Flir I Manual

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User’s manual
FLIR ix series

#T559733; r. AA/30822/30822; en-US

iii

Table of contents

Legal disclaimer ................................................................................1
1.1
Legal disclaimer ....................................................................... 1
1.2
Usage statistics ........................................................................ 1
1.3
Changes to registry ................................................................... 1
1.4
U.S. Government Regulations...................................................... 1
1.5
Copyright ................................................................................ 1
1.6
Quality assurance ..................................................................... 1
1.7
Patents ................................................................................... 1
1.8
EULA Terms ............................................................................ 1

Safety information .............................................................................2

Notice to user ...................................................................................5
3.1
User-to-user forums .................................................................. 5
3.2
Calibration............................................................................... 5
3.3
Accuracy ................................................................................ 5
3.4
Disposal of electronic waste ........................................................ 5
3.5
Training .................................................................................. 5
3.6
Documentation updates ............................................................. 5
3.7
Important note about this manual.................................................. 5
3.8
Note about authoritative versions.................................................. 5

Customer help ..................................................................................6
4.1
General .................................................................................. 6
4.2
Submitting a question ................................................................ 6
4.3
Downloads .............................................................................. 7

Quick Start Guide ..............................................................................8
5.1
Procedure ............................................................................... 8

Parts lists .........................................................................................9
6.1
Scope of delivery ...................................................................... 9
6.2
List of accessories and services................................................... 9

Camera parts .................................................................................. 11
7.1
Figure .................................................................................. 11
7.2
Explanation ........................................................................... 11
7.3
Figure .................................................................................. 11
7.4
Explanation ........................................................................... 11

Screen elements ............................................................................. 13
8.1
Figure .................................................................................. 13
8.2
Explanation ........................................................................... 13

Connectors and storage media ......................................................... 14
9.1
Figure .................................................................................. 14
9.2
Explanation ........................................................................... 14

Using the camera ............................................................................ 15
10.1
Installing the battery ................................................................ 15
10.1.1 Procedure .................................................................. 15
10.2
Charging the battery ................................................................ 15
10.2.1 About the battery charging indicator ................................. 15
10.2.2 Procedure .................................................................. 15
10.3
Saving an image ..................................................................... 16
10.3.1 General...................................................................... 16
10.3.2 Image capacity ............................................................ 16
10.3.3 Formatting memory cards .............................................. 16
10.3.4 Naming convention....................................................... 16
10.3.5 Procedure .................................................................. 16
10.4
Recalling an image.................................................................. 16
10.4.1 General...................................................................... 16
10.4.2 Procedure .................................................................. 17

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Table of contents

10.5

10.6

10.7

10.8

10.9

10.10

10.11

10.12

10.13

10.14

10.15

10.16

10.17

10.18

Opening the image archive ....................................................... 17
10.5.1 General...................................................................... 17
10.5.2 Procedure .................................................................. 17
Deleting an image ................................................................... 17
10.6.1 General...................................................................... 17
10.6.2 Alternative 1................................................................ 17
10.6.3 Alternative 2................................................................ 17
Deleting all images.................................................................. 18
10.7.1 General...................................................................... 18
10.7.2 Procedure .................................................................. 18
Measuring a temperature using a spotmeter ................................. 18
10.8.1 General...................................................................... 18
10.8.2 Procedure .................................................................. 18
Measuring a temperature using an area ....................................... 18
10.9.1 General...................................................................... 18
10.9.2 Procedure .................................................................. 18
Marking all areas above or below a set temperature level................. 18
10.10.1 General...................................................................... 18
10.10.2 Procedure .................................................................. 19
Changing the color palette ........................................................ 19
10.11.1 General...................................................................... 19
10.11.2 Procedure .................................................................. 19
Changing the settings .............................................................. 19
10.12.1 General...................................................................... 19
10.12.2 Procedure .................................................................. 19
Changing the image mode ........................................................ 20
10.13.1 General...................................................................... 20
10.13.2 When to use Locked mode ............................................. 20
10.13.3 Procedure .................................................................. 20
Setting the surface properties .................................................... 20
10.14.1 General...................................................................... 20
10.14.2 Procedure .................................................................. 20
Changing the emissivity ........................................................... 20
10.15.1 General...................................................................... 20
10.15.2 Procedure .................................................................. 21
Changing the reflected apparent temperature ............................... 21
10.16.1 General...................................................................... 21
10.16.2 Procedure .................................................................. 21
Resetting the camera............................................................... 21
10.17.1 General...................................................................... 21
10.17.2 Procedure .................................................................. 21
Finding the serial number of the camera....................................... 22
10.18.1 General...................................................................... 22

Technical data ................................................................................. 23
11.1
Online field-of-view calculator .................................................... 23
11.2
Note about technical data ......................................................... 23
11.3
Note about authoritative versions................................................ 23
11.4
FLIR i3 ................................................................................. 24
11.5
FLIR i5 ................................................................................. 27

Mechanical drawings ....................................................................... 30

Cleaning the camera ........................................................................ 32
13.1
Camera housing, cables, and other items..................................... 32
13.1.1 Liquids....................................................................... 32
13.1.2 Equipment .................................................................. 32
13.1.3 Procedure .................................................................. 32

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Table of contents

13.2

Infrared lens .......................................................................... 32
13.2.1 Liquids....................................................................... 32
13.2.2 Equipment .................................................................. 32
13.2.3 Procedure .................................................................. 32

Application examples....................................................................... 33
14.1
Moisture & water damage ......................................................... 33
14.1.1 General...................................................................... 33
14.1.2 Figure ........................................................................ 33
14.2
Faulty contact in socket ............................................................ 33
14.2.1 General...................................................................... 33
14.2.2 Figure ........................................................................ 33
14.3
Oxidized socket...................................................................... 34
14.3.1 General...................................................................... 34
14.3.2 Figure ........................................................................ 34
14.4
Insulation deficiencies.............................................................. 35
14.4.1 General...................................................................... 35
14.4.2 Figure ........................................................................ 35
14.5
Draft .................................................................................... 36
14.5.1 General...................................................................... 36
14.5.2 Figure ........................................................................ 36

About FLIR Systems ........................................................................ 37
15.1
More than just an infrared camera .............................................. 38
15.2
Sharing our knowledge ............................................................ 38
15.3
Supporting our customers......................................................... 38

Glossary ........................................................................................ 39

Thermographic measurement techniques .......................................... 42
17.1
Introduction .......................................................................... 42
17.2
Emissivity.............................................................................. 42
17.2.1 Finding the emissivity of a sample .................................... 42
17.3
Reflected apparent temperature................................................. 45
17.4
Distance ............................................................................... 45
17.5
Relative humidity .................................................................... 45
17.6
Other parameters.................................................................... 45

History of infrared technology........................................................... 47

Theory of thermography................................................................... 50
19.1
Introduction ........................................................................... 50
19.2
The electromagnetic spectrum................................................... 50
19.3
Blackbody radiation................................................................. 50
19.3.1 Planck’s law ................................................................ 51
19.3.2 Wien’s displacement law................................................ 52
19.3.3 Stefan-Boltzmann's law ................................................. 53
19.3.4 Non-blackbody emitters................................................. 54
19.4
Infrared semi-transparent materials............................................. 56

The measurement formula................................................................ 57

Emissivity tables ............................................................................. 61
21.1
References............................................................................ 61
21.2
Tables .................................................................................. 61

#T559733; r. AA/30822/30822; en-US

vii

Legal disclaimer

1.1 Legal disclaimer
All products manufactured by FLIR Systems are warranted against defective
materials and workmanship for a period of one (1) year from the delivery date
of the original purchase, provided such products have been under normal
storage, use and service, and in accordance with FLIR Systems instruction.
Uncooled handheld infrared cameras manufactured by FLIR Systems are
warranted against defective materials and workmanship for a period of two
(2) years from the delivery date of the original purchase, provided such products have been under normal storage, use and service, and in accordance
with FLIR Systems instruction, and provided that the camera has been registered within 60 days of original purchase.
Detectors for uncooled handheld infrared cameras manufactured by FLIR
Systems are warranted against defective materials and workmanship for a
period of ten (10) years from the delivery date of the original purchase, provided such products have been under normal storage, use and service, and
in accordance with FLIR Systems instruction, and provided that the camera
has been registered within 60 days of original purchase.
Products which are not manufactured by FLIR Systems but included in systems delivered by FLIR Systems to the original purchaser, carry the warranty,
if any, of the particular supplier only. FLIR Systems has no responsibility
whatsoever for such products.
The warranty extends only to the original purchaser and is not transferable. It
is not applicable to any product which has been subjected to misuse, neglect,
accident or abnormal conditions of operation. Expendable parts are excluded
from the warranty.
In the case of a defect in a product covered by this warranty the product must
not be further used in order to prevent additional damage. The purchaser
shall promptly report any defect to FLIR Systems or this warranty will not
apply.
FLIR Systems will, at its option, repair or replace any such defective product
free of charge if, upon inspection, it proves to be defective in material or workmanship and provided that it is returned to FLIR Systems within the said oneyear period.
FLIR Systems has no other obligation or liability for defects than those set
forth above.

FLIR Systems is committed to a policy of continuous development; therefore
we reserve the right to make changes and improvements on any of the products without prior notice.

1.7 Patents
One or several of the following patents and/or design patents may apply to
the products and/or features. Additional pending patents and/or pending design patents may also apply.
000279476-0001; 000439161; 000499579-0001; 000653423; 000726344;
000859020; 001106306-0001; 001707738; 001707746; 001707787;
001776519; 001954074; 002021543; 002058180; 002249953; 002531178;
0600574-8; 1144833; 1182246; 1182620; 1285345; 1299699; 1325808;
1336775; 1391114; 1402918; 1404291; 1411581; 1415075; 1421497;
1458284; 1678485; 1732314; 2106017; 2107799; 2381417; 3006596;
3006597; 466540; 483782; 484155; 4889913; 5177595; 60122153.2;
602004011681.5-08; 6707044; 68657; 7034300; 7110035; 7154093;
7157705; 7237946; 7312822; 7332716; 7336823; 7544944; 7667198;
7809258 B2; 7826736; 8,153,971; 8,823,803; 8,853,631; 8018649 B2;
8212210 B2; 8289372; 8354639 B2; 8384783; 8520970; 8565547; 8595689;
8599262; 8654239; 8680468; 8803093; D540838; D549758; D579475;
D584755; D599,392; D615,113; D664,580; D664,581; D665,004; D665,440;
D677298; D710,424 S; D718801; DI6702302-9; DI6903617-9; DI7002221-6;
DI7002891-5; DI7002892-3; DI7005799-0; DM/057692; DM/061609; EP
2115696 B1; EP2315433; SE 0700240-5; US 8340414 B2; ZL
201330267619.5; ZL01823221.3; ZL01823226.4; ZL02331553.9;
ZL02331554.7; ZL200480034894.0; ZL200530120994.2;
ZL200610088759.5; ZL200630130114.4; ZL200730151141.4;
ZL200730339504.7; ZL200820105768.8; ZL200830128581.2;
ZL200880105236.4; ZL200880105769.2; ZL200930190061.9;
ZL201030176127.1; ZL201030176130.3; ZL201030176157.2;
ZL201030595931.3; ZL201130442354.9; ZL201230471744.3;
ZL201230620731.8.

1.8 EULA Terms
•

No other warranty is expressed or implied. FLIR Systems specifically disclaims the implied warranties of merchantability and fitness for a particular
purpose.
FLIR Systems shall not be liable for any direct, indirect, special, incidental or
consequential loss or damage, whether based on contract, tort or any other
legal theory.

•

This warranty shall be governed by Swedish law.
Any dispute, controversy or claim arising out of or in connection with this warranty, shall be finally settled by arbitration in accordance with the Rules of the
Arbitration Institute of the Stockholm Chamber of Commerce. The place of arbitration shall be Stockholm. The language to be used in the arbitral proceedings shall be English.

1.2 Usage statistics

•

You have acquired a device (“INFRARED CAMERA”) that includes software licensed by FLIR Systems AB from Microsoft Licensing, GP or its
affiliates (“MS”). Those installed software products of MS origin, as well
as associated media, printed materials, and “online” or electronic documentation (“SOFTWARE”) are protected by international intellectual
property laws and treaties. The SOFTWARE is licensed, not sold. All
rights reserved.
IF YOU DO NOT AGREE TO THIS END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
(“EULA”), DO NOT USE THE DEVICE OR COPY THE SOFTWARE. INSTEAD, PROMPTLY CONTACT FLIR Systems AB FOR INSTRUCTIONS ON RETURN OF THE UNUSED DEVICE(S) FOR A REFUND.
ANY USE OF THE SOFTWARE, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
USE ON THE DEVICE, WILL CONSTITUTE YOUR AGREEMENT TO
THIS EULA (OR RATIFICATION OF ANY PREVIOUS CONSENT).
GRANT OF SOFTWARE LICENSE. This EULA grants you the following
license:
•
•

FLIR Systems reserves the right to gather anonymous usage statistics to help
maintain and improve the quality of our software and services.

1.3 Changes to registry

•

The registry entry HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SYSTEM\CurrentControlSet
\Control\Lsa\LmCompatibilityLevel will be automatically changed to level 2 if
the FLIR Camera Monitor service detects a FLIR camera connected to the
computer with a USB cable. The modification will only be executed if the
camera device implements a remote network service that supports network
logons.

1.4 U.S. Government Regulations

•

This product may be subject to U.S. Export Regulations. Please send any inquiries to exportquestions@flir.com.

1.5 Copyright
© 2015, FLIR Systems, Inc. All rights reserved worldwide. No parts of the
software including source code may be reproduced, transmitted, transcribed
or translated into any language or computer language in any form or by any
means, electronic, magnetic, optical, manual or otherwise, without the prior
written permission of FLIR Systems.
The documentation must not, in whole or part, be copied, photocopied, reproduced, translated or transmitted to any electronic medium or machine
readable form without prior consent, in writing, from FLIR Systems.

•

Names and marks appearing on the products herein are either registered
trademarks or trademarks of FLIR Systems and/or its subsidiaries. All other
trademarks, trade names or company names referenced herein are used for
identification only and are the property of their respective owners.
•

1.6 Quality assurance
The Quality Management System under which these products are developed
and manufactured has been certified in accordance with the ISO 9001
standard.

#T559733; r. AA/30822/30822; en-US

You may use the SOFTWARE only on the DEVICE.
NOT FAULT TOLERANT. THE SOFTWARE IS NOT FAULT TOLERANT. FLIR Systems AB HAS INDEPENDENTLY DETERMINED
HOW TO USE THE SOFTWARE IN THE DEVICE, AND MS HAS
RELIED UPON FLIR Systems AB TO CONDUCT SUFFICIENT
TESTING TO DETERMINE THAT THE SOFTWARE IS SUITABLE
FOR SUCH USE.
NO WARRANTIES FOR THE SOFTWARE. THE SOFTWARE is
provided “AS IS” and with all faults. THE ENTIRE RISK AS TO
SATISFACTORY QUALITY, PERFORMANCE, ACCURACY, AND
EFFORT (INCLUDING LACK OF NEGLIGENCE) IS WITH YOU.
ALSO, THERE IS NO WARRANTY AGAINST INTERFERENCE
WITH YOUR ENJOYMENT OF THE SOFTWARE OR AGAINST
INFRINGEMENT. IF YOU HAVE RECEIVED ANY WARRANTIES
REGARDING THE DEVICE OR THE SOFTWARE, THOSE WARRANTIES DO NOT ORIGINATE FROM, AND ARE NOT BINDING
ON, MS.
No Liability for Certain Damages. EXCEPT AS PROHIBITED BY
LAW, MS SHALL HAVE NO LIABILITY FOR ANY INDIRECT,
SPECIAL, CONSEQUENTIAL OR INCIDENTAL DAMAGES
ARISING FROM OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THE SOFTWARE. THIS LIMITATION SHALL
APPLY EVEN IF ANY REMEDY FAILS OF ITS ESSENTIAL PURPOSE. IN NO EVENT SHALL MS BE LIABLE FOR ANY
AMOUNT IN EXCESS OF U.S. TWO HUNDRED FIFTY DOLLARS (U.S.$250.00).
Limitations on Reverse Engineering, Decompilation, and Disassembly. You may not reverse engineer, decompile, or disassemble the SOFTWARE, except and only to the extent that such
activity is expressly permitted by applicable law notwithstanding
this limitation.
SOFTWARE TRANSFER ALLOWED BUT WITH RESTRICTIONS. You may permanently transfer rights under this EULA only
as part of a permanent sale or transfer of the Device, and only if
the recipient agrees to this EULA. If the SOFTWARE is an upgrade, any transfer must also include all prior versions of the
SOFTWARE.
EXPORT RESTRICTIONS. You acknowledge that SOFTWARE is
subject to U.S. export jurisdiction. You agree to comply with all applicable international and national laws that apply to the SOFTWARE, including the U.S. Export Administration Regulations, as
well as end-user, end-use and destination restrictions issued by U.
S. and other governments. For additional information see http://
www.microsoft.com/exporting/.

Safety information

WARNING
Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.
Do not disassemble or do a modification to the battery. The battery contains safety and protection devices which, if damage occurs, can cause the battery to become hot, or cause an explosion or an ignition.
WARNING
Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.
If there is a leak from the battery and you get the fluid in your eyes, do not rub your eyes. Flush well with
water and immediately get medical care. The battery fluid can cause injury to your eyes if you do not do
this.
WARNING
Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.
Do not continue to charge the battery if it does not become charged in the specified charging time. If
you continue to charge the battery, it can become hot and cause an explosion or ignition. Injury to persons can occur.
WARNING
Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.
Only use the correct equipment to remove the electrical power from the battery. If you do not use the
correct equipment, you can decrease the performance or the life cycle of the battery. If you do not use
the correct equipment, an incorrect flow of current to the battery can occur. This can cause the battery
to become hot, or cause an explosion. Injury to persons can occur.
WARNING
Make sure that you read all applicable MSDS (Material Safety Data Sheets) and warning labels on containers before you use a liquid. The liquids can be dangerous. Injury to persons can occur.
CAUTION
Do not point the infrared camera (with or without the lens cover) at strong energy sources, for example,
devices that cause laser radiation, or the sun. This can have an unwanted effect on the accuracy of the
camera. It can also cause damage to the detector in the camera.
CAUTION
Do not use the camera in temperatures more than +50°C (+122°F), unless other information is specified
in the user documentation or technical data. High temperatures can cause damage to the camera.
CAUTION
Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.
Do not attach the batteries directly to a car’s cigarette lighter socket, unless FLIR Systems supplies a
specific adapter to connect the batteries to a cigarette lighter socket. Damage to the batteries can
occur.
CAUTION
Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.
Do not connect the positive terminal and the negative terminal of the battery to each other with a metal
object (such as wire). Damage to the batteries can occur.
CAUTION
Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.
Do not get water or salt water on the battery, or permit the battery to become wet. Damage to the batteries can occur.

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Safety information

CAUTION
Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.
Do not make holes in the battery with objects. Damage to the battery can occur.
CAUTION
Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.
Do not hit the battery with a hammer. Damage to the battery can occur.
CAUTION
Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.
Do not put your foot on the battery, hit it or cause shocks to it. Damage to the battery can occur.
CAUTION
Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.
Do not put the batteries in or near a fire, or into direct sunlight. When the battery becomes hot, the builtin safety equipment becomes energized and can stop the battery charging procedure. If the battery becomes hot, damage can occur to the safety equipment and this can cause more heat, damage or ignition of the battery.
CAUTION
Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.
Do not put the battery on a fire or increase the temperature of the battery with heat. Damage to the battery and injury to persons can occur.
CAUTION
Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.
Do not put the battery on or near fires, stoves, or other high-temperature locations. Damage to the battery and injury to persons can occur.
CAUTION
Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.
Do not solder directly onto the battery. Damage to the battery can occur.
CAUTION
Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.
Do not use the battery if, when you use, charge, or put the battery in storage, there is an unusual smell
from the battery, the battery feels hot, changes color, changes shape, or is in an unusual condition.
Speak with your sales office if one or more of these problems occurs. Damage to the battery and injury
to persons can occur.
CAUTION
Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.
Only use a specified battery charger when you charge the battery. Damage to the battery can occur if
you do not do this.
CAUTION
Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.
Only use a specified battery for the camera. Damage to the camera and the battery can occur if you do
not do this.

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Safety information

CAUTION
Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.
The temperature range through which you can charge the battery is ±0°C to +45°C (+32°F to +113°F),
unless other information is specified in the user documentation or technical data. If you charge the battery at temperatures out of this range, it can cause the battery to become hot or to break. It can also decrease the performance or the life cycle of the battery.
CAUTION
Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.
The temperature range through which you can remove the electrical power from the battery is -15°C to
+50°C (+5°F to +122°F), unless other information is specified in the user documentation or technical
data. If you operate the battery out of this temperature range, it can decrease the performance or the life
cycle of the battery.
CAUTION
Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.
When the battery is worn, apply insulation to the terminals with adhesive tape or equivalent materials
before you discard it. Damage to the battery and injury to persons can occur if you do not do this.
CAUTION
Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.
Remove any water or moisture on the battery before you install it. Damage to the battery can occur if
you do not do this.
CAUTION
Do not apply solvents or equivalent liquids to the camera, the cables, or other items. Damage to the battery and injury to persons can occur.
CAUTION
Be careful when you clean the infrared lens. The lens has an anti-reflective coating which is easily damaged. Damage to the infrared lens can occur.
CAUTION
Do not use too much force to clean the infrared lens. This can cause damage to the anti-reflective
coating.
NOTE
The encapsulation rating is only applicable when all the openings on the camera are sealed with their
correct covers, hatches, or caps. This includes the compartments for data storage, batteries, and
connectors.

#T559733; r. AA/30822/30822; en-US

Notice to user

3.1 User-to-user forums
Exchange ideas, problems, and infrared solutions with fellow thermographers around the
world in our user-to-user forums. To go to the forums, visit:
http://www.infraredtraining.com/community/boards/
3.2 Calibration
We recommend that you send in the camera for calibration once a year. Contact your local sales office for instructions on where to send the camera.
3.3 Accuracy
For very accurate results, we recommend that you wait 5 minutes after you have started
the camera before measuring a temperature.
3.4 Disposal of electronic waste

As with most electronic products, this equipment must be disposed of in an environmentally friendly way, and in accordance with existing regulations for electronic waste.
Please contact your FLIR Systems representative for more details.
3.5 Training
To read about infrared training, visit:
• http://www.infraredtraining.com
• http://www.irtraining.com
• http://www.irtraining.eu
3.6 Documentation updates
Our manuals are updated several times per year, and we also issue product-critical notifications of changes on a regular basis.
To access the latest manuals and notifications, go to the Download tab at:
http://support.flir.com
It only takes a few minutes to register online. In the download area you will also find the
latest releases of manuals for our other products, as well as manuals for our historical
and obsolete products.
3.7 Important note about this manual
FLIR Systems issues generic manuals that cover several cameras within a model line.
This means that this manual may contain descriptions and explanations that do not apply
to your particular camera model.
3.8 Note about authoritative versions
The authoritative version of this publication is English. In the event of divergences due to
translation errors, the English text has precedence.
Any late changes are first implemented in English.

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Customer help

4.1 General
For customer help, visit:
http://support.flir.com
4.2 Submitting a question
To submit a question to the customer help team, you must be a registered user. It only
takes a few minutes to register online. If you only want to search the knowledgebase for
existing questions and answers, you do not need to be a registered user.
When you want to submit a question, make sure that you have the following information
to hand:

#T559733; r. AA/30822/30822; en-US

Customer help

• The camera model
• The camera serial number
• The communication protocol, or method, between the camera and your device (for example, HDMI, Ethernet, USB, or FireWire)
• Device type (PC/Mac/iPhone/iPad/Android device, etc.)
• Version of any programs from FLIR Systems
• Full name, publication number, and revision number of the manual
4.3 Downloads
On the customer help site you can also download the following:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Firmware updates for your infrared camera.
Program updates for your PC/Mac software.
Freeware and evaluation versions of PC/Mac software.
User documentation for current, obsolete, and historical products.
Mechanical drawings (in *.dxf and *.pdf format).
Cad data models (in *.stp format).
Application stories.
Technical datasheets.
Product catalogs.

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Quick Start Guide

5.1 Procedure
Follow this procedure:
1. Remove the protective film from the LCD.
2. You must charge the battery inside the camera for 4 hours (or until the battery charging indicator displays a green light) before you use the camera for the first time.
Charge the battery by connecting the power supply to the power connector on the
camera. Make sure that you use the correct AC plug.
NOTE
The first time you charge a factory-new battery you must turn on and then turn off the camera after
you have connected the power supply to the power connector on the camera. This is needed to ensure accurate measurement of the battery charge.

2.1.
2.2.

Battery charging indicator.
Power supply cable.

3. Insert a miniSD memory card into the card slot.

4. Push the On/Off button to turn on the camera.
5. Open the lens cap by pushing the lens cap lever.

6. Aim the camera toward your target of interest.
7. Pull the Save trigger to save the image.
8. To move the image to a computer, do one of the following:

• (Item 1 above) Remove the miniSD memory card and insert it into a card reader
connected to a computer. A miniSD card adapter is included with your camera.
• (Item 2 above) Connect a computer to the camera using a USB Mini-B cable.
9. In Windows Explorer, move the image from the card or camera using a drag-anddrop operation.

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Parts lists

6.1 Scope of delivery
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Infrared camera
Battery (inside camera)
Calibration certificate
Downloads brochure
FLIR Tools download card
FLIR apps card
Getting started guide
Hard transport case
Important information guide
Memory card
Power supply/charger with EU, UK, US and Australian plugs
Service & training brochure
Thank you card
USB cable
User documentation CD-ROM
Warranty extension card
NOTE
FLIR Systems reserves the right to discontinue models, parts or accessories, and other items, or to
change specifications at any time without prior notice.

6.2 List of accessories and services
Part No

Product name

1910423

USB cable Std A <-> Mini-B

19250-100

IR Window 2 in

19251-100

IR Window 3 in.

19252-100

IR Window 4 in.

ITC-CER-5101

ITC Level 1 Thermography Course - attendance, 1 pers.

ITC-CER-5105

ITC Level 1 Thermography Course - additional student to on site class, 1 pers

ITC-CER-5109

ITC Level 1 Thermography Course – group of 10 pers.

ITC-CER-6101

EN473 IT Certification course Category 1, excl. Certification, 1 pers.

ITC-CER-6109

EN473 IT Certification course Category 1, excl. Certification, group up to 10 pers.

ITC-CON-1001

ITC conference fee

ITC-EXP-0511

ITC Getting Started with Thermography - attendance, 1 pers.

ITC-EXP-0521

ITC Getting Started with Thermography (evening or weekend) - attendance, 1
pers.

ITC-EXP-1001

ITC Training 1 day - attendance 1 pers.

ITC-EXP-1009

ITC Training 1 day - group up to 10 pers.

ITC-EXP-1011

ITC Short course Introduction to thermography -attendance 1 pers. (1 day)

ITC-EXP-1019

ITC Short course Introduction to thermography - inclusive 10 pers. (1 day)

ITC-EXP-1021

ITC In-house training - additional attendance 1 pers. (per day)

ITC-EXP-1029

ITC In-house training - group up to 10 pers. (per day)

ITC-EXP-2001

ITC Training 2 days - attendance 1 pers.

ITC-EXP-2009

ITC Training 2 days - group up to 10 pers.

ITC-EXP-2011

ITC Short course building thermography -attendance 1 pers. (2 days)

ITC-EXP-2019

ITC Short course building thermography - inclusive 10 pers. (2 days)

ITC-EXP-2041

ITC Short course electrical thermography - attendance 1 pers. (2 days)

ITC-EXP-2049

ITC Short course electrical thermography - inclusive 10 pers. (2 days)

#T559733; r. AA/30822/30822; en-US

Parts lists

Part No

Product name

ITC-EXP-2061

ITC Short course HVAC and plumbing - attendance 1 pers (2 days)

ITC-EXP-2069

ITC Short course HVAC and plumbing - group up to 10 pers (2 days)

ITC-EXP-3001

ITC Training 3 days - attendance 1 pers.

ITC-EXP-3009

ITC Training 3 days - group up to 10 pers.

ITC-FEE-0120

Certification EN473 IT Category 1

ITC-FEE-0130

Repeat Certification EN473 IT Category 1

ITC-PRA-2011

ITC Practical Course - Solar panel inspection - attendance, 1 pers (2 days)

ITC-PRA-2019

ITC Practical Course - Solar panel inspection - group up to 10 pers (2 days)

ITC-SOW-0001

ITC Software course - attendance 1 pers. (per day)

ITC-SOW-0009

ITC Software course - group up to 10 pers. (per day)

ITC-SOW-1001

ITC Training FLIR Software - attendance 1 pers. (1 day)

ITC-SOW-2001

ITC Training FLIR Software - attendance 1 pers. (2 days)

ITC-TFT-0100

ITC travel time for instructor

ITC-TOL-1001

Travel and lodging expenses instructor (Europe, Balcans, Turkey, Cyprus)

ITC-TOL-1002

Travel and lodging expenses instructor (Russia/GUS, Middle East, North Africa)

ITC-TOL-1003

Travel and lodging expenses instructor (Center and South Africa)

ITC-TOL-1004

Travel and lodging expenses instructor (various)

ITC-TOL-1005

Travel and lodging expenses instructor (other)

T127451

FLIR Reporter Professional (license only)

T127648

FLIR Tools+ (license only)

T197410

Battery

T197619

Hard transport case for ix

T197717

FLIR Reporter Professional (DVD)

T197965

FLIR Tools

T199806

One year extended warranty for ix series

T199833

Calibration including General maintenance ix series

T910711

Power supply/charger with EU, UK, US and AU plugs

T910737

Memory card micro-SD with adapters

T911025

Car charger

T911085

Pouch for FLIR ix series

T911093

Tool belt

NOTE
FLIR Systems reserves the right to discontinue models, parts or accessories, and other items, or to
change specifications at any time without prior notice.

#T559733; r. AA/30822/30822; en-US

Camera parts

7.1 Figure

7.2 Explanation
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Infrared lens.
Lever to open and close the lens cap.
Trigger to save images.
Cover to connectors and the miniSD memory card slot.
Cover to the battery compartment.
Attachment point for the hand strap.

7.3 Figure

7.4 Explanation
1. Archive button.
Function: Push to open the image archive.
2. Left arrow button (on the navigation pad).
Function:
• Push to go left in menus, submenus, and dialog boxes.
• Push to navigate in the image archive.
3. Left selection button. This button is context-sensitive, and the current function is displayed above the button on the screen.
4. Top arrow button (on the navigation pad).
Function:
• Push to go up in menus, submenus, and dialog boxes.
• Push to display the image archive (after having pushed the Archive button).
• Push to increase/change the value.
5. Right arrow button (on the navigation pad).
Function:
• Push to go right in menus, submenus, and dialog boxes.
• Push to navigate in the image archive.
6. Right selection button. This button is context-sensitive, and the current function is
displayed above the button on the screen.

#T559733; r. AA/30822/30822; en-US

Camera parts

7. On/Off button.
Function:
• Push to turn on the camera.
• Push and hold down for more than 1 second to turn off the camera.
8. Bottom arrow button (on navigation pad).
Function:
• Push to go down in menus, submenus, and dialog boxes.
• Push to decrease/change the value.

#T559733; r. AA/30822/30822; en-US

Screen elements

8.1 Figure

8.2 Explanation
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Menu system.
Measurement result.
Power indicator.
Date and time.
Limit value for the temperature scale.
Temperature scale.
Currently set emissivity value or material properties.
Current function for the right selection button.
Current function for the left selection button.

Icon

Meaning
One of the following:
•
•

The camera is powered using the battery.
The battery is being charged (indicated by a
recharging battery animation).

The battery is fully charged and the camera is
powered using the power supply.

#T559733; r. AA/30822/30822; en-US

Connectors and storage media

9.1 Figure

9.2 Explanation
1. miniSD memory card
We recommend that you do not save more than 5,000 images on the miniSD memory
card.
Although a memory card may have a higher capacity than 5,000 images, saving more
than that number of images severely slows down file management on the miniSD
memory card.
NOTE
There is no upper limit to the memory size of the miniSD memory card.

2. Battery charging indicator:
• No light: The power supply is not connected.
• Orange light: The battery is being charged.
• Green light: The charging of the battery is completed.
3. Power supply cable
4. USB cable with USB Mini-B connector

#T559733; r. AA/30822/30822; en-US

Using the camera

10.1 Installing the battery
10.1.1

Procedure

Follow this procedure:
1. Remove the battery compartment cover.

2. Connect the cable that is attached to the battery to the connector inside the battery
compartment.
NOTE
Do not use conductive tools when doing this.

3. Push the battery into place.
4. Replace the cover to close the battery compartment.
10.2 Charging the battery
NOTE
•
•

•

You must charge the battery inside the camera for four full hours (or until the battery indicator displays a green light) before you use the camera for the first time.
The first time you charge a factory-new battery you must turn on and then turn off the camera after
you have connected the power supply to the power connector on the camera. This is needed in order to initiate the battery measuring.
Do not replace the battery on a frequent basis. Only replace the battery when it is worn out.

10.2.1

About the battery charging indicator

The battery charging indicator is an LED beside the power connector. It displays the following signals:
• No light: The power supply is not connected.
• Orange light: The battery is being charged.
• Green light: The charging of the battery is completed.
10.2.2

Procedure

Follow this procedure:
1. Connect the power supply to the power connector on the camera.

#T559733; r. AA/30822/30822; en-US

Using the camera

1.1.
1.2.

Battery charging indicator
Power supply cable

2. Connect the power supply mains-electricity plug to a mains socket. Make sure that
you use the correct AC plug.
3. Disconnect the power supply cable plug when the battery charging indicator displays
a green light.
10.3 Saving an image
10.3.1

General

You can save multiple images to the miniSD memory card.
10.3.2

Image capacity

We recommend that you do not save more than 5,000 images on the miniSD memory
card.
Although a memory card may have a higher capacity than 5,000 images, saving more
than that number of images severely slows down file management on the memory card.
NOTE
There is no upper limit to the memory size of the miniSD memory card.

10.3.3

Formatting memory cards

For best performance, memory cards should be formatted to the FAT (FAT16) file system.
Using FAT32-formatted memory cards may result in inferior performance. To format a
memory card to FAT (FAT16), follow this procedure:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Insert the memory card into a card reader that is connected to your computer.
In Windows Explorer, select My Computer and right-click the memory card.
Select Format.
Under File system, select FAT.
Click Start.

10.3.4

Naming convention

The naming convention for images is IR_xxxx.jpg, where xxxx is a unique counter. When
you select Restore, the camera resets the counter and assigns the next highest free file
name for the new file.
10.3.5

Procedure

Follow this procedure:
To save an image, pull the Save trigger.
10.4 Recalling an image
10.4.1

General

When you save an image, it is stored on the removable miniSD memory card. To display
the image again, you can recall it from the miniSD memory card.

#T559733; r. AA/30822/30822; en-US

Using the camera

10.4.2

Procedure

Follow this procedure:
1. Push the Archive button.
2. Do one of the following:
• Push the navigation pad left/right to select the image you want to view.
• Push the top arrow button, use the navigation pad to select the image you want to
see, then push the right selection button (Open).
3. To return to live mode, do one of the following:
• Push the Archive button.
• Push the right selection button (Close).
10.5 Opening the image archive
10.5.1

General

The image archive is a thumbnail gallery of all the images on the miniSD memory card.
10.5.2

Procedure

Follow this procedure:
1. Push the Archive button.
2. Push the top arrow button on the navigation pad.
This will display the image archive. You can now use the navigation pad to navigate
in the archive.
3. To open a selected image, push the right selection button (Open).
10.6 Deleting an image
10.6.1

General

You can delete one or more images from the miniSD memory card.
10.6.2

Alternative 1

Follow this procedure:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Push the Archive button.
Push the top arrow button. This will display the image archive.
Select the image you want to delete by using the navigation pad.
Push the left selection button (Options).
Use the navigation pad to select Delete image.
Push the left selection button (Select).
Push the right selection button to confirm (Delete).
To return to live mode, do one of the following:
• Push the Archive button.
• Push the right selection button (Close).

10.6.3

Alternative 2

Follow this procedure:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Push the Archive button.
Select the image you want to delete by using the navigation pad.
Push the left selection button (Delete).
Push the right selection button to confirm (Delete).
To return to live mode, do one of the following:
• Push the Archive button.
• Push the right selection button (Close).

#T559733; r. AA/30822/30822; en-US

Using the camera

10.7 Deleting all images
10.7.1

General

You can delete all images from the miniSD memory card.
10.7.2

Procedure

Follow this procedure:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Push the Archive button.
Push the top arrow button. This will display the image archive
Push the left selection button (Options).
Use the navigation pad to select Delete all images.
Push the left selection button (Select).
Push the right selection button to confirm (Delete).

10.8 Measuring a temperature using a spotmeter
10.8.1

General

You can measure a temperature using a spotmeter. This will display the temperature at
the position of the spotmeter on the screen.
10.8.2

Procedure

Follow this procedure:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Push the left selection button (Menu).
Use the navigation pad to select Measurement.
Push the left selection button (Select).
Use the navigation pad to select Spot.
Push the left selection button (Select).
The temperature at the position of the spotmeter will now displayed in the top left corner of the screen.

10.9 Measuring a temperature using an area
10.9.1

General

You can continuously indicate the highest or lowest temperature within an area, using a
continuously moving cursor.
10.9.2

Procedure

Follow this procedure:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Push the left selection button (Menu).
Use the navigation pad to select Measurement.
Push the left selection button (Select).
Use the navigation pad to select one of the following:
• Area max.
• Area min.

5. Push the left selection button (Select).
The highest or lowest temperature within the area will now be indicated by a continuously moving cursor.
The temperature will also be displayed in the top left corner of the screen.
10.10
10.10.1

Marking all areas above or below a set temperature level
General

You can mark all areas above or below a set temperature level.

#T559733; r. AA/30822/30822; en-US

Using the camera

10.10.2

Procedure

Follow this procedure:
1.
2.
3.
4.

5. Push the left selection button (Select).
6. To change the temperature level above or below which you want to mark the areas,
use the navigation pad.
10.11
10.11.1

Changing the color palette
General

You can change the color palette that the camera uses to display different temperatures.
A different palette can make it easier to analyze an image.
10.11.2

Procedure

Follow this procedure:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Push the left selection button (Menu).
Use the navigation pad to go to Color palette.
Push the left selection button (Select). This will display the Color palette submenu.
Use the navigation pad to select the new color palette.
Push the left selection button (Select) to confirm the choice and leave the submenu.

10.12
10.12.1

Changing the settings
General

You can change a variety of settings for the camera. These include the following:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Auto shutdown
Display intensity
Language
Unit
Time format
Set time
Time stamp
Firmware (to download program updates for your camera. See http://support.flir.com
for more information.)
• Restore
10.12.2

Procedure

Follow this procedure:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Push the left selection button (Menu).
Use the navigation pad to go to Settings.
Push the left selection button (Select). This will display the Settings submenu.
Use the navigation pad to select the setting you want to change.
Push the left selection button (Select), then use the navigation pad to select a new
setting.
6. Push the left selection button (Select) to confirm the choice and leave the submenu,
or push the right selection button (Close) to leave the menu.

#T559733; r. AA/30822/30822; en-US

Using the camera

10.13
10.13.1

Changing the image mode
General

The camera can operate in two different image modes:
Image mode

Icon

Explanation

Auto

[None]

In Auto mode, the camera is
continuously auto-adjusted for
best image brightness and
contrast.

Locked

10.13.2

In Locked mode, the camera
locks the temperature span and
the temperature level.

When to use Locked mode

A typical situation when you would want to use Locked mode is when looking for temperature anomalies in two items of similar design or construction.
For example, if you are looking at two cables, where you suspect one is overheated,
working in Locked mode will clearly show that one is overheated. The higher temperature
in that cable would create a lighter color for the higher temperature.
If you use Auto mode instead, the color for the two items will appear the same.
10.13.3

Procedure

Follow this procedure:
To switch between Auto mode and Locked mode, push the right selection button (Auto/
Locked). A padlock icon (
10.14
10.14.1

) indicates the Locked mode.

Setting the surface properties
General

To measure temperatures accurately, the camera must know what kind of surface you
are measuring.
The easiest way to do this is to set the surface property on the Measure menu. You can
choose between the following surface properties:
•
•
•
•

Matt
Semi-matt
Semi-glossy
Glossy

10.14.2

Procedure

Follow this procedure:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Push the left selection button (Menu).
Use the navigation pad to go to Measure.
Push the left selection button (Select). This will display the Measure submenu.
On the Measure menu, use the navigation pad to select a surface property.
Push the left selection button (Select) to confirm the choice and leave the menu.

For more information, see 17 Thermographic measurement techniques, page 42.
10.15
10.15.1

Changing the emissivity
General

For very precise measurements, you may need to set the emissivity, instead of selecting
a surface property. You also need to understand how emissivity and reflectivity affect
measurements, rather than just simply selecting a surface property.

#T559733; r. AA/30822/30822; en-US

Using the camera

Emissivity is a property that indicates how much radiation originates from an object as
opposed to being reflected by it. A lower value indicates that a larger proportion is being
reflected, while a high value indicates that a lower proportion is being reflected.
Polished stainless steel, for example, has an emissivity of 0.14, while a structured PVC
floor typically has an emissivity of 0.93.
10.15.2

Procedure

Follow this procedure:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Push the left selection button (Menu).
Use the navigation pad to go to Measure.
Push the left selection button (Select). This will display the Measure submenu.
Use the navigation pad to select Advanced.
Push the left selection button (Select). This will display the Advanced submenu.
Use the navigation pad to do either of the following:
• Set a value for emissivity
• Select a material in the list of materials

7. Push the left selection button (Select) to confirm the choice and leave the menu.
For more information, see 17 Thermographic measurement techniques, page 42.
10.16
10.16.1

Changing the reflected apparent temperature
General

This parameter is used to compensate for the radiation reflected by the object. If the
emissivity is low and the object temperature relatively far from that of the reflected temperature it will be important to set and compensate for the reflected apparent temperature correctly.
10.16.2

Procedure

Follow this procedure:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Push the left selection button (Menu).
Use the navigation pad to go to Measure.
Push the left selection button (Select). This will display the Measure submenu.
Use the navigation pad to select Advanced.
Push the left selection button (Select). This will display the Advanced submenu.
Use the navigation pad to set the reflected apparent temperature.
Push the left selection button (Select) to confirm the choice and leave the menu.

For more information, see 17 Thermographic measurement techniques, page 42.
10.17
10.17.1

Resetting the camera
General

If you need to reset the camera, there is a reset button inside the battery compartment.
NOTE
Do not use a metal or other conductive tool to reset the camera.

10.17.2

Procedure

Follow this procedure:
1. Open the battery compartment cover.

#T559733; r. AA/30822/30822; en-US

Using the camera

2. To locate the reset button, see the figure below.

3. Use a non-conductive tool to push reset button. The camera will now be reset.
10.18
10.18.1

Finding the serial number of the camera
General

When you communicate with our service departments, you may need to state the serial
number of the camera.
The serial number is printed on a label inside the battery compartment, behind the
battery.

#T559733; r. AA/30822/30822; en-US

Technical data

11.1 Online field-of-view calculator
Please visit http://support.flir.com and click the photo of the camera series for field-ofview tables for all lens–camera combinations.
11.2 Note about technical data
FLIR Systems reserves the right to change specifications at any time without prior notice.
Please check http://support.flir.com for latest changes.
11.3 Note about authoritative versions
The authoritative version of this publication is English. In the event of divergences due to
translation errors, the English text has precedence.
Any late changes are first implemented in English.

#T559733; r. AA/30822/30822; en-US

Technical data

11.4 FLIR i3
P/N: 60101-0101
Rev.: 30815
General description
The FLIR i3 is an easy-to-use point-and-shoot infrared camera that gives you access to the infrared
world. The camera is an affordable replacement for an infrared thermometer, providing a thermal image
with temperature information in every pixel.
The FLIR ix series cameras are light-weight, compact, and rugged, for use in harsh environments.
Benefits:
•
•

•

Easy-to-use: The FLIR i3 is fully automatic and focus-free with an intuitive interface for simple
measurement.
Compact and rugged: The camera’s low weight of 0.365 kg and an accessory belt pouch make it
easy to bring along at all times. Its rugged design and passing a 2 m drop test ensure ease-of-use,
even in harsh environments.
Ground breaking affordability: The FLIR ix series cameras are the most affordable infrared cameras
on the market.

Imaging and optical data
IR resolution

60 × 60 pixels

Thermal sensitivity/NETD

< 0.15°C (0.27°F) / 150 mK

Field of view (FOV)

12.5° × 12.5°

Minimum focus distance

0.6 m (2 ft.)

Spatial resolution (IFOV)

3.7 mrad

F-number

1.5

Image frequency

9 Hz

Focus

Focus free

Detector data
Detector type

Focal plane array (FPA), uncooled
microbolometer

Spectral range

7.5–13 µm

Image presentation
Display

2.8 in. color LCD

Image adjustment

Automatic adjust/lock image

Measurement
Object temperature range

–20°C to +250°C (–4°F to +482°F)

Accuracy

±2°C (±3.6°F) or ±2% of reading, for ambient temperature 10°C to 35°C (+50°F to 95°F) and object
temperature above +0°C (+32°F)

Measurement analysis
Spotmeter

Center spot

Emissivity correction

Variable from 0.1 to 1.0

Emissivity table

Emissivity table of predefined materials

Reflected apparent temperature correction

Automatic, based on input of reflected
temperature

Set-up
Color palettes

Black and white, iron and rainbow

Set-up commands

Local adaptation of units, language, date and time
formats

#T559733; r. AA/30822/30822; en-US

Technical data

Storage of images
Storage media

miniSD card

File formats

Standard JPEG, 14-bit measurement data
included

Data communication interfaces
Interfaces

USB Mini-B: Data transfer to and from PC

Power system
Battery type

Rechargeable Li ion battery

Battery voltage

3.6 V

Battery operating time

Approx. 5 hours at +25°C (+77°F) ambient temperature and typical use

Charging system

Battery is charged inside the camera.

Charging time

3 h to 90% capacity

Power management

Automatic shut-down

AC operation

AC adapter, 90–260 VAC input, 5 VDC output to
camera

Environmental data
Operating temperature range

0°C to +50°C (+32°F to +122°F)

Storage temperature range

–40°C to +70°C (–40°F to +158°F)

Humidity (operating and storage)

IEC 60068-2-30/24 h 95% relative humidity

EMC

•
•
•

EN 61000-6-2:2005 (Immunity)
EN 61000-6-3:2007 (Emission)
FCC 47 CFR Part 15 Class B (Emission)

Encapsulation

Camera housing and lens: IP 43 (IEC 60529)

Shock

25 g (IEC 60068-2-27)

Vibration

2 g (IEC 60068-2-6)

Drop

2 m (6.6 ft.)

Physical data
Camera weight, incl. battery

0.365 kg (0.80 lb.)

Camera size (L × W × H)

223 × 79 × 85 mm (8.8 × 3.1 × 3.4 in.)

Material

•
•
•

Color

Polycarbonate + acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (PC-ABS)
Thixomold magnesium
Thermoplastic elastomer (TPE)

Black and gray

Certifications
Certification

UL, CSA, CE, PSE and CCC

Shipping information
Packaging, type
List of contents

Cardboard box
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

#T559733; r. AA/30822/30822; en-US

Hard transport case
Infrared camera
Battery (inside camera)
FLIR Tools download card
miniSD card, with SD card adapter
Power supply/charger with EU, UK, US and
Australian plugs
Printed documentation
USB cable
User documentation CD-ROM

Technical data

Shipping information
Packaging, weight

2.8 kg (6.17 lb.)

Packaging, size

380 × 170 × 320 mm (15.0 × 6.7 × 12.6 in.)

EAN-13

4743254000179

UPC-12

845188002213

Country of origin

Estonia

Supplies & accessories:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

T910737; Memory card micro-SD with adapters
1910423; USB cable Std A <-> Mini-B
T910711; Power supply/charger with EU, UK, US and AU plugs
T197619; Hard transport case for ix
T911093; Tool belt
T198482; Car charger
T198529; Pouch FLIR Ex and ix series
T198583; FLIR Tools+ (download card incl. license key)

#T559733; r. AA/30822/30822; en-US

Technical data

11.5 FLIR i5
P/N: 60101-0201
Rev.: 30816
General description
The FLIR i5 is an easy-to-use point-and-shoot infrared camera that gives you access to the infrared
world. The camera is an affordable replacement for an infrared thermometer, providing a thermal image
with temperature information in every pixel.
The FLIR ix series cameras are light-weight, compact, and rugged, for use in harsh environments.
Benefits:
•
•

•

Easy-to-use: The FLIR i5 is fully automatic and focus-free with an intuitive interface for simple
measurement.
Compact and rugged: The camera’s low weight of 0.365 kg and an accessory belt pouch make it
easy to bring along at all times. Its rugged design and passing a 2 m drop test ensure ease-of-use,
even in harsh environments.
Ground breaking affordability: The FLIR ix series cameras are the most affordable infrared cameras
on the market.

Imaging and optical data
IR resolution

100 × 100 pixels

Thermal sensitivity/NETD

< 0.1°C (0.18°F) / 100 mK

Field of view (FOV)

21° × 21°

Minimum focus distance

0.6 m (2 ft.)

Spatial resolution (IFOV)

3.7 mrad

F-number

1.5

Image frequency

9 Hz

Focus

Focus free

Detector data
Detector type

Focal plane array (FPA), uncooled
microbolometer

Spectral range

7.5–13 µm

Image presentation
Display

2.8 in. color LCD

Image adjustment

Automatic adjust/lock image

Measurement
Object temperature range

–20°C to +250°C (–4°F to +482°F)

Accuracy

±2°C (±3.6°F) or ±2% of reading, for ambient temperature 10°C to 35°C (+50°F to 95°F) and object
temperature above +0°C (+32°F)

Measurement analysis
Spotmeter

Center spot

Emissivity correction

Variable from 0.1 to 1.0

Emissivity table

Emissivity table of predefined materials

Reflected apparent temperature correction

Automatic, based on input of reflected
temperature

Set-up
Color palettes

Black and white, iron and rainbow

Set-up commands

Local adaptation of units, language, date and time
formats

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Technical data

Storage of images
Storage media

miniSD card

File formats

Standard JPEG, 14-bit measurement data
included

Data communication interfaces
Interfaces

USB Mini-B: Data transfer to and from PC

Power system
Battery type

Rechargeable Li ion battery

Battery voltage

3.6 V

Battery operating time

Approx. 5 hours at +25°C (+77°F) ambient temperature and typical use

Charging system

Battery is charged inside the camera.

Charging time

3 h to 90% capacity

Power management

Automatic shut-down

AC operation

AC adapter, 90–260 VAC input, 5 VDC output to
camera

Environmental data
Operating temperature range

0°C to +50°C (+32°F to +122°F)

Storage temperature range

–40°C to +70°C (–40°F to +158°F)

Humidity (operating and storage)

IEC 60068-2-30/24 h 95% relative humidity

EMC

•
•
•

EN 61000-6-2:2005 (Immunity)
EN 61000-6-3:2007 (Emission)
FCC 47 CFR Part 15 Class B (Emission)

Encapsulation

Camera housing and lens: IP 43 (IEC 60529)

Shock

25 g (IEC 60068-2-27)

Vibration

2 g (IEC 60068-2-6)

Drop

2 m (6.6 ft.)

Physical data
Camera weight, incl. battery

0.365 kg (0.80 lb.)

Camera size (L × W × H)

223 × 79 × 85 mm (8.8 × 3.1 × 3.4 in.)

Material

•
•
•

Color

Polycarbonate + acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (PC-ABS)
Thixomold magnesium
Thermoplastic elastomer (TPE)

Black and gray

Certifications
Certification

UL, CSA, CE, PSE and CCC

Shipping information
Packaging, type
List of contents

Cardboard box
•
•
•
•
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•
•
•
•

#T559733; r. AA/30822/30822; en-US

Technical data

Shipping information
Packaging, weight

2.8 kg (6.17 lb.)

Packaging, size

380 × 170 × 320 mm (15.0 × 6.7 × 12.6 in.)

EAN-13

4743254000186

UPC-12

845188002220

Country of origin

Estonia

Supplies & accessories:
•
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#T559733; r. AA/30822/30822; en-US

Mechanical drawings

#T559733; r. AA/30822/30822; en-US

© 2012, FLIR Systems, Inc. All rights reserved worldwide. No part of this drawing may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form, or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise,
without written permission from FLIR Systems, Inc. Specifications subject to change without further notice. Dimensional data is based on nominal values. Products may be subject to regional market considerations. License procedures may apply.
Product may be subject to US Export Regulations. Please refer to exportquestions@flir.com with any questions. Diversion contrary to US law is prohibited.

1
2

Camera with built-in IR lens f=6,8 mm (i3 12,5°)
Camera with built-in IR lens f=6,8 mm (i5 17°)
Camera with built-in IR lens f=6,8 mm (i7 25°)

6,92in
175,8mm

1,82in
46,3mm
Optical axis

2,94in
74,6mm

3,05in
77,5mm

3,21in
81,6mm

1,92in
48,8mm

3,35in
85,1mm

8,74in
222,1mm

3,1in
78,8mm

1,68in
42,6mm

Optical axis

CAHA

Check
Drawn by

R&D Thermography

Basic dimensions FLIR ix

2012-04-19

Denomination

Modified

1,98in
50,2mm

1:2

T127628

Drawing No.

Size

Scale

1(1)

Size

Sheet

Cleaning the camera

13.1 Camera housing, cables, and other items
13.1.1

Liquids

Use one of these liquids:
• Warm water
• A weak detergent solution
13.1.2

Equipment

A soft cloth
13.1.3

Procedure

Follow this procedure:
1. Soak the cloth in the liquid.
2. Twist the cloth to remove excess liquid.
3. Clean the part with the cloth.
CAUTION
Do not apply solvents or similar liquids to the camera, the cables, or other items. This can cause
damage.

13.2 Infrared lens
13.2.1

Liquids

Use one of these liquids:
• A commercial lens cleaning liquid with more than 30% isopropyl alcohol.
• 96% ethyl alcohol (C2H5OH).
13.2.2

Equipment

Cotton wool
13.2.3

Procedure

Follow this procedure:
1. Soak the cotton wool in the liquid.
2. Twist the cotton wool to remove excess liquid.
3. Clean the lens one time only and discard the cotton wool.
WARNING
Make sure that you read all applicable MSDS (Material Safety Data Sheets) and warning labels on containers before you use a liquid: the liquids can be dangerous.
CAUTION
•
•

Be careful when you clean the infrared lens. The lens has a delicate anti-reflective coating.
Do not clean the infrared lens too vigorously. This can damage the anti-reflective coating.

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Application examples

14.1 Moisture & water damage
14.1.1

General

It is often possible to detect moisture and water damage in a house by using an infrared
camera. This is partly because the damaged area has a different heat conduction property and partly because it has a different thermal capacity to store heat than the surrounding material.
Many factors can come into play as to how moisture or water damage will appear in an
infrared image.
For example, heating and cooling of these parts takes place at different rates depending
on the material and the time of day. For this reason, it is important that other methods are
used as well to check for moisture or water damage.
14.1.2

Figure

The image below shows extensive water damage on an external wall where the water
has penetrated the outer facing because of an incorrectly installed window ledge.

14.2 Faulty contact in socket
14.2.1

General

Depending on the type of connection a socket has, an improperly connected wire can result in local temperature increase. This temperature increase is caused by the reduced
contact area between the connection point of the incoming wire and the socket , and can
result in an electrical fire.
A socket’s construction may differ dramatically from one manufacturer to another. For
this reason, different faults in a socket can lead to the same typical appearance in an infrared image.
Local temperature increase can also result from improper contact between wire and
socket, or from difference in load.
14.2.2

Figure

The image below shows a connection of a cable to a socket where improper contact in
the connection has resulted in local temperature increase.

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Application examples

14.3 Oxidized socket
14.3.1

General

Depending on the type of socket and the environment in which the socket is installed, oxides may occur on the socket's contact surfaces. These oxides can lead to locally increased resistance when the socket is loaded, which can be seen in an infrared image
as local temperature increase.
A socket’s construction may differ dramatically from one manufacturer to another. For
this reason, different faults in a socket can lead to the same typical appearance in an infrared image.
Local temperature increase can also result from improper contact between a wire and
socket, or from difference in load.
14.3.2

Figure

The image below shows a series of fuses where one fuse has a raised temperature on
the contact surfaces against the fuse holder. Because of the fuse holder’s blank metal,
the temperature increase is not visible there, while it is visible on the fuse’s ceramic
material.

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Application examples

14.4 Insulation deficiencies
14.4.1

General

Insulation deficiencies may result from insulation losing volume over the course of time
and thereby not entirely filling the cavity in a frame wall.
An infrared camera allows you to see these insulation deficiencies because they either
have a different heat conduction property than sections with correctly installed insulation,
and/or show the area where air is penetrating the frame of the building.
When you are inspecting a building, the temperature difference between the inside and
outside should be at least 10°C (18°F). Studs, water pipes, concrete columns, and similar components may resemble an insulation deficiency in an infrared image. Minor differences may also occur naturally.
14.4.2

Figure

In the image below, insulation in the roof framing is lacking. Due to the absence of insulation, air has forced its way into the roof structure, which thus takes on a different characteristic appearance in the infrared image.

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Application examples

14.5 Draft
14.5.1

General

Draft can be found under baseboards, around door and window casings, and above ceiling trim. This type of draft is often possible to see with an infrared camera, as a cooler
airstream cools down the surrounding surface.
When you are investigating draft in a house, there should be sub-atmospheric pressure
in the house. Close all doors, windows, and ventilation ducts, and allow the kitchen fan
to run for a while before you take the infrared images.
An infrared image of draft often shows a typical stream pattern. You can see this stream
pattern clearly in the picture below.
Also keep in mind that drafts can be concealed by heat from floor heating circuits.
14.5.2

Figure

The image below shows a ceiling hatch where faulty installation has resulted in a strong
draft.

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About FLIR Systems

FLIR Systems was established in 1978 to pioneer the development of high-performance
infrared imaging systems, and is the world leader in the design, manufacture, and marketing of thermal imaging systems for a wide variety of commercial, industrial, and government applications. Today, FLIR Systems embraces five major companies with
outstanding achievements in infrared technology since 1958—the Swedish AGEMA Infrared Systems (formerly AGA Infrared Systems), the three United States companies Indigo Systems, FSI, and Inframetrics, and the French company Cedip.
Since 2007, FLIR Systems has acquired several companies with world-leading expertise
in sensor technologies:
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Extech Instruments (2007)
Ifara Tecnologías (2008)
Salvador Imaging (2009)
OmniTech Partners (2009)
Directed Perception (2009)
Raymarine (2010)
ICx Technologies (2010)
TackTick Marine Digital Instruments (2011)
Aerius Photonics (2011)
Lorex Technology (2012)
Traficon (2012)
MARSS (2013)
DigitalOptics micro-optics business (2013)

Figure 15.1 Patent documents from the early 1960s

FLIR Systems has three manufacturing plants in the United States (Portland, OR, Boston, MA, Santa Barbara, CA) and one in Sweden (Stockholm). Since 2007 there is also a
manufacturing plant in Tallinn, Estonia. Direct sales offices in Belgium, Brazil, China,
France, Germany, Great Britain, Hong Kong, Italy, Japan, Korea, Sweden, and the USA
—together with a worldwide network of agents and distributors—support our international customer base.
FLIR Systems is at the forefront of innovation in the infrared camera industry. We anticipate market demand by constantly improving our existing cameras and developing new
ones. The company has set milestones in product design and development such as the

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About FLIR Systems

introduction of the first battery-operated portable camera for industrial inspections, and
the first uncooled infrared camera, to mention just two innovations.

Figure 15.2 1969: Thermovision Model 661. The
camera weighed approximately 25 kg (55 lb.), the
oscilloscope 20 kg (44 lb.), and the tripod 15 kg
(33 lb.). The operator also needed a 220 VAC
generator set, and a 10 L (2.6 US gallon) jar with
liquid nitrogen. To the left of the oscilloscope the
Polaroid attachment (6 kg/13 lb.) can be seen.

Figure 15.3 2015: FLIR One, an accessory to
iPhone and Android mobile phones. Weight: 90 g
(3.2 oz.).

FLIR Systems manufactures all vital mechanical and electronic components of the camera systems itself. From detector design and manufacturing, to lenses and system electronics, to final testing and calibration, all production steps are carried out and
supervised by our own engineers. The in-depth expertise of these infrared specialists ensures the accuracy and reliability of all vital components that are assembled into your infrared camera.
15.1 More than just an infrared camera
At FLIR Systems we recognize that our job is to go beyond just producing the best infrared camera systems. We are committed to enabling all users of our infrared camera systems to work more productively by providing them with the most powerful camera–
software combination. Especially tailored software for predictive maintenance, R & D,
and process monitoring is developed in-house. Most software is available in a wide variety of languages.
We support all our infrared cameras with a wide variety of accessories to adapt your
equipment to the most demanding infrared applications.
15.2 Sharing our knowledge
Although our cameras are designed to be very user-friendly, there is a lot more to thermography than just knowing how to handle a camera. Therefore, FLIR Systems has
founded the Infrared Training Center (ITC), a separate business unit, that provides certified training courses. Attending one of the ITC courses will give you a truly hands-on
learning experience.
The staff of the ITC are also there to provide you with any application support you may
need in putting infrared theory into practice.
15.3 Supporting our customers
FLIR Systems operates a worldwide service network to keep your camera running at all
times. If you discover a problem with your camera, local service centers have all the
equipment and expertise to solve it within the shortest possible time. Therefore, there is
no need to send your camera to the other side of the world or to talk to someone who
does not speak your language.

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Glossary

absorption
(absorption
factor)

The amount of radiation absorbed by an object relative to the received radiation. A number between 0 and 1.

atmosphere

The gases between the object being measured and the camera, normally air.

autoadjust

A function making a camera perform an internal image correction.

autopalette

The IR image is shown with an uneven spread of colors, displaying
cold objects as well as hot ones at the same time.

blackbody

Totally non-reflective object. All its radiation is due to its own
temperature.

blackbody
radiator

An IR radiating equipment with blackbody properties used to calibrate IR cameras.

calculated atmospheric
transmission

A transmission value computed from the temperature, the relative
humidity of air and the distance to the object.

cavity radiator

A bottle shaped radiator with an absorbing inside, viewed through
the bottleneck.

color
temperature

The temperature for which the color of a blackbody matches a specific color.

conduction

The process that makes heat diffuse into a material.

continuous
adjust

A function that adjusts the image. The function works all the time,
continuously adjusting brightness and contrast according to the image content.

convection

Convection is a heat transfer mode where a fluid is brought into motion, either by gravity or another force, thereby transferring heat from
one place to another.

dual isotherm

An isotherm with two color bands, instead of one.

emissivity
(emissivity
factor)

The amount of radiation coming from an object, compared to that of
a blackbody. A number between 0 and 1.

emittance

Amount of energy emitted from an object per unit of time and area
(W/m2)

environment

Objects and gases that emit radiation towards the object being
measured.

estimated atmospheric
transmission

A transmission value, supplied by a user, replacing a calculated one

external optics

Extra lenses, filters, heat shields etc. that can be put between the
camera and the object being measured.

filter

A material transparent only to some of the infrared wavelengths.

FOV

Field of view: The horizontal angle that can be viewed through an IR
lens.

FPA

Focal plane array: A type of IR detector.

graybody

An object that emits a fixed fraction of the amount of energy of a
blackbody for each wavelength.

IFOV

Instantaneous field of view: A measure of the geometrical resolution
of an IR camera.

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Glossary

image correction (internal or
external)

A way of compensating for sensitivity differences in various parts of
live images and also of stabilizing the camera.

infrared

Non-visible radiation, having a wavelength from about 2–13 μm.

infrared

isotherm

A function highlighting those parts of an image that fall above, below
or between one or more temperature intervals.

isothermal
cavity

A bottle-shaped radiator with a uniform temperature viewed through
the bottleneck.

Laser LocatIR

An electrically powered light source on the camera that emits laser
radiation in a thin, concentrated beam to point at certain parts of the
object in front of the camera.

laser pointer

An electrically powered light source on the camera that emits laser
radiation in a thin, concentrated beam to point at certain parts of the
object in front of the camera.

level

The center value of the temperature scale, usually expressed as a
signal value.

manual adjust

A way to adjust the image by manually changing certain parameters.

NETD

Noise equivalent temperature difference. A measure of the image
noise level of an IR camera.

noise

Undesired small disturbance in the infrared image

object
parameters

A set of values describing the circumstances under which the measurement of an object was made, and the object itself (such as emissivity, reflected apparent temperature, distance etc.)

object signal

A non-calibrated value related to the amount of radiation received by
the camera from the object.

palette

The set of colors used to display an IR image.

pixel

Stands for picture element. One single spot in an image.

radiance

Amount of energy emitted from an object per unit of time, area and
angle (W/m2/sr)

radiant power

Amount of energy emitted from an object per unit of time (W)

radiation

The process by which electromagnetic energy, is emitted by an object or a gas.

radiator

A piece of IR radiating equipment.

range

The current overall temperature measurement limitation of an IR
camera. Cameras can have several ranges. Expressed as two
blackbody temperatures that limit the current calibration.

reference
temperature

A temperature which the ordinary measured values can be compared with.

reflection

The amount of radiation reflected by an object relative to the received radiation. A number between 0 and 1.

relative
humidity

Relative humidity represents the ratio between the current water vapour mass in the air and the maximum it may contain in saturation
conditions.

saturation
color

The areas that contain temperatures outside the present level/span
settings are colored with the saturation colors. The saturation colors
contain an ‘overflow’ color and an ‘underflow’ color. There is also a
third red saturation color that marks everything saturated by the detector indicating that the range should probably be changed.

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Glossary

span

The interval of the temperature scale, usually expressed as a signal
value.

spectral (radiant) emittance

Amount of energy emitted from an object per unit of time, area and
wavelength (W/m2/μm)

temperature
difference, or
difference of
temperature.

A value which is the result of a subtraction between two temperature
values.

temperature
range

The current overall temperature measurement limitation of an IR
camera. Cameras can have several ranges. Expressed as two
blackbody temperatures that limit the current calibration.

temperature
scale

The way in which an IR image currently is displayed. Expressed as
two temperature values limiting the colors.

thermogram

infrared image

transmission
(or transmittance) factor

Gases and materials can be more or less transparent. Transmission
is the amount of IR radiation passing through them. A number between 0 and 1.

transparent
isotherm

An isotherm showing a linear spread of colors, instead of covering
the highlighted parts of the image.

visual

Refers to the video mode of a IR camera, as opposed to the normal,
thermographic mode. When a camera is in video mode it captures
ordinary video images, while thermographic images are captured
when the camera is in IR mode.

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Thermographic measurement
techniques

17.1 Introduction
An infrared camera measures and images the emitted infrared radiation from an object.
The fact that radiation is a function of object surface temperature makes it possible for
the camera to calculate and display this temperature.
However, the radiation measured by the camera does not only depend on the temperature of the object but is also a function of the emissivity. Radiation also originates from
the surroundings and is reflected in the object. The radiation from the object and the reflected radiation will also be influenced by the absorption of the atmosphere.
To measure temperature accurately, it is therefore necessary to compensate for the effects of a number of different radiation sources. This is done on-line automatically by the
camera. The following object parameters must, however, be supplied for the camera:
•
•
•
•
•

The emissivity of the object
The reflected apparent temperature
The distance between the object and the camera
The relative humidity
Temperature of the atmosphere

17.2 Emissivity
The most important object parameter to set correctly is the emissivity which, in short, is a
measure of how much radiation is emitted from the object, compared to that from a perfect blackbody of the same temperature.
Normally, object materials and surface treatments exhibit emissivity ranging from approximately 0.1 to 0.95. A highly polished (mirror) surface falls below 0.1, while an oxidized
or painted surface has a higher emissivity. Oil-based paint, regardless of color in the visible spectrum, has an emissivity over 0.9 in the infrared. Human skin exhibits an emissivity 0.97 to 0.98.
Non-oxidized metals represent an extreme case of perfect opacity and high reflexivity,
which does not vary greatly with wavelength. Consequently, the emissivity of metals is
low – only increasing with temperature. For non-metals, emissivity tends to be high, and
decreases with temperature.
17.2.1
17.2.1.1

Finding the emissivity of a sample
Step 1: Determining reflected apparent temperature

Use one of the following two methods to determine reflected apparent temperature:

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Thermographic measurement techniques

17.2.1.1.1

Method 1: Direct method

Follow this procedure:
1. Look for possible reflection sources, considering that the incident angle = reflection
angle (a = b).

Figure 17.1 1 = Reflection source

2. If the reflection source is a spot source, modify the source by obstructing it using a
piece if cardboard.

Figure 17.2 1 = Reflection source

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Thermographic measurement techniques

3. Measure the radiation intensity (= apparent temperature) from the reflecting source
using the following settings:
• Emissivity: 1.0
• Dobj: 0
You can measure the radiation intensity using one of the following two methods:

Figure 17.3 1 = Reflection source

Using a thermocouple to measure reflected apparent temperature is not recommended
for two important reasons:
• A thermocouple does not measure radiation intensity
• A thermocouple requires a very good thermal contact to the surface, usually by gluing
and covering the sensor by a thermal isolator.
17.2.1.1.2

Method 2: Reflector method

Follow this procedure:
1. Crumble up a large piece of aluminum foil.
2. Uncrumble the aluminum foil and attach it to a piece of cardboard of the same size.
3. Put the piece of cardboard in front of the object you want to measure. Make sure that
the side with aluminum foil points to the camera.
4. Set the emissivity to 1.0.
5. Measure the apparent temperature of the aluminum foil and write it down.

Figure 17.4 Measuring the apparent temperature of the aluminum foil.

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Thermographic measurement techniques

17.2.1.2

Step 2: Determining the emissivity

Follow this procedure:
1. Select a place to put the sample.
2. Determine and set reflected apparent temperature according to the previous
procedure.
3. Put a piece of electrical tape with known high emissivity on the sample.
4. Heat the sample at least 20 K above room temperature. Heating must be reasonably
even.
5. Focus and auto-adjust the camera, and freeze the image.
6. Adjust Level and Span for best image brightness and contrast.
7. Set emissivity to that of the tape (usually 0.97).
8. Measure the temperature of the tape using one of the following measurement
functions:
• Isotherm (helps you to determine both the temperature and how evenly you have
heated the sample)
• Spot (simpler)
• Box Avg (good for surfaces with varying emissivity).
9. Write down the temperature.
10. Move your measurement function to the sample surface.
11. Change the emissivity setting until you read the same temperature as your previous
measurement.
12. Write down the emissivity.
Note
• Avoid forced convection
• Look for a thermally stable surrounding that will not generate spot reflections
• Use high quality tape that you know is not transparent, and has a high emissivity you
are certain of
• This method assumes that the temperature of your tape and the sample surface are
the same. If they are not, your emissivity measurement will be wrong.
17.3 Reflected apparent temperature
This parameter is used to compensate for the radiation reflected in the object. If the
emissivity is low and the object temperature relatively far from that of the reflected it will
be important to set and compensate for the reflected apparent temperature correctly.
17.4 Distance
The distance is the distance between the object and the front lens of the camera. This
parameter is used to compensate for the following two facts:
• That radiation from the target is absorbed by the atmosphere between the object and
the camera.
• That radiation from the atmosphere itself is detected by the camera.
17.5 Relative humidity
The camera can also compensate for the fact that the transmittance is also dependent
on the relative humidity of the atmosphere. To do this set the relative humidity to the correct value. For short distances and normal humidity the relative humidity can normally be
left at a default value of 50%.
17.6 Other parameters
In addition, some cameras and analysis programs from FLIR Systems allow you to compensate for the following parameters:
• Atmospheric temperature – i.e. the temperature of the atmosphere between the camera and the target

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Thermographic measurement techniques

• External optics temperature – i.e. the temperature of any external lenses or windows
used in front of the camera
• External optics transmittance – i.e. the transmission of any external lenses or windows
used in front of the camera

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History of infrared technology

Before the year 1800, the existence of the infrared portion of the electromagnetic spectrum wasn't even suspected. The original significance of the infrared spectrum, or simply
‘the infrared’ as it is often called, as a form of heat radiation is perhaps less obvious today than it was at the time of its discovery by Herschel in 1800.

Figure 18.1 Sir William Herschel (1738–1822)

The discovery was made accidentally during the search for a new optical material. Sir
William Herschel – Royal Astronomer to King George III of England, and already famous
for his discovery of the planet Uranus – was searching for an optical filter material to reduce the brightness of the sun’s image in telescopes during solar observations. While
testing different samples of colored glass which gave similar reductions in brightness he
was intrigued to find that some of the samples passed very little of the sun’s heat, while
others passed so much heat that he risked eye damage after only a few seconds’
observation.
Herschel was soon convinced of the necessity of setting up a systematic experiment,
with the objective of finding a single material that would give the desired reduction in
brightness as well as the maximum reduction in heat. He began the experiment by actually repeating Newton’s prism experiment, but looking for the heating effect rather than
the visual distribution of intensity in the spectrum. He first blackened the bulb of a sensitive mercury-in-glass thermometer with ink, and with this as his radiation detector he proceeded to test the heating effect of the various colors of the spectrum formed on the top
of a table by passing sunlight through a glass prism. Other thermometers, placed outside
the sun’s rays, served as controls.
As the blackened thermometer was moved slowly along the colors of the spectrum, the
temperature readings showed a steady increase from the violet end to the red end. This
was not entirely unexpected, since the Italian researcher, Landriani, in a similar experiment in 1777 had observed much the same effect. It was Herschel, however, who was
the first to recognize that there must be a point where the heating effect reaches a maximum, and that measurements confined to the visible portion of the spectrum failed to locate this point.

Figure 18.2 Marsilio Landriani (1746–1815)

Moving the thermometer into the dark region beyond the red end of the spectrum, Herschel confirmed that the heating continued to increase. The maximum point, when he
found it, lay well beyond the red end – in what is known today as the ‘infrared
wavelengths’.

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History of infrared technology

When Herschel revealed his discovery, he referred to this new portion of the electromagnetic spectrum as the ‘thermometrical spectrum’. The radiation itself he sometimes referred to as ‘dark heat’, or simply ‘the invisible rays’. Ironically, and contrary to popular
opinion, it wasn't Herschel who originated the term ‘infrared’. The word only began to appear in print around 75 years later, and it is still unclear who should receive credit as the
originator.
Herschel’s use of glass in the prism of his original experiment led to some early controversies with his contemporaries about the actual existence of the infrared wavelengths.
Different investigators, in attempting to confirm his work, used various types of glass indiscriminately, having different transparencies in the infrared. Through his later experiments, Herschel was aware of the limited transparency of glass to the newly-discovered
thermal radiation, and he was forced to conclude that optics for the infrared would probably be doomed to the use of reflective elements exclusively (i.e. plane and curved mirrors). Fortunately, this proved to be true only until 1830, when the Italian investigator,
Melloni, made his great discovery that naturally occurring rock salt (NaCl) – which was
available in large enough natural crystals to be made into lenses and prisms – is remarkably transparent to the infrared. The result was that rock salt became the principal infrared optical material, and remained so for the next hundred years, until the art of synthetic
crystal growing was mastered in the 1930’s.

Figure 18.3 Macedonio Melloni (1798–1854)

Thermometers, as radiation detectors, remained unchallenged until 1829, the year Nobili
invented the thermocouple. (Herschel’s own thermometer could be read to 0.2 °C
(0.036 °F), and later models were able to be read to 0.05 °C (0.09 °F)). Then a breakthrough occurred; Melloni connected a number of thermocouples in series to form the
first thermopile. The new device was at least 40 times as sensitive as the best thermometer of the day for detecting heat radiation – capable of detecting the heat from a person
standing three meters away.
The first so-called ‘heat-picture’ became possible in 1840, the result of work by Sir John
Herschel, son of the discoverer of the infrared and a famous astronomer in his own right.
Based upon the differential evaporation of a thin film of oil when exposed to a heat pattern focused upon it, the thermal image could be seen by reflected light where the interference effects of the oil film made the image visible to the eye. Sir John also managed
to obtain a primitive record of the thermal image on paper, which he called a
‘thermograph’.

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History of infrared technology

Figure 18.4 Samuel P. Langley (1834–1906)

The improvement of infrared-detector sensitivity progressed slowly. Another major breakthrough, made by Langley in 1880, was the invention of the bolometer. This consisted of
a thin blackened strip of platinum connected in one arm of a Wheatstone bridge circuit
upon which the infrared radiation was focused and to which a sensitive galvanometer responded. This instrument is said to have been able to detect the heat from a cow at a
distance of 400 meters.
An English scientist, Sir James Dewar, first introduced the use of liquefied gases as cooling agents (such as liquid nitrogen with a temperature of -196 °C (-320.8 °F)) in low temperature research. In 1892 he invented a unique vacuum insulating container in which it
is possible to store liquefied gases for entire days. The common ‘thermos bottle’, used
for storing hot and cold drinks, is based upon his invention.
Between the years 1900 and 1920, the inventors of the world ‘discovered’ the infrared.
Many patents were issued for devices to detect personnel, artillery, aircraft, ships – and
even icebergs. The first operating systems, in the modern sense, began to be developed
during the 1914–18 war, when both sides had research programs devoted to the military
exploitation of the infrared. These programs included experimental systems for enemy
intrusion/detection, remote temperature sensing, secure communications, and ‘flying torpedo’ guidance. An infrared search system tested during this period was able to detect
an approaching airplane at a distance of 1.5 km (0.94 miles), or a person more than 300
meters (984 ft.) away.
The most sensitive systems up to this time were all based upon variations of the bolometer idea, but the period between the two wars saw the development of two revolutionary
new infrared detectors: the image converter and the photon detector. At first, the image
converter received the greatest attention by the military, because it enabled an observer
for the first time in history to literally ‘see in the dark’. However, the sensitivity of the image converter was limited to the near infrared wavelengths, and the most interesting military targets (i.e. enemy soldiers) had to be illuminated by infrared search beams. Since
this involved the risk of giving away the observer’s position to a similarly-equipped enemy
observer, it is understandable that military interest in the image converter eventually
faded.
The tactical military disadvantages of so-called 'active’ (i.e. search beam-equipped) thermal imaging systems provided impetus following the 1939–45 war for extensive secret
military infrared-research programs into the possibilities of developing ‘passive’ (no
search beam) systems around the extremely sensitive photon detector. During this period, military secrecy regulations completely prevented disclosure of the status of infraredimaging technology. This secrecy only began to be lifted in the middle of the 1950’s, and
from that time adequate thermal-imaging devices finally began to be available to civilian
science and industry.

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Theory of thermography

19.1 Introduction
The subjects of infrared radiation and the related technique of thermography are still new
to many who will use an infrared camera. In this section the theory behind thermography
will be given.
19.2 The electromagnetic spectrum
The electromagnetic spectrum is divided arbitrarily into a number of wavelength regions,
called bands, distinguished by the methods used to produce and detect the radiation.
There is no fundamental difference between radiation in the different bands of the electromagnetic spectrum. They are all governed by the same laws and the only differences
are those due to differences in wavelength.

Figure 19.1 The electromagnetic spectrum. 1: X-ray; 2: UV; 3: Visible; 4: IR; 5: Microwaves; 6:
Radiowaves.

Thermography makes use of the infrared spectral band. At the short-wavelength end the
boundary lies at the limit of visual perception, in the deep red. At the long-wavelength
end it merges with the microwave radio wavelengths, in the millimeter range.
The infrared band is often further subdivided into four smaller bands, the boundaries of
which are also arbitrarily chosen. They include: the near infrared (0.75–3 μm), the middle
infrared (3–6 μm), the far infrared (6–15 μm) and the extreme infrared (15–100 μm).
Although the wavelengths are given in μm (micrometers), other units are often still used
to measure wavelength in this spectral region, e.g. nanometer (nm) and Ångström (Å).
The relationships between the different wavelength measurements is:

19.3 Blackbody radiation
A blackbody is defined as an object which absorbs all radiation that impinges on it at any
wavelength. The apparent misnomer black relating to an object emitting radiation is explained by Kirchhoff’s Law (after Gustav Robert Kirchhoff, 1824–1887), which states that
a body capable of absorbing all radiation at any wavelength is equally capable in the
emission of radiation.

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Theory of thermography

Figure 19.2 Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (1824–1887)

The construction of a blackbody source is, in principle, very simple. The radiation characteristics of an aperture in an isotherm cavity made of an opaque absorbing material represents almost exactly the properties of a blackbody. A practical application of the
principle to the construction of a perfect absorber of radiation consists of a box that is
light tight except for an aperture in one of the sides. Any radiation which then enters the
hole is scattered and absorbed by repeated reflections so only an infinitesimal fraction
can possibly escape. The blackness which is obtained at the aperture is nearly equal to
a blackbody and almost perfect for all wavelengths.
By providing such an isothermal cavity with a suitable heater it becomes what is termed
a cavity radiator. An isothermal cavity heated to a uniform temperature generates blackbody radiation, the characteristics of which are determined solely by the temperature of
the cavity. Such cavity radiators are commonly used as sources of radiation in temperature reference standards in the laboratory for calibrating thermographic instruments,
such as a FLIR Systems camera for example.
If the temperature of blackbody radiation increases to more than 525°C (977°F), the
source begins to be visible so that it appears to the eye no longer black. This is the incipient red heat temperature of the radiator, which then becomes orange or yellow as the
temperature increases further. In fact, the definition of the so-called color temperature of
an object is the temperature to which a blackbody would have to be heated to have the
same appearance.
Now consider three expressions that describe the radiation emitted from a blackbody.
19.3.1

Planck’s law

Figure 19.3 Max Planck (1858–1947)

Max Planck (1858–1947) was able to describe the spectral distribution of the radiation
from a blackbody by means of the following formula:

where:

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Theory of thermography

Wλb

Blackbody spectral radiant emittance at wavelength λ.

Velocity of light = 3 × 108 m/s

Planck’s constant = 6.6 × 10-34 Joule sec.

Boltzmann’s constant = 1.4 × 10-23 Joule/K.

Absolute temperature (K) of a blackbody.

Wavelength (μm).

Note The factor 10-6 is used since spectral emittance in the curves is expressed in
Watt/m2, μm.
Planck’s formula, when plotted graphically for various temperatures, produces a family of
curves. Following any particular Planck curve, the spectral emittance is zero at λ = 0,
then increases rapidly to a maximum at a wavelength λmax and after passing it approaches zero again at very long wavelengths. The higher the temperature, the shorter
the wavelength at which maximum occurs.

Figure 19.4 Blackbody spectral radiant emittance according to Planck’s law, plotted for various absolute
temperatures. 1: Spectral radiant emittance (W/cm2 × 103(μm)); 2: Wavelength (μm)

19.3.2

Wien’s displacement law

By differentiating Planck’s formula with respect to λ, and finding the maximum, we have:

This is Wien’s formula (after Wilhelm Wien, 1864–1928), which expresses mathematically the common observation that colors vary from red to orange or yellow as the temperature of a thermal radiator increases. The wavelength of the color is the same as the
wavelength calculated for λmax. A good approximation of the value of λmax for a given
blackbody temperature is obtained by applying the rule-of-thumb 3 000/T μm. Thus, a
very hot star such as Sirius (11 000 K), emitting bluish-white light, radiates with the peak
of spectral radiant emittance occurring within the invisible ultraviolet spectrum, at wavelength 0.27 μm.

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Theory of thermography

Figure 19.5 Wilhelm Wien (1864–1928)

The sun (approx. 6 000 K) emits yellow light, peaking at about 0.5 μm in the middle of
the visible light spectrum.
At room temperature (300 K) the peak of radiant emittance lies at 9.7 μm, in the far infrared, while at the temperature of liquid nitrogen (77 K) the maximum of the almost insignificant amount of radiant emittance occurs at 38 μm, in the extreme infrared wavelengths.

Figure 19.6 Planckian curves plotted on semi-log scales from 100 K to 1000 K. The dotted line represents
the locus of maximum radiant emittance at each temperature as described by Wien's displacement law. 1:
Spectral radiant emittance (W/cm2 (μm)); 2: Wavelength (μm).

19.3.3

Stefan-Boltzmann's law

By integrating Planck’s formula from λ = 0 to λ = ∞, we obtain the total radiant emittance
(Wb) of a blackbody:

This is the Stefan-Boltzmann formula (after Josef Stefan, 1835–1893, and Ludwig Boltzmann, 1844–1906), which states that the total emissive power of a blackbody is proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature. Graphically, Wb represents the
area below the Planck curve for a particular temperature. It can be shown that the radiant
emittance in the interval λ = 0 to λmax is only 25% of the total, which represents about the
amount of the sun’s radiation which lies inside the visible light spectrum.

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Theory of thermography

Figure 19.7 Josef Stefan (1835–1893), and Ludwig Boltzmann (1844–1906)

Using the Stefan-Boltzmann formula to calculate the power radiated by the human body,
at a temperature of 300 K and an external surface area of approx. 2 m2, we obtain 1 kW.
This power loss could not be sustained if it were not for the compensating absorption of
radiation from surrounding surfaces, at room temperatures which do not vary too drastically from the temperature of the body – or, of course, the addition of clothing.
19.3.4

Non-blackbody emitters

So far, only blackbody radiators and blackbody radiation have been discussed. However,
real objects almost never comply with these laws over an extended wavelength region –
although they may approach the blackbody behavior in certain spectral intervals. For example, a certain type of white paint may appear perfectly white in the visible light spectrum, but becomes distinctly gray at about 2 μm, and beyond 3 μm it is almost black.
There are three processes which can occur that prevent a real object from acting like a
blackbody: a fraction of the incident radiation α may be absorbed, a fraction ρ may be reflected, and a fraction τ may be transmitted. Since all of these factors are more or less
wavelength dependent, the subscript λ is used to imply the spectral dependence of their
definitions. Thus:
• The spectral absorptance αλ= the ratio of the spectral radiant power absorbed by an
object to that incident upon it.
• The spectral reflectance ρλ = the ratio of the spectral radiant power reflected by an object to that incident upon it.
• The spectral transmittance τλ = the ratio of the spectral radiant power transmitted
through an object to that incident upon it.
The sum of these three factors must always add up to the whole at any wavelength, so
we have the relation:

For opaque materials τλ = 0 and the relation simplifies to:

Another factor, called the emissivity, is required to describe the fraction ε of the radiant
emittance of a blackbody produced by an object at a specific temperature. Thus, we
have the definition:
The spectral emissivity ελ= the ratio of the spectral radiant power from an object to that
from a blackbody at the same temperature and wavelength.
Expressed mathematically, this can be written as the ratio of the spectral emittance of
the object to that of a blackbody as follows:

Generally speaking, there are three types of radiation source, distinguished by the ways
in which the spectral emittance of each varies with wavelength.
• A blackbody, for which ελ = ε = 1
• A graybody, for which ελ = ε = constant less than 1

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Theory of thermography

• A selective radiator, for which ε varies with wavelength
According to Kirchhoff’s law, for any material the spectral emissivity and spectral absorptance of a body are equal at any specified temperature and wavelength. That is:

From this we obtain, for an opaque material (since αλ + ρλ = 1):

For highly polished materials ελ approaches zero, so that for a perfectly reflecting material (i.e. a perfect mirror) we have:

For a graybody radiator, the Stefan-Boltzmann formula becomes:

This states that the total emissive power of a graybody is the same as a blackbody at the
same temperature reduced in proportion to the value of ε from the graybody.

Figure 19.8 Spectral radiant emittance of three types of radiators. 1: Spectral radiant emittance; 2: Wavelength; 3: Blackbody; 4: Selective radiator; 5: Graybody.

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Theory of thermography

Figure 19.9 Spectral emissivity of three types of radiators. 1: Spectral emissivity; 2: Wavelength; 3: Blackbody; 4: Graybody; 5: Selective radiator.

19.4 Infrared semi-transparent materials
Consider now a non-metallic, semi-transparent body – let us say, in the form of a thick flat
plate of plastic material. When the plate is heated, radiation generated within its volume
must work its way toward the surfaces through the material in which it is partially absorbed. Moreover, when it arrives at the surface, some of it is reflected back into the interior. The back-reflected radiation is again partially absorbed, but some of it arrives at the
other surface, through which most of it escapes; part of it is reflected back again.
Although the progressive reflections become weaker and weaker they must all be added
up when the total emittance of the plate is sought. When the resulting geometrical series
is summed, the effective emissivity of a semi-transparent plate is obtained as:

When the plate becomes opaque this formula is reduced to the single formula:

This last relation is a particularly convenient one, because it is often easier to measure
reflectance than to measure emissivity directly.

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The measurement formula

As already mentioned, when viewing an object, the camera receives radiation not only
from the object itself. It also collects radiation from the surroundings reflected via the object surface. Both these radiation contributions become attenuated to some extent by the
atmosphere in the measurement path. To this comes a third radiation contribution from
the atmosphere itself.
This description of the measurement situation, as illustrated in the figure below, is so far
a fairly true description of the real conditions. What has been neglected could for instance be sun light scattering in the atmosphere or stray radiation from intense radiation
sources outside the field of view. Such disturbances are difficult to quantify, however, in
most cases they are fortunately small enough to be neglected. In case they are not negligible, the measurement configuration is likely to be such that the risk for disturbance is
obvious, at least to a trained operator. It is then his responsibility to modify the measurement situation to avoid the disturbance e.g. by changing the viewing direction, shielding
off intense radiation sources etc.
Accepting the description above, we can use the figure below to derive a formula for the
calculation of the object temperature from the calibrated camera output.

Figure 20.1 A schematic representation of the general thermographic measurement situation.1: Surroundings; 2: Object; 3: Atmosphere; 4: Camera

Assume that the received radiation power W from a blackbody source of temperature
Tsource on short distance generates a camera output signal Usource that is proportional to
the power input (power linear camera). We can then write (Equation 1):

or, with simplified notation:

where C is a constant.
Should the source be a graybody with emittance ε, the received radiation would consequently be εWsource.
We are now ready to write the three collected radiation power terms:
1. Emission from the object = ετWobj, where ε is the emittance of the object and τ is the
transmittance of the atmosphere. The object temperature is Tobj.

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The measurement formula

2. Reflected emission from ambient sources = (1 – ε)τWrefl, where (1 – ε) is the reflectance of the object. The ambient sources have the temperature Trefl.
It has here been assumed that the temperature Trefl is the same for all emitting surfaces within the halfsphere seen from a point on the object surface. This is of course
sometimes a simplification of the true situation. It is, however, a necessary simplification in order to derive a workable formula, and Trefl can – at least theoretically – be given a value that represents an efficient temperature of a complex surrounding.
Note also that we have assumed that the emittance for the surroundings = 1. This is
correct in accordance with Kirchhoff’s law: All radiation impinging on the surrounding
surfaces will eventually be absorbed by the same surfaces. Thus the emittance = 1.
(Note though that the latest discussion requires the complete sphere around the object to be considered.)
3. Emission from the atmosphere = (1 – τ)τWatm, where (1 – τ) is the emittance of the atmosphere. The temperature of the atmosphere is Tatm.
The total received radiation power can now be written (Equation 2):

We multiply each term by the constant C of Equation 1 and replace the CW products by
the corresponding U according to the same equation, and get (Equation 3):

Solve Equation 3 for Uobj (Equation 4):

This is the general measurement formula used in all the FLIR Systems thermographic
equipment. The voltages of the formula are:
Table 20.1 Voltages
Uobj

Calculated camera output voltage for a blackbody of temperature
Tobj i.e. a voltage that can be directly converted into true requested
object temperature.

Utot

Measured camera output voltage for the actual case.

Urefl

Theoretical camera output voltage for a blackbody of temperature
Trefl according to the calibration.

Uatm

Theoretical camera output voltage for a blackbody of temperature
Tatm according to the calibration.

The operator has to supply a number of parameter values for the calculation:
•
•
•
•
•

the object emittance ε,
the relative humidity,
Tatm
object distance (Dobj)
the (effective) temperature of the object surroundings, or the reflected ambient temperature Trefl, and
• the temperature of the atmosphere Tatm

This task could sometimes be a heavy burden for the operator since there are normally
no easy ways to find accurate values of emittance and atmospheric transmittance for the
actual case. The two temperatures are normally less of a problem provided the surroundings do not contain large and intense radiation sources.
A natural question in this connection is: How important is it to know the right values of
these parameters? It could though be of interest to get a feeling for this problem already
here by looking into some different measurement cases and compare the relative

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The measurement formula

magnitudes of the three radiation terms. This will give indications about when it is important to use correct values of which parameters.
The figures below illustrates the relative magnitudes of the three radiation contributions
for three different object temperatures, two emittances, and two spectral ranges: SW and
LW. Remaining parameters have the following fixed values:
• τ = 0.88
• Trefl = +20°C (+68°F)
• Tatm = +20°C (+68°F)
It is obvious that measurement of low object temperatures are more critical than measuring high temperatures since the ‘disturbing’ radiation sources are relatively much stronger in the first case. Should also the object emittance be low, the situation would be still
more difficult.
We have finally to answer a question about the importance of being allowed to use the
calibration curve above the highest calibration point, what we call extrapolation. Imagine
that we in a certain case measure Utot = 4.5 volts. The highest calibration point for the
camera was in the order of 4.1 volts, a value unknown to the operator. Thus, even if the
object happened to be a blackbody, i.e. Uobj = Utot, we are actually performing extrapolation of the calibration curve when converting 4.5 volts into temperature.
Let us now assume that the object is not black, it has an emittance of 0.75, and the transmittance is 0.92. We also assume that the two second terms of Equation 4 amount to 0.5
volts together. Computation of Uobj by means of Equation 4 then results in Uobj = 4.5 /
0.75 / 0.92 – 0.5 = 6.0. This is a rather extreme extrapolation, particularly when considering that the video amplifier might limit the output to 5 volts! Note, though, that the application of the calibration curve is a theoretical procedure where no electronic or other
limitations exist. We trust that if there had been no signal limitations in the camera, and if
it had been calibrated far beyond 5 volts, the resulting curve would have been very much
the same as our real curve extrapolated beyond 4.1 volts, provided the calibration algorithm is based on radiation physics, like the FLIR Systems algorithm. Of course there
must be a limit to such extrapolations.

Figure 20.2 Relative magnitudes of radiation sources under varying measurement conditions (SW camera). 1: Object temperature; 2: Emittance; Obj: Object radiation; Refl: Reflected radiation; Atm: atmosphere radiation. Fixed parameters: τ = 0.88; Trefl = 20°C (+68°F); Tatm = 20°C (+68°F).

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The measurement formula

Figure 20.3 Relative magnitudes of radiation sources under varying measurement conditions (LW camera). 1: Object temperature; 2: Emittance; Obj: Object radiation; Refl: Reflected radiation; Atm: atmosphere radiation. Fixed parameters: τ = 0.88; Trefl = 20°C (+68°F); Tatm = 20°C (+68°F).

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Emissivity tables

This section presents a compilation of emissivity data from the infrared literature and
measurements made by FLIR Systems.
21.1 References
1. Mikaél A. Bramson: Infrared Radiation, A Handbook for Applications, Plenum press,
N.Y.
2. William L. Wolfe, George J. Zissis: The Infrared Handbook, Office of Naval Research,
Department of Navy, Washington, D.C.
3. Madding, R. P.: Thermographic Instruments and systems. Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin – Extension, Department of Engineering and Applied Science.
4. William L. Wolfe: Handbook of Military Infrared Technology, Office of Naval Research,
Department of Navy, Washington, D.C.
5. Jones, Smith, Probert: External thermography of buildings..., Proc. of the Society of
Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers, vol.110, Industrial and Civil Applications of
Infrared Technology, June 1977 London.
6. Paljak, Pettersson: Thermography of Buildings, Swedish Building Research Institute,
Stockholm 1972.
7. Vlcek, J: Determination of emissivity with imaging radiometers and some emissivities
at λ = 5 µm. Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing.
8. Kern: Evaluation of infrared emission of clouds and ground as measured by weather
satellites, Defence Documentation Center, AD 617 417.
9. Öhman, Claes: Emittansmätningar med AGEMA E-Box. Teknisk rapport, AGEMA
1999. (Emittance measurements using AGEMA E-Box. Technical report, AGEMA
1999.)
10. Matteï, S., Tang-Kwor, E: Emissivity measurements for Nextel Velvet coating 811-21
between –36°C AND 82°C.
11. Lohrengel & Todtenhaupt (1996)
12. ITC Technical publication 32.
13. ITC Technical publication 29.
Note The emissivity values in the table below are recorded using a shortwave (SW)
camera. The values should be regarded as recommendations only and used with
caution.
21.2 Tables
Table 21.1 T: Total spectrum; SW: 2–5 µm; LW: 8–14 µm, LLW: 6.5–20 µm; 1: Material; 2: Specification;
3:Temperature in °C; 4: Spectrum; 5: Emissivity: 6:Reference
1

3M type 35

Vinyl electrical
tape (several
colors)

< 80

≈ 0.96

3M type 88

Black vinyl electrical tape

< 105

≈ 0.96

3M type 88

Black vinyl electrical tape

< 105

< 0.96

3M type Super 33
+

Black vinyl electrical tape

< 80

≈ 0.96

Aluminum

anodized sheet

100

0.55

Aluminum

anodized, black,
dull

0.67

Aluminum

anodized, black,
dull

0.95

Aluminum

anodized, light
gray, dull

0.61

Aluminum

anodized, light
gray, dull

0.97

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Emissivity tables

Table 21.1 T: Total spectrum; SW: 2–5 µm; LW: 8–14 µm, LLW: 6.5–20 µm; 1: Material; 2: Specification;
3:Temperature in °C; 4: Spectrum; 5: Emissivity: 6:Reference (continued)
1

Aluminum

as received, plate

100

0.09

Aluminum

as received,
sheet

100

0.09

Aluminum

cast, blast
cleaned

0.47

Aluminum

cast, blast
cleaned

0.46

Aluminum

dipped in HNO3,
plate

100

0.05

Aluminum

foil

10 µm

0.04

Aluminum

foil

3 µm

0.09

Aluminum

oxidized, strongly

50–500

0.2–0.3

Aluminum

polished

50–100

0.04–0.06

Aluminum

polished plate

100

0.05

Aluminum

polished, sheet

100

0.05

Aluminum

rough surface

20–50

0.06–0.07

Aluminum

roughened

10 µm

0.18

Aluminum

roughened

3 µm

0.28

Aluminum

sheet, 4 samples
differently
scratched

0.05–0.08

Aluminum

sheet, 4 samples
differently
scratched

0.03–0.06

Aluminum

vacuum
deposited

0.04

Aluminum

weathered,
heavily

0.83–0.94

0.60

Aluminum bronze
Aluminum
hydroxide

powder

0.28

Aluminum oxide

activated, powder

0.46

Aluminum oxide

pure, powder
(alumina)

0.16

Asbestos

board

0.96

Asbestos

fabric

0.78

Asbestos

floor tile

0.94

Asbestos

paper

40–400

0.93–0.95

Asbestos

powder

0.40–0.60

Asbestos

slate

0.96

LLW

0.967

Asphalt paving

Brass

dull, tarnished

20–350

0.22

Brass

oxidized

100

0.61

Brass

oxidized

0.04–0.09

Brass

oxidized

0.03–0.07

Brass

oxidized at 600°C

200–600

0.59–0.61

Brass

polished

200

0.03

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Emissivity tables

Table 21.1 T: Total spectrum; SW: 2–5 µm; LW: 8–14 µm, LLW: 6.5–20 µm; 1: Material; 2: Specification;
3:Temperature in °C; 4: Spectrum; 5: Emissivity: 6:Reference (continued)
1

Brass

polished, highly

100

0.03

Brass

rubbed with 80grit emery

0.20

Brass

sheet, rolled

0.06

Brass

sheet, worked
with emery

0.2

Brick

alumina

0.68

Brick

common

0.86–0.81

Brick

Dinas silica,
glazed, rough

1100

0.85

Brick

Dinas silica,
refractory

1000

0.66

Brick

Dinas silica, unglazed, rough

1000

0.80

Brick

firebrick

0.68

Brick

fireclay

1000

0.75

Brick

fireclay

1200

0.59

Brick

fireclay

0.85

Brick

masonry

0.94

Brick

masonry,
plastered

0.94

Brick

red, common

0.93

Brick

red, rough

0.88–0.93

Brick

refractory,
corundum

1000

0.46

Brick

refractory,
magnesite

1000–1300

0.38

Brick

refractory,
strongly radiating

500–1000

0.8–0.9

Brick

refractory, weakly
radiating

500–1000

0.65–0.75

Brick

silica, 95% SiO2

1230

0.66

Brick

sillimanite, 33%
SiO2, 64% Al2O3

1500

0.29

Brick

waterproof

0.87

Bronze

phosphor bronze

0.08

Bronze

phosphor bronze

0.06

Bronze

polished

0.1

Bronze

porous, rough

50–150

0.55

Bronze

powder

0.76–0.80

Carbon

candle soot

0.95

Carbon

charcoal powder

0.96

Carbon

graphite powder

0.97

Carbon

graphite, filed
surface

0.98

Carbon

lampblack

20–400

0.95–0.97

Chipboard

untreated

0.90

#T559733; r. AA/30822/30822; en-US

Emissivity tables

Table 21.1 T: Total spectrum; SW: 2–5 µm; LW: 8–14 µm, LLW: 6.5–20 µm; 1: Material; 2: Specification;
3:Temperature in °C; 4: Spectrum; 5: Emissivity: 6:Reference (continued)
1

Chromium

polished

0.10

Chromium

polished

500–1000

0.28–0.38

Clay

fired

0.91

Cloth

black

0.98

0.92

Concrete
Concrete

dry

0.95

Concrete

rough

0.97

Concrete

walkway

LLW

0.974

Copper

commercial,
burnished

0.07

Copper

electrolytic, carefully polished

0.018

Copper

electrolytic,
polished

–34

0.006

Copper

molten

1100–1300

0.13–0.15

Copper

oxidized

0.6–0.7

Copper

oxidized to
blackness

0.88

Copper

oxidized, black

0.78

Copper

oxidized, heavily

0.78

Copper

polished

50–100

0.02

Copper

polished

100

0.03

Copper

polished,
commercial

0.03

Copper

polished,
mechanical

0.015

Copper

pure, carefully
prepared surface

0.008

Copper

scraped

0.07

Copper dioxide

powder

0.84

Copper oxide

red, powder

0.70

Ebonite
Emery

coarse

Enamel

0.89

0.85

0.9

Enamel

lacquer

0.85–0.95

Fiber board

hard, untreated

0.85

Fiber board

masonite

0.75

Fiber board

masonite

0.88

Fiber board

particle board

0.77

Fiber board

particle board

0.89

Fiber board

porous, untreated

0.85

Gold

polished

130

0.018

Gold

polished, carefully

200–600

0.02–0.03

Gold

polished, highly

100

0.02

Granite

polished

LLW

0.849

#T559733; r. AA/30822/30822; en-US

Emissivity tables

Table 21.1 T: Total spectrum; SW: 2–5 µm; LW: 8–14 µm, LLW: 6.5–20 µm; 1: Material; 2: Specification;
3:Temperature in °C; 4: Spectrum; 5: Emissivity: 6:Reference (continued)
1

Granite

rough

LLW

0.879

Granite

rough, 4 different
samples

0.95–0.97

Granite

rough, 4 different
samples

0.77–0.87

0.8–0.9

Gypsum
Ice: See Water
Iron and steel

cold rolled

0.20

Iron and steel

cold rolled

0.09

Iron and steel

covered with red
rust

0.61–0.85

Iron and steel

electrolytic

100

0.05

Iron and steel

electrolytic

0.05

Iron and steel

electrolytic

260

0.07

Iron and steel

electrolytic, carefully polished

175–225

0.05–0.06

Iron and steel

freshly worked
with emery

0.24

Iron and steel

ground sheet

950–1100

0.55–0.61

Iron and steel

heavily rusted
sheet

0.69

Iron and steel

hot rolled

130

0.60

Iron and steel

hot rolled

0.77

Iron and steel

oxidized

100

0.74

Iron and steel

oxidized

100

0.74

Iron and steel

oxidized

1227

0.89

Iron and steel

oxidized

125–525

0.78–0.82

Iron and steel

oxidized

200

0.79

Iron and steel

oxidized

200–600

0.80

Iron and steel

oxidized strongly

0.88

Iron and steel

oxidized strongly

500

0.98

Iron and steel

polished

100

0.07

Iron and steel

polished

400–1000

0.14–0.38

Iron and steel

polished sheet

750–1050

0.52–0.56

Iron and steel

rolled sheet

0.56

Iron and steel

rolled, freshly

0.24

Iron and steel

rough, plane
surface

0.95–0.98

Iron and steel

rusted red, sheet

0.69

Iron and steel

rusted, heavily

0.96

Iron and steel

rusty, red

0.69

Iron and steel

shiny oxide layer,
sheet,

0.82

Iron and steel

shiny, etched

150

0.16

Iron and steel

wrought, carefully
polished

40–250

0.28

#T559733; r. AA/30822/30822; en-US

Emissivity tables

Table 21.1 T: Total spectrum; SW: 2–5 µm; LW: 8–14 µm, LLW: 6.5–20 µm; 1: Material; 2: Specification;
3:Temperature in °C; 4: Spectrum; 5: Emissivity: 6:Reference (continued)
1

Iron galvanized

heavily oxidized

0.64

Iron galvanized

heavily oxidized

0.85

Iron galvanized

sheet

0.07

Iron galvanized

sheet, burnished

0.23

Iron galvanized

sheet, oxidized

0.28

Iron tinned

sheet

0.064

Iron, cast

casting

0.81

Iron, cast

ingots

1000

0.95

Iron, cast

liquid

1300

0.28

Iron, cast

machined

800–1000

0.60–0.70

Iron, cast

oxidized

100

0.64

Iron, cast

oxidized

260

0.66

Iron, cast

oxidized

0.63

Iron, cast

oxidized

538

0.76

Iron, cast

oxidized at 600°C

200–600

0.64–0.78

Iron, cast

polished

200

0.21

Iron, cast

polished

0.21

Iron, cast

polished

0.21

Iron, cast

unworked

900–1100

0.87–0.95

Krylon Ultra-flat
black 1602

Flat black

Room temperature up to 175

≈ 0.96

Krylon Ultra-flat
black 1602

Flat black

Room temperature up to 175

≈ 0.97

Lacquer

3 colors sprayed
on Aluminum

0.50–0.53

Lacquer

3 colors sprayed
on Aluminum

0.92–0.94

Lacquer

Aluminum on
rough surface

0.4

Lacquer

bakelite

0.83

Lacquer

black, dull

40–100

0.96–0.98

Lacquer

black, matte

100

0.97

Lacquer

black, shiny,
sprayed on iron

0.87

Lacquer

heat–resistant

100

0.92

Lacquer

white

100

0.92

Lacquer

white

40–100

0.8–0.95

Lead

oxidized at 200°C

200

0.63

Lead

oxidized, gray

0.28

Lead

oxidized, gray

0.28

Lead

shiny

250

0.08

Lead

unoxidized,
polished

100

0.05

Lead red

100

0.93

Lead red, powder

100

0.93

#T559733; r. AA/30822/30822; en-US

Emissivity tables

Table 21.1 T: Total spectrum; SW: 2–5 µm; LW: 8–14 µm, LLW: 6.5–20 µm; 1: Material; 2: Specification;
3:Temperature in °C; 4: Spectrum; 5: Emissivity: 6:Reference (continued)
1

Leather

tanned

Lime

0.75–0.80

0.3–0.4

Magnesium

0.07

Magnesium

260

0.13

Magnesium

538

0.18

0.07

0.86

Magnesium

polished

Magnesium
powder
Molybdenum

1500–2200

0.19–0.26

Molybdenum

600–1000

0.08–0.13

700–2500

0.1–0.3

Molybdenum

filament

0.87

Mortar

dry

0.94

Nextel Velvet
811-21 Black

Flat black

–60–150

> 0.97

10 and
11

Nichrome

rolled

700

0.25

Nichrome

sandblasted

700

0.70

Nichrome

wire, clean

0.65

Nichrome

wire, clean

500–1000

0.71–0.79

Nichrome

wire, oxidized

50–500

0.95–0.98

Nickel

bright matte

122

0.041

Nickel

commercially
pure, polished

100

0.045

Nickel

commercially
pure, polished

200–400

0.07–0.09

Nickel

electrolytic

0.04

Nickel

electrolytic

260

0.07

Nickel

electrolytic

0.06

Nickel

electrolytic

538

0.10

Nickel

electroplated on
iron, polished

0.045

Nickel

electroplated on
iron, unpolished

0.11–0.40

Nickel

electroplated on
iron, unpolished

0.11

Nickel

electroplated,
polished

0.05

Nickel

oxidized

1227

0.85

Nickel

oxidized

200

0.37

Nickel

oxidized

227

0.37

Nickel

oxidized at 600°C

200–600

0.37–0.48

Nickel

polished

122

0.045

Nickel

wire

Mortar

200–1000

0.1–0.2

Nickel oxide

1000–1250

0.75–0.86

Nickel oxide

500–650

0.52–0.59

0.27

Oil, lubricating

0.025 mm film

#T559733; r. AA/30822/30822; en-US

Emissivity tables

Table 21.1 T: Total spectrum; SW: 2–5 µm; LW: 8–14 µm, LLW: 6.5–20 µm; 1: Material; 2: Specification;
3:Temperature in °C; 4: Spectrum; 5: Emissivity: 6:Reference (continued)
1

Oil, lubricating

0.050 mm film

0.46

Oil, lubricating

0.125 mm film

0.72

Oil, lubricating

film on Ni base:
Ni base only

0.05

Oil, lubricating

thick coating

0.82

Paint

8 different colors
and qualities

0.88–0.96

Paint

8 different colors
and qualities

0.92–0.94

Paint

Aluminum, various ages

50–100

0.27–0.67

Paint

cadmium yellow

0.28–0.33

Paint

chrome green

0.65–0.70

Paint

cobalt blue

0.7–0.8

Paint

oil

0.87

Paint

oil based, average of 16 colors

100

0.94

Paint

oil, black flat

0.94

Paint

oil, black gloss

0.92

Paint

oil, gray flat

0.97

Paint

oil, gray gloss

0.96

Paint

oil, various colors

100

0.92–0.96

Paint

plastic, black

0.95

6
6

Paint

plastic, white

0.84

Paper

4 different colors

0.68–0.74

Paper

4 different colors

0.92–0.94

Paper

black

0.90

Paper

black, dull

0.94

Paper

black, dull

0.86

Paper

black, dull

0.89

Paper

blue, dark

0.84

Paper

coated with black
lacquer

0.93

Paper

green

0.85

Paper

red

0.76

Paper

white

0.7–0.9

Paper

white bond

0.93

Paper

white, 3 different
glosses

0.76–0.78

Paper

white, 3 different
glosses

0.88–0.90

Paper

yellow

0.72

0.86

0.90

Plaster
Plaster

plasterboard,
untreated

#T559733; r. AA/30822/30822; en-US

Emissivity tables

Table 21.1 T: Total spectrum; SW: 2–5 µm; LW: 8–14 µm, LLW: 6.5–20 µm; 1: Material; 2: Specification;
3:Temperature in °C; 4: Spectrum; 5: Emissivity: 6:Reference (continued)
1

Plaster

rough coat

0.91

Plastic

glass fibre laminate (printed circ.
board)

0.94

Plastic

glass fibre laminate (printed circ.
board)

0.91

Plastic

polyurethane isolation board

0.55

Plastic

polyurethane isolation board

0.29

Plastic

PVC, plastic floor,
dull, structured

0.94

Plastic

PVC, plastic floor,
dull, structured

0.93

Platinum

100

0.05

Platinum

1000–1500

0.14–0.18

Platinum

1094

0.18

Platinum

0.016

Platinum

0.03

Platinum

260

0.06

Platinum

538

0.10

Platinum

pure, polished

200–600

0.05–0.10

Platinum

ribbon

900–1100

0.12–0.17

Platinum

wire

1400

0.18

Platinum

wire

500–1000

0.10–0.16

Platinum

wire

50–200

0.06–0.07

Porcelain

glazed

0.92

Porcelain

white, shiny

0.70–0.75

Rubber

hard

0.95

Rubber

soft, gray, rough

0.95

0.60

Sand
20

0.90

Sandstone

polished

LLW

0.909

Sandstone

rough

LLW

0.935

Silver

polished

100

0.03

Silver

pure, polished

200–600

0.02–0.03

Skin

human

0.98

Slag

boiler

0–100

0.97–0.93

Slag

boiler

1400–1800

0.69–0.67

Slag

boiler

200–500

0.89–0.78

Slag

boiler

600–1200

0.76–0.70

Soil

dry

0.92

Soil

saturated with
water

0.95

Sand

Snow: See Water

#T559733; r. AA/30822/30822; en-US

Emissivity tables

Table 21.1 T: Total spectrum; SW: 2–5 µm; LW: 8–14 µm, LLW: 6.5–20 µm; 1: Material; 2: Specification;
3:Temperature in °C; 4: Spectrum; 5: Emissivity: 6:Reference (continued)
1

Stainless steel

alloy, 8% Ni, 18%
Cr

500

0.35

Stainless steel

rolled

700

0.45

Stainless steel

sandblasted

700

0.70

Stainless steel

sheet, polished

0.18

Stainless steel

sheet, polished

0.14

Stainless steel

sheet, untreated,
somewhat
scratched

0.30

Stainless steel

sheet, untreated,
somewhat
scratched

0.28

Stainless steel

type 18-8, buffed

0.16

Stainless steel

type 18-8, oxidized at 800°C

0.85

Stucco

rough, lime

10–90

0.91

Styrofoam

insulation

0.60

0.79–0.84

Tar
Tar

paper

0.91–0.93

Tile

glazed

0.94

Tin

burnished

20–50

0.04–0.06

Tin

tin–plated sheet
iron

100

0.07

Titanium

oxidized at 540°C

1000

0.60

Titanium

oxidized at 540°C

200

0.40

Titanium

oxidized at 540°C

500

0.50

Titanium

polished

1000

0.36

Titanium

polished

200

0.15

Titanium

polished

500

0.20

Tungsten

1500–2200

0.24–0.31

Tungsten

200

0.05

Tungsten

600–1000

0.1–0.16

Tungsten

filament

3300

0.39

Varnish

flat

0.93

Varnish

on oak parquet
floor

0.90

Varnish

on oak parquet
floor

0.90–0.93

Wallpaper

slight pattern,
light gray

0.85

Wallpaper

slight pattern, red

0.90

Water

distilled

0.96

Water

frost crystals

–10

0.98

Water

ice, covered with
heavy frost

0.98

Water

ice, smooth

0.97

Water

ice, smooth

–10

0.96

#T559733; r. AA/30822/30822; en-US

Emissivity tables

Table 21.1 T: Total spectrum; SW: 2–5 µm; LW: 8–14 µm, LLW: 6.5–20 µm; 1: Material; 2: Specification;
3:Temperature in °C; 4: Spectrum; 5: Emissivity: 6:Reference (continued)
1

Water

layer >0.1 mm
thick

0–100

0.95–0.98

Water

snow

0.8

Water

snow

–10

0.85

0.98

LLW

0.962

0.5–0.7

Wood
Wood
Wood

ground

Wood

pine, 4 different
samples

0.67–0.75

Wood

pine, 4 different
samples

0.81–0.89

Wood

planed

0.8–0.9

Wood

planed oak

0.90

Wood

planed oak

0.77

Wood

planed oak

0.88

Wood

plywood, smooth,
dry

0.82

Wood

plywood,
untreated

0.83

Wood

white, damp

0.7–0.8

Zinc

oxidized at 400°C

400

0.11

Zinc

oxidized surface

1000–1200

0.50–0.60

Zinc

polished

200–300

0.04–0.05

Zinc

sheet

0.20

#T559733; r. AA/30822/30822; en-US

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T505469.xml; en-US; 23215; 2015-02-19
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#T559733; r. AA/30822/30822; en-US

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