. Adaptability is cri-
tical to urban stability
operations and support
operations because these
operations relentlessly
present complex chal-
lenges to commanders for
which no prescribed solu-
tions exist. Commanders
often lack the experience
and training that provide
the basis for creating the
unique solutions required for these operations. Since the primary purpose for
the Army is to fight and win the nation’s wars, the challenge then is to adapt
urban warfighting skills to the unique stability or support situation.
Tenets of
Army Operations
Figure 8-3. Adaptability
8-32. Doctrine (joint and Army) provides an inherent cohesion among the
leaders of the Army and other services. Still, Army commanders conducting
urban stability operations or support operations will often work with and
support other agencies that have dissimilar purposes, methods, and
professional languages. Army commanders then capitalize on three of the five
doctrinal tenets of Army operations: initiative, agility, and versatility (see
Figure 8-3 and FM 3-0). Commanders bend as each situation and the urban
environment demands without losing their orientation. They thoroughly
embrace the mission command philosophy of command and control addressed
Urban Stability Operations and Support Operations
in Chapter 5 to encourage and allow subordinates to exercise creative and
critical thinking required for planning and executing these UO.
Aggressive Coordination
8-33. In urban stability operations and support operations, the increased
number of participants (both military and nonmilitary) and divergent
missions and methods create a significant coordination challenge. Significant
potential for duplicated effort and working at cross-purposes exists. The
success of UO often depends on establishing a successful working
relationship with all groups operating in the urban area. The absence of
unity of command among civil and military organizations does not prevent
commanders from influencing other participants not under his direct com-
mand through persuasion, good leadership, and innovative ideas.
Support of and Coordination with Civilian Authorities:
The 1992 Los Angeles Riots
During the spring of 1992, soldiers from the 40th Infantry Division, California
National Guard were among the forces deployed to Los Angeles County to assist
the California Highway Patrol, Los Angeles County Sheriffs, and civilian law
enforcement. They worked to quell the riots that were sparked by the “not guilty”
verdicts concerning four police officers who, following a lengthy high-speed
chase through Los Angeles, were accused of brutally beating Rodney King.
Successful accomplishment of this support operation was attributed to the exer-
cise of strong Army leadership and judgment at lower tactical levels, particularly
among the unit’s noncommissioned officers. An essential component of combat
power, it was especially critical in executing noncontiguous and decentralized
operations in the compartmented terrain of Los Angeles. As important, however,
was the clear understanding that Army forces were to support civilian law
enforcement—and not the other way around. The 40th Infantry Division aligned
its area of operations with local law enforcement boundaries and relied heavily
on police recommendations for the level at which soldiers be armed (the need for
magazines to be locked in weapons or rounds chambered).
One incident emphasized the need for coordination of command and control
measures with civilian agencies even at the lowest tactical levels. To civilian law
enforcement and Army forces, the command “Cover me” was interpreted the
same: be prepared to shoot if necessary. However, when a police officer
responding to a complaint of domestic abuse issued that command to an accom-
panying squad of Marines, they responded by immediately providing a supporting
base of fire that narrowly missed some children at home. However, the Marines
responded as they had been trained. This command meant something entirely
different to them than for Army soldiers and civilian law enforcement. Again,
coordination at all levels is critical to the success of the operation (see also the
vignette in Appendix B).
8-34. In the constraints imposed by METT-TC and operations security
(OPSEC), commanders seek to coordinate all tactical stability operations with
other agencies and forces that share the urban environment. Commanders
8-13
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
strive to overcome difficulties, such as mutual suspicion, different values and
motivations, and varying methods of organization and execution. Frequently,
they initiate cooperative efforts with participating civilian agencies and
determine where their objectives and plans complement or conflict with those
agencies. Commanders then match Army force capabilities to the needs of the
supported agencies. In situations leading to many urban support operations,
confusion may initially make it difficult to ascertain specific priority require-
ments. Reconnaissance and liaison elements—heavily weighted with CA and
health support personnel—may need to be deployed first to determine what
type of support Army forces provide. Overall, aggressive coordination will
make unity of effort possible in urban stability operations or support opera-
tions where unity of command is difficult or impossible to achieve.
Perseverance
8-35. The society is a major factor responsible for increasing the overall dura-
tion of urban operations. This particularly applies to urban stability opera-
tions and support operations where success often depends on changing
people’s fundamental beliefs and subsequent actions. Modifying behavior
requires influence, sometimes with coercion or control, and perseverance.
They often must be convinced or persuaded to accept change. This may take
as long or longer than the evolution of the conflict. Decades of problems and
their consequences cannot be immediately corrected. Frequently, the affected
segments of the urban society must see that change is lasting and basic
problems are being effectively addressed.
8-36. In most stability operations, success will not occur unless the host
nation, not Army forces, ultimately prevails. The host urban administration
addresses the underlying problems or revises its policies toward the disaffec-
ted portions of the urban population. Otherwise, apparent successes will be
short lived. The UO fundamental of understanding the human dimension is
of paramount importance in applying this consideration. After all Army
forces, particularly commanders and staff of major operations, understand
the society’s history and culture, they can begin to accurately identify the
problem, understand root causes, and plan and execute successful Army UO.
Reasonable Restraint
8-37. Unlike offensive and
defensive operations where
commanders seek to apply
overwhelming combat
power at decisive points,
restraint is more essential
to success in urban sta-
bility operations and sup-
port operations. It involves
employing combat power
selectively, discriminately,
and precisely (yet still at
decisive points) in accor-
dance with assigned
8-14
Urban Stability Operations and Support Operations
missions and prescribed legal and policy limitations. Similar to the UO
fundamentals of minimizing collateral damage and preserving critical
infrastructure, restraint entails restrictions on using force. Commanders of
major operations issue or supplement ROE to guide the tactical application of
combat power. Excessively or arbitrarily using force is never justified or
tolerated by Army forces. Even unintentionally injuring or killing
inhabitants and inadvertently destroying their property and infrastructure
lessens legitimacy and the urban population’s sympathy and support. It may
even cause some inhabitants to become hostile. In urban stability operations
and support operations, even force against a violent opponent is minimized.
Undue force often leads to commanders applying ever-increasing force to
achieve the same results.
8-38. Although restraint is essential, Army forces, primarily during urban
stability operations, are always capable of limited combat operations for self-
defense. This is in accordance with the UO fundamental of conducting close
combat. This combat capability is present and visible, yet displayed in a
nonthreatening manner. A commander’s intent normally includes demonstra-
ting strength and resolve without provoking an unintended response. Army
forces are capable of moving quickly through the urban area and available on
short notice. When necessary, Army forces are prepared to apply combat
power rapidly, forcefully, and decisively to prevent, end, or deter urban con-
frontations. Keeping this deterrent viable requires readiness, constant
training, and rehearsals. It also requires active reconnaissance, superb
OPSEC, a combined arms team, and timely and accurate intelligence, which
in the urban environment requires a well-developed HUMINT capability.
Resolute Legitimacy
8-39. Closely linked to restraint is legitimacy or the proper exercise of auth-
ority for reasonable purposes. Achieving or maintaining legitimacy during
urban stability operations or support operations is essential in obtaining the
support of its population. Commanders can ensure legitimacy by building
consent among the population, projecting a credible force, and appropriately
using that force. Perceptions play a key role in legitimacy, and skillful IO can
shape perceptions. Commanders send messages that are consistent with the
actions of their forces. Generally, the urban population will accept violence
for proper purposes if that force is used impartially. Perceptions that force is
excessive or that certain groups are being favored over others can erode
legitimacy. A single soldier’s misbehavior can significantly degrade a com-
mander’s ability to project an image of impartiality and legitimacy.
TRANSITION
8-40. Commanders of major operations are the focal point for synchronizing
tactical stability operations and support operations with strategic diplomatic
and political issues. They are also the critical links between national intelli-
gence resources and the tactical commander. Because strategic, diplomatic,
and political changes can quickly transition the type of urban operation, they
keep subordinate tactical commanders abreast of changes in intelligence,
policy, and higher decisions. The potential to rapidly transition to urban
combat operations emphasizes the need to maintain the capability to conduct
8-15
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
close, urban combat. Failure to recognize changes and transition points may
lead to UO that do not support the attainment of the overall objective and
needlessly use resources, particularly soldiers’ lives. Therefore, Army forces
on the ground in an urban stability operation are more aware of the strategic
environment than the threat and the civilian population, each of whom will
have their own means of monitoring the national and international situation.
Legitimate and Capable Civilian Control
8-41. Commanders maintain or enhance the credibility and legitimacy of the
government and police of the urban area and of the host nation’s military
forces operating there. In accordance with the urban fundamental of transi-
tioning control, urban commanders conclude UO quickly and successfully,
often to use assets elsewhere in their area of operations. This entails
returning the control of the urban area back to civilian responsibility as soon
as feasible. The host nation’s military and the urban area’s leadership and
police are integrated into all aspects of the urban stability operations or
support operations to maintain their legitimacy. They are allowed (or
influenced) to take the lead in developing and implementing solutions to
their own problems.
8-42. If the host nation’s leadership, military, and police are not up to the
task, commanders can take steps to increase its capabilities through training,
advice, and assistance by CA units or by other nongovernmental or govern-
mental organizations and agencies. Sometimes, new leadership and a
restructured police force may be required, particularly when corrupt and no
longer trusted by the population. This candid assessment of the urban leader-
ship’s ability to govern, protect, and support itself is made early in the
planning process. Only then can commanders ensure that resources and a
well thought-out and coordinated plan (particularly with civilian organizations)
are available for a speedy transition. IO will be paramount in these instances
to ensure that the urban population sees the training and rebuilding process
itself as legitimate. Throughout urban stability operations and support
operations, commanders shape the conditions to successfully hand over all
activities to urban civilian authorities.
Longer-Term Commitment
8-43. Many stability operations often require perseverance and a longer-term
US commitment requiring a rotation of Army units into the area of
operations to continue the mission. Considerations for these transitions are
similar to a relief in place (see FM 3-90) combined with considerations for
deployment and redeployment. FM 41-10 contains a comprehensive appendix
on transition planning and coordination activities applicable to UO. The
commander of the major operation ensures that the incoming unit under-
stands the political and strategic objectives behind the tasks that they
accomplish. Otherwise, the new unit may begin to plan operations that are
similar to those conducted by the previous unit without achieving the desired
end state or accomplishing the mission.
8-16
Chapter 9
Urban Combat Service Support
Even supply is different. While deliveries do not need to be made over
great distances, soft vehicles are extremely vulnerable in an environ-
ment where it is hard to define a front line and where the enemy can
repeatedly emerge in the rear. All soldiers will be fighters, and force
and resource protection will be physically and psychologically
draining. Urban environments can upset traditional balances between
classes of supply. . . . [a] force may find itself required to feed an urban
population, or to supply epidemic-control efforts. . . . [a]ll combat
service support troops are more apt to find themselves shooting back
during an urban battle than in any other combat environment.
Ralph Peters
“Our Soldiers, Their Cities”
Combat service support (CSS) capabilities exist to enable the Army to ini-
tiate and sustain full spectrum operations. CSS is a major component of
sustaining operations and provides the means for commanders to build
and maintain combat power. Sustaining operations are inseparable from
decisive and shaping operations. In offensive and defensive operations,
they are not by themselves likely to be decisive or shaping; however, they
contribute to those operations. In some stability operations and most sup-
port operations, when the critical objectives may be restoring the infra-
structure and the welfare of civilians, CSS forces can often be the decisive
CONTENTS
Urban CSS Characteristics .....................9-2
Responsiveness and Sustainability...9-2
Economy and Attainability ..................9-2
Survivability ..........................................9-3
Simplicity...............................................9-3
Integration.............................................9-4
Flexibility...............................................9-4
Logistics Preparation of the Theater .....9-4
Support to IPB ......................................9-5
Urban Logistic Information .................9-5
Potential Restrictions ..........................9-6
Urban Societal Considerations...........9-6
Support Areas.......................................9-7
Overall Assessment.............................9-7
CSS Functions..........................................9-7
Supply...................................................9-8
Field Services ....................................9-11
Maintenance.......................................9-13
Transportation ................................... 9-15
Combat Health Support .................... 9-17
Explosive Ordnance Disposal
Support.............................................. 9-22
Human Resources Support .............. 9-22
Financial Management Operations.. 9-23
Religious Support ............................. 9-23
Legal Support .................................... 9-24
Band Support..................................... 9-26
General Engineer Support.................... 9-26
The Use or Investment of
Resources ......................................... 9-27
Fire Fighting Support........................ 9-27
Waste Management........................... 9-28
Civil-Military Operations ....................... 9-28
Civil Affairs......................................... 9-28
Assessment of Civil
Considerations ................................. 9-30
9-1
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
element. Their success will allow Army forces to dominate this complex
environment. However, like all urban operations (UO), CSS operations
affect and are affected by the environment. The urban terrain, infra-
structure, and existing resources, coupled with supportive civilians, may
facilitate CSS operations. In contrast, a poorly designed or damaged
infrastructure and a hostile population may severely hamper CSS opera-
tions. In the latter case, critical Army resources required elsewhere in the
area of operations (AO) may be diverted to repair facilities and control
and support the inhabitants of the urban areas.
URBAN CSS CHARACTERISTICS
9-1. CSS characteristics (see Fig-
ure 9-1) guide prudent logistic
planning regardless of the environ-
ment. They provide commanders an
excellent framework to analyze
and develop urban logistic require-
ments, assess the impact of the
environment on the provision of
CSS, and gauge the effectiveness
of urban CSS support.
RESPONSIVENESS AND SUSTAINABILITY
9-2. UO require responsiveness
and sustainability to establish and
maintain the tempo necessary for
success. Responsiveness—
providing the right support in the
right place at the right time—is the essential CSS characteristic. It requires
that CSS commanders and planners accurately forecast urban operational
requirements. Continuous urban operations will drain personnel, equipment,
and supplies (based on history, this can be more than five times that
experienced in other environments). Therefore, sustainability—the ability to
maintain continuous support throughout all phases of the operation—will be
a significant concern. Anticipation is critical to both responsiveness and sus-
tainability. It requires that CSS commanders and planners comprehend the
potential effects that the components of the urban environment (terrain,
infrastructure, and society) may have on operations and CSS, either bene-
fiting or impeding UO. Effective urban operational and logistic planning
cannot be accomplished separately. Operational and CSS planners, as well as
CSS operators, are closely linked to aid in synchronizing and attaining
responsiveness and sustainability.
Responsive-
ness
Simplicity
Economy
Flexibility
Attain-
ability
Sustain-
ability
Surviv-
ability
Integration
Figure 9-1. CSS Characteristics
ECONOMY AND ATTAINABILITY
9-3. A thoughtful assessment and understanding of the urban environment
can also help determine how specific urban areas can contribute to or frus-
trate the achievement of economy and attainability. Economy is providing
9-2
Urban Combat Service Support
the most efficient support at the least cost to accomplish the mission.
Attainability means generating the minimum essential supplies and services
necessary to begin operations. If available, obtaining support in the AO costs
less than purchasing the supplies outside the area and then transporting
them there. Critical resources may be available in urban areas to support the
operation. However, relying on sources outside the established military
logistic system may create conflict with other CSS characteristics. A strike by
longshoremen, for example, may shut down port operations (at least tempo-
rarily) lowering responsiveness and sustainability.
SURVIVABILITY
9-4. Survivability is being able to protect support functions from destruction
or degradation. Commanders often choose to locate CSS functions in an
urban area because the buildings may better protect and conceal equipment,
supplies, and people. Urban industrial areas are frequently chosen as
support areas because they offer this protection as well as sizeable
warehouses, large parking areas, and materials handling equipment (MHE).
Such areas facilitate the storage and movement of equipment and supplies.
They also provide readily available water, electricity, and other potentially
useful urban resources and infrastructure. However, these areas may also
contain toxic industrial materials (TIM) (see the discussion of industrial
areas in Chapter 2). These materials and chemicals in close proximity to
support areas may unjustifiably increase the risk to survivability, especially
any CSS facilities located in subsurface areas (liquids and heavier gases
often sink and accumulate in low-lying areas). Furthermore, CSS activities
located in any type of confined urban areas can offer lucrative targets for
terrorists or even angry crowds and mobs. Although host-nation support may
include assets to assist in defending CSS units and lines of communications
(LOCs), CSS commanders carefully consider if adequate protection measures
can ensure survivability.
Base Security:
Tan Son Nhut, Vietnam – Tet 1968
Colonel Nam Truyen was the commander of the 9th Vietcong Division who
planned and conducted the attack on the US airbase at Tan Son Nhut during the
1968 Tet Offensive. He had previously entered the airbase during the 1967
Christmas cease-fire using forged identity papers to conduct his own personal
reconnaissance.
SIMPLICITY
9-5. Simplicity is required in both planning and executing CSS operations in
this complex environment. Developing standard procedures among the Army,
other services, and especially civilian governmental and nongovernmental
agencies; of liaison and open channels of communication; between simple
plans and orders; and extensive rehearsals contribute immeasurably to
attaining this necessary characteristic.
9-3
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
INTEGRATION
9-6. The need for CSS integration increases in urban operations due to the
joint nature of UO and greater numbers of other governmental and non-
governmental agencies operating in or near urban areas. More nongovern-
mental organizations (NGOs) will likely exist because urban areas often con-
tain most of a region’s population. Most NGOs focus on people. Army forces
and other military and nonmilitary groups cooperate and coordinate their
actions. Much of their coordination will revolve around logistics. Cooperation
and coordination will take advantage of each group’s logistic capabilities, help
to avoid duplicated effort (contributing to economy), and create logistic synergy.
It will also help to curtail competition for the same urban resources and assist
in developing a unified list of priorities. Such coordination will help ensure
that other operations by one force or agency will not disrupt or destroy
portions of the urban infrastructure critical to another’s logistic operations
and the overall mission. (See the discussion of coordination with other
agencies included at the end of Chapter 4.)
FLEXIBILITY
9-7. Lastly, commanders develop flexibility. Although they and their staffs
thoroughly understand the urban environment essential to planning CSS
operations, they cannot anticipate every eventuality. Urban commanders
possess the ability to exploit fleeting opportunities. Knowledge of the
environment, particularly its infrastructure, can aid in developing innovative
solutions to CSS acquisition and distribution problems. Flexibility enables
CSS personnel to remain responsive to the force commander’s needs.
9-8. The force and CSS commanders consider and prioritize these charac-
teristics as they visualize UO. Each characteristic does not affect every
operation and urban area in the same way. The CSS characteristics seldom
exert equal influence, and their importance varies according to mission,
enemy, terrain and weather, troops and support available, time available,
civil considerations (METT-TC). Like the principles of war, commanders do
not ignore the potential impact of CSS characteristics and how their
influence changes as the operation evolves (see FM 100-10).
LOGISTICS PREPARATION OF THE THEATER
9-9. A thorough logistics preparation of the theater (LPT) is critical for an
adaptable UO logistic support plan. CSS planners conduct the LPT to assess
the situation from a logistic perspective and determine how best to support
the force commander’s plan. CSS planners understand the urban environ-
ment, the fundamentals of UO, and the urban environment’s effects on com-
bat service support (as well as the other battlefield operating systems). Such
knowledge allows the planners to develop a detailed estimate of support
requirements. A thorough LPT helps commanders determine the most effec-
tive method of providing adequate, responsive support to meet support esti-
mates while minimizing the CSS footprint. Overall, it helps tie together UO
requirements with acquisition and distribution. As with all operations, but
particularly in a dynamic urban environment, this assessment process is con-
tinuous since requirements will change as the urban operation unfolds and
matures.
9-4
Urban Combat Service Support
9-5
SUPPORT TO IPB
CSS planning accounts for increased
consumption, increased threats to lines
of communications, and anticipated
support to noncombatants. . . . Urban
operations place a premium on closely
coordinated, combined arms teams and
carefully protected CSS. Urban opera-
tions are CSS-intensive, demanding
large quantities of material and
support for military forces and noncom-
batants displaced by operations.
FM 3-0
9-10. The LPT resembles and
runs parallel to the intelligence
preparation of the battlefield
(IPB). Products generated under
IPB may be useful in the logistic
analysis. Conversely, the LPT
may contribute to the IPB by
identifying critical resources and
infrastructure and assessing
their potential to influence (posi-
tively or negatively) the opera-
tion plan. This information may
warrant a course of action that
includes offensive or defensive
operations to seize, secure, or
destroy those critical resources. In UO initially planned for other than
logistic reasons, the information may require altering the plan or imposing
additional constraints to protect the identified resources. These resources
may or may not be critical to current operations; they are usually important
to set or shape the conditions necessary for Army forces to transition to
subsequent missions or redeploy. This close relationship between IPB and
LPT underscores the need to quickly and continuously involve CSS personnel
for their logistic expertise and perspective in planning UO.
URBAN LOGISTIC INFORMATION
9-11. Figure 9-2 illustrates
that a thorough analysis
of the key components of
urban areas in the com-
mander’s AO provides the
data for an accurate LPT
and subsequent UO logis-
tic support plan (see Chap-
ter 2 and Appendix B).
Analyzing the urban ter-
rain and infrastructure
helps to determine—
• Geographic influ-
ences on consump-
tion factors and on
the provision of sup-
port (weather, climate, and topography).
TERRAIN SOCIAL
INFRA-
STRUCTURE
?
Po pul ati on
Demographics
Government
Ethnic/Cultural
Considerations
Rel i gi on
Language
Politi cs
Economy
History
Communications
and
Information
Transportation
and
Distribution
Energy
Commerce
Human
Services
Geography
Airspace
Exterior Space
Surface
(Exterior)
Subsurface
Supersurface
(Exterior)
Surface (Interior)
Supersurface
(Interior)
Interior
Spaces
Interior
Spaces
1st
Floor
1st Floor
Upper
Stories Upper
Stories
Top
Top
Maintenance
Facilities
Transportation General
Skills
Supplies
Figure 9-2. The Urban Environment and
Essential Elements of Logistic Information
• The availability of supplies, such as safe food, potable water, petro-
leum, electrical energy, barrier material, and compatible repair parts.
• The location of facilities, such as warehouses, cold-storage sites, manu-
facturing plants, hospitals, and hotels for billeting.
• Transportation information, such as airfields, rail and road networks,
traffic flow, choke points, and control problems.
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
• Locations and accessibility of maintenance facilities and equipment,
and machine works for the possible fabrication of parts.
• The available general skills among the urban population, such as
linguists, drivers, MHE operators, and longshoremen.
POTENTIAL RESTRICTIONS
9-12. Commanders are aware of restrictions that apply to the use of some
non-US resources. Security and requirements for US national control dictate
that only US assets may perform certain services and functions. Therefore,
some foreign urban area capabilities, even if abundantly available, may not
be used. These might include—
• Command and control of medical supply, service, maintenance,
replacements, and communications.
• Triage of casualties for evacuation.
• Treatment of nuclear, biological, and chemical (NBC) casualties, as
well as the decontamination of US equipment, personnel, and remains.
• Identification and burial of US dead.
• Veterinary subsistence inspection.
• Law and order operations over US forces and US military prisoner con-
finement operations, as well as accountability and security of enemy
prisoners of war in US custody.
URBAN SOCIETAL CONSIDERATIONS
9-13. As in all aspects of UO, the urban society is a critical element of the
LPT analysis. CSS planners cannot simply determine what urban resources
exist in the AO. They also assess whether they can acquire and use those
resources without overly disrupting the urban society and their environment.
If the resources are only sufficient for its inhabitants (and dependent popula-
tions in outlying areas), and the facilities cannot increase production to
accommodate the needs of Army forces, then commanders may not rely on
those resources to support their operations. In fact, the opposite may be true.
The effects of UO on the inhabitants, particularly during offensive and defen-
sive operations, may place increased burdens on the Army’s resources. Logis-
tics civilian augmentation program (LOGCAP) contractors represent a poten-
tial source of critical LPT planning information. LOGCAP contractors may
already have an established presence in the urban area and can provide real-
time information on potential resources. In some UO, especially support
operations, the LPT analysis is essential in determining the resources that
commanders supply and the services they restore to accomplish the mission.
9-14. CSS planners also consider the urban society’s ability to restore their
own facilities and provide for themselves (if necessary with assistance from
Army forces). Throughout this analysis, civil affairs (CA) units can advise and
assist in identifying and assessing urban supply systems, services, personnel,
resources, and facilities. Critically, commanders understand that purchasing
local goods and services may have the unintended consequence of financially
sustaining the most disruptive and violent factions in the area. Army forces
seek to purchase urban products and services that will not contribute to
prolonging the conflict or crisis. In many stability operations or support
operations, they also attempt to distribute the contracts for goods and
9-6
Urban Combat Service Support
services purchased locally as fairly as possible among urban factions and
ethnic groups to maintain impartiality and legitimacy. As part of their
coordination efforts, commanders attempt to achieve the cooperation of relief
agencies and other NGOs in this endeavor.
9-15. Finally, CSS planners also identify potential threats and increased
protection requirements that the urban society (criminals, gangs, and riotous
mobs) may present, particularly when CSS units and activities are located in
urban areas. The disposition or allegiance of the urban population is also
important to consider. The infrastructure of an urban area may exhibit great
potential to support the logistic efforts of Army forces, but if the population is
hostile or unreliable, the resources may be unavailable.
SUPPORT AREAS
9-16. A major influence on the operation plan and its subsequent execution is
often the proper identification and preparation of support areas. The LPT
helps commanders determine the need, advantages, and disadvantages of
using urban areas in the AO as areas from which to provide support and
conduct distribution operations. Ideally, these areas support reception,
staging, onward movement, and integration operations. They allow easy sea
and air access, offer adequate protection and storage space, facilitate the
transfer of supplies and equipment, and are accessible to multiple LOCs.
Consequently, commanders often establish support areas near seaports and
airports that are part of a larger urban area. However, threats recognize the
Army’s need for ports and airfields and may devote substantial resources and
combat power to defend them. Therefore, planners may determine during the
LPT that the risks of seizing or establishing urban lodgment areas may be
too high (see Chapter 4). Instead, they may recommend building an airfield,
conducting logistics over-the-shore operations, or constructing logistic bases
in more isolated locations.
OVERALL ASSESSMENT
9-17. As shown above, the LPT process and analysis help to determine if
urban areas in the AO—
• Are suitable as areas for support.
• Can contribute sufficient quantities of and are a dependable source for
resources for the overall operation.
• May additionally drain the supported commander’s resources.
The results of this process serve as a basis for reviewing requirements for
civilian contract support and host-nation support and for developing CSS
input into time-phased force and deployment data. This chapter focuses on
the effects urban areas may have on accomplishing CSS functions and related
activities, particularly when CSS units and activities are in urban areas.
CSS FUNCTIONS
9-18. CSS consists of multiple functions necessary to fuel, arm, fix, and man
combat systems. Similar to the components of the urban environment,
particularly its infrastructure, they overlap and are interdependent (see
Figure 9-3 on page 9-8). The success of one function depends on the success of
9-7
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
several others. Like urban infra-
structure, they have two compo-
nents: a physical component
(supplies, equipment, and facili-
ties) and a human component
(the personnel who execute these
functions). Like city ma yo rs,
commanders plan, manage,
and synchronize these functions
to provide responsive and effi-
cient CSS for UO.
9-19. Commanders and planners
consider two essential aspects
when addressing these CSS func-
tions. One aspect looks outward
and one looks inward. The first
aspect is how these functions can best support full-spectrum UO—the outward
analysis. The second aspect is how the urban area affects the conduct of CSS
functions, particularly when those functions are located or performed in an
urban area—the inward analysis.
Supply
Field
Services Maintenance
Trans-
portation
Combat
Health
Support
Explosive
Ordnance
Disposal
Support
Human
Resources
Support
Financial
Management
Operations
Religious
Support
Legal
Support
Band
Support
Arm
Fuel
Fix
Man
Figure 9-3. CSS Functions
SUPPLY
9-20. The supply function
involves acquiring, manag-
ing, receiving, storing, pro-
tecting, maintaining, sal-
vaging, and distributing all
classes of supply (except
Class VIII) required to equip
and sustain Army (and
joint) forces. In UO,
commanders of major opera-
tions may need to make
decisions early in the plan-
ning cycle. They decide
whether to stockpile sup-
plies forward or to rely on
velocity management and scheduled and time-definite delivery to satisfy
requirements. Some specialized items identified below may not be available
through the normal military supply system and may take logisticians much
longer to obtain or fabricate. Operation planners quickly identify the special
equipment and increased supply requirements for UO to give logisticians
time to acquire them.
Greater friendly force density would
appear to make the providers’ task
easier. Logic would seem to dictate that
more supported units in less space
would translate to fewer nodes that
require support, or at least less distance
between a similar number of nodes than
would be found on more open terrain.
But the service supporter frequently
finds the opposite is the case. . . . one is
often not directly accessible from another
due to enemy fires or physical barriers.
On the Shoulders of Atla
s
Increased Urban Supply Requirements
9-21. Urban offensive and defensive operations will often increase require-
ments for Class V. Ammunition consumption rates have been five to ten
times greater than operations in other environments. As such, urban combat
operations will require a constant flow of ammunition. These operations will
9-8
Urban Combat Service Support
require more small arms and heavy machine guns; tank, antitank, mortar,
attack helicopter, and field artillery ammunition (especially precision muni-
tions); and mines, grenades, and demolitions.
9-22. With the potential exception of aviation fuel, Class III requirements for
UO generally decrease at the maneuver unit level. Increased fuel require-
ments for engineer and power-generating equipment attached to or operating
with forward units may offset these decreases. However, units may obtain
tested fuel in the urban area (refinement facilities, gas stations, garages, and
airfields).
9-23. Class IV will be in great demand in all types of UO to include large
quantities of lumber (and the power tools to cut it) to reinforce positions and
to bar access to windows and doorways. This lumber may come from outside
the urban area or obtained by dismantling existing buildings and structures.
Army forces use discretion, minimizing collateral damage, preserving critical
infrastructure, and understanding the human dimension before they disas-
semble buildings. Some structures may be required to support operations or
the civilian population during subsequent stages. Forces avoid structures of
religious or cultural significance to prevent turning portions of the urban
population against US operations and erode legitimacy. Other construction
material will also be in high demand during relief operations to repair
buildings and infrastructure damaged during the disaster. Class IV may also
include specialized, prefabricated road barriers or collapsible wire-mesh or
fabric cribs that can be filled with sand, rock, or dirt. They create barricades
used to block roads, reinforce defensive positions, and protect headquarters
and logistic activities.
9-24. Across the spectrum of UO, potable water may be a critical concern.
Planners may need to ensure that additional containers for water (and fuel)
are available to support dispersed stock at small-unit level. Units may need
to increase levels of Class I and X supplies to support the urban population,
particularly in urban stability operations and support operations. Soldiers
may need more Class II, especially clothing and individual equipment, as
exposure to the urban environment (concrete, glass, and steel) causes rapid
wear. The chemical threats posed in UO may require pre-positioning large
stocks of chemical protective clothing, defensive equipment, and decontami-
nation apparatus. Units will also require items such as rope, grappling
hooks, crowbars, ladders, chain saws, elbow- and kneepads, special vehicle
and personnel body armor, fire-fighting equipment, packboards, and other
specialized items to conduct operations.
Storage and Distribution
9-25. UO that are primarily stability operations or support operations may
be able to rely entirely upon the Army’s responsive, distribution-based CSS.
Urban offensive and defensive operations can be part of an overall urban
operation considered primarily a stability operation or support operation. In
the past, these operations required both the attacker and the defender to
prestock as many supplies as possible, particularly critical items. Defending
forces recognize that the attacker will seek to isolate them from sources of
supply; they ensure that they have enough supplies to execute the defense
and restore their LOCs. Successful isolation of an urban area by the attacker
9-9
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
ultimately results in a supply shortage and defeat. Complete isolation of a
defender is difficult, especially if the urban area is large and the urban
civilians support the defending forces. Nonetheless, attacking forces will
seek, at a minimum, to interdict the defender’s resupply operations.
Although the isolation may be effective and the defense eventually fails,
stockpiling supplies in this situation contributes to the defense.
9-26. Attacking forces may also want to stockpile supplies. This assists in
maintaining the necessary tempo for a successful urban offensive. It can
reduce the frequency with which supplies are moved over exposed LOCs.
Stockpiling for offensive operations is not as common a technique as in the
defense. Commanders review if they have the storage facilities and transpor-
tation assets (equipment and personnel) available.
9-27. Commanders weigh the benefits of stockpiling resources forward
against relying on the Army’s distribution-based sustainment system. Stock-
piling brings supplies close to urban forces and helps ensure available sup-
plies to support the tempo of UO. However, this method may burden the sup-
port structure that moves, handles, and protects large quantities of resources
often on a repetitive basis. The Army’s normal distribution-based CSS
reduces this burden significantly; however, available transportation assets
(sea, air, and ground) impacts delivery response times. These transportation
assets often combine military assets overlaid on the host nation’s (and urban
area’s) transportation and distribution infrastructure. Although the civilian
infrastructure may initially support the Army’s distribution system, later
effects of UO, such as destruction of equipment and facilities or loss of
civilian workers, may degrade the system. Army forces may have to share
these assets with other military, civilian, and multinational forces or organi-
zations participating in the urban operation, as well as with civilians. This
shared system also puts at risk the timely delivery of critical supplies to
Army forces.
9-28. CSS planners understand the urban environment and its effects on the
proposed method of distribution. They also understand how urban operations
(to include CSS UO) may affect the urban environment. Storing bulk fuel in
or near an urban area, for example, may increase the risk of fire hazard to
civilians and Army forces. With this awareness, planners present the force
commander with an estimate that considers both risks and benefits.
Depending on the particular area and other METT-TC factors, they may
recommend one method of distribution later transitioning to another or a
combination of methods. To be viable, the overall concept of logistic support,
to include supply distribution, enables urban commanders to generate
enough combat power to conduct decisive and shaping UO when and where
required, and at a tempo faster than the threat can react.
9-29. During urban combat operations, the “push system” of supply distribu-
tion often works best to maintain the tempo of UO. Under this system,
planners estimate supply requirements and arrange to have supplies
delivered in preset packages (normally strategic, mission, unit, or combat
configured loads). This method prevents critical delays of a “pull system” that
requires units to request supplies and then await their arrival. The “best”
method for tactical UO will be a combination of the two.
9-10
Urban Combat Service Support
FIELD SERVICES
9-30. Field services involve feeding, clothing, and providing personal services
for soldiers. It consists of food services, mortuary affairs, aerial delivery,
laundry, shower, and textile repair. The urban commander determines the
need and priority of each service after careful METT-TC analysis. Some
facilities such as shower, laundry, and cold storage may be available in the
urban area. Additionally, requirements to care for the urban population will
increase requirements for field services immensely. In some circumstances,
most notably urban support operations, field service units or activities will be
critical and may be the only support provided.
Food Preparation
9-31. The feeding standard for soldiers operating in urban areas remains the
same: three quality meals per day. Urban combat makes higher energy
demands on soldiers who require a caloric intake of about 5,000 calories per
day. Producing and delivering prepared meals to forward elements may be
impossible or may be improved due to the urban environment. The area may
contain facilities that aid in food storage and preparation that Army forces
can use speeding transition to prepared rations. On the other hand, the
threat situation (which may include the urban populace), rubble and other
obstacles, and isolated and dispersed forces may prevent transporting and
delivering prepared meals even if the capability to prepare meals is
enhanced. Food (and water) may be available in the urban area; however,
local sources must be tested, carefully monitored, and medically approved
before consumption. Garbage disposal may be an important consideration in
the urban area. Improper trash disposal may leave a signature trail (particu-
larly during urban defensive operations) that may produce or worsen unsani-
tary conditions leading to increased disease and nonbattle injuries (DNBIs).
Commanders understand that food operations, if not properly positioned and
secured, can become a focal point for the urban population. Strict policy
regarding distribution and control of any Class I supplies (including waste
products) will be enforced. Black marketeers will be attracted to Army food
service activities as well (even during offensive and defensive operations).
Water Purification
9-32. Water is essential; it is necessary for life, sanitation, food preparation,
construction, and decontamination. Furnishing potable water is both a
supply function and a field service. Water purification is a field service,
normally performed with the storage and distribution of potable water—a
supply function.
9-33. Vigilant Monitoring. Urban areas will often have a ready source of
water to support the urban inhabitants and its infrastructure. However, this
water may not be potable for US and allied forces (though the urban popula-
tion may have developed immunity toward its microorganisms). The higher
concentration of TIM in urban areas compounds this problem, as ground
water is highly susceptible to chemical contamination, even supplies located
miles away from the source of contamination. US soldiers are trained and
cautioned against using water from an urban area (to include ice and bottled
water) until preventive medicine and veterinary personnel can determine its
9-11
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
quality. When water quality is unknown, commanders ensure use of tactical
water purification equipment that will unquestionably upgrade it to Army
water quality standards. Even if initial testing indicates the urban water is
safe for Army forces, personnel continuously monitor the water quality.
However, Army water purification, storage, and transportation requirements
for UO can be greatly reduced if the existing urban water supply can be
integrated into CSS operations. An early assessment of the feasibility of this
course of action is critical to CSS planning.
9-34. Greater Requirements. Individual water requirements are greater
for soldiers operating in an urban environment due to increased levels of
exertion. Offensive and defensive UO are often intense and can produce more
casualties, including civilians. Consequently, medical facilities, already con-
sumers of large volumes of water, may require even more water. Water
purification, particularly in the urban areas of developing nations and during
urban disaster relief operations, will be a critical and constant concern for
Army forces.
9-35. Potential Key Terrain. Sites that can control the water of the urban
area may be key terrain, providing not only a resource for Army forces, but
also a means to control the threat, the civilians, or both. These sites may be
the sources of the water—the river, lake, reservoir, or storage tanks—or the
means that process and transport the water—pipelines, pumping stations, or
treatment facilities. Many sites may be outside the urban area, as many
large urban areas draw water from distant sources. The seizure of a pumping
station or pipeline may make it possible for commanders to control water
supplies without expending resources required to enter the urban area. To
preserve critical infrastructure, commanders may increase security to protect
these locations from contamination or destruction. Engineers also may need
to restore, maintain, or operate existing water facilities damaged by the
threat or disaster and to drill new wells and construct new water facilities.
Mortuary Affairs
9-36. Mortuary affairs provide the necessary care and disposition of deceased
personnel. It supports the Army across the spectrum of operations. It may
directly and suddenly impact (positively or negatively) the morale of the
soldiers and the American public and may influence relations with the
civilian population in the AO. It can also affect the health of soldiers and the
urban populace. Commanders plan evacuation routes and temporary collec-
tion and internment sites, trying to adhere to local customs and traditions to
lessen potential negative consequences.
9-37. Units are responsible for recovering the remains of their own fatalities
and evacuating them to the closest mortuary affairs collection point, usually
located at the nearest support area. Because of the density of noncombatants
in UO, commanders may also find themselves responsible for civilian
remains. Deaths of civilians under Army control, such as urban evacuees and
refugees at Army-operated sites, often obligate the Army to care for their
remains including medical certification and records of death. High-intensity
urban combat may result in civilian deaths, and health concerns will require
Army forces to deal with civilian remains expeditiously. Commanders consult
local religious leaders, the Staff Judge Advocate (SJA), CA personnel, and
9-12
Urban Combat Service Support
chaplains to verify that they are abiding by law and customs. Overall,
commanders ensure that forces treat all deceased, including civilians, with
dignity and respect (another important aspect of adhering to the urban
fundamental of understanding the human dimension).
Aerial Delivery
9-38. Aerial delivery is the movement by fixed- or rotary-wing aircraft and
delivery by the use of parachute or sling load of soldiers, supplies, and equip-
ment. As a vital link in the distribution system, it adds flexibility and
provides the capability of supplying the force even when urban ground LOCs
are disrupted. Forces use aerial delivery to deliver supplies and equipment
when no other means can. However, in support operations it is used exten-
sively to move supplies to meet the urgent needs of a population in crisis. In
all UO, delivery aircraft are highly vulnerable to small arms, rockets, and air
defense systems. A threat may further decrease an already limited number of
urban drop zones (aircraft may be able to avoid air defense systems, but
ground forces may not be able to secure the drop zone and retrieve the cargo).
Equipment and supplies transported by helicopter sling-load lessen the latter
disadvantage. There are usually more available sites to deposit sling loads,
such as rooftops (engineers will be critical in determining the structural
integrity of rooftops for landing helicopters), parking lots, and athletic fields.
However, load instability during flight may restrict a helicopter’s airspeed
and maneuver capabilities making it more vulnerable to small arms and
man-portable air defense systems. For all these reasons, aerial delivery of
supplies in UO may be much less efficient than in many other environments.
Laundry, Shower, and Light Textile Repair
9-39. Soldiers are provided clean, serviceable clothing and showers for
hygiene and morale. A field services company provides direct support at the
tactical level. During UO, other sources such as fixed urban facilities obtained
via host-nation support and contract services may provide these services.
MAINTENANCE
9-40. Maintenance entails keeping materiel in operating condition, returning
it to service, or updating and upgrading its capability. It includes recovering
and evacuating disabled equipment; replacing forward; performing preven-
tive maintenance checks and services (PMCS); increasing battle damage
assessment and repair (BDAR); and analyze potential resources for mainte-
nance in the urban area.
Rapid Recovery Essential
9-41. Disabled vehicles easily block narrow thoroughfares during urban
offensive, defensive, and some stability operations. This makes rapid recovery
operations essential. Hastily secured unit maintenance collection sites near
the damaged equipment and along supply routes are necessary to avoid
clogging limited LOCs and mounted avenues with vehicle evacuation opera-
tions. The task organization of armored units into smaller attachments (often
platoon-sized or smaller) will strain limited recovery assets. Units maintain
centralized and responsive control over these potentially critical resources.
9-13
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
Replace Forward
9-42. One of the guiding maintenance principles is to replace forward and fix
rear. Maintenance activities, with a forward focus on system replacement,
task and use the distribution and evacuation channels to push components
and end items to the sustainment level for repair. However, the conditions of
UO may make distribution and evacuation difficult. Fixing equipment on site
is extremely important in UO. Organizational maintenance personnel accu-
rately evaluate damage to their equipment. Recovery of equipment will prove
difficult. When recovery is required, equipment is moved only as far rearward
as the point where repairs can be made. When selecting a maintenance site,
commanders consider: security, a sufficient area around equipment for lift or
recovery vehicles, and use of existing maintenance facilities or garages.
9-43. The unforgiving
urban terrain will invar-
iably increase damage to
man-portable weapons
and equipment, particu-
larly electronic equip-
ment sensitive to
jarring. Although by
definition man-portable
weapons and equipment
are easier to transport,
evacuating these sys-
tems may prove as diffi-
cult as evacuating vehi-
cles and larger, heavier
equipment. Therefore,
unit or direct support maintenance support teams (MSTs) will frequently
need to repair equipment at (or as near as possible to) the point where it was
damaged. Equipment operators are responsible to properly diagnose the fault
or damage. Such action ensures that the correct repair parts and mainte-
nance personnel are sent forward to complete necessary repairs. In UO,
particularly offensive and defensive operations, units may need to replace
rather than repair equipment, requiring CSS personnel to plan for increased
replacement of what might normally be repairable equipment, as well as
increased repair parts for man-portable items.
Add-On Protection Increases Wear
9-44. Maintenance units may need to attach additional armor to both
wheeled and tracked vehicles operating in an urban environment to increase
protection against small arms, mines, rocket-propelled grenades, and light-
weight antiarmor weapons. (Units can also sandbag vehicles to achieve a
degree of increased protection.) These modified vehicles, however, may put
excessive wear on brakes, springs, suspension, and tires (already vulnerable
to the increased amount of debris caused by many UO). After several months,
these same vehicles may experience severe damage to major assemblies, such
as engines and transmissions. The increased protection proportionally
increases repair parts and command emphasis toward inspecting these items
9-14
Urban Combat Service Support
during daily operator PMCS. Commanders employing this additional protec-
tion may also consider increasing the number of scheduled services.
Increased Battle Damage Assessment and Repair
9-45. In UO, operators, crews, MSTs, and recovery teams execute BDAR far
more than in other environments. BDAR quickly restores minimum essential
combat capabilities for a specific mission (normally of short duration) or
allows the equipment to self-recover by expediently fixing or bypassing com-
ponents. Commanders may need to authorize supervised battlefield canniba-
lization and controlled exchange when units lack critical parts or cannot
bring them forward.
Potential Urban Maintenance Resources
9-46. Although urban areas can complicate maintenance, they may contri-
bute to this CSS function. Analyzing the urban area in the commander’s AO
may reveal potential sources of parts, tools, equipment, and facilities neces-
sary to fix equipment and fabricate critical parts. Urban areas may serve as
key sources for parts and facilities (and contract personnel) to repair auto-
mation and network communication equipment.
TRANSPORTATION
9-47. Transportation supports the concept of the urban operation by moving
and transferring units, soldiers, equipment, and supplies. Transportation in-
corporates military, commercial, supporting nation, and urban area capabili-
ties to build a system that expands to meet the needs of the force. Transpor-
tation includes movement control, terminal operations, and mode operations.
9-48. Urban areas are often critical to transportation operations. These areas
may serve as a lodgment or support area for entry of Army forces and sus-
tainment supplies. The existing transportation and distribution infrastruc-
ture may be essential to reception, staging, and onward movement. Contracts
and host-nation support agreements may greatly increase the ability of Army
forces to use the urban area’s facilities, which may include docks, airfields,
warehouses, and cargo handling equipment. Urban support may also include
skilled urban workers, such as longshoremen and MHE operators.
Urban Terminals
9-49. In addition to serving as major seaports and aerial ports of
debarkation, other urban areas may provide additional terminals in the AO.
Forces may use these terminals for further staging, loading, discharging, and
transferring the handling between various inland transportation modes and
carriers (motor, air, rail, and water). These urban terminals—with synchro-
nized movement management—permit commanders to rapidly shift transpor-
tation modes and carriers. Such action increases flexibility and ensures the
continued forward movement of equipment and supplies to influence the tac-
tical situation. Movement control, particularly in urban areas, relies heavily
on support from military police in their maneuver and mobility support role.
Without this support, urban LOCs may become congested, hinder movement
and maneuver, and degrade force effectiveness (see FM 3-19.4). Urban com-
manders may need to establish multiple roadblocks and traffic control posts,
9-15
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
restrict selected roads to
military traffic, and
reroute movement to
unaffected road networks
when civil support and
refugee control operations
compete for available
routes. Military police
operations are critical in
this regard and will
require continuous, close
coordination with urban
civilian police.
Obstacles to Ground Transportation
9-50. Although urban areas can contribute to transportation operations,
rubble and other damage can become obstacles to ground movement. Even in
an undamaged urban environment, road and bridge weight restrictions may
limit transportation operations. Urban route maintenance, to include rein-
forcing bridges, may become a priority task for engineer units. Bypassed
pockets of resistance and ambushes pose a constant threat along urban
supply routes. Urban LOCs will often require increased security in the form
of continuous route security operations, regular (daily, if necessary) mine
clearance operations, numerous observation posts, and a larger, more mobile
tactical combat force. Such security increases manpower requirements for
sustaining operations and potentially reduces resources from decisive opera-
tions. Moving critical supplies may require heavily armed convoys or lightly
armored vehicles instead of trucks. Drivers are well trained, rehearsed, and
alert. They can recognize and avoid potential mines and minefields (such as
driving in the same tracks as the vehicle in front) and can react rapidly to
ambushes. (In addition to the measures above, Russian convoys during their
operations in Chechnya were not allowed to move without attack helicopter
escort and the availability of immediate close air support.) Aerial resupply
alleviates problems due to ground obstacles, but the air defense threat and
proximity of threat forces may preclude their routine use.
Population Effects
9-51. The ability of Army forces to use vital urban transportation facilities
depends largely on the civilians and the threat. The civilian population can
affect the transportation system if they do not support the goals of Army
operations. Urban transportation systems—such as ports, railroads, and
rivers—require many specialists to operate. Without these specialists, the
system’s utility is degraded and may not function at all. In urban stability
operations or support operations, Army forces will share the system with
civilians and other agencies. Civilian authorities may refuse to allow Army
forces to use any portions of an urban area’s transportation system. Nego-
tiating for access to that system under these circumstances then becomes a
command priority.
9-16
Urban Combat Service Support
Threat Effects
9-52. The threat can significantly affect urban transportation systems. Many
are composed of smaller subsystems. Each subsystem is vulnerable to attack,
which in turn often shuts down the whole system. A large canal system, for
example, may have entrance and exit facilities, the canal itself, a means to
pull the vessel along such as a locomotive engine, and the civilians that run
each of these subsystems. Both an attacker and defender understand the
components of the particular transportation system. If important to their
current or subsequent operations, defending forces then develop plans and
allocate forces to protect these subsystems. Attacking forces, on the other
hand, often avoid collateral damage to the system, while simultaneously
preventing enemy destruction of the facilities.
COMBAT HEALTH SUPPORT
9-53. Combat health support (CHS)—
• Encompasses all activities that prevent DNBIs.
• Clears the urban area of casualties.
• Provides for forward medical treatment and en route care during
medical evacuation.
• Ensures that adequate Class VIII supplies and medical equipment are
available.
• Provides required veterinary, dental, and laboratory services.
CHS operations minimize the effects of wounds, injuries, disease, urban envi-
ronmental hazards, and psychological stresses on unit effectiveness, readi-
ness, and morale. Effective UO require acclimated soldiers trained in specific
urban tactics, techniques, and procedures. CHS helps maintain the health of
urban forces, thereby conserving that trained manpower. This environment
has had three to six times greater casualty rates than any other type
environment. CHS operations that keep soldiers healthy and medically cared
for reduce the strain on the replacement and evacuation systems. Such care
allows soldiers to concentrate on the task at hand instead of the increased
risks associated with UO.
9-54. As part of the overall LPT, commanders and medical planners analyze
and continuously assess the urban area. They determine the medical threats,
required medical resources, and the quality and availability of medical facili-
ties and resources (to include civilian medical personnel). This assessment
prevents duplicated services and permits more effectively and efficiently
organizing medical resources. An analysis may indicate available hospitals,
clinics, medical treatment facilities, and medical supplies and equipment
(including production facilities) in the urban area. It may also indicate NGOs
capable of providing medical services and supplies. Stringent federal regula-
tions, standards of medical care, and a need for unavailable advanced tech-
nologies may limit their use by Army forces. CHS personnel keep abreast of
the operational situation and its impact on CHS. Peace operations, for
example, may rapidly transition to high-intensity offensive and defensive
operations requiring medical support able to handle potential mass casualty
scenarios.
9-17
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
Care of Civilians
9-55. In combat operations, the military normally does not provide injured
civilians with medical care. Saving civilians is the responsibility of civilian
authorities rather than the military. However, based on METT-TC and
requirements under Geneva Conventions, commanders may need to recover,
evacuate, and treat numerous civilians (particularly in urban support opera-
tions and some stability operations) until the local civilian medical personnel
and facilities can be reconstituted and supplied. In urban support operations
involving weapons of mass destruction, the primary focus of Army support
may be CHS. If commanders provide medical support, they adhere to the UO
fundamental of transitioning control and transferring responsibilities for
medical care of civilians to another agency or into civilian hands as soon as is
practical. In UO, commanders consider and address the medical treatment of
civilians (enemy and friendly) early in the planning process. Any initial
assessment or survey teams therefore contain CHS representatives. This
assessment also considers cultural factors related to civilian medical treat-
ment. Commanders may need to develop specific medical policies, directives,
and standing operating procedures to ensure that subordinates know how
much medical care they may provide to—
• The urban population.
• Other host-nation and third-country civilians.
• Coalition and host-nation forces.
• Contractor personnel.
Disease and Nonbattle Injury
9-56. DNBI is a major medical threat during all operations and UO will be
no exception. Urban pollution hazards and potential exposure to TIM may
increase the risk to soldier health. Some urban areas, particularly those in
developing countries, are already large sources of communicable diseases,
such as tuberculosis, cholera, typhus, hepatitis, malaria, dengue, and
acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). Physical damage or deteriora-
tion of urban infrastructure—such as electricity, water, and sewage services
and industries that use or produce hazardous materials—will only
exacerbate these problems creating greater health risks. The density of the
environment extends these risks to Army forces. Commanders establish a
medical epidemiological surveillance system early. Such action continually
assesses the health of the force and promptly identifies unusual or local
occurrences that may signal preventive medicine problems or the influence of
biological or chemical agents. These potential hazards, particularly the
release of TIM, will influence the type of medical supplies needed by medical
personnel and will also necessitate critical planning and preparation for
potential mass casualties (civilian as well as military).
9-57. Adhering to the UO fundamental of preserving critical infrastructure
may strongly influence decreasing DNBI. Preventive medicine personnel
identify the diseases and recommend control and preventive measures. In
urban areas, particularly during support operations and stability operations
(and when specifically authorized), they may also conduct civilian health
screening, health education, and immunization programs. Medical screening
of military personnel, particularly multinational forces, may be required to
9-18
Urban Combat Service Support
prevent introducing new diseases (especially drug-resistant strains) into an
urban area. A new disease may tax the medical system and introduce a new
medical problem into an area already in crisis. Lastly, field sanitation
training (to include training in the use of barrier protection such as latex
gloves when rendering care to any person and animal, rodent, and pest
control), equipment, and supplies are part of overall preventive medicine
measures and considerations.
Combat Stress
9-58. Stress occurs in every operation and type of environment; some stress
is beneficial but too much is harmful. Controlled combat stress can invoke
positive, adaptive reactions such as loyalty, selflessness, and heroism. On the
other hand, uncontrolled combat stress can result in negative, harmful
behavior and combat stress casualties. Such behaviors and casualties—battle
fatigue, misconduct stress behaviors, and post-traumatic stress disorder—can
interfere with the unit’s mission. Physical and mental factors leading to
combat stress result from the environment and the deliberate enemy actions
aimed at killing, wounding, or demoralizing soldiers. However, many
stressors are also generated from the soldier’s own leaders and mission
demands.
Combat Stress
Chechnya – 1994 to 1996
Russia’s 1994-1996 conflict with Chechnya, a republic in the southwestern part
of the Russian Federation, produced an increased number of psychological
trauma and combat stress casualties. One medical survey found 72 percent of
the soldiers screened had some sort of psychological disorder symptoms. Of
that, 46 percent exhibited asthenic depression (a weak, apathetic, or retarded
motor state). The other 26 percent exhibited psychotic reactions such as high
states of anxiety, excitement, or aggressiveness and a deterioration of moral
values or interpersonal relations. The statistics showed more troops experienced
combat stress disorders than during their 1980s war in Afghanistan. One primary
difference was that in Chechnya, Russian forces conducted combat mostly in
cities rather than in mountains, valleys, and other rural areas.
Combat always invokes fear in soldiers. However, poor training and planning,
uncertainty in their cause, and urban populations that resented their presence
exacerbated the psychological climate for the Russian forces in Chechnya. Acts
of subversion and terrorism by Chechen guerrillas kept the Russians in a con-
stant, high state of readiness and anxiety; the soldiers viewed every civilian—
young or old, male or female—as a potential enemy. This psychological pressure
was not simply a by-product, but an objective of information operations and a
prime reason for taking the fight into the close confines of Chechnya’s urban
areas. Torture and mutilation of prisoners; immediate execution of captured
pilots; imitative electromagnetic deception (Chechens mimicked Russian radio
transmissions and directed Russian close air support against their own forces);
and propaganda to convince civilians that Russia’s actions had a religious bias
against Muslims and Islam were conducted to exert intense, unremitting
psychological pressure on Russian forces—with great success.
9-19
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
The characteristics of urban areas combined with Chechen insurgent activities
and information operations, civilians that did not welcome foreigners, and an
unpopular and poorly supported conflict with an open-ended mission reinforced
the need for the national will to strengthen and support the fight when forces
deploy to urban areas. These characteristics also reinforce the need for clear
objectives, proper leadership and training, and available medical assets able to
properly diagnose and treat combat stress casualties.
9-59. In offensive and defensive UO,
compartmented urban combat leads to
physical isolation, difficulties in
transmitting radio signals lead to
communications isolation, and
combined they create an
overwhelming sense of being alone.
Snipers, mines, and booby traps
combined with the closeness and high
intensity of urban combat contribute
to an unremitting fear of attack from
any quarter that further increases
stress casualties. Additionally, seeing
and perhaps accidentally inflicting
casualties on civilians (especially
women and children) increases battle
fatigue. If civilians are hostile or a
threat uses the population as cover
and concealment, then the potential for misconduct stress behaviors often
increases. Urban areas may provide temptations for looting, alcohol and
substance abuse, black marketeering, and harmful social interactions; these
temptations may increase misconduct stress behaviors. Leaders can prevent
or rapidly identify, successfully manage, and treat stress-related casualties
(see FM 22-51 and FM 6-22.5) and prevent misconduct stress behaviors as
well as potential violations of the law of war. They provide training (both in
urban combat and combat stress management), effective rules of engagement
(ROE), unit cohesion, strong leadership, and mental health support. Leaders,
forward on the battlefield, will determine whether discipline perseveres.
Evacuation
9-60. Transportation restrictions may preclude evacuation of urban casual-
ties. Consequently, units may require more litter bearers to move the injured
to a point where they can be further evacuated by ground or air ambulance.
Lengthy evacuation routes will require more litter bearers, as multiple litter
relay teams will be necessary to conserve energy and expedite evacuation.
However, unless augmented or relieved of this responsibility by another unit,
these litter bearers will come from the casualties’ own unit thereby
diminishing the unit’s strength levels necessary to accomplish its primary
mission. Depending on the expected level of casualties, commanders may
augment units with additional personnel to perform evacuation or may assign
maneuver units this mission. Historically, urban offensive and defensive
9-20
Urban Combat Service Support
operations experienced more casualties than these operations in other envi-
ronments. Evacuation personnel will require specific training in urban
evacuation techniques (moving casualties from subsurface and supersurface
levels to and along the surface level). Overall, urban commanders at all
echelons develop detailed medical evacuation plans. Engineers are critical to
clear routes for medical resupply and evacuation. Army forces may need the
unique capabilities, equipment, and skills now typically seen in civilian
urban search-and-rescue teams to clear debris and search for casualties.
Specially trained dogs may also play a vital role in locating victims.
Treatment
9-61. First aid training will have increased significance in UO. The compart-
mented nature of UO, transportation restrictions, communications difficul-
ties, and the finite number of combat medics may limit the urban casualty’s
initial treatment administered by nonmedical personnel or to self-treatment
measures. Units identify and train combat lifesavers to perform in the
absence of medics. Since the likelihood of Army forces performing UO con-
tinues to increase, commanders strive to meet or exceed Army standards for
the number of combat lifesavers required for their specific unit. This increase
in self, buddy, and combat lifesaver care, as well as longer delays in evacua-
tion, may also increase requirements for additional first aid and medic-
carried supplies.
9-62. In addition, the increased potential for delayed evacuation during UO
mandates that Army combat medics be skilled in prolonged casualty care.
(During the 3-4 October 1993 battle in Somalia, seven medics managed 39
casualties for more than 14 hours before they could be evacuated.) Evacua-
tion delays significantly increase potential infection. Such delays may cause
more casualties dying of their wounds; therefore, combat medics should also
be skilled in administering antibiotics on the battlefield.
9-63. All CHS personnel can recognize and treat injuries due to incendiary or
fuel-air explosives (also known as thermobaric weapons)—a favored, urban-
oriented threat weapon (see Chapter 3). These weapons explode; create a
cloud of volatile gases, liquids, or powders; and then ignite, creating an
immense fireball consuming oxygen and creating enormous overpressure.
When employed in an urban structure, the blast wave or overpressure is
greatly amplified. Injuries resulting from these weapons are massive burns,
broken or crushed bones, concussions, missile injuries, and internal injuries.
Medics or doctors can easily overlook internal injuries (at least initially)
unless they are trained, prepared, and expecting them.
9-64. The increased use of body armor during UO will help prevent pene-
trating chest and abdomen wounds. CHS personnel expect more groin, pelvis,
and extremity injuries. Furthermore, when fighting soldiers that are known
to use body armor, a threat (particularly snipers) can be expected to target
the head and face more often than other anatomic areas resulting in more
head injuries. Lastly, hearing loss may increase particularly when firing
recoilless weapons in enclosed spaces with little ventilation.
9-21
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
EXPLOSIVE ORDNANCE DISPOSAL SUPPORT
9-65. Explosive ordnance disposal (EOD) support provides the capability to
neutralize domestic or foreign conventional, nuclear, chemical, and biological
munitions and improvised devices. Such devices threaten military operations
and military and civilian facilities, materiel, and personnel. Unexploded
explosive ordnance (UXO) creates a much greater risk during UO than opera-
tions in any other environment. Confined spaces, hard surfaces, and more
personnel (both soldiers and civilians) in the vicinity may magnify the deto-
nating effects of UXO. Dense terrain makes UXO more difficult to locate. In
fact, terrorists select urban settings for their improvised explosive devices
(IEDs) to potentially kill and destroy more, thus gaining greater visibility for
their message. EOD units perform many tasks (detecting, identifying, ren-
dering safe from, and disposing of explosives) associated with UXO and IEDs.
Urban operations will rely more heavily on their role as advisors and instruc-
tors on UXO hazards, protection measures, and disposal techniques. EOD
specialists will advise and train other Army forces, other services, multi-
national partners, and civilian authorities. EOD specialists will often work
closely with public affairs and psychological operations personnel to increase
awareness and teach the urban population to identify and avoid UXO.
HUMAN RESOURCES SUPPORT
9-66. Human resources support (HRS) encompasses the following functions:
manning the force, personnel support, and personnel services. These activi-
ties include personnel accounting; casualty management; essential services;
postal operations; and morale, welfare, and recreation provided to soldiers,
their families, Department of Army civilians, and contractors.
9-67. Successful UO require HRS functions. Clearly, HRS focuses on caring
for the needs of people: soldiers and the civilians who support them. Since a
critical component of the urban environment is the population, these activi-
ties, when required, may also support them. For example, personnel
elements may support accountability of displaced persons and civilian inter-
nees. In conjunction with mortuary affairs, casualty managers may assist
with civilian death records and reports (always maintaining sensitivity to the
confidentiality of casualty information). A postal company may assist urban
officials in training and reestablishing civilian postal operations. Personnel
elements may also provide identification cards and documents to support
increased populace and resources control measures.
9-68. In offensive and defensive UO,
HRS personnel will need to account
for more casualties and more fre-
quent reconstitution. In all UO,
success relies on training individual
replacements. Urban combat
requires soldiers skilled in specific
urban combat tactics, techniques,
and procedures. They understand the societal aspects of the urban population
and have training in crowd control to avoid escalating potentially explosive
situations. Training these replacements while in the replacement system
frees urban commanders from having to do so. It also helps reduce soldier
Urban operations will continue
to be manpower intensive, even
as advances in technology make
the conduct of urban battle more
precise and discriminating.
FM 1
9-22
Urban Combat Service Support
(and supporting civilian) isolation, anxiety, and fear associated with urban
areas and operations.
FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT OPERATIONS
9-69. Financial management operations make resources available when and
where they are needed and assist the urban commander in maintaining fiscal
responsibilities. Finance operations are necessary to conduct contracting and
provide real-time information, accounting, and services. Resource manage-
ment operations ensure that urban operational policies and procedures
adhere to laws and regulations, develop command resource requirements,
and leverage appropriate fund sources to meet them.
9-70. UO will likely include other US military services, governmental
agencies, and contractors; multinational forces; NGOs; and various elements
of the host nation. So many actors complicate financial accounting, resource
management, and cost capturing. Yet, these activities are vital to accom-
plishing UO and maintaining legal requirements. Army forces will receive
support from and provide support to these participants. Resource managers
provide crucial “in-theater” expertise to the urban commander on the obli-
gation authority. They also furnish the documentation necessary to obtain
and pay for local goods and services using contract or commercial vendor
services. However, commanders (with finance unit assistance) assess the
economic impact of UO on the economy. Analysis includes how well the urban
economics and commerce infrastructure can support the deployed force and
how an influx of US currency may affect the overall economy.
9-71. Finance units can also provide joint pay support and non-US pay
support for host-nation employees and day laborers supporting UO, as well
as for civilian internees. These units can support bounty programs and
solatia (financial compensation). Commanders use bounty programs to
purchase weapons, radios, information, and other items from the urban
inhabitants. They also use caution when paying for critical human
intelligence. First, they ensure that multiple collection agencies in the
command avoid paying the same source for the same information and
interpreting these repeated inputs as validation that information is accurate
and reliable. Second, they establish a price or pay scale so subordinate units
(particularly in multinational UO) equally compensate their sources for
information. Commanders may also need to make solatia to alleviate grief,
suffering, and anxiety resulting from injuries and property or personal loss
resulting from some aspect of UO. At other times, commanders make solatia
to meet cultural expectations of the urban population. These payments are
nominal in amount and without an admission of liability by the Army.
RELIGIOUS SUPPORT
9-72. Religious support entails providing and performing religious support
operations for commanders to protect the free exercise of religion for soldiers,
family members, and authorized civilians. This includes personal delivery of
rites, sacraments, ordinances, pastoral and spiritual care, and religious edu-
cation. Such support also consists of advising the commander on matters of
religion, morals, and morale as affected by religion; the impact of local
religions on the mission; and the ethical impact of command decisions.
9-23
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
Moral and Ethical Climate
9-73. Chaplains can help commanders sense the moral and ethical climate in
Army units and understand potential moral dilemmas associated with
planned UO. The urban environment affects soldiers’ mental health and can
increase combat stress casualties, especially misconduct stress behaviors.
Chaplains are an important part of combat stress support. The chaplain’s
presence and faith sustains soldiers throughout periods of great trauma.
Religious support contributes to the total well being of soldiers and aids in
their return to combat readiness. Chaplains help bolster soldiers’ moral and
ethical behaviors through spiritual fitness training so that soldiers may
better cope with ambiguous moral and ethical situations. Chaplains can help
identify ethical concerns before they become critical command problems. To
this end, their observations help develop and modify ROE, which—due to
ambiguity or overly restraining rules—may be part of the problem.
Influence of Local Religions
9-74. Chaplains advise commanders on matters of religion as it affects the
soldiers within their units. They also explain the influences of local religions
on the urban populace and their potential effects on Army forces and UO.
Religion is a crucial aspect of assessing the societal component of the urban
environment. Understanding the major tenets and concepts of the religions
and the impact of faith on civilians’ lives may help commanders understand
what motivates the populace. This understanding also helps commanders to
appreciate the inhabitants’ attitudes toward other races, religions, and cul-
tures and to identify unacceptable kinds of social interaction (particularly
between soldiers and civilians). Failure to recognize and respect religious
beliefs can rapidly erode the legitimacy of the mission. A thorough analysis of
the urban environment also includes the degree of influence religion and
religious leaders have on the area’s government, military, and economy.
LEGAL SUPPORT
9-75. Legal support provides operational law support in all legal disciplines
(including military justice, international law, civil law—comprised of con-
tract, fiscal, and environmental law, claims, and legal assistance). This sup-
port assists in command and control, sustainment, and HRS of UO. Legal
considerations are important in any operation; they take on added signifi-
cance during UO. They form the foundation for establishing ROE and are
critical in the targeting process (determining protected targets, for example).
They affect how units acquire goods and services from urban areas and
provide support to other agencies and organizations operating in an area.
The environment’s complex nature requires commanders and their staffs to
review and closely consider applicable legal constraints when developing and
executing courses of action. Most urban areas have a highly developed legal
system. The SJA support to commanders address this urban system and its
potential to affect, positively or negatively, UO.
9-76. International, host-nation, and US law and other regulatory guidelines
may vary in their applicability by time and place; actions permissible in one
situation may be prohibited in another. These exceptions and complexities
increase requirements for SJA, often working with CA personnel, to identify
and resolve technical legal issues. Therefore, the SJA actively advises and
9-24
Urban Combat Service Support
participates in all aspects of UO from predeployment training and initial
planning through transition and redeployment. FM 27-100 contains detailed
legal guidelines affecting UO.
International and Host-Nation Law
9-77. International law
consists primarily of agree-
ments, treaties, and custo-
mary law to include the law
known as the law of war
(see FM 27-10). The law of
war consists of four general
principles applicable when
conducting any operation
but requiring particular
attention during UO. Fig-
ure 9-4 lists the four prin-
ciples: military necessity,
discrimination (or distinc-
tion), unnecessary suffering
(or humanity), and propor-
tionality.
9-78. International law
may affect urban opera-
tional issues, such as the
right of entry, base opera-
tions, use of urban infrastructure, and overflight and landing rights. Status-
of-forces agreements (SOFAs) exist or can be negotiated to resolve legal
issues, such as the status of soldiers operating in foreign areas to include
criminal and civil jurisdiction, taxation concerns, and claims for damages and
injuries. Unless a SOFA or other convention exists, soldiers operating in
foreign urban areas have the same legal status as tourists; they are subject to
the laws and judicial process of the host nation. Commanders are responsible
to understand the international and host-nation agreements and laws that
influence foreign UO. If local law hinders the operation, commanders may be
able to inform the local US diplomatic mission and request that it negotiates
a solution.
Military Necessity:The principle that justifies
the use of measures not forbidden by international
or domestic law necessary to rapidly achieve
military objectives.
Discrimination:The principle of distinguishing
between combatants (who may be attacked) and
noncombatants (who may not be attacked).
Unnecessary Suffering:The principle that
prohibits the use of weapons, projectiles, or other
materials in a manner calculated to cause
superfluous injury and unnecessary suffering.
Proportionality:The principle that injury to
persons and damage to property incidental to
military action, in the circumstances ruling at the
time, must not be excessive in relation to the
concrete and direct military advantage anticipated.
Figure 9-4. General Principles of
the Law of War
US Law
9-79. UO also comply with US law whether it is in the form of a statute,
executive order, regulation, or other directive from a federal branch or
agency. US law influences UO by governing the acquisition of supplies and
services for Army forces, regulating the assistance that can be rendered to
foreign nations, and controlling intelligence activities. The Posse Comitatus
Act, for example, makes it a crime for Army forces to enforce civil law. Simi-
larly, portions of the Foreign Assistance Act prohibit soldiers from performing
law enforcement activities in foreign urban areas. However, circumstances—
expressly authorized by the Constitution, acts of Congress, and other excep-
tions to these statutes—exist that allow the Army to support civilian law
9-25
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
enforcement. Although not nearly all-inclusive, the above demonstrates how
US law further complicates urban operations, particularly stability and sup-
port, and increases the need for SJA advice and counsel in all facets of UO.
Legal Aspects of Nonlethal Force
9-80. Nonlethal capabilities can augment the means of deadly force and
extend urban firepower options. They enhance the commander’s ability to
apply force in proportion to the threat and to allow discrimination in its use.
The range of nonlethal capabilities includes offensive information operations,
smoke and obscurants, irritants (such as chemical riot control agents), non-
penetrating projectiles, and high-pressure water devices. These continually
expanding capabilities give commanders more options to confront situations
that do not warrant deadly force but require soldiers to employ overwhelming
decisive power. However, nonlethal capabilities are subject to the same legal
constraints as lethal force (in fact, some nonlethal capabilities can cause
serious injury and death, particularly if not employed properly) and undergo
the same legal review. Like lethal force, nonlethal capabilities show military
necessity, distinguish between combatants and noncombatants, distinguish
between military objectives and protected property, are used proportionally,
and do not result in unnecessary suffering. Commanders cannot employ
chemical herbicides or riot control agents without prior presidential approval.
BAND SUPPORT
9-81. Bands provide music to instill in Army forces the will to fight and win.
Bands also foster the support of multinational partners and urban popula-
tions through support to ceremonies, troop support functions, concerts, proto-
col functions, and religious ceremonies. Army bands quickly and effectively
communicate professionalism, a positive image, and a nonthreatening show
of force. Throughout the spectrum of operations, planners consider band
support when developing their information operations concept of support to
UO. Because UO are often resource intensive, band members may be
required to assist in other essential activities unrelated to music. Such tasks
may include casualty evacuation; command post security; and NBC recon-
naissance and decontamination.
GENERAL ENGINEER SUPPORT
9-82. General engineer support will be essential during UO. This support
helps assess, construct, maintain, and restore essential LOCs and urban
facilities to sustain Army forces, the urban population, or both. Using civilian
resources and investing Army general engineer resources requires careful
consideration by commanders and staff planners. Since all elements of the
urban infrastructure interconnect, general engineering support touches each
category to some degree. Figure 9-5 illustrates how urban-specific, general
engineering tasks align primarily with the transportation and distribution,
energy, and administration and human services components of the urban
infrastructure. These engineering tasks are significant and readily apply to
UO. The last two, providing fire fighting support and waste management,
have not been previously addressed and require more specific consideration.
9-26
Urban Combat Service Support
THE USE OR INVESTMENT OF RESOURCES
9-83. During urban offensive
and defensive operations,
Army engineer units accom-
plish tasks to sustain or
improve mobility, surviva-
bility, and sustainability of
US and allied forces. These
units maximize the existing
urban facilities, host-nation
support, civilian contractors,
and joint engineer assets.
Commanders consider how
using urban facilities to sup-
port military forces may
negatively affect the popula-
tion. On the other hand, con-
struction and repair may
benefit both Army units and
the urban inhabitants. Re-
storing the urban transportation network not only improves military LOCs,
but may also allow needed commerce to resume. Repairing urban airfields or
ports increases throughput capabilities for military supplies, facilitates medi-
cal evacuation operations to the support base, accelerates needed relief
efforts, and allows international commerce to proceed. Commanders may first
invest resources and conduct general engineering tasks to restore facilities for
civilian use. Such actions stem future drains on operational resources or to
facilitate later transition of control back to civilian authorities. For example,
repairing police stations, detention facilities, and marksmanship ranges may
help urban governments reestablish law and order after completing urban
offensive or defensive operations. During most support operations and some
stability operations, the focus of general engineering clearly supports and
assists the urban population rather than sustains Army forces.
Figure 9-5. General Engineer Support
Construct, Maintain, or Restore
• Roads and Highways
• Over-the-Shore Facilities
• Ports
• Railroad Facilities
• Airports and Heliports
• Fixed Bridges
• Electric Power Facilities
• Petroleum Pipelines and Storage Facilities
• Water Facilities
and Provide
• Mobile Electric Power
• Construction Support
• Fire Fighting Support
•
Waste Mana
g
emen
t
FIRE FIGHTING SUPPORT
9-84. Fire protection and prevention, as well as fire fighting, takes on added
significance during UO, particularly offensive and defensive operations. Most
ordnance affects by heat and flame. This, coupled with an abundance of com-
bustible material (buildings, furniture, gasoline, oil, and propane), poses a
serious risk to soldiers, civilians, and the urban operation. Large shantytowns
can exacerbate this problem. In highly combustible areas, commanders may
even need to limit or preclude the use of small-arms tracer ammunition.
9-85. When analyzing the administration and human services component of
the infrastructure, commanders determine the adequacy of existing civilian
fire fighting support. A deteriorated or nonexistent infrastructure that
cannot support the urban area will likely fail to handle the increased risk due
to military operations. Commanders may need to provide fire fighting teams
to support their own forces and civilians.
9-27
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
9-86. A military force task organized with multiple fire fighting teams (even
with maximum use of available civilian fire-fighting assets) will only be able
to fight some fires in the AO. Water distribution systems damaged during
operations, chemical and other TIM, and hostile activities will further com-
plicate and limit fire fighting capabilities. Commanders develop priorities for
equipment, facility, and infrastructure protection. All soldiers need training
in fire prevention and initial or immediate response fire fighting. Such
training includes planning covered and concealed movement, withdrawal,
and evacuation routes. Soldiers are trained to identify and remove ignition
and fuel sources and be provided additional fire fighting material such as
extinguishers, sand, and blankets (see FM 5-415).
WASTE MANAGEMENT
9-87. Management of all forms of waste, particularly human, putrescible
(such as food), and medical, may become a critical planning consideration for
Army forces. This particularly applies if the urban waste management infra-
structure was previously inadequate or damaged during UO, the Army force
is operating in the urban area for an extended period of time, and a signi-
ficant number of the urban population remains. Failure to adequately con-
sider this aspect, possibly coupled with an inadequate water supply, may
create unacceptable sanitary and hygiene conditions and subsequently
increase DNBIs as well as civilian casualties.
CIVIL-MILITARY OPERATIONS
9-88. Commanders use civil-military operations (CMO) to establish, main-
tain, influence, or exploit relations to achieve operational objectives. These
relations are among military forces, civilian authorities and organizations
(both governmental and nongovernmental), and the civilian population.
Because of the urban society’s link to other aspects of the urban environment,
CMO will prevail in all UO. Commanders may need to assume temporary
responsibility for functions and capacities of the urban government. Although
unstated, civil-military cooperation, particularly during urban stability opera-
tions and support operations, will be an essential, implied task of the
mission. Like public affairs, effective CMO is based on establishing and
maintaining credibility and trust with the urban populace and civilian
organizations operating in the urban environment.
CIVIL AFFAIRS
9-89. CA units will be critical during UO. While any military force can con-
duct CMO, CA units are specifically organized, trained, and equipped to con-
duct activities in support of CMO. They have experience in planning and
conducting CMO, a regional focus (which includes enhanced cultural aware-
ness and language training), and civilian technical expertise. Such
experience ensures relevant support to commanders conducting urban
operations. CA units organize their capabilities into 16 functional skills nor-
mally arranged in four specialty function teams (see Figure 9-6). Com-
manders use these skills, often unfamiliar to most military personnel, to—
• Develop their situational understanding of the urban environment
(particularly the infrastructure and society).
9-28
Urban Combat Service Support
• Plan CMO to support
UO.
•Public Administration
•Public Education
•Public Safety
•International Law
•Public Health
•Public Transportation
•Public Works and Utilities
•Public Communications
•Food and Agriculture
•Economic Development
•Civilian Supply
•Emergency Services
•Environmental Management
•Cultural Relations
•Civil Information
•Dislocated Civilians
Government
Public Facilities
Economics
and Commerce
Special Functions
• Achieve many of the
fundamentals of UO
shown in Chapter 5.
Figure 9-6. Civil Affairs Functional Skills
9-90. In addition to pro-
viding essential information
for assessing the urban
environment, CA personnel
and activities help shape
the battlefield, dominate a
civil problem, and tran-
sition to a legitimate civil
authority. Specifically, CA
units and CMO help urban commanders—
• Minimize civilian interference with UO and the impact of urban opera-
tions on the populace and infrastructure. CA personnel can help estab-
lish and run a civil-military operations center to coordinate UO with
civilian agencies (both governmental and nongovernmental), other ser-
vices, and multinational partners.
• Provide advice and assistance to restore or rehabilitate portions of the
infrastructure, particularly life-sustaining portions of the administra-
tion and human services component of the infrastructure.
• Plan, supervise, and execute necessary populace and resources control
measures (in close coordination with military police units) until no
longer required or the urban operation is completed.
• When requested or when military necessity or legitimate directives
require, establish all or portions of the civil administration.
• Determine available supplies and services in the urban area and if
necessary assist in negotiating their acquisition. They also help com-
manders assess the capability, dependability, and willingness of urban
sources to provide and sustain identified needs as well as to calculate
the impact of using them on other aspects of the urban environment.
• In conjunction with the SJA, fulfill the Army’s responsibilities toward
the urban population under international, host-nation, and US law.
• Plan and conduct the transition of control for the urban area or opera-
tion to another military or civilian governmental or nongovernmental
organization or agency.
9-91. Similar to public affairs operations, CMO are related to information
operations (see Chapter 4). The nature of CMO and the need for CA person-
nel to develop and maintain close relationships with the urban population
put CA personnel in a favorable position to collect information. CA personnel
work daily with civilians, their equipment, and their records that may be
prime sources of information. If used correctly, CA personnel can complement
the intelligence collection process, especially human intelligence, necessary
to understand the dynamic societal component of the urban environment and
detect significant changes. However, CA personnel are not, and cannot
appear as, intelligence agents; otherwise, it will undermine their ability to
9-29
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
interact with the civilian community. Examples of information available to
CA units include government documents, libraries, and archives; files of
newspapers and periodicals; industrial and commercial records; and technical
equipment, blueprints, and plans.
ASSESSMENT OF CIVIL CONSIDERATIONS
9-92. As part of the initial planning process, CA units conduct an area
assessment, which can provide commanders with essential information about
the environment. Commanders integrate this initial assessment into the
overall urban IPB process (see Appendix C, FM 41-10). To help analyze civil
considerations, commanders and staffs can consider many characteristics
such as physical terrain, structures, capabilities, organizations, people, and
events. These characteristics easily align with terrain, society, and
infrastructure; and, like them, they are overlapped and interdependent (see
Figure 9-7 and FM 6-0).
9-93. Overall, CA personnel help commanders understand the complexities
of the infrastructure and societal components of the urban area. These
components (together with the terrain or physical component of the urban
area) interconnect. CA forces help identify and understand the relationships
and interactions between these urban components. From this understanding,
commanders can anticipate how specific military actions affect the urban
environment and the subsequent reactions. CA personnel consider the short-
term effects and reactions as well as the long-term consequences. Under-
standing these long-term consequences helps ensure a smooth transition of
the urban area back to civilian control.
9-30
Appendix A
Siege of Beirut:
An Illustration of the Fundamentals of Urban Operations
The IDF had neither the strategy nor the experience nor the
configuration of forces to fight and sustain a house-to-house campaign
in Beirut.
Richard A. Gabriel
Operation Peace for Galilee: The Israeli-PLO War in Lebanon
OVERALL STRATEGIC SITUATION
A-1. In 1982, Israel launched OPERATION PEACE FOR GALILEE designed
to destroy the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) presence in southern
Lebanon. On 1 June, Israeli Defense Forces (IDF) launched a massive assault
across the border into southern Lebanon. The Israeli attack focused on the
PLO, but the operations quickly involved major ground and air combat
between Israel and Syrian forces.
A-2. In the first few weeks, Israeli forces quickly pushed back both the
Syrians and the PLO. However, except for some PLO forces isolated in
bypassed urban areas, such as Tyre and Sidon, most of the PLO fell back into
Beirut (see Figure A-1). By 30 June, Israeli forces had reached the outskirts
of southern Beirut, occupied East Beirut, isolated the city from Syria and the
rest of Lebanon, and blockaded the sea approaches to the city. Even so, with
most of the PLO intact inside and with significant military and political
capability, the Israelis had yet to achieve the objective of OPERATION
PEACE FOR GALILEE. The Israeli command had to make a decision. It had
three choices: permit the PLO to operate in Beirut; execute a potentially
costly assault of the PLO in the city; or lay siege to the city and use the siege
to successfully achieve the objective. The Israelis opted for the latter.
CONTENTS
Overall Strategic Situation.......................... A-1
Israeli Military Position................................ A-2
PLO Military Position................................... A-2
Role of Civilians ........................................... A-3
Information Operations ............................... A-3
Conduct of the Urban Operations .............. A-4
Lessons......................................................... A-6
Perform Focused Information
Operations ............................................... A-7
Conduct Close Combat ........................... A-7
Avoid the Attrition Approach............... A-8
Control the Essential and Preserve
Critical Infrastructure........................... A-8
Minimize Collateral Damage................. A-8
Understand the Human Dimension ..... A-8
Separate Noncombatants from
Combatants........................................... A-9
Restore Essential Service .................... A-9
Transition Control ................................. A-9
Summary................................................... A-10
A-1
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
ISRAELI MILITARY POSITION
A-3. The Israelis had an
excellent position around
Beirut. They occupied high
ground to the south and
west, virtually dominating
the entire city. Israeli
naval forces controlled the
seaward approaches to
Beirut. The Israelis’ posi-
tion was also strong defen-
sively, capable of defeating
any attempt to break out
of or into the city from
northern Lebanon or
Syria. The Israeli air force
had total and complete air
superiority. The Israelis
controlled the water, fuel,
and food sources of West
Beirut. Although the PLO
forces had stockpiles of food and supplies, the Israelis regulated the food,
water, and generating power for the civil population.
PLO HQ
Beirut Airport
PLO Strong Points
Seaport
Sabra Camp
Shatila Camp
Green Line
West Beirut
East Beirut
Stadium
Bourj El Barajneh
Lailaki
Figure A-1. The City of Beirut
A-4. Despite the superior positioning of Israeli forces, the IDF faced signifi-
cant challenges to include the combat power of the PLO, Syria, and other
threats in Beirut. Israeli doctrine and training did not emphasize urban
operations. Additionally, Israel was constrained by its desire to limit col-
lateral damage and friendly and noncombatant casualties. Organizationally,
the Israeli army was not optimized to fight in urban terrain. Armor and self-
propelled artillery formations dominated the Israeli forces, and most Israeli
infantry was mechanized. The Israeli forces had only a few elite formations of
traditional dismounted infantry.
PLO MILITARY POSITION
A-5. Despite being surrounded and cut off from support, the PLO position in
Beirut offered numerous advantages in addition to the characteristic advan-
tages of urban defense. The PLO had long anticipated an Israeli invasion of
southern Lebanon; it had had months to prepare bunkers, obstacles, and the
defensive plan of Beirut and other urban areas. Approximately 14,000 Arab
combatants in West Beirut readied to withstand the Israeli siege. This was
done with the advice of Soviet, Syrian, and east European advisors. The
preparation included stockpiling essential supplies in quantities sufficient to
withstand a six-month siege. Also, the PLO fighters integrated into the civil
populations of the urban areas. Often their families lived with them. The civil
population itself was friendly and provided both information and concealment
for PLO forces. PLO fighters were experienced in urban combat and knew the
urban terrain intimately. PLO forces had been involved in urban fighting
against Syrian conventional forces and Christian militias in Beirut several
years prior to the Israeli invasion. Finally, the organization of the PLO—
A-2
_______________________ The Siege of Beirut: An Illustration of the Fundamentals of Urban Operations
centered on small teams of fighters armed with machine-guns and antitank
weapons, and trained in insurgent, hit-and-run tactics—was ideally suited to
take maximum advantage of the urban environment.
ROLE OF CIVILIANS
A-6. Various ethnic and religious groups make up the civil population of
southern Lebanon. However, West Beirut’s population was heavily Pales-
tinian and Lebanese. The civil population of West Beirut was between
350,000 and 500,000. The Palestinian population supported the PLO. The
Lebanese population may be described as friendly neutral to the Israelis.
Although unhappy under Palestinian dominance, this population was
unwilling to actively support Israel. The civilian population was a logistic
constraint on the PLO, which would have become significant had the siege
lasted longer. The civilians in West Beirut were an even larger constraint on
the Israelis. The presence of civilians significantly limited the ability of the
Israelis to employ firepower. However, the Palestine refugee camps located in
West Beirut were both civilian centers and military bases. The Israeli
constraints on artillery and other systems against these parts of the city were
much less restrictive than in other parts of West Beirut where the population
was mostly Lebanese and where fewer key military targets existed.
A-7. The PLO knew of the Israeli aversion to causing civil casualties and pur-
posely located key military centers, troop concentrations, and logistics and
weapons systems in and amongst the population—particularly the refugee
Palestinian population in the southern part of West Beirut. Tactically, they
used the civilians to hide their forces and infiltrate Israeli positions.
A-8. The friendly Palestinian population provided intelligence to the PLO
while the friendly Lebanese population provided intelligence for the IDF.
Throughout the siege, the IDF maintained a policy of free passage out of
Beirut for all civilians. This policy was strictly enforced and permitted no
weapons to leave the city. Some estimates are that as many as 100,000 refu-
gees took advantage of this policy.
INFORMATION OPERATIONS
A-9. The siege of Beirut involved using information operations (IO) to
influence the media. PLO information operations were aimed at controlling
the media and hence the international perception of the operation. This was
done by carefully cultivating a select group of pro-PLO media years before
hostilities even began. Once hostilities started, only these media sources were
permitted to report from the besieged portions of the city, and they were only
shown activities that portrayed the IDF negatively. The IDF did not
vigorously counter the PLO plan. In fact, the IDF contributed to it by limiting
media access to their activities. The PLO information operations had a
successful impact. The international community was constantly pressuring
the Israeli government to end hostilities. This put pressure on the IDF to
conduct operations rapidly and to limit firepower and casualties.
A-3
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
CONDUCT OF THE URBAN OPERATIONS
A-10. The siege of Beirut began 1 July (see Figure A-2). By 4 July, Israeli
forces occupied East Beirut, the Green Line separating East and West Beirut,
and dominating positions south of the airport. IDF naval forces also con-
trolled the sea west and north of Beirut. On 3 and 4 July, IDF artillery and
naval fire began a regular campaign of firing on military targets throughout
West Beirut. On 4 July, the IDF cut power and water to the city.
Figure A-2. Initial Conduct of the Urban Operation
PLO HQ
Beirut Airport
PLO Strong Points
Seaport
Sabra Camp
Shatila Camp
Green Line
West Beirut
East Beirut
Stadium
Bourj El Barajneh
Lailaki
•Israeli forces isolate
West Beirut
•3-4 July Israeli
naval and artillery
bombardment
•4 July City water
and power cut off
A-11. From 5 to 13 July, the Israeli fires continued to pound PLO targets in
West Beirut. The PLO gave one significant response, firing on an Israeli posi-
tion south of the city and causing several casualties. On 7 July, reacting to
international pressure, the IDF returned power and water to West Beirut’s
civil population. On 11 July, the IDF launched its first attack, probing the
southern portion of the airport with an armored task force (see Figure A-3).
The PLO repulsed this attack and destroyed several IDF armored vehicles.
A-12. On 13 July, both sides entered into a cease-fire that lasted until
21 July. They began negotiations, mediated by international community, to
end the siege. The PLO used this period to continue to fortify Beirut. The
Israelis used the time to train their infantry and other arms in urban small
unit tactics in Damour, a town the Israeli paratroopers had captured.
A-13. The cease-fire ended on 21 July as PLO forces launched three attacks
on IDF rear areas. The Israelis responded with renewed and even more
vigorous artillery, naval, and air bombardment of PLO positions in the city.
The IDF attacks went on without respite until 30 July. On 28 July, the IDF
renewed its ground attack in the south around the airport (see Figure A-4).
This time IDF forces methodically advanced and captured a few hundred
meters of ground establishing a toehold.
A-4
_______________________ The Siege of Beirut: An Illustration of the Fundamentals of Urban Operations
Figure A-3. Israeli Probe of PLO Defenses
PLO HQ
Beirut Airport
PLO Strong Points
Seaport
Sabra Camp
Shatila Camp
Green Line
West Beirut
East Beirut
Stadium
Bourj El Barajneh
Lailaki
•11 July Israeli naval
and artillery
bombardment
•11 July Israeli
armored probe of
airport
Figure A-4. Initial Israeli Attack
PLO HQ
Beirut Airport
PLO Strong Points
Seaport
Sabra Camp
Shatila Camp
Green Line
West Beirut
East Beirut
Stadium
Bourj El Barajneh
Lailaki
•22-30 July Israeli
naval, air, and artillery
bombardment
•28 July Slow Israeli
advance secures the
airport
A-14. The Israeli bombardment stopped On 31 July. However, on 1 August
the IDF launched its first major ground attack, succe ssf ully seizing Beirut
airport in the south (see Figure A-5 on page A-6). Isr aeli armored forces
began massing on 2 August along the green line, simultaneously continuing
the attack from the south to the outskirts of the Palestinian positions at
Ouzai. On 3 August, the Israeli forces continued to reinforce both their
southern attack forces and forces along the green line to prepare for con-
tinuing offensive operations. On 4 August, the IDF attacked at four different
places. This was the much-anticipated major Israeli offensive.
A-5
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
Figure A-5. Final Israeli Attack
PLO HQ
Beirut Airport
PLO Strong Points
Seaport
Sabra
Camp
Shatila Camp
Green Line
West Beirut
East Beirut
Stadium
Bourj El Barajneh
Lailaki
•1 August Israeli forces
attack to expand
foothold at airport
•2 August Israeli forces
attack from airport
foothold
•2 August Israeli forces
conduct combined arms
attacks across the green
line
•4 August Israeli lead
elements approach PLO
HQ and camps from
north and south
A-15. The Israeli attack successfully disrupted the coherence of the PLO
defense. The southern attack was the most successful: it pushed PLO forces
back to their camps of Sabra and Shatila and threatened to overrun PLO
headquarters. Along the green line the IDF attacked across three crossing
points. All three attacks made modest gains against stiff resistance. For this
day’s offensive, the Israelis suffered 19 killed and 84 wounded, the highest
single day total of the siege, bringing the total to 318 killed. Following the
major attacks on 4 August, Israeli forces paused and, for four days, con-
solidated their gains and prepared to renew the offensive. Skirmishes and
sniping continued, but without significant offensive action. On 9 August, the
IDF renewed air and artillery attacks for four days. This activity culminated
on 12 August with a massive aerial attack that killed over a hundred and
wounded over 400—mostly civilians. A cease-fire started the next day and
lasted until the PLO evacuated Beirut on 22 August.
LESSONS
A-16. The Israeli siege of West Beirut was both a military and a political
victory. However, the issue was in doubt until the last week of the siege. Mili-
tary victory was never in question; the issue in doubt was whether the Israeli
government could sustain military operations politically in the face of inter-
national and domestic opposition. On the other side, the PLO faced whether
they could last militarily until a favorable political end could be negotiated.
The answer was that the PLO’s military situation became untenable before
the Israeli political situation did.
A-17. This favorable military and political outcome stemmed from the careful
balance of applying military force with political negotiation. The Israelis also
A-6
_______________________ The Siege of Beirut: An Illustration of the Fundamentals of Urban Operations
balanced the type of tactics they employed against the domestic aversion to
major friendly casualties and international concern with collateral damage.
PERFORM FOCUSED INFORMATION OPERATIONS
A-18. The PLO devoted considerable resources and much planning on how to
use IO to their best advantage. They chose to focus on media information
sources as a means of influencing international and domestic opinion.
A-19. The PLO’s carefully orchestrated misinformation and control of the
media manipulated international sentiment. The major goal of this effort was
to grossly exaggerate the claims of civilian casualties, damage, and number of
refugees—and this was successfully accomplished. Actual casualties among
the civilians were likely half of what the press reported during the battle. The
failure of the IDF to present a believable and accurate account of operations
to balance PLO efforts put tremendous pressure on the Israeli government to
break off the siege. It was the PLO’s primary hope for political victory.
A-20. In contrast to the weak performance in IO, the IDF excelled in psycho-
logical operations. IDF psychological operations attacked the morale of the
PLO fighter and the Palestinian population. They were designed to wear
down the will of the PLO to fight while convincing the PLO that the IDF
would go to any extreme to win. Thus defeat was inevitable. The IDF used
passive measures, such as leaflet drops and loudspeaker broadcasts. They
used naval bombardment to emphasize the totality of the isolation of Beirut.
To maintain high levels of stress, to deny sleep, and to emphasize their
combat power, the IDF used constant naval, air, and artillery bombardment.
They even employed sonic booms from low-flying aircraft to emphasize the
IDF’s dominance. These efforts helped to convince the PLO that the only
alternative to negotiation on Israeli terms was complete destruction.
CONDUCT CLOSE COMBAT
A-21. The ground combat during the siege of Beirut demonstrated that the
lessons of tactical ground combat learned in the latter half of the twentieth
century were still valid. A small combined arms team built around infantry,
but including armor and engineers, was the key to successful tactical combat.
Artillery firing in direct fire support of infantry worked effectively as did the
Vulcan air defense system. The Israeli tactical plan was sound. The Israelis
attacked from multiple directions, segmented West Beirut into pieces, and
then destroyed each individually. The plan’s success strongly influenced the
PLO willingness to negotiate. Tactical patience based on steady though slow
progress toward decisive points limited both friendly and noncombatant
casualties. In this case, the decisive points were PLO camps, strong points,
and the PLO headquarters.
A-22. The willingness to execute close combat demonstrated throughout the
siege, but especially in the attacks of 4 August, was decisive. Decisive ground
combat was used sparingly, was successful and aimed at decisive points, and
was timed carefully to impact on achieving the political objectives in negotia-
tions. The PLO had hoped that their elaborate defensive preparations would
have made Israeli assaults so costly as to convince the Israelis not to attack.
That the Israelis could successfully attack the urban area convinced the PLO
A-7
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
leadership that destruction of their forces was inevitable. For this reason
they negotiated a cease-fire and a withdrawal on Israeli terms.
AVOID THE ATTRITION APPROACH
A-23. The Israelis carefully focused their attacks on objects that were decisive
and would have the greatest impact on the PLO: the known PLO head-
quarters and refugee centers. Other areas of West Beirut were essentially
ignored. For example, the significant Syrian forces in West Beirut were not
the focus of Israeli attention even though they had significant combat power.
This allowed the Israelis to focus their combat power on the PLO and limit
both friendly casualties and collateral damage.
CONTROL THE ESSENTIAL AND PRESERVE CRITICAL INFRASTRUCTURE
A-24. The Israeli siege assured Israeli control of the essential infrastructure
of Beirut. The initial Israeli actions secured East Beirut and the city’s water,
power, and food supplies. The Israelis also dominated Beirut’s international
airport, closed all the sea access, and controlled all routes into and out of the
city. They controlled and preserved all that was critical to operating the city
and this put them in a commanding position when negotiating with the PLO.
MINIMIZE COLLATERAL DAMAGE
A-25. The Israeli army took extraordinary steps to limit collateral damage,
preserve critical infrastructure, and put in place stringent rules of engage-
ment (ROE). They avoided randomly using grenades in house clearing,
limited the use of massed artillery fires, and maximized the use of precision
weapons. With this effort, the Israelis extensively used Maverick missiles
because of their precise laser guidance and small warheads.
A-26. The strict ROE, however, conflicted with operational guidance that
mandated that Israeli commanders minimize their own casualties and adhere
to a rapid timetable. The nature of the environment made fighting slow. The
concern for civilian casualties and damage to infrastructure declined as IDF
casualties rose. They began to bring more field artillery to bear on Pales-
tinian strong points and increasingly employed close air support. This tension
underscores the delicate balance that Army commanders will face between
minimizing collateral damage and protecting infrastructure while accom-
plishing the military objective with the least expenditure of resources—
particularly soldiers. ROE is but one tool among many that a commander
may employ to adhere to this UO fundamental.
UNDERSTAND THE HUMAN DIMENSION
A-27. The Israelis had a noteworthy (although imperfect and at times flawed)
ability to understand the human dimension during their operations against
the PLO in Beirut. This was the result of two circumstances. First, the PLO
was a threat with which the Israeli forces were familiar after literally
decades of conflict. Second, through a close alliance and cooperation with
Lebanese militia, the Israelis understood a great deal regarding the attitudes
and disposition of the civil population both within and outside Beirut.
A-8
_______________________ The Siege of Beirut: An Illustration of the Fundamentals of Urban Operations
SEPARATE NONCOMBATANTS FROM COMBATANTS
A-28. Separating combatants from noncombatants was a difficult but impor-
tant aspect of the Beirut operation. The Israelis made every effort to posi-
tively identify the military nature of all targets. They also operated a free
passage system that permitted the passage of all civilians out of the city
through Israeli lines. The need to impose cease-fires and open lanes for
civilians to escape the fighting slowed IDF operations considerably. Addi-
tionally, Israeli assumptions that civilians in urban combat zones would
abandon areas where fighting was taking place were incorrect. In many
cases, civilians would try to stay in their homes, leaving only after the battle
had begun. In contrast, the PLO tied their military operations closely to the
civilian community to make targeting difficult. They also abstained from
donning uniforms to make individual targeting difficult.
A-29. Earlier in OPERATION PEACE FOR GALILEE when the IDF attacked
PLO forces located in Tyre, Israeli psychological operations convinced 30,000
Lebanese noncombatants to abandon their homes and move to beach
locations outside the city. However, the IDF was subsequently unable to
provide food, water, clothing, shelter, and sanitation for these displaced
civilians. IDF commanders compounded the situation by interfering with the
efforts by outside relief agencies to aid the displaced population (for fear that
the PLO would somehow benefit). Predictably, many civilians tried to return
to the city complicating IDF maneuver and targeting—that which the separa-
tion was designed to avoid. IDF commanders learned that, while separation
is important, they must also adequately plan and prepare for the subsequent
control, health, and welfare of the noncombatants they displace.
RESTORE ESSENTIAL SERVICES
A-30. Since essential services were under Israeli command, and had been
since the beginning of the siege, the Israelis had the ability to easily restore
these resources to West Beirut as soon as they adopted the cease-fire.
TRANSITION CONTROL
A-31. In the rear areas of the Israeli siege positions, the Israeli army
immediately handed over civic and police responsibility to civil authorities.
This policy of rapid transition to civil control within Israeli lines elevated the
requirement for the Israeli army to act as an army of occupation. The Israeli
army believed the efficient administration of local government and police and
the resulting good will of the population more than compensated for the
slightly increased force protection issues and the increased risk of PLO
infiltration.
A-32. Upon the cease-fire agreement, Israeli forces withdrew to predeter-
mined positions. International forces under UN control supervised the
evacuation of the PLO and Syrian forces from Beirut. These actions were exe-
cuted according to a meticulous plan developed by the Israeli negotiators and
agreed to by the PLO. Israeli forces did not take over and occupy Beirut as a
result of the 1982 siege (an occupation did occur later but as a result of
changing situations).
A-9
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
SUMMARY
A-33. The Israeli siege of West Beirut demonstrates many of the most
demanding challenges of urban combat. In summary, the IDF’s successful
siege of Beirut emerged from their clearly understanding national strategic
objectives and closely coordinating diplomatic efforts with urban military
operations. A key part of that synchronization of capabilities was the under-
standing that the efforts of IDF would be enhanced if they left any escape
option open to the PLO. This way out was the PLO’s supervised evacuation
that occurred after the siege. Although the PLO was not physically destroyed,
the evacuation without arms and to different host countries effectively
shattered the PLO’s military capability. Had Israel insisted on the physical
destruction of the PLO in Beirut, it might have failed because that goal may
not have been politically obtainable in view of the costs in casualties,
collateral damage, and international opinion.
A-10
Appendix B
Urban Intelligence Preparation of the Battlefield
Maneuvers that are possible and dispositions that are essential are
indelibly written on the ground. Badly off, indeed, is the leader who is
unable to read this writing. His lot must inevitably be one of blunder,
defeat, and disaster.
Infantry in Battle
The complexity of the urban environment and increased number of
variables (and their infinite combinations) increases the difficulty of con-
ducting the intelligence preparation of the battlefield (IPB) for urban
operations (UO). Although more intricate, the IPB process remains essen-
tial to the successful conduct of UO. Conducted effectively, it allows com-
manders to develop the situational understanding necessary to visualize,
describe, and direct subordinates in successfully accomplishing the
mission.
CONTENTS
Urbanization of IPB...................................... B-1
Unaffected Process ................................. B-2
Increased Complexity.............................. B-2
Amplified Importance of Civil (Societal)
Considerations........................................ B-3
Significant Characteristics ......................... B-4
Multiple Overlaps..................................... B-5
Urban Terrain and Weather..................... B-5
Urban Society........................................... B-8
Urban Infrastructure .............................. B-10
Threat Considerations............................... B-11
Environmental Threats.......................... B-12
Civilians .................................................. B-13
Urban IPB Tools and Products................. B-16
Overhead Imagery.................................. B-17
Three-Dimensional Representations ... B-17
Infrastructure Blueprints....................... B-17
Hydrographic Surveys........................... B-17
Psychological Profiles........................... B-17
Matrices, Diagrams, or Charts.............. B-18
Various Urban Overlays ........................ B-18
URBANIZATION OF IPB
B-1. IPB is a systematic process for
analyzing the environment and the
threat in a specific geographic area—
the area of operations (AO) and its
associated area of interest. (The area
of interest might include areas that
are not contiguous with the AO.) It
provides direction for the intelligence
system, drives the military decision-
making process, and supports tar-
geting and battle damage assessment
(see Figure B-1). The procedure (as
IPB
Step 1
Step 2Step 4
Step 3
Define
the
Battlefield
Environment
Describe
the
Battlefield’s
Effects
Evaluate
the
Threat
Determine
Threat
Courses of
Action
Figure B-1. The Steps of IPB
B-1
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
well as each of its four steps) is performed continuously throughout the
planning, preparation, and execution of an urban operation.
UNAFFECTED PROCESS
B-2. The IPB process is useful at all echelons and remains constant regard-
less of operation or environment. However, urban IPB stresses some aspects
not normally emphasized for IPBs conducted for operations elsewhere. The
complex mosaic is comprised of the societal, cultural, or civil dimension of the
urban environment; the overlapping and interdependent nature of the urban
infrastructure; and the multidimensional terrain. This mosaic challenges the
conduct of urban IPB. There is potential for the full range of Army operations
to be executed near-simultaneously as part of a single major operation occur-
ring in one urban area with the multiple transitions. Such precision stresses
the importance of a thorough, non-stop IPB cycle aggressively led by the com-
mander and executed by the entire staff. Overall, the art of applying IPB to
UO is in properly applying the steps to the specific environment and threat.
In UO, this translates to understanding and analyzing the significant charac-
teristics of the environment and the role that its populace has in threat
evaluation. FM 34-130 details how to conduct IPB; FM 34-3 has the processes
and procedures for producing all-source intelligence. This appendix supple-
ments the information found there; it does not replace it.
INCREASED COMPLEXITY
B-3. Uncovering intricate relationships takes time, careful analysis, and con-
stant refinement to determine actual effects on friendly and threat courses of
action (COAs). These relationships exist among—
• Urban population groups.
• The technical aspects of the infrastructure.
• The historical, cultural, political, or economic significance of the urban
area in relation to surrounding urban and rural areas or the nation as
a whole.
• The physical effects of the natural and man-made terrain.
A primary goal of any IPB is to accurately predict the threat’s likely COA
(step four—which may include political, social, religious, informational, eco-
nomic, and military actions). Commanders then can develop their own COAs
that maximize and apply combat power at decisive points. Understanding the
decisive points in the urban operation allows commanders to select objectives
that are clearly defined, decisive, and attainable.
Blurred Situational Understanding May Lead to Mission Failure
B-4. Commanders and their staffs may be unfamiliar with the intricacies of
the urban environment and more adept at thinking and planning in other
environments. Therefore, without detailed situational understanding, com-
manders may assign missions that their subordinate forces may not be able
to achieve. As importantly, commanders and their staffs may miss critical
opportunities because they appear overwhelming or impossible (and concede
the initiative to the threat). They also may fail to anticipate potential threat
COAs afforded by the distinctive urban environment. Commanders may fail
to recognize that the least likely threat COA may be the one adopted
B-2
Urban Intelligence Preparation of the Battlefield
precisely because it is least likely and, therefore, may be intended to maxi-
mize surprise. Misunderstanding the urban environment’s effect on potential
friendly and threat COAs may rapidly lead to mission failure and the
unnecessary loss of soldiers’ lives and other resources.
Training, Experience, and Functional Area Expertise
B-5. Not all information about the urban environment is relevant to the
situation and mission—hence the difficulty. Although it may appear
daunting, institutional education, unit training, and experience at conducting
an urban IPB will improve the ability to rapidly sort through all the potential
information to separate the relevant from merely informative. (This applies
to any new or difficult task.) The involvement and expertise of the entire staff
will allow commanders to quickly identify the important elements of the
environment affecting their operations. Fortunately, IPB is a methodology
comprehensive enough to manage the seemingly overwhelming amounts of
information coming from many sources.
B-6. As in any operational environment, tension exists between the desire to
be methodical and the need to create the tempo necessary to seize, retain,
and exploit the initiative necessary for decisive UO. Quickly defining the
significant characteristics of the urban environment requiring in-depth
evaluation (not only what we need to know but what is possible to know)
allows rapid identification of intelligence gaps (what we know versus what we
don’t know). Such identification leads to priority information requirements
(PIR) and will drive the intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR)
plan (how will we get the information we need). FM 3-55 and Chapter 4
discuss ISR. Commanders carefully consider how to develop focused PIR to
enable collectors to more easily weed relevant information from the plethora
of information. Commanders can make better decisions and implement them
faster than a threat can react.
AMPLIFIED IMPORTANCE OF CIVIL (SOCIETAL) CONSIDERATIONS
B-7. The Army focuses on warfighting. The experiences in urban operations
gained at lower echelons often center on the tactics of urban offensive and
defensive operations where the influences of terrain and enemy frequently
dominate. At higher echelons, the terrain and enemy are still essential
considerations, but the societal component of the urban environment is more
closely considered. Moreover, the human or civil considerations gain impor-
tance in support operations and stability operations regardless of the echelon
or level of command. In addition to the echelon and the type of operation, a
similar relationship exists between the key elements of the urban environ-
ment and other situational factors. These factors can include where the
operation lies within the spectrum of conflict or the level of war and the
conventional or unconventional nature of the opposing threat. Figure B-2 on
page B-4 graphically represents the varying significance of these elements to
urban IPB. Population effects are significant only in how they affect the
threat, Army forces, and overall mission accomplishment.
B-8. Describing the battlefield’s effects—step two of the IPB—ascribes
meaning to the characteristics analyzed. It helps commanders understand
how the environment enhances or degrades friendly and threat forces and
B-3
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
capabilities. It also helps commanders understand how the environment sup-
ports the population. It also explains how changes in the “normal” urban
environment (intentional or unintentional and because of threat or friendly
activities) may affect the population. Included in this assessment are matters
of perception. At each step of the IPB process, commanders try to determine
the urban society’s perceptions of ongoing activities to ensure Army opera-
tions are viewed as intended. Throughout this process, commanders, staffs,
and analysts cannot allow their biases—cultural, organizational, personal, or
cognitive—to markedly influence or alter their assessment (see FM 34-3).
This particularly applies when they analyze the societal aspect of the urban
environment. With so many potential groups and varied interests in such a
limited area, misperception is always a risk.
Figure B-2. Relevance of Key Urban Environment Elements
SOCIETY
TERRAIN
TERRAIN SOCIETY
INFRASTRUCTURE
OFFENSE—DEFENSE STABILITY—SUPPORT
TACTICAL OPERATIONAL STRATEGIC
CONVENTIONAL UNCONVENTIONAL
THREAT
Key Elements of the
Key Elements of the
Urban Environment
Urban Environment
Various
Various
Situational
Situational
Factors
Factors
MTW SSC PME
SIGNIFICANT CHARACTERISTICS
B-9. For IPB to remain effective in UO, its analysis must include the urban
environment’s attributes—man-made terrain, society, and infrastructure—
and an evaluation of characteristics traditionally included in IPB: the under-
lying natural terrain (to include weather) and the threat. Because the urban
environment is so complex, it is useful to break it into categories. Then com-
manders can understand the intricacies of the environment that may affect
their operations and assimilate this information into clear mental images.
Commanders can then synthesize these images of the environment with the
current status of friendly and threat forces and develop a desired end state.
Then they can determine the most decisive sequence of activities that will
move their forces from the current state to the end state. Identifying and
understanding the environment’s characteristics (from a friendly, threat, and
B-4
Urban Intelligence Preparation of the Battlefield
noncombatant perspective) allows commanders to establish and maintain
situational understanding. Then they can develop appropriate COAs and
rules of engagement that will lead to decisive mission accomplishment.
B-10. Figures B-3, B-4, and B-5 are not intended to be all-encompassing lists
of urban characteristics. They provide a starting point or outline useful for
conducting an urban IPB that can be modified to meet the commander’s
requirements. Commanders and staffs can compare the categories presented
with those in the civil affairs area study and assessment format found in
FM 41-10 and the IPB considerations for stability operations and support
operations found in FM 34-7.
MULTIPLE OVERLAPS
B-11. Since the urban environment is comprised of a “system of systems,”
considerations among the key elements of the environment will overlap
during urban IPB analysis. For example, boundaries, regions, or areas relate
to a physical location on the ground. Hence, they have urban terrain implica-
tions. These boundaries, regions, or areas often stem from some historical,
religious, political, or social aspect that could also be considered a charac-
teristic of the urban society. Overlaps can also occur in a specific category,
such as infrastructure. For instance, dams are a consideration for their poten-
tial effects on transportation and distribution (mobility), administration and
human services (water supply), and energy (hydroelectric).
B-12. This overlap recognition is a critical concern for commanders and their
staffs. In “taking apart” the urban environment and analyzing the pieces,
commanders and staffs cannot lose perspective of how each piece interacts
with any other and as part of the whole. Otherwise, their vision will be short-
sighted, and they will fail to recognize the second- and third-order effects of
their proposed COAs; the actual end state differing dramatically from the one
envisioned by the commander. The increased density of combatants and non-
combatants, infrastructure, and complex terrain means that a given action
will likely have unintended consequences. Those consequences will be more
widely felt and their impact will spread in less time than in other environ-
ments. These unintended results may have important strategic and opera-
tional consequences. The multiple ways these dynamic urban elements and
characteristics combine make it necessary to approach each urban environ-
ment as a unique IPB challenge.
URBAN TERRAIN AND WEATHER
Terrain
B-13. Earlier admonitions that civil considerations are more closely con-
sidered in UO do not necessarily mean that consideration for urban terrain is
de-emphasized. In every urban operation, terrain and its effects on both
threat and friendly forces is assessed and understood. Then commanders can
quickly choose and exploit the terrain (and weather conditions) that best
supports their missions. Terrain analysis thoroughly assesses urban
structures as well as the ground on which they stand (see Figure B-3 and
FM 5-33). An analysis of urban terrain first considers broader urban charac-
teristics and effects and progress to a more detailed examination.
B-5
FM 3-06__________________________________________________________________________________
Forms and Functions
• Cores
• Industrial areas
Toxic industrial material
production and storage
facilities
Standard signs and
markings for toxic
chemicals
• Outlying high-rise areas
• Residential areas and
shantytowns
• Commercial ribbon areas
• Forts and military bases
Broad Urban Patterns
• Types
Satellite
Network
Linear
Segment
• Dominant or central hub (if
any)
• Area covered (square miles)
Street Patterns
• Basic Types
Radial
Grid
Irregular (planned and
unplanned)
• Variations
Rayed
Radial-Ring
Contour-forming
Combined
• Widths
Construction and Placement
• Construction
Mass or framed
Light or heavy clad
Material (dirt, wood,
stone, brick, cinder block,
concrete, steel, and glass)
Density and thickness
(roofs, floors, and interior
and exterior walls)
Load bearing walls and
columns
Height (floors)
Doors, windows, fire
escapes, and other
openings
Interior floor plan
(including crawl spaces,
elevators, and stairs)
• Placement
Random
Close-orderly block
Dispersed
• Ownership
Military Aspects of Terrain:
OAKOC
• Observation and fields of fire
Smoke (fire), dust
(explosions), and flying
debris
Rubble
Engagement ranges
(including minimum safe
distances and backblast
factors) and
obliquity/angle (ricochets)
Elevation and depression
considerations
Lasers and reflective
concerns
• Avenues of approach
(mobility corridors)
Airspace
Surface
Supersurface
(intrasurface)
Subsurface
• Key terrain
Landmarks
Buildings of significant
cultural, social, political, or
economic significance
• Obstacles
Rubble and vehicles
Masking of fires
Burning buildings or other
fire hazards
Rivers and lakes
• Cover and concealment
Building protection
Weapon penetration
(single shot and multiple
rounds) considerations
Rubble and vehicles
Figure B-3. Significant Urban Terrain Characteristics
B-14. Natural Terrain. The natural terrain features beyond the urban area
and beneath urban structures significantly influence unit operations. They
dictate where buildings can be constructed, the slope and pattern of streets,
and even the broad urban patterns that develop over longer periods of time,
thereby influencing a unit’s scheme of maneuver. The military aspects of
terrain—observation and fields of fire, avenues of approach, key terrain,
obstacles, and cover and concealment (OAKOC)—remain critical to the
analysis of natural terrain in, under, and around urban areas. Fortunately,
commanders and their staffs are accustomed to this type of analysis.
Analysis of an Urban Area’s Underlying Terrain
Mitrovica, Kosovo
An urban area’s underlying terrain provides many clues into its history, economy,
society, and current situation. Mitrovica, Kosovo is an illustrative example. The
Ibar River creates a natural line of communications through the middle of the city
as well as an obstacle that bisects the urban area. This bisection naturally
B-6
Urban Intelligence Preparation of the Battlefield
divides the two resident ethnic groups: Albanians and Serbs. The separation
became significant at both the strategic and tactical levels during 1999 deploy-
ments to Kosovo. Army forces had to ensure that the Orthodox Church located
south of the Ibar was accessible to Serbs residing in the north. North Atlantic
Treaty Organization (NATO) peacekeepers built a footbridge across the river that
allowed reliable, safe passage. The natural feature separating the two groups
assisted NATO troops in maintaining stability in the region.
B-15. Man-Made Terrain. Building composition, frontages, placement,
forms and functions, size, floor plans, and window and door locations affect
maneuver, force positioning, and weapons deployment considerations. Angles,
displacement, surface reflection, and antenna locations influence command
and control. Structures also influence ISR operations. The increased density
and volume created by man-made structures increase how much information
commanders and their staffs collect and assess as well as the number of
forces required. Building materials and construction will also influence force
structures to include weapons and equipment required. The ability to
maneuver through the urban dimensions—airspace, supersurface (including
intrasurface), surface, and subsurface—and shoot through walls, ceilings, and
floors also creates increased psychological stress. The characteristics of man-
made terrain can also be analyzed using OAKOC.
Weather
B-16. Weather and its effects are often considered when examining the mili-
tary aspects of terrain. Military aspects of weather include temperature (heat
and cold), light conditions, precipitation (cloud cover, rain, snow, fog, and
smog), and wind. Their military effects during UO are similar to any opera-
tional environment (see FM 34-81 and FM 34-81-1). Extremes of heat and
cold affect weapon systems and the soldiers that operate them. The extra
luminescence provided by the ambient light of an urban area, unless con-
trolled, may affect night vision capabilities and the ability of the Army to
“own the night.” Precipitation affects mobility and visibility. Smog inversion
layers are common over cities. An inversion layer may trap smoke and chemi-
cals in the air to the detriment of soldiers’ health. (If the conditions are
severe enough, it might require the use of protective masks.) Winds, which
may increase as they are funneled through urban canyons, may—
• Increase other weather effects (wind chill, for example).
• Decrease visibility (blowing debris, sand, rain, and snow).
• Spread radiation, biological, and chemical hazards.
• Adversely affect low-altitude air mobility.
However, commanders also analyze weather for its potential effect on
civilians. Rain might create sewage overflow problems in refugee camps,
increasing disease and even creating panic. (Rain and flooding may also
make some subsurface areas impassable or extremely hazardous to military
forces.) Other weather effects on UO can include—
• Heavy snowfall in an urban area that may paralyze area transporta-
tion and distribution infrastructure, hindering the urban administra-
tion’s ability to provide vital human services (police, fire fighting,
B-7
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
medical, and rescue). Heavy rains may have similar effects on poorly
designed and constructed roads.
• Extreme hot and cold weather climates that increase the dependence
(and military significance) of many elements of the infrastructure. For
example, the energy infrastructure may be critical; without it, civilians
may not be adequately cooled or heated.
• In urban areas located in tropical regions, it can rain at the same time
each day during the wet season. Threat forces may attack during these
periods knowing aircraft will have difficulty responding. Bad weather
also reduces the effectiveness of surveillance, direct and indirect fire,
and logistic support.
• Inclement weather may preclude demonstrations or rallies by threats.
Good weather may mean a maximum turnout of civilians for events
such as festivals, sporting events, and other social, cultural, or
religious activities.
• Severe weather may affect psychological and civil-military operations.
Heavy rains may disrupt leaflet drops, construction projects, and medi-
cal and veterinary assistance programs.
URBAN SOCIETY
B-17. This manual shows that societal considerations take on added impor-
tance. Critical to operational success is knowing which groups live in an
urban area, what relationships exist among them, and how each population
group will respond to friendly and threat activities. Often determining any of
this is very difficult. Social and cultural understanding is also essential in
helping commanders and their staffs to view the urban area as the residents
view it. The demographics presented depict what conditions exist, while the
other categories help to explain the root causes or why conditions exist (see
Figure B-4). These other categories include health, history, leadership,
ethnicity and culture, religion, and government and politics.
Population Demographics
• General population size
Village
Town
City
Metropolis
Megalopolis
• Group size based on race
age, sex, political affiliation,
economics, religion, tribe,
clan, gang, criminal
activities, or other significant
grouping
Significant US or allied
populations
Distribution, densities, and
physical boundaries and
overlaps
Majority, minority, and
dominant groups
• Increasing or decreasing
migration trends
Dislocated civilians
• Nongovernmental
organizations
Local
National
International
• Languages (distribution,
dialects, relationship to
social structure)
• Educational levels and
literacy rates
• Crime rates
• Birth and death rates
• Labor statistics and
considerations
Skilled and unskilled
Imported and exported
Unemployment
Standard wages and per
capita income
Workday and workweek
norms
Health
• Diseases
• Nutritional deficiencies
• Local standards of care
• Pollution and environmental
hazards (air, water, food,
and soil)
• Health workers (types,
numbers, and degree of skill)
History
• General and for a specific
group
Internal or external
Recent conflicts
Figure B-4. Significant Urban Societal Characteristics
B-8
________________________________________________ Urban Intelligence Preparation of the Battlefield
History (continued)
• Relationship with US, allies,
and other participating
multinational forces
• Applicable international
treaties
• Status-of-forces agreements
• Antagonists/protagonists
• Heroes
• Events, facts, and dates
considered important or
celebrated
• Urban area’s historical
importance
Leadership and Prominent
Personalities
• Affiliation (ethnic, religion,
military, government,
industry, criminal, or
entertainment)
• Education attained
• Organization and distribution
of power
• Associations among different
leaders and groups
Ethnicity and Culture
• Values, moral codes, taboos,
and insults (verbal and non-
verbal)
• Attitudes towards age, sex,
and race (including same-
sex interaction)
• Role of the clan, tribe, or
family
• Biases between ethnic
groups
• Privacy and individuality
• Recreation, entertainment,
and humor
• Fatalism or self-determination
• Exchanges of gifts
• Displays of emotion
• Lines of authority
• Dating and marriage
• Greetings, leave-takings,
and gestures
• Visiting practices
• Alcohol and drug use
• Important holidays, festivals,
sporting, or entertainment
events
• Eating and dietary practices
• Significance of animals and
pets
• Urban-rural similarities and
differences
• Driving habits
• Clothing
Religion
• Sects, divisions, and
overlaps
• Religious biases and
problems
• Relationship and influence
on government, politics,
economics, and education
• Impact on ethnic and cultural
beliefs
• Key events or celebrations
(daily, weekly, monthly, or
annually)
• Funeral and burial practices
Government and Politics
• Present and past forms
• Organization and powers
(executive, legislative,
judicial, and administrative
divisions)
• Scheduled elections and
historical turnouts
• Degree of control over the
population
Identification required
Border-crossing
procedures
• Relationship with US or
multinational governments,
national governments, and
criminal elements
• Political factions and
boundaries
• Political traditions
• Grievances
• Censorship
• Nepotism and other clan,
tribal, or social ties
• Civil defense and disaster
preparedness (organization,
plans, training, equipment,
and resources)
Evacuation routes
• Legal system
System of laws
Applicable treaties
Courts and tribunals
Procedures
Records (birth and deeds)
• Property control
• Monetary system (formal
and informal)
• Domestic and foreign trade
Taxation and tariffs
Customs requirements
Rationing and price
controls
Economic performance
and contribution to gross
national product
Economic aid
Perception of relative
deprivation
Trade unions
Competition with the black
market and organized
crime
Figure B-4. Significant Urban Societal Characteristics (continued)
B-18. Aside from friendly and threat forces, the society is the only thinking
component of the urban environment able to rapidly impact the urban opera-
tion. (Even people going about their daily routines can unwittingly hamper
the mission.) Urban residents create conditions for restrictive rules of engage-
ment, increase stress on soldiers and logistic capabilities, and confuse threat
identification (see Threat Considerations in this appendix). Demographic,
health, safety, ethnic, and cultural concerns will be essential considerations
in most UO. Other situational factors—the mission, enemy, and time
available—dictate the balance between the level of detail and analysis to
B-9
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
support the overall urban operation with the level of detail that commanders
and their staffs can achieve. However, an IPB that fails to devote enough
time and resources to societal analysis can find large elements of the popu-
lation turned against the Army force. Analyzing the urban society first may
help to focus or limit further analysis of the terrain and infrastructure,
saving time and ISR resources.
URBAN INFRASTRUCTURE
B-19. Functional and analytical overlap readily appears when examining
urban infrastructures (see Figure B-5). They are composed of physical
structures or facilities and people. Hence, much of the analysis conducted for
terrain and society can apply when assessing the urban infrastructure. For
example, commanders, staffs, and analysts could not effectively assess the
urban economic and commercial infrastructure without simultaneously con-
sidering labor. All aspects of the society relate and can be used to further
analyze the urban work force since they are a subelement of the urban
society. Similarly, the OAKOC aspects used to evaluate terrain may also
apply to the urban infrastructure, especially considerations of key terrain.
Transportation and
Distribution
• Water
Shipyards and other port
and harbor facilities
Inland waterways, canals,
and locks
Offshore pipeline berths
Cargo storage and
handling
Types and number of
ships, boats, and ferries
Dams
• Streets and roads
Bridges and fords
Over- and underpasses
Raised embankments,
tunnels, culverts, and
other subterranean
features (widths and
clearances)
Parking areas (surface,
subsurface, and
supersurface)
Weight restrictions
Traffic light operations
Traffic patterns
Widths
Surface materials
• Rail
Lines
Terminals
Switchyards and junctions
Subways, bridges,
elevated rail lines, and
underpasses (clearances)
Track gauges
Types and number of
rolling stock
Electrification
• Air
Airfields and runways
(including capabilities)
Heliports and helipads
(including rooftop)
Types and number of
aircraft
Cargo storage and
handling
• Trucking companies and
delivery services
• Available material-handling
equipment
• Rush hour and market time
considerations
• Seasonal (weather) effects
• Rubble effects
• Impact of dislocated civilians
and migration patterns
• Likely population
congregation points
• Identifiable primary and
alternate lines of
communications
Economics and Commerce
• Industries
Types and Locations
Important companies
(including US or allied)
Military production
facilities
• Sources of raw materials
• Use of toxic industrial
materials and biological
agents
Agriculture (insecticides,
herbicides, and fertilizers)
Manufacturing
Cleaning
Research
• Food types, quantities, and
sources
Requirements and
availability
Storage and processing
Cleanliness standards
• Stores, shops, restaurants,
hotels, and strip malls
• Recreation facilities
Outdoor and amusement
parks
Stadiums and other sports
facilities
• Machine shops
• Brick and lumber yards
• Banking and investment
institutions
Figure B-5. Significant Urban Infrastructure Characteristics
B-10
________________________________________________ Urban Intelligence Preparation of the Battlefield
Administration and Human
Services
• Police and fire protection
Headquarters, station,
and key facilities locations
Organization and
strengths
Equipment
Functions, authority, and
jurisdictional boundaries
Contract guard services
• Welfare and public
assistance
Monetary assistance
Orphanages
Elderly care facilities
• Water supply systems
Water sources and
storage (lakes, reservoirs,
cisterns, pools, and public
baths)
Water treatment and
quality
Pumping stations and
other distribution methods
(trucks, bottles)
Hydrant locations
• Snow removal capabilities
• Street light operations
• Health facilities
Hospitals
Emergency medical
services
Mental institutions
Medical supplies and
equipment
Research and
pharmaceutical buildings
Blood banks
• Governmental buildings
Embassies
Capitol building
Legislative, judicial, and
ministry buildings
Hall of records
• Cultural resources
Religious buildings
(churches and mosques)
Shrines, monuments, and
other historical structures
Schools, museums,
theaters, and libraries
• Waste and sanitation
Types (solid, sewage, and
toxic)
Collection, processing,
and disposal
Dumps or landfills
Drainage systems
• Effects of military control
measures on providing vital
human services
Energy
• Types
Electric
Oil
Coal
Natural gas
Nuclear
Solar
Hydroelectric
Geothermal
• Facilities
Production and
processing
Storage
• Distribution
Pipelines (above and
below ground)
Power lines (overhead
and underground)
Water, rail, and road
• Potential hazards
Communication and
Information
• Print media
Newspapers, periodicals,
and pamphlets
Billboards and posters
Postal facilities
• Telephone facilities
Wire or wireless
Facsimile machines
• Telegraph facilities
• Radio facilities
• Police, fire, and rescue
systems
• Security systems
• Television facilities
• Computers and the Internet
• Antennas, towers, relay
stations, and lines (surface
and subsurface)
• Integration of space-based
capabilities
• Public forums and speech
• Low-technology media (cars
horns, drums, graffiti, and
burning tires)
• Key media organizations and
reporters
Local
International
US
Figure B-5. Significant Urban Infrastructure Characteristics (continued)
THREAT CONSIDERATIONS
B-20. Chapter 3 outlines the instability and uncertainty of the strategic
environment. Commanders and staffs, and analysts identify and analyze the
threat in steps three and four of the IPB process. They analyze the threat’s
composition, strength, disposition, leadership, training, morale, weapons and
capabilities, vulnerabilities, internal logistics and external support, doctrine
(if any), strategy or modus operandi, and tactics. The threat can take a
variety of forms:
• Conventional military forces.
• Paramilitary forces.
• Guerrillas and insurgents.
• Terrorists.
• Militia or special police organizations.
B-11
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
B-21. A general study of guerrilla and insurgent tactics, techniques, and
procedures may prove beneficial to many types of operations regardless of the
actual composition or type of threat forces. Insurgent strategies and tactics
may work especially well in this complex environment and will likely be a
part of any threat COA. Particularly, commanders understand how a threat
might restrict itself by the laws of land warfare and similar conventions, or
exploit the use of these conventions to its own gain. Commanders can refer to
FM 31-20-3 for more information. For many of the above threats, no doctrinal
templates may exist. Commanders, staffs, and analysts evaluate, update (or
create), and manage threat databases early (and continuously) in the IPB
process.
. . . [T]he adversaries of freedom . . . send arms, agitators, aid, technicians and
propaganda to every troubled area. . . . [S]ubversives and saboteurs and insurre-
ctionists . . . [possess] the power to conscript talent and manpower for any purpose, .
. . and long experience in the techniques of violence and subversion. . . . It is a
contest of will and purpose as well as force and violence—a battle for minds and
souls as well as lives and territory.
John F. Kennedy
Message to Congress, 27 April 1961
ENVIRONMENTAL THREATS
B-22. While threats vary, they share a common characteristic: the capability
and intent to conduct violence against Army forces to negatively influence
mission accomplishment. These threats are often the most recognizable for
forces trained for warfighting—these are often the enemy. Army units be able
to conduct full spectrum operations—offense, defense, stability, and support.
Commanders broaden their concept of the threat when analyzing the urban
environment’s terrain, societal, and infrastructure characteristics. This
analysis includes many environmental dangers (potentially affecting both
sides of a conflict as well as noncombatants) such as—
• Natural disasters (earthquakes, fires, floods, and heavy snows).
• Hunger, starvation, and malnutrition.
• Water shortages.
• Rampant disease.
• Pollution and toxic industrial materials.
A critical difference between the latter forms of threat and the former is the
lack of intent to do harm. The latter may stand alone as threats, or these
conditions may be created, initiated, or used by the enemy or a hostile as a
weapon or tool. Threat analysis includes identifying and describing how each
relevant characteristic of the area of operation can hinder mission accom-
plishment. This analysis, particularly during stability operations and support
operations, may require extensive coordination and cooperation with urban
civil authorities, law enforcement, and numerous governmental and non-
governmental organizations.
B-12
________________________________________________ Urban Intelligence Preparation of the Battlefield
CIVILIANS
B-23. In a major theater war where offensive and defensive operations are
conducted against a clear enemy, the third step of IPB—identify the threat—
is readily accomplished. Its well-established procedures include updating or
creating threat models and identifying threat capabilities. This same analytic
process includes modeling population subgroups. The process applies to
smaller-scale contingencies, peacetime military engagement activities where
stability operations and support operations dominate, and urban offensive
and defensive operations where civilians are in close proximity to Army
forces. This adaptation is necessary to further broaden the threat concept to
include specific elements of the urban society and, in some instances, non-
governmental organizations (NGOs) and other civilian agencies working in
the urban area. In many stability operations, this modification can account
for opposing armed forces that are not an enemy but are a threat to the
mission. As discussed in Chapter 8, Army forces in many stability operations
and support operations must avoid classifying or thinking of these threats as
the enemy.
Need for More Accurate Categories
B-24. Army forces recognized that the threat evaluation was not a straight-
forward assessment of the capabilities of a known, armed enemy. This
resulted in developing categories for assessing the disposition of population
subgroups within an AO: enemy, neutral, or friendly. Sectors of the popula-
tion were labeled based on which side (if any) each group seemed to favor.
This early method helped to mitigate Army forces’ situational uncertainty. It
provides a general idea of the level of support or resistance Army forces
might expect by elements of the urban population.
B-25. Aside from the flawed labeling of every threat as an enemy, the initial
attempt at categorization was a good first step. However, it required refine-
ment to better indicate the level of threat or utility that civilian groups pose
for Army forces conducting UO. It also provides a clearer basis for detecting
and monitoring shifts in key or relevant relationships (see Figure B-6). Com-
manders note that where a group or subgroup falls along this continuum is
relative to the perspective from which it is viewed. This is an especially
important consideration in multinational and interagency UO. During opera-
tions in Somalia, US Army forces may have viewed a particular clan as a
hostile element. The United Nations’ Italian contingent, with their colonial
background in the region, may have considered the same clan as neutral or
even an ally.
B-26. Although necessary and greatly improved, commanders recognize that
no system of categorization will precisely classify any given group; no system
can reflect the overall nature and complexity of the urban society. A single
group may fit in a particular category. It may also have components in two or
more categories simultaneously. Often, it can shift among categories during
an operation. A given group may have individuals in it who have interests
identical to or different from that group and these individual interests may
change over time.
B-13
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
Hostile: An element (individual, group, or organization) that has the intent to
negatively influence mission accomplishment by supporting enemy forces (or
another hostile element) or exploiting friendly vulnerabilities but is not
engaging in protracted combat operations.
Obstacle: An element whose presence or activities serve to unintentionally impede,
disrupt, or constrain friendly operations by imposing additional losses in
personnel, time, equipment, and resources. Its interests may or may not be
compatible with friendly objectives.
Neutral: An element whose presence, activities, and overall interests do not conflict
with friendly, enemy, or hostile forces.
Aide: An element whose present intentions are—either wittingly or unwittingly—
compatible with friendly force objectives.
Ally: An element whose fundamental interests and intent align with friendly force
objectives.
Hostile Obstacle Neutral Aide Ally
THREAT FRIENDLY
Figure B-6. Continuum of Relative Interests
B-27. A peace enforcement operation illustrates the varying nature of groups.
An identified criminal group might be classified as an obstacle to the com-
mander’s mission because its illegal activities impede unit progress. Its com-
pelling interest, however, is to make money rather than interfere with
friendly forces. In the same operation, one of the armed belligerents may be
intent on disrupting the peace process and would be, therefore, classified as a
hostile. (Again, not as an enemy unless they engaged in prolonged combat
operations against the peacekeeping force.) The belligerent force may finance
the criminal organization to assist in further obstructing the peace mission.
The criminal organization moves from being an obstacle to that of a hostile.
Shifting Civilian Interests and Intent
Among other applicable lessons (see also the vignette in Chapter 8), the Los
Angeles riots of 1992 illustrate how urban population groups can shift their
relative positions due to changing conditions in an urban AO. Several gangs exist
in the Los Angeles area. Usually, these gangs are hostile to one another. During
the riots, however, several rival gangs formed a “united front” against what was
seen as a larger obstacle to their own interests: law enforcement. As a result, the
hostile gangs became one another’s aides during that time.
B-28. This classification effort, therefore, is not a one-time undertaking; com-
manders constantly review and update it (like the entire IPB process itself).
Groups or individuals can be influenced into assisting either the friendly or
opposing force. People will also act opportunistically, shifting support and
alliances as perceived advantages arise. Even seemingly passive and
B-14
________________________________________________ Urban Intelligence Preparation of the Battlefield
law-abiding members of the urban society may conduct themselves in unex-
pected ways given the right conditions (mob violence, for example).
Similarities, Differences, Capabilities, and Vulnerabilities
B-29. Focal Points for Analysis. Similarities and differences in interests
and interdependencies between groups are often focal points for analysis (and
the allocation of ISR assets). They may indicate how commanders may influ-
ence, coerce, or align civilian interests and intentions with mission objectives.
Simultaneously, commanders consider an analysis of the civilian element’s
(individual, group, or organization) capability to influence the accomplish-
ment of friendly objectives. They also consider civilians’ vulnerabilities and
dependencies. If a civilian group’s fundamental interests align with friendly
objectives and this group has the intent to assist friendly forces, it is clearly
an ally. However, with limited or no capability, a specific group will not help
move the commander any closer to achieving his desired end state and
accomplishing the mission. Then the commander would normally limit the
resources expended on this group to those necessary for maintaining their
commitment to common goals and objectives.
B-30. Creating Civilian Capability as Aide or Ally. In contrast, com-
manders may provide a group with resources to enhance or create the capa-
bility to assist in mission accomplishment. They may do this if they felt that
the assistance gained (or reduction to threat support) exceeds the potential
diminishment of their own force’s capabilities from losing those same
resources. Commanders would also consider the group’s dependencies (such
as food, infrastructure, and protection) and overall vulnerability to outside
influence. If vulnerable to friendly influence or control (understanding urban
societal considerations and matters of perception are critical in this regard),
then forces are likely susceptible to enemy or hostile manipulation. Even if
commanders can generate extra resources (and not significantly affect their
own force’s capabilities), they still conduct this same cost-benefit analysis to
determine which civilian group (if any) should receive resources.
Greatest Potential Nearer the Center
B-31. The most critical population sectors often are those nearest the middle
of the spectrum, particularly if their capabilities (or potential) significantly
degrades or enhances mission accomplishment. These are the obstacle,
neutral, or aide categories. If their interests can be adequately understood,
commanders may have great chance to influence the population segment and
significantly contribute to mission accomplishment.
Political and Strategic Concerns
B-32. The aide category may be of significant political or strategic concern.
An aide group may be invaluable for accomplishing intermediate objectives
but become a vulnerability to accomplishing a larger stability operation.
(Even an urban offensive or defensive operation is likely to transition to a
stability operation.) Commanders may provide resources to a criminal organi-
zation to assist in defeating insurgent forces during urban combat operations.
Once these forces have been subdued, the interests (monetary gain and
defeat of the threat) linking friendly forces with this criminal element
B-15
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
disappear. What may remain is a criminal organization with more power
than a reconstituted or newly established law enforcement agency and a truly
destabilizing force. This also illustrates the second- and third-order thinking
that will be required of commanders and their staffs during UO.
Figure B-7. Urban IPB Tools and Products
Psychological
Profiles
Overhead Imagery
3-D Representations
Blueprints
Hydrographic
Surveys
C
Foreign Support
B
A
Finance
F
D
E
Logistics
G
H
I
Propaganda
Recruiti ng
Kidnapping
Extortion
J
KMatrices,
Diagrams, or
Charts
•Association Matrix (or Link Diagram)
•NGO Matrix
•Media Analysis Matrix
•Population Capabilities and
Dependencies Matrix
•Pattern Analysis Plot Chart
1
2
3
4
5
Overlays
•Population Status
•Forms and Functions
•Infrastructure
•Critical Infrastructure
•LOCs
•Route
•Hazardous Facilities
•Protected Target
•Line of Sight or
Intervisibility
•Structures Over a
Specific Height
•Subsurface Area
•Incident
URBAN IPB TOOLS AND PRODUCTS
B-33. Adapting IPB to UO involves recognizing the intent of each of the steps
of the process and adapting analytic tools and products to help meet those
intentions in a complex environment (see Figure B-7 and FM 3-34.230). Stan-
dard tools and products include: modified combined obstacle overlays and
doctrinal, situation, event, and decision support templates or matrices. In
addition to these standards aids, staffs and analysts may develop or produce
other innovative tools to assist commanders in their situational under-
standing of the complex urban environment. Staffs and analysts may also
initiate requests for products (or information) from their higher headquarters
or other agencies with the technical means or control over assets when the
capability lies outside the Army force’s means. The tools that developed or
requested may include—
• Overhead imagery.
• Three-dimensional representations.
• Infrastructure blueprints.
• Hydrographic surveys.
• Psychological profiles.
• Matrices, diagrams, or charts.
• Various urban overlays.
B-16
________________________________________________ Urban Intelligence Preparation of the Battlefield
OVERHEAD IMAGERY
B-34. Recent satellite imagery or aerial photography will be required for most
types of UO. Such images clarify vague and inaccurate maps and other
graphic representations. Satellite assets provide responsive data input into
the geographic information systems (GIS). (The National Imagery and Map-
ping Agency [NIMA] and other intelligence sources prepare data sets.) GIS
will often form the basis for creating the three-dimensional representations
and the various overlays described below. Frequently updated (or continuous
real-time) satellite or aerial imagery may be required for detailed pattern
analysis and maintaining accurate situational understanding. For example,
imagery taken during an area’s rainy season may appear significantly altered
during the summer months.
THREE-DIMENSIONAL REPRESENTATIONS
B-35. Often, physical or computer-generated (virtual) three-dimensional
representations may be required to achieve situational understanding. These
representations include specific sections of the urban area or specific
buildings or structures. Such detail is particularly important for special
operating forces and tactical-level units. These units require detail to achieve
precision, increase the speed of the operation, and lessen friendly casualties
and collateral damage.
INFRASTRUCTURE BLUEPRINTS
B-36. Urban police, fire, health, public utilities, city engineers, realtors, and
tourist agencies often maintain current blueprints and detailed maps. Such
documents may prove useful to update or supplement military maps or to
clarify the intricacies of a specific infrastructure. They may prove critical in
operations that require detailed information to achieve the speed and preci-
sion required for success. Without such detail, analysts determine interior
configurations based on a building’s outward appearance. That task becomes
more difficult as the building size increases.
HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYS
B-37. Many urban areas are located along the world’s littorals regions and
major rivers. Therefore, commanders may need hydrographic surveys to
support amphibious, river crossing, and logistic operations.
PSYCHOLOGICAL PROFILES
B-38. Psychological profiles analyze how key groups, leaders, or decision-
makers think or act—their attitudes, opinions, and views. They include an
analysis of doctrine and strategy, culture, and historical patterns of behavior.
The degree to which the attitudes, beliefs, and backgrounds of the military
either reflect or conflict with the urban populace’s (or civilian leadership’s)
core values is extremely important in this analysis. Psychological profiles
help to assess the relative probability of a threat (or noncombatant group)
adopting various COAs as well as evaluating a threat’s vulnerability to
deception. These profiles are derived from open-source intelligence as well as
signals and human intelligence.
B-17
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
MATRICES, DIAGRAMS, OR CHARTS
B-39. Matrices, diagrams, and charts help to identify key relationships
among friendly and threat forces and other significant elements of the urban
environment. These tools and products include—
• Association Matrix (or Link Diagram). The association matrix
helps identify the nature and relationship between individuals and
groups. Similarly, the link diagram graphically represents key relation-
ships between population elements. These tools are critical for iden-
tifying common interests. A significant matrix may be a comparison of
cultural perspectives—ideology, politics, religion, acceptable standards
of living, and mores—between urban population groups and Army (and
multinational) forces to help understand and accurately predict a
civilian element’s actions.
• NGO Matrix. Potentially a form of the association matrix, this matrix
contains each NGO’s location, capabilities, and relationships (with
specific elements of the civilian population, threat and friendly forces,
and other NGOs). (See the discussion of Participating Organizations
and Agencies in Chapter 8.)
• Media Analysis Matrix. This conceptual tool can be used to evaluate
each information medium (and the multiple elements within each).
Such mediums can include radio, television, print, word of mouth,
Internet, and graffiti with its effect on specific sectors of urban popula-
tion (or larger audiences). This can assist in the perception analysis.
• Population Capabilities and Dependencies Matrix. This matrix is
similar to the NGO matrix. It describes the capabilities and depen-
dencies of the urban population elements. It is essential in identifying
each element’s role (threat or friendly) and influence. Depending on
their location along the threat-friendly continuum, dependencies may
be vulnerabilities that must be attacked or sustained and protected.
• Pattern Analysis Plot Chart. This chart depicts the times and dates
of a selected activity (such as ambushes, bombings, and demonstra-
tions) to search for patterns of activity for predictive purposes as well
as to discern intent.
VARIOUS URBAN OVERLAYS
B-40. Staffs can produce various map overlays. These overlays depict physical
locations of some aspect critical to the planning and conduct of the urban
operation. NIMA can produce many overlays as an integrated map product
(including satellite imagery). These overlays can include the—
• Population Status Overlay. This tool depicts the physical location of
various groups identified by any significant social category such as
religion or language. During offensive and defensive operations, it may
simply be where significant numbers of people are “huddled” or located
throughout the battlefield. Population dispersal can vary significantly
through the day, particularly at night, and must be considered as part
of the overall analysis leading to the development of this tool.
• Forms and Functions Overlay. Based on the urban model, this over-
lay depicts the urban core or central business district, industrial areas,
B-18
________________________________________________ Urban Intelligence Preparation of the Battlefield
outlying high-rise areas, commercial ribbon areas, and residential
areas, to include shantytowns.
• Infrastructure Overlay. This overlay is actually a series of overlays.
It depicts identifiable subsystems in each form of urban infrastructure:
communications and information, transportation and distribution,
energy, economics and commerce, and administration and human ser-
vices. Each subsystem can be broken down into more detail. Infrastruc-
ture data may be used to develop three other overlays—
Critical Infrastructure Overlay. This tool displays specific
elements of the urban infrastructure that, if harmed, will adversely
affect the living conditions of the urban society to the detriment of
the mission. These elements may include power generation plants,
water purification plants and pumping stations, and sewage
treatment plants. This information could be coded as part of the
overall infrastructure overlay.
Lines of Communications (LOCs) Overlay. The LOCs overlay
highlights transportation systems and nodes, such as railways,
road, trails, navigable waterways, airfields, and open areas for drop
zones and landing zones. It also includes subsurface areas and
routes such as sewage, drainage, and tunnels and considers
movement between supersurface areas. The LOCs overlay and the
route overlay (below) consider traffic conditions, times, and loca-
tions, to include potential points where significant portions of the
urban population may congregate.
Route Overlay. This overlay emphasizes mobility information to
assist commanders and planners in determining what forces and
equipment can move along the urban area’s mobility corridors.
Pertinent data includes street names, patterns, and widths; bridge,
underpass, and overpass locations; load capacities; potential sniper
and ambush locations (which may be its own overlay); and key
navigational landmarks. The structures over a specific height
overlay and subsurface overlay may assist in its development. As
with the LOCs overlay, commanders, planners, and analysts think
in all dimensions.
• Line of Sight or Intervisibility Overlay. This product creates a pro-
file view (optical or electronic) of the terrain from the observer’s loca-
tion to other locations or targets. It can show trajectory or flight-line
masking as well as obstructed or unobstructed signal pathways.
• Structures Over a Specific Height Overlay. This level of detail
may also be critical to communications, fires, and Army airspace
command and control (air mobility corridors especially low-level flight
profiles). Incorporated as part of this overlay, it may include floors or
elevations above limitations for particular weapon systems at various
distances from the structure.
• Subsurface Area Overlay. As an alternate to the building or struc-
ture height overlay, this product provides the locations of basements,
underground parking garages, sewers, tunnels, subways, naturally
occurring subterranean formations, and other subsurface areas. Simi-
lar to elevation “dead spaces,” this overlay may show areas that exceed
B-19
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
depression capabilities of weapon systems and potential threat ambush
locations—again, affecting maneuver options.
• Urban Logistic Resources Overlay. This product identifies the loca-
tions of urban logistic resources that may contribute to mission accom-
plishment. It may contain specific warehouse sites, hospitals and medi-
cal supply locations, viable food stores, building material locations, fuel
storage areas, car or truck lots, maintenance garages, and appliance
warehouses. (NGO locations, taken from the NGO matrix, may be an
essential, overlapping element of this overlay.)
• Hazardous Facilities Overlay. This overlay identifies urban struc-
tures with known or suspected chemical, biological, or radiological
features, such as nuclear power plants, fertilizer plants, oil refineries,
pharmaceutical plants, and covert locations for producing weapons of
mass destruction. These locations are critical to maneuver and fire
planning.
• Protected Target Overlay. This overlay depicts terrain that should
not be destroyed or attacked based on restrictions due to international,
host-nation, or US law and subsequent rules of engagement. These
may include schools, hospitals, historical or other culturally significant
monuments, and religious sites. This overlay may incorporate no-fire
areas, such as special operations forces locations, critical infrastruc-
ture, logistic sources, and hazardous sites that must be protected as
part of the commander’s concept of the operation.
• Incident Overlay. Similar to the pattern analysis plot chart, this pro-
duct depicts the location of different threat actions and types of tactics
employed to uncover recurring routines, schemes, methods, tactics, or
techniques and overall threat interests, objectives, or the desired end
state.
B-41. The above IPB tools and products constitute a small sampling of what
staffs and analysts can produce. They are limited only by their imaginations
and mission needs (not all tools presented above may be relevant or neces-
sary to every operation). Many products can be combined into a single
product or each can generate further products of increasing level of detail.
This is similar to transparent overlays positioned one atop another on a map.
Technology may allow for more urban data to be combined, compared,
analyzed, displayed, and shared. The challenge remains to provide timely,
accurate, complete, and relevant information in an understandable and
usable form without overloading the commander.
B-20
Appendix C
Operations in Somalia:
Applying the Urban Operational Framework to
Support and Stability
It’s impossible for an American mother to believe that a Somali mother
would raise children to avenge the clan.
Major General Thomas M. Montgomery
GENERAL SITUATION
C-1. Following decades
of political unrest and
the fall of Somali
dictator Siad Barre, a
civil war broke out as
14 clans vied for
power. The resulting
nation composed of
hostile social factions
was held together by
weak political
alliances—none strong
enough to unite and
lead the country to
national reconciliation.
An ongoing drought
led to famine and com-
pounded the ethnic
tensions and political instability. This volatile situation rapidly led to a
phased US involvement (see Figure C-1). Army forces combined, sequenced,
and proportionally emphasized the different types of operations to accomplish
HOP
Support
Offense
Defense
Stability
Support
Stability
Defense Offense
Stability
Support
Defense
Offense
Dates
UN Security
Council
Resolution
Relative
Proportionality
Between Types of
Operations
Aug 92
–
Dec 92
Dec 92
–
May 93
May 93
–
Mar 94
UNSCR# 751
24 Apr 92
UNSCR# 794
3 Dec 92
UNSCR# 814
26 Mar 93
CONTINUED
HOPE
(UNOSOM II)
Operation
PROVIDE
RELIEF
(UNOSOM I)
RESTORE
HOPE
(UNITAF)
Figure C-1. Phases of US Involvement in Somalia
CONTENTS
General Situation ......................................... C-1
Somali Operations ....................................... C-2
Initial UN Response ................................. C-2
PROVIDE RELIEF (UNOSOM I) ............... C-2
RESTORE HOPE (UNITAF)...................... C-2
CONTINUED HOPE (UNOSOM II) ........... C-3
Phased Withdrawal.................................. C-4
Assess .......................................................... C-5
Understanding the Clan (The Human
Dimension) ............................................... C-5
Threat Strategy and Tactics.................... C-5
Vulnerability and Risk Assessment ....... C-6
Shape ............................................................ C-7
Dominate....................................................... C-7
Unity of Command (Effort)...................... C-7
Measured Restraint.................................. C-8
Transition...................................................... C-8
Summary....................................................... C-9
C-1
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
changing political objectives. Throughout all operations in Somalia, urban
areas were critical to achieving mission success.
SOMALI OPERATIONS
INITIAL UN RESPONSE
C-2. The United Nations (UN) initially responded to requests for assistance
from international relief organizations by sending supplies and other forms of
humanitarian aid to Somalia. However, widespread looting, fighting between
gangs, and other lawlessness prevented supplies from reaching the hungry
and sick. Only 20 percent of the food entering the country reached the people
who needed it. An estimated 25 percent of Somalia’s 6 million people died of
starvation or disease. In April 1992, the UN issued Security Council Reso-
lution (UNSCR) 751 which authorized 50 unarmed observers, but the action
had little effect. Under continuing pressure for additional measures to ensure
the delivery of supplies and relief, the UN authorized 500 armed peace-
keepers (furnished by Pakistan and transported by US sea- and airlift) to
protect humanitarian workers. The battalion’s limited mission, designated
UN Operations in Somalia I (UNOSOM I), encompassed safeguarding the
unloading of ships and providing convoy security.
PROVIDE RELIEF (UNOSOM I)
C-3. In July 1992, the UN requested an increased airlift of supplies and the
US quickly responded. US Central Command (CENTCOM) activated joint
task force (JTF) OPERATION PROVIDE RELIEF. Based on careful mission
analysis, CENTCOM limited the JTF’s actions to—
• Deploying a humanitarian assistance survey team to assessing relief
requirements.
• Providing an emergency airlift of supplies.
• Using Air Force cargo aircraft for daily relief sorties into Somalia.
CENTCOM restricted the sorties to flying during daylight hours and to
locations that would provide a permissive and safe environment. In mid-
September 1992, the US prudently expanded its role by stationing the am-
phibious ready group Tarawa offshore to provide support to the Pakistani
security battalion and to provide security for US airlift operations. The 11th
Marine expeditionary unit (MEU) was on board the USS Tarawa to rapidly
respond to any change in mission (see Appendix D for a description and the
capabilities of a MEU).
RESTORE HOPE (UNITAF)
C-4. By November 1992, the magnitude of the task, UN organizational defi-
ciencies, and a continued lack of security precluded delivery of sufficient sup-
plies to the needy. Notably, a ship laden with relief supplies was fired on in
the harbor at Mogadishu, forcing its withdrawal before the supplies could be
brought ashore, and a Pakistani peacekeeper was shot when his car was
hijacked. Subsequently, the US offered to provide forces and lead an UN-
sponsored operation to reopen the flow of food to where it was needed most.
In December 1992, the UN issued UNSCR 794, which authorized member
states “to use all necessary means to establish a secure environment for
C-2
Operations in Somalia: Applying the Urban Operational Framework to Support and Stability
humanitarian relief operations in Somali” and demanded “all factions in
Somalia immediately cease hostilities.” To allay concerns of colonialism by a
number of African countries, the UN Secretary-General was given oversight
of the operation. The resolution also required soldiers to be withdrawn once
order was restored; however, it provided no exit strategy. As clearly as
possible, the CENTCOM mission statement for OPERATION RESTORE
HOPE reflected the UN mandate:
When directed by the [President or the Secretary of Defense],
USCINCCENT will conduct joint/combined military operations in
Somalia to secure the major air and sea ports, key installations and
food distribution points, to provide open and free passage of relief
supplies, provide security for convoys and relief organization opera-
tions, and assist UN/NGOs in providing humanitarian relief under
UN auspices. Upon establishing a secure environment for uninter-
rupted relief operations, USCINCCENT terminates and transfers
relief operations to UN peacekeeping forces.
C-5. Mogadishu was the largest
port in the country and the focal
point of previous humanitarian
relief activities of nongovern-
mental organizations (NGOs). It
was also the headquarters of the
coalition of 20 nations and over 30
active humanitarian relief organi-
zations. As such, Mogadishu
became the entry point for the
operational buildup of the multina-
tional force known as Unified Task
Force (UNITAF) and the key
logistic hub for all operations in
Somalia. UNITAF immediately
gained control over the flow of
relief supplies into and through
Mogadishu and stabilized the
conflict among the clans. In less
than a month, UNITAF forces
expanded control over additional
ports and interior airfields. They
secured additional distribution
sites in other key urban areas in the famine belt to include Baidoa, Baledogle,
Gialalassi, Bardera, Belet Uen, Oddur, Marka, and the southern town of
Kismayo (see Figure C-2). With minimal force, the US-led UNITAF
established a secure environment that allowed relief to reach those in need,
successfully fulfilling its limited—yet focused—mandate.
Indian
Ocean
Gulf of Aden
Ethiopia
Kenya
Djibouti
N
Kismayo
Oddur
Mogadishu
Belet Uen
Gialalassi
Baidoa
Hargeysa
Djibouti
Obbia
Gardo
Alula
Galcaio
Erigavo
Eyt
Dire
Dawa
Bardera
Baledogle
Marka
Burao
Bender
Cassim
Berbera
Bender
Beila
Hard Surfaced
Road
Major Airfield
Secondary
Airfield
Port
River
Somalia
Figure C-2. Map of Somalia
CONTINUED HOPE (UNOSOM II)
C-6. In March 1993, the UN issued UNSCR 814 establishing a permanent
peacekeeping force, UNOSOM II. However, the orderly transition from
UNITAF to UNOSOM II was repeatedly delayed until May 1993. (The UN
C-3
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
Secretary-General urged the delay so that US forces could effectively disarm
bandits and rival clan factions in Somalia.) This resolution was significant in
two critical aspects:
• It explicitly endorsed nation building with the specific objectives of
rehabilitating the political institutions and economy of Somalia.
• It mandated the first ever UN-directed peace enforcement operation
under the Chapter VII enforcement provisions of the Charter,
including the requirement for UNOSOM II to disarm the Somali clans.
The creation of a peaceful, secure environment included the northern
region that had declared independence and had hereto been mostly
ignored.
These far-reaching objectives exceeded the limited mandate of UNITAF as
well as those of any previous UN operation. Somali clan leaders rejected the
shift from a peacekeeping operation to a peace enforcement operation. They
perceived the UN as having lost its neutral position among rival factions. A
more powerful clan leader, General Mohammed Farah Aideed (leader of the
Habr Gidr clan), aggressively turned against the UN operation and began a
radio campaign. This campaign characterized UN soldiers as an occupation
force trying to recolonize Somalia.
C-7. The mounting crisis erupted in June 1993. Aideed supporters killed 24
Pakistani soldiers and wounded 57 in an ambush while the soldiers were con-
ducting a short-warning inspection of one of Aideed’s weapons arsenals.
UNSCR 837, passed the next day, called for immediately apprehending those
responsible and quickly led to a manhunt for Aideed. The US deployed 400
Rangers and other special operations forces (SOF) personnel to aid in
capturing Aideed, neutralizing his followers, and assisting the quick reaction
force (QRF), composed of 10th Mountain Division units, in maintaining the
peace around Mogadishu.
PHASED WITHDRAWAL
C-8. On 3 October 1993, elements of Task Force (TF) Ranger (a force of
nearly 100 Rangers and SOF operators) executed a raid to capture some of
Aideed’s closest supporters. Although tactically successful, 2 helicopters were
shot down, 75 soldiers were wounded, and 18 soldiers were killed accom-
plishing the mission. The US deaths as well as vivid scenes of mutilation to
some of the soldiers increased calls to Congress for withdrawing US forces
from Somalia. The President then ordered reinforcements to protect US
Forces, Somalia (USFORSOM) as they began a phased withdrawal with a
31 March deadline. The last contingent sailed from Mogadishu on 25 March,
ending OPERATION CONTINUED HOPE and the overall US mission in
Somalia.
C-9. Although US forces did not carry out the more ambitious UN goals of
nation building, they executed their missions successfully, relieving untold
suffering through humanitarian assistance with military skill and profes-
sionalism. Operations in Somalia occurred under unique circumstances, yet
commanders may glean lessons applicable to future urban support operations
and stability operations. In any operations, commanders balance changing
mission requirements and conditions.
C-4
Operations in Somalia: Applying the Urban Operational Framework to Support and Stability
ASSESS
C-10. Although accomplished to varying degrees, US forces failed to
adequately assess the urban environment, especially the society. Somali cul-
ture stresses the unity of the clan; alliances are made with other clans only
when necessary to elicit some gain. Weapons, overt aggressiveness, and an
unusual willingness to accept casualties are intrinsic parts of the Somali
culture. Women and children are considered part of the clan’s order of battle.
C-11. Early in the planning for OPERATION RESTORE HOPE, US forces
did recognize the limited transportation and distribution infrastructure in
Mogadishu. The most notable was the limited or poor airport and harbor
facilities and its impact on the ability of military forces and organizations to
provide relief. Therefore, a naval construction battalion made major improve-
ments in roads, warehouses, and other facilities that allowed more personnel,
supplies, and equipment to join the relief effort faster.
UNDERSTANDING THE CLAN (THE HUMAN DIMENSION)
C-12. During OPERATION RESTORE HOPE, the UNITAF worked with the
various clan leaders as the only recognized leadership remaining in the
country. The UNITAF was under the leadership of LTG Robert B. Johnston
and US Ambassador to Somalia, Robert Oakley. In addition, UNITAF forces
also tried to reestablish elements of the Somali National Police—one of the
last respected institutions in the country that was not clan-based. This
reinstated police force manned checkpoints throughout Mogadishu and
provided crowd control at feeding centers. Largely because of this
engagement strategy, the UNITAF succeeded in its missions of stabilizing
the security situation and facilitating humanitarian relief. Before its termi-
nation, the UNITAF also worked with the 14 major Somali factions to agree
to a plan for a transitional or transnational government.
C-13. The UN Special Representative of the Secretary-General, retired US
Navy admiral Jonathon Howe, worked with the UNOSOM II commander,
Turkish General Cevik Bir. During OPERATION CONTINUED HOPE,
Howe and General Bir adopted a philosophy and operational strategy dis-
similar to their UNITAF predecessors. Instead of engaging the clan leaders,
Howe attempted to marginalize and isolate them. Howe initially attempted to
ignore Aideed and other clan leaders in an attempt to decrease the warlord’s
power. Disregarding the long-established Somali cultural order, the UN felt
that, in the interest of creating a representative, democratic Somali govern-
ment, they would be better served by excluding the clan leadership. This
decision ultimately set the stage for strategic failure.
THREAT STRATEGY AND TACTICS
C-14. During OPERATION RESTORE HOPE, US forces also failed to
properly analyze their identified threat’s intent and the impact that the
urban environment would have on his strategy, operations, and tactics. The
UN began to view eliminating Aideed’s influence as a decisive point when
creating an environment conducive to long-term conflict resolution. Aideed’s
objective, however, remained to consolidate control of the Somali nation
under his leadership—his own brand of conflict resolution. He viewed the
UN’s operational center of gravity as the well-trained and technologically
C-5
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
advanced American military forces, which he could not attack directly. He
identified a potential American vulnerability—the inability to accept
casualties for an operation not vital to national interests—since most
Americans still viewed Somalia as a humanitarian effort. If he could convince
the American public that the price for keeping troops in Somalia would be
costly, or that their forces were hurting as many Somalis as they were
helping, he believed they would withdraw their forces. If US forces left, the
powerless UN would leave soon after, allowing Aideed to consolidate Somalia
under his leadership.
VULNERABILITY AND RISK ASSESSMENT
C-15. US forces failed to assess and anticipate that Aideed would adopt this
asymmetric approach and attack the American public’s desire to remain
involved in Somalia. By drawing US forces into an urban fight on his home
turf in Mogadishu, he could employ guerrilla insurgency tactics and use the
urban area’s noncombatants and its confining nature. Such tactics made it
difficult for the US forces to employ their technological superiority. If US
forces were unwilling to risk harming civilians, his forces could inflict heavy
casualties on them, thereby degrading US public support for operations in
Somalia. If, on the other hand, the US forces were willing to risk increased
civilian casualties to protect themselves, those casualties would likely have
the same effect.
C-16. However, an assessment of the Somali culture and society should have
recognized the potential for Aideed’s forces to use women and children as
cover and concealment. Accordingly, the plan should have avoided entering
the densely populated Bakara market district with such restrictive rules of
engagement. As legitimacy is critical to stability operations, TF Ranger
should have been prepared and authorized to employ nonlethal weapons, to
include riot control gas, as an alternative to killing civilians or dying
themselves.
C-17. US forces also failed to assess and recognize the critical vulnerability of
their helicopters in an urban environment and the potential impact on their
operations. TF Ranger underestimated the threat’s ability to shoot down its
helicopters even though they knew Somalis had attempted to use massed
rocket-propelled grenade (RPG) fires during earlier raids. (Aideed brought in
fundamentalist Islamic soldiers from Sudan, experienced in downing Russian
helicopters in Afghanistan, to train his men in RPG firing techniques). In
fact, the Somalis had succeeded in shooting down a UH-60 flying at rooftop
level at night just one week prior to the battle. Instead, TF Ranger kept their
most vulnerable helicopters, the MH-60 Blackhawks, loitering for forty
minutes over the target area in an orbit that was well within Somali RPG
range. The more maneuverable AH-6s and MH-6s could have provided the
necessary fire support. Planning should have included a ready ground
reaction force, properly task organized, for a downed helicopter contingency.
C-18. Information operations considerations apply throughout the entire
urban operational framework; however, operations security (OPSEC) is criti-
cal to both assessment and shaping. OPSEC requires continuous assessment
throughout the urban operation particularly as it transitions among the
range of military operations and across the spectrum of conflict. As offensive
C-6
Operations in Somalia: Applying the Urban Operational Framework to Support and Stability
operations grew during OPERATION CONTINUED HOPE, US forces did
little to protect essential elements of friendly information. Combined with the
vulnerability of US helicopters, Aideed’s followers used US forces’ inattention
to OPSEC measures to their advantage. The US base in Mogadishu was open
to public view and Somali contractors often moved about freely. Somalis had
a clear view both day and night of the soldiers’ billets. Whenever TF Ranger
would prepare for a mission, the word rapidly spread through the city. On
3 October 1993, Aideed’s followers immediately knew that aircraft had taken
off and, based on their pattern analysis of TF Ranger’s previous raids, RPG
teams rushed to the rooftops along the flight paths of the task force’s
Blackhawks.
SHAPE
C-19. One of the most critical urban shaping operations is isolation. During
OPERATION CONTINUED HOPE, US forces largely discounted other
essential elements of friendly information and did not establish significant
public affairs and psychological operations (PSYOP) initiatives. In fact, Army
forces lacked a public affairs organization altogether. Consequently, Aideed
was not isolated from the support of the Somali people. This failure to shape
the perceptions of the civilian populace coupled with the increased use of
lethal force (discussed below) allowed Aideed to retain or create a sense of
legitimacy and popular support.
C-20. During OPERATION RESTORE HOPE, Aideed conducted his own
PSYOP efforts through “Radio Aideed”—his own radio station. UNITAF
countered these efforts with radio broadcasts. This technique proved so effec-
tive that Aideed called MG Anthony C. Zinni, UNITAF’s director of opera-
tions, over to his house on several occasions to complain about UNITAF radio
broadcasts. General Zinni responded, “if he didn’t like what we said on the
radio station, he ought to think about his radio station and we could mutually
agree to lower the rhetoric.” This approach worked.
DOMINATE
C-21. The complexity of urban operations requires unity of command to iden-
tify and effectively strike the center of gravity with overwhelming combat
power or capabilities. Complex command and control relationships will only
add to the complexity and inhibit a commander’s ability to dominate and
apply available combat power to accomplish assigned objectives. Stability
operations and support operations as seen in Somalia required commanders
to dominate only within their supporting role and, throughout, required
careful, measured restraint.
UNITY OF COMMAND (EFFORT)
C-22. During OPERATION RESTORE HOPE, UNITAF successfully met
unity of command challenges through three innovations. First, they created a
civil-military operations center (CMOC) to facilitate unity of effort between
NGOs and military forces. Second, UNITAF divided the country into nine
humanitarian relief sectors centered on critical urban areas that facilitated
both relief distribution and military areas of responsibility. Third, to
C-7
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
establish a reasonable span of control, nations that provided less than
platoon-sized contingents were placed under the control of the Army, Marine
Corps, and Air Force components.
C-23. On the other hand, during OPERATION CONTINUED HOPE,
UNOSOM II command and control relationships made unity of command
(effort) nearly impossible. The logistic components of USFORSOM were
under UN operational control, while the QRF remained under CENTCOM’s
combatant command—as was TF Ranger. However, the CENTCOM
commander was not in theater. He was not actively involved in planning TF
Ranger’s missions or in coordinating and integrating them with his other
subordinate commands. It was left to TF Ranger to coordinate with the QRF
as needed. Even in TF Ranger, there were dual chains of command between
SOF operators and the Rangers. This underscores the need for close coordi-
nation and careful integration of SOF and conventional forces (see Chap-
ter 4). It also emphasizes overall unity of command (or effort when command
is not possible) among all forces operating in a single urban environment.
C-24. Following TF Ranger’s 3 October mission, the command structure
during OPERATION CONTINUED HOPE was further complicated with the
new JTF-Somalia. This force was designed to protect US forces during the
withdrawal from Somalia. JTF-Somalia came under the operational control of
CENTCOM, but fell under the tactical control of USFORSOM. Neither the
JTF nor USFORSOM controlled the naval forces that remained under
CENTCOM’s operational control. However unity of effort (force protection
and a rapid, orderly withdrawal) galvanized the command and fostered close
coordination and cooperation among the semiautonomous units.
MEASURED RESTRAINT
C-25. During OPERATIONS PROVIDE RELIEF and RESTORE HOPE, US
forces dominated within their supporting roles. Their perseverance, adapta-
bility, impartiality, and restraint allowed them to provide a stable, secure
environment. Hence, relief organizations could provide the food and medical
care necessary to reduce disease, malnourishment, and the overall mortality
rate. However, during OPERATION CONTINUED HOPE, US operations
became increasingly aggressive under the UN mandate. Peace enforcement
also requires restraint and impartiality to successfully dominate and achieve
political objectives. The increased use of force resulted in increased civilian
casualties, which in turn reduced the Somalis’ perception of US legitimacy.
As a result, most moderate Somalis began to side with the Aideed and his
supporters. Many Somalis felt that it was fine to intervene in the country to
feed the starving and even help establish a peaceful government, but not to
purposefully target specific Somali leaders as criminals.
TRANSITION
C-26. Across the spectrum of conflict, Army forces must be able to execute the
full range of operations not only sequentially but, as in the case of operations
in Somalia, simultaneously. OPERATION PROVIDE RELIEF began pri-
marily as foreign humanitarian assistance (a support operation) and
progressed to include peacekeeping (a stability operation), defensive opera-
tions to protect UN forces and relief supplies, and minimum offensive
C-8
Operations in Somalia: Applying the Urban Operational Framework to Support and Stability
operations. As operations transitioned to OPERATION RESTORE HOPE, it
became apparent that while foreign humanitarian assistance was still the
principal operation, other operations were necessary. Peacekeeping, show of
force, arms control, offensive, and defensive operations grew more necessary
to establish a secure environment for uninterrupted relief operations. In the
final phase of US involvement during OPERATION CONTINUED HOPE,
major changes to political objectives caused a transition to peace enforcement
with an increase in the use of force, offensively and defensively, to create a
peaceful environment and conduct nation building.
SUMMARY
C-27. OPERATIONS PROVIDE RELIEF and RESTORE HOPE were
unquestionably successes. Conversely, during OPERATION CONTINUED
HOPE, the 3-4 October battle of Mogadishu (also known as the “Battle of the
Black Sea”) was a tactical success leading to an operational failure. TF
Ranger succeeded in capturing 24 suspected Aideed supporters to include two
of his key lieutenants. Arguably, given the appropriate response at the
strategic level, it had the potential to be an operational success. After accom-
panying Ambassador Oakley to a meeting with Aideed soon after the battle,
MG Zinni described Aideed as visibly shaken by the encounter. MG Zinni
believed Aideed and his subordinate leadership were tired of the fighting and
prepared to negotiate. Unfortunately, the US strategic leadership failed to
conduct the shaping actions necessary to inform and convince the American
public (and its elected members of Congress) of the necessity of employing
American forces to capture Aideed. The president was left with little recourse
after the battle of Mogadishu but to avoid further military confrontation.
C-28. Despite this strategic failing, the operational commanders might have
avoided the casualties, and any subsequent public and Congressional
backlash, had they better communicated among themselves and worked with
unity of effort. Recognizing the separate US and UN chains of command, the
UN Special Representative, along with the CENTCOM, USFORSOM, and TF
Ranger commanders, should have established the command and control
architecture needed. This architecture would have integrated planning and
execution for each urban operation conducted. These commanders failed to
“operationalize” their plan. They did not properly link US strategic objectives
and concerns to the tactical plan. The TF Ranger mission was a direct opera-
tional attempt to obtain a strategic objective in a single tactical action. Yet,
they failed to assess the lack of strategic groundwork, the threat’s intent and
capabilities, and the overall impact of the urban environment, to include the
terrain and society, on the operation. Such an assessment may not have led
to such a high-risk course of action and instead to one that de-emphasized
military operations and emphasized a political solution that adequately con-
sidered the clans’ influence.
C-9
CONTENTS
Purpose .........................................................D-0
Service Urban Capabilities..........................D-1
Air Force....................................................D-1
Marine Corps.............................................D-2
Navy ...........................................................D-3
Coast Guard..............................................D-5
Urban Functional Combatant Command
Capabilities .............................................D-5
Transportation Command........................D-5
Space Command ......................................D-6
Special Operations Command ................D-7
Multinational Considerations ....................D-10
Appendix D
D-1.
D-2.
Joint and Multinational Urban Operations
[Joint force commanders] synchronize the actions of air, land, sea,
space, and special operations forces to achieve strategic and opera-
tional objectives through integrated, joint campaigns and major
operations. The goal is to increase the total effectiveness of the joint
force, not necessarily to involve all forces or to involve all forces
equally.
JP 3-0
As pointed out earlier, Army forces, division size and larger, will likely be
required to conduct operations in and around large urban areas in
support of a joint force commander (JFC). The complexity of many urban
environments, particularly those accessible from the sea, requires unique
leveraging and integration of all the capabilities of US military forces to
successfully conduct the operation. This appendix discusses many of these
capabilities; JP 3-06 details joint urban operations.
PURPOSE
In some situations, a major urban operation is required in an inland
area where only Army forces are operating. Army commanders determine if
the unique requirements of the urban environment require forming a joint
task force (JTF) or, if not, request support by joint capabilities from the
higher joint headquarters. Sometimes the nature of the operation is straight-
forward enough or the urban operation is on a small enough scale that
conventional intraservice support relationships are sufficient to meet the
mission requirements.
Most major urban operations (UO), however, require the close
cooperation and application of joint service capabilities. A JTF may be
designated to closely synchronize the efforts of all services and functions in
an urban area designated as a joint operations area (JOA). If a large urban
area falls in the context of an even larger ground force area of operations, a
JTF dedicated to the urban operation may not be appropriate. These
D-0
Joint and Multinational Urban Operations
situations still require joint capabilities. In such cases, the responsible JFC
designates support relations between major land units and joint functional
commands. The major land units can consist of Army forces, Marine Corps
forces, or joint forces land component command. The joint functional
commands can consist of the joint special operations task force (JSOTF), joint
psychological operations (PSYOP) task force, or joint civil-military operations
task force.
D-3.
D-4.
D-5.
D-6.
D-7.
This appendix describes the roles of other services and joint combatant
commands in UO. It provides an understanding that enables Army com-
manders to recommend when to form a JTF or to request support from the
JFC. It also provides information so commanders can better coordinate their
efforts with those of the JFC and the commanders of other services or compo-
nents conducting UO. Lastly, this appendix describes some considerations
when conducting UO with multinational forces.
SERVICE URBAN CAPABILITIES
Army forces conducting UO rely on other services and functional joint
commands for specialized support in the urban environment. These capa-
bilities are requested from and provided through the commanding JFC. Army
forces request the assets and capabilities described in this annex through
their higher headquarters to the joint command. The JFC determines if the
assets will be made available, the appropriate command relationship, and the
duration of the support. Army forces prepare to coordinate planning and
execution with other services and to exchange liaison officers. These capa-
bilities can greatly increase the Army’s ability to assess, shape, dominate,
and transition within the context of UO.
AIR FORCE
Air Force support is an important aspect of the Army force concept for
urban operations. Air Force elements have a role to play in UO across the
range of Army operations.
Air Force intelligence,
surveillance, and recon-
naissance (ISR) systems
contribute significantly to
assessing the urban area.
These ISR systems include
the E-8 Joint Surveillance,
Target Attack Radar
System (JSTARS) (see Figure D-1), U2S, RC-135 Rivet Joint, or RQ-4A
Global Hawk unmanned aerial vehicle. Air Force ISR systems can provide
vital data to help assess threat intentions, threat dispositions, and an under-
standing of the civilian population. These systems also can downlink raw
information in real-time to Army intelligence processing and display systems,
such as the common ground station or division tactical exploitation system.
Figure D-1. USAF E-8 JSTARS Platform
Air interdiction (AI) can be a vital component of shaping the urban
battlespace. Often, AI of the avenues of approach into the urban area isolates
the threat by diverting, disrupting, delaying, or destroying threat forces
D-1
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
before they can be used effectively against Army forces. AI is especially
effective in major theater war (MTW) circumstances where restrictions on
airpower are limited and the threat is likely to be a conventionally equipped
enemy. In 1991 during OPERATION DESERT STORM, AI helped prevent
the Iraqi 5th Mechanized Division from reaching Khafji.
D-8.
D-9.
D-10.
D-11.
D-12.
Precise air-delivered fires can positively and directly affect the conduct
of Army close combat actions in the urban area. Special munitions designed
to penetrate hardened bunkers can provide unique support to land forces exe-
cuting UO. Problems associated with dense smoke and dust clouds hanging
over the urban area and laser scatter may restrict the use of special, heavy,
laser-guided bombs. If the launching aircraft can achieve a successful laser
designation and lock-on, these weapons have devastating effects, penetrating
deep into reinforced concrete before exploding with great force. If launched
without a lock-on, or if the laser spot is lost, these weapons are unpredictable
and can travel long distances before they impact.
General-purpose bombs from 500 to 2,000 pounds can also be used; how-
ever, they are only moderately effective against enemy located in large
buildings. High-dive angle bomb runs may improve accuracy and penetration
but will increase the aircraft’s exposure to antiaircraft weapons. Low-dive
angle bomb runs using high-drag (retarded) bombs may be appropriate to
place bombs into upper stories but penetration is poor. On the other hand,
aerial bombs can pass completely through light-clad buildings and explode on
the outside with unwanted effects.
In addition to shaping and dominating the UO through firepower, com-
manders can use Air Force capabilities to improve and augment the urban
transportation and distribution infrastructure. Air Force units can repair or
improve airfields, revitalize civil aviation maintenance facilities, manage air-
delivered cargo, and control civil and military air traffic. These latter capa-
bilities particularly enhance urban stability operations and support opera-
tions. These capabilities may even be decisive. Air-delivered cargo and air
traffic management, for example, were the decisive factors in US forces’
successful resistance of the Soviet blockade of Berlin in 1948. In OPERA-
TION RESTORE HOPE, from December 1992 to May 1993, Air Force
operations in Mogadishu were critical to airlifting and staging supplies and
forces. The Air Force determined the ultimate success of the humanitarian
assistance operation (see the Somalia vignette in Appendix C).
In unique situations, such as the Berlin Blockade and OPERATION
RESTORE HOPE, exercising Air Force urban capabilities may be the decisive
action of the operation. Air Force capabilities will play a shaping role,
sustaining role, or both in joint urban operations because of the requirement
to occupy terrain and interface with the population.
MARINE CORPS
The Marine Corps can assault across water obstacles into a defended
urban environment. This capability is an invaluable tactical and operational
tool. The mere threat of this capability can divert many enemy forces from
other avenues of approach and obscure the true nature of an attack. The
impact of the threat of amphibious assault was vividly demonstrated during
D-2
Joint and Multinational Urban Operations
OPERATION DESERT STORM where embarked Marine Forces diverted
several Iraqi divisions to defensive positions along the coast and near Kuwait
City.
D-13.
D-14.
D-15.
D-16.
D-17.
D-18.
The presence of Marine amphibious equipment, apart from Marine
infantry, provides Army forces unique capabilities. In UO, the amphibious
operation is often not an assault from the sea, but rather an assault river
crossing. In 1950, the 7th US Infantry Division used amphibious tractor
support from the 1st Marine Division to conduct an assault river crossing of
the Han River into downtown Seoul.
The worldwide deployment of Marine air-ground task forces (MAGTFs)
enables a short notice response into any urban areas accessible from the sea.
Typically, a deployed MAGTF is a Marine expeditionary unit (special opera-
tions capable) (MEU[SOC]). The MEU(SOC) can perform forcible entry opera-
tions, seize lodgments, and may execute these tasks anticipating reinforce-
ment by Army or joint forces. They are also well positioned and equipped to
rapidly reinforce Army forces already deployed in theater. The special-
operations-capable training that these units accomplish before deploying
includes urban warfare training and contributes to their value in UO. The
MEU(SOC) is relatively small (its core unit is a Marine infantry battalion), is
forward deployed, and has a wide spectrum of organic capabilities. It is an
important asset in crisis stability operations and support operations.
The Marine expeditionary brigade is the MAGTF between a MEU and a
Marine expeditionary force (the largest MAGTF). All MAGTFs include an
aviation combat element, which is particularly skilled at providing accurate
and timely close air support. The responsiveness and accuracy of Marine
close air support aptly suits it to UO where the lethality of combat and the
close range of engagements demand accurate and responsive fires (see
FM 3-31.1).
Marine forces that conduct UO work well in littoral urban areas
because of their unique relationship with naval forces and thus their capa-
bility to closely integrate land and sea operations. A supporting arms liaison
team may be attached to Army forces at battalion level to provide ship-to-
shore communications and coordination for naval gunfire support.
NAVY
Many major urban areas are accessible from the sea. Army com-
manders understand how sea power can influence and support UO. The Navy
brings several major capabilities to UO. These include naval gunfire support,
naval air support, and port and coastal security.
Naval surface fire support (which includes naval gunfire support) par-
ticularly applies to forcible entry operations in littoral urban areas. It pro-
vides an initial indirect fire support capability until Army forces land ashore.
However, naval gunfire support lacks a precision munitions capability. In
defensive operations, naval gunfire support can also add major fires,
especially during retrograde operations through an urban area. Naval gunfire
support of the 3rd Infantry Division was the primary fire support for the last
two days of the X Corps retrograde operation out of the port of Hungnam,
North Korea, in December 1950.
D-3
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
D-19.
D-20.
D-21.
D-22.
Destroyers and
cruisers, which
mount the 127mm
MK45 lightweight
gun system (see Fig-
ure D-2), usually
provide naval gun-
fire support. This
gun system can
provide a rate of fire
of 16-20 rounds per
minute per gun to a
range of approxi-
mately 23 kilo-
meters. Naval air
support, based on
the highly mobile
aircraft carrier battle group, can provide highly responsive full-spectrum
aviation support to UO in most major urban areas. This alleviates the need
for fixed-wing aviation bases.
Figure D-2. USN MK45 Lightweight Gun System
Due to its flat trajectory, terrain masking affects naval gunfire more
than field artillery. Naval gunfire also results in large range probable errors
(the dispersion pattern of the naval gun is roughly elliptical with the long
axis in the direction of fire). Hence, coverage of targets such as roads and air-
fields is most effective when the gun-target line (GTL) coincides with the long
axis of the target. Very close supporting fire can be delivered when the GTL
is parallel to the front line of troops. Oppositely, a GTL perpendicular to the
front trace can endanger friendly forces. Within the limits of hydrographic
conditions, the ship can maneuver to achieve a better GTL, but ship
movement also makes it difficult to adjust fire. Overall, naval and air threats,
bad weather, and large range probable errors make naval gunfire difficult
and can cause cancellation of supporting fires.
Water terminals located in urban areas are usually the debarkation
points for the bulk of Army forces as well as a joint force theater logistics
requirement. Army forces are responsible for water terminal operations while
naval capabilities protect these strategic and operationally vital facilities.
Naval coastal warfare (NCW) is the responsibility of the JFC and is
often exercised through the Navy component commander. He may assign a
naval coastal warfare commander for an appropriate geographic area. NCW
includes coastal sea control, port security, and harbor defense. While coastal
sea control is conducted in the environment of the open seas, port security
and harbor security include the urban environment. Port security is the
safeguarding of vessels, harbors, ports, waterfront facilities, and cargo from
internal threats. It includes destruction, loss, or injury from sabotage or other
subversive acts; accidents; thefts; or other causes of similar nature. The
Navy’s role in protecting essential urban infrastructure is often key. This
task is also important when executing stability operations or support
operations if the threats against urban infrastructure will likely be uncon-
ventional.
D-4
Joint and Multinational Urban Operations
D-23.
D-24.
D-25.
D-26.
D-27.
D-28.
Harbor defense protects harbor approaches, harbors, anchorages, and
ports from external threats. Harbor defense focuses on the conventional
defense of port infrastructure. It is a task appropriate in a MTW scenario and
often includes port security as a subtask. The JFC executes NCW (focused on
harbor defense and port security) using combined Navy capabilities including
surface warfare, aviation, and naval special operations. See also discussions
in this appendix on transportation command and special operations
command.
COAST GUARD
The Coast Guard, like the Navy, can significantly influence the conduct
of UO when the urban area is accessible from the sea. The US Coast Guard
(USCG) is the federal authority for port security and harbor defense of
domestic facilities. When directed by the President, the USCG can augment
the Navy in operations overseas. Historically, the entire USCG was under
Navy control during both World Wars I and II. USCG elements deployed
overseas and operated under Navy control during the Vietnam War and
during OPERATIONS DESERT SHIELD and DESERT STORM.
The USCG uses surface warfare systems and aerial reconnaissance
systems to conduct its missions. Its air systems are unarmed, whereas its
surface systems are armed for self-defense and law enforcement operations.
The USCG is experienced and adept at supporting other agencies, local
governments, and law enforcement. Its capabilities can best support Army
UO in stability operations or support operations or the stability and support
aspects of an operation. The USCG works effectively against an unconven-
tional threat and threats with on-water capability.
URBAN FUNCTIONAL COMBATANT COMMAND CAPABILITIES
Three commands provide urban functional combatant command
capabilities. Transportation Command works for the Department of Defense.
Space Command integrates several agencies. Special Operations Command
uses special operations forces.
TRANSPORTATION COMMAND
US Transportation Command (USTRANSCOM) provides strategic air,
land, and sea transportation for the Department of Defense to deploy,
employ, sustain, and redeploy US military forces worldwide. USTRANSCOM
provides global transportation management, using an integrated transpor-
tation system across the spectrum of operations through its transportation
component commands (TCCs). The TCC consists of Air Mobility Command
(AMC), Military Sealift Command (MSC), and Military Traffic Management
Command (MTMC).
During urban operations, USTRANSCOM, through its TCC, can
provide common-user terminal services in support of strategic transportation
movements to a theater of operations. AMC provides common-user airlift, air
refueling, and aeromedical evacuation services. It is the worldwide aerial port
manager and, where designated, the operator of common-user aerial ports of
embarkation and aerial ports of debarkation. MSC provides common-user
D-5
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
sealift services between seaports of embarkation (SPOEs) and seaports of
debarkation (SPODs). MTMC provides common-user ocean terminal service
and, where designated, serves as the single port manager at SPOEs and
SPODs. The urban transport system, in the form of railheads, ports, and air-
fields, is integral to many urban operations across the spectrum of Army
operations and often the objective of Army UO. Army forces planning, pre-
paring, and executing urban operations engage the supported geographic
commander of a combatant command or his component commands in all
aspects of conducting UO when the objective is transport related.
D-29.
D-30.
D-31.
D-32.
D-33.
In offensive operations, commanders use transportation expertise to
identify the urban transportation infrastructure (both the terrain and social
[human] aspects) that is secured or that can affect current and future opera-
tions. This analysis also includes second- and third-order support systems.
USTRANSCOM is consulted regarding the degree of acceptable damage that
the system can sustain and still meet mission requirements. During exe-
cution, USTRANSCOM units may integrate into the operation so they can
begin operating the transportation systems as early as possible. During the
Inchon landing of September 1950, Army forces had begun rail operations on
D+1 and port operations under way by D+3 of the forcible entry.
In defensive or stability operations, USTRANSCOM units safeguard
and prevent disruption of the transport system by the conduct of defensive
operations or stability tasks. USTRANSCOM advises Army commanders of
the impact of defensive tactics, techniques, and procedures (TTP) on
USTRANSCOM operations as well as security requirements for
USTRANSCOM facilities. The JFC provides guidance to deconflict any issues
that may arise from these potentially divergent missions and tasks.
Support UO, particularly in foreign humanitarian relief operations,
often rely on USTRANSCOM to establish terminal operations and the tempo
of transportation flow into a theater. The Army forces’ planning, preparation,
and execution of tasks, such as security and distribution actions in the area,
support the geographic combatant commander’s validated movement plan.
SPACE COMMAND
The United States Space Command (USSPACECOM) is the combatant
command that integrates and synchronizes space capabilities to ensure their
most effective use. USSPACECOM operates assigned space forces through its
service component commands: US Army Space Command, Naval Space Com-
mand, and 14th Air Force (the Air Force space component).
Space systems offer global coverage and potential for real-time and
near real-time support to military operations. Space systems are uncon-
strained by political boundaries. Commanders can use space systems during
peacetime or times of crisis to monitor an urban area before inserting friendly
forces. Space forces support Army UO through space force enhancement
operations that provide products and services to multiply Army force effec-
tiveness. Space support teams may assist both Army and JTF commanders to
leverage system capabilities to facilitate planning and executing space
operations.
D-6
Joint and Multinational Urban Operations
D-34.
D-35.
D-36.
D-37.
Space systems enhance operations and assist commanders in over-
coming some of the physical challenges of the urban environment. These
enhancement operations include ISR; positioning and navigation; environ-
mental monitoring; and communications. Space-based imagery and sensors
are important ISR capabilities that contribute to situational understanding
throughout the depth, breadth, and height of the urban area. ISR systems
can provide route and target information for mission planning, locate presur-
veyed missile launch sites, detect camouflage, assess threat operations and
movements, and warn of hostile acts and reconnaissance. Positioning and
navigation systems also assist situational understanding through links to
digital information systems (INFOSYS) while assisting tactical navigation in
ambiguous terrain found in some urban areas. These enhancements can
include precise location and position information for urban fires, ingress and
egress routes, and rendezvous coordination. Environmental monitoring
systems can provide weather and ionospheric information needed to assess
weapon selection, air routes, ground and water trafficability, and communi-
cations. Communications systems provide secure, survivable links between
elements of Army and joint forces to disseminate plans, orders, and warnings.
These systems may form a critical link in the INFOSYS that transmit data to
assessment centers and intelligence to key decisionmakers. However, some of
the same environmental influences and degradation as ground-based systems
may affect space-based systems.
SPECIAL OPERATIONS COMMAND
US Special Operations Command (USSOCOM) exercises combatant
command of all active and reserve special operations forces stationed in the
United States. USSOCOM also provides trained and combat-ready special
operations forces (SOF) to the geographic combatant commanders and, when
directed by the President or the secretary of defense, command designated
special operations.
SOF provide commanders with capabilities critical to success in the
urban environment. The density of this environment in both space and time
requires the careful integration of SOF and conventional forces. Army forces
conducting UO have a clear and unambiguous command and control (C2)
relationship with the SOF in the urban area to ensure coordination, massing
of effects, and unity of effort.
Each service has unique special operations (SO) capabilities. For
example, SOF can identify and seize or destroy key terrain or infrastructure
in denied areas; secure or capture key personnel; counter urban insurgencies;
and conduct unconventional warfare in enemy-held urban areas. SOF can
also emplace sensors, provide clandestine intelligence collection, and provide
target acquisition information in the highly restrictive terrain of the urban
environment. In multinational UO, they can provide coalition support teams
with trained, culturally aware, language proficient, military liaison personnel
with organic communications connectivity. Army leaders understand the SO
capabilities available to ensure that they request the right support for Army
UO and to ensure unity of effort within the urban JOA.
D-7
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
Army SOF
D-38.
D-39.
D-40.
D-41.
D-42.
D-43.
D-44.
The Army provides five types of SOF units to USSOCOM. Two of these,
PSYOP and civil affairs, are discussed in Chapter 4.
Ranger Forces. The US Army 75th Ranger Regiment can rapidly
deploy light infantry forces from company through regimental size. Rangers
specialize in direct action (DA) SO missions and focus on airfield seizure and
raids. Typically, Ranger units turn over their objectives to conventional units
upon mission completion. The Ranger DA capability especially applies to UO
because of the many critical infrastructures that often prompt Army forces to
engage in UO. Ranger capabilities are ideal for seizing critical facilities to
preempt their defense or destruction. The size and combat power of Ranger
units permit execution of offensive and defensive operations against enemy
conventional units for periods of limited duration; austere combat service
support capabilities limit the Ranger regiment’s ability to sustain combat
action without extensive augmentation.
Special Forces. US Army Special Forces Command (Airborne) trains
and prepares Army Special Forces (SF) to deploy and execute operational
requirements for geographic combatant commanders. SF units are small and
capable of extended operations in remote and hostile locations. SF units
execute seven basic missions: foreign internal defense, unconventional war-
fare, counterproliferation, special reconnaissance (SR), DA, combatting ter-
rorism, and information operations. Important collateral activities consist of
coalition support, combat search and rescue, counterdrug activities, humani-
tarian demining activities, humanitarian assistance, security assistance, and
special activities.
SR, DA, and coalition support are particularly important in UO. SF
units may physically penetrate an urban area to conduct SR to determine
threat strengths, dispositions, and intentions. In some situations, SF units,
due to their language and cultural training, can gather accurate information
regarding the disposition and attitudes of the population. SF special recon-
naissance can also determine or verify the functional status of urban infra-
structure as well as conduct target acquisition, area assessment, and post-
strike reconnaissance.
SF teams can execute terminal guidance or control operations for Army
and joint precision fires. Although these teams possess limited organic com-
bat power for their short-duration, DA missions, they can bring significant
effects to bear against high-payoff targets. Yet, SF units have no capability to
conduct a sustained defense of such targets.
SF units can advise, train, and assist urban indigenous movements
already in existence to conduct unconventional warfare and possibly
accompany these groups into combat. The upsurge in urban insurgency and
terrorism has caused worldwide concern since it is not confined to developing
countries. Present day dissident groups are well aware of this situation.
These groups realize that to be successful, they must center the insurgent
activities on the major cities or political center of their countries.
Special Operations Aviation Forces. Army special operations avia-
tion provided by the 160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment operates
D-8
Joint and Multinational Urban Operations
primarily to support SO missions. They execute insertion, extraction, and
resupply missions to support SO. Similar to conventional aviation, this capa-
bility may be more vulnerable to concealed air defenses when operating over
hostile or unsecured urban terrain than in many other environments.
Navy SOF
D-45.
D-46.
D-47.
D-48.
D-49.
Sea-Air-Land Teams. Navy sea-air-land teams (SEALs) specialize in
water approaches to targets. They operate in small, squad-size teams and
have many of the same capabilities as Army Special Forces (see above). Navy
SEALs do not typically have the cultural and language training of Army
Special Forces. Their capability to insert from sea gives them a unique ability
to penetrate into urban areas that are accessible from the sea.
Special Boat
Units. Special boat units
(SBUs) employ, operate,
and maintain various
surface combatant craft
(see Figure D-3) to conduct
and support naval and
joint special operations,
riverine warfare, and
coastal patrol and inter-
diction. The SBU can infil-
trate and exfiltrate forces; provide small-caliber gunfire support; and conduct
coastal patrol, surveillance, harassment, and interdiction of maritime lines of
communications. These units are ideal in UO that include ports and rivers.
They can assist in port security, conduct river patrols, and participate in
harbor defense. They are well suited for preventing sea infiltration by uncon-
ventional threats.
Figure D-3. USN MK V Special
Operations Craft
Air Force SOF
The Air Force has two primary SOF elements: special operations air
units and special tactics units.
Special Air Wings. Air Force special operations aviation elements
operate both fixed-wing and rotary-wing aircraft (C-130 variants, MH-60, and
MH-53). The air elements perform various missions including rotary-wing
refueling, single aircraft penetration, close air support of SOF ground ele-
ments, PSYOP support, aerial insertion of ground SOF, electronic warfare,
and aerial C2 support.
The AC-130 U and H model aircraft (see Figure D-4 on page D-10) are
designed specifically to provide close air support to ground SOF. They are
armed with one 40mm autocannon and one 105mm howitzer. The AC-130 U
is also armed with one 25mm autocannon. This aircraft has night capability
and is extremely accurate. Its fires are responsive and can be decisive in close
urban combat. Its cannon and howitzer are accurate enough to concentrate
fire onto a single spot to create a rooftop breach that allows fire to be directed
deep into the building. The AC-130 is very vulnerable to air defense systems,
which friendly forces must suppress or destroy to effectively use this system.
D-9
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
(During OPERATION
DESERT STORM in
1991, an AC-130 was
shot down over Kuwait.)
D-50.
D-51.
D-52.
Special Tactics
Forces. Air Force
special tactics forces
consist of special tactics
teams (STTs) and
special operations
weather teams
(SOWTs). Combat con-
trollers and pararescue
personnel comprise
STTs. STTs are specially tailored to meet mission criteria and may vary from
a small three-man team to a larger twenty-five-man element. STTs support
the UO Army commanders by—
Figure D-4. USAF AC-130 Gunship
• Performing air-land-sea personnel recovery operations.
• Providing terminal attack control or guidance.
• Citing and operating navigational aids and beacons.
• Providing liaison to ground commanders.
• Providing visual flight rules and limited instrument flight rules air
traffic control.
• Providing positive control of the terminal objective area aviation
environment during SOF operations.
SOWTs are normally attached to Army SOF to provide weather observation
and limited tactical forecasting.
MULTINATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS
Army UO in foreign urban areas will often be joint and likely have a
multinational component. When properly executed, integrating multinational
forces into UO greatly enhances the operation’s military (as well as political)
effectiveness. Properly integrating multinational forces into UO requires a
thorough understanding of both the urban environment and the nature of
individual national forces. This understanding includes the political, cultural,
and historical characteristics of the other national forces. Such under-
standing also includes the national force’s doctrine and military capabilities,
strengths, and weaknesses. In UO, these considerations are critical because
these factors will alter the urban population’s attitude toward multinational
forces and the behavior of such forces as they interact with the urban
population. Combining this understanding with effective C2 and an equal
assessment of the urban environment results in effective multinational UO
(see FM 100-8).
When evaluating and assigning UO tasks, Army commanders also
consider the degree of interaction with the civilian population. A national
force from a Muslim-majority country may work better with a civilian popu-
lation that is also Muslim than a force having a different religion. In such a
situation, the national force with the same religion as the urban population
D-10
Joint and Multinational Urban Operations
may be assigned tasks that require close relations with civilians. Army
forces, in this situation, may be assigned tasks that are more remote from the
population. National forces that have a national history of animosity to the
civil population (or that sympathize with antagonists within the civilian
population) are not used in tasks requiring diplomacy and close cooperation
with the civilians or government.
D-53.
D-54.
Army forces are responsible to understand the military capabilities of
national forces with which they work. Some national forces, as part of their
normal capabilities, are adept at police functions that enable them to operate
with little training in a law enforcement role. Other national forces specialize
in small-unit, light infantry patrolling. These forces may be ideal in a sta-
bility operation. In contrast, a national force comprised of conscripts and
trained primarily in conventional warfare techniques may best work as a
reinforcing force or may require extensive training before mission execution
in an urban environment or a stability situation. Army commanders also
consider the type of weapon systems with which participating multinational
forces are equipped; they may be more or less effective in an urban environ-
ment. For example, some countries may still possess the Vulcan antiaircraft
gun system (or similar weapon) that can be very useful in urban offensive
and defensive operations.
Logistically, agreement among the multinational forces should include
support consolidation whenever possible. Creating a multinational logistics
office works best when accomplished early. This office can coordinate local
contracts as well as already agreed upon host-nation support. This coordi-
nation among participating nations will reduce the competition for local
assets that could otherwise have detrimental effects on one or more partici-
pating nations.
D-11
Source Notes
These are the sources quoted or paraphrased in this publication. They are
listed by page number. Boldface indicates the titles of historical vignettes.
Chapter 1—Urban Outlook
1-1 “The ambiguous nature of the operational environment . . . .”: FM 1, The Army, 14 June 2001: 12.
1-4 Rome: A Microcosm of Urban Warfare: R. Ernest Dupuy and Trevor N. Dupuy, The Encyclo-
pedia of Military History: From 3500 B.C. to the Present (San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1977).
Chapter 2—Urban Environment
2-1 “From a planning perspective, commanders view cities . . . .”: FM 3-0, Operations, 14 June 2001:
6-19.
2-17 “Me and Somalia against the world, . . . .”: cited in Andrew S. Natsios, “Food Through Force:
Humanitarian Intervention and U.S. Policy,” The Washington Quarterly (winter 1994): 136.
2-21 “Whoever coined the phrase ‘The Theatre of Operations’ . . . ”: General Sir Rupert Smith, “Wars in
Our Time–A Survey of Recent and Continuing Conflicts,” World Defence Systems (July 2001): 121.
2-25 Seeing the Urban Area and Its Parts: Russell W. Glenn, “Urban Combat is Complex.”
Proceedings (February 2002): 65.
Chapter 3—Urban Threat
3-1 “. . . [T]he United States could be forced to intervene . . . .”: Quadrennial Defense Review Report,
30 September 2001: 6.
3-4 Tempo: 26th Infantry Regimental Association, Aachen. Military Operations in Urban Terrain
(Lititz, PA: 26th Infantry Regimental Association, 1999); Irving Werstein, The Battle of Aachen
(New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Company, 1962); Charles Whiting, Bloody Aachen (New York: Stein
and Day, 1976).
3-7 “Chechen fighters sometimes disguised . . . .”: Olga Oliker, Russia’s Chechen Wars 1994–2000:
Lessons From Urban Combat (Santa Monica, CA: RAND, 2001): 21.
3-8 Identifying Soldiers from Civilians: Olga Oliker, Russia’s Chechen Wars 1994–2000: Lessons
From Urban Combat (Santa Monica, CA: RAND, 2001).
3-9 Information and the Media: Eric Hammel, Fire in the Streets: The Battle for Hue, Tet 1968 (New
York: Dell Publishing, 1991).
3-13 Cultural and Religious Instability: Sid Heal, “Crowds, Mobs and Nonlethal Weapons,” Military
Review (March/April 2000): 45–50.
3-14 Food and Water Shortages: Leif R. Rosenberger, “The Strategic Importance of the World Food
Supply,” Parameters (spring 1997): 84–105.
3-16 Urban Insurgencies: Sid Heal, “Crowds, Mobs and Nonlethal Weapons,” Military Review
(March/April 2000): 45–50; Lawrence A. Yates, “Military Stability and Support Operations:
Analogies, Patterns and Recurring Themes,” Military Review (July/August 1997): 51–61.
3-17 Crime and Criminal Organizations: Eugene Linden, “The Exploding Cities of the Developing
World,” Foreign Affairs (January/February 1996): 52–65; Andrew S. Natsios, “Commander’s
Guidance: A Challenge of Complex Humanitarian Emergencies,” Parameters (summer 1996):
50–66.
Chapter 4—Contemplating Urban Operations
4-1 “We based all our further calculations . . . .”: S. M. Shtemenko, The Soviet General Staff at War,
1941-1945: Book One (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1981): 317–318.
Source Notes-0
_____________________________________________________________________________ Source Notes
4-23 “Four hostile newspapers . . . .”: Napoleon Bonaparte, Justin Wintle (ed.), The Dictionary of War
Quotations (New York: The Free Press, 1989): 73.
Chapter 5—Foundations for Urban Operations
5-1 “Utilities such as electricity . . . .”: Richard Connaughton, John Pimlott, and Duncan Anderson, The
Battle for Manila: The Most Devastating Untold Story of World War II (Novata, CA: Presidio Press,
1995): 103.
5-9 Applying the Urban Operational Framework: Panama – December 1989: Ronald H. Cole,
Operation Just Cause (Washington DC: Joint History Office, 1995); Thomas Donnelly, Margaret
Roth, and Caleb Baker, Operation Just Cause: The Storming of Panama (New York: Lexington
Books, 1991); John T. Fishel, The Fog of Peace: Planning and Executing the Restoration of Panama
(Carlisle, PA: Strategic Studies Institute, 1992); Malcolm McConnell, Just Cause: The Real Story of
America’s High-Tech Invasion of Panama (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1991); John Embry
Parkerson, Jr., “United States Compliance with Humanitarian Law Respecting Civilians During
Operation Just Cause,” Military Law Review (1991): 31–140; Jennifer Morrison Taw, Operation
Just Cause: Lessons for Operations Other Than War (Santa Monica, CA: RAND, 1996).
5-26 “Fighting in a city is much . . . .”: Vasili I. Chuikov, The Battle for Stalingrad (New York: Holt,
Rinehart, and Winston, 1964): as cited by JP 3-06, Doctrine for Urban Operations, 16 September
2002: 1-8.
5-28 “I heard small-arms fire and . . . .”: Mark A. B. Hollis, “Platoon Under Fire,” Infantry (January–
April 1998): 29–30.
5-31 Example of Simple Communications Innovation: Israel’s Six-Day War – 1967: Trevor N.
Dupuy and Paul Martell, Flawed Victory: The Arab-Israeli Conflict and the 1982 War in Lebanon
(Fairfax, VA: Hero Books, 1986); Richard A. Gabriel, Operation Peace for Galilee: The Israeli-PLO
War in Lebanon (New York: Hill and Wang, 1984).
Chapter 6—Urban Offensive Operations
6-1 “ . . . Capture Suez City . . . .”: Abraham Adan, On the Banks of the Suez (Novato, CA: Presidio
Press, 1980): 409.
6-3 The Operational Context of Urban Operations: Brittany Ports – August to September
1944: Kent H. Butts, “The Strategic Importance of Water,” Parameters (spring 1997): 65–83; Paul
Carell, Stalingrad: The Defeat of the German 6th Army (Atglen, PA: Schieffer Publishing, 1993); R.
Ernest Dupuy and Trevor N. Dupuy, The Encyclopedia of Military History: From 3500 B.C. to the
Present (San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1977); Ralph Peters, “Our Soldiers, Their Cities,”
Parameters (spring 1996): 43–50; John J. Peterson, Into the Cauldron (Clinton, MD: Clavier House,
1973).
6-12 Forms of Attack in the Urban Offense: Metz – 1944: Anthony Kemp, The Unknown Battle:
Metz, 1944 (New York: Stein and Day, 1981); John Colby, War From the Ground Up: The 90th
Division in WWII (Austin, TX: Nortex Press, 1991).
6-21 Isolating the Urban Area: Hue, Vietnam – January to February 1968: James R. Arnold, Tet
Offensive 1968: Turning Point in Vietnam (London: Osprey, 1990); Eric Hammel, Fire in the
Streets: The Battle for Hue, Tet 1968 (New York: Dell Publishing, 1991).
6-25 “Often what seems to be . . . .”: Russell W. Glenn, An Attack on Duffer’s Downtown (Santa Monica,
CA: RAND, 2001): 28.
6-27 Creative Task Organization: Using Artillery in the Direct Fire Role: 26th Infantry
Regimental Association, Aachen. Military Operations in Urban Terrai (Lititz, PA: 26th Infantry
Regimental Association, 1999); Ronald H. Cole, Operation Just Cause (Washington DC: Joint
History Office, 1995); Thomas Donnelly, Margaret Roth, and Caleb Baker, Operation Just Cause:
The Storming of Panama (New York: Lexington Books, 1991); David Eshel, Mid-East Wars: The
Lebanon War 1982 (Hod Hasharon, Israel: Eshel-Dramit, 1983); Richard A. Gabriel, Operation
Peace for Galilee: The Israeli-PLO War in Lebanon (New York: Hill and Wang, 1984); Malcolm
McConnell, Just Cause: The Real Story of America’s High-Tech Invasion of Panama (New York: St.
Martin’s Press, 1991); Irving Werstein, The Battle of Aachen (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell
Company, 1962); Charles Whiting, Bloody Aachen (New York: Stein and Day, 1976); Bruce Allen
Watson, Sieges: A Comparative Study (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1993).
Source Notes-1
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
6-30 Bold Operational Maneuver to Seize an Urban Area: Inchon and Seoul, Korea –
September 1950: Robert Debs Heinl, Jr., Victory at High Tide: The Inchon-Seoul Campaign
(Annapolis, MD: Nautical & Aviation Publishing Company of America, 1979); Douglas MacArthur,
Reminiscences (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964); Shelby L. Stanton, Ten Corps in Korea, 1950
(Novato, CA: Presidio Press, 1989).
Chapter 7—Urban Defensive Operations
7-1 Generally, a modern city magnifies . . . .”: Christopher R. Gabel, “Military Operations on Urbanized
Terrain: The 2d Battalion, 26th Infantry, at Aachen, October 1944,” Center for Army Lessons
Learned: Urban Combat Operations (Newsletter No. 99-16). Available:
http://call.army.mil/products/newsltrs/99-16/chap1.htm.
7-6 Urban Defense in a Major Operation: Stalingrad – August 1942 to January 1943: Anthony
Beevor, Stalingrad (New York: Penguin Books, 1998); Vasili I. Chuikov, The Battle for Stalingrad
(New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1964); William Craig, Enemy at the Gates: The Battle for
Stalingrad (New York: Reader’s Digest Press, 1973).
7-10 “What is the position . . . .”: Michael Dewar, War in the Streets: The Story of Urban Combat from
Calais to Khafji (New York: Sterling Publishers, 1992): 8.
7-13 Defensive Combat Power: Suez – October 1973: Abraham Adan, On the Banks of the Suez
(Novato, CA: Presidio Press, 1980).
Chapter 8—Urban Stability Operations And Support Operations
8-1 “The Rangers were bound . . . .”: Mark Bowden, Black Hawk Down: A Story of Modern War (New
York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1999): 18.
8-6 “In wars of intervention . . . .”: Antoine-Henri Jomini, “The Art of War,” in Roots of Strategy: Book 2
(Harrisburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 1987): 441.
8-9 Assessment of Security and Force Protection: Belfast, Northern Ireland: Michael Dewar,
British Army in Northern Ireland (New York: Sterling Publishers, 1985); Desmond Hamill, Pig in
the Middle: The Army in Northern Ireland, 1969-1984 (London: Methuen, 1985).
8-12 “If there is any lesson . . . .”: Frederick Funston, “How the Army Worked to Save San Francisco,”
Cosmopolitan Magazine (July 1906). Available http://www.sfmuseum.org/1906/cosmo.html
8-13 Support of and Coordination with Civilian Authorities: The 1992 Los Angeles Riots:
James D. Delk, Fires & Furies: The LA Riots (Palm Springs, CA: Etc. Publications, 1995); William
W. Mendel, Combat in Cities: The LA Riots and Operation Rio (Fort Leavenworth, KS: Foreign
Military Studies Office, 1996).
Chapter 9—Urban Combat Service Support
9-1 “Even supply is different . . . .” Ralph Peters, “Our Soldiers, Their Cities,” Parameters (spring
1996): 48.
9-3 Base Security: Tan Son Nhut, Vietnam – Tet 1968: James R. Arnold, Tet Offensive 1968:
Turning Point in Vietnam (London: Osprey, 1990); Keith William Nolan, The Battle for Saigon: Tet
1968 (New York: Pocket Books, 1996).
9-4 “CSS planning accounts for . . . .”: FM 3-0, Operations, 14 June 2001: 6-19.
9-8 “Greater friendly force density would appear . . . .”: Russell W. Glenn, Steven Hartman, and Scott
Gerwehr, On the Shoulders of Atlas: Urban Comabt Service Support Operations (Santa Monica,
CA: RAND, pending publication in 2003): 3.
9-19 Combat Stress: Chechnya – 1994 to 1996: Timothy L. Thomas and Charles P. O’Hara, “Combat
Stress in Chechnya: ‘The Equal Opportunity Disorder’,” Army Medical Department Journal
(January–March 2000): 46–53.
9-22 “Urban operations will continue . . . ”: FM 1, The Army, 14 June 2001: 35.
Appendix A—Siege of Beirut: An Illustration of the Fundamentals of Urban Operations
A-1 Siege of Beirut: An Illustration of the Fundamentals of Urban Operations: Trevor N.
Dupuy and Paul Martell, Flawed Victory: The Arab-Israeli Conflict and the 1982 War in Lebanon
(Fairfax, VA: Hero Books, 1986); David Eshel, Mid-East Wars: The Lebanon War 1982 (Hod
Source Notes-2
_____________________________________________________________________________ Source Notes
Hasharon, Israel: Eshel-Dramit, 1983); Richard A. Gabriel, Operation Peace for Galilee: The
Israeli-PLO War in Lebanon (New York: Hill and Wang, 1984).
A-1 “The IDF had neither the strategy . . . .”: Richard A. Gabriel, Operation Peace for Galilee: The
Israeli-PLO War in Lebanon (New York: Hill and Wang, 1984): 128.
Appendix B—Urban Intelligence Preparation of the Battlefield
B-1 “Maneuvers that are possible . . . .”: Infantry in Battle, 2nd ed. (Richmond, VA: Garret & Massie,
1939; Reprint, Fort Leavenworth, KS: US Army Command and General Staff College, 1981): 69.
B-6 Analysis of an Urban Area’s Underlying Terrain: Mitrovica, Kosovo: Joseph D. Celeski,
“Joint Urban Operations: Special Forces in Urban Campaign Planning,” Special Warfare (fall
2001): 2–13; Russell W. Glenn, “Urban Combat is Complex,” Proceedings (February 2002): 62–65.
B-12 “ . . . [T]he adversaries of freedom . . . .”: John F. Kennedy, Message to Congress, 25 May 1961.
Available http://www.cs.umb.edu/jfklibrary/j052561.htm
B-14 Shifting Civilian Interests and Intent: James D. Delk, Fires & Furies: The LA Riots (Palm
Springs, CA: Etc. Publications, 1995).
Appendix C—Operations in Somalia: Applying the Urban Operational Framework to Support
and Stability
C-1 Operations in Somalia: Applying the Urban Operational Framework to Support and
Stability: Kenneth Allard, Somalia Operations: Lessons Learned (Washington, DC: National
Defense University Press, 1995).
C-1 “It’s impossible for an American mother . . . .”: Major General Thomas M. Montgomery. Available
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/ambush/interviews/montgomery.html
Appendix D—Joint and Multinational Urban Operations
D-0 “[Joint force commanders] synchronize the actions . . . .” JP 3-0, Doctrine for Joint Operations,
10 September 2001: II-4.
Source Notes-3
Glossary
The glossary lists acronyms and terms with Army or joint definitions.
Where Army and joint definitions are different, (Army) follows the term.
Definitions for which FM 3-06 is the proponent manual (the authority)
are marked with an asterisk (*). The proponent or amplifying manual for
other terms is listed in parentheses after the definition.
AD anno Domini (in the year of the Lord)
AF Air Force
A.F.B. Air Force Base (graphics only)
agility the ability to move and adjust quickly and easily (FM 3-0)
AI air interdiction
AIDS acquired immune deficiency syndrome
air defense battlefield operating system the employment of all active measures designed to
nullify or reduce the effectiveness of attack by hostile aircraft and
missiles after they are airborne (FM 7-15)
AMC Air Mobility Command
AO area of operations
area defense a type of defensive operation that concentrates on denying enemy
forces access to designated terrain for a specific time rather than
destroying the enemy outright (FM 3-0)
area of interest that area of concern to the commander, including the area of
influence, areas adjacent thereto, and extending into enemy terri-
tory to the objectives of current or planned operations. This area
also includes areas occupied by enemy forces that could jeopardize
the accomplishment of the mission. (JP 3-0)
area of operations an operational area defined by the joint force commander for land
and naval forces. Areas of operations do not typically encompass
the entire operational area of the joint force commander, but
should be large enough for component commanders to accomplish
their missions and protect their forces. (JP 3-0)
ARFOR the senior Army headquarters and all Army forces assigned or
attached to a combatant command, subordinate joint force
command, joint functional command, or multinational command
(FM 3-0)
ARVN Army of the Republic of Vietnam
assessment (Army) the continuous monitoring—throughout planning prepa-
ration, and execution—of the current situation and progress of an
Glossary-0
_________________________________________________________________________________ Glossary
operation, and the evaluation of it against criteria of success to
make decisions and adjustments (FM 3-0)
asymmetry dissimilarities in organization, equipment, doctrine, capabilities,
and values between other armed forces (formally organized or
not) and US forces. Engagements are symmetric if forces, tech-
nologies, and weapons are similar; they are asymmetric if forces,
technologies, and weapons are different, or if a resort to terrorism
and rejection of more conventional rules of engagement are the
norm. (FM 3-0)
attack an offensive operation that destroys or defeats enemy forces,
seizes and secures terrain, or both (FM 3-0)
attainability one of the eight characteristics of combat service support: genera-
ting the minimum essential supplies and services necessary to
begin operations (FM 100-10)
attrition the reduction of the effectiveness of a force caused by loss of per-
sonnel and materiel (JP 1-02)
avenue of approach (Army) the air or ground route leading to an objective (or key
terrain in its path) that an attacking force can use (FM 3-90)
axis of advance the general area through which the bulk of a unit’s combat power
must move (FM 3-90)
battle a set of related tactical engagements that last longer and involve
larger forces than an engagement (FM 3-0)
battlefield operating systems the physical means that tactical commanders use to execute
operations and accomplish missions assigned by superior tactical-
and operational-level commanders. The seven battlefield
operating systems are: the intelligence system, maneuver system,
fire support system, air defense system, mobility/countermobility/
survivability system, combat service support system, and
command and control system. (FM 7-15)
battlefield organization the allocation of forces in the area of operations by purpose. It
consists of three all-encompassing categories of operations: deci-
sive, shaping, and sustaining. (FM 3-0)
battlespace the environment, factors, and conditions that must be understood
to successfully apply combat power, protect the force, or complete
the mission. This includes air, land, sea, space, and the included
enemy and friendly forces; facilities; weather; terrain; the electro-
magnetic spectrum; and the information environment within the
operational areas and areas of interest. (JP 3-0)
BC before Christ
BDAR battle damage assessment and repair
Bde brigade (graphics only)
Benelux an area of Europe comprised of three countries: Belgium, the
Netherlands, and Luxembourg
Glossary-1
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
Bns battalions (graphics only)
BOS battlefield operating systems
branch a contingency plan or course of action (an option built into the
basic plan or course of action) for changing the mission, disposi-
tion, orientation, or direction of movement of the force to aid suc-
cess of the current operation, based on anticipated events, oppor-
tunities, or disruptions caused by enemy actions. Army forces
prepare branches to exploit success and opportunities, or to coun-
ter disruptions caused by enemy actions. (FM 3-0)
breakout an operation conducted by an encircled force to regain freedom of
movement or contact with friendly units. It differs from other
attacks only in that a simultaneous defense in other areas of the
perimeter must be maintained. (FM 3-90)
buffer zone a defined area controlled by a peace operations force from which
disputing or belligerent forces have been excluded. A buffer zone
is formed to create an area of separation between disputing or
belligerent forces and reduce the risk of renewed conflict. Also
called area of separation in some United Nations operations.
(JP 3-07.3)
bypass a tactical mission task in which the commander directs his unit to
maneuver around an obstacle, position, or enemy force to main-
tain the momentum of the operation while deliberately avoiding
combat with an enemy force (FM 3-90)
C2 command and control
CA civil affairs
campaign a series of related military operations aimed at accomplishing a
strategic or operational objective within a given time and space
(JP 3-0)
canalize (Army) a tactical mission task in which the commander restricts
enemy movement to a narrow zone by exploiting terrain coupled
with the use of obstacles, fires, or friendly maneuver (FM 3-90)
capability the ability to execute a specified course of action (a capability may
or may not be accompanied by an intention) (JP 1-02)
casualty evacuation a term used by nonmedical units to refer to the movement of
casualties aboard nonmedical vehicles or aircraft (FM 8-10-6)
CAV Cavalry (graphics only)
CBRNE chemical, biological, radiological, nuclear, and high-yield
explosive
CCIR commander’s critical information requirements
Cdrs commanders (graphics only)
CENTCOM US Central Command
Glossary-2
_________________________________________________________________________________ Glossary
center of gravity those characteristics, capabilities, or sources of power from which
a military force derives its freedom of action, physical strength, or
will to fight (JP 3-0)
CHS combat health support
CI counterintelligence
CINC commander in chief
civil affairs designated Active and Reserve component forces and units or-
ganized, trained, and equipped specifically to conduct civil affairs
activities and to support civil-military operations (JP 3-57.1)
civil considerations how the attitudes and activities of the civilian leaders, popula-
tions, and organizations within an area of operations will
influence the conduct of military operations (FM 6-0)
civil disturbances riots, acts of violence, insurrections, unlawful obstructions or
assemblages, or other disorders prejudicial to public law and
order. The term civil disturbance includes all domestic conditions
requiring or likely to require the use of Federal Armed Forces
pursuant to the provisions of Chapter 15 of Title 10, United
States Code. (JP 3-07.3)
civil-military operations the activities of a commander that establish, maintain, influence,
or exploit relations between military forces, governmental and
nongovernmental civilian organizations and authorities, and the
civilian populace in a friendly, neutral, or hostile operational area
in order to facilitate military operations, to consolidate and
achieve US objectives. Civil-military operations may include per-
formance by military forces of activities and functions normally
the responsibility of the local, regional, or national government.
These activities may occur prior to, during, or subsequent to other
military actions. They may also occur, if directed, in the absence
of other military operations. Civil-military operations may be per-
formed by designated civil affairs, by other military forces, or by a
combination of civil affairs and other forces. (JP 3-57)
civil-military operations center an ad hoc organization, normally established by the geo-
graphic combatant commander or subordinate joint force com-
mander, to assist in the coordination of activities of engaged
military forces, and other United States Government agencies,
nongovernmental organizations, and regional and international
organizations. There is no established structure, and its size and
composition are situation dependent. (FM 41-10)
clear (Army) 1. A tactical mission task that requires the commander to
remove all enemy forces and eliminate organized resistance with-
in an assigned area. (FM 3-90) 2. The total elimination or neu-
tralization of an obstacle that is usually performed by follow-on
engineers and is not done under fire. (FM 3-34.2)
close air support air action by fixed- and rotary-wing aircraft against hostile
targets which are in close proximity to friendly forces and which
Glossary-3
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
require detailed integration of each air mission with the fire and
movement of those forces (JP 3-09.3)
close combat combat carried out with direct-fire weapons, supported by indirect
fires, air-delivered fires, and nonlethal engagement means. Close
combat defeats or destroys enemy forces or seizes and retains
ground. (FM 3-0)
CMO civil-military operations
CMOC civil-military operations center
CNA computer network attack
CND computer network defense
CNE computer network exploitation
CNO computer network operations
COA course of action
coalition an ad hoc arrangement between two or more nations for common
action (JP 3-16)
COG center of gravity
collateral damage unintended and undesirable civilian personnel injuries or
materiel damage adjacent to a target produced by the effects of
friendly weapons (FM 6-30)
combatant command a unified or specified command with a broad continuing mission
under a single commander established and so designated by the
President, through the Secretary of Defense and with the advice
and assistance of the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. Com-
batant commands typically have geographic or functional respon-
sibilities. (JP 0-2)
combat configured load a planned package of ammunition or other supplies that are
transported as a single load to support a type unit or weapon
system (FM 4-30.13)
combat power the total means of destructive and/or disruptive force which a
military unit/formation can apply against the opponent at a given
time (JP 3-0)
combat service support battlefield operating system the support and services provided to
sustain forces during war and military operations other than war
(FM 7-15)
combatting terrorism actions, including antiterrorism (defensive measures taken to
reduce vulnerability to terrorist acts) and counterterrorism (offen-
sive measures taken to prevent, deter, and respond to terrorism),
taken to oppose terrorism throughout the entire threat spectrum
(JP 3-07.2)
combined arms the synchronized or simultaneous application of several arms—
such as infantry, armor, artillery, engineers, air defense, and
aviation—to achieve an effect on the enemy that is greater than if
Glossary-4
_________________________________________________________________________________ Glossary
each arm was used against the enemy separately or in sequence
(FM 3-0)
combined arms team two or more arms mutually supporting one another, usually con-
sisting of infantry, armor, cavalry, aviation, field artillery, air
defense artillery, and engineers (FM 3-90)
command and control battlefield operating system all tasks associated with the exercise
of authority and direction by a properly designated commander
over assigned and available forces in the accomplishment of the
mission (FM 7-15)
command and control system (Army) the arrangement of personnel, information manage-
ment, procedures, and equipment and facilities essential to the
commander to plan, prepare for, execute, and assess operations
(FM 6-0)
commander’s critical information requirements (Army) elements of information required
by commanders that directly affect decision making and dictate
the successful execution of military operations (FM 3-0)
commander’s intent a clear, concise statement of what the force must do and the
conditions the force must meet to succeed with respect to the
enemy, terrain, and the desired end state (FM 3-0)
commander’s visualization the process of developing a clear understanding of the current
state with relation to the enemy and environment, envisioning a
desired end state which represents mission accomplishment, and
then subsequently visualizing the sequence of activity that moves
the force from its current state to the end state (FM 6-0)
common operational picture an operational picture tailored to the user’s requirements,
based on common data and information shared by more than one
command (FM 3-0)
computer network attack operations to disrupt, deny, degrade, or destroy information resi-
dent in computers and computer networks, or the computers and
networks themselves (JP 3-13)
computer network defense defensive measures to protect and defend information, computers,
and networks from disruption, denial, degradation, or destruction
(JP 3-13)
concept of operations (Army) describes how commanders see the actions of subordinate
units fitting together to accomplish the mission. As a minimum,
the description includes the scheme of maneuver and concept of
fires. It expands the commander’s selected course of action and
expresses how each element of the force will cooperate to accom-
plish the mission. (FM 3-0)
constraint restrictions placed on the command by a higher command to dic-
tate an action or inaction, thus restricting the freedom of action
the subordinate commander has for planning a mission by stating
things that must or must not be done (FM 101-5)
contain (Army) a tactical mission task that requires the commander to
stop, hold, or surround enemy forces or to cause them to center
Glossary-5
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
their activity on a given front and prevent them from with-
drawing any part of their forces for use elsewhere (FM 3-90)
control (Army) 1. The regulation of forces and operating systems to
accomplish the mission in accordance with the commander’s
intent. It includes collecting, processing, displaying, storing, and
disseminating information for creating the common operational
picture (COP) and using information, primarily by the staff,
during planning, preparing for, and executing operations.
(FM 6-0). 2. A tactical mission task that requires the commander
to maintain physical influence over a specified area to prevent its
use by an enemy or to create conditions necessary for successful
friendly operations (FM 3-90)
controlled exchange the removal of serviceable parts, components, or assemblies from
unserviceable, economically reparable equipment and their
immediate reuse in restoring a like item of equipment to a combat
operable or serviceable condition (FM 4-30.3)
control measures directives given graphically or orally by a commander to subordi-
nate commands to assign responsibilities, coordinate fires and
maneuver, and control combat operations. Each control measure
can be portrayed graphically. In general, all control measures
should be easily identifiable on the ground. Examples of control
measures include boundaries, objectives, coordinating points,
contact point, and direction of attack. (FM 101-5)
COP common operational picture
counterattack (Army) a form of attack by part or all of a defending force against
an enemy attacking force, with the general objective of denying
the enemy his goal in attacking (FM 3-0)
counterdeception efforts to negate, neutralize, diminish the effects of, or gain
advantage from a foreign deception operation. Counterdeception
does not include the intelligence function of identifying foreign
deception operations. (JP 3-58)
counterdrug those active measures taken to detect, monitor, and counter the
production, trafficking, and use of illegal drugs (JP 3-07.4)
counterinsurgency those military, paramilitary, political, economic, psychological,
and civic actions taken by a government to defeat insurgency
(JP 3-07)
counterintelligence information gathered and activities conducted to protect against
espionage, other intelligence activities, sabotage, or assassina-
tions conducted by or on behalf of foreign governments or ele-
ments thereof, foreign organizations, or foreign persons, or inter-
national terrorist activities (JP 2-01.2)
countermobility operations the construction of obstacles and emplacement of minefields to
delay, disrupt, and destroy the enemy by reinforcement of the
terrain. The primary purpose of countermobility operations is to
slow or divert the enemy, to increase time for target acquisition,
and to increase weapon effectiveness. (JP 3-34)
Glossary-6
_________________________________________________________________________________ Glossary
counterpropaganda activities that identify and counter adversary propaganda by
exposing adversary attempts to influence friendly populations
and military forces situational understanding by providing
friendly truth (FM 100-6)
counterterrorism offensive measures taken to prevent, deter, and respond to
terrorism (JP 3-07.2)
course of action (Army) a feasible way to accomplish a task or mission that follows
the guidance given, will not result in undue damage or risk to the
command, and is noticeably different from other actions being
considered (FM 101-5)
cover (Army) 1. Protection from the effects of enemy fire. 2. A form of
security operation whose primary task is to protect the main body
by fighting to gain time while also observing and reporting infor-
mation and preventing enemy ground observation of and direct
fire against the main body. (FM 3-90)
criteria of success information requirements developed during the operations
process that measure the degree of success in accomplishing the
unit’s mission. They are normally expressed as either an explicit
evaluation of the present situation or forecast of the degree of
mission accomplishment. (FM 6-0)
CSS combat service support
cultural resource monuments, nationally identifiable or distinctive buildings and
structures, archives and libraries, ancient artifacts and struc-
tures, archaeologically important sites, historically important
sites or structures, mosques, cathedrals, temples, other churches
or sacred structures, sacred sites or areas, museums, and works
of art (FM 41-10)
DA direct action; Department of the Army
D-day the unnamed day on which a particular operation commences or
is to commence (JP 5-00.1)
dead space 1. An area within the range of a weapon, radar, or observer,
which cannot be covered by fire or observation from a particular
position because of intervening obstacles, the nature of the
ground, the characteristics of the trajectory, or the limitations of
the pointing capabilities of the weapon. 2. An area or zone which
is within range of a radio transmitter, but in which a signal is not
received. 3. The volume of space above and around a gun or
guided missile system into which it cannot fire because of
mechanical or electronic limitations. (JP 1-02)
debarkation the unloading of troops, equipment, or supplies from a ship or
aircraft (JP 3-35)
deception those measures designed to mislead the enemy by manipulation,
distortion, or falsification of evidence to induce the enemy to react
in a manner prejudicial to the enemy’s interests (JP 3-58)
Glossary-7
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
decision support template a graphic record of wargaming. The decision support template
depicts decision points, timelines associated with movement of
forces and the flow of the operation, and other key items of infor-
mation required to execute a specific friendly course of action.
(JP 2-01.3)
decisive engagement in land and naval warfare, an engagement in which a unit is
considered fully committed and cannot maneuver or extricate
itself. In the absence of outside assistance, the action must be
fought to a conclusion and either won or lost with the forces at
hand. (JP 1-02)
decisive operations those operations that directly accomplish the task assigned by the
higher headquarters. They conclusively determine the outcome of
major operations, battles, and engagements. (FM 3-0)
decisive point a geographic place, specific key event, or enabling system that
allows commanders to gain a marked advantage over an enemy
and greatly influences the outcome of an operation (FM 3-0)
defeat a tactical mission task that occurs when an enemy force has
temporarily or permanently lost the physical means or the will to
fight. The defeated force’s commander is unwilling or unable to
pursue his adopted course of action, thereby yielding to the
friendly commander’s will and can no longer interfere to a signifi-
cant degree with the actions of friendly forces. Defeat can result
from the use of force or the threat of its use. (FM 3-90)
defeat in detail defeat in detail is achieved by concentrating overwhelming com-
bat power against separate parts of a force rather than defeating
the entire force at once (FM 3-90)
defense in depth the siting of mutually supporting defense positions designed to
absorb and progressively weaken attack, prevent initial observa-
tions of the whole position by the enemy, and to allow the com-
mander to maneuver the reserve (JP 1-02)
defensive information operations (Army) the integration and coordination of policies and
procedures, operations, personnel, and technology to protect and
defend friendly information and information systems. Defensive
information operations ensure timely, accurate, and relevant
information access while denying adversaries the opportunity to
exploit friendly information and information systems for their
own purposes. (FM 3-0)
defensive operations operations to defeat an enemy attack, buy time, economize forces,
or develop conditions favorable for offensive operations. Defensive
operations alone normally cannot achieve a decision. Their
purpose is to create conditions for a counteroffensive that allows
Army forces to regain the initiative. (FM 3-0)
delay a form of retrograde operation in which a force under pressure
trades space for time by slowing down the enemy’s momentum
and inflicting maximum damage on the enemy without, in prin-
ciple, becoming decisively engaged (JP 1-02)
Glossary-8
_________________________________________________________________________________ Glossary
demonstration (Army) In stability operations and support operations, an opera-
tion by military forces in sight of an actual or potential enemy to
show military capabilities. (FM 3-07)
depth the extension of operations in time, space, and resources (FM 3-0)
destroy 1. A tactical mission task that physically renders an enemy force
combat-ineffective until it is reconstituted. 2. To damage a combat
system so badly that it cannot perform any function or be restored
to a usable condition without being entirely rebuilt. (FM 3-90)
direct action short-duration strikes and other small-scale offensive actions by
special operations forces or special operations-capable units to
seize, destroy, capture, recover, or inflict damage on designated
personnel or materiel. In the conduct of these operations, special
operations forces or special operations-capable units may employ
raid, ambush, or direct assault tactics; emplace mines and other
munitions; conduct standoff attacks by fire from air, ground, or
maritime platforms; provide terminal guidance for precision-
guided munitions; conduct independent sabotage; and conduct
anti-ship operations. (JP 3-05)
direct approach to apply combat power directly against the enemy center of
gravity or the enemy’s principal strength (FM 3-0)
direct fire gunfire delivered on a target, using the target itself as a point of
aim for either the gun or the director (FM 7-20)
disinformation information disseminated primarily by intelligence organizations
or other covert agencies designed to distort information or deceive
or influence US decision makers, US forces, coalition allies, key
actors or individuals via indirect or unconventional means
(FM 100-6)
dislocated civilian (Army) a generic term that describes a civilian who has been
forced to move by war, revolution, or natural or man-made
disaster from his or her home to some other location. Dislocated
citizens include displaced persons, refugees, evacuees, stateless
persons, or war victims. Legal and political considerations define
the subcategories of a dislocated civilian. (FM 3-07)
displaced person a civilian who is involuntarily outside the boundaries of his or her
country or as an internally displaced person is a civilian involun-
tarily outside their area or region within their country (FM 34-1)
display (Army) representing relevant information in a usable, easily
understood audio or visual form tailored to the needs of the user
that conveys the common operational picture for decision making
and exercising command and control functions (FM 6-0)
disposition distribution of the elements of a command within an area, usually
the exact location of each unit headquarters and the deployment
of the forces subordinate to it (JP 2-01.3)
disrupt a tactical mission task in which a commander integrates direct
and indirect fires, terrain, and obstacles to upset an enemy’s
Glossary-9
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
formation or tempo, interrupt his timetable, or cause his forces to
commit prematurely or attack in a piecemeal fashion. Disrupt is
also an engineer obstacle effect that focuses fire planning and
obstacle effort to cause the enemy to break up his formation and
tempo, interrupt his timetable, commit breaching assets prema-
turely, and attack in a piecemeal effort. (FM 3-90)
distribution system that complex of facilities, installations, methods, and procedures
designed to receive, store, maintain, distribute, and control the
flow of military materiel between the point of receipt into the
military system and the point of issue to using activities and
units (JP 4-0)
DNBI disease and nonbattle injury
doctrine fundamental principles by which the military forces or elements
thereof guide their actions in support of national objectives. It is
authoritative but requires judgment in application. (JP 1-01)
doctrinal template a model based on known or postulated adversary doctrine.
Doctrinal templates illustrate the disposition and activity of
adversary forces and assets conducting a particular operation
unconstrained by the effects of the battlespace. They represent
the application of adversary doctrine under ideal conditions.
Ideally, doctrinal templates depict the threat's normal organiza-
tion for combat, frontages, depths, boundaries and other control
measures, assets available from other commands, objective
depths, engagement areas, battle positions, and so forth. Doc-
trinal templates are usually scaled to allow ready use with geo-
spatial products. (JP 2-01.3)
DOD Department of Defense
domestic support operations those activities and measures taken by the Department of
Defense to foster mutual assistance and support between the
Department of Defense and any civil government agency in
planning or preparedness for, or in the application of resources
for response to, the consequences of civil emergencies or attacks,
including national security emergencies (JP 3-07.7)
EAC echelons above corps
economy one of the eight characteristics of combat service support: pro-
viding the most efficient support at the least cost to accomplish
the mission (FM 100-10)
economy of force one of the nine principles of war: allocate minimum essential
combat power to secondary efforts (FM 3-0)
EEFI essential elements of friendly information
electromagnetic spectrum the range of frequencies of electromagnetic radiation from zero to
infinity; it is divided into 26 alphabetically designated bands
(JP 3-51)
electronic attack that division of electronic warfare involving the use of electromag-
netic energy, directed energy, or antiradiation weapons to attack
Glossary-10
_________________________________________________________________________________ Glossary
personnel, facilities, or equipment with the intent of degrading,
neutralizing, or destroying enemy combat capability and is con-
sidered a form of fires. EA includes: 1. actions taken to prevent or
reduce an enemy's effective use of the electromagnetic spectrum,
such as jamming and electromagnetic deception, and 2. employ-
ment of weapons that use either electromagnetic or directed ener-
gy as their primary destructive mechanism (lasers, radio frequen-
cy weapons, particle beams), or antiradiation weapons. (JP 3-51)
electronic warfare any military action involving the use of electromagnetic and
directed energy to control the electromagnetic spectrum or to
attack the enemy. The three major subdivisions within electronic
warfare are: electronic attack, electronic protection, and elec-
tronic warfare support. (JP 3-51)
electronic warfare support that division of electronic warfare involving actions tasked by, or
under direct control of, an operational commander to search for,
intercept, identify, and locate or localize sources of intentional
and unintentional radiated electromagnetic energy for the pur-
pose of immediate threat recognition, targeting, planning, and
conduct of future operations. Thus, electronic warfare support
provides information required for immediate decisions involving
electronic warfare operations and other tactical actions such as
threat avoidance, targeting, and homing. Electronic warfare
support data can be used to produce signals intelligence, provide
targeting for electronic or destructive attack, and produce
measurement and signature intelligence. (JP 3-51)
embarkation the process of putting personnel and/or vehicles and their asso-
ciated stores and equipment into ships and/or aircraft (JP 3-35)
encirclement an operation where one force loses it freedom of maneuver
because an opposing force is able to isolate it by controlling all
ground lines of communication (FM 3-0)
end state (Army) a set of required conditions that, when achieved, attain
the aims set for the campaign or operation (FM 3-0)
engagement a small, tactical conflict between opposing maneuver forces,
usually conducted at brigade level and below (FM 30)
envelopment (Army) a form of maneuver in which an attacking force seeks to
avoid the principal enemy defenses by seizing objectives to the
enemy rear to destroy the enemy in his current positions. At the
tactical level, envelopments focus on seizing terrain, destroying
specific enemy forces, and interdicting enemy withdrawal routes.
(FM 3-0)
ENY enemy (graphics only)
EOD explosive ordnance disposal
essential elements of friendly information (Army) the critical aspects of a friendly opera-
tion that, if known by the enemy, would subsequently com-
promise, lead to failure, or limit success of the operation, and
therefore must be protected from enemy detection (FM 6-0)
Glossary-11
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
event template a guide for collection planning. The event template depicts the
named areas of interest where activity, or its lack of activity, will
indicate which course of action the adversary has adopted.
(JP 2-03.1)
EW electronic warfare
exfiltrate a tactical mission task where a commander removes personnel or
units from areas under enemy control by stealth, deception, sur-
prise, or clandestine means (FM 3-90)
exploitation 1. Taking full advantage of success in military operations, and
following up initial gains, and making permanent the temporary
effects already achieved 2. A type of offensive operation that
usually follows a successful attack and is designed to disorganize
the enemy in depth. (JP 1-02)
explosive ordnance disposal the detection, identification, on-site evaluation, rendering safe,
recovery, and final disposal of unexploded explosive ordnance. It
may also include explosive ordnance which has become hazardous
by damage or deterioration. (JP 4-04)
FE Far East (graphics only)
firepower (Army) the potential capacity (product) of all weapons and attack
systems available to the force commander (FM 3-0)
fires (Army) the delivery of all types of ordnance through both direct
and indirect means, as well as nonlethal means, that contribute
to the destruction, disruption, or suppression of the enemy; facili-
tate tactical movement; and achieve a decisive impact (FM 6-20)
fire support battlefield operating system encompasses the collective and coordinated use of
target-acquisition data, indirect-fire weapons, fixed-wing aircraft,
offensive information operations, and other lethal and nonlethal
means against targets located throughout an area of operations
(FM 7-15)
fire support coordinating measure a measure employed by land or amphibious commanders
to facilitate the rapid engagement of targets and simultaneously
provide safeguards for friendly forces (JP 3-09)
fix (Army) a tactical mission task where a commander prevents the
enemy from moving any part of his force from a specific location
for a specific period of time. Fix is also an engineer obstacle effect
that focuses fire planning and obstacle effort to slow an attacker’s
movement within a specified area, normally an engagement area
(FM 3-90)
flexibility one of the eight characteristics of combat service support: being
able to adapt combat service support structures and procedures to
changing situations, missions, and concepts of operations.
(FM 100-10)
FM field manual; frequency modulation
Glossary-12
_________________________________________________________________________________ Glossary
force projection the ability to project the military element of national power from
the continental United States (CONUS) or another theater in
response to requirements for military operations. Force-projection
operations extend from mobilization and deployment of forces, to
redeployment to CONUS or home theater. (JP 1)
force protection (Army) those actions taken to prevent or mitigate hostile actions
against Department of Defense personnel (to include family
members), resources, facilities, and critical information. These
actions conserve the force’s fighting potential so it can be applied
at the decisive time and place and incorporates the coordinated
and synchronized offensive and defensive measures to enable the
effective employment of the joint force while degrading opportuni-
ties for the enemy. Force protection does not include actions to
defeat the enemy or protect against accidents, weather, or
disease. (FM 3-0)
force tailoring the process of determining the right mix and sequence of units for
a mission (FM 3-0)
foreign internal defense participation by civilian and military agencies of a government in
any of the action programs taken by another government to free
and protect its society from subversion, lawlessness, and insur-
gency (JP 3-07.1)
forms of maneuver distinct tactical combinations of fire and movement with a unique
set of doctrinal characteristics that differ primarily in the
relationship between the maneuvering force and the enemy. The
choices of offensive maneuver are envelopment, turning move-
ment, infiltration, penetration, and frontal attack. The choices of
defensive maneuver are forward and in-depth. Commanders use
these to orient on the enemy, not terrain. More than one may be
applied during an operation and may be used in conjunction with
a form of tactical operation. (FM 3-0)
fratricide the unintentional killing or wounding of friendly personnel by
friendly firepower (FM 3-0)
frontal attack (Army) a form of maneuver in which an attacking force seeks to
destroy a weaker enemy force or fix a larger enemy force in place
over a broad front (FM 3-0)
full spectrum operations the range of operations Army forces conduct in war and military
operations other than war (FM 3-0)
GIS geographic information system
GTL gun-target line
guerrilla warfare military and paramilitary operations conducted in enemy-held or
hostile territory by irregular, predominantly indigenous forces
(JP 3-05)
gun-target line an imaginary straight line from gun to target (JP 3-09)
hazardous material any substance which has a human health hazard associated with
it. Special storage, use, handling, and shipment safety procedures
Glossary-13
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
and protocols must be followed to help protect against accidental
human exposure. Hazardous materials are specifically identified
under federal law. (FM 3-100.4)
health threat a composite of ongoing or potential enemy actions; environmental,
occupational, and geographic and meteorological conditions;
endemic diseases; and employment of nuclear, biological, and
chemical weapons (to include weapons of mass destruction) that
can reduce the effectiveness of joint forces through wounds,
injuries, illness, and psychological stressors (JP 4-02)
high-angle fire (Army) fire delivered to clear an obstacle (such as a hill) that low-
angle fire cannot, or fire delivered to attack targets on the reverse
side of an obstacle (such as a hill) that cannot be attacked with
low-angle or direct fire (FM 6-30)
host nation a nation that receives the forces and/or supplies of allied nations,
coalition partners, and/or NATO organizations to be located on, to
operate in, or to transit through its territory (JP 3-16)
host-nation support civil and/or military assistance rendered by a nation to foreign
forces within its territory during peacetime, crises or emergen-
cies, or war based on agreements mutually concluded between
nations (JP 3-16)
HQ headquarters
HRS human resources support
human intelligence a category of intelligence derived from information collected and
provided by human sources (JP 2-0)
humanitarian and civic assistance assistance to the local populace provided by predomi-
nantly US forces in conjunction with military operations and
exercises. This assistance is specifically authorized by Title 10,
United States Code, section 401, and funded under separate
authorities. Assistance provided under these provisions is limited
to (1) medical, dental, and veterinary care provided in rural areas
of a country; (2) construction of rudimentary surface transporta-
tion systems; (3) well drilling and construction of basic sanitation
facilities; and (4) rudimentary construction and repair of public
facilities. Assistance must fulfill unit training requirements that
incidentally create humanitarian benefit to the local populace.
(JP 3-07)
humanitarian assistance programs conducted to relieve or reduce the results of natural or
manmade disasters or other endemic conditions such as human
pain, disease, hunger, or privation that might present a serious
threat to life or that can result in great damage to or loss of
property. Humanitarian assistance provided by US forces is
limited in scope and duration. The assistance provided is
designed to supplement or complement the efforts of the host
nation civil authorities or agencies that may have the primary
responsibility for providing humanitarian assistance. (JP 3-07.6)
HUMINT human intelligence
Glossary-14
_________________________________________________________________________________ Glossary
HWY highway (graphics only)
IDF Israeli Defense Forces
IED improvised explosive device
imagery intelligence intelligence derived from the exploitation of collection by visual
photography, infrared sensors, lasers, electro-optics, and radar
sensors, such as synthetic aperture radar, wherein images of
objects are reproduced optically or electronically on film, elec-
tronic display devices, or other media (JP 2-0)
IMINT imagery intelligence
imitative electromagnetic deception (Army) imitating enemy electromagnetic radiation
(predominately communications) through his electromagnetic
channels to deceive him or to disrupt his operations (FM 100-6)
indirect fire fire delivered on a target that is not itself used as a point of aim
for the weapons or the director (JP 3-09)
infiltration (Army) a form of maneuver in which an attacking force conducts
undetected movement through or into an area occupied by enemy
forces to occupy a position of advantage in the enemy rear while
exposing only small elements to enemy defensive fires (FM 3-0)
information (Army) 1. The meaning assigned to sensing from the environ-
ment. 2. On the cognitive hierarchy consists of processed data
that provides further meaning with further transformation.
Processing activities include filtering, formatting, organizing,
collating, correlating, plotting, translating, categorizing, and
arranging, among others. (FM 6-0)
information management the provision of relevant information to the right person at the
right time in a usable form to facilitate situational understanding
and decision making. It uses procedures and information systems
to collect, process, store, display, and disseminate information.
(FM 3-0)
information operations (Army) the actions taken to affect adversary and influence others’
decision-making processes, information, and information systems
while protecting one’s own information and information systems
(FM 3-0)
information requirements (Army) all of the information elements required by the com-
mander and his staff for the successful execution of operations,
that is, all elements necessary to address the factors of METT-TC.
(FM 6-0)
information superiority (Army) the operational advantage derived from the ability to
collect, process, and disseminate an uninterrupted flow of infor-
mation while exploiting or denying an adversary’s ability to do
the same (FM 3-0)
information system (Army) the equipment and facilities that collect, process, store,
display and disseminate information. This includes
Glossary-15
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
computers-hardware and software-and communications, as well
as policies and procedures for their use. (FM 3-0)
INFOSYS information systems
initiative (operational) setting or dictating the terms of action throughout the battle or
operation (FM 3-0)
insurgency an organized movement aimed at the overthrow of a constituted
government through the use of subversion and armed conflict
(JP 3-05)
integration one of the eight characteristics of combat service support: the
total inclusion of Army combat service support into the operations
process (plan, prepare, execute, assess) as well as into other
logistic components of the unified force (FM 100-10)
intelligence (Army) the product resulting from the processing and analysis of
information collected by any means concerning enemies, potential
enemies, or current and potential operational environments
(FM 34-1)
intelligence battlefield operating system the activity to generate knowledge of and
products portraying the enemy and environmental features
required by a commander in planning, preparing, executing, and
assessing operations (FM 7-15)
intelligence preparation of the battlefield an analytical methodology employed as part of
intelligence planning, to reduce uncertainties concerning the
enemy, environment, and terrain for all types of operations.
Intelligence preparation of the battlefield is conducted during
mission planning to support the commander’s decision making
and to form the basis for the direction of intelligence operations in
support of current and future missions. It utilizes existing data-
bases and identifies gaps in intelligence needed to determine the
impact of the enemy, environment, and terrain on operations and
presents this in an appropriate form to facilitate operational
planning. It forms the basis for situation development.
(FM 34-130)
intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance the integration and synchronization of all
battlefield operating systems to collect and process information
about the enemy and environment that produces relevant infor-
mation to facilitate decision making (FM 3-55)
intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance plan an integrated plan for collection of
information from all available sources and analysis of that infor-
mation to produce intelligence to meet requirements. Specifically,
a logical plan for transforming priority intelligence requirements
(PIR) into orders or requests to reconnaissance and surveillance
assets to collect pertinent information within a required time
limit. (FM 34-3)
intention an aim or design (as distinct from capability) to execute a
specified course of action (JP 1-02)
Glossary-16
_________________________________________________________________________________ Glossary
interagency activities or operations conducted by or through coordination with
two or more agencies or an agency and one or more services of the
same nation (FM 3-07)
interdict a tactical mission task where the commander prevents, disrupts,
or delays the enemy’s use of an area or route (FM 3-90)
interior lines a force operates on interior lines when its operations diverge from
a central point (FM 3-0)
IO information operations
IPB intelligence preparation of the battlefield
IRA Irish Republican Army
isolate a mission tactical task that requires a unit to seal off—both
physically and psychologically—an enemy from his sources of sup-
port, deny an enemy freedom of movement, and prevent an enemy
unit from having contact with other enemy forces (FM 3-90)
ISR intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance
JFC joint force commander
JOA joint operations area
joint force a general term applied to a force composed of significant ele-
ments, assigned or attached, of two or more Military Depart-
ments, operating under a single joint force commander (JP 3-0)
joint force commander a general term applied to a combatant commander, subunified
commander, or joint task force commander authorized to exercise
combatant command (command authority) or operational control
over a joint force (JP 3-0)
joint operations a general term to describe military actions conducted by joint
forces, or by Service forces in relationships (e.g., support, coordi-
nating authority), which, of themselves, do not create joint forces
(JP 3-0)
joint task force a joint force that is constituted and so designated by the
Secretary of Defense, a combatant commander, a subunified com-
mander, or an existing joint task force commander (JP 3-0)
JP joint publication
JSOTF joint special operations task force
JSTARS Joint Surveillance, Target Attack Radar System
JTF joint task force
JUO joint urban operation
key terrain any locality or area, the seizure or retention of which affords a
marked advantage to either combatant in a given course of action
(JP 2-01.3)
km kilometers (graphics only)
Glossary-17
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
LAN local area network
law of war that part of international law that regulates the conduct of armed
hostilities. Also called the law of armed conflict. (JP 1-04)
liaison that contact or intercommunication maintained between elements
of military forces or other agencies to ensure mutual under-
standing and unity of purpose and action (JP 3-08)
line of communications a route, either land, water, and/or air, which connects an opera-
ting military force with a base of operations and along which
supplies and military forces move (JP 4-0)
LNO liaison officer
LOC line of communications
LOGCAP logistics civilian augmentation program
logistics the science of planning and carrying out the movement and main-
tenance of forces. In its most comprehensive sense, those aspects
of military operations which deal with: a. design and develop-
ment, acquisition, storage, movement, distribution, maintenance,
evacuation, and disposition of materiel; b. movement, evacuation,
and hospitalization of personnel; c. acquisition or construction,
maintenance, operation, and disposition of facilities; and d.
acquisition or furnishing of services. (JP 4-0)
logistics over-the-shore operations the loading and unloading of ships without the benefit
of deep draft-capable, fixed port facilities, in friendly or
nondefended territory, and, in time of war, during phases of
theater development in which there is no opposition by the
enemy; or as a means of moving forces closer to tactical assembly
areas dependent on threat force capabilities. (JP 4-01.6)
logistics preparation of the theater all actions taken by combat service support to maximize
the means of supporting commander's plans (FM 100-10)
LOS line of sight
LPT logistics preparation of the theater
MACV Military Assistance Command–Vietnam
MAGTF Marine air-ground task force
major operation a series of tactical actions (battles, engagements, strikes) con-
ducted by various combat forces of a single or several services,
coordinated in time and place, to accomplish operational, and
sometimes strategic objectives in an operational area (FM 3-0)
maneuver (Army) one of the nine principles of war: place the enemy in a
disadvantageous position through the flexible application of com-
bat power (FM 3-0)
maneuver battlefield operating system the movement of forces to achieve a position of
advantage with respect to enemy forces. This system includes the
employment of forces on the battlefield in combination with direct
Glossary-18
_________________________________________________________________________________ Glossary
fire or fire potential. This system also includes the conduct of
tactical tasks associated with force projection. (FM 7-15)
MANPADS man-portable air defense system
Marine air-ground task force the Marine Corps principal organization for all missions
across the range of military operations, composed of forces task-
organized under a single commander capable of responding
rapidly to a contingency anywhere in the world. The types of
forces in the Marine air-ground task force (MAGTF) are func-
tionally grouped into four core elements: a command element, an
aviation combat element, a ground combat element, and a combat
service support element. The four core elements are categories of
forces, not formal commands. The basic structure of the MAGTF
never varies, though the number, size, and type of Marine Corps
units comprising each of its four elements will always be mission
dependent. The flexibility of the organizational structure allows
for one or more subordinate MAGTFs to be assigned. (JP 3-02.1)
Marine expeditionary force the largest Marine air-ground task force (MAGTF) and the
Marine Corps’ principal warfighting organization, particularly for
larger crises or contingencies. It is task-organized around a per-
manent command element and normally contains one or more
Marine divisions, Marine aircraft wings, and Marine force service
support groups. The Marine expeditionary force is capable of mis-
sions across the range of military operations, including
amphibious assault and sustained operations ashore in any
environment. It can operate from a sea base, a land base, or both.
(JP 3-02.1)
Marine expeditionary unit a Marine air-ground task force (MAGTF) that is constructed
around an infantry battalion reinforced, a helicopter squadron
reinforced, and a task-organized combat service support element.
It normally fulfills Marine Corps forward sea-based deployment
requirements. The Marine expeditionary unit provides an
immediate reaction capability for crisis response and is capable of
limited combat operations. (JP 3-02.1)
mass (Army) one of the nine principles of war: concentrate the effects of
combat power at the decisive place and time (FM 3-0)
mass casualty any large number of casualties produced in a relatively short
period of time, usually as the result of a single incident such as a
military aircraft accident, hurricane, flood, earthquake, or armed
attack that exceeds local logistical support capabilities (JP 4-02.2)
medical evacuation the timely and efficient movement of patients while providing en
route medical care to and between medical treatment facilities
(FM 4-02)
meeting engagement (Army) a combat action that occurs when a moving force engages
an enemy at an unexpected time and place (FM 3-0)
MEF Marine expeditionary force
Glossary-19
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
METT-TC 1) in the context of information management, the major subject
categories into which relevant information is grouped for military
operations: mission, enemy, terrain and weather, troops and
support available, time available, civil considerations (2) in the
context of tactics, the major factors considered during mission
analysis (FM 6-0)
MEU Marine expeditionary unit
MEU(SOC) Marine expeditionary unit (special operations capable)
MG major general
MHE materials handling equipment
military deception actions executed to deliberately mislead adversary military deci-
sion makers as to friendly military capabilities, intentions, and
operations, thereby causing the adversary to take specific actions
(or inactions) that will contribute to the accomplishment of the
friendly mission (JP 3-58)
misinformation unintentionally incorrect information emanating from virtually
anyone, for reasons unknown or to solicit a response or interest
that is not political or military in origin (FM 100-6)
mission 1. The task, together with the purpose, that clearly indicates the
action to be taken and the reason therefore. 2. In common usage,
especially when applied to lower military units, a duty assigned
to an individual or unit; a task. (JP 1-02)
mission command the conduct of military operations through decentralized execu-
tion based upon mission orders for effective mission accomplish-
ment. Successful mission command results from subordinate
leaders at all echelons exercising disciplined initiative within the
commander's intent to accomplish missions. It requires an envi-
ronment of trust and mutual understanding. (FM 6-0)
mission orders a technique for completing combat orders to allow subordinates
maximum freedom of planning and action to accomplish missions
that leave the “how” of mission accomplishment to the subordi-
nate (FM 6-0)
MLRS Multiple Launch Rocket System
mobile defense (Army) a type of defensive operation that concentrates on the
destruction or defeat of the enemy through a decisive attack by a
striking force (FM 3-0)
mobility operations (Army) those activities that enable a force to move personnel and
equipment on the battlefield without delays due to terrain or
obstacles (FM 3-34)
mobility corridors areas where a force will be canalized due to terrain constructions.
They allow military forces to capitalize on the principles of mass
and speed and are therefore relatively free of obstacles.
(JP 2-01.3)
Glossary-20
_________________________________________________________________________________ Glossary
mobility/countermobility/survivability battlefield operating system mobility operations
preserve the freedom of maneuver of friendly forces. Counter-
mobility operations deny mobility to enemy forces. Survivability
operations protect friendly forces from the effects of enemy
weapon systems. (FM 7-15)
modified combined obstacle overlay a joint intelligence preparation of the battlespace
product used to portray the effects of each battlespace dimension
on military operations. It normally depicts militarily significant
aspects of the battlespace environment, such as obstacles
restricting military movement, key geography, and military objec-
tives. (JP 2-03.1)
movement to contact a type of offensive operation designed to develop the situation and
establish or regain contact (FM 3-0)
MSC Military Sealift Command
MST maintenance support team
MTMC Military Traffic Management Command
MTW major theater war
multinational operations a collective term to describe military actions conducted by forces
of two or more nations, usually undertaken within the structure
of a coalition or alliance (JP 3-16)
N north (graphics only)
NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization
naval coastal warfare coastal sea control, harbor defense, and port security, executed
both in coastal areas outside the United States in support of
national policy and in the United States as part of this Nation's
defense (JP 3-33)
naval gunfire support fire provided by Navy surface gun systems in support of a unit or
units tasked with achieving the commander's objectives. A subset
of naval surface fire support. (JP 3-33)
naval surface fire support fire provided by Navy surface gun, missile, and electronic warfare
systems in support of a unit or units tasked with achieving the
commander's objectives (JP 3-33)
NBC nuclear, biological, and chemical
NCW naval coastal warfare
neutral (Army) an individual, a group of individuals, an organization, or a
nation which is not hostile or in any way supportive of only one
belligerent force in a hostile environment (FM 3-07)
NGO nongovernmental organization
NIMA National Imagery and Mapping Agency
NKPA North Korean People’s Army
Glossary-21
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
no-fire area a land area designated by the appropriate commander into which
fires or their effects are prohibited (JP 3-09)
noncombatant 1. An individual, in an area of combat operations, who is not
armed and is not participating in any activity in support of any of
the factions or forces involved in combat. 2. An individual, such as
a chaplain or medical personnel, whose duties do not involve
combat. (FM 3-07)
noncombatant evacuation operation an operation directed by the Department of State, the
Department of Defense, or other appropriate authority whereby
noncombatants are evacuated from foreign countries when their
lives are endangered by war, civil unrest, or natural disaster to
safe havens or to the United States (JP 3-07.5)
noncontiguous area of operations when one or more of a commander’s subordinate forces’
areas of operation do not share a common boundary (FM 3-90)
nongovernmental organization a transnational organization of private citizens that main-
tain a consultative status with the Economic and Social Council of
the United Nations. Nongovernmental organizations may be
professional associations, foundations, multinational businesses,
or simply groups with a common interest in humanitarian
assistance activities (development and relief). “Nongovernmental
organizations” is a term normally used by non-US organizations.
(JP 3-07)
nonlethal fires any fires that do not directly seek the physical destruction of the
intended target and are designed to impair, disrupt, or delay the
performance of enemy operational forces, functions, and facilities.
Psychological operations, special operations forces, electronic war-
fare (jamming), and other command and control countermeasures
are all nonlethal fire options. (FM 6-20)
nonlethal weapons weapons that are explicitly designed and primarily employed so
as to incapacitate personnel or material, while minimizing fatali-
ties, permanent injury to personnel, and undesired damage to
property and the environment. Unlike conventional lethal
weapons that destroy their targets through blast, penetration,
and fragmentation, nonlethal weapons employ means other than
gross physical destruction to prevent the target from functioning.
Nonlethal weapons are intended to have one, or both, of the
following characteristics: (1) They have relatively reversible
effects on personnel and material. (2) They affect objects
differently within their area of influence. (JP 1-02)
NVA North Vietnamese Army
OAKOC observation and fields of fire, avenues of approach, key terrain,
obstacles, and cover and concealment
OBJ objective (graphics only)
objective (Army) 1. A location on the ground used to orient operations,
phase operations, facilitate changes of direction, and provide for
unity of effort. (FM 3-90) 2. One of the nine principles of war:
Glossary-22
_________________________________________________________________________________ Glossary
direct every military operation toward a clearly defined, decisive
and attainable objective. (FM 3-0) 3. The most important decisive
point. (FM 3-0)
offensive one of the nine principles of war: seize, retain, and exploit the
initiative (FM 3-0)
offensive information operations (Army) the integrated use of assigned and supporting
capabilities and activities, mutually supported by intelligence, to
affect enemy decision makers or to influence others to achieve or
promote specific objectives (FM 3-0)
offensive operations operations aimed at destroying or defeating an enemy. Their
purpose is to impose US will on the enemy and achieve decisive
victory. (FM 3-0)
operation 1. A military action or the carrying out of a strategic, operational
tactical, service, training, or administrative military mission. 2.
The process of carrying on combat, including movement, supply,
attack, defense, and maneuvers needed to gain the objectives of
any battle or campaign. (JP 5-0)
operational control transferable command authority that may be exercised by com-
manders at any echelon at or below the level of combatant
command. Operational control is inherent in combatant command
(command authority). Operational control may be delegated and
is the authority to perform those functions of command over
subordinate forces involving organizing and employing commands
and forces, assigning tasks, designating objectives, and giving
authoritative direction necessary to accomplish the mission.
Operational control includes authoritative direction over all
aspects of military operations and joint training necessary to
accomplish missions assigned to the command. Operational con-
trol should be exercised through the commanders of subordinate
organizations. Normally this authority is exercised through sub-
ordinate joint force commanders and Service and/or functional
component commanders. Operational control normally provides
full authority to organize commands and forces and to employ
those forces as the commander in operational control considers
necessary to accomplish assigned missions. Operational control
does not, in and of itself, include authoritative direction for logis-
tics or matters of administration, discipline, internal organiza-
tion, or unit training. (JP 3-0)
operational framework the arrangement of friendly forces and resources in time, space,
and purpose with respect to each other and the enemy or situa-
tion. It consists of the area of operations, battlespace, and the
battlefield organization. (FM 3-0)
operational level of war the level of war at which campaigns and major operations are
planned, conducted, and sustained to accomplish strategic objec-
tives within theaters or operational areas. Activities at this level
link tactics and strategy by establishing operational objectives
needed to accomplish the strategic objectives, sequencing events
Glossary-23
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
to achieve the operational objectives, initiating actions, and
applying resources to bring about and sustain these events. These
activities imply a broader dimension of time or space than do
tactics; they ensure the logistic and administrative support of
tactical forces, and provide the means by which tactical successes
are exploited to achieve strategic objectives. (JP 3-0)
operations process plan, prepare, and execute with continuous assessment. (FM 6-0)
operations security a process of identifying critical information and subsequently
analyzing friendly actions attendant to military operations and
other activities to: a. identify those actions that can be observed
by adversary intelligence systems; b. Determine indicators hostile
intelligence systems might obtain that could be interpreted or
pieced together to derive critical information in time to be useful
to adversaries; and c. Select and execute measures that eliminate
or reduce to an acceptable level the vulnerabilities of friendly
actions to adversary exploitation. (JP 3-54)
OPSEC operations security
order (Army) a written or oral communication directing actions. Orders
are based on plans or the receipt of a new mission. (FM 101-5)
PA public affairs
paramilitary force forces or groups distinct from the regular armed forces of any
country, but resembling them in organization, equipment,
training, or mission (JP 3-05)
patrol a detachment of ground, sea, or air forces sent out for the purpose
of gathering information or carrying out a destructive, harassing,
mopping-up, or security mission (JP 1-02)
PDF Panamanian Defense Force
peace enforcement application of military force, or the threat of its use, normally
pursuant to international authorization, to compel compliance
with resolutions or sanctions designed to maintain or restore
peace and order (JP 3-07.3)
peacekeeping military operations undertaken with the consent of all major
parties to a dispute, designed to monitor and facilitate implemen-
tation of an agreement (ceasefire, truce, or other such agreement)
and support diplomatic efforts to reach a long-term political
settlement (JP 3-07.3)
peace operations a broad term that encompasses peacekeeping operations and
peace enforcement operations conducted in support of diplomatic
efforts to establish and maintain peace (JP 3-07.3)
peacetime military engagement all military activities that involve other nations and are
intended to shape the security environment in peacetime. It
includes programs and exercises that the US military conducts
with other nations to shape the international environment,
improve mutual understanding with other countries, and improve
interoperability with treaty partners or potential coalition
Glossary-24
_________________________________________________________________________________ Glossary
partners. Peacetime military engagement activities are designed
to support a combatant commander’s objectives as articulated in
the theater engagement plan. (FM 3-0)
penetration a form of maneuver in which an attacking force seeks to rupture
enemy defenses on a narrow front to disrupt the defensive system
(FM 3-0)
PGM precision-guided munitions
phase line a line utilized for control and coordination of military operations,
usually an easily identified feature in the operational area
(JP 1-02)
physical destruction the application of combat power to destroy or degrade adversary
forces, sources of information and command and control systems,
and installations. It includes direct and indirect forces from
ground, sea, and air forces. Also included are direct actions by
special operations forces. (FM 100-6)
physical security that part of security concerned with physical measures designed
to safeguard personnel; to prevent unauthorized access to equip-
ment, installations, material, and documents; and to safeguard
them against espionage, sabotage, damage, and theft (JP 3-13)
PIR priority information requirements
PL phase line (graphics only)
PLO Palestine Liberation Organization
PMCS preventive maintenance checks and services
PME peacetime military engagement
port of debarkation the geographic point at which cargo or personnel are discharged.
May be a seaport or aerial port of debarkation; for unit require-
ments, it may or may not coincide with the destination (JP 3-35)
port of embarkation the geographic point in a routing scheme from which cargo or
personnel depart. This may be a seaport or aerial port from which
personnel and equipment flow to port of debarkation; for unit and
nonunit requirements, it may or may not coincide with the origin.
(JP 3-35)
POW prisoner of war
principles of war principles that provide general guidance for conducting war and
military operations other than war at the strategic, operational,
and tactical levels. The principles are the enduring bedrock of US
military doctrine. The nine principles of war are: objective, offen-
sive, mass, economy of force, maneuver, unity of command,
security, surprise, and simplicity. (FM 3-0)
priority information requirements those intelligence requirements for which a commander
has an anticipated and stated priority in his task of planning and
decision-making (JP 2-0)
Glossary-25
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
propaganda any form of communication in support of national objectives
designed to influence the opinions, emotions, attitudes, or
behavior of any group in order to benefit the sponsor, either
directly or indirectly (JP 3-53)
psychological operations planned operations to convey selected information and indicators
to foreign audiences to influence their emotions, motives, objec-
tive reasoning, and ultimately the behavior of foreign govern-
ments, organizations, groups, and individuals. The purpose of
psychological operations is to induce or reinforce foreign attitudes
and behavior favorable to the originator's objectives. (JP 3-53)
PSYOP psychological operations
public affairs those public information, command information, and community
relations activities directed toward both the external and internal
with interest in the Department of Defense (JP 3-61)
pursuit an offensive operation designed to catch or cut off a hostile force
attempting to escape, with the aim of destroying it (JP 1-02)
push in logistics, the delivery of a predetermined amount of supplies to
a user on a scheduled basis without the user requesting them.
(FM 100-10)
PZ Panzer (graphics only)
QRF quick reaction force
R. River (graphics only)
railhead a point on a railway where loads are transferred between trains
and other means of transport (JP 4-01.5)
rear area for any particular command, the area extending forward from its
rear boundary to the rear of the area assigned to the next lower
level of command. This area is provided primarily for the perfor-
mance of support functions and is where the majority of the
echelon’s sustaining functions occur. (JP 3-10)
refugee a civilian who, by reason of real or imagined danger, has left
home to seek safety elsewhere (JP 3-07.6)
relevant information all information of importance to commanders and staffs in the
exercise of command and control (FM 3-0)
relief in place (Army) a tactical enabling operation in which, by direction of
higher authority, all or part of a unit is replaced in an area by the
incoming unit (FM 3-90)
reorganization action taken to shift internal resources within a degraded unit to
increase its level of combat effectiveness (FM 100-9)
responsiveness one of the eight characteristics of combat service support:
providing the right support at the right place at the right time
(FM 100-10)
reserve that portion of a force withheld from action or uncommitted to a
specific course of action, so as to be available for commitment at
Glossary-26
_________________________________________________________________________________ Glossary
the decisive moment. Its primary purpose is to retain flexibility
through offensive action. (JP 1-02)
retrograde a type of defensive operations that involves organized movement
away from the enemy (FM 3-0)
riot control agent any chemical that is not listed in the Chemical Weapons Conven-
tion, which can produce rapidly in humans sensory irritate or
disabling physical effects which disappear within a short time
following termination of exposure (JP 1-02)
risk (Army) chance of hazard or bad consequences; exposure to chance
of injury or loss. Risk level is expressed in terms of hazard
probability or severity. (FM 100-14)
risk assessment the identification and assessment of hazards (first two steps of
risk management process) (JP 1-02)
risk management (Army) the process of identifying, assessing, and controlling risk
arising from operational factors, and making an informed decision
that balances cost with mission benefits (FM 3-0)
ROE rules of engagement
ROK Republic of Korea
ROM Romanian Army (graphics only)
RPG rocket-propelled grenade
rules of engagement (Joint) directives issued by competent military authority which
delineate the circumstances and limitations under which United
States forces will initiate and/or continue combat engagement
with other forces encountered (JP 3-0)
SALT supporting arms liaison team
SBU special boat unit
SEAL sea-air-land team
search and attack a technique for conducting a movement to contact that shares
many of the characteristics of an area security mission (FM 3-0)
secure (Army) a tactical mission task that involves preventing a unit,
facility, or geographical location from being damaged or destroyed
as a result of enemy action. (FM 3-90)
security (Army) one of the nine principles of war: never permit the enemy
to acquire an unexpected advantage (FM 3-0)
seize a tactical mission task that involves taking possession of a
designated area using overwhelming force (FM 3-90)
sequel an operation that follows the current operation. It is a future
operation that anticipates the possible outcome—success, failure,
or stalemate—of the current operation. (FM 3-0)
SF Army Special Forces
Glossary-27
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
shaping operations operations at any echelon that create and preserve conditions for
success of the decisive operation (FM 3-0)
show of force an operation, designed to demonstrate US resolve that involves
increased visibility of US deployed forces in an attempt to defuse
a specific situation, that, if allowed to continue, may be detri-
mental to US interests or national objectives (JP 3-07)
SIGINT signals intelligence
signals intelligence 1. A category of intelligence comprising either individually or in
combination all communications intelligence, electronic intelli-
gence, and foreign instrumentation signals intelligence, however
transmitted. 2. Intelligence derived from communications, elec-
tronic, and foreign instrumentation signals. (JP 2-0)
simplicity one of the nine principles of war and one of the eight charac-
teristics of combat service support: prepare clear, uncomplicated
plans, and clear, concise orders to ensure thorough under-
standing. (FM 3-0)
situational understanding the product of applying analysis and judgment to the common
operational picture to determine the relationships among the
factors of METT-TC (FM 3-0)
situation template a depiction of assumed adversary dispositions, based on adver-
sary doctrine and the effects of the battlespace if the adversary
should adopt a particular course of action. In effect, situation
templates are the doctrinal templates depicting a particular
operation modified to account for the effects of the battlespace
environment and the adversary's current situation (training and
experience levels, logistic status, losses, dispositions). Normally,
the situation template depicts adversary units two levels of com-
mand below the friendly force, as well as the expected locations of
high-value targets. Situation templates use time-phase lines to
indicate movement of forces and the expected flow of the
operation. Usually, the situation template depicts a critical point
in the course of action. Situation templates are one part of an
adversary course of action model. Models may contain more than
one situation template. (JP 2-03.1)
SJA Staff Judge Advocate
SO special operations
SOCCE special operations command and control element
SOCOORD special operations coordination element
SOF special operations forces
SOFA status-of-forces agreement
SOP standing operating procedure
SOWT special operations weather team
SPOD seaport of debarkation
Glossary-28
_________________________________________________________________________________ Glossary
SPOE seaport of embarkation
space operations the employment of space system capabilities that provide the
means to enhance command and control, facilitate the maneuver
of forces, reduce the commander's uncertainty, and improve fire
support, air defense, intelligence collection, and combat service
support operations which will support strategic, operational, and
tactical missions across the operational continuum in the near,
mid, and far term (FM 3-14)
special operations (Joint) operations conducted by specially organized, trained, and
equipped military and paramilitary forces to achieve military,
political, economic, or informational objectives by unconventional
military means in hostile, denied, or politically sensitive areas.
These operations are conducted across the full range of military
operations, independently or in coordination with operations of
conventional, nonspecial operations forces. Political-military
considerations frequently shape special operations, requiring
clandestine, covert, or low visibility techniques and oversight at
the national level. Special operations differ from conventional
operations in degree of physical and political risk, operational
techniques, mode of employment, independence from friendly
support, and dependence on detailed operational intelligence and
indigenous assets. (JP 3-05)
special operations forces those Active and Reserve Component forces of the Military Ser-
vices designated by the Secretary of Defense and specifically orga-
nized, trained, and equipped to conduct and support special
operations (JP 3-05)
special reconnaissance (Army) complementing of national and theater intelligence
collection assets and systems by obtaining specific, well-defined,
and time-sensitive information of strategic or operational signifi-
cance. It may complement other collection methods where there
are constraints of weather, terrain-masking, hostile counter-
measures, and/or other systems availability. Special reconnais-
sance is a human intelligence function that places US or US-
controlled "eyes on target" in hostile, denied, or politically sensi-
tive territory when authorized. SOF may conduct these missions
unilaterally or in support of conventional operations (FM 100-25)
SR special reconnaissance
SSC smaller-scale contingency
stability operations operations that promote and protect US national interests by
influencing the threat, political, and information dimensions of
the operational environment through a combination of peacetime
developmental, cooperative activities and coercive actions in
response to crisis (FM 3-0)
status-of-forces agreement an agreement that defines the legal position of a visiting military
force deployed in the territory of a friendly state. Agreements
delineating the status of visiting military forces may be bilateral
or multilateral. Provisions pertaining to the status of visiting
Glossary-29
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
forces may be set forth in a separate agreement, or they may form
a part of a more comprehensive agreement. These provisions
describe how the authorities of a visiting force may control
members of that force and the amenability of the force or its
members to the local law or to the authority of local officials. To
the extent that agreements delineate matters affecting the rela-
tions between a military force and civilian authorities and popula-
tion, they may be considered as civil affairs agreements. (JP 3-57)
strategic level of war the level of war at which a nation, often as a member of a group of
nations, determines national or multinational (alliance or coali-
tion) strategic security objectives and guidance, and develops and
uses national resources to accomplish these objectives. Activities
at this level establish national and multinational military objec-
tives; sequence initiatives; define limits and assess risks for the
use of military and other instruments of national power; develop
global plans or theater war plans to achieve these objectives; and
provide military forces and other capabilities in accordance with
strategic plans. (JP 3-0)
strategy the art and science of developing and employing armed forces and
other instruments of national power in a synchronized fashion to
secure national or multinational objectives (FM 3-0)
striking force a committed force organized to conduct the decisive attack in a
mobile defense. It normally comprises the maximum combat
power available to the commander at the time of the attack.
(FM 3-0)
strong point (Army) a heavily fortified battle position tied to a natural or
reinforcing obstacle to create an anchor for the defense or to deny
the enemy decisive or key terrain (FM 3-90)
STT special tactics team
support operations operations that employ Army forces to assist civil authorities,
foreign or domestic, as they prepare for or respond to crisis and
relieve suffering (FM 3-0)
surprise one of the nine principles of war: strike the enemy at a time or
place or in a manner for which he is unprepared (FM 3-0)
survivability (Joint) 1. Concept which includes all aspects of protecting per-
sonnel, weapons, and supplies while simultaneously deceiving the
enemy. Survivability tactics include building a good defense;
employing frequent movement; using concealment, deception, and
camouflage; and constructing fighting and protective positions for
both individuals and equipment. Encompasses planning and
locating position sites, designing adequate overhead cover, ana-
lyzing terrain conditions and construction materials, selecting
excavation methods, and countering the effects of direct and
indirect fire weapons. (JP 3-34) (Army) 2. One of the eight charac-
teristics of combat service support: being able to shield support
functions from destruction of degradation (FM 100-10)
Glossary-30
_________________________________________________________________________________ Glossary
sustainability one of the eight characteristics of combat service support: the
ability to maintain continuous support throughout all phases of
the operations (FM 100-10)
sustaining operations operations at any echelon that enable shaping and decisive
operations by providing combat service support, rear area and
base security, movement control, terrain management, and infra-
structure development (FM 3-0)
sustainment the provision of personnel, logistic, and other support required to
maintain and prolong operations or combat until successful
accomplishment or revision of the mission or of the national objec-
tive (JP 4-0)
synchronization 1. The arrangement of military actions in time, space, and pur-
pose to produce maximum relative combat power at a decisive
place and time. 2. In the intelligence context, application of intel-
ligence sources and methods in concert with the operational plan.
(JP 3-0)
TAC tactical (graphics only)
TACON tactical control
tactical combat force a combat unit, with appropriate combat support and combat
service support assets, that is assigned the mission of defeating
Level II threats (JP 3-10.1)
tactical control command authority over assigned or attached forces or
commands, or military capability or forces made available for
tasking, that is limited to the detailed and, usually, local direction
and control of movements or maneuvers necessary to accomplish
missions or tasks assigned. Tactical control is inherent in opera-
tional control. Tactical control may be delegated to, and exercised
at any level at or below the level of combatant command. (JP 3-0)
tactical level of war the level of war at which battles and engagements are planned
and executed to accomplish military objectives assigned to tactical
units or task forces. Activities at this level focus on the ordered
arrangement and maneuver of combat elements in relation to
each other and to the enemy to achieve combat objectives. (JP 3-0)
target acquisition the detection, identification, and location of a target in sufficient
detail to permit the effective employment of weapons (JP 3-55)
targeting 1. The process of selecting targets and matching the appropriate
response to them, taking account of operational requirements and
capabilities. 2. The analysis of enemy situations relative to the
commander's mission, objectives, and capabilities at the com-
mander's disposal, to identify and nominate specific vulnerabili-
ties that, if exploited, will accomplish the commander's purpose
through delaying, disrupting, disabling, or destroying enemy
forces or resources critical to the enemy. (JP 3-60)
task organization (Army) a temporary grouping of forces designed to accomplish a
particular mission (FM 3-0)
Glossary-31
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
task organizing (Army) the process of allocating available assets to subordinate
commanders and establishing their command and support rela-
tionships (FM 3-0)
TC training circular
TCC transportation component command
tempo the rate of military action (FM 3-0)
terrorism the calculated use of unlawful violence or threat of unlawful vio-
lence to inculcate fear; intended to coerce or to intimidate govern-
ments or societies in the pursuit of goals that are generally
political, religious, or ideological. (JP 3-07.2)
terrorist an individual who uses violence, terror, and intimidation to
achieve a result (JP 3-07.2)
terminal control 1. The authority to direct the maneuver of aircraft which are
delivering ordnance, passengers, or cargo to a specific location or
target. Terminal control is a type of air control. 2. Any electronic,
mechanical, or visual control given to aircraft to facilitate target
acquisition and resolution. (JP 1-02)
TF task force
throughput distribution the bypassing of one or more intermediate supply echelons in the
supply system to avoid multiple handling (FM 100-10)
TIM toxic industrial materials
time-phased force and deployment data a Joint Operation Planning and Execution System
database located at Appendix 1 to Annex A of deliberate plans. It
identifies types and/or actual units required to support the
operation plan and indicates origin and ports of debarkation or
ocean area. This listing is to include both a. In-place units; and b.
Units to be deployed to support the deliberate plan. (JP 4-0)
track 1. To display or record the successive positions of a moving object.
2. To keep a gun properly aimed, or to point continuously a
target-locating instrument at a moving target (JP 1-02)
TRADOC Training and Doctrine Command
TTP tactics, techniques, and procedures
turning movement (Army) a form of maneuver in which the attacking force seeks to
avoid the enemy’s principal defensive positions by seizing objec-
tives to the enemy rear and causing the enemy to move out of his
current positions or divert major forces to meet the threat
(FM 3-0)
UAV unmanned aerial vehicle
UN United Nations
unconventional warfare a broad spectrum of military and paramilitary operations, nor-
mally of long duration, predominantly conducted by indigenous or
surrogate forces who are organized, trained, equipped, supported,
Glossary-32
_________________________________________________________________________________ Glossary
and directed in varying degrees by an external source. It includes
guerrilla warfare and other direct offensive, low visibility, covert,
or clandestine operations, as well as the indirect activities of sub-
version, sabotage, intelligence activities, and evasion and escape.
(JP 3-05)
unexploded ordnance explosive ordnance which has been primed, fused, armed, or
otherwise prepared for action, and which has been fired, dropped,
launched, projected, or placed in such a manner as to constitute a
hazard to operations, installations, personnel, or material, and
remains unexploded either by malfunction or design or for any
other cause (JP 1-02)
UNITAF Unified Task Force
unity of command one of the nine principles of war: for every objective, ensure unity
of effort under one responsible commander (FM 3-0)
unity of effort coordination and cooperation among all forces toward a commonly
recognized objective, even if the forces are not necessarily part of
the same command structure (FM 6-0)
UNOSOM UN Operations in Somalia
UNSCR UN Security Council Resolution
*UO urban operations
*urban area a topographical complex where man-made construction or high
population density is the dominant feature
*urban environment includes the physical urban area as well as the complex and dyna-
mic interaction and relationships between its key components—
the terrain (natural and man-made), the population, and the sup-
porting infrastructure—as an overlapping and interdependent
system of systems.
urban operations (Army) offense, defense, stability, and support operations con-
ducted in a topographical complex and adjacent natural terrain
where manmade construction and high population density are the
dominant features (FM 3-0)
US United States
USAF United States Air Force
USAID US Agency for International Development
USCG US Coast Guard
USCINCCENT Commander in Chief, United States Central Command
USFORSOM US Forces, Somalia
USN United States Navy
USS US ship
USSOCOM US Special Operations Command
USSPACECOM US Space Command
Glossary-33
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
USTRANSCOM US Transportation Command
UXO unexploded ordnance
VC Vietcong
versatility the ability of Army forces to meet the global, diverse mission
requirements of full spectrum operations (FM 3-0)
visualizing creating and thinking in mental images. See also commander’s
visualization. (FM 6-0)
vulnerability 1. The susceptibility of a nation or military force to any action by
any means through which its war potential or combat
effectiveness may be reduced or its will to fight diminished. 2. The
characteristics of a system that cause it to suffer a definite
degradation (incapability to perform the designated mission) as a
result of having been subjected to a certain level of effects in an
unnatural (manmade) hostile environment. 3. In information
operations, a weakness in information system security design,
procedures, implementation, or internal controls that could be
exploited to gain unauthorized access to information or an infor-
mation system. (JP 1-02)
weapons of mass destruction weapons that are capable of a high order of destruction and/or
of being used in such a manner as to destroy large numbers of
people. Weapons of mass destruction can be high explosives or
nuclear, biological, chemical, and radiological weapons, but
excludes the means of transporting or propelling the weapon
where such means is a separable and divisible part of the weapon.
(JP 3-11)
withdrawal operation a planned retrograde operation in which a force in contact disen-
gages from an enemy force and moves in a direction away from
the enemy (Joint)
WMD weapons of mass destruction
Glossary-34
Bibliography
When a field manual has been published under a new number, the
bibliography shows the old number after the new number.
DOCUMENTS NEEDED
These documents must be available to the intended users of this publication.
JP 1-02. Department of Defense Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms.
Available at http://www.dtic.mil/doctrine/jel/new_pubs/jp1_02.pdf
JP 3-06. Doctrine for Joint Urban Operations. 16 September 2002.
FM 3-0 (100-5). Operations. 14 June 2001.
FM 3-06.11 (90-10-1). Combined Arms Operations in Urban Terrain.
28 February 2002.
FM 3-07 (100-20). Stability Operations and Support Operations.
20 February 2003.
FM 3-90. Tactics. 04 July 2001.
FM 34-130. Intelligence Preparation of the Battlefield. 08 July 1994. FM 34-130
will be republished as FM 2-01.3.
FM 100-14. Risk Management. 23 April 1998. FM 100-14 will be republished as
FM 5-19.
FM 101-5. Staff Organizations and Operations. 31 May 1997. FM 101-5 will be
republished as FM 5-0 and retitled Army Planning and Orders
Production.
FM 101-5-1. Operational Terms and Graphics. 30 September 1997. FM 101-5-1
will be republished as FM 1-02.
SOURCES USED
These are the sources quoted or paraphrased in this publication.
DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE PUBLICATIONS
Quadrennial Defense Review Report. 30 September 2001.
JOINT PUBLICATIONS
Most joint publications are available: http://www.dtic.mil/doctrine/jel/
JP 3-0. Doctrine for Joint Operations. 10 September 2001.
JP 3-05. Doctrine for Joint Special Operations. 17 April 1998.
Bibliography-1
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
JP 3-08. Interagency Coordination During Joint Operations (2 Volumes).
9 October 1996.
JP 3-33. Joint Force Capabilities. 13 October 1999.
JP 4-0. Doctrine for Logistic Support of Joint Operations. 06 April 2000.
JP 5-00.2. Joint Task Force Planning Guidance and Procedures.
13 January 1999.
Joint Military Operations Historical Collection. 15 July 1997.
ARMY PUBLICATIONS
Most Army doctrinal publications are online: http://155.217.58.58/atdls.htm
FM 1 (100-1). The Army. 14 June 2001.
FM 3-05.20 (31-20). Special Forces Operations. 26 June 2001.
FM 3-05.30 (33-1). Psychological Operations. 19 June 2000.
FM 3-06.1 (1-130). Aviation Urban Operations: Multiservice Procedures for
Aviation Urban Operations. 15 April 2001.
FM(M) 3-3. Chemical and Biological Contamination Avoidance.
16 November 1992. FM(M) 3-3 will be republished as FM(M) 3-11.3.
FM 3-14. Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical (NBC) Vulnerability Analysis.
12 November 1997. FM 3-14 will be republished as FM 3-11.14.
FM 3-19.4 (19-4). Military Police Leaders’ Handbook. 04 March 2002.
FM 3-19.40 (19-40). Military Police Internment/Resettlement Operations.
01 August 2001.
FM 3-21. Chemical Accident Contamination Control. 23 February 1978. FM 3-21
will be republished as FM 3-11.21.
FM 3-31. Joint Force Land Component Commander Handbook (JFLCC).
13 December 2001.
FM 3-31.1 (90-31). AMCI: Army and Marine Corps Integration in Joint
Operations. 21 November 2001.
FM 3-34.230 (5-105). Topographic Operations. 03 August 2000.
FM 3-55. Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance. TBP.
FM 3-61.1. Public Affairs Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures. 01 October 2000.
FM 3-97.6 (90-6). Mountain Operations. 28 November 2000.
FM 5-33. Terrain Analysis. 11 July 1990. FM 5-33 will be republished as
FM 3-34.330.
FM 5-415. Fire-Fighting Operations. 09 February 1999. FM 5-415 will be
republished as FM 3-34.480.
FM 6-0. Command and Control. TBP.
FM 6-22.5 (22-9). Combat Stress. 23 June 2000.
Bibliography-2
______________________________________________________________________________ Bibliography
FM 7-15. The Army Universal Task List. TBP.
FM 8-51. Combat Stress Control in a Theater of Operations, Tactics, Techniques,
and Procedures. 30 January 1998. FM 8-51 will be republished as
FM 4-02.51.
FM 19-15. Civil Disturbances. 25 November 1985. FM 19-15 will be republished
as FM 3-19.15.
FM 22-51. Leaders’ Manual for Combat Stress Control. 29 September 1994.
FM 22-51 will be republished as FM 4-02.22.
FM 22-100. Army Leadership: Be, Know, Do. 31 August 1999. FM 22-100 will be
republished as FM 6-22.
FM 27-10. The Law of Land Warfare. 18 July 1956. FM 27-10 will be republished
as FM 1-04.10.
FM 27-100. Legal Support to Operations. 01 March 2000. FM 27-100 will be
republished as FM 1-04.
FM 31-20-3. Foreign Internal Defense Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures for
Special Forces. 20 September 1994. FM 31-20-3 will be republished as
FM 3-05.202.
FM 31-50. Combat in Fortified and Built-Up Areas. March 1964.
FM 33-1-1. Psychological Operations Techniques and Procedures. 05 May 1994.
FM 33-1-1 will be republished as FM 3-05.301.
FM 34-3. Intelligence Analysis. 15 March 1990. FM 34-3 will be republished as
FM 2-33.4.
FM 34-7. Intelligence and Electronic Warfare Support to Low Intensity Conflict
Operations. 18 May 1993. FM 34-7 will be republished as FM 2-91.1 and
retitled Intelligence and Electronic Warfare for Stability Operations and
Support Operations.
FM 34-81. Weather Support for Army Tactical Operations. 31 August 1989.
FM 34-81 will be republished as FM 2-33.2.
FM 34-81-1. Battlefield Weather Effects. 23 December 1992. FM 34-81-1 will be
republished as FM 2-33.201.
FM 41-10. Civil Affairs Operations. 14 February 2000. FM 41-10 will be
republished as FM 3-05.40.
FM 44-8. Combined Arms for Air Defense. 01 June 1999. FM 44-8 will be
republished as FM 3-01.8.
FM 46-1. Public Affairs Operations. 30 May 1997. FM 46-1 will be republished as
FM 3-61.
FM 90-8. Counterguerrilla Operations. 29 August 1986. FM 90-8 will be
republished as FM 3-07.11.
FM 90-10. Military Operations on Urbanized Terrain (MOUT) (How to Fight).
15 August 1979.
Bibliography-3
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
FM 90-40. NLW: Multiservice Procedures for the Tactical Employment of
Nonlethal Weapons. 06 October 1998. FM 90-40 will be republished as
FM 3-22.40.
FM 90-41. JTF Liaison Handbook: Multiservice Tactics, Techniques, and
Procedures for Joint Task Force (JTF) Liaison Operations.
26 August 1998. FM 90-41 will be republished as FM 6-14.
FM 100-5. Operations. 1944.
FM 100-6. Information Operations. 27 August 1996. FM 100-6 will be republished
as FM 3-13.
FM 100-8. The Army in Multinational Operations. 24 November 1997. FM 100-8
will be republished as FM 3-16.
FM 100-10. Combat Service Support. 03 October 1995. FM 100-10 will be
republished as FM 4-0.
FM 100-25. Doctrine for Army Special Operations Forces. 01 August 1999.
FM 100-25 will be republished as FM 3-05 and retitled Army Special
Operations Forces Doctrine.
TC 90-1. Training for Urban Operations. 01 April 2002.
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(CAC). Operation Restore Hope Lessons Learned Report. Fort
Leavenworth, KS: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1993.
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FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
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READINGS RECOMMENDED
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Bibliography-7
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
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FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
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from Mogadishu, Somalia, in January 1991. Alexandria, VA: Center for
Naval Analyses, 1992.
Bibliography-10
______________________________________________________________________________ Bibliography
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Taw, Jennifer Morrison. Operation Just Cause: Lessons for Operations Other
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Taw, Jennifer Morrison and Bruce Hoffman. The Urbanization of Insurgency: The
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Watson, Bruce Allen. Sieges: A Comparative Study. Westport, CT: Praeger, 1993.
Weigley, Russell. Eisenhower’s Lieutenants. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University
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Werstein, Irving. The Battle of Aachen. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Company,
1962.
Whiting, Charles. Bloody Aachen. New York: Stein and Day, 1976.
Wintle, Justin, ed. The Dictionary of War Quotations. New York: The Free Press,
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Wykes, Alan. The Siege of Leningrad. New York: Ballentine Books Inc., 1968.
Bibliography-11
Index
Entries are by paragraph number unless figure (fig.) or page (pg.) is specified.
A
Aachen, 1-15, pg. 3-4, pg. 6-27–
6-28
actions, predicting, B-39
adaptability, fig. 8-3, 8-31–8-32
need for, C-18
add-on protection, effects of, 9-44
administration, 2-76–2-77
infrastructure, fig. B-5
overlay, B-40
aerial, attack, A-15
delivery, 9-38, 9-50
reconnaissance, D-25
Afghanistan, pg. 9-19
agencies, coordination, 4-87–4-90
stability operations and
support operations, 8-24
support to, 5-70, 9-75
Aideed, assessment of, C-15
influence of, C-14
PSYOP, C-20
raid on, C-8
support of, C-7
air defense, 5-67–5-71
neutralize, 6-28
risks to, 6-57
Air Force, capabilities, D-5–D-11
SOF, D-47–D-50
air interdiction, D-7
air mobility, limitations, 5-68
air strike, Hue, pg. 6-23
air support, Navy, D-19
aircraft, challenges of, B-16, B-40,
D-8, D-9
types, 5-68
vulnerabilities, 9-38, C-17,
D-49
airlift operations, C-3
airspace, 2-12, 4-42
alliances, 1-25
ambush, 2-16, 2-23, 3-13, 3-17,
3-33
locations of, B-40
Somalia, C-7
Suez, pg. 7-14
American Civil War, 1-12
American Revolution, 1-12
amphibious operations, 2-13,
pg. 6-32, D-12
analysis, 2-51, 2-57
environment, 5-7
IPB, B-3
anticipation, 9-2
area defense, 7-21, pg. 7-6
ARFOR commander, 4-16, 4-17
armed factions, support to, 3-40
Arnhem, 1-9
ARSOF element, 4-86
artillery, direct fire, pg. 6-29
positioning of, 5-62
assault, Marine Corps, D-12
assess, pg. 1-2, 1-11, 2-42, 4-6,
pg. 4-2, pgs. 5-9–5-10, 5-30
CHS, 9-54
defensive operations, 7-30–
7-32
financial management
operations, 9-70
ISR, 7-46
offensive operations, 6-40–
6-51
Somalia, C-10–C-18
stability operations and
support operations, 8-16–
8-24
assessment, 2-70, 2-74, 5-3–5-7,
5-35, pg. 6-4
CSS, 9-9
cycle of effects, 2-54
failed, C-10
focus of, 6-46–6-51
IPB, B-8
LPT, 9-9, 9-17
meeting engagement, 6-34
offensive operations, 6-40
terrain, B-13
assets, security of, 5-71
association matrix, IPB, B-39
asymmetric, limitations, 3-19
attack, 6-4
asymmetry, 3-1
attack, 3-4, 6-3, 6-35, 6-71
breakout, 7-35
effects of, 8-13, 8-14
decisive, 7-22
deliberate, 6-35, 7-49
focused, 3-33
forms of, pgs. 6-12–6-13
frontal, 6-32, fig. 6-7,
pg. 6-12, fig. 6-9, 7-31
Hue, fig. 6-14, fig. 6-15
mitigating, 3-33
night, 6-4, 6-9
supplies needed, 9-26
attrition approach, 5-27, A-23
avenue of approach, 2-10, 2-12,
2-13, 2-16, 3-33, 4-55
concealed, 4-42
control of, 7-9
isolate, 4-14, 6-57
use of, 6-76
Index-1
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
aviation, Army, 6-67
assets, 2-12
Marine Corps, D-15
special operations, D-44
supply, 9-22
use of, 6-77
Ayodya, pg. 3-13
B
band support, CSS, 9-81
base security, 8-8, pg. 9-3
Basra, 1-9
battle command, fig. 5-1
battle damage assessment, 5-57
battle damage assessment and
repair, maintenance, 9-45
battle rhythm, maintain, 6-8
battlefield, effects, 4-11, B-8
multidimensional, 2-8–2-16,
fig. 2-2
organization, 6-12–6-26,
7-19, 8-5–8-8
urban, pg. 3-1
battlespace, 2-8
decisive operations, 5-13
shaping, 3-27
Beirut, 1-10, pg. 6-28, A-1–A-33,
fig. A-1
civilians, A-6
defense of, A-5
negotiations, A-12
siege, A-10
Belfast, pgs. 8-9–8-10
Benelux, 1-15
Berlin, 1-11
biological, 3-3
body armor, use of, 9-63
Bombay, pg. 3-13
BOS, 4-34, 5-38, 5-39–5-97,
fig. 5-5
affected by, pg. 5-1
CSS, 9-9
support to, 7-43
Bosnia, 2-67
boundaries, 2-25, 3-28
bounty programs, support to, 9-71
Brest, pgs. 6-3–6-4
Brittany, pgs. 6-3–6-5, fig. 6-1
buildings, 2-9, 2-12. See also
infrastructure, construction
concealment in, 7-7
core, 2-29–2-30
CSS, 9-11
destruction of, 9-23
effects of, 5-41, 5-64, 5-59,
7-4, 7-5, 9-4, B-15
electronics, 4-40, 7-7
high-rise, 2-36
industrial area, 2-32
information, B-15
obstacle, 2-15, 5-73, 5-74,
7-6
terrain, fig. B-3
variations of, 2-28
vulnerability, 2-24, 3-15, B-40
business district, overlay, B-40
bypassing, 4-14
C
C2, 3-18, 4-11, 5-83–5-97
advantage of, 6-25
airspace, B-40
counterattacks, 7-49
definition, 5-83
joint, 4-85
Los Angeles, pg. 8-13
philosophy of, 8-32
risks, 4-15
SOF, 4-84, D-36
threat, 5-11
terrain, 5-99
C2 system, 5-84, 5-86, 5-95, 6-64
CA, 1-22, 2-6, 8-26
CMO, 9-89–9-91
functional skills, 9-89, fig. 9-6
intelligence, 9-91
SOF, 4-3
support, 9-14, 9-90, 9-93
tasks, 3-25, 6-24
transition, pg. 5-12, 9-90,
9-93
canalization, 5-50–5-51, 7-6. See
also compartmentalization;
terrain
Cassino, 1-10
casualties, 1-17, 3-4, 3-13, 4-5–
4-6, pg. 5-11
accepting, C-14
avoiding, A-7, A-17, A-23
causing, 2-16, 3-22, 8-13,
9-53, 9-61
civilian, A-7
combat stress, 9-58, pg. 9-19
planning for, 9-56
ROE, 4-26
shaping operations, 5-8
chaplains, 9-73, 9-74. See also
religion
charts, IPB, B-39
Chechnya, 1-7, pg. 3-8, 3-25
combat stress, pgs. 9-19–
9-20
media, 2-67
chemical, biological, radiological,
nuclear, and high-yield, 8-11,
8-12
chemicals, fig. 2-6, 2-34, 3-3
defense, 2-35
terrain and, 4-29
Chicago, 1-19
China, 3-45, pg. 3-14
choke points, 6-14
CHS, commander, 9-54
components of, 9-53
CSS, 9-53–9-64
medical procedures, 9-55
personnel, 9-62, 9-64
pollution, 3-46
WMD, 9-55
civil considerations, 2-44, 5-36,
6-18
assessment of, 9-92–9-93
importance of, B-7–B-8
IPB, B-13
civil unrest, 1-19
Index-2
____________________________________________________________________________________Index
civilian agencies, legitimate, 5-22
protection of, 8-2
threat analysis, B-23
transition, 5-22, 6-82, 7-50
civilian authorities, 1-19, 5-70,
A-31, B-22
Los Angeles, pg. 8-13
responsibilities of, 9-55
stability operations and
support operations, pg. 8-2
transportation, 9-51
civilian support, 3-12, pg. 3-10,
9-17
characteristics, 3-21, B-29–
B-30
Los Angeles, pg. B-14
mobility, 5-75
perceptions of, 8-22
risk assessment, 5-6
civilian, 2-14, 2-44, 2-48, 2-58,
2-75
actions, B-28
affected by, 2-59, B-16
ally, B-30
casualties, 9-37
categorizations, B-26
challenges of, 3-23, 5-44
combat zone, A-28
control, 5-37, 8-41–8-42
crime, B-27
effects of, 2-42, 6-81,
pgs. 7-14–7-15, pg. 8-10,
9-25, 9-59, A-28, A-29
groups, 3-24, B-29–B-30
health, 5-91, 9-55
HRS, 9-67
infiltration, 6-30
information and, 3-24
interaction with, 2-52, pg. 3-8,
D-52
logistic constraint, A-6
masking, 7-11
mortuary affairs, 9-37
multinational forces, D-51
OPSEC, 4-64
protecting, 3-20, 5-91, 6-62,
8-6, 8-27
reconnaissance, 4-45, 7-11
resources for, 7-43
risk to, 2-9, 2-39, 2-40, 2-73,
2-77, C-15
ROE, 4-30
stability operations, 8-10
survivability, 5-79
sustaining operations, 6-17
threat, B-23–B-32
weather, B-16
close air support, 9-50, D-15,
D-49
close combat, 5-26, 6-21, A-21–
A-22
close coordination, 4-84, D-2
CMO, 2-54, 4-79, 7-43
assistance from, 9-90
CSS, 9-88–9-93
IO, 9-91
shaping, 5-13
weather, B-16
CMOC, 4-88
use of, C-22
coalition support, D-37, D-41
Coast Guard, 4-36, D-24–D-25
COG, 2-5, 7-15
commander, 6-21
dominate, 5-16
identifying, C-21
ISR, 4-55
neutralize, 6-12
potential, 2-43–2-44
stability operations and
support operations, pg. 8-1
collateral damage, 4-8, 5-34
Beirut, A-25–A-26
causing, 3-22
concerns, 5-59, A-17
considerations, 6-50, 7-39
firepower, 5-65
minimizing, 5-30, 5-63, 5-91,
6-75, 7-18, 8-37, 9-52,
A-23, A-25–A-26,
risks, 6-50
ROE, 4-26
shaping operations, 5-8
combat lifesaver, 9-61
combat operations, challenges,
A-33
civilians, 9-55
effects of, 9-31
PME, 1-25
push system, 9-29
stability operations, 6-81
supply, 9-21
training, pg. 9-19
combat power, 5-1, 5-102–5-105,
A-4
achieving, 7-16
applying, 8-37, 8-38, B-3,
C-21
building, 7-47
concentration, 6-5
conservation of, 5-29
defense, 7-1, pgs. 7-13–7-15,
7-45
density, 5-105
enhance, 7-3
focus, A-23
frontal attack, 6-32
ground, 5-103
Hue, pg. 6-23
integration, 5-90
logistics support, 9-28
needed, 9-16
offensive operations, 6-15
physical aspects, 7-9
restraint, 8-37
synchronization, 6-4, 6-6,
6-25, 6-26, 7-36, 5-90,
5-101
terrain, 5-102
combat stress, behaviors, 9-58
casualties, 9-58, 9-73
Chechnya, pgs. 9-19–9-20
CHS, 9-58–9-59
effects of, 9-58
religious support, 9-73
Index-3
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
combatants, A-28–A-29
separate, 5-31–5-32
combined arms, capabilities, 4-4
coordination, 5-93
operations, 2-31
synchronization, 5-93
task organization, 5-49, 5-53–
5-54, 5-73, 6-65
teams, 6-23
use of, 6-1
command post, 5-96
command structure, 4-16, C-24
commander, actions, 2-43, 4-90,
9-18, 9-90, C-23
alternatives, 4-14–4-15
assess, pg. 2-2, 2-54, 2-70,
2-74, 4-15, 5-30, 8-21,
8-24
assessment, 4-25, 4-67, pg.
5-10, 6-50, 6-51, 6-56,
6-72, 7-30, 9-54, 9-70
assistance to, 2-5, 5-66, 9-69,
9-73, 9-75, 9-93, B-33,
D-33, D-50
balance, 6-23
C2 system, 5-83
CA, 9-89
capabilities, 3-19, 4-17, 5-3,
D-36
challenges, 2-6, 2-67, 3-9,
3-47, 5-93, 8-29, 8-31, B-4
choices, 3-56, 4-45, 5-28,
6-76, 9-4
CHS, 9-54
civilians, 5-44, B-29
COG, 6-21
collateral damage, 5-65
combined arms, 2-31
communications, 5-95, C-28
concept of the operation, 4-24
considerations, 2-11, 2-13,
2-15, 2-16, 2-18, 2-24,
2-26, 2-28, 2-37, 2-40,
2-42, 2-44, 2-48, 2-51,
2-69, 3-20, pg. 3-8, 3-35,
3-37, 4-1, 4-3, 4-7, 4-8,
4-10, 4-13, 4-14, 4-38,
4-61, 5-35, 5-55, 5-66,
5-73, 5-82, 6-5, 6-8, 6-60,
6-80, 7-11, 7-30, 8-4, 8-30,
9-1, 9-4, 9-8, 9-12, 9-14,
9-19, 9-26, 9-27, 9-30,
9-31, 9-42, 9-44, 9-45,
9-55, 9-60, 9-71, 9-74,
9-75, 9-82, 9-83, 9-84,
9-92, B-4, B-6, B-10, B-12,
B-21, B-26, B-29, B-30,
D-3, D-33, D-52
cooperation of, 9-14
coordination, 6-20, 8-7, C-23
credibility, 4-81
CSS, 9-18
deception, 4-69
decisive point, 6-47
dominate, C-21
evacuation, 9-60
executing, 4-15, pg. 8-1
fire power, 5-65
flexibility , 5-21, 9-7
focus, pg. 4-1
food, 3-41
influencing, 2-65, 8-33
integration, 5-70, 7-19, C-23
intelligence, 5-88
IPB process, 9-92, B-20, B-21
LPT, 9-16, 9-54
mental agility, 5-92, 7-18
operational requirements,
4-59, 9-2
options, 5-59, 6-23, 6-27,
9-80
PA, 2-66
planning, 2-23, 4-23, 5-20,
6-78, 7-31, 9-18
priorities, 9-8, 9-86
requirements, 4-37, 4-47
resources, B-32
ROE, 4-32, 5-30, B-9
security, 8-21
shaping operations, 5-9
situational understanding,
pg. B-1, B-9, B-33
stability operations and
support operations, 8-20
subordinate, 4-38, 5-84, 5-88
tasks, 1-2, 2-6, 2-21, 2-35,
4-10, 4-52, 5-3, 5-6, 5-38,
5-87, 5-90, 5-103, 6-13,
6-15, 6-63, 6-84, 8-5, 8-16,
8-20, 8-24, 8-27, 8-29,
8-34, 8-39, 8-42, 9-33,
9-36, 9-37, 9-49, 9-78,
9-88, A-26, B-3, B-5, B-8,
B-13, B-15, B-21, B-22,
B-26, B-28, B-32, D-1
training, 8-31
transition, 6-79
understanding, B-8, B-21,
D-17
water, 9-35
commander of major operations,
2-69, 4-1, 4-34, 4-35, 4-36
assessment, 6-41
commitment, 8-43
considerations, 2-73, 5-85,
9-20,
decisive operations, 6-20
dominate, 8-37
exploitation, 6-36
integration, 4-23
isolation, 5-10
maneuver, 6-71
options, 7-35
perspective, 7-24
resources, 4-33, 7-36
responsibility, 4-85
shaping, 5-8, 6-52, 7-33
SOF, 4-84
stability operations and
support operations, 8-4
transitions, 8-40
commander’s critical information
requirements, 4-55, 4-59, 5-2
commerce, 2-74–2-75. See also
economics
infrastructure, fig. B-5
overlay, B-40
commercial ribbon area, 2-41
commitment, 8-43
communicable diseases, 9-56
Index-4
____________________________________________________________________________________Index
communications, 2-61–2-67, 4-36,
pg. 5-31
capabilities, D-34
challenges, 5-93, fig. 5-8,
5-94, 5-96, pg. 6-3
command post, 5-96
commander, 5-95, C-28
disruption, 7-13
electronics, 4-40
equipment, 9-46
infrastructure, 5-41, fig. B-5
insurgents, 3-48
interception of, 4-75
isolation, 5-11
OPSEC, 4-63
overlay, B-40
reconnaissance, 4-44
security, 5-95
SIGINT, 4-53
systems, 3-18
training, 5-94
compartmentalization, 5-50–5-51.
See also canalization; terrain
disruption, 7-13
effects of, 6-21, 7-27, pg. 7-
15, 9-59, 9-61, B-16, 7-10
computer, impact of, 2-63
computer network operations,
4-71–4-74
concealment, 3-21, 4-39, 4-43,
7-7. See also cover and
concealment
concept of the operation, 4-24
conflict, to change, 3-12
Congo, food, pg. 3-14
construction, terrain, fig. B-3
continuous operations, 3-31, 3-46,
5-55
control operations, SF, D-42
control the essential, Beirut, A-24
conventional, counterattack,
pg. 6-31
reconnaissance, 4-45, 4-51,
6-49
threat, 6-54
warfare, 1-20, D-53
conventional forces, infiltration,
6-30
integration of, 4-84–4-86
media, 2-66–2-67
movement to contact, 6-33
SOF, 4-84, fig. 6-17
threat analysis, B-22
cooperation, logistics of, 9-6
coordination, 3-25, 4-15
agencies and, 4-87–4-90
commander, C-23
dominate, 8-33–8-34
forces, 4-35
ISR, 4-37
joint, 4-36, D-3
LNO and, 4-89
logistics of, 9-6
Los Angeles, pg. 8-13
Marine Corps, D-16
operational headquarters,
4-87
SOF, 4-84, D-36
stability operations and
support operations,
pg. 8-1, 8-33–8-34
threat analysis, B-22
COP, 3-9, 5-88
developing, 6-45
ISR, 4-52
maintaining, 5-5
core, 2-29–2-31
overlay, B-40
counterattacks, asymmetric, 7-48
avoiding, 3-17
coordination of, 7-49
defeating, 6-85
defensive operations, 7-14
disadvantages, pg. 6-31
Hue, pg. 6-22
Metz, pg. 6-12
mobile defense, 7-23
offensive operations, 4-19
preparation for, 6-85, 7-44
Seoul, pg. 6-31
sustaining operations, 6-14
vulnerability to, 6-37
withdrawal, 7-27
counterintelligence, 3-15, 4-76
countermobility, 5-72–5-79, 7-39
counterpropaganda, 4-68
counterterrorism, 3-15
cover and concealment, 2-12,
2-31, 3-19, 3-22, 3-29, 3-48,
5-41, 5-57
defensive operations, 7-14
dismounted movement,
pg. 5-11
environment, 7-26
indirect fire, 5-65
maneuver, 5-52
mobility, 5-73
Somalia, C-16
covered movement, 7-17
credibility, 2-66
CMO, 9-88
commander, 4-81
crime, black market, 9-31
criminal organizations,
alliance, 3-50, 3-52–3-53,
pg. 3-17
civilians, B-27
resources, B-32
critical infrastructure, 5-91
denial of, 5-17
preserving, 5-34
crowd control, 9-68, C-12
CSS, 2-60, 4-15, 5-80–5-82, 9-33
attainability, 9-3
characteristics, 9-1–9-8
counterattacks, 7-49
functions, pg. 9-1, 9-18–9-81,
fig. 9-3
integration, 9-6
operational framework, 5-2
operation plan, 9-16
responsiveness, 9-2
restrictions, 9-12
sustaining operations, 8-8
Index-5
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
culture. See also customs; ethnic
assessment of, C-10, C-16
effects of, C-13
instability of, pg. 3-13
IO, 5-36
society, fig. B-4
understanding, 5-35, B-17
customs, mortuary affairs, 9-37
cycle of effects, 2-54, fig. 2-10
D
deception, 4-69, 6-30, 6-56, 7-26
effects of, 3-25
IO, 6-62, 7-34
decisionmaking, 2-50, 4-81, 5-99,
5-107, 6-63
threat, 6-26
urban offense, 6-34
decisive operations, 5-96
battlespace, 5-13
defensive operations, 7-19
dominate, 5-15, 8-30
firepower, 3-17
ground, 6-41
offensive operations, 6-20–
6-26, 7-50
resources, 4-9
security, 9-50
shaping operations, 5-8, 6-12,
6-19, 8-7, 8-25
stability operations, 8-10
stability operations and
support operations, 8-6
decisive points, 2-5, 2-21, 2-69,
pg. 5-11, 6-73
choosing, 6-22
commander, 6-25
defensive operations, 7-15
determination, 6-47
dominate, 5-16
isolation, 5-9, 6-53
ISR, 4-55
massing effects, 7-15
penetration, 6-31
tactical level, 5-10
defense, counterattacks, 7-44
depth, 7-47
dominate, 5-17
enemy, 5-9
examples, 1-12, pg. 6-22,
pgs. 7-6–7-9
fluid, 1-23
IO, 7-34
ISR, 4-52
OAKOC, 7-32
population, 7-42
security, pg. 7-15
shaping, 7-37
weaken, 6-55
defensive operations, 1-2, 1-8,
1-14, 2-20, 2-31, 2-37, 4-20,
5-9, 5-86, 6-83, 7-1, 7-46
capabilities, 4-21
casualties, 4-5
characteristics of, 6-47–6-49,
7-2–7-18, 7-32
civil considerations, B-7
civilians, 2-39, 7-42
close combat, 5-26
combat power, 7-45
considerations, 7-29–7-52
counterattacks, 7-44, 7-49
countermobility, 5-76
decisive operations, 7-19
dominate, 5-17, 7-45
engineer units, 9-83
equipment, 4-7, 9-21, 9-25,
9-43
EW, 4-70
fire fighting support, 9-84
HRS, 9-68
intelligence systems, 5-41
IO, 4-62, 7-34
IPB, B-23
limitations of, 3-20
maneuver, 5-52
mobility, 7-14
MTW, 1-23, 5-78, B-23
Navy, D-18
offensive operations vs., 5-95
operational framework, 7-29
overlay, B-40
preparation, 7-3–7-7, 7-31,
7-34
retrograde, 7-25
shaping operations, 7-19,
7-37
Somalia, C-26
stability operations and
support operations vs., 8-3
strong points, 7-4
transition, 7-50, 7-51
transportation, D-30
types, 7-20–7-28
urban patterns, 2-17
delays, 7-27, 7-35
demolitions, 7-39. See also
explosives
density, 5-100–5-101
deny, access, 3-6–3-7, 8-23
deployment, 5-13, 5-100, 9-70
early, 4-48–4-51
depth, creating, 7-47
Detroit, 1-19
developing nations, 2-27
diagrams, IPB, B-39
dimension of the battlefield, B-2
dimensions, using all, 3-28
diplomatic power, 8-16
direct, pg. 5-1
direct action, 6-61, D-39, D-41
direct approach, 7-31
direct fire, pg. 6-28
offensive operations, 6-66
task organization, pgs. 6-27–
6-29
disaster relief operations, 9-34
discrimination, law of war, fig. 9-4
diseases, 3-43–3-46
dangers of, B-22
new, 9-57
disinformation, 3-26, 4-75. See
also propaganda;
misinformation
displacement, delays, 7-27
Index-6
____________________________________________________________________________________Index
disruption, avoiding, 9-13
defensive operations, 7-12–
7-14
PLO, A-15
distance, 5-100–5-101
distribution, 2-68–2-70, 9-16, 9-38
effects of, 9-28
infrastructure, 2-68, fig. B-5
overlay, B-40
planning, C-11
diversity, 4-52–4-55
DNBIs, causes, 9-31, 9-87
threat of, 9-56–9-57
doctrinal framework, 7-19
doctrine, 1-20, 8-32
application of, pg. 5-1
emphasis, 1-23
offensive operations, pg. 6-1
domestic emergencies, support
operations, 3-41, 4-22, 8-11
dominate, pg. 1-2, 5-15–5-19,
pg. 5-11, 6-70–6-77, 7-45–7-49
Air Force, D-10
Beirut, A-3
CA, 9-90
CSS, pg. 9-2
distribution, D-10
restraint, 8-37–8-38
shape vs., 6-74
Somalia, C-21–C-25
stability operations and
support operations, 8-30–
8-39
drop zones, limitations, 9-38
E–F
economics, 2-74–2-75, 3-34, 3-38,
3-49, 9-3, 9-70, fig. B-5. See
also financial management
operations
overlay, B-40
key terrain, 5-28
economy of force, 5-29, 6-77,
7-41
EEFI, OPSEC, 4-64
ROE, 4-26
Somalia, C-18, C-19
Egyptian Army, pgs. 7-13–7-15
electricity, 2-72
electronic, capabilities, 4-40
effects of, 2-56
isolation, 5-11, 6-62
limitations of, 5-41, 7-7, 9-43
warfare, 4-70, 5-11
end state, 4-24, 5-5, 5-23, 8-3
enemy. See also threat
assessment of, B-24
effects, 4-28
engage, 3-31–3-32
energy, 2-71–2-73
infrastructure, fig. B-5
overlay, B-40
engagement area, 2-10
engineer units, 4-54, 9-83
evacuation, 9-60
planning, 7-39
CSS, 9-82–9-87, fig. 9-5
tasks, 2-9, 5-53, 5-74, 5-78,
9-35, 9-82
envelopment, 6-28, fig. 6-3, 6-65
Metz, pg. 6-12, fig. 6-8
environment, 2-1–2-6
advantages of, pg. 7-1
altered, 5-5
analyzing, 5-7, B-8, B-12
assessment of, 7-32, 9-3,
C-10
casualties, 9-53
challenges, 4-55, 5-43, 7-10,
B-22, pg. D-0, D-34
CSS, pg. 9-2
definition, 1-3
delays, 7-27
disruption, 7-12
effects of, 3-11, 5-83, 6-51,
9-2, 9-9, 9-28, 9-56, A-26,
C-14
evaluation of, B-6
indirect fire, 5-61
IPB, B-2
obstacles, 6-9
operational, 4-26
resources, 5-7, 9-28
securing, 7-10, C-4, C-26
similarities, 2-3
size, 4-55
support from, B-8
support in, D-4
system of systems, B-11
tactical techniques, pg. 2-1–
2-2
threats, B-22
understanding, 9-3, B-9
variables, pg. B-1
EOD, 9-65
equipment, 3-1, 3-3, 4-7, 9-42
amphibious, D-13
close combat, 5-26
fixing, 9-43, 9-92
sustaining operations, 6-16
escalation, 4-13
essential, controlling, 5-28–5-29
services, 5-33, A-30
ethics, 3-19, 3-22
ethnic, 3-39. See also culture;
customs
groups, pg. B-7
society, fig. B-4
tension, C-1
evacuation, 3-20
Beirut, A-32
casualty, 4-5
civilians, 4-31
delays, 9-61
transportation, 9-60
exploitation, 6-36–6-37
explosives, 3-15, 3-30, 9-62. See
also demolitions
external space, 2-11
field artillery, tasks, 5-53
field sanitation, training, 9-57
field services, 9-30–9-39
financial management operations,
9-69–9-71
financial resources, civilians, B-30
Index-7
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
fire fighting support, 9-84–9-86
fire support, 3-22, 5-67, 5-56–
5-65, 6-65,
Navy, D-18, D-19
systems, 5-59–5-60
FSCM, 4-11, 4-15
fires, 6-57–6-58, 6-75
air-delivered, D-8
planning, B-40
fixing force, mobile defense, 7-23
flexibility, CSS, 9-7–9-8
defensive operations, 7-17–
7-18
distribution, 9-38
ISR, 4-59–4-60
need for, C-18
transportation, 9-49
focus, ISR, 4-55
food, assistance, 3-51, 8-19, 9-31
shortages, 3-40–3-42,
pg. 3-14
Somalia, C-4
force, application of, 9-80
strength, 4-2
force projection, 7-1
force protection, 3-7, 3-20, 3-25,
4-4, 4-10, 5-13, 8-21–8-23,
accomplishing, 8-16
assessment, 8-22, pgs. 8-9–
8-10
Beirut, A-31
Belfast, pg. 8-9
establishing, 8-21
isolation vs., 8-23
stabilization vs., pg. 8-10
forces, analysis by, C-14
Army, 1-25, 9-14
assistance from, 8-10
complications to, 8-5
defending, 7-8, 7-24, 7-50,
9-25
ground, 2-12, 2-15, 2-56
impartiality, 9-14
medical screening, 9-57
protecting, C-8, C-24, D-4
resources and, 7-36–7-38
types of, 4-3–4-4
foreign area, capabilities, 9-12
form, terrain, fig. B-3
framework, planning, 9-1
fratricide, causes, 4-11
effects of, 4-12
minimizing, 4-15
freedom of action, 7-42
defensive operations, 7-19
preserving, 8-23
friendly forces, 3-9, 3-24
frontal assaults, terrain, 4-5
fuel, supply, 9-22
full spectrum operations, 1-2, fig.
1-1, 4-18–4-22, pg. 4-1, 5-15,
pg. 9-1
conduct, B-22
CSS functions, 9-19
functional combatant command,
capabilities, D-26–D-50
future operations, 2-59, 2-60
G–H
goals, objectives and, 4-80
government, challenges, 3-36,
8-36
criminal organizations, 3-50
legitimacy, 8-41
society, fig. B-4
tasks, 8-10
Greece, 1-4
groups, B-29, 2-52–2-53
categorization, B-25, B-39
composition, 2-48–2-49
governing, 3-47
location, 2-48–2-49, B-40
threat, B-25
guerilla forces, pg. 3-8, 3-21, B-21
Aideed, C-15
Haiti, 8-24
harbor defense, D-23, D-24
harbor security, Navy, D-22
hazardous facilities, overlay, B-40
health. See also CHS
civilians, 5-91
difficulties, 5-33, 9-54
mental health, 9-73
society, fig. B-4
helicopters, 5-50. See also aircraft
high-intensity UO, casualty, 4-6
historical significance, 1-4–1-20
history, society, fig. B-4
Somalia, C-1
street patterns, 2-23
host-nation, agreements, 9-78
support from, 9-17
HRS, CSS, 9-66–9-68
hub, 2-17
Hue, 1-18, pgs. 3-9–3-10, 4-6,
fig. 4-2, pgs. 6-21–6-24,
fig. 6-16
human capabilities, 4-41–4-46
human dimension, 2-2, 4-30, 4-68,
5-42
assessment, 5-5
effects of, 7-8
fire support, 5-59
flexibility, 5-92
ISR, 4-37
Somalia, C-12–C-13
understanding, 5-35–5-36,
A-27
human services, 2-76–2-77
infrastructure, fig. B-5
overlay, B-40
human shields, 3-22
humanitarian assistance, 3-41,
8-11, C-2, C-9
humanitarian relief, 3-40
domination, 5-19
NGO, C-5
Somalia, C-4
support operations, 4-22
transportation command,
D-31
HUMINT, 2-6, 4-41, 5-46, 6-43,
6-44, 6-49
advantages of, 4-46
assess, pg. 5-10
Index-8
____________________________________________________________________________________Index
HUMINT (continued)
decisive operations, 6-24
effects of, 5-47
establishing, 8-21
paying for, 9-71
PSYOP, 4-66
requirements, 4-46
stability operations and
support operations, 5-47
I
IDF, attack, fig. A-4, fig. A-5, A-11,
A-13
close combat, A-21
disruption by, A-15
massing effects, A-14
media, A-9
naval forces, A-10
OPERATION PEACE FOR
GALILEE, A-1
options, A-2
position, A-3–A-4
PSYOP, A-20
imagery, capabilities, 4-39
IPB, B-34
ISR, D-34
space-based, D-34
IMINT, 4-53, 6-44
capabilities, 4-49, 4-50
imperatives, 1-27, fig. 1-2
Inchon, pgs. 6-30–6-32, fig. 6-18
incident overlay, B-40
indirect approach, direct approach
vs., 7-31
indirect fire, 5-65, 6-58
environment, 5-61
masking from, 7-5
synchronizing, 7-16
industrial area, 2-32–2-35
overlay, B-40
survivability, 9-4
industry, growth, 3-34
infantry, 1-22, 4-3, 5-53
infiltration, 6-30, fig. 6-5
counterattacks, 7-49
prevention of, 7-10
reconnaissance, 4-54
informal system, 2-70
information, 2-61–2-67, 4-61, 6-48
Air Force, D-6
assessment, pg. 5-10, 6-45
assurance, 4-75
environment, B-5, B-15
infrastructure, fig. B-5
insufficient, 2-67
isolation, 5-11
ISR, 4-37
media and, pgs. 3-9–3-10
OPSEC, 4-63
overlay, B-40
overload, 6-26
relevant, B-5, B-6
sources, 3-24, 4-82, 5-48,
6-43, 6-44
time, 4-75
validation, 9-71
war, 3-26
INFOSYS, 4-74, 5-25, 5-93–5-97,
6-49
challenges, 4-15, 4-76
commander, 5-88
space command, D-34
time, 5-99
infrastructure, 2-3, fig. 2-1, 2-55–
2-77, fig. 2-11, pg. 3-1
affected by, 8-14, 8-19
analysis, 9-11, B-19
blueprints, B-36
civilian, 2-58, 4-72
communications, 5-41
control of, 1-9
CSS, fig. 9-2, 9-18
damage to, 9-56
destruction of, 2-56, 2-59
distribution, 9-48
DNBIs, 9-57
effects of, 4-32, 4-75, 9-56
engineering support, 9-82
example, pgs. 2-25–2-26
fire fighting support, 9-85
identifying, 9-10, D-29
intelligence, 4-46
IPB, B-3, B-11, B-19
ISR, 4-37
overlay, B-40
preserving, 8-29, 8-37, 9-57,
A-24, A-25
protecting, 5-13, 8-6, pg. 8-9,
8-27, 9-6
resources, 2-60
resupply, 9-27
risk to, 4-8
ROE, 4-27
society, B-19
stability operations and
support operations, 2-60
support from, 2-55, 8-2
sustaining operations, 8-8
terrain, B-19
threat and, 3-11
understanding, 9-93
urban, 2-55–2-77
initiative, to seize, 3-10
transition, 5-20
injuries, types, 9-64
instability, 3-36–3-39, 3-40
insurgencies, pg. 3-16, 3-48
insurgency support, 4-21
insurgent, conventional threat vs.,
6-54
criminals and, 3-53
integration, 4-15
commander, C-23
CSS, 9-6
ISR, 4-56–4-58
land operations and, 4-23–
4-90
Marine Corps, D-16
space command, D-32
threats, 5-32
intelligence, 4-74. See also IPB;
ISR
assess, pg. 5-10
BOS, 5-40–5-48
Index-9
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
intelligence (continued)
CA, 9-91
civilians, pg. 7-15, 9-91
collecting, 8-21, 9-91
directions for, B-1
identifying, B-6
infrastructure, 4-46
products, 5-89
resources, 5-47
support, 3-24–3-25, 4-36
systems, 5-40, 5-41
interdependence, 2-56
internal space, 2-11
international agreements, 3-23,
5-66
international law, 3-22. See also
law
legal support, 9-77–9-78
interoperability, 2-25
intrasurface area, 2-15, 3-29
challenges, 5-41
effects of, 5-51
imagery capabilities, 4-39
IO, 2-54, 2-63, 3-23, 4-61–4-83
activities, fig. 4-4
Beirut, A-9, A-18–A-20
CA, 8-26
CMO, 4-79, 9-91
consequences, B-12
considerations, 4-62, C-18
culture, 5-36
deception, 4-69
defense, 4-62, 5-11, 7-34
elements, fig. 4-4
focused, 5-25
hub, 2-18
isolation, 5-11, 8-26
media, A-9
offensive operations, 4-62,
6-62
PA, 8-26
performing, A-18–A-20
psychological, pg. 9-19
PSYOP, 8-26, A-20
risks, 4-15
shape, 8-26
stability operations and
support operations, 5-30
tactical level, 5-11
threats and, 3-26
transition, pg. 5-12
IPB, pg. 2-1, 3-35, B-1–B-41
analysis, 6-45, B-3, B-9,
B-11, B-18
application of, B-2, B-33
categories, fig. B-6
challenges of, 4-15, B-12,
B-41
characteristics, B-9–B-19
commander, 9-92, B-21
complexity, B-3
criminal organizations, B-27
hydrographic surveys, B-37
imagery, B-34
medical, 3-46
overlaps, B-11–B-12
process, 5-45, B-2
products, B-33
relationships, B-3
situational understanding,
pg. B-1
society, B-11, B-18
steps, fig. B-1
support to, 9-10
system of systems, B-11
technology, B-41
terrain, B-11
threat, B-23
time, B-3
tools, fig. B-7, B-33–B-41
UO, pg. B-1
urbanization of, B-1–B-8
use of, 5-3
isolated groups, attacks on, 3-33
isolation, 2-55, pg. 3-1, 4-5, 5-9–
5-12
aid to, 6-61
air interdiction, D-7
avenue of approach vs., 4-14
decisive points, 5-9
defeating, 7-34–7-35
defense and, 6-28
effects of, pg. 6-24, 6-73,
9-59
force protection vs., 8-23
frontal attack vs., 7-31
Hue, pgs. 6-21–6-24
indirect fire, 5-61
IO, 6-62
merchant class, 3-49
Metz, pg. 6-12
objectives, 5-9, 6-55
operational, pg. 5-11, 6-53
physical, 5-10
prevention of, 7-31, 7-34–
7-35
PSYOP, 4-67
reaction to, 6-59, fig. 6-13
requirements, 6-54
security vs., 8-23
shaping, 6-12, fig. 6-11, 6-19,
6-52, 6-53–6-60, C-19
Stalingrad, pg. 7-8
Suez, pg. 7-14
supplies and, 9-25
sustaining operations, 6-15
synchronization, pg. 7-15
threat, 6-22
urban, fig. 5-2
ISR, 2-7, 4-37–4-60
affected by, 7-7, B-15
Air Force, D-6
assessment, 6-41–6-45
assets, 4-47, 4-60, 6-42, B-29
challenges, 4-38–4-46
commander of major
operations, 4-23
conducting, 4-47–4-60, 6-41,
7-46
COP, 4-52
defense, 4-52
efforts, 4-47
executing, 4-37
identification of, B-6
Index-10
____________________________________________________________________________________Index
ISR (continued)
imagery, D-34
integration, 4-58
link, 4-56–4-57
physical challenges, 4-38
risks, 4-15
time, 4-60
Israel, pg. 5-31
Israeli Army, Suez, pgs. 7-13–
7-15
J–K–L
JFC, pg. 1-1, pg. 4-1
coordination, 4-36, 4-85
responsibilities, D-2, D-22,
D-23
joint functional command, D-2
actions, C-3
commander, 4-16, 4-17, 4-86
forming, D-1
JTF, 1-24, 2-16
synchronizing, D-2
JUO, 4-10, 4-16–4-17, D-1–D-54
C2, 4-85
fires, 6-58
forces, 4-8
framework, 5-1
land operations, 4-16
organization, fig. 4-2
support, 4-36
unity of effort, D-37
Kabul, pg. 3-16
key terrain, 3-21
essentials, 5-28
facilities, 3-27
water, 9-35
King, Martin Luther, 1-19
Kosovo, 5-48, pgs. B-6–B-7
land units, consists of, D-2
laundry, field services, 9-39
law, 3-19, B-40. See also
international law and US law
agreements, 5-66
host-nation, 9-77–9-78
mortuary affairs, 9-37
law and order, establishing, 8-6
protecting, 8-27
law enforcement, 3-53, pg. 3-17,
4-2
civilian, pg. 8-13, 9-49, 9-79
gangs vs., pg. B-14
operations, D-25
law of war, 4-30
international law, 9-77
principles of , fig. 9-4
violations of, 9-59
lead agency, domination, 5-19
leadership, 2-50, 5-12, 8-42, 9-59,
fig. B-4
detailed reconnaissance,
6-63
Los Angeles, pg. 8-13
operational framework, 5-1,
5-2
political, 3-12
Somalia, C-13
legal, considerations, 2-60
constraints, 8-37, 9-80
support, 9-75–9-80
legitimacy, 1-24
Belfast, pg. 8-9
challenges, 3-54, 3-55, 5-37,
8-37
civilians, 8-41, C-25
creating, 5-12, C-19
forces, 9-14
maintaining, 3-23, 8-39, 9-23
religious support, 9-74
stability operations, C-16
stability operations and
support operations, 8-7
weaken, 3-26
Leningrad, 1-8
lessons learned, Somalia, C-9
level of conflict, 1-21
levels of war, 5-106, 8-16, B-7
Liberia, pg. 3-16
light textile repair, 9-39
linear pattern, 2-20
linguists, decisive operations, 6-24
link diagram, IPB, B-39
Liri valley, 1-10
LNO, 4-89, 5-96, D-4
local law enforcement, 2-25, C-12
LOCs, 2-10, 2-13, 2-16, 2-17,
2-19, 2-48
attack of, 6-14, 6-15
engineer support, 9-82
infrastructure, B-40
Kosovo, pg. B-6
protection of, 8-8
security, 7-19, 9-50
stability operations, 5-75
sustaining operations, 7-19
turning movement, 6-29
LOGCAP, LPT planning, 9-13
logistic, constraint, A-6
information, 9-11, fig. 9-2
operations, 2-69
support, 3-24–3-25, 4-4, 9-11,
9-28, B-40
logistics, 2-60
civilians, 6-18
planning, pg. 6-3, 9-1, 9-2
stress to, B-18
support to, 6-18
sustaining operations, 6-16
system, 9-3
LOS, 5-60, B-40
Los Angeles, 1-19, pg. 8-13,
pg. B-14
LPT, analysis of, 9-13
assess, 9-9
commander, 9-16, 9-54
CSS, 9-9–9-17
logistic information, 9-11
society, 9-13
M
MacArthur, Douglas, 1-14–1-15,
pg. 6-30, pg. 6-32
mafia, pg. 3-17
maintenance, CSS, 9-40–9-46
location of, 9-11
Index-11
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
maintenance (continued)
rapid recovery, 9-41
replace forward, 9-42
support from, 9-40
support team, 9-43
major operations, pg. 4-1, 4-9
defense, pgs. 7-6–7-9
executing, 5-38
major urban operations, 4-16–
4-22
maneuver, 2-16, 2-23, 2-26, 2-69,
3-32, 5-49–5-55, 6-57–6-58,
6-71–6-73
air, 5-52
application of, 6-72, 6-75, 7-6
bold operational, pgs. 6-30–
6-32
challenges, 4-49, fig. 5-6,
6-72, pg. 6-31
freedom of, 6-77
ground, 6-65
offensive, 6-27, 6-28–6-32
operational, 6-72
planning, B-40
surveillance vs., 6-58
synchronization, 5-67, 6-5
Manila, 1-14, 1-15
man-made features, 2-7, B-15
MANPADS, 2-12, 5-52, 6-57, 7-23
man-portable weapons and
equipment, maintenance, 9-43
maps, 5-88–5-89
Marine air-ground task force,
capabilities, D-14–D-15
Marine Corps, capabilities, 4-36,
D-12–D-16
Marine expeditionary force, 4-86
Marine expeditionary unit,
operations by, D-14
masking, 7-5, 7-11, D-20
massing effects, 3-18, 7-36, 7-41
defensive operations, 7-15–
7-16
IDF, A-14
SOF, D-36
matrices, IPB, B-39
measured restraint, Somalia, C-25
measures, resources and, 2-53
measures of effectiveness, 8-17,
8-18, 8-19
media, 2-64–2-67, 3-27, 5-106
access of, 2-64
bias, 2-67
control, A-19
cooperation, 2-66–2-67
effects of, 5-85, A-9, C-8,
C-14
evaluation of, B-39
influencing, 4-82, A-9
information and, pgs. 3-9–
3-10
integrated, 4-81
IO, A-9
PA, 4-80
perceptions, 5-25
public and, 2-65
stability operations and
support operations, 8-16
threats and, 3-26
use of, 3-23, A-9, A-18, C-20
media analysis matrix, IPB, B-39
meeting engagement, 6-34
merchant class, 3-49–3-51
METT-TC, 1-2, 2-4, 3-1, 5-3
assess, 7-30
constraints of, 8-34
CSS, 9-8
field services, 9-30
supplies, 9-28
Metz, pgs. 6-12–6-13
Mexican War, 1-12
MHE, survivability, 9-4
migration, 3-37, 3-40, 3-48, 8-2
military necessity, fig. 9-4
military objectives, 8-43
political objectives vs., 8-16
stability operations and
support operations, 8-16,
8-17–8-20
support of, 3-54
support to, 5-85
military police, 9-49
military victory, A-16
misinformation, 3-26, 4-72. See
also disinformation;
propaganda
communications, 4-75
media, A-19
missile threat, 5-69–5-70
mission, accomplishment, 5-28
analysis, 8-17
changes, 6-83–6-84
command, 5-84
commander, 8-30
orders, 6-64, 7-47
statement, 7-30
mobile defense, 7-22–7-24
fixing force, 7-37
principles of, 7-22
separation, 7-36
Stalingrad, pg. 7-9
urban area, fig. 7-1
mobility, 3-22, 5-72–5-79, 6-65
advantage, 7-22, 7-24, 7-39–
7-40
affected by, B-16
aircraft, D-19
corridor, 2-10
defense, 7-7, 7-14, 7-40
engineer, 9-83
METT-TC, 8-23
task organization, 7-22
transportation, B-40
model, urban, 2-27–2-41, fig. 2-5
momentum, 4-9, 5-20
morals, 3-19, 3-23, 9-73
mortuary affairs, 9-36–9-37, 9-67
Moscow, 1-11
movement, control, 7-19, 9-49
dismounted, 4-54, pg. 5-11,
5-51, 5-73
techniques, 4-54
movement to contact, 6-33–6-34
MTW, 1-21, 1-22–1-23, 5-78, B-23
air interdiction, D-7
Index-12
____________________________________________________________________________________Index
MTW (continued)
isolation, 5-10
organizations, 4-87
ROE, 4-26
multinational, capabilities, 5-94
considerations, D-51–D-54
forces, 4-8, D-51, D-53, D-54
operations, 4-27, D-1–D-54
partners, 1-24, 1-25
Multiple Launch Rocket System,
5-61
munitions, 4-7, 5-63–5-64
N–O
national forces, D-53
National Guard, 1-19
Los Angeles, pg. 8-13
national objectives, ROE, 4-26
national security policy, pg. 1-1
NATO, 2-67, 4-39
natural disaster, pg. 3-1, 4-44
natural features, 2-25
effects of, 2-21
IPB, B-14
naval coastal warfare, JFC, D-22
naval forces, IDF, A-10
naval gunfire, challenges of, D-20
Navy, capabilities, 4-36, D-17–
D-23
defensive operations, D-18
SOF, D-45–D-46
NBC, 3-2
negotiation, 9-51, A-12, A-17
network pattern, 2-19
New York City, 1-12, pg. 3-17, 4-2
NGO, 1-24, 1-25, 5-48
aid from, 3-40, 6-18, 9-54
coordination with, 7-43
isolation, 5-12
matrix, B-39
OPSEC, 4-15, 4-64
shaping operations, 8-7
stability operations and
support operations, 8-24
threat analysis, 3-25, 3-55,
B-22
NEO, 4-21, 5-18
noncombatants, Beirut, A-28–
A-29
density, 5-100
separate from, 5-31–5-32
noncontiguous operations, 5-84
nonlethal force, 9-80
nonlethal weapons, 5-66
nuclear power, 2-73
OAKOC, assessment, 7-32
terrain, fig. B-3, B-14, B-15,
B-19
objectives. See also military
objectives; political objectives
collateral damage, 4-8
exploit, 3-12
goals and, 4-80
isolation, 5-9
offensive isolation, 6-55
political, 3-12
prestige, 1-11
observation points, 3-29, 4-43,
4-50
obstacles, 2-12, 2-13, 2-15, 2-17,
2-31, 5-50, 5-59, 7-48
creating, pg. 7-14, 7-48, 9-23
effects of, 6-21
reinforcing, 7-16
offense, 1-17, pgs. 6-12–6-13
advantage, 1-8
concentration, 6-5
dominate, 5-16
supplies, 9-26
transition to, pg. 6-30
urban forms , 6-27–6-38
offensive considerations, 6-39–
6-85
offensive IO, nonlethal
capabilities, 9-80
operational level, 5-11
PSYOP, 4-67
use of, 6-4
offensive isolation, 6-55
offensive maneuver, 6-27, 6-28–
6-32
offensive operations, 1-2, 4-19,
5-86
assessment, 6-40
battlefield organization, 6-12–
6-26
casualties, 4-5
characteristics of, 6-2–6-11
civil considerations, B-7
civilians, 2-39
close combat, 5-26
core, 2-31
countermobility, 5-76
effective, pg. 7-15
engineer units, 9-83
equipment, 4-7, 9-43
EW, 4-70
fire fighting support, 9-84
HRS, 9-68
intelligence systems, 5-41
IO, 4-62
IPB, B-23
limitations of, 3-20
maneuver, 5-52
mission changes, 6-83
MTW, 1-23, B-23
munitions, 4-7
overlay, B-40
preparation for, A-14
purpose of, 6-1
shaping, 6-12, 6-65
Somalia, C-26
stability operations and
support operations vs., 8-3
supplies, 9-21, 9-26
sustaining operations, 6-12
task organization, 6-80
transition, 6-80, 6-81, 6-83,
7-52
transportation, D-29
TTP, 6-84
types, 6-33–6-38
urban patterns, 2-17
warfighting, B-7
Index-13
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
open areas, 2-14
OPERATION BLIND LOGIC,
pg. 5-12
OPERATION CONTINUED
HOPE, C-6–C-7, C-8, C-13,
C-18, C-23, C-27
OPERATION DESERT SHIELD,
Coast Guard, D-24
OPERATION DESERT STORM,
air interdiction, D-7, D-12, D-24
OPERATION JUST CAUSE,
fig. 4-2, pgs. 5-9–5-12, pg. 6-28
OPERATION PEACE FOR
GALILEE, A-1, A-2, A-29
OPERATION PROMOTE
LIBERTY, pg. 5-12
OPERATION PROVIDE RELIEF,
C-3, C-25, C-27
OPERATION RESTORE HOPE,
Air Force, D-10
dominate, C-25
planning, C-4, C-11, C-14
PSYOP, C-20
Somalia, C-4
success, C-27
UNITAF, C-12
unity of command, C-22
OPERATION UPHOLD
DEMOCRACY, 8-24
OPERATION URANUS,
Stalingrad, pg. 7-8
operational, considerations, 4-1
context, pgs. 6-3–6-5
control, C-24
guidance, A-26
tasks, 4-17
operational framework, 4-23, 5-1–
5-23, C-1–C-28
applying, pgs. 5-9–5-12
battle command, fig. 5-1, 5-2
defensive operations, 7-29
IO considerations, C-18
offensive operations, 6-39
stability operations and
support operations, 8-15
operational level, 4-80
area defense, 7-21
decisive operations, 8-6
offensive IO, 5-11
resources, 4-33
Stalingrad, pg. 7-9
support, 4-35
operations, complications to, 8-5
conducting, 4-2
dispersed, 3-16–3-18
effects on, 5-38–5-107
executing, 4-18
decentralized, 3-16–3-18
risks to, 2-21
OPSEC, 4-63–4-64
assess, C-18
constraints of, 8-34
media, 2-66
PA, 4-83
risks, 4-15
organization, 2-50, 3-1, 4-17
organizations, 4-87, 8-24
outlying high-rise area, 2-36–2-37
overlay, IPB, B-40–B-41
over-the-shore operations, 4-14
P
PA, 2-54, 4-80–4-83
aid from, 4-80
CMO vs., 9-91
commander, 2-66
effectiveness, 4-81
EOD, 9-65
initiatives, C-19
IO, 8-26
OPSEC, 4-83
principles, 4-83, fig. 4-5
Panama, fig. 4-2, fig. 5-3,
pgs. 5-9–5-12
direct fire, pg. 6-28
task organization, pg. 6-28
Paris, 1-11, pgs. 2-25–2-26
pattern analysis, 3-18, B-39
population, 2-47
terrain, fig. B-3
patterns, broad urban, 2-17–2-21,
fig. 2-3
peace, maintaining, C-7
peace enforcement, C-25
operations, B-27, C-6
peace operations, 4-21, 5-18
peacekeeping, media, 2-67
Somalia, C-6
penetration, 6-31, fig. 6-6
Metz, pg. 6-12
perception, civilians, 5-35, 8-22
impacts on, 5-32
IO, 5-25, 8-7
legitimacy, 8-39, C-25
weakness, 3-13
shaping, C-19
perseverance, 8-35–8-36
perspective, threat, 5-66
urban, 1-2–1-3
PGM, 3-16, 3-18, 5-63
phase lines, 2-25
phased withdrawal, C-8–C-9
physical preparation, 5-21
PIR, identification of, B-6
plan, assessing, 9-10
major operations, 5-38
transition, 5-20, pg. 5-11
planner, 9-9, 9-15, 9-28, 9-14
planning, 4-1, pgs. 6-3–6-5
affected by, 5-100
cycle, 5-101
effects of, pg. 9-19
essential services, 5-33
ISR, 4-37, 4-38
operational, 4-47, 9-2, 9-20
overlay, B-40
redeployment, 9-76
transition, 5-23, 8-42, 9-76
PLO, 1-10
attacks, A-13
Beirut, pg. 6-28
defense, fig. A-3, A-22
disruption of, A-15
intelligence for, A-8
Index-14
____________________________________________________________________________________Index
PLO (continued)
IO, A-9
OPERATION PEACE FOR
GALILEE, A-1
organization, A-5
resources, A-3, A-18
response, A-11
PME, 1-25
activities, 1-21
IPB, B-23
Poland, pollution, 3-45
policy, limitations, 8-37
political, awareness, 5-85
characteristics, 4-46, 8-16
collapse, 3-54
concerns, B-32
key terrain, 5-28
power, 3-49, fig. B-4
stability, 4-79, C-1
transition, 5-23
victory, A-16
political objectives, 8-43
military objectives vs., 8-16
stability operations and
support operations, 8-17–
8-20
support of, 3-54
support to, 5-85
pollution, 3-43–3-46
effects of, 3-45, 9-56, B-16
weather, B-16
popular support, 4-80, 5-66, 8-35,
9-36, 9-81, B-16, C-19
Beirut, A-17
Somalia, C-14
warlords, 3-54
population. See also civilians
assistance to, 9-83
attitude of, D-51
capabilities of, B-39
changes of, 4-37
control of, 2-54
demographics, 2-38, 4-31,
fig. B-4
diversity, 5-7
effects of, 3-9, 6-17, 9-51,
9-83, B-7
growth, 1-1, 3-34, 3-36, 3-37,
fig. 3-5,
IPB, B-3
managing, 7-42–7-43, B-31
matrix, B-39
media and, 2-65
protecting, 5-13, 7-18, 7-42
reactions of, 5-45
relationships, 9-91
resistance from, B-24
risk to, 4-8
size, 2-45–2-47, fig. 2-8
status, B-40
support from, 9-15, B-24
support to, B-8
trend, 1-1
understanding, B-39
urban patterns, 2-47
use of, 3-20–3-25
youth, 3-38
port security, D-24
positions, 5-77, 5-95
postcombat operations, 4-26
power, competing for, 3-47–3-56
merchant class, 3-49
vying for, 3-47
preparation, casualties, 9-56
defensive operations, 7-3–7-7
major operations, 5-38
transition, 5-20
preparedness, 1-26
preventive medicine measures,
9-57
principles of war, applying, 5-29
CSS, 9-8
operational framework, 5-2
prisoners of war, 2-14, 3-23
problems, identifying, 8-24
products, requests for, B-33
propaganda, 3-26, 3-48, 4-68.
See also disinformation;
misinformation
proportionality, law of war, fig. 9-4
protected target, overlay, B-40
protection, 3-22
add on, 9-44
challenges of, 4-10
civilian agencies and, 8-2
providing, 7-4
survivability, 9-4
psychological, analysis, B-38
combat stress, pg. 9-19
considerations, 6-81
PSYOP, 1-22, 2-6, 4-3, 4-65–
4-67, B-38
Beirut, A-29
EOD, 9-65
IO, 6-62, 8-26, A-20
isolation, 5-12
lack of, C-19
Metz, pg. 6-13
OPERATION PEACE FOR
GALILEE, A-29
societal aspects, 4-65
use of, 4-66, 4-67
weather, B-16
pull system, tempo, 9-29
pursuit, 6-38
Pusan Perimeter, pgs. 6-30–6-32
push system, 9-29
Q–R
quality of life, 3-36
radiation, effects of, 3-9
radiological, 3-3
radiological contaminants, 4-29
raids, 3-33
range of operations, 1-2, 1-22,
4-18, 5-9
CSS, 5-81
forces, 4-34
information, 5-97
IPB, B-2
training, 1-26
transition, 6-78
Rangers, capabilities, D-39
direct action, 6-61
Index-15
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
reachback, 4-36
reconnaissance, 3-15, 3-17, 4-36,
4-37, 4-53, 4-54, 5-13, 5-86,
6-48, fig. 6-10
aerial, D-25
assessment of, 4-60
civilians and, 7-11
degraded, 5-41
failed, pg. 7-15
ground, 4-53
human capabilities, 4-41
integration of, 5-58
intelligence, 5-40
joint operational, 6-44
leader, 6-63
limitations, 6-45
movement to contact, 6-34
restrictions of, 7-26
security of, 7-10
sequencing, 4-59
SF, D-41
targeting, 4-58
time, 4-50
Vietnam, pg. 9-3
redeployment, planning, 9-76
rehabilitation, of Somalia, C-6
relationships, affected by, 5-13
relief, dangers to, C-4
Somalia and, C-2
relief operations, 2-75
supply, 9-23
threat forces and, 3-25
relief organizations, C-2, C-25
religion, 3-39, pg. 3-13, 4-46
impact of, 9-72, 9-74
society, fig. B-4
religious support, 9-72–9-74
replacements, training, 9-68
representations, B-35
requests, joint support, 4-36
reserve, mobile, 5-21
residential area, 2-38–2-40
resource management operations,
9-69, 9-70
resources, 2-60, 3-11, 6-24
allocations, 4-33–4-36
challenges of, pg. 6-12, 7-13,
9-27, 9-35, 9-46
close combat, 5-26
CMOC, 4-88
criminal organizations, B-32
defense of, 7-18
distribution of, 8-20
exhausting, 7-21
identifying, 9-10
integrating, pg. 4-1
intelligence, 4-38, 5-47
isolation, 7-35
joint, 4-36
location of, B-40
major operation, pg. 4-1
offensive operations, 4-19,
pg. 6-1
PLO, A-18
population, 7-43
prioritize, 8-29
providing, 5-22, 6-16, 8-28,
B-32
separating from, 7-36–7-38,
shaping, 8-28
stability operations, pg. 5-12
supporting, 9-3
survivability, 9-4
tempo, 6-8
threats, 3-52
use of, 9-83, B-29, B-30
retrograde, 7-25–7-28, fig. 7-5,
D-18
Rio de Janeiro, pg. 3-17
risk, fig. 4-1, 5-66
frontal attack, 6-32
increasing, 4-40
management, fig. 4-1
surviving, 9-4
risk assessment, 4-8, 5-6
Somalia, C-15–C-18
risk reduction measures, 4-14–
4-15
river-crossing operations, 2-13
ROE, 1-26, 3-22, 3-23, 4-25–4-32
authorities, 4-25
characteristics, 4-27
civilians, B-18
commander, 4-23, 5-30, B-9
conflicts with, A-26
developing, 4-26, 9-75, B-9
legal considerations, 9-75
mission command, 5-84
operational commander,
5-106
risks, 4-15
stability operations and
support operations, 8-3
targets, B-40
Roman Empire, 1-4, pg. 1-4
S
safe area, 3-41
safety. See also protection;
security
challenges of, 4-10
civilians, 5-91
Saigon, 1-11
sanctuary, prevent, 3-14–3-15
satellite pattern, 2-18
scheme of maneuver, B-14
sea-air-land team, D-45
search and attack, 6-33
search-and-rescue teams, 9-60
security, 3-25
accomplishing, 8-16
assessment, pgs. 8-9–8-10
communications, 5-95
considerations, 8-21
defense, pg. 7-15, 7-8–7-11
environment, 7-10
forces, 7-41
isolation vs., 8-23
LOCs, 9-50
operations, 8-27–8-28
port, D-22, D-24
speed and, 6-76–6-77
sustaining operations, 6-13
Index-16
____________________________________________________________________________________Index
segment pattern, 2-21
sensors, 6-42
sensor-to-shooter, 6-58, fig. 6-12
Seoul, 1-11, 1-18, fig. 4-2,
fig. 6-18
maneuver, pgs. 6-30–6-32
sequencing, 5-13
services. See also field services
capabilities, D-4–D-25
restoring, 8-29
synchronized, D-2
SF, capabilities, D-40–D-43
direct action, 6-61
shantytowns, 2-40
fire fighting support, 9-84
overlay, B-40
reconnaissance, 4-44
shaping, pg. 1-2, pg. 4-2, 4-18,
5-8–5-14, pgs. 5-10–5-11
actions, 5-13
Air Force, D-10
attack, 6-68–6-69
CA, 9-90
capabilities, 5-8
counterattacks, 7-44
CSS, 9-10
defensive operations, 7-33–
7-34, 7-37
distribution, D-10
dominate vs., 6-74
failure to, C-27
isolation, fig. 6-11, C-19
offensive operations, 6-52–
6-69
OPERATION CONTINUED
HOPE, C-19
PSYOP, 4-67
security operations, 8-27–
8-28
separation, 7-36
Somalia, C-19–C-20
stability operations and
support operations, 8-25–
8-29, 8-42
support operations, 8-29
transitioning, 7-21
transportation, D-10
shaping operations, 5-8, 6-19
commanders, 5-9
defensive operations, 4-20,
7-19
limitations, 4-9
offensive operations, 6-12
results of, 6-69
stability operations and
support operations, 8-7
tactical battle, 7-38
shower, field services, 9-39
siege, pg. 1-4, 1-23, 7-35
Beirut, pg. 6-28, A-16–A-17,
A-21, A-33
Metz, pg. 6-13
Sierra Leone, pg. 3-16
SIGINT, 4-53, 6-44
capabilities, 4-49
uses of, 4-50
simplicity, CSS, 9-5
situational understanding, 2-4,
4-11, 5-88
challenges of, B-4
commander, B-9, B-33
establishing, 5-5
imagery, B-34
IPB, pg. B-1, B-4, B-34
ISR, D-34
maneuver, 5-55
movement to contact, 6-34
offensive operations, 6-48
SJA, 9-75, 9-76
smaller-scale contingencies, 1-13,
1-21, 1-24
SOCCE, 4-86
social segmenting, 2-21
social stability, establishing, 4-79
societal, 3-39
characteristics, 5-42, 5-89,
fig. B-4
effects, 4-30–4-31
understanding, B-17, B-30
societal considerations, CSS,
9-13–9-15
importance of, B-7–B-8
IPB, B-17
society, 2-3, fig. 2-1, pg. 3-1
actions, 2-51
aid to, 8-35
assessment of, 2-53, fig. 2-9,
C-10, C-16
centralized, 1-1
composition, 2-48–2-49
effects of, 9-68, B-18
elements of, 2-48, 2-54
influencing, 2-43, fig. 2-7
infrastructure, B-19
interests, 2-51
IPB, B-11, B-17–B-18
location, 2-48–2-49
organizations, 2-76
ROE, 4-27
size, 2-48–2-49
understanding, 9-93
urban, 2-42–2-54
SOCOORD, 4-86
SOF, 1-22, 2-6, 2-16, 4-3
Air Force, D-47–D-50
Army, D-38–D-44
conventional forces, 4-84,
fig. 6-17
direct action, 6-61
integration of, 4-84–4-86,
D-36
Navy, D-45–D-46
representations, B-35
tasks, D-35
time, 4-50
use of, pg. 5-10, 6-4, 6-44,
6-74
solders, 1-27. See also forces
ability, 3-3
challenges for, 8-21, 9-33
civilians and, pg. 3-8
HRS, 9-67
legal status, 9-78
protection of, 7-4, 7-5
Index-17
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
solders (continued)
psychology of, 7-50
risks to, 2-9, 3-33, 3-45
stress to, B-18
training, 6-81, 9-33, 9-53
Somalia, chain of command, C-23
initial UN response, C-2
map, fig. C-2
multinational force, C-5
operations in, C-1–C-28
US involvement in, fig. C-1
Soviet, defense, 1-8
attack, fig. 7-4
space command, D-32–D-34
special operations, D-37
special air wings, SOF, D-48–
D-49
special boat unit, Navy, D-46
special operations aviation forces,
capabilities, D-44
special operations command,
capabilities, D-35–D-50
special operations weather teams,
SOF, D-50
special reconnaissance, 6-49
challenges, 4-42–4-44
special tactics forces, D-50
spectrum of conflict, 1-21, 5-97
spectrum of operations, band
support, 9-81
CSS, 9-36
mortuary affairs, 9-36
speed, security and, 6-76–6-77
stability mission, TTP, 6-84
stability operations, 1-2, 2-51,
4-21, 5-34, 8-10
battlefield organization, 8-5–
8-8
civil considerations, B-7
civilians, 9-55
CMO, 9-88
Coast Guard, D-25
commander, 4-90, 5-87
commitment, 8-43
countermobility, 5-76
decisive operations, 8-6
DNBIs, 9-57
dominate, 5-18–5-19
effect on, 4-73
engineering, 9-83
flexibility, 5-92
IPB, B-23
isolation, 5-10, 5-12
legitimacy, C-16
maneuver, 5-52
Marine Corps, D-14
mobility, 5-75
offensive operations vs., 5-95
perseverance, 8-36
preparation, 6-81
requirements of, 8-10
resources, pg. 5-12
restraint, 8-38
Somalia, C-26
strategic environment, 8-40
survivability, 5-77
tactical, 8-34
threat analysis, B-22
threats, 8-2
time, 8-21
transition to, 6-79
transportation command,
D-30
vulnerabilities, B-32
stability operations and support
operations, 2-5, pg. 3-1, 3-34,
3-36, 3-51, 3-54, 4-4, 4-5, 5-13
adaptability, 8-31
aims, pg. 8-1
assess, 8-16–8-24
challenges of, 8-3
characteristics of, 8-2–8-4,
fig. 8-1
CI, 4-76
civilians and, 3-20
CMOC, 4-88
COG, 2-43, pg. 8-1
concealment, 5-52
considerations of, 8-15–8-43
coordination, 4-87
defensive operations, pg. 8-1,
8-3, 8-15
definitions, fig. 8-2
dominate, 8-30–8-39
economics and, 2-75
equipment, 4-7
escalation, 4-13
EW, 4-70
executing, 7-50
forms, 8-9–8-14, fig. 8-2
HUMINT, 5-47
infrastructure, 2-60
IO, 5-30
measures of effectiveness,
8-19
media, 8-16
offensive operations, pg. 8-1,
8-3, 8-15
operational commander, 7-51
operational framework, 5-2
OPSEC, 4-64
political issues, 8-16, 8-40
purpose of, 8-1, 8-2
restraint, 8-37
risks, 4-6
ROE, 8-3
shape, 8-42
support, 9-24
synchronizing, 8-40
transition to, 7-51
types, 8-9–8-14, fig. 8-2
stabilization, pg. 8-9, pg. 8-10
Stalingrad, 1-8
attack of, fig. 7-2, fig. 7-3
mobile defense, pgs. 7-6–7-9
starvation, pg. 3-1
status-of-forces agreement, 9-78
strategic, considerations, 4-1,
5-25, B-32
importance, 1-6–1-11
level, 2-63, 5-96, 8-6
objectives, 4-26, C-28
offense, pg. 7-6
Index-18
____________________________________________________________________________________Index
strategic (continued)
ROE, 5-106
situation, 5-23, A-1–A-2
strategy, 3-47, C-13, C-28
stay-put policy, 2-39, 2-52
street patterns, 2-22, 4-44, fig. B-3
grid, 2-24–2-25
lesser, 2-22–2-26
radial, 2-23
types, 2-22, 2-26, fig. 2-4
stress, 9-59, B-18
strong points, create, 7-4
structures. See also buildings
effects of, 3-9
LOS, 5-60
overlay, B-40
people and, 2-58
subsurface area, 2-10–2-11,
fig. 2-2, 2-16, 3-28, 3-29
effects of, 5-51
imagery capabilities, 4-39
overlay, B-40
subsurface attacks, 8-13
Suez Canal, pgs. 7-13–7-15
supersurface area, 2-10–2-11,
fig. 2-2, 2-15, 3-28
supply, acquiring, 2-60, 9-79
CSS, 9-11, 9-20–9-29
delivery of, C-2
distribution, 9-25–9-29
requirements, 9-21–9-24
routes, 9-50
stockpiling of, 2-16
storage, 9-25–9-29
tempo, 9-29
time, 9-27
types of, 2-69
water, 9-32
support, civilian, 3-12
host-nation, 9-4, 9-39
obtaining, 9-3
real-time, D-32
support areas, 3-33, 9-16
support mission, infrastructure,
8-2
TTP, 6-84
support operations, 1-2, 2-39
aerial delivery, 9-38
battlefield organization, 8-5–
8-8
capabilities, 4-22
challenges of, 8-19, 8-34
civil considerations, B-7
civilians, 9-55
CMO, 9-88
Coast Guard, D-25
criminal organizations, 3-52
decisive operations, 8-6
DNBIs, 9-57
dominate, 5-18–5-19
engineer, 9-83
field services, 9-30
IPB, B-23
Los Angeles, pg. 8-13
LPT analysis, 9-13
maneuver, 5-52
Marine Corps, D-14
mobility, 5-75
offensive operations vs., 5-95
shape, 8-29
Somalia, C-26
stability operations vs., 8-6
stability operations and
support operations, 8-11–
8-14
threat analysis, B-22
support tasks, 4-22
surface, 2-13
surface warfare systems, D-25
surprise, 2-16, 6-74
disruption, 7-14
electronics, 4-40
Hue, pg. 6-21
maneuver, 5-52
offensive, 6-3–6-4
threat, 3-10
surveillance, 4-36, 4-37, pg. 5-10,
5-86
degraded, 5-41
joint operational, 6-44
maneuver vs., 6-58
shaping operation, 6-56
targeting, 4-58
surveys, hydrographic, B-37
survivability, 5-72–5-79
CSS, 9-4
engineer, 9-83
METT-TC, 8-23
sustainability, CSS, 9-2
engineer, 9-83
sustaining operations, 5-34
CSS, pg. 9-1
defensive operations, 7-19
offensive operations, 6-12,
6-13–6-18
security, 7-19, 9-50
stability operations and
support operations, 8-8
transition, 5-23
symbolic importance, 1-11
synchronization, 3-18, 4-15, 4-84
assess, pg. 5-9
Beirut, A-33
CMO, 2-66
combat power, 6-26
CSS, 9-2
decisive operations, 6-25
forces, 4-35
isolation, pg. 7-15
PSYOP, 2-66
space command, D-32
transition, 6-82
system of systems, 2-3, 2-61,
B-11
systems, 2-3, 2-4, 2-57, 2-60
T
tactical, actions, 5-106, 7-45
agility, 6-65
combat, 4-36, 7-38, A-21
communications, 7-13
considerations, 5-98–5-107
Index-19
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
tactical (continued)
control, C-24
defense, pg. 7-6, pg. 7-8
factors, 5-98, fig. 5-9
ISR, 4-54
offensive operations, 6-21
plan, C-28
planning, 4-47
reconnaissance, 4-54, 4-55
surprise, 4-69, 6-4
tempo, 6-7–6-8
tactical commander, 4-59, 4-69,
5-86, 6-20
assessment, 6-46
close combat, 6-67
mission orders, 6-64
tactical level, 4-7, 4-80, 5-88
actions, 7-45
communications, 5-96
decisive points, 5-10
IO, 5-11
tactics, 3-1, C-15
target, 3-2
acquisition, 5-57–5-58, 5-104
challenges, 5-60
protected, B-40
proximity, 5-60
threat, 3-33
urban area, 9-4
targeting, civilians, A-28
procedures, 4-15
process, 5-90–5-91
reconnaissance, 4-58
surveillance, 4-58
targets, 5-67
establishing, 4-43
fire support, 5-56
high-payoff, 4-36
insurgency and, 3-48
naval gunfire, D-20
task organization, 4-34
Aachen, pgs. 6-27–6-28
Beirut, pg. 6-28
combined arms, 5-49, 5-53–
5-54
difficulties, 9-41
direct fire, pgs. 6-27–6-29
effective, 6-65–6-67
fire fighting team, 9-86
mobility, 7-22
planning, C-17
transition and, 6-80
technology, 1-27, 3-5, 3-8–3-9
continuous operations, 5-55
data from, B-41
threats, 3-27, 5-41
using, 6-9, C-15
tempo, pg. 3-4, pg. 6-4–6-5
controlling, 3-10–3-11, 6-6
create, 9-2, B-6
deception, 4-69
fratricide, 4-12
maintain, 4-4, 4-9, 6-9, 9-2
offensive operations, 6-6–
6-10
planning, 6-6
speed vs., 6-10
supply, 9-29
threats and, 3-10
transition, 5-20
tenets of Army operations, fig. 8-3,
8-32
operational framework, 5-2
terminal, guidance, D-42
transportation, 9-49
water, D-21
terrain, 1-10, 2-3, fig. 2-1, 2-7–
2-41, 2-58, pg. 3-1, 4-29
advantages of, 7-18
alterations, 2-9
analysis of, 9-11, B-13, B-14,
B-19
assessment, 6-11
challenges of, B-2
characteristics, 2-7, 3-17,
4-37, fig. B-3
combat power, 5-102
communications and, 3-18
control of, 5-100
CSS, fig. 9-2
defense, 6-7, 7-3, 7-45
dominate, 7-45
effects of, 5-51, 5-57, 5-103,
7-39, 9-43, B-14, B-15
frontal assaults, 4-5
infrastructure, B-19
IPB, B-3, B-11, B-13–B-15
Kosovo, pgs. B-6–B-7
man-made, B-15
naval gunfire, D-20
maximizing, 7-40
natural, B-14
ROE, 4-27
tempo, 6-7
urban, 2-7–2-41
weather and, B-13–B-16
terrorism, 1-25, 3-14
terrorists, physical characteristics,
3-21
protection of, 3-36
weapons of, 9-65
textile repair, field services, 9-39
theater, organization of, 4-16
theater of operations, 2-69, 3-7
threat, actions of, B-4
air, 5-69
analysis, B-20, B-22
assessment, 7-31, B-24, B-38
categories, B-24–B-28,
fig. B-6
civilians, 3-24, A-5, B-23
communications, 2-62
density, 5-100
dispositions, 6-48
disrupt, 7-36
effects of, 9-52
identifying, B-20, B-23, B-25
integration of, 5-32, A-5
IPB considerations, B-20–
B-32
isolation, 2-55, 5-9, D-7
leadership, 3-13
Index-20
____________________________________________________________________________________Index
threat (continued)
objectives, 5-69
operational principles, 3-1,
3-5–3-18, fig. 3-1
perspective, 5-66
psychological impacts, 3-31–
3-32
reaction, 3-10, 6-59–6-60
ROE, 4-30
separate, 7-36
supply routes, 9-50
strategy, C-14
stability operations and
support operations, 8-2
targets, 5-69
tactics, 3-19–3-33, fig. 3-2,
C-14
technology, 5-41
terrorists and, 3-14
transportation, 9-52
types of, B-21
vulnerabilities, 3-16, 4-53,
B-38
weapons, fig. 3-3
Tientsin, 1-13
TIM, 2-9, 2-33–2-35, pg. 3-1
dangers of, B-22
DNBI, 9-56
survivability, 9-4
water, 9-33
time, 4-9, 4-46, 4-49, 5-99, 5-107
information, 4-37, 4-75
IPB, B-3
isolation, 7-35
ISR, 4-60
lack of, pg. 7-15
SOF, 4-50
stability operations, 8-21
supplies, 9-28
training, 1-26, 2-53, 3-1, 3-33,
5-32, 5-99, 9-33
assessment of, 4-3
challenges, 3-3
CHS, 9-53
close combat, 5-26
combat stress, 9-59
commander, 8-31
complexity, 3-3
considerations, 6-81
crowd control, 9-68
cultural, 5-45
effects of, pg. 9-19
EOD, 9-65
evacuation, 9-60
field sanitation, 9-57
fire fighting, 9-86
INFOSYS, 5-97
IPB, B-5–B-6
maneuver, 5-55
Marine expeditionary unit,
D-14
medical, 9-61
mission changes, 6-83
national force, D-53
predeployment, 9-76
replacements, 9-68
ROE, 1-26, 4-27
SF, D-41
shaping operations, 5-14
spiritual, 9-73
transition, pg. 1-2, 5-20–5-23,
pgs. 5-11–5-12, 6-78–6-85
assess, pg. 5-10
CA, 9-90, 9-93
complexity, 5-20
control, 5-37, A-31–A-32
CSS, 9-10
defense, 7-46, 7-50–7-52
human dimension, 5-36
mental preparation, 5-21
mission change, 6-84
offensive operations, 6-80,
7-21
OPSEC, C-18
planning, 6-79–6-82, 8-42,
9-76
Somalia, C-6, C-26
stability operations and
support operations, 8-40–
8-43
stability tasks, 5-22
synchronization, 6-82
transportation, 2-68–2-70
consists of, 2-68
CSS, 9-11, 9-27, 9-47–9-52
evacuation, 9-60
food, 9-31
forms, 2-70
ground, 9-50
infrastructure, fig. B-5
limitations of, 9-50
nodes, 2-55
overlay, B-40
planning, C-11
population, 9-51
protecting, 9-51, D-30
restoring, 9-83
support from, 9-47
systems, 7-28, 9-52
water, 9-31
weather, B-16
transportation command,
capabilities, D-27–D-31
tasks, D-29
transportation component
command, D-28
treatment, medical, 9-61–9-64
Trenton, 1-12
trust, 2-66
TTP, 4-64, 6-84
turning movement, 6-29, fig. 6-4
U–V
UAV, 4-54, 6-24
UN response, Somalia, C-2
unconventional force, 5-31
understanding the clan, Somalia,
C-12–C-13
unexploded explosive ordnance,
risks of, 9-65
UNITAF, challenges to, C-22
mission, C-4–C-5
tasks, C-12
unity of action, 4-86
Index-21
FM 3-06 __________________________________________________________________________________
unity of command, 5-84
coordination, 8-33, 8-34
dominate, C-21
Somalia, C-22–C-24
unity of effort, 2-25
coordination, 8-34
joint operations, D-37
shaping operations, 8-7
SOF, D-36
Somalia, C-22–C-24
unity of purpose, 2-66
UNOSOM I, mission, C-2, C-3
UNOSOM II, mission, C-6, C-23
UO. See also operations
conducting, pg. 1-2, A-10–
A-15, fig. A-2
doctrine, 1-15, 1-17
fundamentals, 5-24–5-37,
fig. 5-4
modern, 1-21–1-28
necessity of, 4-1–4-15
participants, 9-70
preparing for, 1-26–1-28
risks of, fig. 4-1
urban area, advantages, 1-6, 1-7
attacks in, 3-4
challenges, 4-42
characteristics, 2-21, 6-3
core, 2-29–2-31
decisive, 8-10
definition, 1-3
economics, 1-9
effects of, 9-19, pg. 9-20,
9-46
functions of, 2-27
IPB, B-3
resources of, 9-46
risk to, 9-85
securing, 6-17
strategic importance, 1-6–
1-11
targets, 9-4
terrain, 1-10
transportation, 9-48
variations, 2-1, 5-43
urbanization, developing
countries, 2-27, 3-37
disease, 3-43–3-44
food, 3-40
negative effects of, 1-1, 3-34–
3-56, fig. 3-4
stability operations and
support operations, 8-2
urban-oriented weapons, 3-30
US Army, history, 1-12–1-20
US involvement, phases, fig. C-1
US law, legal support, 9-79
overlay, B-40
values, 3-1
vehicles, 9-41, 9-44
Vietnam, pg. 9-3
violence, 3-39
visibility, affected by, B-16
visualization, 2-11, pg. 5-1
assessment of, 5-3
commander, 4-24, 5-2, 5-3,
5-39, 5-86–5-89
end state, 5-23
vital functions, denial of, 5-17
vulnerabilities, 4-10–4-12
Army forces, 8-21
aviation, 2-12, 9-38, D-49
chokepoints, 6-14
combat power, 5-105
counterattack, 6-37
ground movement, pg. 5-11
identifying, B-39, C-14
maneuver, 5-52
medical, 9-34
Somalia, C-15–C-18
Stalingrad, pg. 7-7
sustaining operations, 6-13
W-X-Y-Z
warfighting, B-7
stability operations and
support operations, 8-30
threats, B-22
warlords, 3-47, 3-54–3-56
waste management, 9-87
water, dangers of, B-22
fire fighting support, 9-86
furnishing, 9-24, 9-32
infrastructure, B-40
purification, 9-32–9-35
requirements, 9-34
shortages, 3-40–3-42,
pg. 3-14
terminal, D-21
transportation of, 9-31
weapon systems, 5-103, 6-66
weapons, aircraft, C-17
Air Force, D-9
electronic, 4-70
food, 3-40
power, 3-54
variations of, 3-30
weather, effects of, pg. 7-14, B-16
terrain and, B-13–B-16
withdrawal, 4-5
counterattack, 7-27
cover and concealment, 7-26
phased, C-8–C-9
relief, C-4
WMD, 3-2–3-4, 3-27
CHS, 9-55
survivability, 5-79
vulnerability to, 4-10
World War II, 1-8, 1-14, 1-18
Yorktown, 1-12
youth, criminals, 3-53
violence, 3-38
Yugoslavia, 4-39
Index-22
FM 3-06 (FM 90-10)
1 JUNE 2003
By Order of the Secretary of the Army:
ERIC K. SHINSEKI
General, United States Army
Chief of Staff
Official:
0312903
JOEL B. HUDSON
Administrative Assistant to the
Secretary of the Army
DISTRIBUTION:
Active Army, Army National Guard, and U. S. Army Reserve: To be distributed
in accordance with the initial distribution number 111233, requirements for
FM 3-06.
PIN: 080805-000

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