PMBOK® Guide 5th Edition(EN)

User Manual: Pdf

Open the PDF directly: View PDF .
Page Count: 616

Download
Open PDF In Browser	View PDF

Project Management Institute

A Guide to the Project
Management Body of Knowledge
(PMBOK® Guide) – Fifth Edition

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A guide to the project management body of knowledge (PMBOK® guide). -- Fifth edition.
pages cm
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-935589-67-9 (pbk. : alk. paper)
1. Project management. I. Project Management Institute. II. Title: PMBOK guide.
HD69.P75G845 2013
658.4’04--dc23
2012046112

ISBN: 978-1-935589-67-9
Published by:
Project Management Institute, Inc.
14 Campus Boulevard
Newtown Square, Pennsylvania 19073-3299 USA
Phone: +610-356-4600
Fax: +610-356-4647
Email: customercare@pmi.org
Internet: www.PMI.org
©2013 Project Management Institute, Inc. All rights reserved.
“PMI”, the PMI logo, “PMP”, the PMP logo, “PMBOK”, “PgMP”, “Project Management Journal”, “PM Network”, and the PMI
Today logo are registered marks of Project Management Institute, Inc. The Quarter Globe Design is a trademark of the Project
Management Institute, Inc. For a comprehensive list of PMI marks, contact the PMI Legal Department.
PMI Publications welcomes corrections and comments on its books. Please feel free to send comments on typographical,
formatting, or other errors. Simply make a copy of the relevant page of the book, mark the error, and send it to: Book Editor,
PMI Publications, 14 Campus Boulevard, Newtown Square, PA 19073-3299 USA.
To inquire about discounts for resale or educational purposes, please contact the PMI Book Service Center.
PMI Book Service Center
P.O. Box 932683, Atlanta, GA 31193-2683 USA
Phone: 1-866-276-4764 (within the U.S. or Canada) or +1-770-280-4129 (globally)
Fax: +1-770-280-4113
Email: info@bookorders.pmi.org
Printed in the United States of America. No part of this work may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic, manual, photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without prior written permission
of the publisher.
The paper used in this book complies with the Permanent Paper Standard issued by the National Information Standards
Organization (Z39.48—1984).
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Notice
The Project Management Institute, Inc. (PMI) standards and guideline publications, of which the document
contained herein is one, are developed through a voluntary consensus standards development process. This process
brings together volunteers and/or seeks out the views of persons who have an interest in the topic covered by this
publication. While PMI administers the process and establishes rules to promote fairness in the development of
consensus, it does not write the document and it does not independently test, evaluate, or verify the accuracy
or completeness of any information or the soundness of any judgments contained in its standards and guideline
publications.
PMI disclaims liability for any personal injury, property or other damages of any nature whatsoever, whether
special, indirect, consequential or compensatory, directly or indirectly resulting from the publication, use of
application, or reliance on this document. PMI disclaims and makes no guaranty or warranty, expressed or implied,
as to the accuracy or completeness of any information published herein, and disclaims and makes no warranty that
the information in this document will fulfill any of your particular purposes or needs. PMI does not undertake to
guarantee the performance of any individual manufacturer or seller’s products or services by virtue of this standard
or guide.
In publishing and making this document available, PMI is not undertaking to render professional or other
services for or on behalf of any person or entity, nor is PMI undertaking to perform any duty owed by any person
or entity to someone else. Anyone using this document should rely on his or her own independent judgment or,
as appropriate, seek the advice of a competent professional in determining the exercise of reasonable care in
any given circumstances. Information and other standards on the topic covered by this publication may be
available from other sources, which the user may wish to consult for additional views or information not covered
by this publication.
PMI has no power, nor does it undertake to police or enforce compliance with the contents of this document. PMI
does not certify, test, or inspect products, designs, or installations for safety or health purposes. Any certification
or other statement of compliance with any health or safety-related information in this document shall not be
attributable to PMI and is solely the responsibility of the certifier or maker of the statement.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Table of Contents
1. Introduction...................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Purpose of the PMBOK® Guide................................................................................. 2
1.2 What is a Project?....................................................................................................... 3
1.2.1. The Relationships Among Portfolios, Programs, and Projects..................... 4
1.3 What is Project Management?.................................................................................... 5
1.4 Relationships Among Portfolio Management, Program Management, Project
Management, and Organizational Project Management............................................ 7
1.4.1 Program Management.................................................................................... 9
1.4.2 Portfolio Management..................................................................................... 9
1.4.3 Projects and Strategic Planning................................................................... 10
1.4.4 Project Management Office.......................................................................... 10
1.5 Relationship Between Project Management, Operations Management, and
Organizational Strategy............................................................................................. 12
1.5.1 Operations and Project Management........................................................... 12
1.5.2 Organizations and Project Management...................................................... 14
1.6 Business Value.......................................................................................................... 15
1.7 Role of the Project Manager...................................................................................... 16
1.7.1 Responsibilities and Competencies of the Project Manager....................... 17
1.7.2 Interpersonal Skills of a Project Manager.................................................... 17
1.8 Project Management Body of Knowledge................................................................ 18
2. ORGANIZATIONAL INFLUENCES AND PROJECT LIFE CYCLE............................................... 19
2.1 Organizational Influences on Project Management................................................. 20
2.1.1 Organizational Cultures and Styles.............................................................. 20
2.1.2 Organizational Communications.................................................................. 21
2.1.3 Organizational Structures............................................................................. 21
2.1.4 Organizational Process Assets..................................................................... 27
2.1.5 Enterprise Environmental Factors................................................................ 29

TABLE OF CONTENTS

2.2 Project Stakeholders and Governance..................................................................... 30
2.2.1 Project Stakeholders..................................................................................... 30
2.2.2 Project Governance....................................................................................... 34
2.2.3 Project Success............................................................................................. 35
2.3 Project Team.............................................................................................................. 35
2.3.1 Composition of Project Teams...................................................................... 37
2.4 Project Life Cycle....................................................................................................... 38
2.4.1 Characteristics of the Project Life Cycle...................................................... 38
2.4.2 Project Phases............................................................................................... 41
3. PROJECT MANAGEMENT PROCESSES................................................................................ 47
3.1 Common Project Management Process Interactions............................................... 50
3.2 Project Management Process Groups...................................................................... 52
3.3 Initiating Process Group............................................................................................ 54
3.4 Planning Process Group............................................................................................ 55
3.5 Executing Process Group.......................................................................................... 56
3.6 Monitoring and Controlling Process Group.............................................................. 57
3.7 Closing Process Group.............................................................................................. 57
3.8 Project Information.................................................................................................... 58
3.9 Role of the Knowledge Areas.................................................................................... 60
4. PROJECT INTEGRATION MANAGEMENT.............................................................................. 63
4.1 Develop Project Charter............................................................................................ 66
4.1.1 Develop Project Charter: Inputs.................................................................... 68
4.1.2 Develop Project Charter: Tools and Techniques........................................... 71
4.1.3 Develop Project Charter: Outputs................................................................. 71
4.2 Develop Project Management Plan........................................................................... 72
4.2.1 Develop Project Management Plan: Inputs.................................................. 74
4.2.2 Develop Project Management Plan: Tools and Techniques......................... 76
4.2.3 Develop Project Management Plan: Outputs................................................ 76

TABLE OF CONTENTS

4.3 Direct and Manage Project Work.............................................................................. 79
4.3.1 Direct and Manage Project Work: Inputs..................................................... 82
4.3.2 Direct and Manage Project Work: Tools and Techniques............................ 83
4.3.3 Direct and Manage Project Work: Outputs................................................... 84
4.4 Monitor and Control Project Work............................................................................ 86
4.4.1 Monitor and Control Project Work: Inputs.................................................... 88
4.4.2 Monitor and Control Project Work: Tools and Techniques........................... 91
4.4.3 Monitor and Control Project Work: Outputs................................................. 92
4.5 Perform Integrated Change Control.......................................................................... 94
4.5.1 Perform Integrated Change Control: Inputs................................................. 97
4.5.2 Perform Integrated Change Control: Tools and Techniques........................ 98
4.5.3 Perform Integrated Change Control: Outputs............................................... 99
4.6 Close Project or Phase............................................................................................ 100
4.6.1 Close Project or Phase: Inputs.................................................................... 102
4.6.2 Close Project or Phase: Tools and Techniques........................................... 102
4.6.3 Close Project or Phase: Outputs................................................................. 103
5. PROJECT SCOPE MANAGEMENT....................................................................................... 105
5.1 Plan Scope Management......................................................................................... 107
5.1.1 Plan Scope Management: Inputs................................................................ 108
5.1.2 Plan Scope Management: Tools and Techniques....................................... 109
5.1.3 Plan Scope Management: Outputs............................................................. 109
5.2 Collect Requirements.............................................................................................. 110
5.2.1 Collect Requirements: Inputs..................................................................... 113
5.2.2 Collect Requirements: Tools and Techniques............................................ 114
5.2.3 Collect Requirements: Outputs................................................................... 117
5.3 Define Scope............................................................................................................ 120
5.3.1 Define Scope: Inputs................................................................................... 121
5.3.2 Define Scope: Tools and Techniques.......................................................... 122
5.3.3 Define Scope: Outputs................................................................................. 123

III

TABLE OF CONTENTS

5.4 Create WBS.............................................................................................................. 125
5.4.1 Create WBS: Inputs..................................................................................... 127
5.4.2 Create WBS: Tools and Techniques............................................................ 128
5.4.3 Create WBS: Outputs................................................................................... 131
5.5 Validate Scope......................................................................................................... 133
5.5.1 Validate Scope: Inputs................................................................................ 134
5.5.2 Validate Scope: Tools and Techniques....................................................... 135
5.5.3 Validate Scope: Outputs.............................................................................. 135
5.6 Control Scope.......................................................................................................... 136
5.6.1 Control Scope: Inputs.................................................................................. 138
5.6.2 Control Scope: Tools and Techniques......................................................... 139
5.6.3 Control Scope: Outputs............................................................................... 139
6. PROJECT TIME MANAGEMENT.......................................................................................... 141
6.1 Plan Schedule Management.................................................................................. 145
6.1.1 Plan Schedule Management: Inputs........................................................... 146
6.1.2 Plan Schedule Management: Tools and Techniques.................................. 147
6.1.3 Plan Schedule Management: Outputs........................................................ 148
6.2 Define Activities....................................................................................................... 149
6.2.1 Define Activities: Inputs.............................................................................. 150
6.2.2 Define Activities: Tools and Techniques..................................................... 151
6.2.3 Define Activities: Outputs........................................................................... 152
6.3 Sequence Activities................................................................................................. 153
6.3.1 Sequence Activities: Inputs........................................................................ 154
6.3.2 Sequence Activities: Tools and Techniques............................................... 156
6.3.3 Sequence Activities: Outputs...................................................................... 159
6.4 Estimate Activity Resources................................................................................... 160
6.4.1 Estimate Activity Resources: Inputs........................................................... 162
6.4.2 Estimate Activity Resources: Tools and Techniques.................................. 164
6.4.3 Estimate Activity Resources: Outputs........................................................ 165

TABLE OF CONTENTS

6.5 Estimate Activity Durations..................................................................................... 165
6.5.1 Estimate Activity Durations: Inputs............................................................ 167
6.5.2 Estimate Activity Durations: Tools and Techniques................................... 169
6.5.3 Estimate Activity Durations: Outputs......................................................... 172
6.6 Develop Schedule.................................................................................................... 172
6.6.1 Develop Schedule: Inputs........................................................................... 174
6.6.2 Develop Schedule: Tools and Techniques.................................................. 176
6.6.3 Develop Schedule: Outputs......................................................................... 181
6.7 Control Schedule..................................................................................................... 185
6.7.1 Control Schedule: Inputs............................................................................. 187
6.7.2 Control Schedule: Tools and Techniques.................................................... 188
6.7.3 Control Schedule: Outputs.......................................................................... 190
7. PROJECT COST MANAGEMENT......................................................................................... 193
7.1 Plan Cost Management........................................................................................... 195
7.1.1 Plan Cost Management: Inputs................................................................... 196
7.1.2 Plan Cost Management: Tools and Techniques.......................................... 198
7.1.3 Plan Cost Management: Outputs................................................................ 198
7.2 Estimate Costs......................................................................................................... 200
7.2.1 Estimate Costs: Inputs................................................................................ 202
7.2.2 Estimate Costs: Tools and Techniques....................................................... 204
7.2.3 Estimate Costs: Outputs.............................................................................. 207
7.3 Determine Budget.................................................................................................... 208
7.3.1 Determine Budget: Inputs........................................................................... 209
7.3.2 Determine Budget: Tools and Techniques.................................................. 211
7.3.3 Determine Budget: Outputs........................................................................ 212
7.4 Control Costs........................................................................................................... 215
7.4.1 Control Costs: Inputs................................................................................... 216
7.4.2 Control Costs: Tools and Techniques.......................................................... 217
7.4.3 Control Costs: Outputs................................................................................ 225

TABLE OF CONTENTS

8. PROJECT QUALITY MANAGEMENT.................................................................................... 227
8.1 Plan Quality Management....................................................................................... 231
8.1.1 Plan Quality Management: Inputs.............................................................. 233
8.1.2 Plan Quality Management: Tools and Techniques..................................... 235
8.1.3 Plan Quality Management: Outputs............................................................ 241
8.2 Perform Quality Assurance..................................................................................... 242
8.2.1 Perform Quality Assurance: Inputs............................................................. 244
8.2.2 Perform Quality Assurance: Tools and Techniques.................................... 245
8.2.3 Perform Quality Assurance: Outputs.......................................................... 247
8.3 Control Quality......................................................................................................... 248
8.3.1 Control Quality: Inputs................................................................................ 250
8.3.2 Control Quality: Tools and Techniques....................................................... 252
8.3.3 Control Quality: Outputs.............................................................................. 252
9. PROJECT HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT................................................................... 255
9.1 Plan Human Resource Management....................................................................... 258
9.1.1 Plan Human Resource Management: Inputs.............................................. 259
9.1.2 Plan Human Resource Management: Tools and Techniques..................... 261
9.1.3 Plan Human Resource Management: Outputs........................................... 264
9.2 Acquire Project Team.............................................................................................. 267
9.2.1 Acquire Project Team: Inputs...................................................................... 269
9.2.2 Acquire Project Team: Tools and Techniques............................................. 270
9.2.3 Acquire Project Team: Outputs................................................................... 272
9.3 Develop Project Team.............................................................................................. 273
9.3.1 Develop Project Team: Inputs..................................................................... 274
9.3.2 Develop Project Team: Tools and Techniques............................................ 275
9.3.3 Develop Project Team: Outputs................................................................... 278
9.4 Manage Project Team.............................................................................................. 279
9.4.1 Manage Project Team: Inputs..................................................................... 281
9.4.2 Manage Project Team: Tools and Techniques............................................ 282
9.4.3 Manage Project Team: Outputs................................................................... 284

TABLE OF CONTENTS

10. PROJECT COMMUNICATIONS MANAGEMENT................................................................. 287
10.1 Plan Communications Management..................................................................... 289
10.1.1 Plan Communications Management: Inputs............................................ 290
10.1.2 Plan Communications Management: Tools and Techniques................... 291
10.1.3 Plan Communications Management: Outputs..........................................296
10.2 Manage Communications..................................................................................... 297
10.2.1 Manage Communications: Inputs............................................................. 299
10.2.2 Manage Communications: Tools and Techniques.................................... 300
10.2.3 Manage Communications: Outputs.......................................................... 301
10.3 Control Communications....................................................................................... 303
10.3.1 Control Communications: Inputs.............................................................. 304
10.3.2 Control Communications: Tools and Techniques..................................... 306
10.3.3 Control Communications: Outputs............................................................ 307
11. PROJECT RISK MANAGEMENT........................................................................................ 309
11.1 Plan Risk Management......................................................................................... 313
11.1.1 Plan Risk Management: Inputs................................................................. 314
11.1.2 Plan Risk Management: Tools and Techniques........................................ 315
11.1.3 Plan Risk Management: Outputs.............................................................. 316
11.2 Identify Risks......................................................................................................... 319
11.2.1 Identify Risks: Inputs................................................................................ 321
11.2.2 Identify Risks: Tools and Techniques....................................................... 324
11.2.3 Identify Risks: Outputs.............................................................................. 327
11.3 Perform Qualitative Risk Analysis........................................................................ 328
11.3.1 Perform Qualitative Risk Analysis: Inputs................................................ 329
11.3.2 Perform Qualitative Risk Analysis: Tools and Techniques....................... 330
11.3.3 Perform Qualitative Risk Analysis: Outputs............................................. 333
11.4 Perform Quantitative Risk Analysis...................................................................... 333
11.4.1 Perform Quantitative Risk Analysis: Inputs............................................. 335
11.4.2 Perform Quantitative Risk Analysis: Tools and Techniques.................... 336
11.4.3 Perform Quantitative Risk Analysis: Outputs........................................... 341

VII

TABLE OF CONTENTS

11.5 Plan Risk Responses............................................................................................. 342
11.5.1 Plan Risk Responses: Inputs.................................................................... 343
11.5.2 Plan Risk Responses: Tools and Techniques........................................... 343
11.5.3 Plan Risk Responses: Outputs.................................................................. 346
11.6 Control Risks......................................................................................................... 349
11.6.1 Control Risks: Inputs................................................................................. 350
11.6.2 Control Risks: Tools and Techniques........................................................ 351
11.6.3 Control Risks: Outputs.............................................................................. 353
12. PROJECT PROCUREMENT MANAGEMENT....................................................................... 355
12.1 Plan Procurement Management........................................................................... 358
12.1.1 Plan Procurement Management: Inputs................................................... 360
12.1.2 Plan Procurement Management: Tools and Techniques.......................... 365
12.1.3 Plan Procurement Management: Outputs................................................ 366
12.2 Conduct Procurements.......................................................................................... 371
12.2.1 Conduct Procurements: Inputs................................................................. 373
12.2.2 Conduct Procurements: Tools and Techniques........................................ 375
12.2.3 Conduct Procurements: Outputs.............................................................. 377
12.3 Control Procurements........................................................................................... 379
12.3.1 Control Procurements: Inputs................................................................... 381
12.3.2 Control Procurements: Tools and Techniques.......................................... 383
12.3.3 Control Procurements: Outputs................................................................ 384
12.4 Close Procurements.............................................................................................. 386
12.4.1 Close Procurements: Inputs...................................................................... 388
12.4.2 Close Procurements: Tools and Techniques............................................. 388
12.4.3 Close Procurements: Outputs................................................................... 389
13. PROJECT STAKEHOLDER MANAGEMENT........................................................................ 391
13.1 Identify Stakeholders............................................................................................ 393
13.1.1 Identify Stakeholders: Inputs.................................................................... 394
13.1.2 Identify Stakeholders: Tools and Techniques........................................... 395
13.1.3 Identify Stakeholders: Outputs................................................................. 398

VIII

TABLE OF CONTENTS

13.2 Plan Stakeholder Management............................................................................. 399
13.2.1 Plan Stakeholder Management: Inputs.................................................... 400
13.2.2 Plan Stakeholder Management: Tools and Techniques........................... 401
13.2.3 Plan Stakeholder Management: Outputs.................................................. 403
13.3 Manage Stakeholder Engagement........................................................................ 404
13.3.1 Manage Stakeholder Engagement: Inputs............................................... 406
13.3.2 Manage Stakeholder Engagement: Tools and Techniques...................... 407
13.3.3 Manage Stakeholder Engagement: Outputs............................................. 408
13.4 Control Stakeholder Engagement......................................................................... 409
13.4.1 Control Stakeholder Engagement: Inputs................................................ 411
13.4.2 Control Stakeholder Engagement: Tools and Techniques....................... 412
13.4.3 Control Stakeholder Engagement: Outputs.............................................. 413
ANNEX A1 THE STANDARD FOR PROJECT MANAGEMENT OF A PROJECT........................... 417
APPENDIX X1 FIFTH EDITION CHANGES............................................................................... 463
Appendix X2 Contributors and Reviewers of the PMBOK® Guide –
Fifth Edition....................................................................................................................... 483
APPENDIX X3 INTERPERSONAL SKILLS................................................................................ 513
REFERENCES......................................................................................................................... 521
Glossary............................................................................................................................. 523
INDEX.................................................................................................................................... 569

List of TABLES and Figures

List of TABLES and Figures
Figure 1-1.

Portfolio, Program, and Project Management Interactions.................................................5

Figure 2-1.

Functional Organization.....................................................................................................22

Figure 2-2.

Weak Matrix Organization..................................................................................................23

Figure 2-3.

Balanced Matrix Organization............................................................................................24

Figure 2-4.

Strong Matrix Organization................................................................................................24

Figure 2-5.

Projectized Organization....................................................................................................25

Figure 2-6. Composite Organization.....................................................................................................26
Figure 2-7. The Relationship Between Stakeholders and the Project.................................................31
Figure 2-8. Typical Cost and Staffing Levels Across a Generic Project Life Cycle Structure.............39
Figure 2-9.

Impact of Variable Based on Project Time........................................................................40

Figure 2-10. Example of a Single-Phase Project....................................................................................42
Figure 2-11. Example of a Three-Phase Project.....................................................................................43
Figure 2-12. Example of a Project with Overlapping Phases.................................................................43
Figure 2-13. Example of Predictive Life Cycle........................................................................................44
Figure 3-1.

Project Management Process Groups................................................................................50

Figure 3-2.

Process Groups Interact in a Phase or Project..................................................................51

Figure 3-3.

Project Management Process Interactions.......................................................................53

Figure 3-4.

Project Boundaries.............................................................................................................54

Figure 3-5.

Project Data, Information and Report Flow.......................................................................59

Figure 3-6. Data Flow Diagram Legend................................................................................................60
Figure 4-1.

Project Integration Management Overview.......................................................................65

List of TABLES and Figures

Figure 4-2. Develop Project Charter: Inputs, Tools and Techniques, and Outputs..............................66
Figure 4-3. Develop Project Charter Data Flow Diagram.....................................................................67
Figure 4-3. Develop Project Charter Data Flow Diagram.....................................................................72
Figure 4-5. Develop Project Management Plan Data Flow Diagram...................................................73
Figure 4-6. Direct and Manage Project Work: Inputs, Tools and Techniques, and Outputs................79
Figure 4-7. Direct and Manage Project Work: Data Flow Diagram......................................................80
Figure 4-8.

Monitor and Control Project Work: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs..................86

Figure 4-9.

Monitor and Control Project Work Data Flow Diagram.....................................................87

Figure 4-10. Perform Integrated Change Control: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs...............94
Figure 4-11. Perform Integrated Change Control Data Flow Diagram..................................................95
Figure 4-12. Close Project or Phase: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs..................................100
Figure 4-13. Close Project or Phase Data Flow Diagram.....................................................................101
Figure 5-1.

Project Scope Management Overview.............................................................................106

Figure 5-2.

Plan Scope Management: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs..............................107

Figure 5-3.

Plan Scope Management Data Flow Diagram.................................................................107

Figure 5-4. Collect Requirements: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs...................................111
Figure 5-5. Collect Requirements Data Flow Diagram.......................................................................111
Figure 5-6.

Example of a Requirements Traceability Matrix..............................................................119

Figure 5-7. Define Scope: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs.................................................120
Figure 5-8. Define Scope Data Flow Diagram....................................................................................120
Figure 5-9. Create WBS: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs...................................................125
Figure 5-10. Create WBS Data Flow Diagram.......................................................................................126

XII

List of TABLES and Figures

Figure 5-11. Sample WBS Decomposed Down Through Work Packages............................................129
Figure 5-12. Sample WBS Organized by Phase....................................................................................130
Figure 5-13. Sample WBS with Major Deliverables..............................................................................130
Figure 5-14. Validate Scope: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs..............................................133
Figure 5-15. Validate Scope Data Flow Diagram..................................................................................133
Figure 5-16. Control Scope: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs................................................136
Figure 5-17. Control Scope Data Flow Diagram...................................................................................137
Figure 6-1.

Project Time Management Overview...............................................................................143

Figure 6-2.

Scheduling Overview........................................................................................................144

Figure 6-3.

Plan Schedule Management: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs.........................145

Figure 6-4.

Plan Schedule Management Data Flow Diagram............................................................145

Figure 6-5. Define Activities: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs............................................149
Figure 6-6. Define Activities Data Flow Diagram...............................................................................150
Figure 6-7.

Sequence Activities: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs......................................153

Figure 6-8.

Sequence Activities Data Flow Diagram..........................................................................154

Figure 6-9.

Precedence Diagramming Method (PDM) Relationship Types.......................................157

Figure 6-10. Examples of Lead and Lag...............................................................................................158
Figure 6-11. Project Schedule Network Diagram.................................................................................160
Figure 6-12. Estimate Activity Resources: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs.........................161
Figure 6-13. Estimate Activity Resources Data Flow Diagram............................................................161
Figure 6-14. Estimate Activity Durations: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs..........................166
Figure 6-15. Estimate Activity Durations Data Flow Diagram.............................................................166

XIII

List of TABLES and Figures

Figure 6-16 Develop Schedule: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs.........................................173
Figure 6-17. Develop Schedule Data Flow Diagram.............................................................................173
Figure 6-18. Example of Critical Path Method......................................................................................177
Figure 6-19. Example of Critical Chain Method....................................................................................178
Figure 6-20. Resource Leveling............................................................................................................179
Figure 6-21. Project Schedule Presentations —Examples..................................................................183
Figure 6-22. Control Schedule: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs...........................................185
Figure 6-23. Control Schedule Data Flow Diagram..............................................................................186
Figure 7-1.

Project Cost Management Overview................................................................................194

Figure 7-2.

Plan Cost Management: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs.................................195

Figure 7-3.

Plan Cost Management: Data Flow Diagram...................................................................196

Figure 7-4.

Estimate Costs: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs..............................................200

Figure 7-5.

Estimate Costs Data Flow Diagram.................................................................................201

Figure 7-6. Determine Budget: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs.........................................208
Figure 7-7. Determine Budget Data Flow Diagram............................................................................209
Figure 7-8.

Project Budget Components.............................................................................................213

Figure 7-9. Cost Baseline, Expenditures, and Funding Requirements..............................................214
Figure 7-10. Control Costs: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs.................................................215
Figure 7-11. Control Costs Data Flow Diagram....................................................................................215
Figure 7-12. Earned Value, Planned Value, and Actual Costs..............................................................219
Figure 7-13. To-Complete Performance Index (TCPI)...........................................................................222

XIV

List of TABLES and Figures

Figure 8-1.

Project Quality Management Overview............................................................................230

Figure 8-2. Fundamental Relationships of Quality Assurance and Control Quality to the IPECC,
PDCA, Cost of Quality Models and Project Management Process Groups.....................231
Figure 8-3.

Plan Quality Management Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs.............................232

Figure 8-4.

Plan Quality Management Data Flow Diagram................................................................232

Figure 8-5. Cost of Quality...................................................................................................................235
Figure 8-6. The SIPOC Model...............................................................................................................237
Figure 8-7. Storyboard Illustrating a Conceptual Example of Each of the Seven
Basic Quality Tools...........................................................................................................239
Figure 8-8.

Perform Quality Assurance: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs...........................243

Figure 8-9.

Perform Quality Assurance Data Flow Diagram..............................................................243

Figure 8-10. Storyboard Illustrating the Seven Quality Management and Control Tools...................246
Figure 8-11. Control Quality: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs..............................................249
Figure 8-12. Control Quality Data Flow Diagram..................................................................................249
Figure 9-1.

Project Human Resource Management Overview...........................................................257

Figure 9-2.

Plan Human Resource Management: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs............258

Figure 9-3.

Plan Human Resource Management Data Flow Diagram...............................................258

Figure 9-4. Roles and Responsibility Definition Formats...................................................................261
Figure 9-5. RACI Matrix.......................................................................................................................262
Figure 9-6.

Illustrative Resource Histogram......................................................................................266

Figure 9-7.

Acquire Project Team: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs....................................267

Figure 9-8.

Acquire Project Team Data Flow Diagram.......................................................................268

List of TABLES and Figures

Figure 9-9. Develop Project Team: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs...................................273
Figure 9-10. Develop Project Team Data Flow Diagram......................................................................273
Figure 9-11. Manage Project Team: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs...................................279
Figure 9-12. Manage Project Team Data Flow Diagram......................................................................280
Figure 10-1. Project Communications Management Overview...........................................................288
Figure 10-2. Plan Communications Management: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs............289
Figure 10-3. Plan Communications Management Data Flow Diagram...............................................289
Figure 10-4. Basic Communication Model...........................................................................................294
Figure 10-5. Manage Communications: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs.............................297
Figure 10-6. Manage Communications Data Flow Diagram................................................................298
Figure 10-7. Control Communications: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs..............................303
Figure 10-8. Control Communications Data Flow Diagram.................................................................304
Figure 11-1. Project Risk Management Overview................................................................................312
Figure 11-2. Plan Risk Management: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs.................................313
Figure 11-3. Plan Risk Management Data Flow Diagram....................................................................313
Figure 11-4. Example of a Risk Breakdown Structure (RBS)..............................................................317
Figure 11-5. Identify Risks: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs................................................319
Figure 11-6. Identify Risks Data Flow Diagram...................................................................................320
Figure 11-7. Influence Diagram............................................................................................................326
Figure 11-8. Perform Qualitative Risk Analysis: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs................328
Figure 11-9. Perform Qualitative Risk Analysis Data Flow Diagram...................................................328
Figure 11-10. Probability and Impact Matrix.........................................................................................331

XVI

List of TABLES and Figures

Figure 11-11. Perform Quantitative Risk Analysis: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs.............334
Figure 11-12. Perform Quantitative Risk Analysis Data Flow Diagram.................................................334
Figure 11-13. Range of Project Cost Estimates Collected During the Risk Interview.........................336
Figure 11-14. Examples of Commonly Used Probability Distributions..................................................337
Figure 11-15. Example of Tornado Diagram...........................................................................................338
Figure 11-16. Decision Tree Diagram.....................................................................................................339
Figure 11-17. Cost Risk Simulation Results...........................................................................................340
Figure 11-18. Plan Risk Responses: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs....................................342
Figure 11-19. Plan Risk Responses Data Flow Diagram........................................................................342
Figure 11-20. Control Risks: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs.................................................349
Figure 11-21. Control Risks Data Flow Diagram....................................................................................349
Figure 12-1. Project Procurement Management Overview..................................................................356
Figure 12-2. Plan Procurements: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs.......................................358
Figure 12-3. Plan Procurement Management Data Flow Diagram......................................................359
Figure 12-4. Conduct Procurements: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs.................................371
Figure 12-5. Conduct Procurements Data Flow Diagram....................................................................372
Figure 12-6. Control Procurements: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs...................................379
Figure 12-7. Control Procurements Data Flow Diagram......................................................................380
Figure 12-8. Close Procurements: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs......................................386
Figure 12-9. Close Procurements Data Flow Diagram.........................................................................387
Figure 13-1. Project Stakeholder Management Overview...................................................................392
Figure 13-2. Identify Stakeholders: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs....................................393

XVII

List of TABLES and Figures

Figure 13-3. Identify Stakeholders Data Flow Diagram.......................................................................393
Figure 13-4. Example Power/Interest Grid with Stakeholders............................................................397
Figure 13-5. Plan Stakeholder Management: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs....................399
Figure 13-6. Plan Stakeholder Management Data Flow Diagram.......................................................399
Figure 13-7. Stakeholders Engagement Assessment Matrix...............................................................403
Figure 13-8. Manage Stakeholder Engagement: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs...............404
Figure 13-9. Manage Stakeholder Engagement Data Flow Diagram..................................................405
Figure 13-10. Control Stakeholder Engagement: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs................410
Figure 13-11. Control Stakeholder Engagement: Data Flow Diagram...................................................410
Figure A1-1. Process Group Interactions in a Project..........................................................................419
Figure A1-2. Project Management Process Interactions.....................................................................421
Figure A1-3. Project Boundaries...........................................................................................................425
Figure A1-4. Initiating Process Group...................................................................................................425
Figure A1-5. Develop Project Charter: Inputs and Outputs..................................................................426
Figure A1-6. Identify Stakeholders: Inputs and Outputs......................................................................426
Figure A1-7. Planning Process Group...................................................................................................428
Figure A1-8. Develop Project Management Plan: Inputs and Outputs................................................429
Figure A1-9. Plan Scope Management: Inputs and Outputs................................................................429
Figure A1-10. Collect Requirements: Inputs and Outputs......................................................................430
Figure A1-11. Define Scope: Inputs and Outputs...................................................................................430
Figure A1-12. Create WBS: Inputs and Outputs......................................................................................431
Figure A1-13. Plan Schedule Management: Inputs and Outputs...........................................................431

XVIII

List of TABLES and Figures

Figure A1-14. Define Activities: Inputs and Outputs..............................................................................432
Figure A1-15. Sequence Activities: Inputs and Outputs.........................................................................432
Figure A1-16. Estimate Activity Resources: Inputs and Outputs...........................................................433
Figure A1-17. Estimate Activity Durations: Inputs and Outputs............................................................434
Figure A1-18. Develop Schedule: Inputs and Outputs............................................................................435
Figure A1-19. Plan Cost Management: Inputs and Outputs...................................................................436
Figure A1-20. Estimate Costs: Inputs and Outputs.................................................................................436
Figure A1-21. Determine Budget: Inputs and Outputs...........................................................................437
Figure A1-22. Plan Quality Management: Inputs and Outputs...............................................................438
Figure A1-23. Plan Human Resource Management: Inputs and Outputs..............................................438
Figure A1-24. Plan Communications Management: Inputs and Outputs..............................................439
Figure A1-25. Plan Risk Management: Inputs and Outputs...................................................................439
Figure A1-26. Identify Risks: Inputs and Outputs...................................................................................440
Figure A1-27. Perform Qualitative Risk Analysis: Inputs and Outputs..................................................441
Figure A1-28. Perform Quantitative Risk Analysis: Inputs and Outputs................................................441
Figure A1-29. Plan Risk Responses: Inputs and Outputs.......................................................................442
Figure A1-30. Plan Procurement Management: Inputs and Outputs.....................................................443
Figure A1-31. Plan Stakeholder Management: Inputs and Outputs......................................................443
Figure A1-32. Executing Process Group.................................................................................................445
Figure A1-33. Direct and Manage Project Work: Inputs and Outputs....................................................446
Figure A1-34. Perform Quality Assurance: Inputs and Outputs.............................................................446
Figure A1-35. Acquire Project Team: Inputs and Outputs......................................................................447

XIX

List of TABLES and Figures

Figure A1-36. Develop Project Team: Inputs and Outputs......................................................................447
Figure A1-37. Manage Project Team: Inputs and Outputs......................................................................448
Figure A1-38. Manage Communications: Inputs and Outputs...............................................................448
Figure A1-39. Conduct Procurements: Inputs and Outputs...................................................................449
Figure A1-40. Manage Stakeholder Engagement: Inputs and Outputs.................................................450
Figure A1-41. Monitoring and Controlling Process Group.....................................................................451
Figure A1-42. Monitor and Control Project Work: Inputs and Outputs..................................................452
Figure A1-43. Perform Integrated Change Control: Inputs and Outputs................................................453
Figure A1-44. Validate Scope: Inputs and Outputs.................................................................................453
Figure A1-45. Control Scope: Inputs and Outputs..................................................................................454
Figure A1-46. Control Schedule: Inputs and Outputs.............................................................................455
Figure A1-47. Control Costs: Inputs and Outputs...................................................................................455
Figure A1-48. Control Quality: Inputs and Outputs.................................................................................456
Figure A1-49. Control Communications: Inputs and Outputs................................................................457
Figure A1-50. Control Risks: Inputs and Outputs...................................................................................457
Figure A1-51. Control Procurements: Inputs and Outputs.....................................................................458
Figure A1-52. Control Stakeholder Engagement: Inputs and Outputs...................................................459
Figure A1-53. Closing Process Group.....................................................................................................460
Figure A1-54. Close Project or Phase: Inputs and Outputs....................................................................461
Figure A1-55. Close Procurements: Inputs and Outputs........................................................................461

List of TABLES and Figures

Figure X1-1. Refined Data Model..........................................................................................................467
Table 1-1. Comparative Overview of Project, Program, and Portfolio Management...........................8
Table 2-1.

Influence of Organizational Structures on Projects..........................................................22

Table 3-1.

Project Management Process Group and Knowledge Area Mapping...............................61

Table 4-1 Differentiation Between the Project Management Plan and Project Documents............78
Table 5-1.

Elements of the Project Charter and Project Scope Statement......................................124

Table 7-1.

Earned Value Calculations Summary Table.....................................................................224

Table 11-1. Definition of Impact Scales for Four Project Objectives.................................................318
Table A1-1.

Project Management Process Group and Knowledge Area Mapping.............................423

Table X1-1.

Section 4 Changes............................................................................................................472

Table X1-2.

Section 5 Changes............................................................................................................473

Table X1-3.

Section 6 Changes............................................................................................................474

Table X1-4.

Section 7 Changes............................................................................................................475

Table X1-5.

Section 8 Changes............................................................................................................476

Table X1-6.

Section 9 Changes............................................................................................................477

Table X1-7.

Section 10 Changes..........................................................................................................478

Table X1-8.

Section 11 Changes..........................................................................................................479

Table X1-9.

Section 12 Changes..........................................................................................................480

Table X1-10. Section 13 Changes..........................................................................................................481

XXI

1 - INTRODUCTION

Introduction
A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide) – Fifth Edition provides guidelines
for managing individual projects and defines project management related concepts. It also describes the project
management life cycle and its related processes, as well as the project life cycle.
The PMBOK® Guide contains the globally recognized standard and guide for the project management profession
(found in Annex A1). A standard is a formal document that describes established norms, methods, processes, and
practices. As with other professions, the knowledge contained in this standard has evolved from the recognized
good practices of project management practitioners who have contributed to the development of this standard.
The first two sections of the PMBOK® Guide provide an introduction to key concepts in the project management
field. Section 3 summarizes the Process Groups and provides an overview of process interactions among the ten
Knowledge Areas and five Process Groups. Sections 4 through 13 are the guide to the project management body of
knowledge. These sections expand on the information in the standard by describing the inputs and outputs, as well
as tools and techniques used in managing projects. Annex A1 is the standard for project management and presents
the processes, inputs, and outputs that are considered to be good practice on most projects most of the time.
This section defines several key terms and the relationship among portfolio management, program management,
project management and organizational project management. An overview of the PMBOK® Guide is found within
the following sections:
1.1 Purpose of the PMBOK® Guide
1.2 What is a Project?
1.3 What is Project Management?
1.4 Relationships Among Portfolio Management, Program Management,
Project Management,and Organizational Project Management
1.5 Relationship Between Project Management, Operations Management,
and Organizational Strategy
1.6 Business Value
1.7 Role of the Project Manager
1.8 Project Management Body of Knowledge

1 - INTRODUCTION

1.1 Purpose of the PMBOK® Guide
The acceptance of project management as a profession indicates that the application of knowledge, processes,
skills, tools, and techniques can have a significant impact on project success. The PMBOK® Guide identifies that
subset of the project management body of knowledge that is generally recognized as good practice. “Generally
recognized” means the knowledge and practices described are applicable to most projects most of the time, and
there is consensus about their value and usefulness. “Good practice” means there is general agreement that the
application of the knowledge, skills, tools, and techniques can enhance the chances of success over many projects.
“Good practice” does not mean that the knowledge described should always be applied uniformly to all projects; the
organization and/or project management team is responsible for determining what is appropriate for any given project.
The PMBOK® Guide also provides and promotes a common vocabulary within the project management
profession for using and applying project management concepts. A common vocabulary is an essential element of
a professional discipline. The PMI Lexicon of Project Management Terms [1]1 provides the foundational professional
vocabulary that can be consistently used by project, program, and portfolio managers and other stakeholders.
Annex A1 is a foundational reference for PMI’s project management professional development programs. Annex
A1 continues to evolve along with the profession, and is therefore not all-inclusive; this standard is a guide rather
than a specific methodology. One can use different methodologies and tools (e.g., agile, waterfall, PRINCE2) to
implement the project management framework.
In addition to the standards that establish guidelines for project management processes, the Project Management
Institute Code of Ethics and Professional Conduct [2] guides practitioners of the profession and describes the
expectations that practitioners should hold for themselves and others. The Project Management Institute Code
of Ethics and Professional Conduct is specific about the basic obligation of responsibility, respect, fairness, and
honesty. It requires that practitioners demonstrate a commitment to ethical and professional conduct. It carries
the obligation to comply with laws, regulations, and organizational and professional policies. Practitioners come
from diverse backgrounds and cultures, and the Project Management Institute Code of Ethics and Professional
Conduct applies globally. When interacting with any stakeholder, practitioners should be committed to honest,
responsible, fair practices and respectful dealings. Acceptance of the code is essential for project managers, and is
a requirement for the following PMI® exams:
• Certified Associate in Project Management (CAPM)®
• Project Management Professional (PMP)®
• Program Management Professional (PgMP)®
• PMI Agile Certified Practitioner (PMI-ACP)SM
• PMI Risk Management Professional (PMI-RMP)®
• PMI Scheduling Professional (PMI-SP)®

The numbers in brackets refer to the list of references at the end of this standard.

1 - INTRODUCTION

1.2 What is a Project?
A project is a temporary endeavor undertaken to create a unique product, service, or result. The temporary
nature of projects indicates that a project has a definite beginning and end. The end is reached when the project’s
objectives have been achieved or when the project is terminated because its objectives will not or cannot be met,
or when the need for the project no longer exists. A project may also be terminated if the client (customer, sponsor,
or champion) wishes to terminate the project. Temporary does not necessarily mean the duration of the project
is short. It refers to the project’s engagement and its longevity. Temporary does not typically apply to the product,
service, or result created by the project; most projects are undertaken to create a lasting outcome. For example, a
project to build a national monument will create a result expected to last for centuries. Projects can also have social,
economic, and environmental impacts that far outlive the projects themselves.

Every project creates a unique product, service, or result. The outcome of the project may be tangible or
intangible. Although repetitive elements may be present in some project deliverables and activities, this repetition
does not change the fundamental, unique characteristics of the project work. For example, office buildings can
be constructed with the same or similar materials and by the same or different teams. However, each building
project remains unique with a different location, different design, different circumstances and situations, different
stakeholders, and so on.
An ongoing work effort is generally a repetitive process that follows an organization’s existing procedures.
In contrast, because of the unique nature of projects, there may be uncertainties or differences in the products,
services, or results that the project creates. Project activities can be new to members of a project team, which
may necessitate more dedicated planning than other routine work. In addition, projects are undertaken at all
organizational levels. A project can involve a single individual or multiple individuals, a single organizational unit, or
multiple organizational units from multiple organizations.
A project can create:
• A product that can be either a component of another item, an enhancement of an item, or an end item
in itself;
• A service or a capability to perform a service (e.g., a business function that supports production or
distribution);
• A n improvement in the existing product or service lines (e.g., A Six Sigma project undertaken to reduce
defects); or
• A result, such as an outcome or document (e.g., a research project that develops knowledge that can be
used to determine whether a trend exists or a new process will benefit society).

1 - INTRODUCTION

Examples of projects include, but are not limited to:
• Developing a new product, service, or result;
• Effecting a change in the structure, processes, staffing, or style of an organization;
• Developing or acquiring a new or modified information system (hardware or software);
• Conducting a research effort whose outcome will be aptly recorded;
• Constructing a building, industrial plant, or infrastructure; or
• Implementing, improving, or enhancing existing business processes and procedures.

1.2.1. The Relationships Among Portfolios, Programs, and Projects
The relationship among portfolios, programs, and projects is such that a portfolio refers to a collection of projects,
programs, subportfolios, and operations managed as a group to achieve strategic objectives. Programs are grouped
within a portfolio and are comprised of subprograms, projects, or other work that are managed in a coordinated
fashion in support of the portfolio. Individual projects that are either within or outside of a program are still considered
part of a portfolio. Although the projects or programs within the portfolio may not necessarily be interdependent or
directly related, they are linked to the organization’s strategic plan by means of the organization’s portfolio.
As Figure 1-1 illustrates, organizational strategies and priorities are linked and have relationships between
portfolios and programs, and between programs and individual projects. Organizational planning impacts
the projects by means of project prioritization based on risk, funding, and other considerations relevant to the
organization’s strategic plan. Organizational planning can direct the management of resources, and support for the
component projects on the basis of risk categories, specific lines of business, or general types of projects, such as
infrastructure and process improvement.

1 - INTRODUCTION

Portfolio
• Strategies and priorities
• Progressive elaboration
• Governance
• Disposition on requested changes
• Impacts from changes in other
portfolios, programs, or projects

• Strategies and priorities
• Progressive elaboration
• Governance
• Disposition on requested changes
• Impacts from changes in other
portfolios, programs, or projects

Subportfolios

• Performance reports
• Change requests with
impact on other portfolios,
programs, or projects

Projects

Programs

Subprograms

• Strategies and priorities
• Progressive elaboration
• Governance
• Disposition on requested changes
• Impacts from changes in other
portfolios, programs, or projects

Projects

Programs

• Performance reports
• Change requests with
impact on other portfolios,
programs, or projects

Projects
Subprograms
Projects

Projects
Projects

Figure 1-1. Portfolio, Program, and Project Management Interactions

1.3 What is Project Management?
Project management is the application of knowledge, skills, tools, and techniques to project activities to meet the
project requirements. Project management is accomplished through the appropriate application and integration of
the 47 logically grouped project management processes, which are categorized into five Process Groups. These five
Process Groups are:
• Initiating,
• Planning,
• Executing,
• Monitoring and Controlling, and
• Closing.

1 - INTRODUCTION

Managing a project typically includes, but is not limited to:
• Identifying requirements;
• A ddressing the various needs, concerns, and expectations of the stakeholders in planning and executing
the project;
• S etting up, maintaining, and carrying out communications among stakeholders that are active, effective,
and collaborative in nature;
• Managing stakeholders towards meeting project requirements and creating project deliverables;
• Balancing the competing project constraints, which include, but are not limited to:
○○ Scope,
○○ Quality,
○○ Schedule,
○○ Budget,
○○ Resources, and
○○ Risks.
The specific project characteristics and circumstances can influence the constraints on which the project
management team needs to focus.
The relationship among these factors is such that if any one factor changes, at least one other factor is likely
to be affected. For example, if the schedule is shortened, often the budget needs to be increased to add additional
resources to complete the same amount of work in less time. If a budget increase is not possible, the scope or
targeted quality may be reduced to deliver the project’s end result in less time within the same budget amount.
Project stakeholders may have differing ideas as to which factors are the most important, creating an even greater
challenge. Changing the project requirements or objectives may create additional risks. The project team needs to
be able to assess the situation, balance the demands, and maintain proactive communication with stakeholders in
order to deliver a successful project.
Due to the potential for change, the development of the project management plan is an iterative activity and is
progressively elaborated throughout the project’s life cycle. Progressive elaboration involves continuously improving
and detailing a plan as more detailed and specific information and more accurate estimates become available.
Progressive elaboration allows a project management team to define work and manage it to a greater level of detail
as the project evolves.

1 - INTRODUCTION

1.4 Relationships Among Portfolio Management, Program Management,
Project Management, and Organizational Project Management

In order to understand portfolio, program, and project management, it is important to recognize the similarities
and differences among these disciplines. It is also helpful to understand how they relate to organizational project
management (OPM). OPM is a strategy execution framework utilizing project, program, and portfolio management
as well as organizational enabling practices to consistently and predictably deliver organizational strategy producing
better performance, better results, and a sustainable competitive advantage.
Portfolio, program, and project management are aligned with or driven by organizational strategies. Conversely,
portfolio, program, and project management differ in the way each contributes to the achievement of strategic goals.
Portfolio management aligns with organizational strategies by selecting the right programs or projects, prioritizing
the work, and providing the needed resources, whereas program management harmonizes its projects and program
components and controls interdependencies in order to realize specified benefits. Project management develops
and implements plans to achieve a specific scope that is driven by the objectives of the program or portfolio it is
subjected to and, ultimately, to organizational strategies. OPM advances organizational capability by linking project,
program, and portfolio management principles and practices with organizational enablers (e.g. structural, cultural,
technological, and human resource practices) to support strategic goals. An organization measures its capabilities,
then plans and implements improvements towards the systematic achievement of best practices.
Table 1-1 shows the comparison of project, program, and portfolio views across several dimensions within
the organization.

1 - INTRODUCTION

Table 1-1. Comparative Overview of Project, Program, and Portfolio Management
Organizational Project Management
Projects

Portfolios

Scope

Projects have defined
objectives. Scope is progressively elaborated throughout the
project life cycle.

Programs have a larger scope
and provide more significant
benefits.

Portfolios have an organizational
scope that changes with the
strategic objectives of the
organization.

Change

Project managers expect change
and implement processes to
keep change managed and
controlled.

Program managers expect
change from both inside and
outside the program and are
prepared to manage it.

Portfolio managers continuously
monitor changes in the
broader internal and external
environment.

Project managers progressively
elaborate high-level information
into detailed plans throughout
the project life cycle.

Program managers develop the
overall program plan and create
high-level plans to guide
detailed planning at the
component level.

Portfolio managers create and
maintain necessary processes
and communication relative to
the aggregate portfolio.

Project managers manage the
project team to meet the project
objectives.

Program managers manage the
program staff and the project
managers; they provide vision
and overall leadership.

Portfolio managers may manage
or coordinate portfolio
management staff, or program
and project staff that may have
reporting responsibilities into
the aggregate portfolio.

Success is measured by product
and project quality, timeliness,
budget compliance, and degree
of customer satisfaction.

Success is measured by the
degree to which the program
satisfies the needs and benefits
for which it was undertaken.

Success is measured in terms
of the aggregate investment
performance and benefit
realization of the portfolio.

Project managers monitor and
control the work of producing
the products, services, or results
that the project was undertaken
to produce.

Program managers monitor
the progress of program
components to ensure the
overall goals, schedules, budget,
and benefits of the program will
be met.

Portfolio managers monitor
strategic changes and aggregate
resource allocation,
performance results, and risk
of the portfolio.

Planning

Management

Success

Monitoring

Programs

1 - INTRODUCTION

1.4.1 Program Management
A program is defined as a group of related projects, subprograms, and program activities managed in a
coordinated way to obtain benefits not available from managing them individually. Programs may include elements
of related work outside the scope of the discrete projects in the program. A project may or may not be part of a
program but a program will always have projects.

Program management is the application of knowledge, skills, tools, and techniques to a program in order to
meet the program requirements and to obtain benefits and control not available by managing projects individually.
Projects within a program are related through the common outcome or collective capability. If the relationship
between projects is only that of a shared client, seller, technology, or resource, the effort should be managed as a
portfolio of projects rather than as a program.
Program management focuses on the project interdependencies and helps to determine the optimal approach
for managing them. Actions related to these interdependencies may include:
• Resolving resource constraints and/or conflicts that affect multiple projects within the program,
• Aligning organizational/strategic direction that affects project and program goals and objectives, and
• Resolving issues and change management within a shared governance structure.
An example of a program is a new communications satellite system with projects for design of the satellite and
the ground stations, the construction of each, the integration of the system, and the launch of the satellite.

1.4.2 Portfolio Management
A portfolio refers to projects, programs, subportfolios, and operations managed as a group to achieve strategic
objectives. The projects or programs of the portfolio may not necessarily be interdependent or directly related. For
example, an infrastructure firm that has the strategic objective of “maximizing the return on its investments” may
put together a portfolio that includes a mix of projects in oil and gas, power, water, roads, rail, and airports. From
this mix, the firm may choose to manage related projects as one program. All of the power projects may be grouped
together as a power program. Similarly, all of the water projects may be grouped together as a water program.
Thus, the power program and the water program become integral components of the enterprise portfolio of the
infrastructure firm.

1 - INTRODUCTION

Portfolio management refers to the centralized management of one or more portfolios to achieve strategic
objectives. Portfolio management focuses on ensuring that projects and programs are reviewed to prioritize
resource allocation, and that the management of the portfolio is consistent with and aligned to organizational
strategies.

1.4.3 Projects and Strategic Planning
Projects are often utilized as a means of directly or indirectly achieving objectives within an organization’s
strategic plan. Projects are typically authorized as a result of one or more of the following strategic considerations:
arket demand (e.g., a car company authorizing a project to build more fuel-efficient cars in response
• M
to gasoline shortages);
• S trategic opportunity/business need (e.g., a training company authorizing a project to create a new
course to increase its revenues);
• S ocial need (e.g., a nongovernmental organization in a developing country authorizing a project to provide
potable water systems, latrines, and sanitation education to communities suffering from high rates of
infectious diseases);
• E nvironmental consideration (e.g., a public company authorizing a project to create a new service for
electric car sharing to reduce pollution);
ustomer request (e.g., an electric utility authorizing a project to build a new substation to serve a new
• C
industrial park);
• T echnological advance (e.g., an electronics firm authorizing a new project to develop a faster, cheaper, and
smaller laptop based on advances in computer memory and electronics technology); and
• L egal requirement (e.g., a chemical manufacturer authorizing a project to establish guidelines for proper
handling of a new toxic material).

1.4.4 Project Management Office
A project management office (PMO) is a management structure that standardizes the project-related governance
processes and facilitates the sharing of resources, methodologies, tools, and techniques. The responsibilities of a
PMO can range from providing project management support functions to actually being responsible for the direct
management of one or more projects.
There are several types of PMO structures in organizations, each varying in the degree of control and influence
they have on projects within the organization, such as:

1 - INTRODUCTION

• S
upportive. Supportive PMOs provide a consultative role to projects by supplying templates, best
practices, training, access to information and lessons learned from other projects. This type of PMO
serves as a project repository. The degree of control provided by the PMO is low.

• Controlling. Controlling PMOs provide support and require compliance through various means.
Compliance may involve adopting project management frameworks or methodologies, using specific
templates, forms and tools, or conformance to governance. The degree of control provided by the PMO
is moderate.
• Directive. Directive PMOs take control of the projects by directly managing the projects. The degree of
control provided by the PMO is high.
The PMO integrates data and information from corporate strategic projects and evaluates how higher level
strategic objectives are being fulfilled. The PMO is the natural liaison between the organization’s portfolios,
programs, projects, and the corporate measurement systems (e.g. balanced scorecard).
The projects supported or administered by the PMO may not be related, other than by being managed together.
The specific form, function, and structure of a PMO are dependent upon the needs of the organization that it
supports.
A PMO may have the authority to act as an integral stakeholder and a key decision maker throughout the life
of each project, to make recommendations, or to terminate projects or take other actions, as required, to remain
aligned with the business objectives. In addition, the PMO may be involved in the selection, management, and
deployment of shared or dedicated project resources.
A primary function of a PMO is to support project managers in a variety of ways which may include, but are not
limited to:
• Managing shared resources across all projects administered by the PMO;
• Identifying and developing project management methodology, best practices, and standards;
• Coaching, mentoring, training, and oversight;
• M
onitoring compliance with project management standards, policies, procedures, and templates by means
of project audits;
• D
eveloping and managing project policies, procedures, templates, and other shared documentation
(organizational process assets); and
• Coordinating communication across projects.

1 - INTRODUCTION

Project managers and PMOs pursue different objectives and, as such, are driven by different requirements. All
of these efforts are aligned with the strategic needs of the organization. Differences between the role of project
managers and a PMO may include the following:
• T he project manager focuses on the specified project objectives, while the PMO manages major program
scope changes, which may be seen as potential opportunities to better achieve business objectives.
• T he project manager controls the assigned project resources to best meet project objectives, while the
PMO optimizes the use of shared organizational resources across all projects.
• T he project manager manages the constraints (scope, schedule, cost, quality, etc.) of the individual
projects, while the PMO manages the methodologies, standards, overall risks/opportunities, metrics, and
interdependencies among projects at the enterprise level.

1.5 Relationship Between Project Management, Operations Management,
and Organizational Strategy
Operations management is responsible for overseeing, directing, and controlling business operations. Operations
evolve to support the day-to-day business, and are necessary to achieve strategic and tactical goals of the business.
Examples include: production operations, manufacturing operations, accounting operations, software support, and
maintenance.
Though temporary in nature, projects can help achieve the organizational goals when they are aligned with the
organization’s strategy. Organizations sometimes change their operations, products, or systems by creating strategic
business initiatives that are developed and implemented through projects. Projects require project management
activities and skill sets, while operations require business process management, operations management activities,
and skill sets.

1.5.1 Operations and Project Management
Changes in business operations may be the focus of a dedicated project—especially if there are substantial
changes to business operations as a result of a new product or service delivery. Ongoing operations are outside of
the scope of a project; however, there are intersecting points where the two areas cross.
Projects can intersect with operations at various points during the product life cycle, such as:

1 - INTRODUCTION

• At each closeout phase;
• When developing a new product, upgrading a product, or expanding outputs;
• While improving operations or the product development process; or

• Until the end of the product life cycle.
At each point, deliverables and knowledge are transferred between the project and operations for implementation
of the delivered work. This implementation occurs through a transfer of project resources to operations toward the
end of the project, or through a transfer of operational resources to the project at the start.
Operations are ongoing endeavors that produce repetitive outputs, with resources assigned to do basically the
same set of tasks according to the standards institutionalized in a product life cycle. Unlike the ongoing nature of
operations, projects are temporary endeavors.

1.5.1.1 Operations Management
Operations management is a subject area that is outside the scope of formal project management as described
in this standard.
Operations management is an area of management concerned with ongoing production of goods and/or
services. It involves ensuring that business operations continue efficiently by using the optimum resources needed
and meeting customer demands. It is concerned with managing processes that transform inputs (e.g., materials,
components, energy, and labor) into outputs (e.g., products, goods, and/or services).

1.5.1.2 Operational Stakeholders in Project Management
While operations management is different from project management (see 1.5.1.1), the needs of stakeholders
who perform and conduct business operations are important considerations in projects that will affect their future
work and endeavors. Project managers who consider and appropriately include operational stakeholders in all
phases of projects, gain insight and avoid unnecessary issues that often arise when their input is overlooked.
Operational stakeholders should be engaged and their needs identified as part of the stakeholder register, and
their influence (positive or negative) should be addressed as part of the risk management plan.

1 - INTRODUCTION

The following list includes examples of operational stakeholders (depending upon the business):
• Plant operators,
• Manufacturing line supervisors,
• Help desk staff,
• Production system support analysts,
• Customer service representative,
• Salespersons,
• Maintenance workers,
• Telephone sales personnel,
• Call center personnel,
• Retail workers,
• Line managers, and
• Training officers.

1.5.2 Organizations and Project Management
Organizations use governance to establish strategic direction and performance parameters. The strategic
direction provides the purpose, expectations, goals, and actions necessary to guide business pursuit and is aligned
with business objectives. Project management activities should be aligned with top-level business direction, and
if there is a change, then project objectives need to be realigned. In a project environment, changes to project
objectives affect project efficiency and success. When the business alignment for a project is constant, the chance
for project success greatly increases because the project remains aligned with the strategic direction of the
organization. Should something change, projects should change accordingly.

1.5.2.1 Project-Based Organizations
Project-based organizations (PBOs) refer to various organizational forms that create temporary systems
for carrying out their work. PBOs can be created by different types of organizations (i.e., functional, matrix, or
projectized (see 2.1.3)). The use of PBOs may diminish the hierarchy and bureaucracy inside the organizations as
the success of the work is measured by the final result rather than by position or politics.
PBOs conduct the majority of their work as projects and/or provide project rather than functional approaches. PBOs
can refer to either entire firms (as in telecommunications, oil and gas, construction, consultancy, and professional
services) multi-firm consortia, or networks; it is also possible that some large project-based organizations have
functional support areas or that the PBO is nested within subsidiaries or divisions of larger corporations.

1 - INTRODUCTION

1.5.2.2 The Link Between Project Management and Organizational Governance
Projects (and programs) are undertaken to achieve strategic business outcomes, for which many organizations
now adopt formal organizational governance processes and procedures. Organizational governance criteria
can impose constraints on projects—particularly if the project delivers a service which will be subject to strict
organizational governance.

Because project success may be judged on the basis of how well the resultant product or service supports
organizational governance, it is important for the project manager to be knowledgeable about corporate/
organizational governance policies and procedures pertaining to the subject matter of the product or service
(e.g., if an organization has adopted policies in support of sustainability practices and the project involves
construction of a new office building, the project manager should be aware of sustainability requirements related
to building construction.)

1.5.2.3 The Relationship Between Project Management and Organizational Strategy
Organizational strategy should provide guidance and direction to project management—especially when one
considers that projects exist to support organizational strategies. Often it is the project sponsor or the portfolio or
program manager who identifies alignment or potential conflicts between organizational strategies and project goals
and then communicates these to the project manager. If the goals of a project are in conflict with an established
organizational strategy, it is incumbent upon the project manager to document and identify such conflicts as early
as possible in the project. At times, the development of an organizational strategy could be the goal of a project
rather than a guiding principle. In such a case, it is important for the project to specifically define what constitutes
an appropriate organizational strategy that will sustain the organization.

1.6 Business Value
Business value is a concept that is unique to each organization. Business value is defined as the entire value
of the business; the total sum of all tangible and intangible elements. Examples of tangible elements include
monetary assets, fixtures, stockholder equity, and utility. Examples of intangible elements include good will, brand
recognition, public benefit, and trademarks. Depending on the organization, business value scope can be short-,
medium-, or long-term. Value may be created through the effective management of ongoing operations. However,
through the effective use of portfolio, program, and project management, organizations will possess the ability to
employ reliable, established processes to meet strategic objectives and obtain greater business value from their
project investments. While not all organizations are business driven, all organizations conduct business-related
activities. Whether an organization is a government agency or a nonprofit organization, all organizations focus on
attaining business value for their activities.

1 - INTRODUCTION

Successful business value realization begins with comprehensive strategic planning and management.
Organizational strategy can be expressed through the organization’s mission and vision, including orientation to
markets, competition, and other environmental factors. Effective organizational strategy provides defined directions
for development and growth, in addition to performance metrics for success. In order to bridge the gap between
organizational strategy and successful business value realization, the use of portfolio, program, and project
management techniques is essential.
Portfolio management aligns components (projects, programs, or operations) to the organizational strategy,
organized into portfolios or subportfolios to optimize project or program objectives, dependencies, costs, timelines,
benefits, resources, and risks. This allows organizations to have an overall view of how the strategic goals are
reflected in the portfolio, institute appropriate governance management, and authorize human, financial, or material
resources to be allocated based on expected performance and benefits.
Using program management, organizations have the ability to align multiple projects for optimized or integrated
costs, schedule, effort, and benefits. Program management focuses on project interdependencies and helps to
determine the optimal approach for managing and realizing the desired benefits.
With project management, organizations have the ability to apply knowledge, processes, skills, and tools and
techniques that enhance the likelihood of success over a wide range of projects. Project management focuses on
the successful delivery of products, services, or results. Within programs and portfolios, projects are a means of
achieving organizational strategy and objectives.
Organizations can further facilitate the alignment of these portfolio, program, and project management activities
by strengthening organizational enablers such as structural, cultural, technological, and human resource practices.
By continuously conducting portfolio strategic alignment and optimization, performing business impact analyses,
and developing robust organizational enablers, organizations can achieve successful transitions within the portfolio,
program, and project domains and attain effective investment management and business value realization.

1.7 Role of the Project Manager
The project manager is the person assigned by the performing organization to lead the team that is responsible
for achieving the project objectives. The role of a project manager is distinct from a functional manager or operations
manager. Typically the functional manager is focused on providing management oversight for a functional or a
business unit, and operations managers are responsible for ensuring that business operations are efficient.

1 - INTRODUCTION

Depending on the organizational structure, a project manager may report to a functional manager. In other cases,
a project manager may be one of several project managers who report to a program or portfolio manager who is
ultimately responsible for enterprise-wide projects. In this type of structure, the project manager works closely with
the program or portfolio manager to achieve the project objectives and to ensure the project management plan
aligns with the overarching program plan. The project manager also works closely and in collaboration with other
roles, such as a business analyst, quality assurance manager, and subject matter experts.

1.7.1 Responsibilities and Competencies of the Project Manager
In general, project managers have the responsibility to satisfy the needs: task needs, team needs, and
individual needs. As project management is a critical strategic discipline, the project manager becomes the link
between the strategy and the team. Projects are essential to the growth and survival of organizations. Projects
create value in the form of improved business processes, are indispensable in the development of new products
and services, and make it easier for companies to respond to changes in the environment, competition, and
the marketplace. The project manager’s role therefore becomes increasingly strategic. However, understanding
and applying the knowledge, tools, and techniques that are recognized as good practice are not sufficient for
effective project management. In addition to any area-specific skills and general management proficiencies
required for the project, effective project management requires that the project manager possess the following
competencies:
• Knowledge—Refers to what the project manager knows about project management.
• P
erformance—Refers to what the project manager is able to do or accomplish while applying his or her
project management knowledge.
ersonal—Refers to how the project manager behaves when performing the project or related activity.
• P
Personal effectiveness encompasses attitudes, core personality characteristics, and leadership, which
provides the ability to guide the project team while achieving project objectives and balancing the project
constraints.

1.7.2 Interpersonal Skills of a Project Manager
Project managers accomplish work through the project team and other stakeholders. Effective project managers
require a balance of ethical, interpersonal, and conceptual skills that help them analyze situations and interact
appropriately. Appendix X3 on Interpersonal Skills describes important interpersonal skills, such as:

1 - INTRODUCTION

• Leadership,
• Team building,
• Motivation,
• Communication,
• Influencing,
• Decision making,
• Political and cultural awareness,
• Negotiation,
• Trust building,
• Conflict management, and
• Coaching.

1.8 Project Management Body of Knowledge
The PMBOK® Guide contains the standard for managing most projects most of the time across many types of
industries. The standard, included in Annex A1, describes the project management processes used to manage a
project toward a more successful outcome.
This standard is unique to the project management field and has interrelationships to other project management
disciplines such as program management and portfolio management.
Project management standards do not address all details of every topic. This standard is limited to individual
projects and the project management processes that are generally recognized as good practice. Other standards
may be consulted for additional information on the broader context in which projects are accomplished, such as:
• The Standard for Program Management [3] addresses the management of programs,
• The Standard for Portfolio Management [4] addresses the management of portfolios,
• O
rganizational Project Management Maturity Model (OPM3®) [5] examines an enterprise’s project
management process capabilities.

2 - ORGANIZATIONAL INFLUENCES AND PROJECT LIFE CYCLE

ORGANIZATIONAL INFLUENCES AND PROJECT LIFE CYCLE
Projects and project management take place in an environment that is broader than that of the project itself.
Understanding this broader context helps ensure that work is carried out in alignment with the organization’s
goals and managed in accordance with the organization’s established practices. This section describes how
organizational influences affect the methods used for staffing, managing, and executing the project. It discusses
the influence of stakeholders on the project and its governance, the project team’s structure and membership, and
different approaches to the phasing and relationship of activities within the project’s life cycle. The following major
sections are addressed:
2.1 Organizational Influences on Project Management
2.2 Project Stakeholders and Governance
2.3 Project Team
2.4 Project Life Cycle

2 - ORGANIZATIONAL INFLUENCES AND PROJECT LIFE CYCLE

2.1 Organizational Influences on Project Management
An organization’s culture, style, and structure influence how its projects are performed. The organization’s level
of project management maturity and its project management systems can also influence the project. When a project
involves external entities such as those that are part of a joint venture or partnering agreement, the project will be
influenced by more than one organization. The following sections describe organizational characteristics, factors, and
assets within an enterprise that are likely to influence the project.

2.1.1 Organizational Cultures and Styles
Organizations are systematic arrangements of entities (persons and/or departments) aimed at accomplishing
a purpose, which may involve undertaking projects. An organization’s culture and style affect how it conducts projects.
Cultures and styles are group phenomena known as cultural norms, which develop over time. The norms include
established approaches to initiating and planning projects, the means considered acceptable for getting the work
done, and recognized authorities who make or influence decisions.
Organizational culture is shaped by the common experiences of members of the organization and most organizations
have developed unique cultures over time by practice and common usage. Common experiences include, but are not
limited to:
• Shared visions, mission, values, beliefs, and expectations;
• Regulations, policies, methods, and procedures;
• Motivation and reward systems;
• Risk tolerance;
• View of leadership, hierarchy, and authority relationships;
• Code of conduct, work ethic, and work hours; and
• Operating environments.

2 - ORGANIZATIONAL INFLUENCES AND PROJECT LIFE CYCLE

The organization’s culture is an enterprise environmental factor, as described in Section 2.1.5. Cultures and
styles are learned and shared and may have a strong influence on a project’s ability to meet its objectives. A
project manager should therefore understand the different organizational styles and cultures that may affect a
project. The project manager needs to know which individuals in the organization are the decision makers or
influencers and work with them to increase the probability of project success.

In light of globalization, understanding the impact of cultural influences is critical in projects involving diverse
organizations and locations around the world. Culture becomes a critical factor in defining project success, and multicultural competence becomes critical for the project manager.

2.1.2 Organizational Communications
Project management success in an organization is highly dependent on an effective organizational communication
style, especially in the face of globalization of the project management profession. Organizational communications
capabilities have great influence on how projects are conducted. As a consequence, project managers in distant
locations are able to more effectively communicate with all relevant stakeholders within the organizational structure to
facilitate decision making. Stakeholders and project team members can also use electronic communications (including
e-mail, texting, instant messaging, social media, video and web conferencing, and other forms of electronic media) to
communicate with the project manager formally or informally.

2.1.3 Organizational Structures
Organizational structure is an enterprise environmental factor, which can affect the availability of resources and
influence how projects are conducted (see also Section 2.1.5). Organizational structures range from functional to
projectized, with a variety of matrix structures in between. Table 2-1 shows key project-related characteristics of the
major types of organizational structures.

2 - ORGANIZATIONAL INFLUENCES AND PROJECT LIFE CYCLE

Table 2-1. Influence of Organizational Structures on Projects
Organization
Structure

Matrix
Functional

Project
Characteristics

Weak Matrix

Balanced Matrix

Strong Matrix

Projectized

Project Manager's
Authority

Little or None

Low

Low to
Moderate

Moderate
to High

High to
Almost Total

Resource
Availability

Little or None

Low

Low to
Moderate

Moderate
to High

High to
Almost Total

Who manages the
project budget

Functional
Manager

Mixed

Project
Manager

Project Manager's
Role

Part-time

Full-time

Project Management
Administrative Staff

Part-time

Full-time

The classic functional organization, shown in Figure 2-1, is a hierarchy where each employee has one clear
superior. Staff members are grouped by specialty, such as production, marketing, engineering, and accounting
at the top level. Specialties may be further subdivided into focused functional units, such as mechanical and
electrical engineering. Each department in a functional organization will do its project work independently of other
departments.

Project
Coordination

Functional
Manager

Chief
Executive

Functional
Manager

Staff

(Gray boxes represent staff engaged in project activities)

Figure 2-1. Functional Organization

2 - ORGANIZATIONAL INFLUENCES AND PROJECT LIFE CYCLE

Matrix organizations, as shown in Figures 2-2 through 2-4, reflect a blend of functional and projectized
characteristics. Matrix organizations can be classified as weak, balanced, or strong depending on the relative level
of power and influence between functional and project managers. Weak matrix organizations maintain many of the
characteristics of a functional organization, and the role of the project manager is more of a coordinator or expediter.
A project expediter works as staff assistant and communications coordinator. The expediter cannot personally
make or enforce decisions. Project coordinators have power to make some decisions, have some authority, and
report to a higher-level manager. Strong matrix organizations have many of the characteristics of the projectized
organization, and have full-time project managers with considerable authority and full-time project administrative
staff. While the balanced matrix organization recognizes the need for a project manager, it does not provide the
project manager with the full authority over the project and project funding. Table 2-1 provides additional details of
the various matrix organizational structures.

Chief
Executive

Functional
Manager

Staff

(Gray boxes represent staff engaged in project activities)

Project
Coordination

Figure 2-2. Weak Matrix Organization

2 - ORGANIZATIONAL INFLUENCES AND PROJECT LIFE CYCLE

Chief
Executive

Functional
Manager

Staff

Project Manager

(Gray boxes represent staff engaged in project activities)

Project
Coordination

Figure 2-3. Balanced Matrix Organization

Chief
Executive

Functional
Manager

Manager of
Project Managers

Staff

Project Manager

Staff

Project Manager

Staff
Staff

Staff

Project Manager

(Gray boxes represent staff engaged in project activities)

Project Coordination

Figure 2-4. Strong Matrix Organization

2 - ORGANIZATIONAL INFLUENCES AND PROJECT LIFE CYCLE

At the opposite end of the spectrum to the functional organization is the projectized organization, shown in
Figure 2-5. In a projectized organization, team members are often colocated. Most of the organization’s resources
are involved in project work, and project managers have a great deal of independence and authority. Virtual
collaboration techniques are often used to accomplish the benefits of colocated teams. Projectized organizations
often have organizational units called departments, but they can either report directly to the project manager or
provide support services to the various projects.

Project
Coordination

Project
Manager

Chief
Executive

Project
Manager

Staff

(Gray boxes represent staff engaged in project activities)

Figure 2-5. Projectized Organization
Many organizations involve all these structures at various levels, often referred to as a composite organization,
as shown in Figure 2-6. For example, even a fundamentally functional organization may create a special project
team to handle a critical project. Such a team may have many of the characteristics of a project team in a projectized
organization. The team may include full-time staff from different functional departments, may develop its own set
of operating procedures, and may even operate outside of the standard, formalized reporting structure during the
project. Also, an organization may manage most of its projects in a strong matrix, but allow small projects to be
managed by functional departments.

2 - ORGANIZATIONAL INFLUENCES AND PROJECT LIFE CYCLE

Chief
Executive

Functional
Manager

Manager of
Project Managers

Staff

Project Manager

Staff

Project Manager

Staff
Staff

Staff

Project Manager

Project B Coordination

Project A Coordination

(Gray boxes represent staff engaged in project activities)

Figure 2-6. Composite Organization
Many organizational structures include strategic, middle management, and operational levels. The project
manager may interact with all three levels depending on factors such as:
• Strategic importance of the project,
• Capacity of stakeholders to exert influence on the project,
• Degree of project management maturity,
• Project management systems, and
• Organizational communications.
This interaction determines project characteristics such as:
• Project manager’s level of authority,
• Resource availability and management,
• Entity controlling the project budget,
• Project manager’s role, and
• Project team composition.

2 - ORGANIZATIONAL INFLUENCES AND PROJECT LIFE CYCLE

2.1.4 Organizational Process Assets
Organizational process assets are the plans, processes, policies, procedures, and knowledge bases specific
to and used by the performing organization. They include any artifact, practice, or knowledge from any or all of
the organizations involved in the project that can be used to perform or govern the project. These process assets
include formal and informal plans, processes, policies, procedures, and knowledge bases, specific to and used by the
performing organization. The process assets also include the organization’s knowledge bases such as lessons learned
and historical information. Organizational process assets may include completed schedules, risk data, and earned
value data. Organizational process assets are inputs to most planning processes. Throughout the project, the project
team members may update and add to the organizational process assets as necessary. Organizational process assets
may be grouped into two categories: (1) processes and procedures, and (2) corporate knowledge base.

2.1.4.1 Processes and Procedures
The organization’s processes and procedures for conducting project work include, but are not limited to:
• Initiating and Planning:
○○ G
uidelines and criteria for tailoring the organization’s set of standard processes and procedures
to satisfy the specific needs of the project;
○○ S pecific organizational standards such as policies (e.g., human resources policies, health and
safety policies, ethics policies, and project management policies), product and project life cycles,
and quality policies and procedures (e.g., process audits, improvement targets, checklists, and
standardized process definitions for use in the organization); and
○○ T emplates (e.g., risk register, work breakdown structure, project schedule network diagram, and
contract templates).
• Executing, Monitoring and Controlling:
○○ C
hange control procedures, including the steps by which performing organization standards,
policies, plans, and procedures or any project documents will be modified, and how any changes
will be approved and validated;
○○ Financial controls procedures (e.g., time reporting, required expenditure and disbursement
reviews, accounting codes, and standard contract provisions);
○○ Issue and defect management procedures defining issue and defect controls, issue and defect
identification and resolution, and action item tracking;

2 - ORGANIZATIONAL INFLUENCES AND PROJECT LIFE CYCLE

○○ O
rganizational communication requirements (e.g., specific communication technology available,
authorized communication media, record retention policies, and security requirements);
○○ Procedures for prioritizing, approving, and issuing work authorizations;
○○ R
isk control procedures, including risk categories, risk statement templates, probability and
impact definitions, and probability and impact matrix; and
○○ Standardized guidelines, work instructions, proposal evaluation criteria, and performance
measurement criteria.
• Closing:
○○ P roject closure guidelines or requirements (e.g., lessons learned, final project audits, project
evaluations, product validations, and acceptance criteria).

2.1.4.2 Corporate Knowledge Base
The organizational knowledge base for storing and retrieving information includes, but is not limited to:
• C
onfiguration management knowledge bases containing the versions and baselines of all performing
organization standards, policies, procedures, and any project documents;
• F inancial databases containing information such as labor hours, incurred costs, budgets, and any project
cost overruns;
istorical information and lessons learned knowledge bases (e.g., project records and documents,
• H
all project closure information and documentation, information regarding both the results of previous
project selection decisions and previous project performance information, and information from risk
management activities);
• Issue and defect management databases containing issue and defect status, control information, issue
and defect resolution, and action item results;
• P rocess measurement databases used to collect and make available measurement data on processes
and products; and
• P roject files from previous projects (e.g., scope, cost, schedule, and performance measurement baselines,
project calendars, project schedule network diagrams, risk registers, planned response actions, and
defined risk impact).

2 - ORGANIZATIONAL INFLUENCES AND PROJECT LIFE CYCLE

2.1.5 Enterprise Environmental Factors
Enterprise environmental factors refer to conditions, not under the control of the project team, that influence,
constrain, or direct the project. Enterprise environmental factors are considered inputs to most planning processes,
may enhance or constrain project management options, and may have a positive or negative influence on the
outcome.

Enterprise environmental factors vary widely in type or nature. Enterprise environmental factors include, but are
not limited to:
• Organizational culture, structure, and governance;
• Geographic distribution of facilities and resources;
• G
overnment or industry standards (e.g., regulatory agency regulations, codes of conduct, product
standards, quality standards, and workmanship standards);
• Infrastructure (e.g., existing facilities and capital equipment);
• E xisting human resources (e.g., skills, disciplines, and knowledge, such as design, development, legal,
contracting, and purchasing);
• P ersonnel administration (e.g., staffing and retention guidelines, employee performance reviews and
training records, reward and overtime policy, and time tracking);
• Company work authorization systems;
• Marketplace conditions;
• Stakeholder risk tolerances;
• Political climate;
• Organization’s established communications channels;
• C
ommercial databases (e.g., standardized cost estimating data, industry risk study information, and risk
databases); and
• P roject management information system (e.g., an automated tool, such as a scheduling software tool,
a configuration management system, an information collection and distribution system, or web interfaces
to other online automated systems).

2 - ORGANIZATIONAL INFLUENCES AND PROJECT LIFE CYCLE

2.2 Project Stakeholders and Governance
A stakeholder is an individual, group, or organization who may affect, be affected by, or perceive itself to be
affected by a decision, activity, or outcome of a project. Stakeholders may be actively involved in the project or have
interests that may be positively or negatively affected by the performance or completion of the project. Different
stakeholders may have competing expectations that might create conflicts within the project. Stakeholders may
also exert influence over the project, its deliverables, and the project team in order to achieve a set of outcomes
that satisfy strategic business objectives or other needs. Project governance—the alignment of the project with
stakeholders’ needs or objectives—is critical to the successful management of stakeholder engagement and
the achievement of organizational objectives. Project governance enables organizations to consistently manage
projects and maximize the value of project outcomes and align the projects with business strategy. It provides a
framework in which the project manager and sponsors can make decisions that satisfy both stakeholder needs
and expectations and organizational strategic objectives or address circumstances where these may not be in
alignment.

2.2.1 Project Stakeholders
Stakeholders include all members of the project team as well as all interested entities that are internal or
external to the organization. The project team identifies internal and external, positive and negative, and performing
and advising stakeholders in order to determine the project requirements and the expectations of all parties
involved. The project manager should manage the influences of these various stakeholders in relation to the project
requirements to ensure a successful outcome. Figure 2-7 illustrates the relationship between the project, the
project team, and various stakeholders.

2 - ORGANIZATIONAL INFLUENCES AND PROJECT LIFE CYCLE

Project Life Cycle and Organization

Project Stakeholders

Portfolio
Manager

Other
Stakeholders

Project Team
Project
Management
Team

Program
Manager

Operations
Management

Sponsor

Project
Manager

Project
Management
Office

Other
Project
Team
Members

Functional
Managers

Sellers/
Business
Partners
Customers/
Users

The Project

Figure 2-7. The Relationship Between Stakeholders and the Project
Stakeholders have varying levels of responsibility and authority when participating on a project. This level can
change over the course of the project’s life cycle. Their involvement may range from occasional contributions in
surveys and focus groups to full project sponsorship which includes providing financial, political, or other support.
Some stakeholders may also detract from the success of the project, either passively or actively. These stakeholders
require the project manager’s attention throughout the project’s life cycle, as well as planning to address any issues
they may raise.
Stakeholder identification is a continuous process throughout the entire project life cycle. Identifying stakeholders,
understanding their relative degree of influence on a project, and balancing their demands, needs, and expectations
are critical to the success of the project. Failure to do so can lead to delays, cost increases, unexpected issues,
and other negative consequences including project cancellation. An example is late recognition that the legal
department is a significant stakeholder, which results in delays and increased expenses due to legal requirements
that are required to be met before the project can be completed or the product scope is delivered.

2 - ORGANIZATIONAL INFLUENCES AND PROJECT LIFE CYCLE

Just as stakeholders can positively or adversely impact a project’s objectives, a project can be perceived by
the stakeholders as having positive or negative results. For example, business leaders from a community who will
benefit from an industrial expansion project will see positive economic benefits to the community in the form of
additional jobs, supporting infrastructure, and taxes. In the case of stakeholders with positive expectations for the
project, their interests are best served by making the project successful. In contrast, the interests of negatively
affected stakeholders, such as nearby homeowners or small business owners who may lose property, be forced
to relocate, or accept unwanted changes in the local environment, are served by impeding the project’s progress.
Overlooking negative stakeholder interests can result in an increased likelihood of failures, delays, or other negative
consequences to the project.
An important part of a project manager’s responsibility is to manage stakeholder expectations, which can be
difficult because stakeholders often have very different or conflicting objectives. Part of the project manager’s
responsibility is to balance these interests and ensure that the project team interacts with stakeholders in a
professional and cooperative manner. Project managers may involve the project’s sponsor or other team members
from different locations to identify and manage stakeholders that could be dispersed around the world.
The following are some examples of project stakeholders:
ponsor. A sponsor is the person or group who provides resources and support for the project and is
• S
accountable for enabling success. The sponsor may be external or internal to the project manager’s
organization. From initial conception through project closure, the sponsor promotes the project. This
includes serving as spokesperson to higher levels of management to gather support throughout the
organization and promoting the benefits the project brings. The sponsor leads the project through the
initiating processes until formally authorized, and plays a significant role in the development of the initial
scope and charter. For issues that are beyond the control of the project manager, the sponsor serves
as an escalation path. The sponsor may also be involved in other important issues such as authorizing
changes in scope, phase-end reviews, and go/no-go decisions when risks are particularly high. The
sponsor also ensures a smooth transfer of the project’s deliverables into the business of the requesting
organization after project closure.
• C
ustomers and users. Customers are the persons or organizations who will approve and manage the
project’s product, service, or result. Users are the persons or organizations who will use the project’s
product, service, or result. Customers and users may be internal or external to the performing organization
and may also exist in multiple layers. For example, the customers for a new pharmaceutical product
could include the doctors who prescribe it, the patients who use it and the insurers who pay for it. In some
application areas, customers and users are synonymous, while in others, customers refer to the entity
acquiring the project’s product, and users refer to those who will directly utilize the project’s product.

2 - ORGANIZATIONAL INFLUENCES AND PROJECT LIFE CYCLE

• Sellers. Sellers, also called vendors, suppliers, or contractors, are external companies that enter into a
contractual agreement to provide components or services necessary for the project.
• Business partners. Business partners are external organizations that have a special relationship with
the enterprise, sometimes attained through a certification process. Business partners provide specialized
expertise or fill a specified role such as installation, customization, training, or support.

• O
rganizational groups. Organizational groups are internal stakeholders who are affected by the activities
of the project team. Examples of various business elements of an organization that may be affected by
the project include marketing and sales, human resources, legal, finance, operations, manufacturing, and
customer service. These groups support the business environment where projects are executed, and
are therefore affected by the activities of the project. As a result, there is generally a significant amount
of interaction between the various business elements of an organization and the project team as they
work together to achieve project goals. These groups may provide input to requirements and accept
deliverables necessary for a smooth transition to production or related operations.
• F unctional managers. Functional managers are key individuals who play a management role within
an administrative or functional area of the business, such as human resources, finance, accounting, or
procurement. They are assigned their own permanent staff to carry out the ongoing work, and they have
a clear directive to manage all tasks within their functional area of responsibility. The functional manager
may provide subject matter expertise or their function may provide services to the project.
• O
ther stakeholders. Additional stakeholders, such as procurement entities, financial institutions,
government regulators, subject matter experts, consultants, and others, may have a financial interest in
the project, contribute inputs to the project, or have an interest in the outcome of the project.
Project stakeholders and stakeholder engagement are further defined in Section 13 on Project Stakeholder
Management.

2 - ORGANIZATIONAL INFLUENCES AND PROJECT LIFE CYCLE

2.2.2 Project Governance
Project governance is an oversight function that is aligned with the organization’s governance model and that
encompasses the project life cycle. Project governance framework provides the project manager and team with
structure, processes, decision-making models and tools for managing the project, while supporting and controlling
the project for successful delivery. Project governance is a critical element of any project, especially on complex and
risky projects. It provides a comprehensive, consistent method of controlling the project and ensuring its success
by defining and documenting and communicating reliable, repeatable project practices. It includes a framework
for making project decisions; defines roles, responsibilities, and accountabilities for the success of the project; and
determines the effectiveness of the project manager. A project’s governance is defined by and fits within the larger
context of the portfolio, program, or organization sponsoring it but is separate from organizational governance.
For project governance, the PMO may also play some decisive role. Project governance involves stakeholders
as well as documented policies, procedures, and standards; responsibilities; and authorities. Examples of the
elements of a project governance framework include:
• Project success and deliverable acceptance criteria;
• Process to identify, escalate, and resolve issues that arise during the project;
• Relationship among the project team, organizational groups, and external stakeholders;
• Project organization chart that identifies project roles;
• Processes and procedures for the communication of information;
• Project decision-making processes;
• Guidelines for aligning project governance and organizational strategy;
• Project life cycle approach;
• Process for stage gate or phase reviews;
• P rocess for review and approval for changes to budget, scope, quality, and schedule which are beyond
the authority of the project manager; and
• Process to align internal stakeholders with project process requirements.

2 - ORGANIZATIONAL INFLUENCES AND PROJECT LIFE CYCLE

Within those constraints, as well as the additional limitations of time and budget, it is up to the project manager
and the project team to determine the most appropriate method of carrying out the project. While project governance
is the framework in which the project team performs, the team is still responsible for planning, executing, controlling,
and closing the project. The project governance approach should be described in the project management plan.
Decisions are made regarding who will be involved, the escalation procedures, what resources are necessary, and
the general approach to completing the work. Another important consideration is whether more than one phase will
be involved and, if so, the specific life cycle for the individual project.

2.2.3 Project Success
Since projects are temporary in nature, the success of the project should be measured in terms of completing
the project within the constraints of scope, time, cost, quality, resources, and risk as approved between the project
managers and senior management. To ensure realization of benefits for the undertaken project, a test period (such
as soft launch in services) can be part of the total project time before handing it over to the permanent operations.
Project success should be referred to the last baselines approved by the authorized stakeholders.
The project manager is responsible and accountable for setting realistic and achievable boundaries for the
project and to accomplish the project within the approved baselines.

2.3 Project Team
The project team includes the project manager and the group of individuals who act together in performing the
work of the project to achieve its objectives. The project team includes the project manager, project management
staff, and other team members who carry out the work but who are not necessarily involved with management of
the project. This team is comprised of individuals from different groups with specific subject matter knowledge or
with a specific skill set to carry out the work of the project. The structure and characteristics of a project team can
vary widely, but one constant is the project manager’s role as the leader of the team, regardless of what authority
the project manager may have over its members.

2 - ORGANIZATIONAL INFLUENCES AND PROJECT LIFE CYCLE

Project teams include roles such as:
• P
roject management staff. The members of the team who perform project management activities such
as scheduling, budgeting, reporting and control, communications, risk management and administrative
support. This role may be performed or supported by a project management office (PMO).
• Project staff. The members of the team who carry out the work of creating the project deliverables.
• Supporting experts. Supporting experts perform activities required to develop or execute the project
management plan. These can include such roles as contracting, financial management, logistics, legal,
safety, engineering, test, or quality control. Depending on the size of the project and level of support
required, supporting experts may be assigned to work full time or may just participate on the team when
their particular skills are required.
ser or Customer Representatives. Members of the organization who will accept the deliverables or
• U
products of the project may be assigned to act as representatives or liaisons to ensure proper coordination,
advise on requirements, or validate the acceptability of the project’s results.
• S
ellers. Sellers, also called vendors, suppliers, or contractors, are external companies that enter into
a contractual agreement to provide components or services necessary for the project. The project team
is often assigned the responsibility to oversee the performance and acceptance of sellers’ deliverables
or services. If the sellers bear a large share of the risk for delivering the project’s results, they may play
a significant role on the project team.
• B
usiness partner members. Members of business partners’ organizations may be assigned as members
of the project team to ensure proper coordination.
usiness partners. Business partners are also external companies, but they have a special relationship
• B
with the enterprise, sometimes attained through a certification process. Business partners provide
specialized expertise or fill a specified role such as installation, customization, training, or support.

2 - ORGANIZATIONAL INFLUENCES AND PROJECT LIFE CYCLE

2.3.1 Composition of Project Teams
The composition of project teams varies based on factors such as organizational culture, scope, and location.
The relationship between the project manager and the team varies depending on the authority of the project
manager. In some cases, a project manager may be the team’s line manager, with full authority over its members.
In other cases, a project manager may have little or no direct organizational authority over the team members and
may have been brought in to lead the project on a part-time basis or under contract. The following are examples
of basic project team compositions:

• Dedicated. In a dedicated team, all or a majority of the project team members are assigned to work
full-time on the project. The project team may be colocated or virtual and usually reports directly to the
project manager. This is the simplest structure for a project manager, as the lines of authority are clear
and team members can focus on the project’s objectives.
• P
art-Time. Some projects are established as temporary additional work, with the project manager and
team members working on the project while remaining in their existing organizations and continuing to
carry out their normal functions. The functional managers maintain control over the team members and
the resources allocated to the project, and the project manager is likely to continue performing other
management duties. Part-time team members may also be assigned to more than one project at a time.
Dedicated and part-time project team compositions may exist in any of the organizational structures. Dedicated
project teams are often seen in projectized organizations, where most of the organization’s resources are involved
in project work and project managers have a great deal of independence and authority. Part-time project teams
are common within functional organizations, and matrix organizations use both dedicated and part-time project
teams. Other members who have limited involvement at various stages of a project can be thought of as part-time
project team members.
Project team composition may also vary based on organizational structure. An example of this is a partnershipbased project. A project may be established as a partnership, joint venture, consortium, or alliance among several
organizations through contracts or agreements. In this structure, one organization takes the lead and assigns a
project manager to coordinate the efforts among the partners. Partnership-based projects can offer flexibility at
lower cost. These advantages may be offset by the project manager’s lower degree of control over team members
and the need for strong mechanisms for communication and monitoring progress. Partnership projects may be set
up to exploit industrial synergies, to undertake ventures that one partner could not afford alone, or for other political
and strategic reasons.

2 - ORGANIZATIONAL INFLUENCES AND PROJECT LIFE CYCLE

Project team composition may also vary based on the geographic location of its members. An example of this is
virtual project teams. Communication technologies allow team members in different locations or countries to work
as virtual teams. Virtual teams rely on collaborative tools, such as shared online workspaces and video conferences,
to coordinate their activities and exchange information about the project. A virtual team can exist with any type
of organizational structure and team composition. Virtual teams are often necessary for projects where resources
are located onsite or offsite or both, depending on the project activities. A project manager who is leading a virtual
team needs to accommodate differences in the culture, working hours, time zones, local conditions, and languages.

2.4 Project Life Cycle
A project life cycle is the series of phases that a project passes through from its initiation to its closure. The
phases are generally sequential, and their names and numbers are determined by the management and control
needs of the organization or organizations involved in the project, the nature of the project itself, and its area of
application. The phases can be broken down by functional or partial objectives, intermediate results or deliverables,
specific milestones within the overall scope of work, or financial availability. Phases are generally time bounded,
with a start and ending or control point. A life cycle can be documented within a methodology. The project life
cycle can be determined or shaped by the unique aspects of the organization, industry, or technology employed.
While every project has a definite start and a definite end, the specific deliverables and activities that take place
in between will vary widely with the project. The life cycle provides the basic framework for managing the project,
regardless of the specific work involved.
Project life cycles can range along a continuum from predictive or plan-driven approaches at one end to adaptive
or change-driven approaches at the other. In a predictive life cycle (Section 2.4.2.2), the product and deliverables
are defined at the beginning of the project and any changes to scope are carefully managed. In an adaptive life
cycle (Section 2.4.2.4), the product is developed over multiple iterations and detailed scope is defined for each
iteration only as the iteration begins.

2.4.1 Characteristics of the Project Life Cycle
Projects vary in size and complexity. All projects can be mapped to the following generic life cycle structure (see
Figure 2-8):

2 - ORGANIZATIONAL INFLUENCES AND PROJECT LIFE CYCLE

• Starting the project,
• Organizing and preparing,

• Carrying out the project work, and
• Closing the project.
This generic life cycle structure is often referred to when communicating with upper management or other
entities less familiar with the details of the project. It should not be confused with the Project Management Process
Groups, because the processes in a Process Group consist of activities that may be performed and recur within
each phase of a project as well as for the project as a whole. The project life cycle is independent from the life cycle
of the product produced by or modified by the project. However, the project should take the current life-cycle phase
of the product into consideration. This high-level view can provide a common frame of reference for comparing
projects—even if they are dissimilar in nature.

Organizing and
preparing

Carrying out the work

Closing
the
project

Cost and Staffing Level

Starting
the
project

Project
Management
Outputs

Project
Charter

Project
Management Plan

Accepted
Deliverables

Time

Archived
Project
Documents

Figure 2-8. Typical Cost and Staffing Levels Across a Generic Project Life Cycle Structure

2 - ORGANIZATIONAL INFLUENCES AND PROJECT LIFE CYCLE

The generic life cycle structure generally displays the following characteristics:
• C
ost and staffing levels are low at the start, peak as the work is carried out, and drop rapidly as the
project draws to a close. Figure 2-8 illustrates this typical pattern.
• T he typical cost and staffing curve above may not apply to all projects. A project may require significant
expenditures to secure needed resources early in its life cycle, for instance, or be fully staffed from a point
very early in its life cycle.
• R
isk and uncertainty (as illustrated in Figure 2-9) are greatest at the start of the project. These factors
decrease over the life of the project as decisions are reached and as deliverables are accepted.
• T he ability to influence the final characteristics of the project’s product, without significantly impacting
cost, is highest at the start of the project and decreases as the project progresses towards completion.
Figure 2-9 illustrates the idea that the cost of making changes and correcting errors typically increases
substantially as the project approaches completion.
While these characteristics remain present to some extent in almost all project life cycles, they are not always
present to the same degree. Adaptive life cycles, in particular, are developed with the intent of keeping stakeholder
influences higher and the costs of changes lower throughout the life cycle than in predictive life cycles.

Risk and uncertainty

Degree

High

Cost of changes
Low
Project Time

Figure 2-9. Impact of Variable Based on Project Time

2 - ORGANIZATIONAL INFLUENCES AND PROJECT LIFE CYCLE

Within the context of the generic life cycle structure, a project manager may determine the need for more
effective control over certain deliverables or that certain deliverables are required to be completed before the
project scope can be completely defined. Large and complex projects in particular may require this additional
level of control. In such instances, the work carried out to complete the project’s objective may benefit from being
formally divided into phases.

2.4.2 Project Phases
A project may be divided into any number of phases. A project phase is a collection of logically related project
activities that culminates in the completion of one or more deliverables. Project phases are used when the nature
of the work to be performed is unique to a portion of the project, and are typically linked to the development of
a specific major deliverable. A phase may emphasize processes from a particular Project Management Process
Group, but it is likely that most or all processes will be executed in some form in each phase. Project phases
typically are completed sequentially, but can overlap in some project situations. Different phases typically have a
different duration or effort. The high-level nature of project phases makes them an element of the project life cycle.
The phase structure allows the project to be segmented into logical subsets for ease of management, planning,
and control. The number of phases, the need for phases, and the degree of control applied depend on the size,
complexity, and potential impact of the project. Regardless of the number of phases comprising a project, all
phases have similar characteristics:
• T he work has a distinct focus that differs from any other phase. This often involves different organizations,
locations, and skill sets.
• A chieving the primary deliverable or objective of the phase requires controls or processes unique to the
phase or its activities. The repetition of processes across all five Process Groups, as described in Section
3, provides an additional degree of control and defines the boundaries of the phase.
• T he closure of a phase ends with some form of transfer or hand-off of the work product produced as the
phase deliverable. This phase end represents a natural point to reassess the activities underway and to
change or terminate the project if necessary. This point may be referred to as a stage gate, milestone,
phase review, phase gate or kill point. In many cases, the closure of a phase is required to be approved
in some form before it can be considered closed.

2 - ORGANIZATIONAL INFLUENCES AND PROJECT LIFE CYCLE

There is no single ideal structure that will apply to all projects. Although industry common practices will often
lead to the use of a preferred structure, projects in the same industry—or even in the same organization—may
have significant variation. Some will have only one phase, as shown in Figure 2-10. Other projects may have two
or more phases.
One Approach to Managing the Installation of a Telecommunications Network
Monitoring and Controlling Processes

Initiating Processes

Planning Processes

Executing Processes

Closing Processes

Figure 2-10. Example of a Single-Phase Project
Some organizations have established policies that standardize all projects, while others allow the project team
to choose and tailor the most appropriate approach for their individual project. For instance, one organization
may treat a feasibility study as routine pre-project work, another may treat it as the first phase of a project, and
a third may treat the feasibility study as a separate, stand-alone project. Likewise, one project team may divide a
project into two phases whereas another project team may choose to manage all the work as a single phase. Much
depends on the nature of the specific project and the style of the project team or organization.

2.4.2.1 Phase-to-Phase Relationships
When projects have more than one phase, the phases are part of a generally sequential process designed to
ensure proper control of the project and attain the desired product, service, or result. However, there are situations
when a project might benefit from overlapping or concurrent phases.
There are two basic types of phase-to-phase relationships:
• Sequential relationship. In a sequential relationship, a phase starts only when the previous phase is
complete. Figure 2-11 shows an example of a project with three entirely sequential phases. The stepby-step nature of this approach reduces uncertainty, but may eliminate options for reducing the overall
schedule.

2 - ORGANIZATIONAL INFLUENCES AND PROJECT LIFE CYCLE

One Approach to Cleaning Up a Hazardous Waste Site
Facility Decommissioning

Waste Removal/Cleanup

Monitoring and Controlling Processes

Initiating
Processes

Planning
Processes

Landscaping

Monitoring and Controlling Processes

Executing
Processes

Closing
Processes

Initiating
Processes

Executing
Processes

Planning
Processes

Monitoring and Controlling Processes

Closing
Processes

Initiating
Processes

Planning
Processes

Executing
Processes

Closing
Processes

Figure 2-11. Example of a Three-Phase Project
• Overlapping relationship. In an overlapping relationship, a phase starts prior to completion of the previous
one (see Figure 2-12). This can sometimes be applied as an example of the schedule compression
technique called fast tracking. Overlapping phases may require additional resources to allow work to be
done in parallel, may increase risk, and can result in rework if a subsequent phase progresses before
accurate information is available from the previous phase.
Potential Approach to Building a New Factory
Design Phase
Monitoring and Controlling Processes

Construction Phase
Monitoring and Controlling Processes
Initiating
Processes

Planning
Processes

Executing
Processes

Closing
Processes

Initiating
Processes

Planning
Processes

Executing
Processes

Closing
Processes

Figure 2-12. Example of a Project with Overlapping Phases

2 - ORGANIZATIONAL INFLUENCES AND PROJECT LIFE CYCLE

For projects with more than one phase, there may be different relationships (overlapping, sequential, parallel)
between individual phases. Considerations such as level of control required, effectiveness, and degree of uncertainty
determine the relationship to be applied between phases. Based on those considerations, both relationships could
occur between different phases of a single project.

2.4.2.2 Predictive Life Cycles
Predictive life cycles (also known as fully plan-driven) are ones in which the project scope, and the time and
cost required to deliver that scope, are determined as early in the project life cycle as practically possible. As shown
in Figure 2-13, these projects proceed through a series of sequential or overlapping phases, with each phase
generally focusing on a subset of project activities and project management processes. The work performed in
each phase is usually different in nature to that in the preceding and subsequent phases, therefore, the makeup
and skills required of the project team may vary from phase to phase.

Requirements

Feasibility

Planning

Design

Construct

Test

Turnover

Figure 2-13. Example of Predictive Life Cycle

2 - ORGANIZATIONAL INFLUENCES AND PROJECT LIFE CYCLE

When the project is initiated, the project team will focus on defining the overall scope for the product and
project, develop a plan to deliver the product (and any associated deliverables), and then proceed through phases
to execute the plan within that scope. Changes to the project scope are carefully managed and require re planning
and formal acceptance of the new scope.

Predictive life cycles are generally preferred when the product to be delivered is well understood, there is
a substantial base of industry practice, or where a product is required to be delivered in full to have value to
stakeholder groups.
Even projects with predictive life cycles may use the concept of rolling wave planning, where a more general,
high-level plan is available and more detailed planning is executed for appropriate time windows, as new work
activities are approaching and resources are to be assigned.

2.4.2.3 Iterative and Incremental Life Cycles
Iterative and incremental life cycles are ones in which project phases (also called iterations) intentionally repeat
one or more project activities as the project team’s understanding of the product increases. Iterations develop the
product through a series of repeated cycles, while increments successively add to the functionality of the product.
These life cycles develop the product both iteratively and incrementally.
Iterative and incremental projects may proceed in phases, and the iterations themselves will be performed in a
sequential or overlapping fashion. During an iteration, activities from all Project Management Process Groups will
be performed. At the end of each iteration, a deliverable or set of deliverables will be completed. Future iterations
may enhance those deliverables or create new ones. Each iteration incrementally builds the deliverables until the
exit criteria for the phase are met, allowing the project team to incorporate feedback.
In most iterative life cycles, a high-level vision will be developed for the overall undertaking, but the detailed
scope is elaborated one iteration at a time. Often the planning for the next iteration is carried out as work progresses
on the current iteration’s scope and deliverables. The work required for a given set of deliverables may vary in
duration and effort, and the project team may change between or during iterations. Those deliverables that are not
addressed within the scope of the current iteration are typically scoped at a high level only and may be tentatively
assigned to a specific future iteration. Changes to the scope of an iteration are carefully managed once work begins.

2 - ORGANIZATIONAL INFLUENCES AND PROJECT LIFE CYCLE

Iterative and incremental life cycles are generally preferred when an organization needs to manage changing
objectives and scope, to reduce the complexity of a project, or when the partial delivery of a product is beneficial
and provides value for one or more stakeholder groups without impact to the final deliverable or set of deliverables.
Large and complex projects are frequently executed in an iterative fashion to reduce risk by allowing the team to
incorporate feedback and lessons learned between iterations.

2.4.2.4 Adaptive Life Cycles
Adaptive life cycles (also known as change-driven or agile methods) are intended to respond to high levels
of change and ongoing stakeholder involvement. Adaptive methods are also iterative and incremental, but differ
in that iterations are very rapid (usually with a duration of 2 to 4 weeks) and are fixed in time and cost. Adaptive
projects generally perform several processes in each iteration, although early iterations may concentrate more on
planning activities.
The overall scope of the project will be decomposed into a set of requirements and work to be performed,
sometimes referred to as a product backlog. At the beginning of an iteration, the team will work to determine
how many of the highest priority items on the backlog list can be delivered within the next iteration. At the end of
each iteration, the product should be ready for review by the customer. This does not mean that the customer is
required to accept delivery, just that the product should not include unfinished, incomplete, or unusable features.
The sponsor and customer representatives should be continuously engaged with the project to provide feedback
on deliverables as they are created and to ensure that the product backlog reflects their current needs.
Adaptive methods are generally preferred when dealing with a rapidly changing environment, when requirements
and scope are difficult to define in advance, and when it is possible to define small incremental improvements that
will deliver value to stakeholders.

3 - PROJECT MANAGEMENT PROCESSES

3
PROJECT MANAGEMENT PROCESSES

Project management is the application of knowledge, skills, tools, and techniques to project activities to meet the
project requirements. This application of knowledge requires the effective management of the project management
processes.
A process is a set of interrelated actions and activities performed to create a pre-specified product, service, or
result. Each process is characterized by its inputs, the tools and techniques that can be applied, and the resulting
outputs. As explained in Section 2, the project manager needs to consider organizational process assets and
enterprise environmental factors. These should be taken into account for every process, even if they are not
explicitly listed as inputs in the process specification. Organizational process assets provide guidelines and criteria
for tailoring the organization’s processes to the specific needs of the project. Enterprise environmental factors may
constrain the project management options.
In order for a project to be successful, the project team should:
• Select appropriate processes required to meet the project objectives;
• Use a defined approach that can be adapted to meet requirements;
• Establish and maintain appropriate communication and engagement with stakeholders;
• Comply with requirements to meet stakeholder needs and expectations; and
alance the competing constraints of scope, schedule, budget, quality, resources, and risk to produce the
• B
specified product, service, or result.
The project processes are performed by the project team with stakeholder interaction and generally fall into one
of two major categories:
• P
roject management processes. These processes ensure the effective flow of the project throughout
its life cycle. These processes encompass the tools and techniques involved in applying the skills and
capabilities described in the Knowledge Areas (Sections 4 through 13).
• Product-oriented processes. These processes specify and create the project’s product. Productoriented processes are typically defined by the project life cycle (as discussed in Section 2.4) and vary
by application area as well as the phase of the product life cycle. The scope of the project cannot be
defined without some basic understanding of how to create the specified product. For example, various
construction techniques and tools need to be considered when determining the overall complexity of the
house to be built.

3 - PROJECT MANAGEMENT PROCESSES

The PMBOK® Guide describes only the project management processes. Although product-oriented processes
are outside the scope of this document, they should not be ignored by the project manager and project team. Project
management processes and product-oriented processes overlap and interact throughout the life of a project.
Project management processes apply globally and across industry groups. Good practice means there is general
agreement that the application of project management processes has been shown to enhance the chances of
success over a wide range of projects. Good practice does not mean that the knowledge, skills, and processes
described should always be applied uniformly on all projects. For any given project, the project manager, in
collaboration with the project team, is always responsible for determining which processes are appropriate, and
the appropriate degree of rigor for each process.
Project managers and their teams should carefully address each process and its inputs and outputs and
determine which are applicable to the project they are working on. The PMBOK® Guide may be used as a resource
in managing a project while considering the overall approach and methodology to be followed for the project. This
effort is known as tailoring.
Project management is an integrative undertaking that requires each project and product process to be
appropriately aligned and connected with the other processes to facilitate coordination. Actions taken during one
process typically affect that process and other related processes. For example, a scope change typically affects
project cost, but it may not affect the communications management plan or level of risk. These process interactions
often require tradeoffs among project requirements and objectives, and the specific performance tradeoffs will vary
from project to project and organization to organization. Successful project management includes actively managing
these interactions to meet sponsor, customer, and other stakeholder requirements. In some circumstances, a
process or set of processes will need to be iterated several times in order to achieve the required outcome.
Projects exist within an organization and do not operate as a closed system. They require input data from the
organization and beyond, and deliver capabilities back to the organization. The project processes may generate
information to improve the management of future projects and organizational process assets.
The PMBOK® Guide describes the nature of project management processes in terms of the integration between
the processes, their interactions, and the purposes they serve. Project management processes are grouped into five
categories known as Project Management Process Groups (or Process Groups):

3 - PROJECT MANAGEMENT PROCESSES

• Initiating Process Group. Those processes performed to define a new project or a new phase of an
existing project by obtaining authorization to start the project or phase.
• P
lanning Process Group. Those processes required to establish the scope of the project, refine the
objectives, and define the course of action required to attain the objectives that the project was undertaken
to achieve.
• E xecuting Process Group. Those processes performed to complete the work defined in the project
management plan to satisfy the project specifications.

• M
onitoring and Controlling Process Group. Those processes required to track, review, and regulate the
progress and performance of the project; identify any areas in which changes to the plan are required;
and initiate the corresponding changes.
• Closing Process Group. Those processes performed to finalize all activities across all Process Groups to
formally close the project or phase.
The remainder of this section provides information for project management of a single project organized as
a network of interlinked processes, details the project management processes, and includes the following major
sections:
3.1 Common Project Management Process Interactions
3.2 Project Management Process Groups
3.3 Initiating Process Group
3.4 Planning Process Group
3.5 Executing Process Group
3.6 Monitoring and Controlling Process Group
3.7 Closing Process Group
3.8 Project Information
3.9 Role of the Knowledge Areas
3.10 The Standard for Project Management of a Project

3 - PROJECT MANAGEMENT PROCESSES

3.1 Common Project Management Process Interactions
The project management processes are presented as discrete elements with well-defined interfaces. However,
in practice they overlap and interact in ways that are not completely detailed in this document. Most experienced
project management practitioners recognize there is more than one way to manage a project. The required Process
Groups and their processes are guides for applying appropriate project management knowledge and skills during
the project. The application of the project management processes is iterative, and many processes are repeated
during the project.
The integrative nature of project management requires the Monitoring and Controlling Process Group to interact
with the other Process Groups, as shown in Figure 3-1. Monitoring and Controlling processes occur at the same
time as processes contained within other Process Groups. Thus, the Monitoring and Controlling Process is pictured
as a “background” Process Group for the other four Process Groups shown in Figure 3-1.

Monitoring &
Controlling Processes
Planning
Processes

Enter Phase/
Start project

Initiating
Processes

Closing
Processes

Exit Phase/
End project

Executing
Processes

Figure 3-1. Project Management Process Groups

3 - PROJECT MANAGEMENT PROCESSES

Project Management Process Groups are linked by the outputs which are produced. The Process Groups are
seldom either discrete or one-time events; they are overlapping activities that occur throughout the project. The
output of one process generally becomes an input to another process or is a deliverable of the project, subproject, or
project phase. Deliverables at the subproject or project level may be called incremental deliverables. The Planning
Process Group provides the Executing Process Group with the project management plan and project documents,
and, as the project progresses, it often creates updates to the project management plan and the project documents.
Figure 3-2 illustrates how the Process Groups interact and shows the level of overlap at various times. If the project
is divided into phases, the Process Groups interact within each phase.

Initiating
Process
Group

Planning
Process
Group

Executing
Process
Group

Monitoring
and Controlling
Process Group

Closing
Process
Group

Level of
Process
Interaction

Start

Finish

TIME

Figure 3-2. Process Groups Interact in a Phase or Project
An example of this interaction is the exit of a design phase, which requires sponsor acceptance of the design
document. Once it is available, the design document provides the product description for the Planning and Executing
Process Groups in one or more subsequent phases. When a project is divided into phases, the Process Groups are
used, as appropriate, to effectively drive the project to completion in a controlled manner. In multiphase projects,
processes are repeated within each phase until the criteria for phase completion have been satisfied. Additional
information on project organization, life cycles, and project phases is provided in Section 2.

3 - PROJECT MANAGEMENT PROCESSES

3.2 Project Management Process Groups
The following sections identify and describe the five Project Management Process Groups required for any
project. These five Process Groups have clear dependencies and are typically performed in each project and
highly interact with one another. These five Process Groups are independent of application areas or industry focus.
Individual Process Groups and individual processes are often iterated prior to completing the project and can have
interactions within a Process Group and among Process Groups. The nature of these interactions varies from project
to project and may or may not be performed in a particular order.
The process flow diagram, Figure 3-3, provides an overall summary of the basic flow and interactions
among Process Groups and specific stakeholders. The project management processes are linked by specific
inputs and outputs where the result or outcome of one process becomes the input to another process but not
necessarily in the same Process Group. The Process Groups are not project life cycle phases. In fact, it is
possible that all Process Groups could be conducted within a phase. As projects are separated into distinct phases
or subcomponents, such as concept development feasibility study, design, prototype, build, or test, etc., all of the
Process Groups would normally be repeated for each phase or subcomponent along the lines explained previously
and illustrated in Figure 3-2.
The project management processes are shown in the Process Group in which most of the related activities takes
place. For example, a process that normally takes place in the planning phase is put into the Planning Process
Group. When this process is updated by an Executing Process Group process or activity, it is not considered a new
process within the Executing Process Group but is still a Planning Process Group process or activity. The iterative
nature of project management means that processes from any group may be reused throughout the project life
cycle. For example, in response to a risk event, executing a risk response may trigger further analysis, which leads
to another iteration of the Identify Risks process and the associated Perform Quantitative Risk Analysis and Perform
Quantitative Risk Analysis processes to evaluate the impact.

3 - PROJECT MANAGEMENT PROCESSES

Project Initiator
or Sponsor

• Project statement of work
• Business case
• Agreements

Initiating
Process
Group

• Stakeholder
register
• Stakeholder
management
strategy

• Project
charter

Planning
Process
Group

• Organizational
process assets
• Enterprise
environmental
factors

Project
Documents

Enterprise/
Organization

• Requirements

• Final product,
service or result

• Project
management
plan

Monitoring
and
Controlling
Process
Group

• Make-or-buy
decisions
• Source selection
criteria

• Resource
calendars

• Teaming
agreements

Customer

• Procurement
documents

Executing
Process
Group

• Seller
proposals
• Procurement
contract award

Sellers

Closing
Process
Group

• Approved change
requests
• Quality control
measurements
• Performance reports

• Deliverables
• Change requests
• Work performance information
• Selected sellers

• Accepted deliverables
• Procurement documentation

NOTE: The darker dotted lines represent relationships between Process Groups; the lighter dotted lines are external to the Process Groups.

Figure 3-3. Project Management Process Interactions

3 - PROJECT MANAGEMENT PROCESSES

3.3 Initiating Process Group
The Initiating Process Group consists of those processes performed to define a new project or a new phase
of an existing project by obtaining authorization to start the project or phase. Within the Initiating processes, the
initial scope is defined and initial financial resources are committed. Internal and external stakeholders who
will interact and influence the overall outcome of the project are identified. If not already assigned, the project
manager will be selected. This information is captured in the project charter and stakeholder register. When the
project charter is approved, the project becomes officially authorized. Although the project management team may
help write the project charter, this standard assumes that business case assessment, approval, and funding are
handled externally to the project boundaries (Figure 3-4). A project boundary is defined as the point in time that
a project or project phase is authorized to its completion. The key purpose of this Process Group is to align the
stakeholders’ expectations with the project’s purpose, give them visibility about the scope and objectives, show
how their participation in the project and it associated phases can ensure that their expectations are achieved.
These processes help set the vision of the project—what is needed to be accomplished.

Project
Boundaries
Monitoring &
Controlling Processes
Planning
Processes

Project
Initiator/
Sponsor

Project
Inputs

Initiating
Processes

Project
Deliverables

End
Users

Project
Records

Process
Assets

Closing
Processes

Executing
Processes

Figure 3-4. Project Boundaries
Large complex projects should be divided into separate phases. In such projects, the Initiating processes are
carried out during subsequent phases to validate the decisions made during the original Develop Project Charter
and Identify Stakeholders processes. Performing the Initiating processes at the start of each phase helps to keep
the project focused on the business need that the project was undertaken to address. The success criteria are
verified, and the influence, drivers and objectives of the project stakeholders are reviewed. A decision is then
made as to whether the project should be continued, delayed, or discontinued.

3 - PROJECT MANAGEMENT PROCESSES

Involving the sponsors, customers, and other stakeholders during initiation creates a shared understanding of
success criteria, reduces the overhead of involvement, and generally improves deliverable acceptance, customer
satisfaction, and other stakeholder satisfaction.
Initiating processes may be performed at the organizational, program, or portfolio level and therefore, would
be outside of the project’s level of control. For example, prior to commencing a project, the need for high-level
requirements may be documented as part of a larger organizational initiative. A process of evaluating alternatives
may be utilized to determine the feasibility of the new undertaking. Clear descriptions of the project objectives may
be developed, including the reasons why a specific project is the best alternative to satisfy the requirements. The
documentation for this decision may also contain the initial project scope statement, deliverables, project duration,
and a forecast of the resources for the organization’s investment analysis. As part of the Initiating processes, the
project manager is given the authority to apply organizational resources to the subsequent project activities.

3.4 Planning Process Group
The Planning Process Group consists of those processes performed to establish the total scope of the effort,
define and refine the objectives, and develop the course of action required to attain those objectives. The Planning
processes develop the project management plan and the project documents that will be used to carry out the
project. The complex nature of project management may require the use of repeated feedback loops for additional
analysis. As more project information or characteristics are gathered and understood, additional planning will
likely be required. Significant changes occurring throughout the project life cycle trigger a need to revisit one
or more of the planning processes and possibly some of the initiating processes. This progressive detailing of
the project management plan is called progressive elaboration, indicating that planning and documentation are
iterative and ongoing activities. The key benefit of this Process Group is to delineate the strategy and tactics as
well as the course of action or path to successfully complete the project or phase. When the Planning Process
Group is well managed, it is much easier to get stakeholder buy-in and engagement. These processes express
how this will be done, setting the route to the desired objective.
The project management plan and project documents developed as outputs from the Planning Process Group
will explore all aspects of the scope, time, cost, quality, communications, human resources, risks, procurements,
and stakeholder engagement.

3 - PROJECT MANAGEMENT PROCESSES

Updates arising from approved changes during the project (generally during Monitoring and Controlling
processes and specifically during the Direct and Manage Project Work Process) may significantly impact parts of
the project management plan and the project documents. Updates to these documents provide greater precision
with respect to schedule, costs, and resource requirements to meet the defined project scope.
The project team seeks input and encourages involvement from all stakeholders when planning the project
and developing the project management plan and project documents. While the act of collecting feedback and
refining the documents cannot continue indefinitely, procedures set by the organization dictate when the initial
planning ends. These procedures will be affected by the nature of the project, the established project boundaries,
appropriate monitoring and controlling activities, as well as the environment in which the project will be performed.
Other interactions among the processes within the Planning Process Group are dependent upon the nature of
the project. For example, for some projects there will be little or no identifiable risks until after a significant amount
of planning has been done. At that time, the team might recognize that the cost and schedule targets are overly
aggressive, thus involving considerably more risk than previously understood. The results of the iterations are
documented as updates to the project management plan or to various project documents.

3.5 Executing Process Group
The Executing Process Group consists of those processes performed to complete the work defined in the
project management plan to satisfy the project specifications. This Process Group involves coordinating people and
resources, managing stakeholder expectations, as well as integrating and performing the activities of the project in
accordance with the project management plan.
During project execution, results may require planning updates and rebaselining. This may include changes
to expected activity durations, changes in resource productivity and availability, and unanticipated risks. Such
variances may affect the project management plan or project documents and may require detailed analysis and
development of appropriate project management responses. The results of the analysis can trigger change requests
that, if approved, may modify the project management plan or other project documents and possibly require
establishing new baselines. A large portion of the project’s budget will be expended in performing the Executing
Process Group processes.

3 - PROJECT MANAGEMENT PROCESSES

3.6 Monitoring and Controlling Process Group
The Monitoring and Controlling Process Group consists of those processes required to track, review, and
orchestrate the progress and performance of the project; identify any areas in which changes to the plan are
required; and initiate the corresponding changes. The key benefit of this Process Group is that project performance
is measured and analyzed at regular intervals, appropriate events, or exception conditions to identify variances
from the project management plan. The Monitoring and Controlling Process Group also involves:

• C
ontrolling changes and recommending corrective or preventive action in anticipation of possible
problems,
• M
onitoring the ongoing project activities against the project management plan and the project
performance measurement baseline, and
• Influencing the factors that could circumvent integrated change control or configuration management
so only approved changes are implemented.
This continuous monitoring provides the project team insight into the health of the project and identifies any
areas requiring additional attention. The Monitoring and Controlling Process Group not only monitors and controls
the work being done within a Process Group, but also monitors and controls the entire project effort. In multiphase
projects, the Monitoring and Controlling Process Group coordinates project phases in order to implement corrective
or preventive actions to bring the project into compliance with the project management plan. This review can result
in recommended and approved updates to the project management plan. For example, a missed activity finish date
may require adjustments and trade-offs between budget and schedule objectives. In order to reduce or control
overhead, management-by-exception procedures and other techniques can be appropriately considered.

3.7 Closing Process Group
The Closing Process Group consists of those processes performed to conclude all activities across all Project
Management Process Groups to formally complete the project, phase, or contractual obligations. This Process
Group, when completed, verifies that the defined processes are completed within all of the Process Groups to close
the project or a project phase, as appropriate, and formally establishes that the project or project phase is complete.

3 - PROJECT MANAGEMENT PROCESSES

This Process Group also formally establishes the premature closure of the project. Prematurely closed projects
may include, for example: aborted projects, cancelled projects, and projects having a critical situation. In specific
cases, when some contracts cannot be formally closed (e.g. claims, termination clauses, etc.) or some activities
are to be transferred to other organizational units, specific hand-over procedures may be arranged and finalized.
At project or phase closure, the following may occur:
• Obtain acceptance by the customer or sponsor to formally close the project or phase,
• Conduct post-project or phase-end review,
• Record impacts of tailoring to any process,
• Document lessons learned,
• Apply appropriate updates to organizational process assets,
• A rchive all relevant project documents in the project management information system (PMIS) to be used
as historical data,
• Close out all procurement activities ensuring termination of all relevant agreements, and
• Perform team members’ assessments and release project resources.

3.8 Project Information
Throughout the life cycle of the project, a significant amount of data and information is collected, analyzed,
transformed, and distributed in various formats to project team members and other stakeholders. Project data are
collected as a result of various Executing processes and are shared within the project team. The collected data
are analyzed in context, and aggregated and transformed to become project information during various Controlling
processes. The information may then be communicated verbally or stored and distributed as reports in various
formats.
The project data are continuously collected and analyzed during the dynamic context of the project execution.
As a result, the terms data and information are often used interchangeably in practice. The indiscriminate use
of these terms can lead to confusion and misunderstandings by the various project stakeholders. The following
guidelines help minimize miscommunication and help the project team use appropriate terminology:

3 - PROJECT MANAGEMENT PROCESSES

• W
ork performance data. The raw observations and measurements identified during activities performed
to carry out the project work. Examples include reported percent of work physically completed, quality
and technical performance measures, start and finish dates of schedule activities, number of change
requests, number of defects, actual costs, actual durations, etc.
• W
ork performance information. The performance data collected from various controlling processes,
analyzed in context and integrated based on relationships across areas. Examples of performance
information are status of deliverables, implementation status for change requests, and forecasted
estimates to complete.

• W
ork performance reports. The physical or electronic representation of work performance information
compiled in project documents, intended to generate decisions or raise issues, actions, or awareness.
Examples include status reports, memos, justifications, information notes, electronic dashboards,
recommendations, and updates.
Figure 3-5 illustrates the flow of project information across the various processes used to manage the project.

Project
Execution
Work Performance Data

Controlling
Processes
Work Performance Information
Project
Management
Plan Updates

Overall
Project
Control
Work Performance Reports

Project
Change
Control

Change
Requests

Project
Management
Plan

Project
Communications

Project Team Members
Reports
Project Stakeholders

Figure 3-5. Project Data, Information and Report Flow

3 - PROJECT MANAGEMENT PROCESSES

3.9 Role of the Knowledge Areas
The 47 project management processes identified in the PMBOK® Guide are further grouped into ten separate
Knowledge Areas. A Knowledge Area represents a complete set of concepts, terms, and activities that make up
a professional field, project management field, or area of specialization. These ten Knowledge Areas are used on
most projects most of the time. Project teams should utilize these ten Knowledge Areas and other Knowledge Areas,
as appropriate, for their specific project. The Knowledge Areas are: Project Integration Management, Project Scope
Management, Project Time Management, Project Quality Management, Project Human Resource Management,
Project Communications Management, Project Risk Management, Project Procurement Management and Project
Stakeholder Management. Each Knowledge Area within the PMBOK® Guide is contained in a separate section.
The PMBOK® Guide defines the important aspects of each Knowledge Area and how it integrates with the
five Process Groups. As supporting elements, the Knowledge Areas provide a detailed description of the process
inputs and outputs along with a descriptive explanation of tools and techniques most frequently used within the
project management processes to produce each outcome. A data flow diagram is provided in each Knowledge
Area (Sections 4 through 8). The data flow diagram is a summary level depiction of the process inputs and process
outputs that flow down through all the processes within a specific Knowledge Area (see Figure 3-6 for data flow
diagram legend). Although the processes are presented here as discrete elements with well-defined interfaces, in
practice they are iterative and can overlap and interact in ways not detailed here.
Table 3-1 reflects the mapping of the 47 project management processes within the 5 Project Management
Process Groups and the 10 Knowledge Areas.

Process outside of
Knowledge Area

External to a Process
Processes within a
Knowledge Area

Inter-knowledge area relationships
Extra-knowledge area relationships
Process flow

The data flow diagrams show basic steps and interactions. Many additional interactions are possible.

Figure 3-6. Data Flow Diagram Legend

3 - PROJECT MANAGEMENT PROCESSES

Table 3-1. Project Management Process Group and Knowledge Area Mapping
Project Management Process Groups
Knowledge Areas

4. Project
Integration
Management

Initiating
Process
Group
4.1 Develop
Project Charter

Planning
Process
Group
4.2 Develop Project
Management Plan

Executing
Process
Group

Monitoring
and Controlling
Process Group

Closing
Process
Group

4.3 Direct and
Manage Project
Work

4.4 Monitor and
Control Project
Work
4.5 Perform
Integrated Change
Control

4.6 Close Project
or Phase

5. Project Scope
Management

5.1 Plan Scope
Management
5.2 Collect
Requirements
5.3 Define Scope
5.4 Create WBS

5.5 Validate Scope
5.6 Control Scope

6. Project Time
Management

6.1 Plan Schedule
Management
6.2 Define
Activities
6.3 Sequence
Activities
6.4 Estimate
Activity Resources
6.5 Estimate
Activity Durations
6.6 Develop
Schedule

6.7 Control
Schedule

7. Project Cost
Management

7.1 Plan Cost
Management
7.2 Estimate Costs
7.3 Determine
Budget

7.4 Control Costs

8. Project
Quality
Management

8.1 Plan Quality
Management

8.2 Perform Quality
Assurance

9. Project
Human Resource
Management

9.1 Plan Human
Resource
Management

9.2 Acquire Project
Team
9.3 Develop Project
Team
9.4 Manage Project
Team

10. Project
Communications
Management

10.1 Plan
Communications
Management

10.2 Manage
Communications

11. Project Risk
Management

11.1 Plan Risk
Management
11.2 Identify Risks
11.3 Perform
Qualitative Risk
Analysis
11.4 Perform
Quantitative Risk
Analysis
11.5 Plan Risk
Responses

12. Project
Procurement
Management

12.1 Plan
Procurement
Management

12.2 Conduct
Procurements

12.3 Control
Procurements

13.2 Plan
Stakeholder
Management

13.3 Manage
Stakeholder
Engagement

13.4 Control
Stakeholder
Engagement

13. Project
Stakeholder
Management

13.1 Identify
Stakeholders

8.3 Control Quality

10.3 Control
Communications

11.6 Control Risks

12.4 Close
Procurements

4 - PROJECT INTEGRATION MANAGEMENT

4
PROJECT INTEGRATION MANAGEMENT
Project Integration Management includes the processes and activities to identify, define, combine, unify, and
coordinate the various processes and project management activities within the Project Management Process
Groups. In the project management context, integration includes characteristics of unification, consolidation,
communication, and integrative actions that are crucial to controlled project execution through completion,
successfully managing stakeholder expectations, and meeting requirements. Project Integration Management
includes making choices about resource allocation, making trade-offs among competing objectives and
alternatives, and managing the interdependencies among the project management Knowledge Areas. The
project management processes are usually presented as discrete processes with defined interfaces while, in
practice, they overlap and interact in ways that cannot be completely detailed in the PMBOK® Guide.

Figure 4-1 provides an overview of the Project Integration Management processes, which are as follows:
4.1 Develop Project Charter—The process of developing a document that formally authorizes the
existence of a project and provides the project manager with the authority to apply organizational
resources to project activities.
4.2 Develop Project Management Plan—The process of defining, preparing, and coordinating all
subsidiary plans and integrating them into a comprehensive project management plan. The project’s
integrated baselines and subsidiary plans may be included within the project management plan.
4.3 Direct and Manage Project Work—The process of leading and performing the work defined in the
project management plan and implementing approved changes to achieve the project’s objectives.
4.4 Monitor and Control Project Work—The process of tracking, reviewing, and reporting project
progress against the performance objectives defined in the project management plan.
4.5 Perform Integrated Change Control—The process of reviewing all change requests; approving
changes and managing changes to deliverables, organizational process assets, project documents,
and the project management plan; and communicating their disposition.
4.6 Close Project or Phase—The process of finalizing all activities across all of the Project Management
Process Groups to formally complete the phase or project.

4 - PROJECT INTEGRATION MANAGEMENT

These processes interact with each other and with processes in other Knowledge Areas as described in detail
in Section 3 and Annex A1.
The need for Project Integration Management is necessary in situations where individual processes interact.
For example, a cost estimate needed for a contingency plan involves integrating the processes in the Project Cost,
Time, and Risk Management Knowledge Areas. When additional risks associated with various staffing alternatives
are identified, then one or more of those processes may be revisited. The project deliverables may also need
integrating with ongoing operations of the performing organization, the requesting organization, and with the
long-term strategic planning that takes future problems and opportunities into consideration. Project Integration
Management also includes the activities needed to manage project documents to ensure consistency with the
project management plan and product, service, or capability deliverables.
Most experienced project management practitioners know there is no single way to manage a project. They
apply project management knowledge, skills, and required processes in a preferred order and with varying rigor to
achieve the desired project performance. However, the determination that a particular process is not required does
not mean that it should not be addressed. The project manager and project team need to address every process and
the project environment to determine the level of implementation for each process within the project. If a project
has more than one phase, the level of rigor applied within each of the project phases should be appropriate for each
phase. This determination is also addressed by the project manager and project team.
The integrative nature of projects and project management can be understood by thinking of other types of
activities performed while completing a project. Examples of some activities performed by the project management
team are:
evelop, review, analyze, and understand the scope. This includes the project and product requirements,
• D
criteria, assumptions, constraints, and other influences related to a project, and how each will be managed
or addressed within the project;
• T ransform the collected project information into a project management plan using a structured approach
as described in the PMBOK® Guide;
• Perform activities to produce project deliverables; and
• Measure and monitor the project’s progress and take appropriate action to meet project objectives.

4 - PROJECT INTEGRATION MANAGEMENT

The links among the processes in the Project Management Process Groups are often iterative in nature. For
example, the Planning Process Group provides the Executing Process Group with a documented project management
plan early in the project and then updates the project management plan if changes occur as the project progresses.
Project Integration
Management Overview

4.1 Develop Project
Charter

4.2 Develop Project
Management Plan

4.3 Direct and Manage
Project Work

.1 Inputs
.1 Project statement of work
.2 Business case
.3 Agreements
.4 Enterprise environmental
factors
.5 Organizational process assets

.1 Inputs
.1 Project charter
.2 Outputs from other
processes
.3 Enterprise environmental
factors
.4 Organizational process assets

.1 Inputs
.1 Project management plan
.2 Approved change requests
.3 Enterprise environmental
factors
.4 Organizational process assets

.2 Tools & Techniques
.1 Expert judgment
.2 Facilitation techniques

.3 Outputs
.1 Project charter

.3 Outputs
.1 Project management plan

4.4 Monitor and Control
Project Work

4.5 Perform Integrated
Change Control

.1 Inputs
.1 Project management plan
.2 Schedule forecasts
.3 Cost forecasts
.4 Validated changes
.5 Work performance
information
.6 Enterprise environmental
factors
.7 Organizational process assets

.1 Inputs
.1 Project management plan
.2 Work performance reports
.3 Change requests
.4 Enterprise environmental
factors
.5 Organizational process assets

.2 Tools & Techniques
.1 Expert judgment
.2 Analytical techniques
.3 Project management
information system
.4 Meetings
.3 Outputs
.1 Change requests
.2 Work performance reports
.3 Project management plan
updates
.4 Project documents updates

.2 Tools & Techniques
.1 Expert judgment
.2 Meetings
.3 Change control tools
.3 Outputs
.1 Approved change requests
.2 Change log
.3 Project management plan
updates
.4 Project documents
updates

.2 Tools & Techniques
.1 Expert judgment
.2 Project management
information system
.3 Meetings
.3 Outputs
.1 Deliverables
.2 Work performance data
.3 Change requests
.4 Project management plan
updates
.5 Project documents updates

4.6 Close Project or
Phase
.1 Inputs
.1 Project management plan
.2 Accepted deliverables
.3 Organizational process assets
.2 Tools & Techniques
.1 Expert judgment
.2 Analytical techniques
.3 Meetings
.3 Outputs
.1 Final product, service, or
result transition
.2 Organizational process assets
updates

Figure 4-1. Project Integration Management Overview

4 - PROJECT INTEGRATION MANAGEMENT

4.1 Develop Project Charter
Develop Project Charter is the process of developing a document that formally authorizes the existence of a
project and provides the project manager with the authority to apply organizational resources to project activities.
The key benefit of this process is a well-defined project start and project boundaries, creation of a formal record of
the project, and a direct way for senior management to formally accept and commit to the project. The inputs, tools
and techniques, and outputs for this process are shown in Figure 4-2. Figure 4-3 depicts the data flow diagram of
the process.
Inputs
.1
.2
.3
.4

Project statement of work
Business case
Agreements
Enterprise environmental
factors
.5 Organizational process
assets

Tools & Techniques
.1 Expert judgment
.2 Facilitation techniques

Outputs
.1 Project charter

Figure 4-2. Develop Project Charter: Inputs, Tools and Techniques, and Outputs

4 - PROJECT INTEGRATION MANAGEMENT

5.1
Plan Scope
Management

5.2
Collect
Requirements

Project Integration Management

Project Initiator/
Sponsor

• Agreements
• Business case
• Project statement
of work
• Organizational process
assets
• Enterprise
environmental factors

Enterprise/
Organization

4.1
Develop Project
Charter

5.3
Define Scope
• Project
charter

4.2
Develop Project
Management
Plan

6.1
Plan Schedule
Management

7.1
Plan Cost
Management

11.1
Plan Risk
Management

13.1
Identify
Stakeholders

Figure 4-3. Develop Project Charter Data Flow Diagram
The project charter establishes a partnership between the performing and requesting organizations. In the
case of external projects, a formal contract is typically the preferred way to establish an agreement. In this
case, the project team becomes the seller responding to conditions of an offer to buy from an outside entity.
A project charter is still used to establish internal agreements within an organization to assure proper delivery
under the contract. The approved project charter formally initiates the project. A project manager is identified
and assigned as early in the project as is feasible, preferably while the project charter is being developed and
always prior to the start of planning. The project charter should be authored by the sponsoring entity. The project
charter provides the project manager with the authority to plan and execute the project. It is recommended
that the project manager participate in the development of the project charter to obtain a foundational
understanding of the project requirements. This understanding will better allow for efficient resources allocation
to project activities.

4 - PROJECT INTEGRATION MANAGEMENT

Projects are initiated by an entity external to the project such as a sponsor, program or project management
office (PMO) staff person, or a portfolio governing body chairperson or authorized representative. The project
initiator or sponsor should be at the level that is appropriate to procure funding and commit resources to the
project. Projects are initiated due to internal business needs or external influences. These needs or influences
often trigger the creation of a needs analysis, feasibility study, business case, or description of the situation that
the project will address. Chartering a project validates alignment of the project to the strategy and ongoing work of
the organization. A project charter is not considered to be a contract, because there is no consideration or money
promised or exchanged in its creation.

4.1.1 Develop Project Charter: Inputs
4.1.1.1 Project Statement of Work
The project statement of work (SOW) is a narrative description of products, services, or results to be delivered
by a project. For internal projects, the project initiator or sponsor provides the statement of work based on business
needs, product, or service requirements. For external projects, the statement of work can be received from the
customer as part of a bid document, (e.g., a request for proposal, request for information, or request for bid) or as
part of a contract. The SOW references the following:
• Business need. An organization’s business need may be based on a market demand, technological
advance, legal requirement, government regulation, or environmental consideration. Typically, the
business need and the cost-benefit analysis are contained in the business case to justify the project.
• P
roduct scope description. The product scope description documents the characteristics of the product,
service, or results that the project will be undertaken to create. The description should also document
the relationship between the products, services, or results being created and the business need that the
project will address.
trategic plan. The strategic plan documents the organization’s strategic vision, goals, and objectives
• S
and may contain a high-level mission statement. All projects should be aligned with their organization’s
strategic plan. Strategic plan alignment ensures that each project contributes to the overall objections of
the organization.

4 - PROJECT INTEGRATION MANAGEMENT

4.1.1.2 Business Case
The business case or similar document describes the necessary information from a business standpoint to
determine whether or not the project is worth the required investment. It is commonly used for decision making
by managers or executives above the project level. Typically, the business need and the cost-benefit analysis are
contained in the business case to justify and establish boundaries for the project, and such analysis is usually
completed by a business analyst using various stakeholder inputs. The sponsor should agree to the scope and
limitations of the business case. The business case is created as a result of one or more of the following:

arket demand (e.g., a car company authorizing a project to build more fuel-efficient cars in response
• M
to gasoline shortages),
• O
rganizational need (e.g., due to high overhead costs a company may combine staff functions and
streamline processes to reduce costs.),
• C
ustomer request (e.g., an electric utility authorizing a project to build a new substation to serve a new
industrial park),
• T echnological advance (e.g., an airline authorizing a new project to develop electronic tickets instead of
paper tickets based on technological advances),
• L egal requirement (e.g., a paint manufacturer authorizing a project to establish guidelines for handling
toxic materials),
• Ecological impacts (e.g., a company authorizing a project to lessen its environmental impact), or
• S ocial need (e.g., a nongovernmental organization in a developing country authorizing a project to provide
potable water systems, latrines, and sanitation education to communities suffering from high rates of
cholera).
Each of the examples in this list may contain elements of risk that should be addressed. In the case of multiphase
projects, the business case may be periodically reviewed to ensure that the project is on track to deliver the
business benefits. In the early stages of the project life cycle, periodic review of the business case by the sponsoring
organization also helps to confirm that the project is still aligned with the business case. The project manager is
responsible for ensuring that the project effectively and efficiently meets the goals of the organization and those
requirements of a broad set of stakeholders, as defined in the business case.

4 - PROJECT INTEGRATION MANAGEMENT

4.1.1.3 Agreements
Agreements are used to define initial intentions for a project. Agreements may take the form of contracts,
memorandums of understanding (MOUs), service level agreements (SLA), letter of agreements, letters of intent,
verbal agreements, email, or other written agreements. Typically, a contract is used when a project is being
performed for an external customer.

4.1.1.4 Enterprise Environmental Factors
Described in Section 2.1.5. The enterprise environmental factors that can influence the Develop Project Charter
process include, but are not limited to:
overnmental standards, industry standards, or regulations (e.g. codes of conduct, quality standards,
• G
or worker protection standards),
• Organizational culture and structure, and
• Marketplace conditions.

4.1.1.5 Organizational Process Assets
Described in Section 2.1.4. The organizational process assets that can influence the Develop Project Charter
process include, but are not limited to:
• Organizational standard processes, policies, and process definitions,
• Templates (e.g., project charter template), and
• H
istorical information and lessons learned knowledge base (e.g., projects, records, and documents; all
project closure information and documentation; information about both the results of previous project
selection decisions and previous project performance information; and information from the risk
management activity).

4 - PROJECT INTEGRATION MANAGEMENT

4.1.2 Develop Project Charter: Tools and Techniques
4.1.2.1 Expert Judgment
Expert judgment is often used to assess the inputs used to develop the project charter. Expert judgment is
applied to all technical and management details during this process. Such expertise is provided by any group or
individual with specialized knowledge or training and is available from many sources, including:

4.1.2.2 Facilitation Techniques
Facilitation techniques have broad application within project management processes and guide the
development of the project charter. Brainstorming, conflict resolution, problem solving, and meeting
management are examples of key techniques used by facilitators to help teams and individuals accomplish
project activities.

4.1.3 Develop Project Charter: Outputs
4.1.3.1 Project Charter
The project charter is the document issued by the project initiator or sponsor that formally authorizes the
existence of a project and provides the project manager with the authority to apply organizational resources to
project activities. It documents the business needs, assumptions, constraints, the understanding of the customer’s
needs and high-level requirements, and the new product, service, or result that it is intended to satisfy, such as:

4 - PROJECT INTEGRATION MANAGEMENT

• Project purpose or justification,
• Measurable project objectives and related success criteria,
• High-level requirements,
• Assumptions and constraints,
• High-level project description and boundaries,
• High-level risks,
• Summary milestone schedule,
• Summary budget,
• Stakeholder list,
• Project approval requirements (i.e., what constitutes project success, who decides the project is
successful, and who signs off on the project),
• Assigned project manager, responsibility, and authority level, and
• Name and authority of the sponsor or other person(s) authorizing the project charter.

4.2 Develop Project Management Plan
Develop Project Management Plan is the process of defining, preparing, and coordinating all subsidiary plans
and integrating them into a comprehensive project management plan. The key benefit of this process is a central
document that defines the basis of all project work. The inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs for this process
are depicted in Figure 4-4. Figure 4-5 depicts the data flow diagram of the process.
Inputs
.1 Project charter
.2 Outputs from other
processes
.3 Enterprise environmental
factors
.4 Organizational process
assets

Tools & Techniques
.1 Expert judgment
.2 Facilitation techniques

Outputs
.1 Project management plan

Figure 4-3. Develop Project Charter Data Flow Diagram

4 - PROJECT INTEGRATION MANAGEMENT

5.1
Plan Scope
Management

5.6
Control Scope

Project Integration Management

Enterprise/
Organization

4.1
Develop Project
Charter

• Organizational process
assets
• Enterprise
environmental factors

6.7
Control Schedule

• Project charter

7.1
Plan Cost
Management

4.2
Develop Project
Management
Plan

Outputs from
Other Processes

6.1
Plan Schedule
Management

• Project management plan

7.4
Control Costs

• Communications management plan
• Cost management plan
• Human resource plan
• Procurement management plan
• Process improvement plan
• Quality management plan
• Requirements management plan
• Risk management plan
• Schedule management plan
• Scope management plan
• Stakeholder management plan
• Cost baseline
• Schedule baseline
• Scope baseline
• Project management plan updates

8.1
Plan Quality
Management

4.3
Direct and
Manage
Project Work

9.1
Plan Human
Resource
Management

4.4
Monitor and
Control Project
Work
4.5
Perform
Integrated
Change Control

10.1
Plan
Communications
Management

4.6
Close Project
or Phase

10.3
Control
Communications
11.1
Plan Risk
Management

11.6
Control Risks

12.1
Plan
Procurement
Management

12.3
Control
Procurements

12.4
Close
Procurements

13.2
Plan
Stakeholder
Management

13.4
Control
Stakeholder
Engagement

Figure 4-5. Develop Project Management Plan Data Flow Diagram
©2013 Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide) – Fifth Edition

4 - PROJECT INTEGRATION MANAGEMENT

The project management plan defines how the project is executed, monitored and controlled, and closed. The
project management plan’s content varies depending upon the application area and complexity of the project. It
is developed through a series of integrated processes extending through project closure. This process results in
a project management plan that is progressively elaborated by updates, and controlled and approved through the
Perform Integrated Change Control (Section 4.5) process. Projects that exist in the context of a program should
develop a project management plan that is consistent with the program management plan. For example, if the
program management plan indicates all changes exceeding a specified cost need to be reviewed by the change
control board (CCB), then this process and cost threshold needs to be defined in the project management plan.

4.2.1 Develop Project Management Plan: Inputs
4.2.1.1 Project Charter
Described in Section 4.1.3.1. The size of the project charter varies depending on the complexity of the
project and the information known at the time of its creation. At a minimum, the project charter should define
the high-level boundaries of the project. The project manager uses the project charter as the starting point
for initial planning throughout the Initiating Process Group.

4.2.1.2 Outputs from Other Processes
Outputs from many of the other processes described in Sections 5 through 13 are integrated to create the
project management plan. Any baselines and subsidiary plans that are an output from other planning processes
are inputs to this process. In addition, changes to these documents may necessitate updates to the project
management plan.

4.2.1.3 Enterprise Environmental Factors
Described in Section 2.1.5. The enterprise environmental factors that can influence the Develop Project
Management Plan process include, but are not limited to:
• Governmental or industry standards;
• Project management body of knowledge for vertical market (e.g., construction) and/or focus area
(e.g. environmental, safety, risk, or agile software development);
• P roject management information system (e.g., an automated tool, such as a scheduling software tool, a
configuration management system, an information collection and distribution system, or web interfaces
to other online automated systems);

4 - PROJECT INTEGRATION MANAGEMENT

• Organizational structure, culture, management practices, and sustainability;
• Infrastructure (e.g., existing facilities and capital equipment); and
• P ersonnel administration (e.g., hiring and termination guidelines, employee performance reviews, and
employee development and training records).

4.2.1.4 Organizational Process Assets

Described in Section 2.1.4. The organizational process assets that can influence the Develop Project Management
Plan process include, but are not limited to:
• S tandardized guidelines, work instructions, proposal evaluation criteria, and performance measurement
criteria;
• Project management plan template, including:
○○ G
uidelines and criteria for tailoring the organization’s set of standard processes to satisfy the
specific needs of the project, and
○○ P roject closure guidelines or requirements such as the product validation and acceptance
criteria;
hange control procedures, including the steps by which official organization standards, policies, plans,
• C
and procedures, or any project documents will be modified and how any changes will be approved and
validated;
• P roject files from previous projects (e.g., scope, cost, schedule and performance measurement baselines,
project calendars, project schedule network diagrams, and risk registers,);
• Historical information and lessons learned knowledge base; and
• C
onfiguration management knowledge base containing the versions and baselines of all official
organization standards, policies, procedures, and any project documents.

4 - PROJECT INTEGRATION MANAGEMENT

4.2.2 Develop Project Management Plan: Tools and Techniques
4.2.2.1 Expert Judgment
When developing the project management plan, expert judgment is utilized to:
• Tailor the process to meet the project needs,
• Develop technical and management details to be included in the project management plan,
• Determine resources and skill levels needed to perform project work,
• Define the level of configuration management to apply on the project,
• Determine which project documents will be subject to the formal change control process, and
• P rioritize the work on the project to ensure the project resources are allocated to the appropriate work
at the appropriate time.

4.2.2.2 Facilitation Techniques
Described in Section 4.1.2.2. Facilitation techniques have broad application within project management
processes and are used to guide the development of the project management plan. Brainstorming, conflict
resolution, problem solving, and meeting management are key techniques used by facilitators to help teams and
individuals achieve agreement to accomplish project activities.

4.2.3 Develop Project Management Plan: Outputs
4.2.3.1 Project Management Plan
The project management plan is the document that describes how the project will be executed, monitored, and
controlled. It integrates and consolidates all of the subsidiary plans and baselines from the planning processes.
Project baselines include, but are not limited to:
• Scope baseline (Section 5.4.3.1),
• Schedule baseline (Section 6.6.3.1), and
• Cost baseline (Section 7.3.3.1).

4 - PROJECT INTEGRATION MANAGEMENT

Subsidiary plans include, but are not limited to:
• Scope management plan (Section 5.1.3.1),
• Requirements management plan (Section 5.1.3.2),
• Schedule management plan (Section 6.1.3.1),
• Cost management plan (Section 7.1.3.1),
• Quality management plan (Section 8.1.3.1),

• Process improvement plan (Section 8.1.3.2),
• Human resource management plan (Section 9.1.3.1),
• Communications management plan (Section 10.1.3.1),
• Risk management plan (Section 11.1.3.1),
• Procurement management plan (Section 12.1.3.1), and
• Stakeholder management plan (Section 13.2.3.1).
Among other things, the project management plan may also include the following:
• Life cycle selected for the project and the processes that will be applied to each phase;
• Details of the tailoring decisions specified by the project management team as follows:
○○ Project management processes selected by the project management team,
○○ Level of implementation for each selected process,
○○ Descriptions of the tools and techniques to be used for accomplishing those processes, and
○○ D
escription of how the selected processes will be used to manage the specific project, including
the dependencies and interactions among those processes and the essential inputs and outputs.
• Description of how work will be executed to accomplish the project objectives;
• Change management plan that documents how changes will be monitored and controlled;
• Configuration management plan that documents how configuration management will be performed;
• Description of how the integrity of the project baselines will be maintained;
• Requirements and techniques for communication among stakeholders; and
• K ey management reviews for content, the extent of, and timing to address, open issues and pending
decisions.

4 - PROJECT INTEGRATION MANAGEMENT

The project management plan may be either summary level or detailed, and may be composed of one or more
subsidiary plans. Each of the subsidiary plans is detailed to the extent required by the specific project. Once the
project management plan is baselined, it may only be changed when a change request is generated and approved
through the Perform Integrated Change Control process.
While the project management plan is one of the primary documents used to manage the project, other project
documents are also used. These other documents are not part of the project management plan. Table 4-1 is a
representative list of the project management plan components and project documents.
Table 4-1 Differentiation Between the Project Management Plan and Project Documents
Project Management Plan

Project Documents

Change management plan

Activity attributes

Project staff assignments

Communications management plan

Activity cost estimates

Project statement of work

Configuration management plan

Activity duration estimates

Quality checklists

Cost baseline

Activity list

Quality control measurements

Cost management plan

Activity resource requirements

Quality metrics

Human resource management plan

Agreements

Requirements documentation

Process improvement plan

Basis of estimates

Requirements traceability matrix

Procurement management plan

Change log

Resource breakdown structure

Scope baseline
• Project scope statement
• WBS
• WBS dictionary

Change requests

Resource calendars

Quality management plan

Forecasts
• Cost forecast
• Schedule forecast

Risk register

Requirements management plan

Issue log

Schedule data

Risk management plan

Milestone list

Seller proposals

Schedule baseline

Procurement documents

Source selection criteria

Schedule management plan

Procurement statement of work

Stakeholder register

Scope management plan

Project calendars

Team performance assessments

Stakeholder management plan

Project charter
Project funding requirements
Project schedule
Project schedule network diagrams

Work performance data
Work performance information
Work performance reports

4 - PROJECT INTEGRATION MANAGEMENT

4.3 Direct and Manage Project Work
Direct and Manage Project Work is the process of leading and performing the work defined in the project
management plan and implementing approved changes to achieve the project’s objectives. The key benefit of this
process is that it provides overall management of the project work. The inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs
of this process are depicted in Figure 4-6. Figure 4-7 depicts the data flow diagram of the process.
Inputs
.1 Project management plan
.2 Approved change
requests
.3 Enterprise environmental
factors
.4 Organizational process
assets

Tools & Techniques
.1 Expert judgment
.2 Project management
information system
.3 Meetings

Outputs

.1
.2
.3
.4

Deliverables
Work performance data
Change requests
Project management plan
updates
.5 Project documents
updates

Figure 4-6. Direct and Manage Project Work: Inputs, Tools and Techniques, and Outputs

4 - PROJECT INTEGRATION MANAGEMENT

Project Integration Management
4.5
Perform
Integrated Change
Control

4.2
Develop Project
Management
Plan

• Approved
change requests

• Project
management
plan updates

Enterprise/
Organization
• Organizational process
assets
• Enterprise
environmental factors

• Project
management plan

Project
Documents

8.3
Control
Quality

• Change requests

4.3
Direct and
Manage Project
Work

• Project documents
updates
• Deliverables

• Work
performance
data

10.3
Control
Communications

11.6
Control Risks

12.3
Control
Procurements

5.5
Validate Scope

5.6
Control Scope

6.7
Control Schedule

7.4
Control Costs

13.4
Control
Stakeholder
Engagement

Figure 4-7. Direct and Manage Project Work: Data Flow Diagram
Direct and Manage Project Work activities include, but are not limited to:
• Perform activities to accomplish project objectives;
• Create project deliverables to meet the planned project work;
• Provide, train, and manage the team members assigned to the project;
• Obtain, manage, and use resources including materials, tools, equipment, and facilities;

4 - PROJECT INTEGRATION MANAGEMENT

• Implement the planned methods and standards;
• Establish and manage project communication channels, both external and internal to the project team;
• G
enerate work performance data, such as cost, schedule, technical and quality progress, and status to
facilitate forecasting;
• Issue change requests and implement approved changes into the project’s scope, plans, and environment;
• Manage risks and implement risk response activities;

• Manage sellers and suppliers;
• Manage stakeholders and their engagement; and
• Collect and document lessons learned and implement approved process improvement activities.
The project manager, along with the project management team, directs the performance of the planned project
activities and manages the various technical and organizational interfaces that exist within the project. The project
manager should also manage any unplanned activities and determine the appropriate course of action. The Direct
and Manage Project Work process is directly affected by the project application area. Deliverables are produced
as outputs from processes performed to accomplish the project work as planned and scheduled in the project
management plan.
During project execution, the work performance data is collected and appropriately actioned and communicated.
Work performance data includes information about the completion status of deliverables and other relevant
details about project performance. The work performance data will also be used as an input to the Monitoring and
Controlling Process Group.
Direct and Manage Project Work also requires review of the impact of all project changes and the implementation
of approved changes:
orrective action—An intentional activity that realigns the performance of the project work with the
• C
project management plan;
reventive action—An intentional activity that ensures the future performance of the project work is
• P
aligned with the project management plan; and/or
• Defect repair—An intentional activity to modify a nonconforming product or product component.

4 - PROJECT INTEGRATION MANAGEMENT

4.3.1 Direct and Manage Project Work: Inputs
4.3.1.1 Project Management Plan
Described in Section 4.2.3.1. The project management plan contains subsidiary plans concerning all aspects of
the project. Those subsidiary plans related to project work include, but are not limited to:
• Scope management plan (Section 5.1.3.1),
• Requirements management plan (Section 5.1.3.2),
• Schedule management plan (Section 6.1.3.1),
• Cost management plan (Section 7.1.3.1), and
• Stakeholder management plan (Section 13.2.3.1).

4.3.1.2 Approved Change Requests
Approved change requests are an output of the Perform Integrated Change Control process, and include those
requests reviewed and approved for implementation by the change control board (CCB). The approved change
request may be a corrective action, a preventative action, or a defect repair. Approved change requests are
scheduled and implemented by the project team, and can impact any area of the project or project management
plan. The approved change requests can also modify the policies, project management plan, procedures, costs,
or budgets or revise the schedules. Approved change requests may require implementation of preventive or
corrective actions.

4.3.1.3 Enterprise Environmental Factors
Described in Section 2.1.5. The Direct and Manage Project Work process is influenced by enterprise
environmental factors that include, but are not limited to:
• Organizational, company, or customer culture and structure of the performing or sponsor organizations;
• Infrastructure (e.g., existing facilities and capital equipment);
• P ersonnel administration (e.g., hiring and firing guidelines, employee performance reviews, and training
records);
• Stakeholder risk tolerances, for example allowable cost overrun percentage; and
• P roject management information system (e.g., an automated tool suite, such as a scheduling software
tool, a configuration management system, an information collection and distribution system, or web
interfaces to other online automated systems).

4 - PROJECT INTEGRATION MANAGEMENT

4.3.1.4 Organizational Process Assets
Described in Section 2.1.4. The organizational process assets that can influence the Direct and Manage Project
Work process include, but are not limited to:
• Standardized guidelines and work instructions;
• C
ommunication requirements defining allowed communication media, record retention, and security
requirements;

• Issue and defect management procedures defining issue and defect controls, issue and defect
identification and resolution, and action item tracking;
• P rocess measurement database used to collect and make available measurement data on processes
and products;
• P roject files from previous projects (e.g., scope, cost, schedule, performance measurement baselines,
project calendars, project schedule, network diagrams, risk registers, planned response actions, defined
risk impact, and documented lessons learned); and
• Issue and defect management database(s) containing historical issue and defect status, control
information, issue and defect resolution, and action item results.

4.3.2 Direct and Manage Project Work: Tools and Techniques
4.3.2.1 Expert Judgment
Expert judgment is used to assess the inputs needed to direct and manage execution of the project management
plan. Such judgment and expertise are applied to all technical and management details during this process. This
expertise is provided by the project manager and the project management team using specialized knowledge or
training. Additional expertise is available from many sources, including:
• Other units within the organization;
• Consultants and other subject matter experts (internal and external);
• Stakeholders, including customers, suppliers, or sponsors; and
• Professional and technical associations.

4 - PROJECT INTEGRATION MANAGEMENT

4.3.2.2 Project Management Information System
The project management information system, which is part of the environmental factors, provides access to
tools, such as a scheduling tool, a work authorization system, a configuration management system, an information
collection and distribution system, or interfaces to other online automated systems. Automated gathering and
reporting on key performance indicators (KPI) can be part of this system.

4.3.2.3 Meetings
Meetings are used to discuss and address pertinent topics of the project when directing and managing project
work. Attendees at the meetings may include the project manager, the project team and appropriate stakeholders
involved or affected by the topics addressed. Each attendee should have a defined role to ensure appropriate
participation. Meetings tend to be one of three types:
• Information exchange;
• Brainstorming, option evaluation, or design; or
• Decision making.
Meeting types should not be mixed as a best practice. Meetings should be prepared with a well-defined agenda,
purpose, objective, and time frame and should be appropriately documented with meeting minutes and action
items. Meeting minutes should be stored as defined in the project management plan. Meetings are most effective
when all participants can be face-to-face in the same location. Virtual meetings can be held using audio and/
or video conferencing tools, but generally require additional preparation and organization to achieve the same
effectiveness of a face-to-face meeting.

4.3.3 Direct and Manage Project Work: Outputs
4.3.3.1 Deliverables
A deliverable is any unique and verifiable product, result or capability to perform a service that is required to be
produced to complete a process, phase, or project. Deliverables are typically tangible components completed to
meet the project objectives and can include elements of the project management plan.

4 - PROJECT INTEGRATION MANAGEMENT

4.3.3.2 Work Performance Data
Work performance data are the raw observations and measurements identified during activities being performed
to carry out the project work. Data are often viewed as the lowest level of detail from which information is derived
by other processes. Data is gathered through work execution and passed to the controlling processes of each
process area for further analysis.
Examples of work performance data include work completed, key performance indicators, technical performance
measures, start and finish dates of schedule activities, number of change requests, number of defects, actual costs,
and actual durations, etc.

4.3.3.3 Change Requests
A change request is a formal proposal to modify any document, deliverable, or baseline. An approved change
request will replace the associated document, deliverable, or baseline and may result in an update to other parts
of the project management plan. When issues are found while project work is being performed, change requests
are submitted, which may modify project policies or procedures, project scope, project cost or budget, project
schedule, or project quality. Other change requests cover the needed preventive or corrective actions to forestall
negative impact later in the project. Requests for a change can be direct or indirect, externally or internally initiated,
and can be optional or legally/contractually mandated, and may include:
• Corrective action—An intentional activity that realigns the performance of the project work with the
project management plan;
• P
reventive action—An intentional activity that ensures the future performance of the project work is
aligned with the project management plan;
• Defect repair—An intentional activity to modify a nonconforming product or product component; and/or
• Updates—Changes to formally controlled project documents, plans, etc., to reflect modified or additional
ideas or content.

4.3.3.4 Project Management Plan Updates
Elements of the project management plan that may be updated include, but are not limited to:
• Scope management plan,
• Requirements management plan,
• Schedule management plan,
• Cost management plan,
• Quality management plan,
• Process improvement plan,

4 - PROJECT INTEGRATION MANAGEMENT

• Human resource management plan,
• Communications management plan,
• Risk management plan,
• Procurement management plan,
• Stakeholder management plan, and
• Project baselines.

4.3.3.5 Project Documents Updates
Project documents that may be updated include, but are not limited to:
• Requirements documentation,
• Project logs (issues, assumptions, etc.),
• Risk register, and
• Stakeholder register.

4.4 Monitor and Control Project Work
Monitor and Control Project Work is the process of tracking, reviewing, and reporting the progress to meet the
performance objectives defined in the project management plan. The key benefit of this process is that it allows
stakeholders to understand the current state of the project, the steps taken, and budget, schedule, and scope
forecasts. The inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs for this process are depicted in Figure 4-8. Figure 4-9
depicts the data flow diagram of the process.
Inputs
.1
.2
.3
.4
.5

Project management plan
Schedule forecasts
Cost forecasts
Validated changes
Work performance
information
.6 Enterprise environmental
factors
.7 Organizational process
assets

Tools & Techniques
.1 Expert judgment
.2 Analytical techniques
.3 Project management
information system
.4 Meetings

Outputs
.1 Change requests
.2 Work performance
reports
.3 Project management
plan updates
.4 Project documents
updates

Figure 4-8. Monitor and Control Project Work: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs

4 - PROJECT INTEGRATION MANAGEMENT

Enterprise/
Organization

• Organizational
process assets
• Enterprise
environmental
factors

Project Integration Management

5.6
Control Scope

• Project
management
plan

10.3
Control
Communications
• Work performance
information

11.6
Control Risks

4.4
Monitor and
Control Project
Work

9.4
Manage
Project Team
• Project
documents updates

• Work
performance
reports

4.5
Perform
Integrated
Change Control

13.4
Control
Stakeholder
Engagement

8.3
Control Quality

• Project
management
plan updates

• Change
requests
• Work
performance
reports

12.3
Control
Procurements

7.4
Control Costs

4.2
Develop Project
Management
Plan

5.5
Validate Scope

6.7
Control Schedule

Project
Documents

10.2
Manage
Communications

11.6
Control Risks

12.3
Control
Procurements

• Schedule forecasts

• Cost forecasts

• Validated changes

Figure 4-9. Monitor and Control Project Work Data Flow Diagram

4 - PROJECT INTEGRATION MANAGEMENT

Monitoring is an aspect of project management performed throughout the project. Monitoring includes collecting,
measuring, and distributing performance information, and assessing measurements and trends to effect process
improvements. Continuous monitoring gives the project management team insight into the health of the project and
identifies any areas that may require special attention. Control includes determining corrective or preventive actions
or replanning and following up on action plans to determine whether the actions taken resolved the performance
issue. The Monitor and Control Project Work process is concerned with:
• Comparing actual project performance against the project management plan;
• A ssessing performance to determine whether any corrective or preventive actions are indicated, and
then recommending those actions as necessary;
• Identifying new risks and analyzing, tracking, and monitoring existing project risks to make sure the risks
are identified, their status is reported, and that appropriate risk response plans are being executed;
• M
aintaining an accurate, timely information base concerning the project’s product(s) and their associated
documentation through project completion;
• Providing information to support status reporting, progress measurement, and forecasting;
• Providing forecasts to update current cost and current schedule information;
• Monitoring implementation of approved changes as they occur; and
• P roviding appropriate reporting on project progress and status to program management when the project
is part of an overall program.

4.4.1 Monitor and Control Project Work: Inputs
4.4.1.1 Project Management Plan
Described in Section 4.2.3.1. Monitoring and controlling project work involves looking at all aspects of the
project. Subsidiary plans within the project management plan form the basis for controlling the project. Subsidiary
plans and baselines include, but are not limited to:

4 - PROJECT INTEGRATION MANAGEMENT

• Scope management plan (Section 5.1.3.1),
• Requirements management plan (Section 5.1.3.2),
• Schedule management plan (Section 6.1.3.1),
• Cost management plan (Section 7.1.3.1),
• Quality management plan (Section 8.1.3.1),
• Process improvement plan (Section 8.1.3.2),

• Human resource management plan (Section 9.1.3.1),
• Communications management plan (Section 10.1.3.1),
• Risk management plan (Section 11.1.3.1),
• Procurement management plan (Section 12.1.3.1),
• Stakeholder management plan (Section 13.2.3.1),
• Scope baseline (Section 5.4.3.1),
• Schedule baseline (Section 6.6.3.1), and
• Cost baseline (Section 7.3.3.1).

4.4.1.2 Schedule Forecasts
Described in Section 6.7.3.2. The schedule forecasts are derived from progress against the schedule baseline
and computed time estimate to complete (ETC). This is typically expressed in terms of schedule variance (SV) and
schedule performance index (SPI). For projects not using earned value management, variances against the planned
finish dates and forecasted finish dates are provided.
The forecast may be used to determine if the project is still within defined tolerance ranges and identify any
necessary change requests.

4.4.1.3 Cost Forecasts
Described in Section 7.4.3.2. The cost forecasts are derived from progress against the cost baseline and computed
estimates to complete (ETC). This is typically expressed in terms of cost variance (CV) and cost performance index
(CPI). An estimate at completion (EAC) can be compared to the budget at completion (BAC) to see if the project is
still within tolerance ranges or if a change request is required. For projects not using earned value management,
variances against the planned versus actual expenditures and forecasted final costs are provided.

4 - PROJECT INTEGRATION MANAGEMENT

4.4.1.4 Validated Changes
Described in Section 8.3.3.2. Approved changes that result from the Perform Integrated Change Control process
require validation to ensure that the change was appropriately implemented. A validated change provides the
necessary data to confirm that the change was appropriately executed.

4.4.1.5 Work Performance Information
Work performance information is the performance data collected from various controlling processes, analyzed
in context, and integrated based on relationships across areas. Thus work performance data has been transformed
into work performance information. Data in itself cannot be used in the decision-making process as it has only
out-of-context meaning. Work performance information, however, is correlated and contextualized, and provides a
sound foundation for project decisions.
Work performance information is circulated through communication processes. Examples of performance
information are status of deliverables, implementation status for change requests, and forecasted estimates to
complete.

4.4.1.6 Enterprise Environmental Factors
Described in Section 2.1.5. The enterprise environmental factors that can influence the Monitor and Control
Project Work process include, but are not limited to:
• G
overnmental or industry standards (e.g., regulatory agency regulations, codes of conduct, product
standards, quality standards, and workmanship standards),
• Organization work authorization systems,
• Stakeholder risk tolerances, and
• P roject management information system (e.g., an automated tool suite, such as a scheduling software
tool, a configuration management system, an information collection and distribution system, or web
interfaces to other online automated systems).

4 - PROJECT INTEGRATION MANAGEMENT

4.4.1.7 Organizational Process Assets
Described in Section 2.1.4. The organizational process assets that can influence the Monitor and Control Project
Work process include, but are not limited to:
• Organizational communication requirements;
• Financial controls procedures (e.g., time reporting, required expenditure and disbursement reviews,
accounting codes, and standard contract provisions);

• Issue and defect management procedures defining issue and defect controls, issue and defect
identification, and resolution and action item tracking;
• Change control procedures, including those for scope, schedule, cost, and quality variances;
• R
isk control procedures including risk categories, probability definition and impact, and probability and
impact matrix;
• P rocess measurement database used to make available measurement data on processes and products;
and
• Lessons learned database.

4.4.2 Monitor and Control Project Work: Tools and Techniques
4.4.2.1 Expert Judgment
Expert judgment is used by the project management team to interpret the information provided by the monitor
and control processes. The project manager, in collaboration with the team, determines the actions required to
ensure that project performance matches expectations.

4.4.2.2 Analytical Techniques
Analytical techniques are applied in project management to forecast potential outcomes based on possible
variations of project or environmental variables and their relationships with other variables. Examples of analytical
techniques used in projects are:
• Regression analysis,
• Grouping methods,
• Causal analysis,

4 - PROJECT INTEGRATION MANAGEMENT

• Root cause analysis,
• Forecasting methods (e.g., time series, scenario building, simulation, etc.),
• Failure mode and effect analysis (FMEA),
• Fault tree analysis (FTA),
• Reserve analysis,
• Trend analysis,
• Earned value management, and
• Variance analysis.

4.4.2.3 Project Management Information System
The project management information system, which is part of enterprise environmental factors, provides access
to automated tools, such as scheduling, cost, and resourcing tools, performance indicators, databases, project
records, and financials used during the Monitor and Control Project Work process.

4.4.2.4 Meetings
Described in Section 4.3.2.3. Meetings may be face-to-face, virtual, formal, or informal. They may include
project team members, stakeholders, and others involved in or affected by the project. Types of meetings include,
but are not limited to, user groups and review meetings.

4.4.3 Monitor and Control Project Work: Outputs
4.4.3.1 Change Requests
As a result of comparing planned results to actual results, change requests may be issued to expand, adjust, or
reduce project scope, product scope, or quality requirements and schedule or cost baselines. Change requests may
necessitate the collection and documentation of new requirements. Changes can impact the project management
plan, project documents, or product deliverables. Changes that meet the project’s change control criteria should go
through the integrated change control process established for the project. Changes may include, but are not limited
to, the following:

4 - PROJECT INTEGRATION MANAGEMENT

• Corrective action—An intentional activity that realigns the performance of the project work with the
project management plan;
• Preventive action—An intentional activity that ensures the future performance of the project work is
aligned with the project management plan; and
• Defect repair—An intentional activity to modify a nonconforming product or product component.

4.4.3.2 Work Performance Reports

Work performance reports are the physical or electronic representation of work performance information
compiled in project documents, intended to generate decisions, actions, or awareness. Project information may be
communicated verbally from person to person. However, in order to record, store, and sometimes distribute work
performance information, a physical or electronic representation in the form of project documents is required. Work
performance reports are a subset of project documents, which are intended to create awareness and generate
decisions or actions. Specific work performance metrics may be defined at the start of the project and included in
the normal work performance reports provided to key stakeholders.
Examples of work performance reports include status reports, memos, justifications, information notes,
recommendations, and updates.

4.4.3.3 Project Management Plan Updates
Changes identified during the Monitor and Control Project Work process may affect the overall project
management plan. These changes, after being processed through the appropriate change control process can lead
to project management plan updates. Project management plan elements that may be updated include, but are
not limited to:
• Scope management plan (Section 5.1.3.1),
• Requirements management plan (Section 5.1.3.2),
• Schedule management plan (Section 6.1.3.1),
• Cost management plan (Section 7.1.3.1),
• Quality management plan (Section 8.1.3.1),
• Scope baseline (Section 5.4.3.1),
• Schedule baseline (Section 6.6.3.1), and
• Cost baseline (Section 7.3.3.1).

4 - PROJECT INTEGRATION MANAGEMENT

4.4.3.4 Project Documents Updates
Project documents that may be updated include, but are not limited to:
• Schedule and cost forecasts,
• Work performance reports, and
• Issue log.

4.5 Perform Integrated Change Control
Perform Integrated Change Control is the process of reviewing all change requests; approving changes and
managing changes to deliverables, organizational process assets, project documents, and the project management
plan; and communicating their disposition. It reviews all requests for changes or modifications to project documents,
deliverables, baselines, or the project management plan and approves or rejects the changes. The key benefit of
this process is that it allows for documented changes within the project to be considered in an integrated fashion
while reducing project risk, which often arises from changes made without consideration to the overall project
objectives or plans. The inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure 4-10. Figure
4-11 depicts the data flow diagram of the process.
Inputs
.1 Project management plan
.2 Work performance
reports
.3 Change requests
.4 Enterprise environmental
factors
.5 Organizational process
assets

Tools & Techniques
.1 Expert judgment
.2 Meetings
.3 Change control tools

Outputs
.1 Approved change
requests
.2 Change log
.3 Project management plan
updates
.4 Project documents
updates

Figure 4-10. Perform Integrated Change Control: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs

4 - PROJECT INTEGRATION MANAGEMENT

Enterprise/
Organization

5.5
Validate Scope

• Organizational
process assets
• Enterprise
environmental
factors

5.6
Control Scope

6.7
Control Schedule

7.4
Control Costs

8.2
Perform Quality
Assurance

Project Integration Management
4.4
Monitor and
Control Project
Work

• Project management
plan updates

• Change requests

10.3
Control
Communications

11.6
Control Risks

12.1
Plan
Procurement
Management

• Project management
plan

• Change requests
• Work performance
reports

8.3
Control Quality

9.4
Manage
Project Team

4.2
Develop Project
Management
Plan

4.5
Perform
Integrated
Change Control

Project
Documents

• Project documents
updates

• Change requests
• Approved change
requests

4.3
Direct and
Manage Project
Work

8.3
Control
Quality

12.3
Control
Procurements

• Change log

13.3
Manage
Stakeholder
Engagement

12.2
Conduct
Procurements
12.3
Control
Procurements

13.3
Manage
Stakeholder
Engagement

13.4
Control
Stakeholder
Engagement

Figure 4-11. Perform Integrated Change Control Data Flow Diagram
©2013 Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide) – Fifth Edition

4 - PROJECT INTEGRATION MANAGEMENT

The Perform Integrated Change Control process is conducted from project inception through completion and is
the ultimate responsibility of the project manager. The project management plan, the project scope statement, and
other deliverables are maintained by carefully and continuously managing changes, either by rejecting changes
or by approving changes, thereby assuring that only approved changes are incorporated into a revised baseline.
Changes may be requested by any stakeholder involved with the project. Although changes may be initiated
verbally, they should be recorded in written form and entered into the change management and/or configuration
management system. Change requests are subject to the process specified in the change control and configuration
control systems. Those change request processes may require information on estimated time impacts and estimated
cost impacts.
Every documented change request needs to be either approved or rejected by a responsible individual, usually
the project sponsor or project manager. The responsible individual will be identified in the project management plan
or by organizational procedures. When required, the Perform Integrated Change Control process includes a change
control board (CCB), which is a formally chartered group responsible for reviewing, evaluating, approving, delaying,
or rejecting changes to the project, and for recording and communicating such decisions. Approved change
requests can require new or revised cost estimates, activity sequences, schedule dates, resource requirements,
and analysis of risk response alternatives. These changes can require adjustments to the project management
plan and other project documents. The applied level of change control is dependent upon the application area,
complexity of the specific project, contract requirements, and the context and environment in which the project is
performed. Customer or sponsor approval may be required for certain change requests after CCB approval, unless
they are part of the CCB.
Configuration control is focused on the specification of both the deliverables and the processes; while change
control is focused on identifying, documenting, and approving or rejecting changes to the project documents,
deliverables, or baselines.
Some of the configuration management activities included in the Perform Integrated Change Control process
are as follows:
• Configuration identification. Identification and selection of a configuration item to provide the basis for
which the product configuration is defined and verified, products and documents are labeled, changes
are managed, and accountability is maintained.

4 - PROJECT INTEGRATION MANAGEMENT

• C
onfiguration status accounting. Information is recorded and reported as to when appropriate
data about the configuration item should be provided. This information includes a listing of approved
configuration identification, status of proposed changes to the configuration, and the implementation
status of approved changes.
• C
onfiguration verification and audit. Configuration verification and configuration audits ensure the
composition of a project’s configuration items is correct and that corresponding changes are registered,
assessed, approved, tracked, and correctly implemented. This ensures the functional requirements
defined in the configuration documentation have been met.

4.5.1 Perform Integrated Change Control: Inputs
4.5.1.1 Project Management Plan
Described in Section 4.2.3.1. Elements of the project management plan that may be used include, but are not
limited to:
• Scope management plan, which contains the procedures for scope changes;
• Scope baseline, which provides product definition; and
• C
hange management plan, which provides the direction for managing the change control process and
documents the formal change control board (CCB).
Changes are documented and updated within the project management plan as part of the change and
configuration management processes.

4.5.1.2 Work Performance Reports
Described in Section 4.4.3.2. Work performance reports of particular interest to the Perform Integrated Change
Control process include resource availability, schedule and cost data, and earned value management (EVM) reports,
burnup or burndown charts.

4.5.1.3 Change Requests
All of the Monitoring and Controlling processes and many of the Executing processes produce change requests
as an output. Change requests may include corrective action, preventive action, and defect repairs. However,
corrective and preventive actions do not normally affect the project baselines—only the performance against the
baselines.

4 - PROJECT INTEGRATION MANAGEMENT

4.5.1.4 Enterprise Environmental Factors
Described in Section 2.1.5. The following enterprise environmental factor can influence the Perform Integrated
Change Control process: project management information system. The project management information system
may include the scheduling software tool, a configuration management system, an information collection and
distribution system, or web interfaces to other online automated systems.

4.5.1.5 Organizational Process Assets
Described in Section 2.1.4. The organizational process assets that can influence the Perform Integrated Change
Control process include, but are not limited to:
• C
hange control procedures, including the steps by which official organization standards, policies, plans,
and other project documents will be modified, and how any changes will be approved, validated, and
implemented;
• Procedures for approving and issuing change authorizations;
• P rocess measurement database used to collect and make available measurement data on processes
and products;
• P roject documents (e.g., scope, cost, and schedule baselines, project calendars, project schedule network
diagrams, risk registers, planned response actions, and defined risk impact); and
onfiguration management knowledge base containing the versions and baselines of all official
• C
organization standards, policies, procedures, and any project documents.

4.5.2 Perform Integrated Change Control: Tools and Techniques
4.5.2.1 Expert Judgment
In addition to the project management team’s expert judgment, stakeholders may be asked to provide their
expertise and may be asked to sit on the change control board (CCB). Such judgment and expertise are applied to
any technical and management details during this process and may be provided by various sources, for example:

4 - PROJECT INTEGRATION MANAGEMENT

• Consultants,
• Stakeholders, including customers or sponsors,
• Professional and technical associations,
• Industry groups,
• Subject matter experts (SMEs), and
• Project management office (PMO).

4.5.2.2 Meetings
In this case, these meetings are usually referred to as change control meetings. When needed for the project, a
change control board (CCB) is responsible for meeting and reviewing the change requests and approving, rejecting,
or other disposition of those changes. The CCB may also review configuration management activities. The roles and
responsibilities of these boards are clearly defined and agreed upon by appropriate stakeholders and documented
in the change management plan. CCB decisions are documented and communicated to the stakeholders for
information and follow-up actions.

4.5.2.3 Change Control Tools
In order to facilitate configuration and change management, manual or automated tools may be used. Tool
selection should be based on the needs of the project stakeholders including organizational and environmental
considerations and/or constraints.
Tools are used to manage the change requests and the resulting decisions. Additional considerations should
be made for communication to assist the CCB members in their duties as well as distribute the decisions to the
appropriate stakeholders.

4.5.3 Perform Integrated Change Control: Outputs
4.5.3.1 Approved Change Requests
Change requests are processed according to the change control system by the project manager, CCB, or by an
assigned team member. Approved change requests will be implemented through the Direct and Manage Project
Work process. The disposition of all change requests, approved or not, will be updated in the change log as part of
updates to the project documents.

4 - PROJECT INTEGRATION MANAGEMENT

4.5.3.2 Change Log
A change log is used to document changes that occur during a project. These changes and their impact to
the project in terms of time, cost, and risk, are communicated to the appropriate stakeholders. Rejected change
requests are also captured in the change log.

4.5.3.3 Project Management Plan Updates
Elements of the project management plan that may be updated include, but are not limited to:
• Any subsidiary plans, and
• Baselines that are subject to the formal change control process.
Changes to baselines should only show the changes from the current time forward. Past performance may not
be changed. This protects the integrity of the baselines and the historical data of past performance.

4.5.3.4 Project Documents Updates
Project documents that may be updated as a result of the Perform Integrated Change Control process include
all documents specified as being subject to the project’s formal change control process.

4.6 Close Project or Phase
Close Project or Phase is the process of finalizing all activities across all of the Project Management Process
Groups to formally complete the project or phase. The key benefit of this process is that it provides lessons learned,
the formal ending of project work, and the release of organization resources to pursue new endeavors. The inputs,
tools and techniques, and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure 4-12. Figure 4-13 depicts the data flow
diagram of the process.
Inputs
.1 Project management plan
.2 Accepted deliverables
.3 Organizational process
assets

Tools & Techniques
.1 Expert judgment
.2 Analytical techniques
.3 Meetings

Outputs
.1 Final product, service, or
result transition
.2 Organizational process
assets updates

Figure 4-12. Close Project or Phase: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs

100

4 - PROJECT INTEGRATION MANAGEMENT

Project Integration Management
4.2
Develop Project
Management
• Project
Plan charter

5.5
Validate Scope
• Accepted
deliverables

• Project
management
plan

4.6
Close Project
or Phase

• Final product,
service, or result
transition

Customer

• Organizational
process
assets

Enterprise/
Organization

• Organizational process
assets updates

Figure 4-13. Close Project or Phase Data Flow Diagram
When closing the project, the project manager reviews all prior information from the previous phase closures to
ensure that all project work is completed and that the project has met its objectives. Since project scope is measured
against the project management plan, the project manager reviews the scope baseline to ensure completion before
considering the project closed. The Close Project or Phase process also establishes the procedures to investigate
and document the reasons for actions taken if a project is terminated before completion. In order to successfully
achieve this, the project manager needs to engage all the proper stakeholders in the process.
This includes all planned activities necessary for administrative closure of the project or phase, including stepby-step methodologies that address:
• Actions and activities necessary to satisfy completion or exit criteria for the phase or project;
• A ctions and activities necessary to transfer the project’s products, services, or results to the next phase
or to production and/or operations; and
• A ctivities needed to collect project or phase records, audit project success or failure, gather lessons
learned and archive project information for future use by the organization.

101

4 - PROJECT INTEGRATION MANAGEMENT

4.6.1 Close Project or Phase: Inputs
4.6.1.1 Project Management Plan
Described in Section 4.2.3.1. The project management plan becomes the agreement between the project
manager and project sponsor, defining what constitutes project completion.

4.6.1.2 Accepted Deliverables
Described in Section 5.5. Accepted deliverables may include approved product specifications, delivery
receipts, and work performance documents. Partial or interim deliverables may also be included for phased or
cancelled projects.

4.6.1.3 Organizational Process Assets
Described in Section 2.1.4. The organizational process assets that can influence the Close Project or Phase
process include, but are not limited to:
• P roject or phase closure guidelines or requirements (e.g., administrative procedures, project audits,
project evaluations, and transition criteria); and
• H
istorical information and lessons learned knowledge base (e.g., project records and documents, all
project closure information and documentation, information about both the results of previous project
selection decisions and previous project performance information, and information from risk management
activities).

4.6.2 Close Project or Phase: Tools and Techniques
4.6.2.1 Expert Judgment
Expert judgment is applied when performing administrative closure activities. These experts ensure the project
or phase closure is performed to the appropriate standards. Expertise is available from many sources, including
but not limited to
• Other project managers within the organization,
• Project management office (PMO), and
• Professional and technical associations.

102

4 - PROJECT INTEGRATION MANAGEMENT

4.6.2.2 Analytical Techniques
Described in Section 4.4.2.2. Examples of analytical techniques used in project closeout are:
• Regression analysis, and
• Trend analysis.

4.6.2.3 Meetings

Described in Section 4.3.2.3. Meetings may be face-to-face, virtual, formal, or informal. This may include project
team members and other stakeholders, involved in or affected by the project. Types of meetings include, but are not
limited to lessons learned, closeout, user group, and review meetings.

4.6.3 Close Project or Phase: Outputs
4.6.3.1 Final Product, Service, or Result Transition
This output refers to the transition of the final product, service, or result that the project was authorized to
produce (or in the case of phase closure, the intermediate product, service, or result of that phase).

4.6.3.2 Organizational Process Assets Updates
The organizational process assets that are updated as a result of the Close Project or Phase process include,
but are not limited to:

103

4 - PROJECT INTEGRATION MANAGEMENT

• P
roject files—Documentation resulting from the project’s activities, for example, project management
plan; scope, cost, schedule, and project calendars; risk registers and other registers; change management
documentation; planned risk response actions; and risk impact.
• P
roject or phase closure documents—Project or phase closure documents, consisting of formal
documentation that indicates completion of the project or phase and the transfer of the completed
project or phase deliverables to others, such as an operations group or to the next phase. During project
closure, the project manager reviews prior phase documentation, customer acceptance documentation
from the Validate Scope process (Section 5.4), and the contract (if applicable), to ensure that all project
requirements are completed prior to finalizing the closure of the project. If the project was terminated
prior to completion, the formal documentation indicates why the project was terminated and formalizes
the procedures for the transfer of the finished and unfinished deliverables of the cancelled project to
others.
istorical information—Historical information and lessons learned information are transferred to the
• H
lessons learned knowledge base for use by future projects or phases. This can include information on
issues and risks as well as techniques that worked well that can be applied to future projects.

104

5 - PROJECT SCOPE MANAGEMENT

5
PROJECT SCOPE MANAGEMENT
Project Scope Management includes the processes required to ensure that the project includes all the work
required, and only the work required, to complete the project successfully. Managing the project scope is primarily
concerned with defining and controlling what is and is not included in the project.

Figure 5-1 provides an overview of the Project Scope Management processes, which include the following:
5.1 Plan Scope Management—The process of creating a scope management plan that documents how
the project scope will be defined, validated, and controlled.
5.2 Collect Requirements—The process of determining, documenting, and managing stakeholder needs
and requirements to meet project objectives.
5.3 Define Scope—The process of developing a detailed description of the project and product.
5.4 Create WBS—The process of subdividing project deliverables and project work into smaller, more
manageable components.
5.5 Validate Scope—The process of formalizing acceptance of the completed project deliverables.
5.6 Control Scope—The process of monitoring the status of the project and product scope and managing
changes to the scope baseline.
These processes interact with each other and with processes in other Knowledge Areas as described in detail
in Section 3 and Annex A1.
In the project context, the term scope can refer to:
• Product scope. The features and functions that characterize a product, service, or result; and/or
• Project scope. The work performed to deliver a product, service, or result with the specified features and
functions. The term project scope is sometimes viewed as including product scope.
The processes used to manage project scope, as well as the supporting tools and techniques, can vary
by project. The scope baseline for the project is the approved version of the project scope statement, work
breakdown structure (WBS), and its associated WBS dictionary. A baseline can be changed only through formal
change control procedures and is used as a basis for comparison while performing Validate Scope and Control
Scope processes as well as other controlling processes.

105

5 - PROJECT SCOPE MANAGEMENT

Completion of the project scope is measured against the project management plan (Section 4.2.3.1). Completion
of the product scope is measured against the product requirements (Section 5.2). The Project Scope Management
processes need to be well integrated with the other Knowledge Area processes, so that the work of the project will
result in delivery of the specified product scope.
Project Scope Management
Overview
5.1 Plan Scope
Management

5.2 Collect
Requirements

.1 Inputs
.1 Project management plan
.2 Project charter
.3 Enterprise environmental
factors
.4 Organizational process assets

.1 Inputs
.1 Scope management plan
.2 Requirements management
plan
.3 Stakeholder management plan
.4 Project charter
.5 Stakeholder register

.2 Tools & Techniques
.1 Expert judgment
.2 Meetings
.3 Outputs
.1 Scope management plan
.2 Requirements management
plan

5.4 Create WBS
.1 Inputs
.1 Scope management plan
.2 Project scope statement
.3 Requirements documentation
.4 Enterprise environmental
factors
.5 Organizational process
assets
.2 Tools & Techniques
.1 Decomposition
.2 Expert judgment
.3 Outputs
.1 Scope baseline
.2 Project documents updates

.2 Tools & Techniques
.1 Interviews
.2 Focus groups
.3 Facilitated workshops
.4 Group creativity techniques
.5 Group decision-making
techniques
.6 Questionnaires and surveys
.7 Observations
.8 Prototypes
.9 Benchmarking
.10 Context diagrams
.11 Document analysis
.3 Outputs
.1 Requirements documentation
.2 Requirements traceability
matrix

5.5 Validate Scope
.1 Inputs
.1 Project management plan
.2 Requirements documentation
.3 Requirements traceability
matrix
.4 Verified deliverables
.5 Work performance data
.2 Tools & Techniques
.1 Inspection
.2 Group decision-making
techniques

5.3 Define Scope
.1 Inputs
.1 Scope management plan
.2 Project charter
.3 Requirements documentation
.4 Organizational process assets
.2 Tools & Techniques
.1 Expert judgment
.2 Product analysis
.3 Alternatives generation
.4 Facilitated workshops
.3 Outputs
.1 Project scope statement
.2 Project documents updates

5.6 Control Scope
.1 Inputs
.1 Project management plan
.2 Requirements documentation
.3 Requirements traceability
matrix
.4 Work performance data
.5 Organizational process assets
.2 Tools & Techniques
.1 Variance analysis
.3 Outputs
.1 Work performance
information
.2 Change requests
.3 Project management plan
updates
.4 Project documents updates
.5 Organizational process assets
updates

.3 Outputs
.1 Accepted deliverables
.2 Change requests
.3 Work performance information
.4 Project documents updates

Figure 5-1. Project Scope Management Overview

106

5 - PROJECT SCOPE MANAGEMENT

5.1 Plan Scope Management
Plan Scope Management is the process of creating a scope management plan that documents how the project
scope will be defined, validated, and controlled. The key benefit of this process is that it provides guidance and
direction on how scope will be managed throughout the project. The inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs of
this process are depicted in Figure 5-2. Figure 5-3 depicts the data flow diagram of the process.
Inputs

Tools & Techniques

.1 Project management plan
.2 Project charter
.3 Enterprise environmental
factors
.4 Organizational process
assets

Outputs

.1 Expert judgment
.2 Meetings

.1 Scope management plan
.2 Requirements
management plan

Figure 5-2. Plan Scope Management: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs

Enterprise/
Organization

4.1
Develop Project
Charter

4.2
Develop Project
Management
Plan

Project Scope Management
• Enterprise
environmental factors
• Organizational
process assets

• Project charter
• Project
management
plan

5.1
Plan Scope
Management

• Scope
management
plan

• Requirements
management
plan

5.2
Collect
Requirements

5.3
Define
Scope

5.4
Create
WBS

Figure 5-3. Plan Scope Management Data Flow Diagram

107

5 - PROJECT SCOPE MANAGEMENT

The scope management plan is a component of the project or program management plan that describes how the
scope will be defined, developed, monitored, controlled, and verified. The development of the scope management
plan and the detailing of the project scope begin with the analysis of information contained in the project charter
(Section 4.1.3.1), the latest approved subsidiary plans of the project management plan (Section 4.2.3.1), historical
information contained in the organizational process assets (Section 2.1.4), and any other relevant enterprise
environmental factors (Section 2.1.5). This plan helps reduce the risk of project scope creep.

5.1.1 Plan Scope Management: Inputs
5.1.1.1 Project Management Plan
Described in Section 4.2.3.1. Approved subsidiary plans of the project management plan are used to create the
scope management plan and influence the approach taken for planning scope and managing project scope.

5.1.1.2 Project Charter
Described in Section 4.1.3.1. The project charter is used to provide the project context needed to plan the scope
management processes. It provides the high-level project description and product characteristics from the project
statement of work.

5.1.1.3 Enterprise Environmental Factors
Described in Section 2.1.5. The enterprise environmental factors that can influence the Plan Scope Management
process include, but are not limited to:
• Organization’s culture,
• Infrastructure,
• Personnel administration, and
• Marketplace conditions.

108

5 - PROJECT SCOPE MANAGEMENT

5.1.1.4 Organizational Process Assets
Described in Section 2.1.4. The organizational process assets that can influence the Plan Scope Management
process include, but are not limited to:
• Policies and procedures, and
• Historical information and lessons learned knowledge base.

5.1.2 Plan Scope Management: Tools and Techniques

5.1.2.1 Expert Judgment
Expert judgment refers to input received from knowledgeable and experienced parties. Expertise may be
provided by any group or person with specialized education, knowledge, skill, experience, or training in developing
scope management plans.

5.1.2.2 Meetings
Project teams may attend project meetings to develop the scope management plan. Attendees at these
meetings may include the project manager, the project sponsor, selected project team members, selected
stakeholders, anyone with responsibility for any of the scope management processes, and others as needed.

5.1.3 Plan Scope Management: Outputs
5.1.3.1 Scope Management Plan
The scope management plan is a component of the project or program management plan that describes how the
scope will be defined, developed, monitored, controlled, and verified. The scope management plan is a major input
into the Develop Project Management Plan process, and the other scope management processes. The components
of a scope management plan include:

109

5 - PROJECT SCOPE MANAGEMENT

• Process for preparing a detailed project scope statement;
• Process that enables the creation of the WBS from the detailed project scope statement;
• Process that establishes how the WBS will be maintained and approved;
• Process that specifies how formal acceptance of the completed project deliverables will be obtained; and
• P rocess to control how requests for changes to the detailed project scope statement will be processed.
This process is directly linked to the Perform Integrated Change Control process (Section 4.5).
The scope management plan can be formal or informal, broadly framed or highly detailed, based on the needs
of the project.

5.1.3.2 Requirements Management Plan
The requirements management plan is a component of the project management plan that describes how
requirements will be analyzed, documented, and managed. The phase-to-phase relationship, described in
Section 2.4.2.1, strongly influences how requirements are managed. The project manager chooses the most
effective relationship for the project and documents this approach in the requirements management plan. Many of
the requirements management plan components are based on that relationship.
Components of the requirements management plan can include, but are not limited to:
• How requirements activities will be planned, tracked, and reported;
• C
onfiguration management activities such as: how changes to the product will be initiated, how impacts
will be analyzed, how they will be traced, tracked, and reported, as well as the authorization levels
required to approve these changes;
• Requirements prioritization process;
• Product metrics that will be used and the rationale for using them; and
• Traceability structure to reflect which requirement attributes will be captured on the traceability matrix.

5.2 Collect Requirements
Collect Requirements is the process of determining, documenting, and managing stakeholder needs and
requirements to meet project objectives. The key benefit of this process is that it provides the basis for defining and
managing the project scope including product scope. The inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs of this process
are depicted in Figure 5-4. Figure 5-5 depicts the data flow diagram of the process.

110

5 - PROJECT SCOPE MANAGEMENT

Inputs

Tools & Techniques

.1 Scope management plan
.2 Requirements
management plan
.3 Stakeholder management
plan
.4 Project charter
.5 Stakeholder register

.1
.2
.3
.4
.5
.6
.7
.8
.9
.10
.11

Outputs
.1 Requirements
documentation
.2 Requirements traceability
matrix

Interviews
Focus groups
Facilitated workshops
Group creativity
techniques
Group decision-making
techniques
Questionnaires and
surveys
Observations
Prototypes
Benchmarking
Context diagrams
Document analysis

Figure 5-4. Collect Requirements: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs

Project Scope Management
5.1
Plan Scope
Management
4.1
Develop Project
Charter

• Requirements
management plan
• Scope management plan

8.1
Plan Quality
Management

• Project charter

• Stakeholder
register

13.1
Identify
Stakeholders

13.2
Plan
Stakeholder
Management

5.2
Collect
Requirements
• Stakeholder
management plan

• Requirements
documentation

12.1
Plan
Procurement
Management

• Requirements traceability
matrix

5.3
Define
Scope

5.5
Validate
Scope

5.4
Create
WBS

5.6
Control
• Change
Scopelog

Figure 5-5. Collect Requirements Data Flow Diagram

111

5 - PROJECT SCOPE MANAGEMENT

The project’s success is directly influenced by active stakeholder involvement in the discovery and decomposition
of needs into requirements and by the care taken in determining, documenting, and managing the requirements
of the product, service, or result of the project. Requirements include conditions or capabilities that are to be
met by the project or present in the product, service, or result to satisfy an agreement or other formally imposed
specification. Requirements include the quantified and documented needs and expectations of the sponsor,
customer, and other stakeholders. These requirements need to be elicited, analyzed, and recorded in enough detail
to be included in the scope baseline and to be measured once project execution begins. Requirements become
the foundation of the WBS. Cost, schedule, quality planning, and sometimes procurement are all based upon
these requirements. The development of requirements begins with an analysis of the information contained in the
project charter (Section 4.1.3.1), the stakeholder register (Section 13.1.3.1) and the stakeholder management plan
(Section 13.2.3.1).
Many organizations categorize requirements into different types, such as business and technical solutions, the
former referring to stakeholder needs and the latter as to how those needs will be implemented. Requirements can
be grouped into classifications allowing for further refinement and detail as the requirements are elaborated. These
classifications include:
usiness requirements, which describe the higher-level needs of the organization as a whole, such as the
• B
business issues or opportunities, and reasons why a project has been undertaken.
• Stakeholder requirements, which describe needs of a stakeholder or stakeholder group.
• S olution requirements, which describe features, functions, and characteristics of the product, service,
or result that will meet the business and stakeholder requirements. Solution requirements are further
grouped into functional and nonfunctional requirements:
○○ F unctional requirements describe the behaviors of the product. Examples include processes,
data, and interactions with the product.
○○ N
onfunctional requirements supplement functional requirements and describe the environmental
conditions or qualities required for the product to be effective. Examples include: reliability,
security, performance, safety, level of service, supportability, retention/purge, etc.
• Transition requirements describe temporary capabilities, such as data conversion and training
requirements, needed to transition from the current “as-is” state to the future “to-be” state.
• P roject requirements, which describe the actions, processes, or other conditions the project needs
to meet.
• Q
uality requirements, which capture any condition or criteria needed to validate the successful completion
of a project deliverable or fulfillment of other project requirements.

112

5 - PROJECT SCOPE MANAGEMENT

5.2.1 Collect Requirements: Inputs
5.2.1.1 Scope Management Plan
Described in Section 5.1.3.1. The scope management plan provides clarity as to how project teams will determine
which type of requirements need to be collected for the project.

5.2.1.2 Requirements Management Plan

Described in Section 5.1.3.2. The requirements management plan provides the processes that will be used
throughout the Collect Requirements process to define and document the stakeholder needs.

5.2.1.3 Stakeholder Management Plan
Described in Section 13.2.3.1. The stakeholder management plan is used to understand stakeholder
communication requirements and the level of stakeholder engagement in order to assess and adapt to the level of
stakeholder participation in requirements activities.

5.2.1.4 Project Charter
Described in Section 4.1.3.1. The project charter is used to provide the high-level description of the product,
service, or result of the project so that detailed requirements can be developed.

5.2.1.5 Stakeholder Register
Described in Section 13.1.3.1. The stakeholder register is used to identify stakeholders who can provide
information on the requirements. The stakeholder register also captures major requirements and main expectations
stakeholders may have for the project.

113

5 - PROJECT SCOPE MANAGEMENT

5.2.2 Collect Requirements: Tools and Techniques
5.2.2.1 Interviews
An interview is a formal or informal approach to elicit information from stakeholders by talking to them directly.
It is typically performed by asking prepared and spontaneous questions and recording the responses. Interviews
are often conducted on an individual basis between an interviewer and an interviewee, but may involve multiple
interviewers and/or multiple interviewees. Interviewing experienced project participants, sponsors and other
executives, and subject matter experts can aid in identifying and defining the features and functions of the desired
product deliverables. Interviews are also useful for obtaining confidential information.

5.2.2.2 Focus Groups
Focus groups bring together prequalified stakeholders and subject matter experts to learn about their
expectations and attitudes about a proposed product, service, or result. A trained moderator guides the group
through an interactive discussion, designed to be more conversational than a one-on-one interview.

5.2.2.3 Facilitated Workshops
Facilitated workshops are focused sessions that bring key stakeholders together to define product requirements.
Workshops are considered a primary technique for quickly defining cross-functional requirements and reconciling
stakeholder differences. Because of their interactive group nature, well-facilitated sessions can build trust, foster
relationships, and improve communication among the participants, which can lead to increased stakeholder
consensus. In addition, issues can be discovered earlier and resolved more quickly than in individual sessions.
For example, facilitated workshops called joint application design/development (JAD) sessions are used in the
software development industry. These facilitated sessions focus on bringing business subject matter experts and
the development team together to improve the software development process. In the manufacturing industry, quality
function deployment (QFD) is another example of a facilitated workshop technique that helps determine critical
characteristics for new product development. QFD starts by collecting customer needs, also known as voice of the
customer (VOC). These needs are then objectively sorted and prioritized, and goals are set for achieving them. User
stories, which are short, textual descriptions of required functionality, are often developed during a requirements
workshop. User stories describe the stakeholder who benefits from the feature (role), what the stakeholder needs to
accomplish (goal), and the benefit to the stakeholder (motivation). User stories are widely used with agile methods.

114

5 - PROJECT SCOPE MANAGEMENT

5.2.2.4 Group Creativity Techniques
Several group activities can be organized to identify project and product requirements. Some of the group
creativity techniques that can be used are:
• Brainstorming. A technique used to generate and collect multiple ideas related to project and product
requirements. Although brainstorming by itself does not include voting or prioritization, it is often used
with other group creativity techniques that do.
• Nominal group technique. A technique that enhances brainstorming with a voting process used to rank
the most useful ideas for further brainstorming or for prioritization.

• Idea/mind mapping. A technique in which ideas created through individual brainstorming sessions are
consolidated into a single map to reflect commonality and differences in understanding, and generate
new ideas.
• Affinity diagram. A technique that allows large numbers of ideas to be classified into groups for review
and analysis.
• M
ulticriteria decision analysis. A technique that utilizes a decision matrix to provide a systematic
analytical approach for establishing criteria, such as risk levels, uncertainty, and valuation, to evaluate
and rank many ideas.

5.2.2.5 Group Decision-Making Techniques
A group decision-making technique is an assessment process having multiple alternatives with an expected
outcome in the form of future actions. These techniques can be used to generate, classify, and prioritize product
requirements.
There are various methods of reaching a group decision, such as:
• Unanimity. A decision that is reached whereby everyone agrees on a single course of action. One way to
reach unanimity is the Delphi technique, in which a selected group of experts answers questionnaires and
provides feedback regarding the responses from each round of requirements gathering. The responses
are only available to the facilitator to maintain anonymity.
• Majority. A decision that is reached with support obtained from more than 50 % of the members of the
group. Having a group size with an uneven number of participants can ensure that a decision will be
reached, rather than resulting in a tie.
• Plurality. A decision that is reached whereby the largest block in a group decides, even if a majority is
not achieved. This method is generally used when the number of options nominated is more than two.
• Dictatorship. In this method, one individual makes the decision for the group.

115

5 - PROJECT SCOPE MANAGEMENT

All of these group decision-making techniques can be applied to the group creativity techniques used in the
Collect Requirements process.

5.2.2.6 Questionnaires and Surveys
Questionnaires and surveys are written sets of questions designed to quickly accumulate information from a
large number of respondents. Questionnaires and/or surveys are most appropriate with varied audiences, when
a quick turnaround is needed, when respondents are geographically dispersed, and where statistical analysis is
appropriate.

5.2.2.7 Observations
Observations provide a direct way of viewing individuals in their environment and how they perform their jobs or
tasks and carry out processes. It is particularly helpful for detailed processes when the people that use the product
have difficulty or are reluctant to articulate their requirements. Observation is also known as “job shadowing.”
It is usually done externally by an observer viewing a business expert performing a job. It can also be done by
a “participant observer” who actually performs a process or procedure to experience how it is done to uncover
hidden requirements.

5.2.2.8 Prototypes
Prototyping is a method of obtaining early feedback on requirements by providing a working model of the
expected product before actually building it. Since a prototype is tangible, it allows stakeholders to experiment
with a model of the final product rather than being limited to discussing abstract representations of their
requirements. Prototypes support the concept of progressive elaboration in iterative cycles of mock-up creation,
user experimentation, feedback generation, and prototype revision. When enough feedback cycles have been
performed, the requirements obtained from the prototype are sufficiently complete to move to a design or build
phase. Storyboarding is a prototyping technique showing sequence or navigation through a series of images or
illustrations. Storyboards are used on a variety of projects in a variety of industries, such as film, advertising,
instructional design, and on agile and other software development projects. In software development, storyboards
use mock-ups to show navigation paths through webpages, screens, or other user interfaces.

5.2.2.9 Benchmarking
Benchmarking involves comparing actual or planned practices, such as processes and operations, to those
of comparable organizations to identify best practices, generate ideas for improvement, and provide a basis for
measuring performance. The organizations compared during benchmarking can be internal or external.

116

5 - PROJECT SCOPE MANAGEMENT

5.2.2.10 Context Diagrams
The context diagram is an example of a scope model. Context diagrams visually depict the product scope by
showing a business system (process, equipment, computer system, etc.), and how people and other systems
(actors) interact with it. Context diagrams show inputs to the business system, the actor(s) providing the input, the
outputs from the business system, and the actor(s) receiving the output.

5.2.2.11 Document Analysis

Document analysis is used to elicit requirements by analyzing existing documentation and identifying
information relevant to the requirements. There are a wide range of documents that may be analyzed to help elicit
relevant requirements. Examples of documents that may be analyzed include, but are not limited to: business plans,
marketing literature, agreements, requests for proposal, current process flows, logical data models, business rules
repositories, application software documentation, business process or interface documentation, use cases, other
requirements documentation, problem/issue logs, policies, procedures, and regulatory documentation such as
laws, codes, or ordinances, etc.

5.2.3 Collect Requirements: Outputs
5.2.3.1 Requirements Documentation
Requirements documentation describes how individual requirements meet the business need for the project.
Requirements may start out at a high level and become progressively more detailed as more about the requirements
is known. Before being baselined, requirements need to be unambiguous (measurable and testable), traceable,
complete, consistent, and acceptable to key stakeholders. The format of a requirements document may range from
a simple document listing all the requirements categorized by stakeholder and priority, to more elaborate forms
containing an executive summary, detailed descriptions, and attachments.
Components of requirements documentation can include, but, are not limited to:
• Business requirements, including:
○○ Business and project objectives for traceability;
○○ Business rules for the performing organization; and
○○ Guiding principles of the organization.

117

5 - PROJECT SCOPE MANAGEMENT

• Stakeholder requirements, including:
○○ Impacts to other organizational areas;
○○ Impacts to other entities inside or outside the performing organization; and
○○ Stakeholder communication and reporting requirements.
• Solution requirements, including:
○○ Functional and nonfunctional requirements;
○○ Technology and standard compliance requirements;
○○ Support and training requirements;
○○ Quality requirements; and
○○ R
eporting requirements, etc. (solution requirements can be documented textually, in models,
or both).
• Project requirements, such as:
○○ Levels of service, performance, safety, compliance, etc.; and
○○ Acceptance criteria.
• Transition requirements.
• Requirements assumptions, dependencies, and constraints.

5.2.3.2 Requirements Traceability Matrix
The requirements traceability matrix is a grid that links product requirements from their origin to the
deliverables that satisfy them. The implementation of a requirements traceability matrix helps ensure that each
requirement adds business value by linking it to the business and project objectives. It provides a means
to track requirements throughout the project life cycle, helping to ensure that requirements approved in the
requirements documentation are delivered at the end of the project. Finally, it provides a structure for managing
changes to the product scope.
Tracing includes, but is not limited to, tracing requirements for the following:

118

5 - PROJECT SCOPE MANAGEMENT

• Business needs, opportunities, goals, and objectives;
• Project objectives;
• Project scope/WBS deliverables;
• Product design;
• Product development;
• Test strategy and test scenarios; and

• High-level requirements to more detailed requirements.
Attributes associated with each requirement can be recorded in the requirements traceability matrix. These
attributes help to define key information about the requirement. Typical attributes used in the requirements
traceability matrix may include: a unique identifier, a textual description of the requirement, the rationale
for inclusion, owner, source, priority, version, current status (such as active, cancelled, deferred, added,
approved, assigned, completed), and status date. Additional attributes to ensure that the requirement has met
stakeholders’ satisfaction may include stability, complexity, and acceptance criteria. Figure 5-6 provides an
example of a requirements traceability matrix with its associated attributes.
Requirements Traceability Matrix
Programs

Project Name:

Portfolios

Cost Center:
Project Description:
ID

Associate
ID

Requirements Description

Business Needs,
Opportunities,
Goals, Objectives

Project
Objectives

WBS
Deliverables

Product
Design

Product
Development

Test
Cases

1.0
001

1.1
1.2
1.2.1
2.0

002

2.1
2.1.1
3.0

003

3.1
3.2

004

4.0

005

5.0

Figure 5-6. Example of a Requirements Traceability Matrix

119

5 - PROJECT SCOPE MANAGEMENT

5.3 Define Scope
Define Scope is the process of developing a detailed description of the project and product. The key benefit of
this process is that it describes the project, service, or result boundaries by defining which of the requirements
collected will be included in and excluded from the project scope. The inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs of
this process are depicted in Figure 5-7. Figure 5-8 depicts the data flow diagram of the process.
Inputs

Tools & Techniques

.1 Scope management plan
.2 Project charter
.3 Requirements
documentation
.4 Organizational process
assets

.1
.2
.3
.4

Outputs
.1 Project scope statement
.2 Project documents
updates

Expert judgment
Product analysis
Alternatives generation
Facilitated workshops

Figure 5-7. Define Scope: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs

Project Scope Management
5.1
Plan Scope
Management
Enterprise/
Organization
• Organizational
process assets

• Project
charter

4.1
Develop Project
Charter

5.2
Collect
Requirements

• Scope
management
plan

Project
Documents

• Requirements
documentation

5.3
Define
Scope

• Project documents
updates
• Project
scope
statement

6.3
Sequence
Activities

6.5
Estimate
Activity Durations
5.4
Create
WBS

6.6
Develop
Schedule

Figure 5-8. Define Scope Data Flow Diagram

120

5 - PROJECT SCOPE MANAGEMENT

Since all of the requirements identified in Collect Requirements may not be included in the project, the Define
Scope process selects the final project requirements from the requirements documentation delivered during the
Collect Requirements process. It then develops a detailed description of the project and product, service, or result.
The preparation of a detailed project scope statement is critical to project success and builds upon the major
deliverables, assumptions, and constraints that are documented during project initiation. During project planning,
the project scope is defined and described with greater specificity as more information about the project is known.
Existing risks, assumptions, and constraints are analyzed for completeness and added or updated as necessary.
The Define Scope process can be highly iterative. In iterative life cycle projects, a high-level vision will be developed
for the overall project, but the detailed scope is determined one iteration at a time and the detailed planning for the
next iteration is carried out as work progresses on the current project scope and deliverables.

5.3.1 Define Scope: Inputs
5.3.1.1 Scope Management Plan
Described in Section 5.1.3.1.The scope management plan is a component of the project management plan
that establishes the activities for developing, monitoring, and controlling the project scope.

5.3.1.2 Project Charter
Described in Section 4.1.3.1. The project charter provides the high-level project description and product
characteristics. It also contains project approval requirements. If a project charter is not used in the performing
organization, then comparable information needs to be acquired or developed, and used as a basis for the detailed
project scope statement. Organizations that do not produce a formal project charter will usually perform an informal
analysis to identify the content necessary for further scope planning.

5.3.1.3 Requirements Documentation
Described in Section 5.2.3.1. This documentation will be used to select the requirements that will be included
in the project.

121

5 - PROJECT SCOPE MANAGEMENT

5.3.1.4 Organizational Process Assets
Described in Section 2.1.4. Organizational process assets can influence how scope is defined. Examples include,
but are not limited to:
• Policies, procedures, and templates for a project scope statement;
• Project files from previous projects; and
• Lessons learned from previous phases or projects.

5.3.2 Define Scope: Tools and Techniques
5.3.2.1 Expert Judgment
Expert judgment is often used to analyze the information needed to develop the project scope statement. Such
judgment and expertise is applied to any technical detail. Such expertise is provided by any group or individual with
specialized knowledge or training, and is available from many sources, including but not limited to:
• Other units within the organization;
• Consultants;
• Stakeholders, including customers or sponsors;
• Professional and technical associations;
• Industry groups; and
• Subject matter experts.

5.3.2.2 Product Analysis
For projects that have a product as a deliverable, as opposed to a service or result, product analysis can be an
effective tool. Each application area has one or more generally accepted methods for translating high-level product
descriptions into tangible deliverables. Product analysis includes techniques such as product breakdown, systems
analysis, requirements analysis, systems engineering, value engineering, and value analysis.

122

5 - PROJECT SCOPE MANAGEMENT

5.3.2.3 Alternatives Generation
Alternatives generation is a technique used to develop as many potential options as possible in order to identify
different approaches to execute and perform the work of the project. A variety of general management techniques
can be used, such as brainstorming, lateral thinking, analysis of alternatives, etc.

5.3.2.4 Facilitated Workshops
Described in Section 5.2.2.3. The participation of key players with a variety of expectations and/or fields of
expertise in these intensive working sessions helps to reach a cross-functional and common understanding of the
project objectives and its limits.

5.3.3 Define Scope: Outputs
5.3.3.1 Project Scope Statement
The project scope statement is the description of the project scope, major deliverables, assumptions, and
constraints. The project scope statement documents the entire scope, including project and product scope. It
describes, in detail, the project’s deliverables and the work required to create those deliverables. It also provides a
common understanding of the project scope among project stakeholders. It may contain explicit scope exclusions
that can assist in managing stakeholder expectations. It enables the project team to perform more detailed planning,
guides the project team’s work during execution, and provides the baseline for evaluating whether requests for
changes or additional work are contained within or outside the project’s boundaries.
The degree and level of detail to which the project scope statement defines the work that will be performed
and the work that is excluded can help determine how well the project management team can control the overall
project scope. The detailed project scope statement, either directly, or by reference to other documents, includes
the following:
• P
roduct scope description. Progressively elaborates the characteristics of the product, service, or result
described in the project charter and requirements documentation.
• Acceptance criteria. A set of conditions that is required to be met before deliverables are accepted.
• Deliverable. Any unique and verifiable product, result, or capability to perform a service that is required
to be produced to complete a process, phase, or project. Deliverables also include ancillary results, such
as project management reports and documentation. These deliverables may be described at a summary
level or in great detail.

123

5 - PROJECT SCOPE MANAGEMENT

• P
roject exclusion. Generally identifies what is excluded from the project. Explicitly stating what is out of
scope for the project helps to manage stakeholders’ expectations.
• Constraints. A limiting factor that affects the execution of a project or process. Constraints identified with
the project scope statement list and describe the specific internal or external restrictions or limitations
associated with the project scope that affect the execution of the project, for example, a predefined
budget or any imposed dates or schedule milestones that are issued by the customer or performing
organization. When a project is performed under an agreement, contractual provisions will generally be
constraints. Information on constraints may be listed in the project scope statement or in a separate log.
• Assumptions. A factor in the planning process that is considered to be true, real, or certain, without
proof or demonstration. Also describes the potential impact of those factors if they prove to be false.
Project teams frequently identify, document, and validate assumptions as part of their planning process.
Information on assumptions may be listed in the project scope statement or in a separate log.
Although the project charter and the project scope statement are sometimes perceived as containing a certain
degree of redundancy, they are different in the level of detail contained in each. The project charter contains highlevel information, while the project scope statement contains a detailed description of the scope elements. These
elements are progressively elaborated throughout the project. Table 5-1 describes some of the key elements for
each document.
Table 5-1. Elements of the Project Charter and Project Scope Statement
Project Charter
Project purpose or justification
Measurable project objectives
and related success criteria

Project Scope Statement
Project scope description
(progressively elaborated)
Acceptance criteria

High-level requirements

Project deliverables

High-level project description

Project exclusions

High-level risks

Project constraints

Summary milestone schedule

Project assumptions

Summary budget
Stakeholder list
Project approval requirements
(what constitutes success, who
decides it, who signs off)
Assigned project manager,
responsibility, and authority
level
Name and authority of the
sponsor or other person(s)
authorizing the project charter

124

5 - PROJECT SCOPE MANAGEMENT

5.3.3.2 Project Documents Updates
Project documents that may be updated include, but are not limited to:
• Stakeholder register,
• Requirements documentation, and
• Requirements traceability matrix.

5.4 Create WBS
Create WBS is the process of subdividing project deliverables and project work into smaller, more manageable
components. The key benefit of this process is that it provides a structured vision of what has to be delivered. The
inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure 5-9. Figure 5-10 depicts the data
flow diagram of the process.
Inputs
.1 Scope management plan
.2 Project scope statement
.3 Requirements
documentation
.4 Enterprise environmental
factors
.5 Organizational process
assets

Tools & Techniques
.1 Decomposition
.2 Expert judgment

Outputs
.1 Scope baseline
.2 Project documents
updates

Figure 5-9. Create WBS: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs

125

5 - PROJECT SCOPE MANAGEMENT

Project Scope Management
5.1
Plan Scope
Management

5.2
Collect
Requirements

5.3
Define
Scope

• Requirements
documentation

Enterprise/
Organization

• Enterprise
environmental
factors
• Organizational
process assets

Project
Documents

• Scope
management
plan

• Project scope
statement

5.4
Create
WBS

4.2
Develop Project
Management
Plan
6.2
Define
Activities

• Project documents
updates
• Scope
baseline

7.2
Estimate
Costs
7.3
Determine
Budget

5.5
Validate
Scope

11.2
Identify
Risks
11.3
Perform
Qualitative Risk
Analysis

Figure 5-10. Create WBS Data Flow Diagram
The WBS is a hierarchical decomposition of the total scope of work to be carried out by the project team to
accomplish the project objectives and create the required deliverables. The WBS organizes and defines the total
scope of the project, and represents the work specified in the current approved project scope statement.
The planned work is contained within the lowest level of WBS components, which are called work packages.
A work package can be used to group the activities where work is scheduled and estimated, monitored, and
controlled. In the context of the WBS, work refers to work products or deliverables that are the result of activity and
not to the activity itself.

126

5 - PROJECT SCOPE MANAGEMENT

5.4.1 Create WBS: Inputs
5.4.1.1 Scope Management Plan
Described in Section 5.1.3.1. The scope management plan specifies how to create the WBS from the detailed
project scope statement and how the WBS will be maintained and approved.

5.4.1.2 Project Scope Statement

Described in Section 5.3.3.1. The project scope statement describes the work that will be performed and the
work that is excluded. It also lists and describes the specific internal or external restrictions or limitations that may
affect the execution of the project.

5.4.1.3 Requirements Documentation
Described in Section 5.2.3.1. Detailed requirements documentation is essential for understanding what needs
to be produced as the result of the project and what needs to be done to deliver the project and its final products.

5.4.1.4 Enterprise Environmental Factors
Described in Section 2.1.5. Industry-specific WBS standards, relevant to the nature of the project, may serve
as external reference sources for creation of the WBS. For example, engineering projects may reference ISO/IEC
15288 on Systems Engineering – System Life Cycle Processes [6], to create a WBS for a new project.

5.4.1.5 Organizational Process Assets
Described in Section 2.1.4. The organizational process assets that can influence the Create WBS process
include, but are not limited to:
• Policies, procedures, and templates for the WBS;
• Project files from previous projects; and
• Lessons learned from previous projects.

127

5 - PROJECT SCOPE MANAGEMENT

5.4.2 Create WBS: Tools and Techniques
5.4.2.1 Decomposition
Decomposition is a technique used for dividing and subdividing the project scope and project deliverables into
smaller, more manageable parts. The work package is the work defined at the lowest level of the WBS for which
cost and duration can be estimated and managed. The level of decomposition is often guided by the degree of
control needed to effectively manage the project. The level of detail for work packages will vary with the size
and complexity of the project. Decomposition of the total project work into work packages generally involves the
following activities:
• Identifying and analyzing the deliverables and related work;
• Structuring and organizing the WBS;
• Decomposing the upper WBS levels into lower-level detailed components;
• Developing and assigning identification codes to the WBS components; and
• Verifying that the degree of decomposition of the deliverables is appropriate.
A portion of a WBS with some branches of the WBS decomposed down through the work package level is shown
in Figure 5-11.

5.4.2.2 Expert Judgment
Expert judgment is often used to analyze the information needed to decompose the project deliverables down
into smaller component parts in order to create an effective WBS. Such judgment and expertise is applied to
technical details of the project’s scope and used to reconcile differences in opinion on how to best break down
the overall scope of the project. This level of expertise is provided by any group or individual with relevant training,
knowledge, or experience with similar projects or business areas. Expert judgment can also come in the form
of predefined templates that provide guidance on how to effectively break down common deliverables. Such
templates may be industry or discipline specific or may come from experience gained in similar projects. The
project manager, in collaboration with the project team, then determines the final decomposition of the project
scope into the discrete work packages that will be used to effectively manage the work of the project.

128

5 - PROJECT SCOPE MANAGEMENT

1.0
Value Management
System Project

1.1
Needs
Assessment

1.1.1
Current System
Audit

1.1.2
Requirements
Determination

1.2
Standards
Development

1.1.3
Alternatives
Development

1.3
Systems
Engineering

1.4
Project
Management

1.1.4
System Requirements
Development

1.1.1.1
Components
Identification

1.1.2.1
Gap
Assessment

1.1.3.1
Alternatives
Identification

1.1.1.2
Components
Analysis

1.1.2.2
Requirements
Changes Identification

1.1.3.2
Alternatives
Analysis

The WBS is illustrative only. It is not intended to represent the full project scope of any specific project,
nor to imply that this is the only way to organize a WBS on this type of project.

Figure 5-11. Sample WBS Decomposed Down Through Work Packages
A WBS structure may be created through various approaches. Some of the popular methods include the topdown approach, the use of organization-specific guidelines, and the use of WBS templates. A bottom-up approach
can be used during the integration of subcomponents. The WBS structure can be represented in a number of forms,
such as:
• U
sing phases of the project life cycle as the second level of decomposition, with the product and project
deliverables inserted at the third level, as shown in Figure 5-12;
• Using major deliverables as the second level of decomposition, as shown in Figure 5-13; and
• Incorporating subcomponents which may be developed by organizations outside the project team, such
as contracted work. The seller then develops the supporting contract WBS as part of the contracted work.

129

5 - PROJECT SCOPE MANAGEMENT

Software Product
Release 5.0

Project
Management

Product
Requirements

Detail
Design

Integration
and Test

Construct

Planning

Software

Meetings

User
Documentation

Administration

Training Program
Materials

The WBS is illustrative only. It is not intended to represent the full project scope of any specific project,
nor to imply that this is the only way to organize a WBS on this type of project.

Figure 5-12. Sample WBS Organized by Phase

Aircraft
System

Project
Management

Training

Data

Air
Vehicle

Support
Equipment

Facilities

Test and
Evaluation

System
Engineering
Management

Equipment
Training

Technical
Orders

Organizational
Level SE

Base
Buildings

Mock-ups

Supporting
PM Activities

Facilities
Training

Engineering
Data

Intermediate
Level SE

Maintenance
Facility

Operational
Test

Services
Training

Management
Data

Depot
Level SE

Developmental
Test

Test

Airframe

Engine

Communication
System

Navigation
System

Fire Control
System

The WBS is illustrative only. It is not intended to represent the full project scope of any specific project,
nor to imply that this is the only way to organize a WBS on this type of project.

Figure 5-13. Sample WBS with Major Deliverables

130

5 - PROJECT SCOPE MANAGEMENT

Decomposition of the upper-level WBS components requires subdividing the work for each of the deliverables
or subcomponents into its most fundamental elements, where the WBS components represent verifiable products,
services, or results. The WBS may be structured as an outline, an organizational chart, or other method that identifies
a hierarchical breakdown. Verifying the correctness of the decomposition requires determining that the lower-level
WBS components are those that are necessary and sufficient for completion of the corresponding higher-level
deliverables. Different deliverables can have different levels of decomposition. To arrive at a work package, the
work for some deliverables needs to be decomposed only to the next level, while others need additional levels of
decomposition. As the work is decomposed to greater levels of detail, the ability to plan, manage, and control the
work is enhanced. However, excessive decomposition can lead to nonproductive management effort, inefficient
use of resources, decreased efficiency in performing the work, and difficulty aggregating data over different levels
of the WBS.

Decomposition may not be possible for a deliverable or subcomponent that will be accomplished far into the
future. The project management team usually waits until the deliverable or subcomponent is agreed on, so the
details of the WBS can be developed. This technique is sometimes referred to as rolling wave planning.
The WBS represents all product and project work, including the project management work. The total of the work
at the lowest levels should roll up to the higher levels so that nothing is left out and no extra work is performed.
This is sometimes called the 100 percent rule.
For specific information regarding the WBS, refer to the Practice Standard for Work Breakdown Structures –
Second Edition [7]. This standard contains industry-specific examples of WBS templates that can be tailored to
specific projects in a particular application area.

5.4.3 Create WBS: Outputs
5.4.3.1 Scope Baseline
The scope baseline is the approved version of a scope statement, work breakdown structure (WBS), and its
associated WBS dictionary, that can be changed only through formal change control procedures and is used as a
basis for comparison. It is a component of the project management plan. Components of the scope baseline include:
• P
roject scope statement. The project scope statement includes the description of the project scope,
major deliverables, assumptions, and constraints.

131

5 - PROJECT SCOPE MANAGEMENT

• WBS. The WBS is a hierarchical decomposition of the total scope of work to be carried out by the project
team to accomplish the project objectives and create the required deliverables. Each descending level
of the WBS represents an increasingly detailed definition of the project work. The WBS is finalized by
assigning each work package to a control account and establishing a unique identifier for that work
package from a code of accounts. These identifiers provide a structure for hierarchical summation
of costs, schedule, and resource information. A control account is a management control point
where scope, budget, actual cost, and schedule are integrated and compared to the earned value for
performance measurement. Control accounts are placed at selected management points in the WBS.
Each control account may include one or more work packages, but each of the work packages should
be associated with only one control account. A control account may include one or more planning
packages. A planning package is a work breakdown structure component below the control account
with known work content but without detailed schedule activities.
• WBS dictionary. The WBS dictionary is a document that provides detailed deliverable, activity, and
scheduling information about each component in the WBS. The WBS dictionary is a document that
supports the WBS. Information in the WBS dictionary may include, but is not limited to:
○○ Code of account identifier,
○○ Description of work,
○○ Assumptions and constraints,
○○ Responsible organization,
○○ Schedule milestones,
○○ Associated schedule activities,
○○ Resources required,
○○ Cost estimates,
○○ Quality requirements,
○○ Acceptance criteria,
○○ Technical references, and
○○ Agreement information.

5.4.3.2 Project Documents Updates
Project documents that may be updated include, but are not limited to, requirements documentation, which may
need to be updated to include approved changes. If approved change requests result from the Create WBS process,
then the requirements documentation may need to be updated to include approved changes.

132

5 - PROJECT SCOPE MANAGEMENT

5.5 Validate Scope
Validate Scope is the process of formalizing acceptance of the completed project deliverables. The key benefit
of this process is that it brings objectivity to the acceptance process and increases the chance of final product,
service, or result acceptance by validating each deliverable. The inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs of this
process are depicted in Figure 5-14. Figure 5-15 depicts the data flow diagram of the process.
Inputs

Tools & Techniques

.1 Project management plan
.2 Requirements
documentation
.3 Requirements traceability
matrix
.4 Verified deliverables
.5 Work performance data

Outputs
.1 Accepted deliverables
.2 Change requests
.3 Work performance
information
.4 Project documents
updates

.1 Inspection
.2 Group decision-making
techniques

Figure 5-14. Validate Scope: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs

Project Scope Management

4.2
Develop Project
Management
Plan

5.2
Collect
Requirements
• Requirements
documentation
• Requirements
traceability matrix
• Project documents
updates

• Project management
plan

4.3
Direct and
• Project
Manage
charter
Project Work

• Work performance
data

5.5
Validate
Scope

• Change requests

• Validated
deliverables

8.3
Control
Quality

• Work performance
information

• Accepted
deliverables

Project
Documents

4.4
Monitor and
Control Project
Work
4.5
Perform
Integrated
Change Control
4.6
Close Project
or Phase

Figure 5-15. Validate Scope Data Flow Diagram

133

5 - PROJECT SCOPE MANAGEMENT

The verified deliverables obtained from the Control Quality process are reviewed with the customer or sponsor
to ensure that they are completed satisfactorily and have received formal acceptance of the deliverables by the
customer or sponsor. In this process, the outputs obtained as a result of the Planning processes in the Project Scope
Management Knowledge Area, such as the requirements documentation or the scope baseline, as well as the work
performance data obtained from the Execution processes in other Knowledge Areas, are the basis for performing
the validation and for final acceptance.
The Validate Scope process differs from the Control Quality process in that the former is primarily concerned
with acceptance of the deliverables, while quality control is primarily concerned with correctness of the deliverables
and meeting the quality requirements specified for the deliverables. Control Quality is generally performed before
Validate Scope, although the two processes may be performed in parallel.

5.5.1 Validate Scope: Inputs
5.5.1.1 Project Management Plan
Described in Section 4.2.3.1. The project management plan contains the scope management plan and the
scope baseline. As described in Section 5.1.3.1, the scope management plan specifies how formal acceptance of
the completed project deliverables will be obtained. The scope baseline (Section 5.4.3.1) includes the approved
version of a scope statement, work breakdown structure (WBS), and its associated WBS dictionary, that can be
changed only through formal change control procedures and is used as a basis for comparison.

5.5.1.2 Requirements Documentation
Described in Section 5.2.3.1. The requirements documentation lists all the project, product, and other types of
requirements for the project and product, along with their acceptance criteria.

5.5.1.3 Requirements Traceability Matrix
Described in Section 5.2.3.2. The requirements traceability matrix links requirements to their origin and tracks
them throughout the project life cycle.

134

5 - PROJECT SCOPE MANAGEMENT

5.5.1.4 Verified Deliverables
Described in Section 8.3.3.3. Verified deliverables are project deliverables that are completed and checked for
correctness through the Control Quality process.

5.5.1.5 Work Performance Data
Described in Section 4.3.3.2. Work performance data can include the degree of compliance with requirements,
number of nonconformities, severity of the nonconformities, or the number of validation cycles performed in a
period of time.

5.5.2 Validate Scope: Tools and Techniques
5.5.2.1 Inspection
Inspection includes activities such as measuring, examining, and validating to determine whether work and
deliverables meet requirements and product acceptance criteria. Inspections are sometimes called reviews,
product reviews, audits, and walkthroughs. In some application areas, these different terms have unique and
specific meanings.

5.5.2.2 Group Decision-Making Techniques
Described in Section 5.2.2.5. These techniques are used to reach a conclusion when the validation is performed
by the project team and other stakeholders.

5.5.3 Validate Scope: Outputs
5.5.3.1 Accepted Deliverables
Deliverables that meet the acceptance criteria are formally signed off and approved by the customer or sponsor.
Formal documentation received from the customer or sponsor acknowledging formal stakeholder acceptance of
the project’s deliverables is forwarded to the Close Project or Phase process (Section 4.6).

135

5 - PROJECT SCOPE MANAGEMENT

5.5.3.2 Change Requests
The completed deliverables that have not been formally accepted are documented, along with the reasons
for nonacceptance of those deliverables. Those deliverables may require a change request for defect repair. The
change requests are processed for review and disposition through the Perform Integrated Change Control process
(Section 4.5).

5.5.3.3 Work Performance Information
Work performance information includes information about project progress, such as which deliverables
have started, their progress, which deliverables have finished, or which have been accepted. This information is
documented as described in Section 10.3.3.1 and communicated to stakeholders.

5.5.3.4 Project Documents Updates
Project documents that may be updated as a result of the Validate Scope process include any documents that
define the product or report status on product completion. Verified project documents may require approvals from
the customer or sponsor in the form of signatures or signoffs.

5.6 Control Scope
Control Scope is the process of monitoring the status of the project and product scope and managing changes to
the scope baseline. The key benefit of this process is that it allows the scope baseline to be maintained throughout
the project. The inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure 5-16. Figure 5-17
depicts the data flow diagram of the process.
Inputs
.1 Project management plan
.2 Requirements
documentation
.3 Requirements traceability
matrix
.4 Work performance data
.5 Organizational process
assets

Tools & Techniques
.1 Variance analysis

Outputs
.1 Work performance
information
.2 Change requests
.3 Project management plan
updates
.4 Project documents
updates
.5 Organizational process
assets updates

Figure 5-16. Control Scope: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs

136

5 - PROJECT SCOPE MANAGEMENT

Project Scope Management
5.2
Collect
Requirements
• Requirements
documentation
• Requirements
traceability matrix

Enterprise/
Organization

• Project documents
updates

• Organizational
process assets

4.2
Develop Project
• Project
Management
Plan charter

• Project
management plan
• Work performance
data

4.3
Direct and
Manage Project
Work

5.6
Control
Scope

• Project management
plan updates
• Work performance
information

• Change
requests

Project
Documents

4.2
Develop Project
Management
Plan
4.4
Monitor and
Control Project
Work
4.5
Perform
Integrated
Change Control

• Organizational process
assets updates

Enterprise/
Organization

Figure 5-17. Control Scope Data Flow Diagram
Controlling the project scope ensures all requested changes and recommended corrective or preventive actions
are processed through the Perform Integrated Change Control process (see Section 4.5). Control Scope is also used
to manage the actual changes when they occur and is integrated with the other control processes. The uncontrolled
expansion to product or project scope without adjustments to time, cost, and resources is referred to as scope
creep. Change is inevitable; therefore some type of change control process is mandatory for every project.

137

5 - PROJECT SCOPE MANAGEMENT

5.6.1 Control Scope: Inputs
5.6.1.1 Project Management Plan
Described in Section 4.2.3.1. The following information from the project management plan is used to control
scope:
• S
cope baseline. The scope baseline is compared to actual results to determine if a change, corrective
action, or preventive action is necessary.
• S
cope management plan. Sections from the scope management plan describe how the project scope
will be monitored and controlled.
• Change management plan. The change management plan defines the process for managing change
on the project.
• Configuration management plan. The configuration management plan defines those items that are
configurable, those items that require formal change control, and the process for controlling changes to
such items.
• R
equirements management plan. This plan is a component of the project management plan and
describes how the project requirements will be analyzed, documented, and managed.

5.6.1.2 Requirements Documentation
Described in Section 5.2.3.1. Requirements should be unambiguous (measurable and testable), traceable,
complete, consistent, and acceptable to key stakeholders. Well-documented requirements make it easier to detect
any deviation in the scope agreed for the project or product.

5.6.1.3 Requirements Traceability Matrix
Described in Section 5.2.3.2. The requirements traceability matrix helps to detect the impact of any change or
deviation from the scope baseline on the project objectives.

138

5 - PROJECT SCOPE MANAGEMENT

5.6.1.4 Work Performance Data
Described in Section 4.3.3.2. Work performance data can include the number of change requests received, the
number of requests accepted or the number of deliverables completed, etc.

5.6.1.5 Organizational Process Assets
Described in Section 2.1.4. The organizational process assets that can influence the Control Scope process
include, but are not limited to:

• Existing formal and informal scope, control-related policies, procedures, guidelines; and
• Monitoring and reporting methods and templates to be used.

5.6.2 Control Scope: Tools and Techniques
5.6.2.1 Variance Analysis
Variance analysis is a technique for determining the cause and degree of difference between the baseline and
actual performance. Project performance measurements are used to assess the magnitude of variation from the
original scope baseline. Important aspects of project scope control include determining the cause and degree of
variance relative to the scope baseline (Section 5.4.3.1) and deciding whether corrective or preventive action is
required.

5.6.3 Control Scope: Outputs
5.6.3.1 Work Performance Information
Work performance information produced includes correlated and contextualized information on how the project
scope is performing compared to the scope baseline. It can include the categories of the changes received, the
identified scope variances and their causes, how they impact schedule or cost, and the forecast of the future scope
performance. This information provides a foundation for making scope decisions.

139

5 - PROJECT SCOPE MANAGEMENT

5.6.3.2 Change Requests
Analysis of scope performance can result in a change request to the scope baseline or other components
of the project management plan. Change requests can include preventive or corrective actions, defect repairs,
or enhancement requests. Change requests are processed for review and disposition according to the Perform
Integrated Change Control process (Section 4.5).

5.6.3.3 Project Management Plan Updates
Project management plan updates may include, but are not limited to:
• S
cope Baseline Updates. If the approved change requests have an effect on the project scope, then
the scope statement, the WBS, and the WBS dictionary are revised and reissued to reflect the approved
changes through Perform Integrated Change Control process.
• Other Baseline Updates. If the approved change requests have an effect on the project besides the
project scope, then the corresponding cost baseline and schedule baselines are revised and reissued to
reflect the approved changes.

5.6.3.4 Project Documents Updates
Project documents that may be updated include, but are not limited to:
• Requirements documentation, and
• Requirements traceability matrix.

5.6.3.5 Organizational Process Assets Updates
Organizational process assets that may be updated include, but are not limited to:
• Causes of variances,
• Corrective action chosen and the reasons, and
• Other types of lessons learned from project scope control.

140

6 - PROJECT TIME MANAGEMENT

6
PROJECT TIME MANAGEMENT
Project Time Management includes the processes required to manage the timely completion of the project.
Figure 6-1 provides an overview of the Project Time Management processes, which are as follows:
6.1 Plan Schedule Management—The process of establishing the policies, procedures, and documentation
for planning, developing, managing, executing, and controlling the project schedule.

6.2 Define Activities—The process of identifying and documenting the specific actions to be performed
to produce the project deliverables.
6.3 Sequence Activities—The process of identifying and documenting relationships among the project
activities.
6.4 Estimate Activity Resources—The process of estimating the type and quantities of material, human
resources, equipment, or supplies required to perform each activity.
6.5 Estimate Activity Durations—The process of estimating the number of work periods needed to
complete individual activities with estimated resources.
6.6 Develop Schedule—The process of analyzing activity sequences, durations, resource requirements,
and schedule constraints to create the project schedule model.
6.7 Control Schedule—The process of monitoring the status of project activities to update project
progress and manage changes to the schedule baseline to achieve the plan.

141

6 - PROJECT TIME MANAGEMENT

These processes interact with each other and with processes in other Knowledge Areas as described in detail
in Section 3 and Annex A1.
Distinguishing the project schedule presentation (schedule) from the schedule data (Section 6.6.3.3) and
calculations that produce the project schedule (Section 6.6.3.2) is practiced by referring to the scheduling tool
populated with project data as the schedule model. A schedule model is a representation of the plan for executing
the project’s activities including durations, dependencies, and other planning information, used to produce project
schedules along with other scheduling artifacts. For specific information regarding the schedule model, refer to the
Practice Standard for Scheduling. [8]
On some projects, especially those of smaller scope, defining activities, sequencing activities, estimating
activity resources, estimating activity durations, and developing the schedule model are so tightly linked that they
are viewed as a single process that can be performed by a person over a relatively short period of time. These
processes are presented here as distinct elements because the tools and techniques for each process are different.
The Project Time Management processes and their associated tools and techniques are documented in the
schedule management plan. The schedule management plan is a subsidiary plan of, and integrated with, the project
management plan through the Develop Project Management Plan process (Section 4.2), The schedule management
plan identifies a scheduling method and scheduling tool (Figure 6-2), and sets the format and establishes criteria
for developing and controlling the project schedule. The selected scheduling method defines the framework and
algorithms used in the scheduling tool to create the schedule model. Some of the better known scheduling methods
include critical path method (CPM) and critical chain method (CCM).
Project schedule development uses the outputs from the processes to define activities, sequence activities,
estimate activity resources, and estimate activity durations in combination with the scheduling tool to produce
the schedule model. The finalized and approved schedule is the baseline that will be used in the Control Schedule
process (Section 6.7). As the project activities are being performed, the majority of effort in the Project Time
Management Knowledge Area will occur in the Control Schedule process to ensure completion of project work in a
timely manner. Figure 6-2 provides a scheduling overview that shows how the scheduling method, scheduling tool,
and outputs from the Project Time Management processes interact to create a project schedule.

142

6 - PROJECT TIME MANAGEMENT

Project Time
Management Overview
6.1 Plan Schedule
Management
.1 Inputs
.1 Project management plan
.2 Project charter
.3 Enterprise environmental
factors
.4 Organizational process
assets
.2 Tools & Techniques
.1 Expert judgment
.2 Analytical techniques
.3 Meetings
.3 Outputs
.1 Schedule management
plan

6.5 Estimate Activity
Durations
.1 Inputs
.1 Schedule management
plan
.2 Activity list
.3 Activity attributes
.4 Activity resource
requirements
.5 Resource calendars
.6 Project scope statement
.7 Risk register
.8 Resource breakdown
structure
.9 Enterprise environmental
factors
.10 Organizational process
assets
.2 Tools & Techniques
.1 Expert judgment
.2 Analogous estimating
.3 Parametric estimating
.4 Three-point estimating
.5 Group decision-making
techniques
.6 Reserve analysis
.3 Outputs
.1 Activity duration estimates
.2 Project documents updates

6.2 Define Activities
.1 Inputs
.1 Schedule management
plan
.2 Scope baseline
.3 Enterprise environmental
factors
.4 Organizational process
assets
.2 Tools & Techniques
.1 Decomposition
.2 Rolling wave planning
.3 Expert judgment
.3 Outputs
.1 Activity list
.2 Activity attributes
.3 Milestone list

6.6 Develop Schedule
.1 Inputs
.1 Schedule management
plan
.2 Activity list
.3 Activity attributes
.4 Project schedule network
diagrams
.5 Activity resource
requirements
.6 Resource calendars
.7 Activity duration estimates
.8 Project scope statement
.9 Risk register
.10 Project staff assignments
.11 Resource breakdown
structure
.12 Enterprise environmental
factors
.13 Organizational process
assets
.2 Tools & Techniques
.1 Schedule network analysis
.2 Critical path method
.3 Critical chain method
.4 Resource optimization
techniques
.5 Modeling techniques
.6 Leads and lags
.7 Schedule compression
.8 Scheduling tool
.3 Outputs
.1 Schedule baseline
.2 Project schedule
.3 Schedule data
.4 Project calendars
.5 Project management plan
updates
.6 Project documents updates

6.3 Sequence
Activities
.1 Inputs
.1 Schedule management
plan
.2 Activity list
.3 Activity attributes
.4 Milestone list
.5 Project scope statement
.6 Enterprise environmental
factors
.7 Organizational process
assets
.2 Tools & Techniques
.1 Precedence diagramming
method (PDM)
.2 Dependency determination
.3 Leads and lags
.3 Outputs
.1 Project schedule network
diagrams
.2 Project documents updates

6.7 Control Schedule
.1 Inputs
.1 Project management plan
.2 Project schedule
.3 Work performance data
.4 Project calendars
.5 Schedule data
.6 Organizational process
assets

6.4 Estimate Activity
Resources
.1 Inputs
.1 Schedule management
plan
.2 Activity list
.3 Activity attributes
.4 Resource calendars
.5 Risk register
.6 Activity cost estimates
.7 Enterprise environmental
factors
.8 Organizational process
assets

.2 Tools & Techniques
.1 Expert judgment
.2 Alternative analysis
.3 Published estimating data
.4 Bottom-up estimating
.5 Project management
software
.3 Outputs
.1 Activity resource
requirements
.2 Resource breakdown
structure
.3 Project documents
updates

.2 Tools & Techniques
.1 Performance reviews
.2 Project management
software
.3 Resource optimization
techniques
.4 Modeling techniques
.5 Leads and lags
.6 Schedule compression
.7 Scheduling tool
.3 Outputs
.1 Work performance
information
.2 Schedule forecasts
.3 Change requests
.4 Project management plan
updates
.5 Project documents updates
.6 Organizational process
assets updates

Figure 6-1. Project Time Management Overview

143

6 - PROJECT TIME MANAGEMENT

Project Specific Data
(e.g., WBS, activities,
resources, durations,
dependencies, constraints,
calendars, milestones
lags, etc.)

Scheduling
Method

Scheduling
Tool

For example,
CPM

Schedule
Model

Project
Information

Generates

Output

Project
Schedule

Examples of Project Schedule Presentations

Network Diagram
Activity List

Bar Chart

Figure 6-2. Scheduling Overview

144

6 - PROJECT TIME MANAGEMENT

6.1 Plan Schedule Management
Plan Schedule Management is the process of establishing the policies, procedures, and documentation for
planning, developing, managing, executing, and controlling the project schedule. The key benefit of this process is
that it provides guidance and direction on how the project schedule will be managed throughout the project. The
inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure 6-3. Figure 6-4 depicts the data
flow diagram of the process.
Inputs

Tools & Techniques

.1 Project management plan
.2 Project charter
.3 Enterprise environmental
factors
.4 Organizational process
assets

Outputs
.1 Schedule management
plan

.1 Expert judgment
.2 Analytical techniques
.3 Meetings

Figure 6-3. Plan Schedule Management: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs

4.1
Develop Project
Charter

Project Time Management

• Project charter

• Project
management
plan

4.2
Develop Project
Management
Plan

11.2
Identify
Risks

6.1
Plan Schedule
Management
• Enterprise
environmental
factors
• Organizational
process assets

• Schedule
management
plan

6.2
Define
Activities

6.4
Estimate Activity
Resources

6.3
Sequence
Activities

6.5
Estimate Activity
• Durations
Change log

11.4
Perform
Quantitative
Risk Analysis

Enterprise/
Organization

6.6
Develop
Schedule

Figure 6-4. Plan Schedule Management Data Flow Diagram

145

6 - PROJECT TIME MANAGEMENT

The schedule management plan is a component of the project management plan. The schedule management
plan may be formal or informal, highly detailed or broadly framed, based upon the needs of the project, and
includes appropriate control thresholds. The schedule management plan defines how schedule contingencies will
be reported and assessed. The schedule management plan may be updated to reflect a change in the way the
schedule is managed. The schedule management plan is a major input into the Develop Project Management Plan
process, as referenced in Section 6.1.3.1.

6.1.1 Plan Schedule Management: Inputs
6.1.1.1 Project Management Plan
Described in Section 4.2.3.1. The project management plan contains information used to develop the schedule
management plan which includes, but is not limited to:
• S
cope baseline. The scope baseline includes the project scope statement and the work breakdown
structure (WBS) details used for defining activities, duration estimation, and schedule management; and
• Other information. Other scheduling related cost, risk, and communications decisions from the project
management plan are used to develop the schedule.

6.1.1.2 Project Charter
Described in Section 4.1.3.1. The project charter defines the summary milestone schedule and project approval
requirements that will influence the management of the project schedule.

6.1.1.3 Enterprise Environmental Factors
Described in Section 2.1.5. The enterprise environmental factors that influence the Plan Schedule Management
process include, but are not limited to:
• Organizational culture and structure can all influence schedule management;
• Resource availability and skills that may influence schedule planning;
• P roject management software provides the scheduling tool and alternative possibilities for managing the
schedule;
• P ublished commercial information, such as resource productivity information, is often available from
commercial databases that track; and
• Organizational work authorization systems.

146

6 - PROJECT TIME MANAGEMENT

6.1.1.4 Organizational Process Assets
Described in Section 2.1.4. The organizational process assets that influence the Plan Schedule Management
process include, but are not limited to:
• Monitoring and reporting tools to be used;
• Historical information;
• Schedule control tools;
• Existing formal and informal schedule control related policies, procedures, and guidelines;
• Templates;

• Project closure guidelines;
• Change control procedures; and
• R
isk control procedures including risk categories, probability definition and impact, and probability and
impact matrix.

6.1.2 Plan Schedule Management: Tools and Techniques
6.1.2.1 Expert Judgment
Expert judgment, guided by historical information, provides valuable insight about the environment and
information from prior similar projects. Expert judgment can also suggest whether to combine methods and how to
reconcile differences between them.
Judgment based upon expertise in an application area, Knowledge Area, discipline, industry, etc., as appropriate
for the activity being performed, should be used in developing the schedule management plan.

6.1.2.2 Analytical Techniques
The Plan Schedule Management process may involve choosing strategic options to estimate and schedule the
project such as: scheduling methodology, scheduling tools and techniques, estimating approaches, formats, and
project management software. The schedule management plan may also detail ways to fast track or crash (Section
6.6.2.7) the project schedule such as undertaking work in parallel. These decisions, like other schedule decisions
affecting the project, may affect project risks.

147

6 - PROJECT TIME MANAGEMENT

Organizational policies and procedures may influence which scheduling techniques are employed in these
decisions. Techniques may include, but are not limited to, rolling wave planning (Section 6.2.2.2), leads and lags
(Section 6.3.2.3), alternatives analysis (Section 6.4.2.2), and methods for reviewing schedule performance (Section
6.7.2.1).

6.1.2.3 Meetings
Project teams may hold planning meetings to develop the schedule management plan. Participants at these
meetings may include the project manager, the project sponsor, selected project team members, selected
stakeholders, anyone with responsibility for schedule planning or execution, and others as needed.

6.1.3 Plan Schedule Management: Outputs
6.1.3.1 Schedule Management Plan
A component of the project management plan that establishes the criteria and the activities for developing,
monitoring, and controlling the schedule. The schedule management plan may be formal or informal, highly detailed
or broadly framed, based upon the needs of the project, and includes appropriate control thresholds.
For example, the schedule management plan can establish the following:
• P
roject schedule model development. The scheduling methodology and the scheduling tool to be used
in the development of the project schedule model are specified.
• L evel of accuracy. The acceptable range used in determining realistic activity duration estimates is
specified and may include an amount for contingencies.
• Units of measure. Each unit used in measurements (such as staff hours, staff days, or weeks for time
measures, or meters, liters, tons, kilometers, or cubic yards for quantity measures) is defined for each of
the resources.
• O
rganizational procedures links. The WBS (Section 5.4) provides the framework for the schedule
management plan, allowing for consistency with the estimates and resulting schedules.
roject schedule model maintenance. The process used to update the status and record progress of
• P
the project in the schedule model during the execution of the project is defined.
• Control thresholds. Variance thresholds for monitoring schedule performance may be specified to indicate
an agreed-upon amount of variation to be allowed before some action needs to be taken. Thresholds are
typically expressed as percentage deviations from the parameters established in the baseline plan.

148

6 - PROJECT TIME MANAGEMENT

• R
ules of performance measurement. Earned value management (EVM) rules or other physical
measurement rules of performance measurement are set. For example, the schedule management plan
may specify:
○○ Rules for establishing percent complete,
○○ Control accounts at which management of progress and schedule will be measured,
○○ E arned value measurement techniques (e.g., baselines, fixed-formula, percent complete, etc.)
to be employed (for more specific information, refer to the Practice Standard for Earned Value
Management) [9],
○○ S chedule performance measurements such as schedule variance (SV) and schedule performance
index (SPI) used to assess the magnitude of variation to the original schedule baseline.

• Reporting formats. The formats and frequency for the various schedule reports are defined.
• Process descriptions. Descriptions of each of the schedule management processes are documented.

6.2 Define Activities
Define Activities is the process of identifying and documenting the specific actions to be performed to produce
the project deliverables. The key benefit of this process is to break down work packages into activities that provide
a basis for estimating, scheduling, executing, monitoring, and controlling the project work. The inputs, tools and
techniques, and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure 6-5. Figure 6-6 depicts the data flow diagram of the
process.
Inputs
.1 Schedule management
plan
.2 Scope baseline
.3 Enterprise environmental
factors
.4 Organizational process
assets

Tools & Techniques
.1 Decomposition
.2 Rolling wave planning
.3 Expert judgment

Outputs
.1 Activity list
.2 Activity attributes
.3 Milestone list

Figure 6-5. Define Activities: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs

149

6 - PROJECT TIME MANAGEMENT

Project Time Management
6.1
Plan Schedule
Management

5.4
Create
WBS
• Scope baseline

• Organizational
process assets
• Enterprise
environmental
factors

Enterprise/
Organization

• Schedule
management plan

6.2
Define
Activities

• Milestone
list

• Activity list
• Activity attributes

6.3
Sequence
Activities

6.5
Estimate Activity
Durations

6.4
Estimate Activity
Resources

6.6
Develop
• Schedule
Change log

Figure 6-6. Define Activities Data Flow Diagram
Implicit in this process are defining and planning the schedule activities such that the project objectives will
be met. The Create WBS process identifies the deliverables at the lowest level in the WBS—the work package.
Work packages are typically decomposed into smaller components called activities that represent the work effort
required to complete the work package.

6.2.1 Define Activities: Inputs
6.2.1.1 Schedule Management Plan
Described in Section 6.1.3.1. A key input from the schedule management plan is the prescribed level of detail
necessary to manage the work.

150

6 - PROJECT TIME MANAGEMENT

6.2.1.2 Scope Baseline
Described in Section 5.4.3.1. The project WBS, deliverables, constraints, and assumptions documented in the
scope baseline are considered explicitly while defining activities.

6.2.1.3 Enterprise Environmental Factors
Described in Section 2.1.5. Enterprise environmental factors that influence the Define Activities process include,
but are not limited to:
• Organizational cultures and structure,

• Published commercial information from commercial databases, and
• Project management information system (PMIS).

6.2.1.4 Organizational Process Assets
Described in Section 2.1.4. The organizational process assets that can influence the Define Activities process
include, but are not limited to:
• L essons learned knowledge base containing historical information regarding activity lists used by previous
similar projects,
• Standardized processes,
• Templates that contain a standard activity list or a portion of an activity list from a previous project, and
• E xisting formal and informal activity planning-related policies, procedures, and guidelines, such as the
scheduling methodology, that are considered in developing the activity definitions.

6.2.2 Define Activities: Tools and Techniques
6.2.2.1 Decomposition
Decomposition is a technique used for dividing and subdividing the project scope and project deliverables into
smaller, more manageable parts. Activities represent the effort needed to complete a work package. The Define
Activities process defines the final outputs as activities rather than deliverables, as done in the Create WBS process
(Section 5.4).

151

6 - PROJECT TIME MANAGEMENT

The activity list, WBS, and WBS dictionary can be developed either sequentially or concurrently, with the WBS
and WBS dictionary as the basis for development of the final activity list. Each work package within the WBS is
decomposed into the activities required to produce the work package deliverables. Involving team members in the
decomposition can lead to better and more accurate results.

6.2.2.2 Rolling Wave Planning
Rolling wave planning is an iterative planning technique in which the work to be accomplished in the near term
is planned in detail, while the work in the future is planned at a higher level. It is a form of progressive elaboration.
Therefore, work can exist at various levels of detail depending on where it is in the project life cycle. During early
strategic planning, when information is less defined, work packages may be decomposed to the known level of
detail. As more is known about the upcoming events in the near term, work packages can be decomposed into
activities.

6.2.2.3 Expert Judgment
Project team members or other experts, who are experienced and skilled in developing detailed project scope
statements, the WBS, and project schedules, can provide expertise in defining activities.

6.2.3 Define Activities: Outputs
6.2.3.1 Activity List
The activity list is a comprehensive list that includes all schedule activities required on the project. The activity
list also includes the activity identifier and a scope of work description for each activity in sufficient detail to ensure
that project team members understand what work is required to be completed. Each activity should have a unique
title that describes its place in the schedule, even if that activity title is displayed outside the context of the project
schedule.

152

6 - PROJECT TIME MANAGEMENT

6.2.3.2 Activity Attributes
Activities, distinct from milestones, have durations, during which the work of that activity is performed,
and may have resources and costs associated with that work. Activity attributes extend the description of
the activity by identifying the multiple components associated with each activity. The components for each
activity evolve over time. During the initial stages of the project, they include the activity identifier (ID), WBS ID,
and activity label or name, and when completed, may include activity codes, activity description, predecessor
activities, successor activities, logical relationships, leads and lags (Section 6.3.2.3), resource requirements,
imposed dates, constraints, and assumptions. Activity attributes can be used to identify the person responsible
for executing the work, geographic area, or place where the work has to be performed, the project calendar
the activity is assigned to, and activity type such as level of effort (often abbreviated as LOE), discrete effort,
and apportioned effort. Activity attributes are used for schedule development and for selecting, ordering, and
sorting the planned schedule activities in various ways within reports. The number of attributes varies by
application area.

6.2.3.3 Milestone List
A milestone is a significant point or event in a project. A milestone list is a list identifying all project milestones
and indicates whether the milestone is mandatory, such as those required by contract, or optional, such as those
based upon historical information. Milestones are similar to regular schedule activities, with the same structure and
attributes, but they have zero duration because milestones represent a moment in time.

6.3 Sequence Activities
Sequence Activities is the process of identifying and documenting relationships among the project activities. The
key benefit of this process is that it defines the logical sequence of work to obtain the greatest efficiency given all
project constraints. The inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure 6-7. Figure
6-8 depicts the data flow diagram of the process.
Inputs

Tools & Techniques

Outputs

.1 Schedule management
plan
.2 Activity list
.3 Activity attributes
.4 Milestone list
.5 Project scope statement
.6 Enterprise environmental
factors
.7 Organizational process
assets

.1 Precedence diagramming
method (PDM)
.2 Dependency
determination
.3 Leads and lags

.1 Project schedule network
diagrams
.2 Project documents
updates

Figure 6-7. Sequence Activities: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs

153

6 - PROJECT TIME MANAGEMENT

Project Time Management
6.1
Plan Schedule
Management
5.3
Define
Scope

6.2
Define
Activities

• Schedule
management
plan

• Activity list
• Activity attributes
• Milestone list

• Project scope
statement

6.3
Sequence
Activities
• Organizational
process assets
• Enterprise
environmental
factors

Enterprise/
Organization

• Project documents
updates

Project
Documents

• Project schedule
network diagrams

6.6
Develop
Schedule

Figure 6-8. Sequence Activities Data Flow Diagram
Every activity and milestone except the first and last should be connected to at least one predecessor with a
finish-to-start or start-to-start logical relationship and at least one successor with a finish-to-start or finish-tofinish logical relationship. Logical relationships should be designed to create a realistic project schedule. It may
be necessary to use lead or lag time between activities to support a realistic and achievable project schedule.
Sequencing can be performed by using project management software or by using manual or automated techniques.

6.3.1 Sequence Activities: Inputs
6.3.1.1 Schedule Management Plan
Described in Section 6.1.3.1. The schedule management plan identifies the scheduling method and tool to be
used for the project, which will guide how the activities may be sequenced.

154

6 - PROJECT TIME MANAGEMENT

6.3.1.2 Activity List
Described in Section 6.2.3.1. The activity list contains all schedule activities required on the project, which
are to be sequenced. Dependencies and other constraints for these activities can influence the sequencing of the
activities.

6.3.1.3 Activity Attributes
Described in Section 6.2.3.2. Activity attributes may describe a necessary sequence of events or defined
predecessor or successor relationships.

6.3.1.4 Milestone List
Described in Section 6.2.3.3. The milestone list may have scheduled dates for specific milestones, which may
influence the way activities are sequenced.

6.3.1.5 Project Scope Statement
Described in Section 5.3.3.1. The project scope statement contains the product scope description, which includes
product characteristics that may affect activity sequencing, such as the physical layout of a plant to be constructed
or subsystem interfaces on a software project. Other information from the project scope statement including project
deliverables, project constraints, and project assumptions may also affect activity sequencing. While these effects
are often apparent in the activity list, the product scope description is generally reviewed to ensure accuracy.

6.3.1.6 Enterprise Environmental Factors
Described in Section 2.1.5. Enterprise environmental factors that influence the Sequence Activities process
include, but are not limited to:
• Government or industry standards,
• Project management information system (PMIS),
• Scheduling tool, and
• Company work authorization systems.

155

6 - PROJECT TIME MANAGEMENT

6.3.1.7 Organizational Process Assets
Described in Section 2.1.4. The organizational process assets that can influence the Sequence Activities process
include, but are not limited to: project files from the corporate knowledge base used for scheduling methodology,
existing formal and informal activity planning-related policies, procedures, and guidelines, such as the scheduling
methodology that are considered in developing logical relationships, and templates that can be used to expedite the
preparation of networks of project activities. Related activity attributes information in templates can also contain
additional descriptive information useful in sequencing activities.

6.3.2 Sequence Activities: Tools and Techniques
6.3.2.1 Precedence Diagramming Method
The precedence diagramming method (PDM) is a technique used for constructing a schedule model in which
activities are represented by nodes and are graphically linked by one or more logical relationships to show the
sequence in which the activities are to be performed. Activity-on-node (AON) is one method of representing a
precedence diagram. This is the method used by most project management software packages.
PDM includes four types of dependencies or logical relationships. A predecessor activity is an activity that
logically comes before a dependent activity in a schedule. A successor activity is a dependent activity that logically
comes after another activity in a schedule. These relationships are defined below and are illustrated in Figure 6-9:
• F inish-to-start (FS). A logical relationship in which a successor activity cannot start until a predecessor
activity has finished. Example: The awards ceremony (successor) cannot start until the race (predecessor)
has finished.
• F inish-to-finish (FF). A logical relationship in which a successor activity cannot finish until a predecessor
activity has finished. Example: Writing a document (predecessor) is required to finish before editing the
document (successor) can finish.
• S
tart-to-start (SS). A logical relationship in which a successor activity cannot start until a predecessor
activity has started. Example: Level concrete (successor) cannot begin until pour foundation (predecessor)
begins.
• S
tart-to-finish (SF). A logical relationship in which a successor activity cannot finish until a predecessor
activity has started. Example: The first security guard shift (successor) cannot finish until the second
security guard shift (predecessor) starts.

156

6 - PROJECT TIME MANAGEMENT

In PDM, finish-to-start is the most commonly used type of precedence relationship. The start-to-finish relationship
is very rarely used but is included to present a complete list of the PDM relationship types.

Activity A

Finish to Start (FS)

Activity A

Activity B

Activity A

Start to Start (SS)

Finish to Finish (FF)

Activity B

Activity B
Start to Finish (SF)

Activity A

Activity B

Figure 6-9. Precedence Diagramming Method (PDM) Relationship Types

6.3.2.2 Dependency Determination
Dependencies may be characterized by the following attributes: mandatory or discretionary, internal or external,
as described below. Dependency has four attributes, but two can be applicable at the same time in following
ways: mandatory external dependencies, mandatory internal dependencies, discretionary external dependencies,
or discretionary internal dependencies.
• Mandatory dependencies. Mandatory dependencies are those that are legally or contractually required
or inherent in the nature of the work. Mandatory dependencies often involve physical limitations, such
as on a construction project, where it is impossible to erect the superstructure until after the foundation
has been built, or on an electronics project, where a prototype has to be built before it can be tested.
Mandatory dependencies are also sometimes referred to as hard logic or hard dependencies. Technical
dependencies may not be mandatory. The project team determines which dependencies are mandatory
during the process of sequencing the activities. Mandatory dependencies should not be confused with
assigning schedule constraints in the scheduling tool.

157

6 - PROJECT TIME MANAGEMENT

• D
iscretionary dependencies. Discretionary dependencies are sometimes referred to as preferred logic,
preferential logic, or soft logic. Discretionary dependencies are established based on knowledge of best
practices within a particular application area or some unusual aspect of the project where a specific
sequence is desired, even though there may be other acceptable sequences. Discretionary dependencies
should be fully documented since they can create arbitrary total float values and can limit later scheduling
options. When fast tracking techniques are employed, these discretionary dependencies should be
reviewed and considered for modification or removal. The project team determines which dependencies
are discretionary during the process of sequencing the activities.
• E xternal dependencies. External dependencies involve a relationship between project activities and
non-project activities. These dependencies are usually outside the project team’s control. For example,
the testing activity in a software project may be dependent on the delivery of hardware from an external
source, or governmental environmental hearings may need to be held before site preparation can begin
on a construction project. The project management team determines which dependencies are external
during the process of sequencing the activities.
• Internal dependencies. Internal dependencies involve a precedence relationship between project
activities and are generally inside the project team’s control. For example, if the team cannot test a
machine until they assemble it, this is an internal mandatory dependency. The project management team
determines which dependencies are internal during the process of sequencing the activities.

6.3.2.3 Leads and Lags
A lead is the amount of time whereby a successor activity can be advanced with respect to a predecessor
activity. For example, on a project to construct a new office building, the landscaping could be scheduled to start
two weeks prior to the scheduled punch list completion. This would be shown as a finish-to-start with a two-week
lead as shown in Figure 6-10. Lead is often represented as a negative value for lag in scheduling software.

Complete
Punch List
FS – 2 Weeks (Lead)

Write
Draft
SS – 15 Days (Lag)

Landscape
Building Lot

Edit
Draft

Figure 6-10. Examples of Lead and Lag

158

6 - PROJECT TIME MANAGEMENT

A lag is the amount of time whereby a successor activity will be delayed with respect to a predecessor activity.
For example, a technical writing team may begin editing the draft of a large document 15 days after they begin
writing it. This can be shown as a start-to-start relationship with a 15-day lag as shown in Figure 6-10. Lag can
also be represented in project schedule network diagrams as shown in Figure 6-11 in the relationship between
activities H and I, as indicated by the nomenclature SS+10 (start-to-start plus 10 days lag) even though offset is
not shown relative to a timescale.
The project management team determines the dependencies that may require a lead or a lag to accurately
define the logical relationship. The use of leads and lags should not replace schedule logic. Activities and their
related assumptions should be documented.

6.3.3 Sequence Activities: Outputs
6.3.3.1 Project Schedule Network Diagrams
A project schedule network diagram is a graphical representation of the logical relationships, also referred to as
dependencies, among the project schedule activities. Figure 6-11 illustrates a project schedule network diagram. A
project schedule network diagram is produced manually or by using project management software. It can include
full project details, or have one or more summary activities. A summary narrative can accompany the diagram and
describe the basic approach used to sequence the activities. Any unusual activity sequences within the network
should be fully described within the narrative.

159

6 - PROJECT TIME MANAGEMENT

B
SS

Begin

FS + 15

End

SS + 10

J
FF

Figure 6-11. Project Schedule Network Diagram

6.3.3.2 Project Documents Updates
Project documents that may be updated include, but are not limited to:
• Activity lists,
• Activity attributes,
• Milestone list, and
• Risk register.

6.4 Estimate Activity Resources
Estimate Activity Resources is the process of estimating the type and quantities of material, human
resources, equipment, or supplies required to perform each activity. The key benefit of this process is that it
identifies the type, quantity, and characteristics of resources required to complete the activity which allows
more accurate cost and duration estimates. The inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs of this process are
depicted in Figure 6-12. Figure 6-13 depicts the data flow diagram of the process.

160

6 - PROJECT TIME MANAGEMENT

Inputs

Tools & Techniques

.1 Schedule management
plan
.2 Activity list
.3 Activity attributes
.4 Resource calendars
.5 Risk register
.6 Activity cost estimates
.7 Enterprise environmental
factors
.8 Organizational process
assets

.1
.2
.3
.4
.5

Outputs
.1 Activity resource
requirements
.2 Resource breakdown
structure
.3 Project documents
updates

Expert judgment
Alternative analysis
Published estimating data
Bottom-up estimating
Project management
software

Figure 6-12. Estimate Activity Resources: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs

7.2
Estimate
Costs

Project Time Management
6.1
Plan Schedule
Management

11.2
Identify
Risks
• Risk
register

• Activity cost
estimates

• Schedule
management
plan

12.2
Conduct
Procurements

Enterprise/
Organization

• Activity list
• Activity attributes

6.4
Estimate
Activity
Resources

9.2
Acquire
Project Team
• Resource
calendars

6.2
Define
Activities

• Organizational
process assets
• Enterprise
environmental
factors

• Activity resource
requirements

• Project documents
updates

9.1
Plan Human
Resource
Management

12.1
Plan
Procurement
Management

• Activity resource requirements
• Resource breakdown structure

Project
Documents
6.5
Estimate Activity
Durations

6.6
Develop
Schedule

Figure 6-13. Estimate Activity Resources Data Flow Diagram

161

6 - PROJECT TIME MANAGEMENT

The Estimate Activity Resources process is closely coordinated with the Estimate Costs process (Section 7.2).
For example:
• A construction project team will need to be familiar with local building codes. Such knowledge is often
readily available from local sellers. However, if the local labor pool lacks experience with unusual or
specialized construction techniques, the additional cost for a consultant may be the most effective way
to secure knowledge of the local building codes.
• A n automotive design team will need to be familiar with the latest in automated assembly techniques.
The requisite knowledge might be obtained by hiring a consultant, by sending a designer to a seminar on
robotics, or by including someone from manufacturing as a member of the project team.

6.4.1 Estimate Activity Resources: Inputs
6.4.1.1 Schedule Management Plan
Described in Section 6.1.3.1. The schedule management plan identifies the level of accuracy and the units of
measure for the resources to be estimated.

6.4.1.2 Activity List
Described in Section 6.2.3.1. The activity list identifies the activities which will need resources.

6.4.1.3 Activity Attributes
Described in Section 6.2.3.2. The activity attributes provide the primary data input for use in estimating those
resources required for each activity in the activity list.

162

6 - PROJECT TIME MANAGEMENT

6.4.1.4 Resource Calendars
Described in Sections 9.2.3.2 and 12.2.3.3. A resource calendar is a calendar that identifies the working
days and shifts on which each specific resource is available. Information on which resources (such as human
resources, equipment, and material) are potentially available during a planned activity period, is used for
estimating resource utilization. Resource calendars specify when and how long identified project resources
will be available during the project. This information may be at the activity or project level. This knowledge
includes consideration of attributes such as resource experience and/or skill level, as well as various
geographical locations from which the resources originate and when they may be available.

6.4.1.5 Risk Register
Described in Section 11.2.3.1. Risk events may impact resource selection and availability. Updates to the risk
register are included with project documents updates, described in Section 11.5.3.2, from Plan Risk Responses.

6.4.1.6 Activity Cost Estimates
Described in Section 7.2.3.1. The cost of resources may impact resource selection.

6.4.1.7 Enterprise Environmental Factors
Described in Section 2.1.5. The enterprise environmental factors that can influence the Estimate Activity
Resources process include, but are not limited to, resource location, availability, and skills.

6.4.1.8 Organizational Process Assets
Described in Section 2.1.4. The organizational process assets that can influence the Estimate Activity Resources
process include, but are not limited to:
• Policies and procedures regarding staffing,
• Policies and procedures relating to rental and purchase of supplies and equipment, and
• Historical information regarding types of resources used for similar work on previous projects.

163

6 - PROJECT TIME MANAGEMENT

6.4.2 Estimate Activity Resources: Tools and Techniques
6.4.2.1 Expert Judgment
Expert judgment is often required to assess the resource-related inputs to this process. Any group or person
with specialized knowledge in resource planning and estimating can provide such expertise.

6.4.2.2 Alternative Analysis
Many schedule activities have alternative methods of accomplishment. They include using various levels of
resource capability or skills, different size or type of machines, different tools (hand versus automated), and makerent-or-buy decisions regarding the resource (Section 12.1.3.5).

6.4.2.3 Published Estimating Data
Several organizations routinely publish updated production rates and unit costs of resources for an extensive
array of labor trades, material, and equipment for different countries and geographical locations within countries.

6.4.2.4 Bottom-Up Estimating
Bottom-up estimating is a method of estimating project duration or cost by aggregating the estimates of the
lower-level components of the WBS. When an activity cannot be estimated with a reasonable degree of confidence,
the work within the activity is decomposed into more detail. The resource needs are estimated. These estimates
are then aggregated into a total quantity for each of the activity’s resources. Activities may or may not have
dependencies between them that can affect the application and use of resources. If there are dependencies, this
pattern of resource usage is reflected and documented in the estimated requirements of the activity.

6.4.2.5 Project Management Software
Project management software, such as a scheduling software tool, has the capability to help plan, organize, and
manage resource pools and develop resource estimates. Depending on the sophistication of the software, resource
breakdown structures, resource availability, resource rates, and various resource calendars can be defined to assist
in optimizing resource utilization.

164

6 - PROJECT TIME MANAGEMENT

6.4.3 Estimate Activity Resources: Outputs
6.4.3.1 Activity Resource Requirements
Activity resource requirements identify the types and quantities of resources required for each activity in a work
package. These requirements then can be aggregated to determine the estimated resources for each work package
and each work period. The amount of detail and the level of specificity of the resource requirement descriptions
can vary by application area. The resource requirements documentation for each activity can include the basis of
estimate for each resource, as well as the assumptions that were made in determining which types of resources
are applied, their availability, and what quantities are used.

6.4.3.2 Resource Breakdown Structure
The resource breakdown structure is a hierarchical representation of resources by category and type. Examples
of resource categories include labor, material, equipment, and supplies. Resource types may include the skill level,
grade level, or other information as appropriate to the project. The resource breakdown structure is useful for
organizing and reporting project schedule data with resource utilization information.

6.4.3.3 Project Documents Updates
Project documents that may be updated include, but are not limited to:
• Activity list,
• Activity attributes, and
• Resource calendars.

6.5 Estimate Activity Durations
Estimate Activity Durations is the process of estimating the number of work periods needed to complete
individual activities with estimated resources. The key benefit of this process is that it provides the amount of time
each activity will take to complete, which is a major input into the Develop Schedule process. The inputs, tools and
techniques, and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure 6-14. Figure 6-15 depicts the data flow diagram of
the process.

165

6 - PROJECT TIME MANAGEMENT

Inputs

Tools & Techniques

.1 Schedule management
plan
.2 Activity list
.3 Activity attributes
.4 Activity resource
requirements
.5 Resource calendars
.6 Project scope statement
.7 Risk register
.8 Resource breakdown
structure
.9 Enterprise environmental
factors
.10 Organizational process
assets

Outputs
.1 Activity duration
estimates
.2 Project documents
updates

.1
.2
.3
.4
.5

Expert judgment
Analogous estimating
Parametric estimating
Three-point estimating
Group decision-making
techniques
.6 Reserve analysis

Figure 6-14. Estimate Activity Durations: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs

Project Time Management
6.1
Plan Schedule
Management

11.2
Identify
Risks

6.2
Define
Activities

6.4
Estimate Activity
Resources

• Activity list
• Activity attributes

5.3
Define
Scope
• Project
scope
statement

• Risk
register

6.5
Estimate
Activity
Durations

9.2
Acquire
Project Team
• Resource
calendars

12.2
Conduct
Procurement

• Activity resource
requirements
• Resource breakdown
structure

• Schedule
management
plan

• Organizational
process assets
• Enterprise
environmental
factors

Project
Documents

• Project documents
updates

11.2
Identify
Risks

• Activity
duration
estimates

6.6
Develop
Schedule

Enterprise/
Organization

Figure 6-15. Estimate Activity Durations Data Flow Diagram

166

6 - PROJECT TIME MANAGEMENT

Estimating activity durations uses information on activity scope of work, required resource types, estimated
resource quantities, and resource calendars. The inputs of the estimates of activity duration originate from the
person or group on the project team who is most familiar with the nature of the work in the specific activity. The
duration estimate is progressively elaborated, and the process considers the quality and availability of the input
data. For example, as more detailed and precise data is available about the project engineering and design work,
the accuracy of the duration estimates improves. Thus, the duration estimate can be assumed to be progressively
more accurate and of better quality.
The Estimate Activity Durations process requires an estimation of the amount of work effort required to complete
the activity and the amount of available resources estimated to complete the activity. These estimates are used to
approximate the number of work periods (activity duration) needed to complete the activity using the appropriate
project and resource calendars. All data and assumptions that support duration estimating are documented for
each estimate of activity duration.

6.5.1 Estimate Activity Durations: Inputs
6.5.1.1 Schedule Management Plan
Described in Section 6.1.3.1. The schedule management plan defines the method used and the level of accuracy
along with other criteria required to estimate activity durations including the project update cycle.

6.5.1.2 Activity List
Described in Section 6.2.3.1. The activity list identifies the activities that will need duration estimates.

6.5.1.3 Activity Attributes
Described in Section 6.2.3.2. The activity attributes provide the primary data input for use in estimating durations
required for each activity in the activity list.

6.5.1.4 Activity Resource Requirements
Described in Section 6.4.3.1. The estimated activity resource requirements will have an effect on the duration of
the activity, since the level to which the resources assigned to the activity meet the requirements will significantly
influence the duration of most activities. For example, if additional or lower-skilled resources are assigned to an
activity, there may be reduced efficiency or productivity due to increased communication, training, and coordination
needs leading to a longer duration estimate.

167

6 - PROJECT TIME MANAGEMENT

6.5.1.5 Resource Calendars
Described in Section 6.4.1.4. The resource calendars influence the duration of schedule activities due to the
availability of specific resources, type of resources, and resources with specific attributes. For example, when staff
members are assigned to an activity on a full-time basis, in general, a skilled staff member can be expected to
complete a given activity in less time than a relatively less-skilled staff member.

6.5.1.6 Project Scope Statement
Described in Section 5.3.3.1. The assumptions and constraints from the project scope statement are considered
when estimating the activity durations. Examples of assumptions include, but are not limited to:
• Existing conditions,
• Availability of information, and
• Length of the reporting periods.
Examples of constraints include, but are not limited to:
• Available skilled resources, and
• Contract terms and requirements.

6.5.1.7 Risk Register
Described in Section 11.2.3.1. The risk register provides the list of risks, along with the results of risk analysis
and risk response planning. Updates to the risk register are included with project document updates described in
Section 11.5.3.2.

6.5.1.8 Resource Breakdown Structure
Described in Section 6.4.3.2. The resource breakdown structure provides a hierarchical structure of the identified
resources by resource category and resource type.

168

6 - PROJECT TIME MANAGEMENT

6.5.1.9 Enterprise Environmental Factors
Described in Section 2.1.5. The enterprise environmental factors that can influence the Estimate Activity
Durations process include, but are not limited to:
• Duration estimating databases and other reference data,
• Productivity metrics,
• Published commercial information, and
• Location of team members.

6.5.1.10 Organizational Process Assets
Described in Section 2.1.4. The organizational process assets that can influence the Estimate Activity Durations
process include, but are not limited to:
• Historical duration information,
• Project calendars,
• Scheduling methodology, and
• Lessons learned.

6.5.2 Estimate Activity Durations: Tools and Techniques
6.5.2.1 Expert Judgment
Expert judgment, guided by historical information, can provide duration estimate information or recommended
maximum activity durations from prior similar projects. Expert judgment can also be used to determine whether to
combine methods of estimating and how to reconcile differences between them.

6.5.2.2 Analogous Estimating
Analogous estimating is a technique for estimating the duration or cost of an activity or a project using
historical data from a similar activity or project. Analogous estimating uses parameters from a previous,
similar project, such as duration, budget, size, weight, and complexity, as the basis for estimating the same
parameter or measure for a future project. When estimating durations, this technique relies on the actual
duration of previous, similar projects as the basis for estimating the duration of the current project. It is a
gross value estimating approach, sometimes adjusted for known differences in project complexity. Analogous
duration estimating is frequently used to estimate project duration when there is a limited amount of detailed
information about the project.

169

6 - PROJECT TIME MANAGEMENT

Analogous estimating is generally less costly and less time consuming than other techniques, but it is also
less accurate. Analogous duration estimates can be applied to a total project or to segments of a project and may
be used in conjunction with other estimating methods. Analogous estimating is most reliable when the previous
activities are similar in fact and not just in appearance, and the project team members preparing the estimates
have the needed expertise.

6.5.2.3 Parametric Estimating
Parametric estimating is an estimating technique in which an algorithm is used to calculate cost or duration
based on historical data and project parameters. Parametric estimating uses a statistical relationship between
historical data and other variables (e.g., square footage in construction) to calculate an estimate for activity
parameters, such as cost, budget, and duration.
Activity durations can be quantitatively determined by multiplying the quantity of work to be performed by labor
hours per unit of work. For example, activity duration on a design project is estimated by the number of drawings
multiplied by the number of labor hours per drawing, or on a cable installation, the meters of cable multiplied by the
number of labor hours per meter. For example, if the assigned resource is capable of installing 25 meters of cable
per hour, the duration required to install 1,000 meters is 40 hours. (1,000 meters divided by 25 meters per hour).
This technique can produce higher levels of accuracy depending upon the sophistication and underlying data
built into the model. Parametric time estimates can be applied to a total project or to segments of a project, in
conjunction with other estimating methods.

6.5.2.4 Three-Point Estimating
The accuracy of single-point activity duration estimates may be improved by considering estimation uncertainty
and risk. This concept originated with the program evaluation and review technique (PERT). PERT uses three
estimates to define an approximate range for an activity’s duration:
• M
ost likely (tM). This estimate is based on the duration of the activity, given the resources likely to be
assigned, their productivity, realistic expectations of availability for the activity, dependencies on other
participants, and interruptions.
• Optimistic (tO). The activity duration based on analysis of the best-case scenario for the activity.
• Pessimistic (tP). The activity duration based on analysis of the worst-case scenario for the activity.

170

6 - PROJECT TIME MANAGEMENT

Depending on the assumed distribution of values within the range of the three estimates the expected duration,
tE, can be calculated using a formula. Two commonly used formulas are triangular and beta distributions. The
formulas are:
• Triangular Distribution. tE = (tO + tM + tP) / 3
• Beta Distribution (from the traditional PERT technique). tE = (tO + 4tM + tP) / 6
Duration estimates based on three points with an assumed distribution provide an expected duration and clarify
the range of uncertainty around the expected duration.

6.5.2.5 Group Decision-Making Techniques

Team-based approaches, such as brainstorming, the Delphi or nominal group techniques, are useful for engaging
team members to improve estimate accuracy and commitment to the emerging estimates. By involving a structured
group of people who are close to the technical execution of work in the estimation process, additional information
is gained and more accurate estimates obtained. Additionally, when people are involved in the estimation process,
their commitment towards meeting the resulting estimates increases.

6.5.2.6 Reserve Analysis
Duration estimates may include contingency reserves, sometimes referred to as time reserves or buffers,
into the project schedule to account for schedule uncertainty. Contingency reserves are the estimated duration
within the schedule baseline, which is allocated for identified risks that are accepted and for which contingent or
mitigation responses are developed. Contingency reserves are associated with the “known-unknowns,” which may
be estimated to account for this unknown amount of rework. The contingency reserve may be a percentage of the
estimated activity duration, a fixed number of work periods, or may be developed by using quantitative analysis
methods such as Monte Carlo simulation (Section 11.4.2.2). Contingency reserves may be separated from the
individual activities and aggregated into buffers as shown in Figure 6-19.
As more precise information about the project becomes available, the contingency reserve may be used,
reduced, or eliminated. Contingency should be clearly identified in schedule documentation.
Estimates may also be produced for the amount of management reserve of time for the project. Management
reserves are a specified amount of the project duration withheld for management control purposes and are
reserved for unforeseen work that is within scope of the project. Management reserves are intended to address the
“unknown-unknowns” that can affect a project. Management reserve is not included in the schedule baseline, but
it is part of the overall project duration requirements. Depending on contract terms, use of management reserves
may require a change to the schedule baseline.

171

6 - PROJECT TIME MANAGEMENT

6.5.3 Estimate Activity Durations: Outputs
6.5.3.1 Activity Duration Estimates
Activity duration estimates are quantitative assessments of the likely number of time periods that are required
to complete an activity. Duration estimates do not include any lags as described in Section 6.3.2.3. Activity duration
estimates may include some indication of the range of possible results. For example:
• 2 weeks ± 2 days, which indicates that the activity will take at least eight days and not more than twelve
(assuming a five-day workweek); and
• 1 5 % probability of exceeding three weeks, which indicates a high probability—85 %—that the activity
will take three weeks or less.

6.5.3.2 Project Documents Updates
Project documents that may be updated include, but are not limited to:
• Activity attributes; and
• A ssumptions made in developing the activity duration estimate, such as skill levels and availability,
as well as a basis of estimates for durations.

6.6 Develop Schedule
Develop Schedule is the process of analyzing activity sequences, durations, resource requirements, and
schedule constraints to create the project schedule model. The key benefit of this process is that by entering
schedule activities, durations, resources, resource availabilities, and logical relationships into the scheduling tool, it
generates a schedule model with planned dates for completing project activities. The inputs, tools and techniques,
and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure 6-16. Figure 6-17 depicts the data flow diagram of the process.

172

6 - PROJECT TIME MANAGEMENT

Inputs

Tools & Techniques

.1 Schedule management
plan
.2 Activity list
.3 Activity attributes
.4 Project schedule
network diagrams
.5 Activity resource
requirements
.6 Resource calendars
.7 Activity duration
estimates
.8 Project scope statement
.9 Risk register
.10 Project staff assignments
.11 Resource breakdown
structure
.12 Enterprise environmental
factors
.13 Organizational process
assets

Outputs
.1
.2
.3
.4
.5

Schedule baseline
Project schedule
Schedule data
Project calendars
Project management plan
updates
.6 Project documents
updates

.1 Schedule network
analysis
.2 Critical path method
.3 Critical chain method
.4 Resource optimization
techniques
.5 Modeling techniques
.6 Leads and lags
.7 Schedule compression
.8 Scheduling tool

Figure 6-16 Develop Schedule: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs

Project Time Management
6.1
Plan Schedule
Management
• Schedule
management plan

6.4
Estimate Activity
Resources

6.2
Define
Activities
11.2
Identify
Risks

• Activity resource
requirements
• Resource breakdown
structure

• Activity list
• Activity attributes

Project
Documents

6.3
Sequence
Activities

• Risk register

5.3
Define
Scope
• Project scope statement

6.5
Estimate Activity
Durations

• Project schedule
network diagrams

• Activity duration
estimates

7.2
Estimate
Costs

• Project documents
updates

6.6
Develop
Schedule

9.2
Acquire
Project Team
• Project staff assignments
• Resource calendars

12.2
Conduct
Procurements

• Organizational
process assets
• Enterprise
environmental
factors

• Project
management
• Project
plan updates
calendars
• Schedule baseline
• Schedule
data
• Project schedule

• Resource calendars

Enterprise/
Organization

• Project schedule

6.7
Control
Schedule

7.3
Determine
Budget

12.1
Plan Procurement
Management

4.2
Develop Project
Management
Plan

Figure 6-17. Develop Schedule Data Flow Diagram

173

6 - PROJECT TIME MANAGEMENT

Developing an acceptable project schedule is often an iterative process. The schedule model is used to
determine the planned start and finish dates for project activities and milestones based on the accuracy of the
inputs. Schedule development can require the review and revision of duration estimates and resource estimates to
create the project schedule model to establish an approved project schedule that can serve as a baseline to track
progress. Once the activity start and finish dates have been determined, it is common to have project staff assigned
to the activities review their assigned activities and confirm that the start and finish dates present no conflict with
resource calendars or assigned activities in other projects or tasks and thus are still valid. As work progresses,
revising and maintaining the project schedule model to sustain a realistic schedule continues throughout the
duration of the project, as described in Section 6.7.
For more specific information regarding scheduling, refer to the Practice Standard for Scheduling.

6.6.1 Develop Schedule: Inputs
6.6.1.1 Schedule Management Plan
Described in Section 6.1.3.1. The schedule management plan identifies the scheduling method and tool used to
create the schedule, and how the schedule is to be calculated.

6.6.1.2 Activity List
Described in Section 6.2.3.1. The activity list identifies the activities that will be included in the schedule model.

6.6.1.3 Activity Attributes
Described in Section 6.2.3.2. The activity attributes provide the details used to build the schedule model.

6.6.1.4 Project Schedule Network Diagrams
Described in Section 6.3.3.1. The project schedule network diagrams contain the logical relationships of
predecessors and successors that will be used to calculate the schedule.

174

6 - PROJECT TIME MANAGEMENT

6.6.1.5 Activity Resource Requirements
Described in Section 6.4.3.1. The activity resource requirements identify the types and quantities of resources
required for each activity used to create the schedule model.

6.6.1.6 Resource Calendars
Described in Sections 9.2.3.2 and 12.2.3.3. The resource calendars contain information on the availability of
resources during the project.

6.6.1.7 Activity Duration Estimates

Described in Section 6.5.3.1. The activity duration estimates contain the quantitative assessments of the likely
number of work periods that will be required to complete an activity that will be used to calculate the schedule.

6.6.1.8 Project Scope Statement
Described in Section 5.3.3.1. The project scope statement contains assumptions and constraints that can impact
the development of the project schedule.

6.6.1.9 Risk Register
Described in Section 11.2.3.1. The risk register provides the details of all identified risks and their characteristics
that affect the schedule model.

6.6.1.10 Project Staff Assignments
Described in Section 9.2.3.1. The project staff assignments specify which resources are assigned to each
activity.

6.6.1.11 Resource Breakdown Structure
Described in Section 6.4.3.2. The resource breakdown structure provides the details by which resource analysis
and organizational reporting can be done.

175

6 - PROJECT TIME MANAGEMENT

6.6.1.12 Enterprise Environmental Factors
Described in Section 2.1.5. The enterprise environmental factors include, but are not limited to:
• Standards,
• Communication channels, and
• Scheduling tool to be used in developing the schedule model.

6.6.1.13 Organizational Process Assets
Described in Section 2.1.4. The organizational process assets that can influence the Develop Schedule process
include, but are not limited to: scheduling methodology and project calendar(s).

6.6.2 Develop Schedule: Tools and Techniques
6.6.2.1 Schedule Network Analysis
Schedule network analysis is a technique that generates the project schedule model. It employs various analytical
techniques, such as critical path method, critical chain method, what-if analysis, and resource optimization
techniques to calculate the early and late start and finish dates for the uncompleted portions of project activities.
Some network paths may have points of path convergence or path divergence that can be identified and used in
schedule compression analysis or other analyses.

6.6.2.2 Critical Path Method
The critical path method, which is a method used to estimate the minimum project duration and determine the
amount of scheduling flexibility on the logical network paths within the schedule model. This schedule network
analysis technique calculates the early start, early finish, late start, and late finish dates for all activities without
regard for any resource limitations by performing a forward and backward pass analysis through the schedule
network, as shown in Figure 6-18. In this example the longest path includes activities A, C, and D, and, therefore, the
sequence of A-C-D is the critical path. The critical path is the sequence of activities that represents the longest path
through a project, which determines the shortest possible project duration. The resulting early and late start and
finish dates are not necessarily the project schedule, rather they indicate the time periods within which the activity
could be executed, using the parameters entered in the schedule model for activity durations, logical relationships,
leads, lags, and other known constraints. The critical path method is used to calculate the amount of scheduling
flexibility on the logical network paths within the schedule model.

176

6 - PROJECT TIME MANAGEMENT

On any network path, the schedule flexibility is measured by the amount of time that a schedule activity can
be delayed or extended from its early start date without delaying the project finish date or violating a schedule
constraint, and is termed “total float.” A CPM critical path is normally characterized by zero total float on the
critical path. As implemented with PDM sequencing, critical paths may have positive, zero, or negative total
float depending on constraints applied. Any activity on the critical path is called a critical path activity. Positive
total float is caused when the backward pass is calculated from a schedule constraint that is later than the
early finish date that has been calculated during forward pass calculation. Negative total float is caused when a
constraint on the late dates is violated by duration and logic. Schedule networks may have multiple near-critical
paths. Many software packages allow the user to define the parameters used to determine the critical path(s).
Adjustments to activity durations (if more resources or less scope can be arranged), logical relationships (if the
relationships were discretionary to begin with), leads and lags, or other schedule constraints may be necessary
to produce network paths with a zero or positive total float. Once the total float for a network path has been
calculated, then the free float—the amount of time that a schedule activity can be delayed without delaying the
early start date of any successor or violating a schedule constraint—can also be determined. For example the
free float for Activity B, in Figure 6-18, is 5 days.

B
11
1

Start

Path A–B–D = 25

A
1

Finish

D
5

16
6

C
6

Path A–C–D = 30
(Critical Path)

15
KEY

Activity
Node

Early
Start

Duration

Early
Finish

Activity Name
Late
Start

Total
Float

Late
Finish

Critical Path Link
Non-Critical Path Link

Figure 6-18. Example of Critical Path Method

177

6 - PROJECT TIME MANAGEMENT

6.6.2.3 Critical Chain Method
The critical chain method (CCM) is a schedule method that allows the project team to place buffers on any
project schedule path to account for limited resources and project uncertainties. It is developed from the critical
path method approach and considers the effects of resource allocation, resource optimization, resource leveling,
and activity duration uncertainty on the critical path determined using the critical path method. To do so, the critical
chain method introduces the concept of buffers and buffer management. The critical chain method uses activities
with durations that do not include safety margins, logical relationships, and resource availability with statistically
determined buffers composed of the aggregated safety margins of activities at specified points on the project
schedule path to account for limited resources and project uncertainties. The resource-constrained critical path is
known as the critical chain.
The critical chain method adds duration buffers that are non-work schedule activities to manage uncertainty.
One buffer, placed at the end of the critical chain, as shown in Figure 6-19, is known as the project buffer and
protects the target finish date from slippage along the critical chain. Additional buffers, known as feeding buffers,
are placed at each point where a chain of dependent activities that are not on the critical chain feeds into the critical
chain. Feeding buffers thus protect the critical chain from slippage along the feeding chains. The size of each buffer
should account for the uncertainty in the duration of the chain of dependent activities leading up to that buffer. Once
the buffer schedule activities are determined, the planned activities are scheduled to their latest possible planned
start and finish dates. Consequently, instead of managing the total float of network paths, the critical chain method
focuses on managing the remaining buffer durations against the remaining durations of chains of activities.

Start

Activity A

Activity B

Feeding
Buffer

Activity C

Activity D

Activity E

Activity G

Feeding
Buffer

Project
Buffer

Activity F

KEY

Finish

Critical Chain Link
Non-Critical Link

Figure 6-19. Example of Critical Chain Method

178

6 - PROJECT TIME MANAGEMENT

6.6.2.4 Resource Optimization Techniques
Examples of resource optimization techniques that can be used to adjust the schedule model due to demand
and supply of resources include, but are not limited to:
esource leveling. A technique in which start and finish dates are adjusted based on resource constraints
• R
with the goal of balancing demand for resources with the available supply. Resource leveling can be used
when shared or critically required resources are only available at certain times, or in limited quantities,
or over-allocated, such as when a resource has been assigned to two or more activities during the same
time period, as shown in Figure 6-20, or to keep resource usage at a constant level. Resource leveling
can often cause the original critical path to change, usually to increase.

Activities Before Resource Leveling
Tom: 8 hrs

Activity A Sue: 8 hrs

Start
Activity B Sue: 8 hrs
Activity C Tom: 8 hrs

Day 1

Day 2

Tom: 8 hrs
Sue: 16 hrs

Tom: 8 hrs

Day 3

Activities After Resource Leveling
Tom: 8 hrs

Activity A Sue: 8 hrs

Start
Activity B Sue: 8 hrs

Activity C Tom: 8 hrs
Day 1

Day 2

Day 3

Tom: 8 hrs
Sue: 8 hrs

Sue: 8 hrs

Tom: 8 hrs

Figure 6-20. Resource Leveling

179

6 - PROJECT TIME MANAGEMENT

• R
esource Smoothing. A technique that adjusts the activities of a schedule model such that the
requirements for resources on the project do not exceed certain predefined resource limits. In resource
smoothing, as opposed to resource leveling, the project’s critical path is not changed and the completion
date may not be delayed. In other words, activities may only be delayed within their free and total float.
Thus resource smoothing may not be able to optimize all resources.

6.6.2.5 Modeling Techniques
Examples of modeling techniques include, but are not limited to:
• W
hat-If Scenario Analysis. What-if scenario analysis is the process of evaluating scenarios in order
to predict their effect, positively or negatively, on project objectives. This is an analysis of the question,
“What if the situation represented by scenario ‘X’ happens?” A schedule network analysis is performed
using the schedule to compute the different scenarios, such as delaying a major component delivery,
extending specific engineering durations, or introducing external factors, such as a strike or a change in
the permitting process. The outcome of the what-if scenario analysis can be used to assess the feasibility
of the project schedule under adverse conditions, and in preparing contingency and response plans to
overcome or mitigate the impact of unexpected situations.
• S
imulation. Simulation involves calculating multiple project durations with different sets of activity
assumptions, usually using probability distributions constructed from the three-point estimates (described
in Section 6.5.2.4) to account for uncertainty. The most common simulation technique is Monte Carlo
analysis (Section 11.4.2.2), in which a distribution of possible activity durations is defined for each activity
and used to calculate a distribution of possible outcomes for the total project.

6.6.2.6 Leads and Lags
Described in Section 6.3.2.3. Leads and lags are refinements applied during network analysis to develop a
viable schedule by adjusting the start time of the successor activities. Leads are used in limited circumstances to
advance a successor activity with respect to the predecessor activity, and lags are used in limited circumstances
where processes require a set period of time to elapse between the predecessors and successors without work or
resource impact.

180

6 - PROJECT TIME MANAGEMENT

6.6.2.7 Schedule Compression
Schedule compression techniques are used to shorten the schedule duration without reducing the project
scope, in order to meet schedule constraints, imposed dates, or other schedule objectives. Schedule compression
techniques include, but are not limited to:
• Crashing. A technique used to shorten the schedule duration for the least incremental cost by adding
resources. Examples of crashing include approving overtime, bringing in additional resources, or paying
to expedite delivery to activities on the critical path. Crashing works only for activities on the critical path
where additional resources will shorten the activity’s duration. Crashing does not always produce a viable
alternative and may result in increased risk and/or cost.

• Fast tracking. A schedule compression technique in which activities or phases normally done in sequence
are performed in parallel for at least a portion of their duration. An example is constructing the foundation
for a building before completing all of the architectural drawings. Fast tracking may result in rework and
increased risk. Fast tracking only works if activities can be overlapped to shorten the project duration.

6.6.2.8 Scheduling Tool
Automated scheduling tools contain the schedule model and expedite the scheduling process by generating
start and finish dates based on the inputs of activities, network diagrams, resources and activity durations using
schedule network analysis. A scheduling tool can be used in conjunction with other project management software
applications as well as manual methods.

6.6.3 Develop Schedule: Outputs
6.6.3.1 Schedule Baseline
A schedule baseline is the approved version of a schedule model that can be changed only through formal
change control procedures and is used as a basis for comparison to actual results. It is accepted and approved by
the appropriate stakeholders as the schedule baseline with baseline start dates and baseline finish dates. During
monitoring and controlling, the approved baseline dates are compared to the actual start and finish dates to determine
whether variances have occurred. The schedule baseline is a component of the project management plan.

181

6 - PROJECT TIME MANAGEMENT

6.6.3.2 Project Schedule
The outputs from a schedule model are schedule presentations. The project schedule is an output of a schedule
model that presents linked activities with planned dates, durations, milestones, and resources. At a minimum, the
project schedule includes a planned start date and planned finish date for each activity. If resource planning is done
at an early stage, then the project schedule remains preliminary until resource assignments have been confirmed
and scheduled start and finish dates are established. This process usually occurs no later than the completion of the
project management plan (Section 4.2.3.1). A target project schedule model may also be developed with a defined
target start and target finish for each activity. The project schedule presentation may be presented in summary
form, sometimes referred to as the master schedule or milestone schedule, or presented in detail. Although a
project schedule model can be presented in tabular form, it is more often presented graphically, using one or more
of the following formats, which are classified as presentations:
• B
ar charts. These charts, also known as Gantt charts, represent schedule information where activities
are listed on the vertical axis, dates are shown on the horizontal axis, and activity durations are shown
as horizontal bars placed according to start and finish dates. Bar charts are relatively easy to read,
and are frequently used in management presentations. For control and management communications,
the broader, more comprehensive summary activity, sometimes referred to as a hammock activity, is
used between milestones or across multiple interdependent work packages, and is displayed in bar
chart reports. An example is the summary schedule portion of Figure 6-21 that is presented in a WBSstructured format.
• Milestone charts. These charts are similar to bar charts, but only identify the scheduled start or
completion of major deliverables and key external interfaces. An example is the milestone schedule
portion of Figure 6-21.
roject schedule network diagrams. These diagrams are commonly presented in the activity-on-node
• P
diagram format showing activities and relationships without a time scale, sometimes referred to as a
pure logic diagram, as shown in Figure 6-11, or presented in a time-scaled schedule network diagram
format that is sometimes called a logic bar chart, as shown for the detailed schedule in Figure 6-21.These
diagrams, with activity date information, usually show both the project network logic and the project’s
critical path schedule activities. This example also shows how each work package is planned as a series
of related activities. Another presentation of the project schedule network diagram is a time-scaled logic
diagram. These diagrams include a time scale and bars that represent the duration of activities with the
logical relationships. It is optimized to show the relationships between activities where any number of
activities may appear on the same line of the diagram in sequence.

182

6 - PROJECT TIME MANAGEMENT

Milestone Schedule
Activity
Identifier
1.1.MB

Activity Description
Begin New Product Z

Calendar
units

Complete Component 1

1.1.2.M1

Complete Component 2

Complete Integration of Components 1 & 2

1.1.3.M1

Finish New Product Z

Period 2

Period 3

1.1

Activity Description
Develop and Deliver New Product Z

Calendar
units

Project Schedule Time Frame
Period 1

Period 2

Period 3

1.1.2

Work Package 2: Component 2

1.1.3

Work Package 3: Integrated Components 1 and 2

1.1

Begin New Product Z
Develop and Deliver Product Z

Calendar
units

1.1.1.D

Design Component 1

1.1.1.B

Build Component 1

1.1.1.T

Test Component 1

1.1.1.M1

Complete Component 1

Work Package 2: Component 2

1.1.2.D

Design Component 2

1.1.2.B

Build Component 2

1.1.2.T

Test Component 2

1.1.3

Complete Component 2
Work Package 3: Integrated Components 1 and 2

1.1.3.T

Complete Integration of Components 1 and 2

1.1.3.M1

Test Integrated Components as Product Z

Deliver Product Z

1.1.3.MF

Period 4

Period 5

Integrate Components 1 and 2 as Product Z

Finish New Product Z

Period 3

1.1.3.G

1.1.3.P

Period 2

120

1.1.1

1.1.2.M1

Project Schedule Time Frame
Period 1

Work Package 1: Component 1

1.1.2

Period 5

Data Date

Detailed Schedule

1.1.MB

Period 4

120

Work Package 1: Component 1

Activity Description

Data Date

1.1.1

Activity
Identifier

Period 5

Summary Schedule
Activity
Identifier

Period 4

1.1.1.M1

1.1.3.MF

Project Schedule Time Frame
Period 1

0
Data Date

Figure 6-21. Project Schedule Presentations —Examples

183

6 - PROJECT TIME MANAGEMENT

Figure 6-21 shows schedule presentations for a sample project being executed, with the work in progress
reported through the data date, a point in time when the status of the project is recorded, which is sometimes
also called the as-of date or status date. For a simple project schedule model, Figure 6-21 reflects schedule
presentations in the forms of (1) a milestone schedule as a milestone chart, (2) a summary schedule as a bar
chart, and (3) a detailed schedule as a project schedule network diagram. Figure 6-21 also visually shows the
relationships among the three different levels of schedule presentation.

6.6.3.3 Schedule Data
The schedule data for the project schedule model is the collection of information for describing and controlling
the schedule. The schedule data includes at least the schedule milestones, schedule activities, activity attributes,
and documentation of all identified assumptions and constraints. The amount of additional data varies by application
area. Information frequently supplied as supporting detail includes, but is not limited to:
• Resource requirements by time period, often in the form of a resource histogram;
• A lternative schedules, such as best-case or worst-case, not resource-leveled, or resource-leveled, with
or without imposed dates; and
• Scheduling of contingency reserves.
Schedule data could also include such items as resource histograms, cash-flow projections, and order and
delivery schedules.

6.6.3.4 Project Calendars
A project calendar identifies working days and shifts that are available for scheduled activities. It distinguishes
time periods in days or parts of days that are available to complete scheduled activities from time periods that
are not available. A schedule model may require more than one project calendar to allow for different work
periods for some activities to calculate the project schedule. The project calendars may be updated.

6.6.3.5 Project Management Plan Updates
Elements of the project management plan that may be updated include, but are not limited to:
• Schedule baseline (Section 6.6.3.1),
• Schedule management plan (Section 6.1.3.1).

184

6 - PROJECT TIME MANAGEMENT

6.6.3.6 Project Documents Updates
Project documents that may be updated include, but are not limited to:
• A
ctivity resource requirements. Resource leveling can have a significant effect on preliminary estimates
for the types and quantities of resources required. If the resource-leveling analysis changes the project
resource requirements, then the project resource requirements are updated.
• Activity attributes. Activity attributes (Section 6.2.3.2) are updated to include any revised resource
requirements and any other revisions generated by the Develop Schedule process.
• Calendars. The calendar for each project may consist of multiple calendars, project calendars, individual
resource calendars etc., as the basis for scheduling the project.

• R
isk register. The risk register may need to be updated to reflect opportunities or threats perceived
through scheduling assumptions.

6.7 Control Schedule
Control Schedule is the process of monitoring the status of project activities to update project progress and
manage changes to the schedule baseline to achieve the plan. The key benefit of this process is that it provides
the means to recognize deviation from the plan and take corrective and preventive actions and thus minimize
risk. The inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure 6-22. Figure 6-23
depicts the data flow diagram of the process.
Inputs
.1
.2
.3
.4
.5
.6

Project management plan
Project schedule
Work performance data
Project calendars
Schedule data
Organizational process
assets

Tools & Techniques
.1 Performance reviews
.2 Project management
software
.3 Resource optimization
techniques
.4 Modeling techniques
.5 Leads and lags
.6 Schedule compression
.7 Scheduling tool

Outputs
.1 Work performance
information
.2 Schedule forecasts
.3 Change requests
.4 Project management plan
updates
.5 Project documents
updates
.6 Organizational process
assets updates

Figure 6-22. Control Schedule: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs

185

6 - PROJECT TIME MANAGEMENT

Project Time Management
6.6
Develop
Schedule

4.3
Direct and
Manage Project
Work

• Project schedule
• Project calendars
• Schedule data

• Work
performance
data

• Project
management
plan

6.7
Control
Schedule
• Organizational
process assets

4.2
Develop Project
Management
Plan

Project
Documents

• Project
documents
updates

• Schedule forecasts
• Work performance
information

• Change requests
• Project
management plan
updates

4.4
Monitor and
Control Project
Work

4.5
Perform
Integrated
Change Control

Enterprise/
Organization
• Organizational
process assets updates

Figure 6-23. Control Schedule Data Flow Diagram
Updating the schedule model requires knowing the actual performance to date. Any change to the schedule
baseline can only be approved through the Perform Integrated Change Control process (Section 4.5). Control
Schedule, as a component of the Perform Integrated Change Control process, is concerned with:
• Determining the current status of the project schedule,
• Influencing the factors that create schedule changes,
• Determining if the project schedule has changed, and
• Managing the actual changes as they occur.

186

6 - PROJECT TIME MANAGEMENT

If any agile approach is utilized, control schedule is concerned with:
• D
etermining the current status of the project schedule by comparing the total amount of work delivered
and accepted against the estimates of work completed for the elapsed time cycle,
• C
onducting retrospective reviews (scheduled reviews to record lessons learned) for correcting processes
and improving, if required,
• Reprioritizing the remaining work plan (backlog),
• D
etermining the rate at which the deliverables are produced, validated, and accepted (velocity) in given
time per iteration (agreed work cycle duration, typically two weeks or one month),
• Determining that the project schedule has changed, and

• Managing the actual changes as they occur.

6.7.1 Control Schedule: Inputs
6.7.1.1 Project Management Plan
Described in Section 4.2.3.1. The project management plan contains the schedule management plan and the
schedule baseline. The schedule management plan describes how the schedule will be managed and controlled.
The schedule baseline is used as a reference to compare with actual results to determine if a change, corrective
action, or preventive action is necessary.

6.7.1.2 Project Schedule
Described in Section 6.6.3.2. Project schedule refers to the most recent version with notations to indicate
updates, completed activities, and started activities as of the indicated data date.

6.7.1.3 Work Performance Data
Described in Section 4.3.3.2. Work performance data refers to information about project progress such as which
activities have started, their progress (e.g., actual duration, remaining duration, and physical percent complete),
and which activities have finished.

187

6 - PROJECT TIME MANAGEMENT

6.7.1.4 Project Calendars
Described in Section 6.6.3.4. A schedule model may require more than one project calendar to allow for
different work periods for some activities to calculate the schedule forecasts.

6.7.1.5 Schedule Data
Described in Section 6.6.3.3. Schedule data will be reviewed and updated in the Control Schedule process.

6.7.1.6 Organizational Process Assets
Described in Section 2.1.4. The organizational process assets that influence the Control Schedule process
include, but are not limited to:
• Existing formal and informal schedule control-related policies, procedures, and guidelines;
• Schedule control tools; and
• Monitoring and reporting methods to be used.

6.7.2 Control Schedule: Tools and Techniques
6.7.2.1 Performance Reviews
Performance reviews measure, compare, and analyze schedule performance such as actual start and
finish dates, percent complete, and remaining duration for work in progress. Various techniques may be used,
among them:
• Trend analysis. Trend analysis examines project performance over time to determine whether
performance is improving or deteriorating. Graphical analysis techniques are valuable for understanding
performance to date and for comparison to future performance goals in the form of completion dates.
• Critical path method (Section 6.6.2.2). Comparing the progress along the critical path can help
determine schedule status. The variance on the critical path will have a direct impact on the project end
date. Evaluating the progress of activities on near critical paths can identify schedule risk.

188

6 - PROJECT TIME MANAGEMENT

• Critical chain method (Section 6.6.2.3). Comparing the amount of buffer remaining to the amount of
buffer needed to protect the delivery date can help determine schedule status. The difference between
the buffer needed and the buffer remaining can determine whether corrective action is appropriate.
• E arned value management (Section 7.4.2.1). Schedule performance measurements such as schedule
variance (SV) and schedule performance index (SPI), are used to assess the magnitude of variation to the
original schedule baseline. The total float and early finish variances are also essential planning components
to evaluate project time performance. Important aspects of schedule control include determining the cause
and degree of variance relative to the schedule baseline (Section 6.6.3.1), estimating the implications
of those variances for future work to completion, and deciding whether corrective or preventive action
is required. For example, a major delay on any activity not on the critical path may have little effect on
the overall project schedule, while a much shorter delay on a critical or near-critical activity may require
immediate action. For projects not using earned value management, similar variance analysis can be
performed by comparing planned activity start or finish dates against actual start or finish dates to
identify variances between the schedule baseline and actual project performance. Further analysis can
be performed to determine the cause and degree of variance relative to the schedule baseline and any
corrective or preventative actions needed.

6.7.2.2 Project Management Software
Project management software for scheduling provides the ability to track planned dates versus actual dates,
to report variances to and progress made against the schedule baseline, and to forecast the effects of changes
to the project schedule model.

6.7.2.3 Resource Optimization Techniques
Described in Section 6.6.2.4. Resource optimization techniques involve the scheduling of activities and the
resources required by those activities while taking into consideration both the resource availability and the project
time.

6.7.2.4 Modeling Techniques
Described in Section 6.6.2.5. Modeling techniques are used to review various scenarios guided by risk monitoring
to bring the schedule model into alignment with the project management plan and approved baseline.

189

6 - PROJECT TIME MANAGEMENT

6.7.2.5 Leads and Lags
Adjusting leads and lags is applied during network analysis to find ways to bring project activities that are
behind into alignment with the plan. For example, on a project to construct a new office building, the landscaping
can be adjusted to start before the exterior work of the building is complete by increasing the lead time in the
relationship. Or, a technical writing team can adjust the start of editing the draft of a large document immediately
after the document is completed by eliminating or decreasing lag time.

6.7.2.6 Schedule Compression
Described in Section 6.6.2.7. Schedule compression techniques are used to find ways to bring project activities
that are behind into alignment with the plan by fast tracking or crashing schedule for the remaining work.

6.7.2.7 Scheduling Tool
Schedule data is updated and compiled into the schedule model to reflect actual progress of the project and
remaining work to be completed. The scheduling tool (Section 6.6.2.8) and the supporting schedule data are used
in conjunction with manual methods or other project management software to perform schedule network analysis
to generate an updated project schedule.

6.7.3 Control Schedule: Outputs
6.7.3.1 Work Performance Information
The calculated SV and SPI time performance indicators for WBS components, in particular the work packages
and control accounts, are documented and communicated to stakeholders.

6.7.3.2 Schedule Forecasts
Schedule forecasts are estimates or predictions of conditions and events in the project’s future based on
information and knowledge available at the time of the forecast. Forecasts are updated and reissued based on
work performance information provided as the project is executed. The information is based on the project’s past
performance and expected future performance, and includes earned value performance indicators that could
impact the project in the future.

190

6 - PROJECT TIME MANAGEMENT

6.7.3.3 Change Requests
Schedule variance analysis, along with review of progress reports, results of performance measures, and
modifications to the project scope or project schedule may result in change requests to the schedule baseline,
scope baseline, and/or other components of the project management plan. Change requests are processed for
review and disposition through the Perform Integrated Change Control process (Section 4.5). Preventive actions
may include recommended changes to eliminate or reduce the probability of negative schedule variances.

6.7.3.4 Project Management Plan Updates
Elements of the project management plan that may be updated include, but are not limited to:

• S
chedule baseline. Changes to the schedule baseline are incorporated in response to approved change
requests (Section 4.4.3.1) related to project scope changes, activity resources, or activity duration
estimates. The schedule baseline may be updated to reflect changes caused by schedule compression
techniques.
chedule management plan. The schedule management plan may be updated to reflect a change in
• S
the way the schedule is managed.
• C
ost baseline. The cost baseline may be updated to reflect approved change requests or changes caused
by compression techniques.

6.7.3.5 Project Documents Updates
Project documents that may be updated include, but are not limited to:
• S
chedule Data. New project schedule network diagrams may be developed to display approved remaining
durations and approved modifications to the schedule. In some cases, project schedule delays can be
so severe that development of a new target schedule with forecasted start and finish dates is needed to
provide realistic data for directing the work, measuring performance, and measuring progress.
• P
roject Schedule. An updated project schedule will be generated from the schedule model populated
with updated schedule data to reflect the schedule changes and manage the project.
• R
isk Register. The risk register, and risk response plans within it, may also be updated based on the risks
that may arise due to schedule compression techniques.

191

6 - PROJECT TIME MANAGEMENT

6.7.3.6 Organizational Process Assets Updates
Organizational process assets that may be updated include, but are not limited to:
• Causes of variances,
• Corrective action chosen and the reasons, and
• Other types of lessons learned from project schedule control.

192

7 - PROJECT COST MANAGEMENT

7
PROJECT COST MANAGEMENT
Project Cost Management includes the processes involved in planning, estimating, budgeting, financing, funding,
managing, and controlling costs so that the project can be completed within the approved budget.
Figure 7-1 provides an overview of the following Project Cost Management processes:
7.1 Plan Cost Management—The process that establishes the policies, procedures, and documentation
for planning, managing, expending, and controlling project costs.

7.2 Estimate Costs—The process of developing an approximation of the monetary resources needed to
complete project activities.
7.3 Determine Budget—The process of aggregating the estimated costs of individual activities or work
packages to establish an authorized cost baseline.
7.4 Control Costs—The process of monitoring the status of the project to update the project costs and
managing changes to the cost baseline.
These processes interact with each other and with processes in other Knowledge Areas as described in
detail in Section 3 and Annex A1.
On some projects, especially those of smaller scope, cost estimating and cost budgeting are tightly linked
and can be viewed as a single process that can be performed by a single person over a relatively short period
of time. These are presented here as distinct processes because the tools and techniques for each are different.
The ability to influence cost is greatest at the early stages of the project, making early scope definition critical
(Section 5.3).

193

7 - PROJECT COST MANAGEMENT

Project Cost Management
Overview
7.1 Plan Cost
Management
.1 Inputs
.1 Project management plan
.2 Project charter
.3 Enterprise environmental
factors
.4 Organizational process assets
2. Tools & Techniques
.1 Expert judgment
.2 Analytical techniques
.3 Meetings
.3 Outputs
.1 Cost management plan

7.4 Control Costs
.1 Inputs
.1 Project management plan
.2 Project funding requirements
.3 Work performance data
.4 Organizational process assets
.2 Tools & Techniques
.1 Earned value management
.2 Forecasting
.3 To-complete performance
index (TCPI)
.4 Performance reviews
.5 Project management software
.6 Reserve analysis

7.2 Estimate Costs

7.3 Determine Budget

.1 Inputs
.1 Cost management plan
.2 Human resource management
plan
.3 Scope baseline
.4 Project schedule
.5 Risk register
.6 Enterprise environmental
factors
.7 Organizational process assets

.1 Inputs
.1 Cost management plan
.2 Scope baseline
.3 Activity cost estimates
.4 Basis of estimates
.5 Project schedule
.6 Resource calendars
.7 Risk register
.8 Agreements
.9 Organizational process assets

2. Tools & Techniques
.1 Expert judgment
.2 Analogous estimating
.3 Parametric estimating
.4 Bottom-up estimating
.5 Three-point estimating
.6 Reserve analysis
.7 Cost of quality
.8 Project management software
.9 Vendor bid analysis
.10 Group decision-making
techniques

.2 Tools & Techniques
.1 Cost aggregation
.2 Reserve analysis
.3 Expert judgment
.4 Historical relationships
.5 Funding limit reconciliation
.3 Outputs
.1 Cost baseline
.2 Project funding requirements
.3 Project documents updates

.3 Outputs
.1 Activity cost estimates
.2 Basis of estimates
.3 Project documents updates

.3 Outputs
.1 Work performance
information
.2 Cost forecasts
.3 Change requests
.4 Project management plan
updates
.5 Project documents updates
.6 Organizational process assets
updates

Figure 7-1. Project Cost Management Overview

194

7 - PROJECT COST MANAGEMENT

Project Cost Management should consider the stakeholder requirements for managing costs. Different
stakeholders will measure project costs in different ways and at different times. For example, the cost of an
acquired item may be measured when the acquisition decision is made or committed, the order is placed, the item
is delivered, or the actual cost is incurred or recorded for project accounting purposes.
Project Cost Management is primarily concerned with the cost of the resources needed to complete project
activities. Project Cost Management should also consider the effect of project decisions on the subsequent recurring
cost of using, maintaining, and supporting the product, service, or result of the project. For example, limiting the
number of design reviews can reduce the cost of the project but could increase the resulting product’s operating
costs.
In many organizations, predicting and analyzing the prospective financial performance of the project’s product is
performed outside of the project. In others, such as a capital facilities project, Project Cost Management can include
this work. When such predictions and analyses are included, Project Cost Management may address additional
processes and numerous general financial management techniques such as return on investment, discounted cash
flow, and investment payback analysis.

The cost management planning effort occurs early in project planning and sets the framework for each of the
cost management processes so that performance of the processes will be efficient and coordinated.

7.1 Plan Cost Management
Plan Cost Management is the process that establishes the policies, procedures, and documentation for planning,
managing, expending, and controlling project costs. The key benefit of this process is that it provides guidance and
direction on how the project costs will be managed throughout the project. The inputs, tools and techniques, and
outputs of this process are depicted in Figure 7-2. Figure 7-3 depicts the data flow diagram of the process.
Inputs
.1 Project management plan
.2 Project charter
.3 Enterprise environmental
factors
.4 Organizational process
assets

Tools & Techniques
.1 Expert judgment
.2 Analytical techniques
.3 Meetings

Outputs
.1 Cost management plan

Figure 7-2. Plan Cost Management: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs

195

7 - PROJECT COST MANAGEMENT

4.1
Develop Project
Charter

Project Cost Management

• Project charter

• Project
management
plan

4.2
Develop Project
Management
Plan

7.1
Plan Cost
Management
• Enterprise
environmental
factors
• Organizational
process assets

• Cost
management
plan

6.2
Define
Activities
Enterprise/
Organization
6.3
Sequence
Activities

11.2
Identify
Risks

11.4
Perform
Quantitative
Risk Analysis

Figure 7-3. Plan Cost Management: Data Flow Diagram
The cost management processes and their associated tools and techniques are documented in the cost
management plan. The cost management plan is a component of the project management plan.

7.1.1 Plan Cost Management: Inputs
7.1.1.1 Project Management Plan
Described in Section 4.2.3.1. The project management plan contains information used to develop the cost
management plan, which contains, but is not limited to:
• S
cope baseline. The scope baseline includes the project scope statement and WBS detail for cost
estimation and management.
• Schedule baseline. The schedule baseline defines when the project costs will be incurred.
ther information. Other cost-related scheduling, risk, and communications decisions from the project
• O
management plan.

196

7 - PROJECT COST MANAGEMENT

7.1.1.2 Project Charter
Described in Section 4.1.3.1. The project charter provides the summary budget from which the detailed project
costs are developed. The project charter also defines the project approval requirements that will influence the
management of the project costs.

7.1.1.3 Enterprise Environmental Factors
Described in Section 2.1.5. The enterprise environmental factors that influence the Plan Cost Management
process include, but are not limited to:
• Organizational culture and structure can all influence cost management;

• M
arket conditions describe what products, services, and results are available in the regional and global
market;
• Currency exchange rates for project costs sourced from more than one country;
• Published commercial information such as resource cost rate information is often available from
commercial databases that track skills and human resource costs, and provide standard costs for material
and equipment. Published seller price lists are another source of information; and
• Project management information system, which provides alternative possibilities for managing cost.

7.1.1.4 Organizational Process Assets
Described in Section 2.1.4. The organizational process assets that influence the Plan Cost Management process
include, but are not limited to:
• Financial controls procedures (e.g., time reporting, required expenditure and disbursement reviews,
accounting codes, and standard contract provisions);
• Historical information and lessons learned knowledge bases;
• Financial databases; and
• Existing formal and informal cost estimating and budgeting-related policies, procedures, and guidelines.

197

7 - PROJECT COST MANAGEMENT

7.1.2 Plan Cost Management: Tools and Techniques
7.1.2.1 Expert Judgment
Expert judgment, guided by historical information, provides valuable insight about the environment and
information from prior similar projects. Expert judgment can also suggest whether to combine methods and how to
reconcile differences between them.
Judgment based upon expertise in an application area, Knowledge Area, discipline, industry, etc., as appropriate
for the activity being performed should be used in developing the cost management plan.

7.1.2.2 Analytical Techniques
Developing the cost management plan may involve choosing strategic options to fund the project such as:
self-funding, funding with equity, or funding with debt. The cost management plan may also detail ways to finance
project resources such as making, purchasing, renting, or leasing. These decisions, like other financial decisions
affecting the project, may affect project schedule and/or risks.
Organizational policies and procedures may influence which financial techniques are employed in these
decisions. Techniques may include (but are not limited to): payback period, return on investment, internal rate of
return, discounted cash flow, and net present value.

7.1.2.3 Meetings
Project teams may hold planning meetings to develop the cost management plan. Attendees at these meetings
may include the project manager, the project sponsor, selected project team members, selected stakeholders,
anyone with responsibility for project costs, and others as needed.

7.1.3 Plan Cost Management: Outputs
7.1.3.1 Cost Management Plan
The cost management plan is a component of the project management plan and describes how the project
costs will be planned, structured, and controlled. The cost management processes and their associated tools and
techniques are documented in the cost management plan.

198

7 - PROJECT COST MANAGEMENT

For example, the cost management plan can establish the following:
• Units of measure. Each unit used in measurements (such as staff hours, staff days, weeks for time
measures; or meters, liters, tons, kilometers, or cubic yards for quantity measures; or lump sum in
currency form) is defined for each of the resources.
• L evel of precision. The degree to which activity cost estimates will be rounded up or down (e.g.,
US$100.49 to US$100, or US$995.59 to US$1,000), based on the scope of the activities and magnitude
of the project.
• L evel of accuracy. The acceptable range (e.g., ±10%) used in determining realistic activity cost estimates
is specified, and may include an amount for contingencies;
• O
rganizational procedures links. The work breakdown structure (WBS) (Section 5.4) provides the
framework for the cost management plan, allowing for consistency with the estimates, budgets, and
control of costs. The WBS component used for the project cost accounting is called the control account.
Each control account is assigned a unique code or account number(s) that links directly to the performing
organization’s accounting system.

• Control thresholds. Variance thresholds for monitoring cost performance may be specified to indicate
an agreed-upon amount of variation to be allowed before some action needs to be taken. Thresholds are
typically expressed as percentage deviations from the baseline plan.
• R
ules of performance measurement. Earned value management (EVM) rules of performance
measurement are set. For example, the cost management plan may:
○○ Define the points in the WBS at which measurement of control accounts will be performed;
○○ E stablish the earned value measurement techniques (e.g., weighted milestones, fixed-formula,
percent complete, etc.) to be employed; and
○○ S pecify tracking methodologies and the earned value management computation equations for
calculating projected estimate at completion (EAC) forecasts to provide a validity check on the
bottom-up EAC.
For more specific information regarding earned value management, refer to the Practice Standard for
Earned Value Management – Second Edition.

199

7 - PROJECT COST MANAGEMENT

• Reporting formats. The formats and frequency for the various cost reports are defined.
• Process descriptions. Descriptions of each of the other cost management processes are documented.
• Additional details. Additional details about cost management activities include, but are not limited to:
○○ Description of strategic funding choices,
○○ Procedure to account for fluctuations in currency exchange rates, and
○○ Procedure for project cost recording.

7.2 Estimate Costs
Estimate Costs is the process of developing an approximation of the monetary resources needed to complete
project activities. The key benefit of this process is that it determines the amount of cost required to complete
project work. The inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure 7-4. Figure 7-5
depicts the data flow diagram of the process.
Inputs
.1 Cost management plan
.2 Human resource
management plan
.3 Scope baseline
.4 Project schedule
.5 Risk register
.6 Enterprise environmental
factors
.7 Organizational process
assets

Tools & Techniques
.1
.2
.3
.4
.5
.6
.7
.8

Expert judgment
Analogous estimating
Parametric estimating
Bottom-up estimating
Three-point estimating
Reserve analysis
Cost of quality
Project management
software
.9 Vendor bid analysis
.10 Group decision-making
techniques

Outputs
.1 Activity cost estimates
.2 Basis of estimates
.3 Project documents
updates

Figure 7-4. Estimate Costs: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs

200

7 - PROJECT COST MANAGEMENT

Project Cost Management
5.4
Create
WBS

6.6
Develop
Schedule

• Cost
management
plan

• Project schedule
• Scope baseline

9.1
Plan Human
Resource
Management
• Human resource
management plan

11.2
Identify
Risks

Project
Documents

7.1
Plan Cost
Management

• Project documents
updates

7.2
Estimate
Costs
• Enterprise
environmental
factors
• Organizational
process assets

6.4
Estimate Activity
Resources

• Activity cost
estimates

11.2
Identify
Risks

12.1
Plan Procurement
Management

• Basis of
estimates

• Risk register

Enterprise/
Organization

7.3
Determine
Budget

Figure 7-5. Estimate Costs Data Flow Diagram
Cost estimates are a prediction that is based on the information known at a given point in time. Cost estimates
include the identification and consideration of costing alternatives to initiate and complete the project. Cost tradeoffs and risks should be considered, such as make versus buy, buy versus lease, and the sharing of resources in
order to achieve optimal costs for the project.
Cost estimates are generally expressed in units of some currency (i.e., dollars, euros, yen, etc.), although in
some instances other units of measure, such as staff hours or staff days, are used to facilitate comparisons by
eliminating the effects of currency fluctuations.
Cost estimates should be reviewed and refined during the course of the project to reflect additional detail
as it becomes available and assumptions are tested. The accuracy of a project estimate will increase as the
project progresses through the project life cycle. For example, a project in the initiation phase may have a rough
order of magnitude (ROM) estimate in the range of −25% to +75%. Later in the project, as more information is
known, definitive estimates could narrow the range of accuracy to -5% to +10%. In some organizations, there are
guidelines for when such refinements can be made and the degree of confidence or accuracy that is expected.

201

7 - PROJECT COST MANAGEMENT

Sources of input information are derived from the outputs of processes in other Knowledge Areas. Once received,
all of this information will remain available as inputs to all of the cost management processes.
Costs are estimated for all resources that will be charged to the project. This includes, but is not limited to, labor,
materials, equipment, services, and facilities, as well as special categories such as an inflation allowance, cost
of financing, or contingency costs. A cost estimate is a quantitative assessment of the likely costs for resources
required to complete the activity. Cost estimates may be presented at the activity level or in summary form.

7.2.1 Estimate Costs: Inputs
7.2.1.1 Cost Management Plan
Described in Section 7.1.3.1. The cost management plan defines how project costs will be managed and
controlled. It includes the method used and the level of accuracy required to estimate activity cost.

7.2.1.2 Human Resource Management Plan
Described in Section 9.1.3.1. The human resource management plan provides project staffing attributes,
personnel rates, and related rewards/recognition, which are necessary components for developing the project cost
estimates.

7.2.1.3 Scope Baseline
The scope baseline is comprised of the following:
• P
roject scope statement. The project scope statement (Section 5.3.3.1) provides the product description,
acceptance criteria, key deliverables, project boundaries, assumptions, and constraints about the project.
One basic assumption that needs to be made when estimating project costs is whether the estimates will
be limited to direct project costs only or whether the estimates will also include indirect costs. Indirect
costs are those costs that cannot be directly traced to a specific project and therefore will be accumulated
and allocated equitably over multiple projects by some approved and documented accounting procedure.
One of the most common constraints for many projects is a limited project budget. Examples of other
constraints are required delivery dates, available skilled resources, and organizational policies.
• W
ork breakdown structure. The WBS (Section 5.4) provides the relationships among all the components
of the project and the project deliverables.
• WBS dictionary. The WBS dictionary (Section 5.4.3.1) provides detailed information about the deliverables
and a description of the work for each component in the WBS required to produce each deliverable.

202

7 - PROJECT COST MANAGEMENT

Additional information that may be found in the scope baseline with contractual and legal implications, such as
health, safety, security, performance, environmental, insurance, intellectual property rights, licenses, and permits.
All of this information should be considered when developing the cost estimates.

7.2.1.4 Project Schedule
Described in Section 6.6.3.2. The type and quantity of resources and the amount of time which those resources
are applied to complete the work of the project are major factors in determining the project cost. Schedule activity
resources and their respective durations are used as key inputs to this process. Estimate Activity Resources (Section
6.4) involves determining the availability of staff, the number of staff hours required, and quantities of material and
equipment needed to perform schedule activities. It is closely coordinated with cost estimating. Activity duration
estimates (Section 6.5.3.1) will affect cost estimates on any project where the project budget includes an allowance
for the cost of financing (including interest charges) and where resources are applied per unit of time for the
duration of the activity. Activity duration estimates can also affect cost estimates that have time-sensitive costs
included in them, such as union labor with regularly expiring collective bargaining agreements or materials with
seasonal cost variations.

7.2.1.5 Risk Register
Described in Section 11.2.3.1. The risk register should be reviewed to consider risk response costs. Risks,
which can be either threats or opportunities, typically have an impact on both activity and overall project costs. As
a general rule, when the project experiences a negative risk event, the near-term cost of the project will usually
increase, and there will sometimes be a delay in the project schedule. In a similar way, the project team should
be sensitive to potential opportunities that can benefit the business either by directly reducing activity costs or by
accelerating the schedule.

7.2.1.6 Enterprise Environmental Factors
Described in Section 2.1.5. The enterprise environmental factors that influence the Estimate Costs process
include, but are not limited to:
• M
arket conditions. These conditions describe what products, services, and results are available in the
market, from whom, and under what terms and conditions. Regional and/or global supply and demand
conditions greatly influence resource costs.

203

7 - PROJECT COST MANAGEMENT

• P
ublished commercial information. Resource cost rate information is often available from commercial
databases that track skills and human resource costs, and provide standard costs for material and
equipment. Published seller price lists are another source of information.

7.2.1.7 Organizational Process Assets
Described in Section 2.1.4. The organizational process assets that influence the Estimate Costs process include,
but are not limited to:
• Cost estimating policies,
• Cost estimating templates,
• Historical information, and
• Lessons learned.

7.2.2 Estimate Costs: Tools and Techniques
7.2.2.1 Expert Judgment
Expert judgment, guided by historical information, provides valuable insight about the environment and
information from prior similar projects. Expert judgment can also be used to determine whether to combine methods
of estimating and how to reconcile differences between them.

7.2.2.2 Analogous Estimating
Analogous cost estimating uses the values such as scope, cost, budget, and duration or measures of scale such
as size, weight, and complexity from a previous, similar project as the basis for estimating the same parameter
or measurement for a current project. When estimating costs, this technique relies on the actual cost of previous,
similar projects as the basis for estimating the cost of the current project. It is a gross value estimating approach,
sometimes adjusted for known differences in project complexity.
Analogous cost estimating is frequently used to estimate a value when there is a limited amount of detailed
information about the project, for example, in the early phases of a project. Analogous cost estimating uses
historical information and expert judgment.

204

7 - PROJECT COST MANAGEMENT

Analogous cost estimating is generally less costly and less time consuming than other techniques, but it is also
generally less accurate. Analogous cost estimates can be applied to a total project or to segments of a project, in
conjunction with other estimating methods. Analogous estimating is most reliable when the previous projects are
similar in fact and not just in appearance, and the project team members preparing the estimates have the needed
expertise.

7.2.2.3 Parametric Estimating
Parametric estimating uses a statistical relationship between relevant historical data and other variables (e.g.,
square footage in construction) to calculate a cost estimate for project work. This technique can produce higher
levels of accuracy depending upon the sophistication and underlying data built into the model. Parametric cost
estimates can be applied to a total project or to segments of a project, in conjunction with other estimating methods.

7.2.2.4 Bottom-Up Estimating
Bottom-up estimating is a method of estimating a component of work. The cost of individual work packages or
activities is estimated to the greatest level of specified detail. The detailed cost is then summarized or “rolled up” to
higher levels for subsequent reporting and tracking purposes. The cost and accuracy of bottom-up cost estimating
are typically influenced by the size and complexity of the individual activity or work package.

7.2.2.5 Three-Point Estimating
The accuracy of single-point activity cost estimates may be improved by considering estimation uncertainty and
risk and using three estimates to define an approximate range for an activity’s cost:
• M
ost likely (cM). The cost of the activity, based on realistic effort assessment for the required work and
any predicted expenses.
• Optimistic (cO). The activity cost based on analysis of the best-case scenario for the activity.
• Pessimistic (cP). The activity cost based on analysis of the worst-case scenario for the activity.

205

7 - PROJECT COST MANAGEMENT

Depending on the assumed distribution of values within the range of the three estimates the expected cost, cE,
can be calculated using a formula. Two commonly used formulas are triangular and beta distributions. The formulas
are:
• Triangular Distribution. cE = (cO + cM + cP) / 3
• Beta Distribution (from a traditional PERT analysis). cE = (cO + 4cM + cP) / 6
Cost estimates based on three points with an assumed distribution provide an expected cost and clarify the
range of uncertainty around the expected cost.

7.2.2.6 Reserve Analysis
Cost estimates may include contingency reserves (sometimes called contingency allowances) to account for
cost uncertainty. Contingency reserves are the budget within the cost baseline that is allocated for identified risks,
which are accepted and for which contingent or mitigating responses are developed. Contingency reserves are
often viewed as the part of the budget intended to address the “known-unknowns” that can affect a project. For
example, rework for some project deliverables could be anticipated, while the amount of this rework is unknown.
Contingency reserves may be estimated to account for this unknown amount of rework. Contingency reserves can
provide for a specific activity, for the whole project, or both. The contingency reserve may be a percentage of the
estimated cost, a fixed number, or may be developed by using quantitative analysis methods.
As more precise information about the project becomes available, the contingency reserve may be used,
reduced, or eliminated. Contingency should be clearly identified in cost documentation. Contingency reserves are
part of the cost baseline and the overall funding requirements for the project.
Estimates may also be produced for the amount of management reserve to be funded for the project.
Management reserves are an amount of the project budget withheld for management control purposes and are
reserved for unforeseen work that is within scope of the project. Management reserves are intended to address the
“unknown unknowns” that can affect a project. The management reserve is not included in the cost baseline but
is part of the overall project budget and funding requirements. When an amount of management reserves is used
to fund unforeseen work, the amount of management reserve used is added to the cost baseline, thus requiring an
approved change to the cost baseline.

7.2.2.7 Cost of Quality (COQ)
Assumptions about costs of quality (Section 8.1.2.2) may be used to prepare the activity cost estimate.

206

7 - PROJECT COST MANAGEMENT

7.2.2.8 Project Management Software
Project management software applications, computerized spreadsheets, simulation, and statistical tools are
used to assist with cost estimating. Such tools can simplify the use of some cost-estimating techniques and thereby
facilitate rapid consideration of cost estimate alternatives.

7.2.2.9 Vendor Bid Analysis
Cost estimating methods may include analysis of what the project should cost, based on the responsive bids from
qualified vendors. When projects are awarded to a vendor under competitive processes, additional cost estimating
work may be required of the project team to examine the price of individual deliverables and to derive a cost that
supports the final total project cost.

7.2.2.10 Group Decision-Making Techniques
Team-based approaches, such as brainstorming, the Delphi or nominal group techniques, are useful for engaging
team members to improve estimate accuracy and commitment to the emerging estimates. By involving a structured
group of people who are close to the technical execution of work in the estimation process, additional information is
gained and more accurate estimates are obtained. Additionally, when people are involved in the estimation process,
their commitment towards meeting the resulting estimates increases.

7.2.3 Estimate Costs: Outputs
7.2.3.1 Activity Cost Estimates
Activity cost estimates are quantitative assessments of the probable costs required to complete project
work. Cost estimates can be presented in summary form or in detail. Costs are estimated for all resources that
are applied to the activity cost estimate. This includes, but is not limited to, direct labor, materials, equipment,
services, facilities, information technology, and special categories such as cost of financing (including interest
charges), an inflation allowance, exchange rates, or a cost contingency reserve. Indirect costs, if they are included
in the project estimate, can be included at the activity level or at higher levels.

207

7 - PROJECT COST MANAGEMENT

7.2.3.2 Basis of Estimates
The amount and type of additional details supporting the cost estimate vary by application area. Regardless of
the level of detail, the supporting documentation should provide a clear and complete understanding of how the
cost estimate was derived.
Supporting detail for activity cost estimates may include:
• Documentation of the basis of the estimate (i.e., how it was developed),
• Documentation of all assumptions made,
• Documentation of any known constraints,
• Indication of the range of possible estimates (e.g., €10,000 (±10%) to indicate that the item is expected
to cost between a range of values), and
• Indication of the confidence level of the final estimate.

7.2.3.3 Project Documents Updates
Project documents that may be updated include, but are not limited to, the risk register.

7.3 Determine Budget
Determine Budget is the process of aggregating the estimated costs of individual activities or work packages to
establish an authorized cost baseline. The key benefit of this process is that it determines the cost baseline against
which project performance can be monitored and controlled. The inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs of this
process are depicted in Figure 7-6. Figure 7-7 depicts the data flow diagram of the process.
Inputs
.1
.2
.3
.4
.5
.6
.7
.8
.9

Cost management plan
Scope baseline
Activity cost estimates
Basis of estimates
Project schedule
Resource calendars
Risk register
Agreements
Organizational process
assets

Tools & Techniques
.1
.2
.3
.4
.5

Cost aggregation
Reserve analysis
Expert judgment
Historical relationships
Funding limit
reconciliation

Outputs
.1 Cost baseline
.2 Project funding
requirements
.3 Project documents
updates

Figure 7-6. Determine Budget: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs

208

7 - PROJECT COST MANAGEMENT

Project Cost Management
5.4
Create
WBS

7.1
Plan Cost
Management

6.6
Develop
Schedule

7.2
Estimate
Costs

• Cost
management
plan

• Project schedule

• Activity cost estimates
• Basis of estimates

• Scope baseline

9.2
Acquire Project
Team

• Project documents
updates

7.3
Determine
Budget

• Resource calendars

• Cost baseline

• Resource
calendars

11.2
Identify
Risks

Project
Documents

4.2
Develop Project
Management
Plan

• Project
funding
requirements

• Risk register

12.2
Conduct
Procurements

• Agreements

7.4
Control
Costs

• Organizational
process assets

Enterprise/
Organization

Figure 7-7. Determine Budget Data Flow Diagram
A project budget includes all the funds authorized to execute the project. The cost baseline is the approved
version of the time-phased project budget, but excludes management reserves.

7.3.1 Determine Budget: Inputs
7.3.1.1 Cost Management Plan
Described in Section 7.1.3.1. The cost management plan describes how the project costs will be managed and
controlled.

209

7 - PROJECT COST MANAGEMENT

7.3.1.2 Scope Baseline
• P
roject scope statement. Formal limitations by period for the expenditure of project funds can be
mandated by the organization, by agreement (Section 12.2.3.2), or by other entities such as government
agencies. These funding constraints are reflected in the project scope statement.
• W
ork breakdown structure. The WBS (Section 5.4) provides the relationships among all the project
deliverables and their various components.
• WBS dictionary. The WBS dictionary (Section 5.4.3.1) and related detailed statements of work provide
an identification of the deliverables and a description of the work in each WBS component required to
produce each deliverable.

7.3.1.3 Activity Cost Estimates
Described in Section 7.2.3.1. Cost estimates for each activity within a work package are aggregated to obtain a
cost estimate for each work package.

7.3.1.4 Basis of Estimates
Described in Section 7.2.3.2. Supporting detail for cost estimates contained in the basis for estimates should
specify any basic assumptions dealing with the inclusion or exclusion of indirect or other costs in the project budget.

7.3.1.5 Project Schedule
Described in Section 6.6.3.2. The project schedule includes planned start and finish dates for the project’s
activities, milestones, work packages, and control accounts. This information can be used to aggregate costs to the
calendar periods in which the costs are planned to be incurred.

7.3.1.6 Resource Calendars
Described in Sections 9.2.3.2 and 12.2.3.3. Resource calendars provide information on which resources are
assigned to the project and when they are assigned. This information can be used to indicate resource costs over
the duration of the project.

7.3.1.7 Risk Register
Described in Section 11.2.3.1. The risk register should be reviewed to consider how to aggregate the risk response
costs. Updates to the risk register are included with project document updates described in Section 11.5.3.2.

210

7 - PROJECT COST MANAGEMENT

7.3.1.8 Agreements
Described in Section 12.2.3.2. Applicable agreement information and costs relating to products, services, or
results that have been or will be purchased are included when determining the budget.

7.3.1.9 Organizational Process Assets
Described in Section 2.1.4. The organizational process assets that influence the Determine Budget process
include, but are not limited to:
• Existing formal and informal cost budgeting-related policies, procedures, and guidelines;
• Cost budgeting tools; and

• Reporting methods.

7.3.2 Determine Budget: Tools and Techniques
7.3.2.1 Cost Aggregation
Cost estimates are aggregated by work packages in accordance with the WBS. The work package cost estimates
are then aggregated for the higher component levels of the WBS (such as control accounts) and ultimately for the
entire project.

7.3.2.2 Reserve Analysis
Budget reserve analysis can establish both the contingency reserves and the management reserves for the
project. Management and contingency reserves are addressed in more detail in Section 7.2.2.6.

7.3.2.3 Expert Judgment
Expert judgment, guided by experience in an application area, Knowledge Area, discipline, industry, or similar
project, aids in determining the budget. Such expertise may be provided by any group or person with specialized
education, knowledge, skill, experience, or training. Expert judgment is available from many sources, including, but
not limited to:

211

7 - PROJECT COST MANAGEMENT

• Other units within the performing organization,
• Consultants,
• Stakeholders, including customers,
• Professional and technical associations, and
• Industry groups.

7.3.2.4 Historical Relationships
Any historical relationships that result in parametric estimates or analogous estimates involve the use of project
characteristics (parameters) to develop mathematical models to predict total project costs. Such models may be
simple (e.g., residential home construction is based on a certain cost per square foot of space) or complex (e.g., one
model of software development costing uses multiple separate adjustment factors, each of which has numerous
points within it).
Both the cost and accuracy of analogous and parametric models can vary widely. They are most likely to be
reliable when:
• Historical information used to develop the model is accurate,
• Parameters used in the model are readily quantifiable, and
• Models are scalable, such that they work for large projects, small projects, and phases of a project.

7.3.2.5 Funding Limit Reconciliation
The expenditure of funds should be reconciled with any funding limits on the commitment of funds for the project.
A variance between the funding limits and the planned expenditures will sometimes necessitate the rescheduling of
work to level out the rate of expenditures. This is accomplished by placing imposed date constraints for work into
the project schedule.

7.3.3 Determine Budget: Outputs
7.3.3.1 Cost Baseline
The cost baseline is the approved version of the time-phased project budget, excluding any management reserves,
which can only be changed through formal change control procedures and is used as a basis for comparison to
actual results. It is developed as a summation of the approved budgets for the different schedule activities.

212

7 - PROJECT COST MANAGEMENT

Figure 7-8 illustrates the various components of the project budget and cost baseline. Activity cost estimates
for the various project activities along with any contingency reserves (Section 7.2.2.6) for these activities are
aggregated into their associated work package costs. The work package cost estimates, along with any contingency
reserves estimated for the work packages, are aggregated into control accounts. The summation of the control
accounts make up the cost baseline. Since the cost estimates that make up the cost baseline are directly tied to the
schedule activities, this enables a time-phased view of the cost baseline, which is typically displayed in the form of
an S-curve, as is illustrated in Figure 7-9.
Management reserves (Section 7.2.2.6) are added to the cost baseline to produce the project budget. As changes
warranting the use of management reserves arise, the change control process is used to obtain approval to move
the applicable management reserve funds into the cost baseline.

Project
Budget

Management
Reserve
Cost
Baseline

Control
Accounts

Contingency
Reserve
Work Package
Cost Estimates

Activity
Contingency Reserve

Total Amount

Activity Cost
Estimates

Project Budget Component

Figure 7-8. Project Budget Components

213

7 - PROJECT COST MANAGEMENT

Project Budget

Cumulative Values

Management Reserve

BAC

Funding Requirements
Expenditures
Cost Baseline

Time

Figure 7-9. Cost Baseline, Expenditures, and Funding Requirements

7.3.3.2 Project Funding Requirements
Total funding requirements and periodic funding requirements (e.g., quarterly, annually) are derived from the
cost baseline. The cost baseline will include projected expenditures plus anticipated liabilities. Funding often occurs
in incremental amounts that are not continuous, and may not be evenly distributed, which appear as steps as
shown in Figure 7-9. The total funds required are those included in the cost baseline, plus management reserves,
if any. Funding requirements may include the source(s) of the funding.

7.3.3.3 Project Documents Updates
Project documents that may be updated include, but are not limited to:
• Risk register,
• Activity cost estimates, and
• Project schedule.

214

7 - PROJECT COST MANAGEMENT

7.4 Control Costs
Control Costs is the process of monitoring the status of the project to update the project costs and managing
changes to the cost baseline. The key benefit of this process is that it provides the means to recognize variance
from the plan in order to take corrective action and minimize risk. The inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs of
this process are depicted in Figure 7-10. Figure 7-11 depicts the data flow diagram of the process.
Inputs

Tools & Techniques

Outputs

.1 Project management plan
.2 Project funding
requirements
.3 Work performance data
.4 Organizational process
assets

.1 Earned value
management
.2 Forecasting
.3 To-complete
performance index (TCPI)
.4 Performance reviews
.5 Project management
software
.6 Reserve analysis

.1 Work performance
information
.2 Cost forecasts
.3 Change requests
.4 Project management plan
updates
.5 Project documents
updates
.6 Organizational process
assets updates

Figure 7-10. Control Costs: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs

Project Cost Management
7.3
Determine
Budget

4.2
Develop Project
Management
Plan

4.3
Direct and
Manage Project
Work

• Project
management
plan

• Work performance
data
• Organizational
process assets

Enterprise/
Organization

• Organizational
process assets
updates

Project
Documents

• Project funding
requirements
• Project documents
updates

7.4
Control
Costs

• Work performance
information
• Cost
forecasts
• Change
requests

4.4
Monitor and
Control Project
Work

4.5
Perform
Integrated
Change Control

Figure 7-11. Control Costs Data Flow Diagram

215

7 - PROJECT COST MANAGEMENT

Updating the budget requires knowledge of the actual costs spent to date. Any increase to the authorized
budget can only be approved through the Perform Integrated Change Control process (Section 4.5). Monitoring the
expenditure of funds without regard to the value of work being accomplished for such expenditures has little value
to the project, other than to allow the project team to stay within the authorized funding. Much of the effort of cost
control involves analyzing the relationship between the consumption of project funds to the physical work being
accomplished for such expenditures. The key to effective cost control is the management of the approved cost
baseline and the changes to that baseline.
Project cost control includes:
• Influencing the factors that create changes to the authorized cost baseline;
• Ensuring that all change requests are acted on in a timely manner;
• Managing the actual changes when and as they occur;
• E nsuring that cost expenditures do not exceed the authorized funding by period, by WBS component, by
activity, and in total for the project;
• Monitoring cost performance to isolate and understand variances from the approved cost baseline;
• Monitoring work performance against funds expended;
• Preventing unapproved changes from being included in the reported cost or resource usage;
• Informing appropriate stakeholders of all approved changes and associated cost; and
• Bringing expected cost overruns within acceptable limits.

7.4.1 Control Costs: Inputs
7.4.1.1 Project Management Plan
Described in Section 4.2.3.1. The project management plan contains the following information that is used to
control cost:
• Cost baseline. The cost baseline is compared with actual results to determine if a change, corrective
action, or preventive action is necessary.
• Cost management plan. The cost management plan describes how the project costs will be managed
and controlled (Section 7.1.3.1).

216

7 - PROJECT COST MANAGEMENT

7.4.1.2 Project Funding Requirements
Described in Section 7.3.3.2. The project funding requirements include projected expenditures plus anticipated
liabilities.

7.4.1.3 Work Performance Data
Described in Section 4.3.3.2. Work performance data includes information about project progress, such as
which activities have started, their progress, and which deliverables have finished. Information also includes costs
that have been authorized and incurred.

7.4.1.4 Organizational Process Assets

Described in Section 2.1.4. The organizational process assets that can influence the Control Costs process
include, but are not limited to:
• Existing formal and informal cost control-related policies, procedures, and guidelines;
• Cost control tools; and
• Monitoring and reporting methods to be used.

7.4.2 Control Costs: Tools and Techniques
7.4.2.1 Earned Value Management
Earned value management (EVM) is a methodology that combines scope, schedule, and resource
measurements to assess project performance and progress. It is a commonly used method of performance
measurement for projects. It integrates the scope baseline with the cost baseline, along with the schedule
baseline, to form the performance baseline, which helps the project management team assess and measure
project performance and progress. It is a project management technique that requires the formation of an
integrated baseline against which performance can be measured for the duration of the project. The principles
of EVM can be applied to all projects in any industry. EVM develops and monitors three key dimensions for each
work package and control account:

217

7 - PROJECT COST MANAGEMENT

• Planned value. Planned value (PV) is the authorized budget assigned to scheduled work. It is the
authorized budget planned for the work to be accomplished for an activity or work breakdown structure
component, not including management reserve. This budget is allocated by phase over the life of
the project, but at a given moment, planned value defines the physical work that should have been
accomplished. The total of the PV is sometimes referred to as the performance measurement baseline
(PMB). The total planned value for the project is also known as budget at completion (BAC).
• E arned value. Earned value (EV) is a measure of work performed expressed in terms of the budget
authorized for that work. It is the budget associated with the authorized work that has been completed.
The EV being measured needs to be related to the PMB, and the EV measured cannot be greater than the
authorized PV budget for a component. The EV is often used to calculate the percent complete of a project.
Progress measurement criteria should be established for each WBS component to measure work in
progress. Project managers monitor EV, both incrementally to determine current status and cumulatively
to determine the long-term performance trends.
ctual cost. Actual cost (AC) is the realized cost incurred for the work performed on an activity during
• A
a specific time period. It is the total cost incurred in accomplishing the work that the EV measured. The
AC needs to correspond in definition to what was budgeted in the PV and measured in the EV (e.g.,
direct hours only, direct costs only, or all costs including indirect costs). The AC will have no upper limit;
whatever is spent to achieve the EV will be measured.
Variances from the approved baseline will also be monitored:
• Schedule variance. Schedule variance (SV) is a measure of schedule performance expressed as the
difference between the earned value and the planned value. It is the amount by which the project is ahead
or behind the planned delivery date, at a given point in time. It is a measure of schedule performance on
a project. It is equal to the earned value (EV) minus the planned value (PV). The EVM schedule variance is
a useful metric in that it can indicate when a project is falling behind or is ahead of its baseline schedule.
The EVM schedule variance will ultimately equal zero when the project is completed because all of the
planned values will have been earned. Schedule variance is best used in conjunction with critical path
methodology (CPM) scheduling and risk management. Equation: SV = EV – PV
• Cost variance. Cost variance (CV) is the amount of budget deficit or surplus at a given point in time,
expressed as the difference between earned value and the actual cost. It is a measure of cost performance
on a project. It is equal to the earned value (EV) minus the actual cost (AC). The cost variance at the end
of the project will be the difference between the budget at completion (BAC) and the actual amount spent.
The CV is particularly critical because it indicates the relationship of physical performance to the costs
spent. Negative CV is often difficult for the project to recover. Equation: CV= EV − AC.

218

7 - PROJECT COST MANAGEMENT

The SV and CV values can be converted to efficiency indicators to reflect the cost and schedule
performance of any project for comparison against all other projects or within a portfolio of projects. The
variances are useful for determining project status.
• S
chedule performance index. The schedule performance index (SPI) is a measure of schedule efficiency
expressed as the ratio of earned value to planned value. It measures how efficiently the project team is
using its time. It is sometimes used in conjunction with the cost performance index (CPI) to forecast the
final project completion estimates. An SPI value less than 1.0 indicates less work was completed than
was planned. An SPI greater than 1.0 indicates that more work was completed than was planned. Since
the SPI measures all project work, the performance on the critical path also needs to be analyzed to
determine whether the project will finish ahead of or behind its planned finish date. The SPI is equal to
the ratio of the EV to the PV. Equation: SPI = EV/PV

• Cost performance index. The cost performance index (CPI) is a measure of the cost efficiency of budgeted
resources, expressed as a ratio of earned value to actual cost. It is considered the most critical EVM
metric and measures the cost efficiency for the work completed. A CPI value of less than 1.0 indicates a
cost overrun for work completed. A CPI value greater than 1.0 indicates a cost underrun of performance
to date. The CPI is equal to the ratio of the EV to the AC. The indices are useful for determining project
status and providing a basis for estimating project cost and schedule outcome. Equation: CPI = EV/AC
The three parameters of planned value, earned value, and actual cost can be monitored and reported on both
a period-by-period basis (typically weekly or monthly) and on a cumulative basis. Figure 7-12 uses S-curves to
display EV data for a project that is performing over budget and behind the schedule.

Project Budget

EAC

Management Reserve
BAC

Cumulative Cost

ETC
Planned
Value (PV)

Actual
Cost (AC)
Earned
Value (PV)
Data Date
Time

Figure 7-12. Earned Value, Planned Value, and Actual Costs

219

7 - PROJECT COST MANAGEMENT

7.4.2.2 Forecasting
As the project progresses, the project team may develop a forecast for the estimate at completion (EAC) that
may differ from the budget at completion (BAC) based on the project performance. If it becomes obvious that the
BAC is no longer viable, the project manager should consider the forecasted EAC. Forecasting the EAC involves
making projections of conditions and events in the project’s future based on current performance information
and other knowledge available at the time of the forecast. Forecasts are generated, updated, and reissued based
on work performance data (Section 4.3.3.2) that is provided as the project is executed. The work performance
information covers the project’s past performance and any information that could impact the project in the future.
EACs are typically based on the actual costs incurred for work completed, plus an estimate to complete (ETC)
the remaining work. It is incumbent on the project team to predict what it may encounter to perform the ETC, based
on its experience to date. The EVM method works well in conjunction with manual forecasts of the required EAC
costs. The most common EAC forecasting approach is a manual, bottom-up summation by the project manager
and project team.
The project manager’s bottom-up EAC method builds upon the actual costs and experience incurred for
the work completed, and requires a new estimate to complete the remaining project work. Equation: EAC =
AC + Bottom-up ETC.
The project manager’s manual EAC is quickly compared with a range of calculated EACs representing various
risk scenarios. When calculating EAC values, the cumulative CPI and SPI values are typically used. While EVM data
quickly provide many statistical EACs, only three of the more common methods are described as follows:
• E AC forecast for ETC work performed at the budgeted rate. This EAC method accepts the actual
project performance to date (whether favorable or unfavorable) as represented by the actual costs, and
predicts that all future ETC work will be accomplished at the budgeted rate. When actual performance
is unfavorable, the assumption that future performance will improve should be accepted only when
supported by project risk analysis. Equation: EAC = AC + (BAC – EV)
• E AC forecast for ETC work performed at the present CPI. This method assumes what the project has
experienced to date can be expected to continue in the future. The ETC work is assumed to be performed
at the same cumulative cost performance index (CPI) as that incurred by the project to date. Equation:
EAC = BAC / CPI

220

7 - PROJECT COST MANAGEMENT

• E AC forecast for ETC work considering both SPI and CPI factors. In this forecast, the ETC work will
be performed at an efficiency rate that considers both the cost and schedule performance indices. This
method is most useful when the project schedule is a factor impacting the ETC effort. Variations of this
method weight the CPI and SPI at different values (e.g., 80/20, 50/50, or some other ratio) according to
the project manager’s judgment. Equation: EAC = AC + [(BAC – EV) / (CPI × SPI)]
Each of these approaches is applicable for any given project and will provide the project management team with
an “early warning” signal if the EAC forecasts are not within acceptable tolerances.

7.4.2.3 To-Complete Performance Index (TCPI)
The to-complete performance index (TCPI) is a measure of the cost performance that is required to be achieved
with the remaining resources in order to meet a specified management goal, expressed as the ratio of the cost to
finish the outstanding work to the remaining budget. TCPI is the calculated cost performance index that is achieved
on the remaining work to meet a specified management goal, such as the BAC or the EAC. If it becomes obvious
that the BAC is no longer viable, the project manager should consider the forecasted EAC. Once approved, the EAC
may replace the BAC in the TCPI calculation. The equation for the TCPI based on the BAC: (BAC – EV) / (BAC – AC).

The TCPI is conceptually displayed in Figure 7-13. The equation for the TCPI is shown in the lower left as the
work remaining (defined as the BAC minus the EV) divided by the funds remaining (which can be either the BAC
minus the AC, or the EAC minus the AC).
If the cumulative CPI falls below the baseline (as shown in Figure 7-13), all future work of the project will need
to be performed immediately in the range of the TCPI (BAC) (as reflected in the top line of Figure 7-13) to stay
within the authorized BAC. Whether this level of performance is achievable is a judgment call based on a number
of considerations, including risk, schedule, and technical performance. This level of performance is displayed as
the TCPI (EAC) line. The equation for the TCPI based on the EAC: (BAC – EV) / (EAC – AC). The EVM formulas are
provided in Table 7-1.

221

7 - PROJECT COST MANAGEMENT

Status Date

TCPI
(BAC)

Baseline Plan

1.00

TCPI
(EAC)
<1

Cumulative
CPI
Formula:

Work Remaining (BAC-EV)
= TCPI
Funds Remaining (BAC-AC) or (EAC-AC)

Figure 7-13. To-Complete Performance Index (TCPI)

7.4.2.4 Performance Reviews
Performance reviews compare cost performance over time, schedule activities or work packages overrunning
and underrunning the budget, and estimated funds needed to complete work in progress. If EVM is being used, the
following information is determined:
• Variance analysis. Variance analysis, as used in EVM, is the explanation (cause, impact, and corrective
actions) for cost (CV = EV – AC), schedule (SV = EV – PV), and variance at completion (VAC = BAC – EAC)
variances. Cost and schedule variances are the most frequently analyzed measurements. For projects
not using earned value management, similar variance analyses can be performed by comparing planned
activity cost against actual activity cost to identify variances between the cost baseline and actual
project performance. Further analysis can be performed to determine the cause and degree of variance
relative to the schedule baseline and any corrective or preventative actions needed. Cost performance
measurements are used to assess the magnitude of variation to the original cost baseline. An important
aspect of project cost control includes determining the cause and degree of variance relative to the
cost baseline (Section 7.3.3.1) and deciding whether corrective or preventive action is required. The
percentage range of acceptable variances will tend to decrease as more work is accomplished.

222

7 - PROJECT COST MANAGEMENT

• Trend analysis. Trend analysis examines project performance over time to determine if performance is
improving or deteriorating. Graphical analysis techniques are valuable for understanding performance
to date and for comparison to future performance goals in the form of BAC versus EAC and completion
dates.
• Earned value performance. Earned value performance compares the performance measurement
baseline to actual schedule and cost performance. If EVM is not being used, then the analysis of the cost
baseline against actual costs for the work performed is used for cost performance comparisons.

223

7 - PROJECT COST MANAGEMENT

Table 7-1. Earned Value Calculations Summary Table
Earned Value Analysis
Abbreviation

Lexicon Definition

How Used

Equation

Interpretation of Result

The value of the work planned to be
completed to a point in time, usually
the data date, or project completion.

Planned
Value

Earned Value The measure of work performed
expressed in terms of the budget
authorized for that work.

Actual Cost

The actual cost of all the work
The realized cost incurred for the
work performed on an activity during completed to a point in time, usually
the data date.
a specific time period.

BAC

Budget at
Completion

The sum of all budgets established
for the work to be performed.

Cost Variance The amount of budget deficit or
surplus at a given point in time,
expressed as the difference between
the earned value and the actual cost.

Schedule
Variance

The amount by which the project is
ahead or behind the planned
delivery date, at a given point in
time, expressed as the difference
between the earned value and the
planned value.

VAC

Variance at
Completion

A projection of the amount of budget The estimated difference in cost at
the completion of the project.
deficit or surplus, expressed as the
difference between the budget at
completion and the estimate at
completion.

CPI

Cost
Performance
Index

A measure of the cost efficiency of
budgeted resources
expressed as the ratio of earned
value to actual cost.

A CPI of 1.0 means the project is
CPI = EV/AC
exactly on budget, that the work
actually done so far is exactly the
same as the cost so far. Other values
show the percentage of how much
costs are over or under the budgeted
amount for work accomplished.

Greater than 1.0 = Under planned
cost
Exactly 1.0 = On planned cost
Less than 1.0 = Over planned cost

SPI

Schedule
Performance
Index

A measure of schedule efficiency
expressed as the ratio of earned
value to planned value.

An SPI of 1.0 means that the project SPI = EV/PV
is exactly on schedule, that the work
actually done so far is exactly the
same as the work planned to be
done so far. Other values show the
percentage of how much costs are
over or under the budgeted amount
for work planned.

Greater than 1.0 = Ahead of
schedule
Exactly 1.0 = On schedule
Less than 1.0 = Behind schedule

EAC

Estimate At
Completion

The expected total cost of completing all work expressed as the
sum of the actual cost to date and
the estimate to complete.

If the CPI is expected to be the same EAC = BAC/CPI
for the remainder of the project, EAC
can be calculated using:

ETC

TCPI

224

Name

Estimate to
Complete

To Complete
Performance
Index

The authorized budget assigned to
scheduled work.

The expected cost to finish all the
remaining project work.

The planned value of all the work
completed (earned) to a point in
time, usually the data date, without
reference to actual costs.

EV = sum of the planned
value of completed work

The value of total planned work, the
project cost baseline.
The difference between the value of CV = EV – AC
work completed to a point in time,
usually the data date, and the actual
costs to the same point in time.

Positive = Under planned cost
Neutral = On planned cost
Negative = Over planned cost

The difference between the work
SV = EV – PV
completed to a point in time, usually
the data date, and the work planned
to be completed to the same point
in time.

Positive = Ahead of Schedule
Neutral = On schedule
Negative = Behind Schedule

VAC = BAC – EAC

If future work will be accomplished
at the planned rate, use:

EAC = AC + BAC – EV

If the initial plan is no longer valid,
use:

EAC = AC + Bottom-up ETC

If both the CPI and SPI influence the
remaining work, use:

EAC = AC + [(BAC – EV)/
(CPI x SPI)]

Assuming work is proceeding on
plan, the cost of completing the
remaining authorized work can be
calculated using:

ETC = EAC – AC

Reestimate the remaining work from
the bottom up.

ETC = Reestimate

A measure of the cost performance The efficiency that must be
maintained in order to complete on
that must be achieved with the
remaining resources in order to meet plan.
a specified management goal,
expressed as the ratio of the cost to
finish the outstanding work to the
budget available.
The efficiency that must be
maintained in order to complete the
current EAC.

Positive = Under planned cost
Neutral = On planned cost
Negative = Over planned cost

TCPI = (BAC – EV)/(BAC – AC) Greater than 1.0 = Harder to
complete
Exactly 1.0 = Same to complete
Less than 1.0 = Easier to complete

TCPI = (BAC – EV)/(EAC – AC) Greater than 1.0 = Harder to
complete
Exactly 1.0 = Same to complete
Less than 1.0 = Easier to complete

7 - PROJECT COST MANAGEMENT

7.4.2.5 Project Management Software
Project management software is often used to monitor the three EVM dimensions (PV, EV, and AC), to display
graphical trends, and to forecast a range of possible final project results.

7.4.2.6 Reserve Analysis
During cost control, reserve analysis is used to monitor the status of contingency and management reserves
for the project to determine if these reserves are still needed or if additional reserves need to be requested.
As work on the project progresses, these reserves may be used as planned to cover the cost of risk mitigation
events or other contingencies. Or, if the probable risk events do not occur, the unused contingency reserves
may be removed from the project budget to free up resources for other projects or operations. Additional risk
analysis during the project may reveal a need to request that additional reserves be added to the project budget.
Management and contingency reserves are addressed in more detail in Section 7.2.2.6.

7.4.3 Control Costs: Outputs
7.4.3.1 Work Performance Information
The calculated CV, SV, CPI, SPI, TCPI, and VAC values for WBS components, in particular the work packages and
control accounts, are documented and communicated to stakeholders.

7.4.3.2 Cost Forecasts
Either a calculated EAC value or a bottom-up EAC value is documented and communicated to stakeholders.

7.4.3.3 Change Requests
Analysis of project performance may result in a change request to the cost baseline or other components of the
project management plan. Change requests may include preventive or corrective actions, and are processed for
review and disposition through the Perform Integrated Change Control process (Section 4.5).

7.4.3.4 Project Management Plan Updates
Elements of the project management plan that may be updated include, but are not limited to:

225

7 - PROJECT COST MANAGEMENT

• Cost baseline. Changes to the cost baseline are incorporated in response to approved changes in scope,
activity resources, or cost estimates. In some cases, cost variances can be so severe that a revised cost
baseline is needed to provide a realistic basis for performance measurement.
• Cost management plan. Changes to the cost management plan, such as changes to control thresholds
or specified levels of accuracy required in managing the project’s cost, are incorporated in response to
feedback from relevant stakeholders.

7.4.3.5 Project Documents Updates
Project documents that may be updated include, but are not limited to:
• Cost estimates, and
• Basis of estimates.

7.4.3.6 Organizational Process Assets Updates
Organizational process assets that may be updated include, but are not limited to:
• Causes of variances,
• Corrective action chosen and the reasons,
• Financial databases, and
• Other types of lessons learned from project cost control.

226

8 - PROJECT QUALITY MANAGEMENT

8
PROJECT QUALITY MANAGEMENT
Project Quality Management includes the processes and activities of the performing organization that
determine quality policies, objectives, and responsibilities so that the project will satisfy the needs for which it was
undertaken. Project Quality Management uses policies and procedures to implement, within the project’s context,
the organization’s quality management system and, as appropriate, it supports continuous process improvement
activities as undertaken on behalf of the performing organization. Project Quality Management works to ensure that
the project requirements, including product requirements, are met and validated.

Figure 8-1 provides an overview of the Project Quality Management processes, which include:
8.1 Plan Quality Management—The process of identifying quality requirements and/or standards for the
project and its deliverables and documenting how the project will demonstrate compliance with quality
requirements.
8.2 Perform Quality Assurance—The process of auditing the quality requirements and the results from
quality control measurements to ensure that appropriate quality standards and operational definitions
are used.
8.3 Control Quality—The process of monitoring and recording results of executing the quality activities
to assess performance and recommend necessary changes.
These processes interact with each other and with processes in other Knowledge Areas as described in
detail in Section 3 and Annex A1.
Project Quality Management addresses the management of the project and the deliverables of the project.
It applies to all projects, regardless of the nature of their deliverables. Quality measures and techniques are specific
to the type of deliverables being produced by the project. For example, the project quality management of software
deliverables may use different approaches and measures from those used when building a nuclear power plant. In
either case, failure to meet the quality requirements can have serious, negative consequences for any or all of the
project’s stakeholders. For example:

227

8 - PROJECT QUALITY MANAGEMENT

• M
eeting customer requirements by overworking the project team may result in decreased profits and
increased project risks, employee attrition, errors, or rework.
• M
eeting project schedule objectives by rushing planned quality inspections may result in undetected
errors, decreased profits, and increased post-implementation risks.
Quality and grade are not the same concepts. Quality as a delivered performance or result is “the degree to which
a set of inherent characteristics fulfill requirements” (ISO 9000) [10]. Grade as a design intent is a category assigned
to deliverables having the same functional use but different technical characteristics. The project manager and the
project management team are responsible for managing the tradeoffs associated with delivering the required levels
of both quality and grade. While a quality level that fails to meet quality requirements is always a problem, a low
grade of quality may not be a problem. For example:
• It may not be a problem if a suitable low-grade software product (one with a limited number of features)
is of high quality (no obvious defects, readable manual). In this example, the product would be appropriate
for its general purpose of use.
• It may be a problem if a high-grade software product (one with numerous features) is of low quality
(many defects, poorly organized user documentation). In essence, its high-grade feature set would prove
ineffective and/or inefficient due to its low quality.
The project management team should determine the appropriate levels of accuracy and precision for use in the
quality management plan. Precision is a measure of exactness. For example, the magnitude for each increment
on the measurement’s number line is the interval that determines the measurement’s precision—the greater the
number of increments, the greater the precision. Accuracy is an assessment of correctness. For example, if the
measured value of an item is very close to the true value of the characteristic being measured, the measurement
is more accurate. An illustration of this concept is the comparison of archery targets. Arrows clustered tightly
in one area of the target, even if they are not clustered in the bull’s-eye, are considered to have high precision.
Targets where the arrows are more spread out but equidistant from the bull’s-eye are considered to have the same
degree of accuracy. Targets where the arrows are both tightly grouped and within the bull’s-eye are considered to
be both accurate and precise. Precise measurements are not necessarily accurate measurements, and accurate
measurements are not necessarily precise measurements.
The basic approach to project quality management as described in this section is intended to be compatible
with International Organization for Standardization (ISO) quality standards. Every project should have a quality
management plan. Project teams should follow the quality management plan and should have data to demonstrate
compliance with the plan.

228

8 - PROJECT QUALITY MANAGEMENT

In the context of achieving ISO compatibility, modern quality management approaches seek to minimize variation
and to deliver results that meet defined requirements. These approaches recognize the importance of:
• Customer satisfaction. Understanding, evaluating, defining, and managing requirements so that
customer expectations are met. This requires a combination of conformance to requirements (to ensure
the project produces what it was created to produce) and fitness for use (the product or service needs to
satisfy the real needs).
• P
revention over inspection. Quality should be planned, designed, and built into—not inspected into the
project’s management or the project’s deliverables. The cost of preventing mistakes is generally much
less than the cost of correcting mistakes when they are found by inspection or during usage.
• Continuous improvement. The PDCA (plan-do-check-act) cycle is the basis for quality improvement as
defined by Shewhart and modified by Deming. In addition, quality improvement initiatives such as Total
Quality Management (TQM), Six Sigma, and Lean Six Sigma could improve the quality of the project’s
management as well as the quality of the project’s product. Commonly used process improvement models
include Malcolm Baldrige, Organizational Project Management Maturity Model (OPM3®), and Capability
Maturity Model Integrated (CMMI®).

• M
anagement Responsibility. Success requires the participation of all members of the project team.
Nevertheless, management retains, within its responsibility for quality, a related responsibility to provide
suitable resources at adequate capacities.
• Cost of quality (COQ). Cost of quality refers to the total cost of the conformance work and the
nonconformance work that should be done as a compensatory effort because, on the first attempt to
perform that work, the potential exists that some portion of the required work effort may be done or has
been done incorrectly. The costs for quality work may be incurred throughout the deliverable’s life cycle.
For example, decisions made by the project team can impact the operational costs associated with using
a completed deliverable. Post-project quality costs may be incurred because of product returns, warranty
claims, and recall campaigns. Therefore, because of the temporary nature of projects and the potential
benefits that may be derived from reducing the post-project cost of quality, sponsoring organizations
may choose to invest in product quality improvement. These investments generally are made in the areas
of conformance work that act to prevent defects or act to mitigate the costs of defects by inspecting
out nonconforming units. Refer to Figure 8-2 and Section 8.1.2.2. Moreover, the issues related to postproject COQ should be the concern of program management and portfolio management such that project,
program, and portfolio management offices should apply appropriate reviews, templates, and funding
allocations for this purpose.

229

8 - PROJECT QUALITY MANAGEMENT

Project Quality
Management Overview
8.1 Plan Quality
Management

8.2 Perform Quality
Assurance

.1 Inputs
.1 Project management plan
.2 Stakeholder register
.3 Risk register
.4 Requirements documentation
.5 Enterprise environmental
factors
.6 Organizational process assets

.1 Inputs
.1 Quality management plan
.2 Process improvement plan
.3 Quality metrics
.4 Quality control measurements
.5 Project documents

.2 Tools & Techniques
.1 Cost-benefit analysis
.2 Cost of quality
.3 Seven basic quality tools
.4 Benchmarking
.5 Design of experiments
.6 Statistical sampling
.7 Additional quality planning
tools
.8 Meetings
.3 Outputs
.1 Quality management plan
.2 Process improvement plan
.3 Quality metrics
.4 Quality checklists
.5 Project documents updates

.2 Tools & Techniques
.1 Quality management and
control tools
.2 Quality audits
.3 Process analysis
.3 Outputs
.1 Change requests
.2 Project management plan
updates
.3 Project documents updates
.4 Organizational process assets
updates

8.3 Control Quality
.1 Inputs
.1 Project management plan
.2 Quality metrics
.3 Quality checklists
.4 Work performance data
.5 Approved change requests
.6 Deliverables
.7 Project documents
.8 Organizational process assets
.2 Tools & Techniques
.1 Seven basic quality tools
.2 Statistical sampling
.3 Inspection
.4 Approved change requests
review
.3 Outputs
.1 Quality control measurements
.2 Validated changes
.3 Validated deliverables
.4 Work performance information
.5 Change requests
.6 Project management plan
updates
.7 Project documents updates
.8 Organizational process assets
updates

Figure 8-1. Project Quality Management Overview

230

8 - PROJECT QUALITY MANAGEMENT

IPECC

Initiating

Planning

Executing

Monitoring &
Controlling

Closing

Control
Initiate

Plan

Execute

Plan

Act

Essential First-Time Work
Prevention

Preventable

Inspection
Inspection

Fix/Scrap

Not Preventable

Conformance Work

Control Quality

Quality
Assurance

Cost of Quality

PDCA

Check

Validate
Conformance

Conformance Work

Rework/
Failure
Non-Conformance Work

Figure 8-2. Fundamental Relationships of Quality Assurance and Control Quality to the IPECC, PDCA, Cost
of Quality Models and Project Management Process Groups

8.1 Plan Quality Management
Plan Quality Management is the process of identifying quality requirements and/or standards for the project and
its deliverables, and documenting how the project will demonstrate compliance with relevant quality requirements.
The key benefit of this process is that it provides guidance and direction on how quality will be managed and
validated throughout the project. The inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs of this process are depicted in
Figure 8-3. Figure 8-4 depicts the data flow diagram of the process.

231

8 - PROJECT QUALITY MANAGEMENT

Inputs
.1
.2
.3
.4

Tools & Techniques

Project management plan
Stakeholder register
Risk register
Requirements
documentation
.5 Enterprise environmental
factors
.6 Organizational process
assets

Outputs
.1 Quality management plan
.2 Process improvement
plan
.3 Quality metrics
.4 Quality checklists
.5 Project documents
updates

.1
.2
.3
.4
.5
.6
.7

Cost-benefit analysis
Cost of quality
Seven basic quality tools
Benchmarking
Design of experiments
Statistical sampling
Additional quality
planning tools
.8 Meetings

Figure 8-3. Plan Quality Management Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs

4.2
Develop Project
Management
Plan

Project Quality Management
• Project
management
plan

13.1
Identify
Stakeholders
• Stakeholder
register

5.2
Collect
Requirements
• Requirements
documentation

11.2
Identify
Risks
• Risk register

• Project documents
updates

8.1
Plan
Quality
Management
• Enterprise
environmental
factors
• Organizational
process assets
• Process
improvement
plan

8.2
Perform Quality
Assurance

Project
Documents

• Quality management
plan

• Quality
management
plan
• Quality
metrics

11.2
Identify
Risks

• Quality
checklists

8.3
Control
Quality

Enterprise/
Organization

Figure 8-4. Plan Quality Management Data Flow Diagram

232

8 - PROJECT QUALITY MANAGEMENT

Quality planning should be performed in parallel with the other planning processes. For example, proposed
changes in the deliverables to meet identified quality standards may require cost or schedule adjustments and a
detailed risk analysis of the impact to plans.
The quality planning techniques discussed here are those used most frequently on projects. There are many
others that may be useful on certain projects or in some application areas.

8.1.1 Plan Quality Management: Inputs
8.1.1.1 Project Management Plan
Described in Section 4.2.3.1. The project management plan is used to develop the quality management plan.
The information used for the development of the quality management plan includes, but is not limited to:

• Scope baseline. The scope baseline (Section 5.4.3.1) includes:
○○ P roject scope statement. The project scope statement contains the project description, major
project deliverables, and acceptance criteria. The product scope often contains details of
technical issues and other concerns that can affect quality planning and that should have been
identified as a result of the planning processes in Project Scope Management. The definition of
acceptance criteria may significantly increase or decrease quality costs and therefore, project
costs. Satisfying all acceptance criteria that the needs of the sponsor and/or customer have
been met.
○○ W
ork breakdown structure (WBS). The WBS identifies the deliverables and the work packages
used to measure project performance.
○○ WBS dictionary. The WBS dictionary provides detailed information for WBS elements.
• S
chedule baseline. The schedule baseline documents the accepted schedule performance measures,
including start and finish dates (Section 6.6.3.1).
ost baseline. The cost baseline documents the accepted time interval being used to measure cost
• C
performance (Section 7.3.3.1).
• O
ther management plans. These plans contribute to the overall project quality and may highlight
actionable areas of concern with regard to the project’s quality.

233

8 - PROJECT QUALITY MANAGEMENT

8.1.1.2 Stakeholder Register
Described in Section 13.1.3.1. The stakeholder register aids in identifying those stakeholders possessing a
particular interest in, or having an impact on, quality.

8.1.1.3 Risk Register
Described in Section 11.2.3.1. The risk register contains information on threats and opportunities that may
impact quality requirements.

8.1.1.4 Requirements Documentation
Described in Section 5.2.3.1. Requirements documentation captures the requirements that the project shall
meet pertaining to stakeholder expectations. The components of the requirements documentation include, but are
not limited to, project (including product) and quality requirements. The requirements are used by the project team
to help plan how quality control will be implemented on the project.

8.1.1.5 Enterprise Environmental Factors
Described in Section 2.1.5. The enterprise environmental factors that influence the Plan Quality Management
process include, but are not limited to:
• Governmental agency regulations;
• Rules, standards, and guidelines specific to the application area;
• Working or operating conditions of the project or its deliverables that may affect project quality; and
• Cultural perceptions that may influence expectations about quality.

8.1.1.6 Organizational Process Assets
Described in Section 2.1.4. The organizational process assets that influence the Plan Quality Management
process include, but are not limited to:
• O
rganizational quality policies, procedures, and guidelines. The performing organization’s quality policy,
as endorsed by senior management, sets the organization’s intended direction on implementing its quality
management approach;
• Historical databases; and
• Lessons learned from previous phases or projects.

234

8 - PROJECT QUALITY MANAGEMENT

8.1.2 Plan Quality Management: Tools and Techniques
8.1.2.1 Cost-Benefit Analysis
The primary benefits of meeting quality requirements include less rework, higher productivity, lower costs,
increased stakeholder satisfaction, and increased profitability. A cost-benefit analysis for each quality activity
compares the cost of the quality step to the expected benefit.

8.1.2.2 Cost of Quality (COQ)
Cost of quality includes all costs incurred over the life of the product by investment in preventing nonconformance
to requirements, appraising the product or service for conformance to requirements, and failing to meet requirements
(rework). Failure costs are often categorized into internal (found by the project) and external (found by the customer).
Failure costs are also called cost of poor quality. Figure 8-5 provides some examples to consider in each area.
Cost of Conformance

Cost of Nonconformance
Internal Failure Costs

Prevention Costs

(Build a quality product)

(Failures found by the project)

•
•
•
•

• Rework
• Scrap

Training
Document processes
Equipment
Time to do it right

Appraisal Costs

(Assess the quality)

• Testing
• Destructive testing loss
• Inspections

External Failure Costs

(Failures found by the customer)

• Liabilities
• Warranty work
• Lost business
Money spent during and after
the project because of failures

Money spent during the project
to avoid failures

Figure 8-5. Cost of Quality

235

8 - PROJECT QUALITY MANAGEMENT

8.1.2.3 Seven Basic Quality Tools
The seven basic quality tools, also known in the industry as 7QC Tools, are used within the context of the PDCA
Cycle to solve quality-related problems. As conceptually illustrated in Figure 8-7, the seven basic quality tools are:
• Cause-and-effect diagrams, which are also known as fishbone diagrams or as Ishikawa diagrams. The
problem statement placed at the head of the fishbone is used as a starting point to trace the problem’s
source back to its actionable root cause. The problem statement typically describes the problem as a gap
to be closed or as an objective to be achieved. The causes are found by looking at the problem statement
and asking “why” until the actionable root cause has been identified or until the reasonable possibilities
on each fishbone have been exhausted. Fishbone diagrams often prove useful in linking the undesirable
effects seen as special variation to the assignable cause upon which project teams should implement
corrective actions to eliminate the special variation detected in a control chart.
• Flowcharts, which are also referred to as process maps because they display the sequence of steps and
the branching possibilities that exist for a process that transforms one or more inputs into one or more
outputs. Flowcharts show the activities, decision points, branching loops, parallel paths, and the overall
order of processing by mapping the operational details of procedures that exist within a horizontal value
chain of a SIPOC model (Figure 8-6). Flowcharts may prove useful in understanding and estimating
the cost of quality in a process. This is obtained by using the workflow branching logic and associated
relative frequencies to estimate expected monetary value for the conformance and nonconformance
work required to deliver the expected conforming output.

236

8 - PROJECT QUALITY MANAGEMENT

Inputs

Suppliers

Process

Outputs

Customers

•

INPUT
SUPPLIER

OUTPUT
PROCESS

Requirements and
Feedback Loop

CUSTOMER

Requirements and
Feedback Loop

Measurements List

Requirements List

Measurements List

•

Requirements List

NOTE: The components of this diagram are flexible and can take any direction depending upon the circumstance.

Figure 8-6. The SIPOC Model
• Checksheets, which are also known as tally sheets and may be used as a checklist when gathering data.
Checksheets are used to organize facts in a manner that will facilitate the effective collection of useful
data about a potential quality problem. They are especially useful for gathering attributes data while
performing inspections to identify defects. For example, data about the frequencies or consequences of
defects collected in checksheets are often displayed using Pareto diagrams.
• P areto diagrams, exist as a special form of vertical bar chart and are used to identify the vital few sources
that are responsible for causing most of a problem’s effects. The categories shown on the horizontal
axis exist as a valid probability distribution that accounts for 100% of the possible observations. The
relative frequencies of each specified cause listed on the horizontal axis decrease in magnitude until the
default source named “other” accounts for any nonspecified causes. Typically, the Pareto diagram will be
organized into categories that measure either frequencies or consequences.

237

8 - PROJECT QUALITY MANAGEMENT

• H
istograms, are a special form of bar chart and are used to describe the central tendency, dispersion, and
shape of a statistical distribution. Unlike the control chart, the histogram does not consider the influence
of time on the variation that exists within a distribution.
• Control charts, are used to determine whether or not a process is stable or has predictable performance.
Upper and lower specification limits are based on requirements of the agreement. They reflect
the maximum and minimum values allowed. There may be penalties associated with exceeding the
specification limits. Upper and lower control limits are different from specification limits. The control
limits are determined using standard statistical calculations and principles to ultimately establish the
natural capability for a stable process. The project manager and appropriate stakeholders may use the
statistically calculated control limits to identify the points at which corrective action will be taken to
prevent unnatural performance. The corrective action typically seeks to maintain the natural stability of a
stable and capable process. For repetitive processes, the control limits are generally set at ±3 s around
a process mean that has been set at 0 s. A process is considered out of control when: (1) a data point
exceeds a control limit; (2) seven consecutive plot points are above the mean; or (3) seven consecutive
plot points are below the mean. Control charts can be used to monitor various types of output variables.
Although used most frequently to track repetitive activities required for producing manufactured lots,
control charts may also be used to monitor cost and schedule variances, volume, and frequency of scope
changes, or other management results to help determine if the project management processes are in
control.
• S catter diagrams, plot ordered pairs (X, Y) and are sometimes called correlation charts because they seek
to explain a change in the dependent variable, Y, in relationship to a change observed in the corresponding
independent variable, X. The direction of correlation may be proportional (positive correlation), inverse
(negative correlation), or a pattern of correlation may not exist (zero correlation). If correlation can be
established, a regression line can be calculated and used to estimate how a change to the independent
variable will influence the value of the dependent variable.

238

8 - PROJECT QUALITY MANAGEMENT

Cause & Effect Diagram

Flowcharts

Checksheets

Pareto Diagrams

Histograms

Control Charts

8
Scatter Diagrams

Figure 8-7. Storyboard Illustrating a Conceptual Example of Each of the Seven Basic Quality Tools

8.1.2.4 Benchmarking
Benchmarking involves comparing actual or planned project practices to those of comparable projects to identify
best practices, generate ideas for improvement, and provide a basis for measuring performance.
Benchmarked projects may exist within the performing organization or outside of it, or can be within the same
application area. Benchmarking allows for analogies from projects in a different application area to be made.

8.1.2.5 Design of Experiments
Design of experiments (DOE) is a statistical method for identifying which factors may influence specific variables
of a product or process under development or in production. DOE may be used during the Plan Quality Management
process to determine the number and type of tests and their impact on cost of quality.

239

8 - PROJECT QUALITY MANAGEMENT

DOE also plays a role in optimizing products or processes. DOE is used to reduce the sensitivity of product
performance to sources of variations caused by environmental or manufacturing differences. One important aspect
of this technique is that it provides a statistical framework for systematically changing all of the important factors,
rather than changing the factors one at a time. Analysis of the experimental data should provide the optimal
conditions for the product or process, highlight the factors that influence the results, and reveal the presence of
interactions and synergy among the factors. For example, automotive designers use this technique to determine
which combination of suspension and tires will produce the most desirable ride characteristics at a reasonable cost.

8.1.2.6 Statistical Sampling
Statistical sampling involves choosing part of a population of interest for inspection (for example, selecting ten
engineering drawings at random from a list of seventy-five). Sample frequency and sizes should be determined during
the Plan Quality Management process so the cost of quality will include the number of tests, expected scrap, etc.
There is a substantial body of knowledge on statistical sampling. In some application areas, it may be necessary
for the project management team to be familiar with a variety of sampling techniques to assure the sample selected
represents the population of interest.

8.1.2.7 Additional Quality Planning Tools
Other quality planning tools are used to define the quality requirements and to plan effective quality management
activities. These include, but are not limited to:
• Brainstorming. This technique is used to generate ideas (defined in Section 11.2.2.2).
• Force field analysis. These are diagrams of the forces for and against change.
• Nominal group technique. This technique is used to allow ideas to be brainstormed in small groups and
then reviewed by a larger group.
• Q
uality management and control tools. These tools are used to link and sequence the activities
identified (defined in Section 8.2.2.1).

240

8 - PROJECT QUALITY MANAGEMENT

8.1.2.8 Meetings
Project teams may hold planning meetings to develop the quality management plan. Attendees at these
meetings may include the project manager; the project sponsor; selected project team members; selected
stakeholders; anyone with responsibility for Project Quality Management activities namely Plan Quality
Management, Perform Quality Assurance, or Control Quality; and others as needed.

8.1.3 Plan Quality Management: Outputs
8.1.3.1 Quality Management Plan
The quality management plan is a component of the project management plan that describes how the
organization’s quality policies will be implemented. It describes how the project management team plans to meet
the quality requirements set for the project.

The quality management plan may be formal or informal, detailed, or broadly framed. The style and detail of the
quality management plan are determined by the requirements of the project. The quality management plan should
be reviewed early in the project to ensure that decisions are based on accurate information. The benefits of this
review can include a sharper focus on the project’s value proposition and reductions in costs and in the frequency
of schedule overruns that were caused by rework.

8.1.3.2 Process Improvement Plan
The process improvement plan is a subsidiary or component of the project management plan (Section 4.2.3.1).
The process improvement plan details the steps for analyzing project management and product development
processes to identify activities that enhance their value. Areas to consider include:
• P
rocess boundaries. Describe the purpose of the process, the start and end of the process, its inputs
and outputs, the process owner, and the stakeholders of the process.
• P
rocess configuration. Provides a graphic depiction of processes, with interfaces identified, used to
facilitate analysis.
• Process metrics. Along with control limits, allows analysis of process efficiency.
• Targets for improved performance. Guide the process improvement activities.

241

8 - PROJECT QUALITY MANAGEMENT

8.1.3.3 Quality Metrics
A quality metric specifically describes a project or product attribute and how the control quality process will
measure it. A measurement is an actual value. The tolerance defines the allowable variations to the metric. For
example, if the quality objective is to stay within the approved budget by ± 10%, the specific quality metric is
used to measure the cost of every deliverable and determine the percent variance from the approved budget for
that deliverable. Quality metrics are used in the perform quality assurance and control quality processes. Some
examples of quality metrics include on-time performance, cost control, defect frequency, failure rate, availability,
reliability, and test coverage.

8.1.3.4 Quality Checklists
A checklist is a structured tool, usually component-specific, used to verify that a set of required steps has
been performed. Based on the project’s requirements and practices, checklists may be simple or complex. Many
organizations have standardized checklists available to ensure consistency in frequently performed tasks. In some
application areas, checklists are also available from professional associations or commercial service providers.
Quality checklists should incorporate the acceptance criteria included in the scope baseline.

8.1.3.5 Project Documents Updates
Project documents that may be updated include, but are not limited to:
• Stakeholder register (Section 13.1.3.1); and
• Responsibility assignment matrix (Section 9.1.2.1); and
• WBS and WBS Dictionary.

8.2 Perform Quality Assurance
Perform Quality Assurance is the process of auditing the quality requirements and the results from quality
control measurements to ensure that appropriate quality standards and operational definitions are used. The key
benefit of this process is that it facilitates the improvement of quality processes. The inputs, tools and techniques,
and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure 8-8. Figure 8-9 depicts the data flow diagram of the process.

242

8 - PROJECT QUALITY MANAGEMENT

Inputs

Tools & Techniques

Outputs

.1 Quality management plan
.2 Process improvement
plan
.3 Quality metrics
.4 Quality control
measurements
.5 Project documents

.1 Quality management and
control tools
.2 Quality audits
.3 Process analysis

.1 Change requests
.2 Project management plan
updates
.3 Project documents
updates
.4 Organizational process
assets updates

Figure 8-8. Perform Quality Assurance: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs

Project Quality Management
8.1
Plan Quality
Management

8.3
Control
Quality

• Quality
management plan
• Process
improvement plan
• Quality metrics

Project
Documents

• Project documents

4.2
Develop Project
Management
Plan

• Quality control
measurements
• Project
management
plan updates

8.2
Perform Quality
Assurance

4.5
Perform
Integrated
Change Control

• Change requests

• Project documents
updates

• Organizational process assets updates

Project
Documents

Enterprise/
Organization

Figure 8-9. Perform Quality Assurance Data Flow Diagram
The quality assurance process implements a set of planned and systematic acts and processes defined
within the project’s quality management plan. Quality assurance seeks to build confidence that a future output
or an unfinished output, also known as work in progress, will be completed in a manner that meets the specified
requirements and expectations. Quality assurance contributes to the state of being certain about quality by
preventing defects through the planning processes or by inspecting out defects during the work-in-progress
stage of implementation. Perform Quality Assurance is an execution process that uses data created during Plan
Quality Management (Section 8.1) and Control Quality (Section 8.3) processes.

243

8 - PROJECT QUALITY MANAGEMENT

In project management, the prevention and inspection aspects of quality assurance should have a demonstrable
influence on the project. Quality assurance work will fall under the conformance work category in the cost of quality
framework.
A quality assurance department, or similar organization, often oversees quality assurance activities. Quality
assurance support, regardless of the unit’s title, may be provided to the project team, the management of the
performing organization, the customer or sponsor, as well as other stakeholders not actively involved in the work
of the project.
Perform Quality Assurance also provides an umbrella for continuous process improvement, which is an iterative
means for improving the quality of all processes. Continuous process improvement reduces waste and eliminates
activities that do not add value. This allows processes to operate at increased levels of efficiency and effectiveness.

8.2.1 Perform Quality Assurance: Inputs
8.2.1.1 Quality Management Plan
Described in Section 8.1.3.1. The quality management plan describes the quality assurance and continuous
process improvement approaches for the project.

8.2.1.2 Process Improvement Plan
Described in Section 8.1.3.2. The project’s quality assurance activities should be supportive of and consistent
with the performing organization’s process improvement plans.

8.2.1.3 Quality Metrics
Described in Section 8.1.3.3. The quality metrics provide the attributes that should be measured and the
allowable variations.

8.2.1.4 Quality Control Measurements
Described in Section 8.3.3.1. Quality control measurements are the results of control quality activities. They are
used to analyze and evaluate the quality of the processes of the project against the standards of the performing
organization or the requirements specified. Quality control measurements can also compare the processes used to
create the measurements, and validate actual measurements to determine their level of correctness.

244

8 - PROJECT QUALITY MANAGEMENT

8.2.1.5 Project Documents
Project documents may influence quality assurance work and should be monitored within the context of a
system for configuration management.

8.2.2 Perform Quality Assurance: Tools and Techniques
8.2.2.1 Quality Management and Control Tools
The Perform Quality Assurance process uses the tools and techniques of the Plan Quality Management and
Control Quality processes. In addition, other tools that are available include (see also Figure 8-10):
• Affinity diagrams. The affinity diagram is similar to mind-mapping techniques in that they are used
to generate ideas that can be linked to form organized patterns of thought about a problem. In project
management, the creation of the WBS may be enhanced by using the affinity diagram to give structure
to the decomposition of scope.

• P
rocess decision program charts (PDPC). Used to understand a goal in relation to the steps for getting
to the goal. The PDPC is useful as a method for contingency planning because it aids teams in anticipating
intermediate steps that could derail achievement of the goal.
• Interrelationship digraphs. An adaptation of relationship diagrams. The interrelationship digraphs
provide a process for creative problem solving in moderately complex scenarios that possess intertwined
logical relationships for up to 50 relevant items. The interrelationship digraph may be developed from
data generated in other tools such as the affinity diagram, the tree diagram, or the fishbone diagram.
• T ree diagrams. Also known as systematic diagrams and may be used to represent decomposition
hierarchies such as the WBS, RBS (risk breakdown structure), and OBS (organizational breakdown
structure). In project management, tree diagrams are useful in visualizing the parent-to-child relationships
in any decomposition hierarchy that uses a systematic set of rules that define a nesting relationship. Tree
diagrams can be depicted horizontally (such as a risk breakdown structure) or vertically (such as a team
hierarchy or OBS). Because tree diagrams permit the creation of nested branches that terminate into a
single decision point, they are useful as decision trees for establishing an expected value for a limited
number of dependent relationships that have been diagramed systematically.

245

8 - PROJECT QUALITY MANAGEMENT

• P
rioritization matrices. Identify the key issues and the suitable alternatives to be prioritized as a set of
decisions for implementation. Criteria are prioritized and weighted before being applied to all available
alternatives to obtain a mathematical score that ranks the options.
ctivity network diagrams. Previously known as arrow diagrams. They include both the AOA (Activity
• A
on Arrow) and, most commonly used, AON (Activity on Node) formats of a network diagram. Activity
network diagrams are used with project scheduling methodologies such as program evaluation and
review technique (PERT), critical path method (CPM), and precedence diagramming method (PDM).
• Matrix diagrams. A quality management and control tool used to perform data analysis within the
organizational structure created in the matrix. The matrix diagram seeks to show the strength of
relationships between factors, causes, and objectives that exist between the rows and columns that form
the matrix.

Affinity Diagram

PDPC

Interrelationship Digraph

Tree Diagrams

Prioritization Matrices

Network Diagrams

Matrix Diagrams

Figure 8-10. Storyboard Illustrating the Seven Quality Management and Control Tools

246

8 - PROJECT QUALITY MANAGEMENT

8.2.2.2 Quality Audits
A quality audit is a structured, independent process to determine if project activities comply with organizational
and project policies, processes, and procedures. The objectives of a quality audit may include:
• Identify all good and best practices being implemented;
• Identify all nonconformity, gaps, and shortcomings;
• Share good practices introduced or implemented in similar projects in the organization and/or industry;
• P roactively offer assistance in a positive manner to improve implementation of processes to help the
team raise productivity; and
• Highlight contributions of each audit in the lessons learned repository of the organization.
The subsequent effort to correct any deficiencies should result in a reduced cost of quality and an increase in
sponsor or customer acceptance of the project’s product. Quality audits may be scheduled or random, and may be
conducted by internal or external auditors.

Quality audits can confirm the implementation of approved change requests including updates, corrective
actions, defect repairs, and preventive actions.

8.2.2.3 Process Analysis
Process analysis follows the steps outlined in the process improvement plan to identify needed improvements.
This analysis also examines problems experienced, constraints experienced, and non-value-added activities
identified during process operation. Process analysis includes root cause analysis—a specific technique used to
identify a problem, discover the underlying causes that lead to it, and develop preventive actions.

8.2.3 Perform Quality Assurance: Outputs
8.2.3.1 Change Requests
Change requests are created and used as input into the Perform Integrated Change Control process (Section 4.5)
to allow full consideration of the recommended improvements. Change requests are used to take corrective action,
preventive action, or to perform defect repair.

247

8 - PROJECT QUALITY MANAGEMENT

8.2.3.2 Project Management Plan Updates
Elements of the project management plan that may be updated include, but are not limited to:
• Quality management plan (Section 8.1.3.1),
• Scope management plan (Section 5.1.3.1),
• Schedule management plan (Section 6.1.3.1), and
• Cost management plan (7.1.3.1).

8.2.3.3 Project Documents Updates
Project documents that may be updated include, but are not limited to:
• Quality audit reports,
• Training plans, and
• Process documentation.

8.2.3.4 Organizational Process Assets Updates
Elements of the organizational process assets that may be updated include, but are not limited to, the
organization’s quality standards and the quality management system.

8.3 Control Quality
Control Quality is the process of monitoring and recording results of executing the quality activities to assess
performance and recommend necessary changes. The key benefits of this process include: (1) identifying the
causes of poor process or product quality and recommending and/or taking action to eliminate them; and (2)
validating that project deliverables and work meet the requirements specified by key stakeholders necessary for
final acceptance. The inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure 8-11. Figure
8-12 depicts the data flow diagram of the process.

248

8 - PROJECT QUALITY MANAGEMENT

Inputs

Tools & Techniques

.1
.2
.3
.4
.5

Project management plan
Quality metrics
Quality checklists
Work performance data
Approved change
requests
.6 Deliverables
.7 Project documents
.8 Organizational process
assets

.1
.2
.3
.4

Outputs
.1 Quality control
measurements
.2 Validated changes
.3 Verified deliverables
.4 Work performance
information
.5 Change requests
.6 Project management plan
updates
.7 Project documents
updates
.8 Organizational process
assets updates

Seven basic quality tools
Statistical sampling
Inspection
Approved change
requests review

Figure 8-11. Control Quality: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs

4.2
Develop Project
Management
Plan

Project Quality Management

4.3
Direct and
Manage Project
Work
• Deliverables
• Work performance
data

• Quality metrics
• Quality checklists
• Project
management
plan

4.5
Perform
Integrated
Change Control
• Approved change
requests

Project
Documents

• Project
documents

Enterprise/
Organization

• Validated
changes
• Work
performance
Information

8.1
Plan Quality
Management

• Project
management
plan updates

8.3
Control
Quality
• Organizational
process assets
• Quality
control
measurements

8.2
Perform Quality
Assurance

• Change
requests

• Verified
deliverables

• Project
documents
updates

• Organizational
process assets
updates

4.2
Develop Project
Management
Plan
4.4
Monitor and
Control Project
Work

4.5
Perform
Integrated
Change Control

5.5
Validate
Scope

Project
Documents

Enterprise/
Organization

Figure 8-12. Control Quality Data Flow Diagram

249

8 - PROJECT QUALITY MANAGEMENT

The Control Quality process uses a set of operational techniques and tasks to verify that the delivered output
will meet the requirements. Quality assurance should be used during the project’s planning and executing phases
to provide confidence that the stakeholder’s requirements will be met and quality control should be used during
the project executing and closing phases to formally demonstrate, with reliable data, that the sponsor and/or
customer’s acceptance criteria have been met.
The project management team may have a working knowledge of statistical control processes to evaluate data
contained in the control quality outputs. Among other subjects, the team may find it useful to know the differences
between the following pairs of terms:
• P revention (keeping errors out of the process) and inspection (keeping errors out of the hands of the
customer).
• A ttribute sampling (the result either conforms or does not conform) and variables sampling (the result is
rated on a continuous scale that measures the degree of conformity).
• Tolerances (specified range of acceptable results) and control limits (that identify the boundaries of
common variation in a statistically stable process or process performance).

8.3.1 Control Quality: Inputs
8.3.1.1 Project Management Plan
Described in Section 8.1.3.1. The project management plan contains the quality management plan, which is
used to control quality. The quality management plan describes how quality control will be performed within the
project.

8.3.1.2 Quality Metrics
Described in Section 4.2.3.1. A quality metric describes a project or product attribute and how it will be measured.
Some examples of quality metrics include: function points, mean time between failure (MTBF), and mean time to
repair (MTTR).

8.3.1.3 Quality Checklists
Described in Section 8.1.3.4. Quality checklists are structured lists that help to verify that the work of the project
and its deliverables fulfill a set of requirements.

250

8 - PROJECT QUALITY MANAGEMENT

8.3.1.4 Work Performance Data
Described in Section 4.3.3.2. Work performance data can include:
• Planned vs. actual technical performance,
• Planned vs. actual schedule performance, and
• Planned vs. actual cost performance.

8.3.1.5 Approved Change Requests
As part of the Perform Integrated Change Control process, a change log update indicates that some changes are
approved and some are not. Approved change requests may include modifications such as defect repairs, revised
work methods, and revised schedule. The timely implementation of approved changes needs to be verified.

8.3.1.6 Deliverables
Described in Section 4.3.3.1. A deliverable is any unique and verifiable product, result, or capability that results
in a validated deliverable required by the project.

8.3.1.7 Project Documents
Project documents may include, but are not limited to:
• Agreements,
• Quality audit reports and change logs supported with corrective action plans,
• Training plans and assessments of effectiveness, and
• P rocess documentation such as those obtained using either the seven basic quality tools or the quality
management and control tools shown in Figures 8-7 and 8-10.

8.3.1.8 Organizational Process Assets
Described in Section 2.1.4. The organizational process assets that influence the Control Quality process include,
but are not limited to:
• The organization’s quality standards and policies,
• Standard work guidelines, and
• Issue and defect reporting procedures and communication policies.

251

8 - PROJECT QUALITY MANAGEMENT

8.3.2 Control Quality: Tools and Techniques
8.3.2.1 Seven Basic Quality Tools
Described in Section 8.1.2.3. The seven basic quality tools are illustrated conceptually in Figure 8-7.

8.3.2.2 Statistical Sampling
Described in Section 8.1.2.6. Samples are selected and tested as defined in the quality management plan.

8.3.2.3 Inspection
An inspection is the examination of a work product to determine if it conforms to documented standards. The
results of an inspection generally include measurements and may be conducted at any level. For example, the
results of a single activity can be inspected, or the final product of the project can be inspected. Inspections may
be called reviews, peer reviews, audits, or walkthroughs. In some application areas, these terms have narrow and
specific meanings. Inspections also are used to validate defect repairs.

8.3.2.4 Approved Change Requests Review
All approved change requests should be reviewed to verify that they were implemented as approved.

8.3.3 Control Quality: Outputs
8.3.3.1 Quality Control Measurements
Quality control measurements are the documented results of control quality activities. They should be captured
in the format that was specified through the Plan Quality Management process (Section 8.1).

8.3.3.2 Validated Changes
Any changed or repaired items are inspected and will be either accepted or rejected before notification of the
decision is provided. Rejected items may require rework.

252

8 - PROJECT QUALITY MANAGEMENT

8.3.3.3 Verified Deliverables
A goal of the Control Quality process is to determine the correctness of deliverables. The results of performing
the Control Quality process are verified deliverables. Verified deliverables are an input to Validate Scope (5.5.1.4)
for formalized acceptance.

8.3.3.4 Work Performance Information
Work performance information is the performance data collected from various controlling processes, analyzed
in context and integrated based on relationships across areas. Examples include information about the project
requirements fulfillment such as causes for rejections, rework required, or the need for process adjustments.

8.3.3.5 Change Requests

If the recommended corrective or preventive actions or a defect repair requires a change to the project
management plan, a change request (Section 4.4.3.1) should be initiated in accordance with the defined Perform
Integrated Change Control (4.5) process.

8.3.3.6 Project Management Plan Updates
Elements of the project management plan that may be updated include, but are not limited to:
• Quality management plan (Section 8.1.3.1), and
• Process improvement plan (Section 8.1.3.2).

8.3.3.7 Project Documents Updates
Project documents that may be updated include, but are not limited to,
• Quality standards;
• Agreements;
• Quality audit reports and change logs supported with corrective action plans;
• Training plans and assessments of effectiveness; and
• P rocess documentation, such as information obtained using the seven basic quality tools or the quality
management and control tools.

253

8 - PROJECT QUALITY MANAGEMENT

8.3.3.8 Organizational Process Assets Updates
Elements of the organizational process assets that may be updated include, but are not limited to:
• C
ompleted checklists. When checklists are used, the completed checklists become part of the project
documents and organizational process assets (Section 4.1.1.5).
• L essons learned documentation. The causes of variances, the reasoning behind the corrective action
chosen, and other types of lessons learned from control quality are documented so they become part of
the historical database for both the project and the performing organization.

254

9 - PROJECT HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

9
PROJECT HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
Project Human Resource Management includes the processes that organize, manage, and lead the project
team. The project team is comprised of the people with assigned roles and responsibilities for completing the
project. Project team members may have varied skill sets, may be assigned full or part-time, and may be added or
removed from the team as the project progresses. Project team members may also be referred to as the project’s
staff. Although specific roles and responsibilities for the project team members are assigned, the involvement of
all team members in project planning and decision making is beneficial. Participation of team members during
planning adds their expertise to the process and strengthens their commitment to the project.

Figure 9-1 provides an overview of the Project Human Resource Management processes, which are as follows:
9.1 Plan Human Resource Management—The process of identifying and documenting project roles,
responsibilities, required skills, reporting relationships, and creating a staffing management plan.
9.2 Acquire Project Team—The process of confirming human resource availability and obtaining the
team necessary to complete project activities.
9.3 Develop Project Team—The process of improving competencies, team member interaction, and
overall team environment to enhance project performance.
9.4 Manage Project Team—The process of tracking team member performance, providing feedback,
resolving issues, and managing changes to optimize project performance.

255

9 - PROJECT HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

These processes interact with each other and with processes in other Knowledge Areas as described in detail
in Section 3 and Annex A1.
As a result of these interactions additional planning may be required throughout the project. For example:
• A fter initial team members create a work breakdown structure, additional team members may need to
be added to the team.
• A s additional team members are added to the team, their experience levels, or lack thereof, could
decrease or increase project risk, creating the need for additional risk planning.
• W
hen activity durations are estimated, budgeted, scoped, or planned prior to identifying all project team
members and their competency levels, the activity durations may change.
The project management team is a subset of the project team and is responsible for the project management
and leadership activities such as initiating, planning, executing, monitoring, controlling, and closing the various
project phases. This group can also be referred to as the core, executive, or leadership team. For smaller projects,
the project management responsibilities may be shared by the entire team or administered solely by the project
manager. The project sponsor works with the project management team, typically assisting with matters such as
project funding, clarifying scope, monitoring progress, and influencing stakeholders in both the requesting and
performing organization for the project benefit.
Managing and leading the project team includes, but is not limited to:
• Influencing the project team. The project manager needs to be aware of and influence, when possible,
human resource factors that may impact the project. These factors includes team environment,
geographical locations of team members, communications among stakeholders, internal and external
politics, cultural issues, organizational uniqueness, and others factors that may alter project performance.
rofessional and ethical behavior. The project management team should be aware of, subscribe to, and
• P
ensure that all team members follow professional and ethical behavior.

256

9 - PROJECT HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

Project Human Resource
Management Overview
9.1 Plan Human
Resource Management
.1 Inputs
.1 Project management plan
.2 Activity resource
requirements
.3 Enterprise environmental
factors
.4 Organizational process assets
.2 Tools & Techniques
.1 Organization charts and
position descriptions
.2 Networking
.3 Organizational theory
.4 Expert judgment
.5 Meetings
.3 Outputs
.1 Human resource management
plan

9.2 Acquire Project Team

9.3 Develop Project Team

.1 Inputs
.1 Human resource management
plan
.2 Enterprise environmental
factors
.3 Organizational process assets

.1 Inputs
.1 Human resource management
plan
.2 Project staff assignments
.3 Resource calendars

.2 Tools & Techniques
.1 Pre-assignment
.2 Negotiation
.3 Acquisition
.4 Virtual teams
.5 Multi-criteria decision
analysis

.2 Tools & Techniques
.1 Interpersonal skills
.2 Training
.3 Team-building activities
.4 Ground rules
.5 Colocation
.6 Recognition and rewards
.7 Personnel assessment tools

.3 Outputs
.1 Project staff assignments
.2 Resource calendars
.3 Project management plan
updates

.3 Outputs
.1 Team performance
assessments
.2 Enterprise environmental
factors updates

9.4 Manage Project Team
.1 Inputs
.1 Human resource management
plan
.2 Project staff assignments
.3 Team performance
assessments
.4 Issue log
.5 Work performance reports
.6 Organizational process assets
.2 Tools & Techniques
.1 Observation and conversation
.2 Project performance
appraisals
.3 Conflict management
.4 Interpersonal skills
.3 Outputs
.1 Change requests
.2 Project management plan
updates
.3 Project documents updates
.4 Enterprise environmental
factors updates
.5 Organizational process assets
updates

Figure 9-1. Project Human Resource Management Overview

257

9 - PROJECT HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

9.1 Plan Human Resource Management
Plan Human Resource Management is the process of identifying and documenting project roles, responsibilities,
required skills, reporting relationships, and creating a staffing management plan. The key benefit of this process
is that it establishes project roles and responsibilities, project organization charts, and the staffing management
plan including the timetable for staff acquisition and release. The inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs of this
process are depicted in Figure 9-2. Figure 9-3 depicts the data flow diagram of the process.
Inputs

Tools & Techniques

.1 Project management plan
.2 Activity resource
requirements
.3 Enterprise environmental
factors
.4 Organizational process
assets

.1 Organization charts and
position descriptions
.2 Networking
.3 Organizational theory
.4 Expert judgment
.5 Meetings

Outputs
.1 Human resource
management plan

Figure 9-2. Plan Human Resource Management: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs

Project Human Resource Management
4.2
Develop Project
Management
Plan

• Activity resource
requirements

6.4
Estimate
Activity
Resources

Enterprise/
Organization

• Project management plan

• Organizational
process assets
• Enterprise
environmental
factors

9.1
Plan Human
Resource
Management

7.2
Estimate
Costs

9.2
Acquire
Project Team

9.3
Develop
Project Team

• Human resource
management plan

11.2
Identify
Risks

9.4
Manage
Project Team

Figure 9-3. Plan Human Resource Management Data Flow Diagram

258

9 - PROJECT HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

Human resource planning is used to determine and identify human resources with the necessary skills required
for project success. The human resource management plan describes how the roles and responsibilities, reporting
relationships, and staffing management will be addressed and structured within a project. It also contains the
staffing management plan including timetables for staff acquisition and release, identification of training needs,
team-building strategies, plans for recognition and rewards programs, compliance considerations, safety issues,
and the impact of the staffing management plan on the organization.
Effective human resource planning should consider and plan for the availability of or competition for scarce
resources. Project roles can be designated for teams or team members. Those teams or team members can
be from inside or outside the organization performing the project. Other projects may be competing for human
resources with the same competencies or skill sets. Given these factors, project costs, schedules, risks, quality, and
other project areas may be significantly affected.

9.1.1 Plan Human Resource Management: Inputs

9.1.1.1 Project Management Plan
Described in Section 4.2.3.1. The project management plan is used to develop the human resource management
plan as described in Section 9.1.3.1. The information used for the development of the human resource management
plan includes, but is not limited to:
• The project life cycle and the processes that will be applied to each phase,
• How work will be executed to accomplish the project objectives,
• A change management plan that documents how changes will be monitored and controlled,
• A configuration management plan that documents how configuration management will be performed,
• How integrity of the project baselines will be maintained, and
• Needs and methods of communication among stakeholders.

259

9 - PROJECT HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

9.1.1.2 Activity Resource Requirements
Described in Section 6.4.3.1. Human resource planning uses activity resource requirements to determine the
human resource needs for the project. The preliminary requirements regarding the required project team members
and their competencies are progressively elaborated as part of the Plan Human Resource Management process.

9.1.1.3 Enterprise Environmental Factors
Described in Section 2.1.5. The enterprise environmental factors that can influence the Plan Human Resource
Management process include, but are not limited to:
• Organizational culture and structure,
• Existing human resources,
• Geographical dispersion of team members,
• Personnel administration policies, and
• Marketplace conditions.

9.1.1.4 Organizational Process Assets
Described in Section 2.1.4. The organizational process assets that can influence the Plan Human Resource
Management process include, but are not limited to:
• Organizational standard processes, policies, and role descriptions;
• Templates for organizational charts and position descriptions;
• Lessons learned on organizational structures that have worked in previous projects; and
• Escalation procedures for handling issues within the team and within the performing organization.

260

9 - PROJECT HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

9.1.2 Plan Human Resource Management: Tools and Techniques
9.1.2.1 Organization Charts and Position Descriptions
Various formats exist to document team member roles and responsibilities. Most of the formats fall into one of
three types (Figure 9-4): hierarchical, matrix, and text-oriented. Additionally, some project assignments are listed
in subsidiary plans, such as the risk, quality, or communications management plans. Regardless of the method
utilized, the objective is to ensure that each work package has an unambiguous owner and that all team members
have a clear understanding of their roles and responsibilities. For example, a hierarchical format may be used to
represent high-level roles, while a text-based format may be better suited to document the detailed responsibilities.

RAM

Role
Responsibilities

Authority

Organization Chart
(hierarchical)

Responsibility Chart
(matrix)

Role Description
(text)

Figure 9-4. Roles and Responsibility Definition Formats
• H
ierarchical-type charts. The traditional organization chart structure can be used to show positions and
relationships in a graphical, top-down format. Work breakdown structures (WBS) designed to show how
project deliverables are broken down into work packages provide a way of showing high-level areas of
responsibility. While the WBS shows a breakdown of project deliverables, the organizational breakdown
structure (OBS) is arranged according to an organization’s existing departments, units, or teams with the
project activities or work packages listed under each department. An operational department such as
information technology or purchasing can see all of its project responsibilities by looking at its portion of
the OBS. The resource breakdown structure (RBS) is a hierarchical list of resources related by category
and resource type that is used to facilitate planning and controlling of project work. Each descending
(lower) level represents an increasingly detailed description of the resource until small enough to be used
in conjunction with the work breakdown structure (WBS) to allow the work to be planned, monitored and
controlled. The resource breakdown structure is helpful in tracking project costs and can be aligned with
the organization’s accounting system. It can contain resource categories other than human resources.

261

9 - PROJECT HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

• Matrix-based charts. A responsibility assignment matrix (RAM) is a grid that shows the project
resources assigned to each work package. It is used to illustrate the connections between work
packages or activities and project team members. On larger projects, RAMs can be developed
at various levels. For example, a high-level RAM can define what a project team group or unit is
responsible for within each component of the WBS, while lower-level RAMs are used within the group
to designate roles, responsibilities, and levels of authority for specific activities. The matrix format
shows all activities associated with one person and all people associated with one activity. This also
ensures that there is only one person accountable for any one task to avoid confusion of responsibility.
One example of a RAM is a RACI (responsible, accountable, consult, and inform) chart, shown in
Figure 9-5. The sample chart shows the work to be done in the left column as activities. The assigned
resources can be shown as individuals or groups. The project manager can select other options such
as “lead” and “resource” designations or others, as appropriate for the project. A RACI chart is a useful
tool to use when the team consists of internal and external resources in order to ensure clear divisions
of roles and expectations.
RACI Chart

Person

Activity

Ann

Ben

Carlos

Dina

Create charter

Collect
requirements

Submit change
request

Develop test plan

R = Responsible A = Accountable C = Consult I = Inform

Figure 9-5. RACI Matrix
• Text-oriented formats. Team member responsibilities that require detailed descriptions can be
specified in text-oriented formats. Usually in outline form, the documents provide information such as
responsibilities, authority, competencies, and qualifications. The documents are known by various names
including position descriptions and role-responsibility-authority forms. These documents can be used as
templates for future projects, especially when the information is updated throughout the current project
by applying lessons learned.

262

9 - PROJECT HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

9.1.2.2 Networking
Networking is the formal and informal interaction with others in an organization, industry, or professional
environment. It is a constructive way to understand political and interpersonal factors that will impact the
effectiveness of various staffing management options. Human resource management benefits from successful
networking by improving knowledge of and access to human resource assets such as strong competencies,
specialized experience, and external partnership opportunities. Examples of human resources networking activities
include proactive correspondence, luncheon meetings, informal conversations including meetings and events,
trade conferences, and symposia. Networking can be a useful technique at the beginning of a project. It can also
be an effective way to enhance project management professional development during the project and after the
project ends.

9.1.2.3 Organizational Theory
Organizational theory provides information regarding the way in which people, teams, and organizational
units behave. Effective use of common themes identified in organizational theory can shorten the amount of time,
cost, and effort needed to create the Plan Human Resource Management process outputs and improve planning
efficiency. It is important to recognize that different organizational structures have different individual response,
individual performance, and personal relationship characteristics. Also, applicable organizational theories may
recommend exercising a flexible leadership style that adapts to the changes in a team’s maturity level throughout
the project life cycle.

9.1.2.4 Expert Judgment
When developing the human resource management plan, expert judgment is used to:
• List the preliminary requirements for the required skills;
• Assess the roles required for the project based on standardized role descriptions within the organization;
• Determine the preliminary effort level and number of resources needed to meet project objectives;
• Determine reporting relationships needed based on the organizational culture;
• Provide guidelines on lead time required for staffing, based on lessons learned and market conditions;
• Identify risks associated with staff acquisition, retention, and release plans; and
• Identify and recommend programs for complying with applicable government and union contracts.

263

9 - PROJECT HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

9.1.2.5 Meetings
When planning human resource management of the project, the project management team will hold planning
meetings. These meetings leverage a combination of other tools and techniques to allow for all project management
team members to reach consensus on the human resource management plan.

9.1.3 Plan Human Resource Management: Outputs
9.1.3.1 Human Resource Management Plan
The human resource management plan, a part of the project management plan, provides guidance on how
project human resources should be defined, staffed, managed, and eventually released. The human resource
management plan and any subsequent revisions are also inputs into the Develop Project Management Plan process.
The human resource management plan includes, but is not limited to, the following:
oles and responsibilities. The following should be addressed when listing the roles and responsibilities
• R
needed to complete a project:
○○ Role. The function assumed by or assigned to a person in the project. Examples of project roles
are civil engineer, business analyst, and testing coordinator. Role clarity concerning authority,
responsibilities, and boundaries should also be documented.
○○ Authority. The right to apply project resources, make decisions, sign approvals, accept
deliverables, and influence others to carry out the work of the project. Examples of decisions
that need clear authority include the selection of a method for completing an activity, quality
acceptance, and how to respond to project variances. Team members operate best when their
individual levels of authority match their individual responsibilities.
○○ Responsibility. The assigned duties and work that a project team member is expected to perform
in order to complete the project’s activities.
○○ Competency. The skill and capacity required to complete assigned activities within the project
constraints. If project team members do not possess required competencies, performance can
be jeopardized. When such mismatches are identified, proactive responses such as training,
hiring, schedule changes, or scope changes are initiated.

264

9 - PROJECT HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

• P
roject organization charts. A project organization chart is a graphic display of project team members
and their reporting relationships. It can be formal or informal, highly detailed or broadly framed, based on
the needs of the project. For example, the project organization chart for a 3,000-person disaster response
team will have greater detail than a project organization chart for an internal, twenty-person project.
• S
taffing management plan. The staffing management plan is a component of the human resource
management plan that describes when and how project team members will be acquired and how long
they will be needed. It describes how human resource requirements will be met. The staffing management
plan can be formal or informal, highly detailed, or broadly framed, depending upon the needs of the
project. The plan is updated continually during the project to direct ongoing team member acquisition and
development actions. Information in the staffing management plan varies by application area and project
size, but items to consider include:
○○ Staff acquisition. A number of questions arise when planning the acquisition of project team
members. For example, whether the human resources come from within the organization or
from external, contracted sources; whether the team members need to work in a central location
or may work from distant locations; costs associated with each level of expertise needed for
the project; and level of assistance that the organization’s human resource department and
functional managers are able to provide to the project management team.

○○ Resource calendars. Calendars that identify the working days and shifts on which each specific
resource is available. The staffing management plan describes necessary time frames for
project team members, either individually or collectively, as well as when acquisition activities
such as recruiting should start. One tool for charting human resources is a resource histogram,
used by the project management team as a means of providing a visual representation or
resources allocation to all interested parties. This chart illustrates the number of hours a person,
department, or entire project team that will be needed each week or month over the course
of the project. The chart can include a horizontal line that represents the maximum number of
hours available from a particular resource. Bars that extend beyond the maximum available
hours identify the need for a resource optimization strategy (Section 6.6.2.4), such as adding
more resources or modifying the schedule. An example of a resource histogram is illustrated in
Figure 9-6.

265

9 - PROJECT HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

300

Staff Hours for Senior Designers

275
250
225
200
175
150
125
100
75
50
40
25
0

16 23 30
Jan

13 20 27
Feb

13 20 27
Mar

10 17 24
Apr

15 22

May

Figure 9-6. Illustrative Resource Histogram
○○ S taff release plan. Determining the method and timing of releasing team members benefits both
the project and team members. When team members are released from a project, the costs
associated with those resources are no longer charged to the project, thus reducing project
costs. Morale is improved when smooth transitions to upcoming projects are already planned. A
staff release plan also helps mitigate human resource risks that may occur during or at the end
of a project.
○○ Training needs. If it is expected that the team members to be assigned will not have the required
competencies, a training plan can be developed as part of the project. The plan can also include
ways to help team members obtain certifications that would support their ability to benefit the
project.
○○ R
ecognition and rewards. Clear criteria for rewards and a planned system for their use help
promote and reinforce desired behaviors. To be effective, recognition and rewards should be
based on activities and performance under a person’s control. For example, a team member who
is to be rewarded for meeting cost objectives should have an appropriate level of control over
decisions that affect expenses. Creating a plan with established times for distribution of rewards
ensures that recognition takes place and is not forgotten. Recognition and rewards are part of
the Develop Project Team process (Section 9.3).

266

9 - PROJECT HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

○○ Compliance. The staffing management plan can include strategies for complying with applicable
government regulations, union contracts, and other established human resource policies.
○○ Safety. Policies and procedures that protect team members from safety hazards can be included
in the staffing management plan as well as in the risk register.

9.2 Acquire Project Team
Acquire Project Team is the process of confirming human resource availability and obtaining the team necessary
to complete project activities. The key benefit of this process consists of outlining and guiding the team selection
and responsibility assignment to obtain a successful team. The inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs of this
process are depicted in Figure 9-7. Figure 9-8 depicts the data flow diagram of the process.
Inputs
.1 Human resource
management plan
.2 Enterprise environmental
factors
.3 Organizational process
assets

Tools & Techniques
.1
.2
.3
.4
.5

Pre-assignment
Negotiation
Acquisition
Virtual teams
Multi-criteria decision
analysis

Outputs
.1 Project staff assignments
.2 Resource calendars
.3 Project management plan
updates

Figure 9-7. Acquire Project Team: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs

267

9 - PROJECT HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

Project Human Resource Management
4.2
Develop Project
Management
Plan

9.1
Plan Human
Resource
Management
• Human resource
management plan

Enterprise/
Organization

• Project
management
plan updates

9.2
Acquire
Project Team

• Organizational
process assets
• Enterprise
environmental
factors

• Resource
calendars

• Project staff
assignments

9.4
Manage
Project Team

6.4
Estimate
Activity
Resources
6.5
Estimate
Activity
Durations

6.6
Develop
Schedule
9.3
Develop Project
Team

7.3
Determine
Budget

Figure 9-8. Acquire Project Team Data Flow Diagram
The project management team may or may not have direct control over team member selection because of
collective bargaining agreements, use of subcontractor personnel, matrix project environment, internal or external
reporting relationships, or other various reasons. It is important that the following factors are considered during the
process of acquiring the project team:
• T he project manager or project management team should effectively negotiate and influence others who
are in a position to provide the required human resources for the project.
• F ailure to acquire the necessary human resources for the project may affect project schedules, budgets,
customer satisfaction, quality, and risks. Insufficient human resources or capabilities decrease the
probability of success and, in a worst case scenario, could result in project cancellation.
• If the human resources are not available due to constraints, such as economic factors or previous
assignments to other projects, the project manager or project team may be required to assign alternative
resources, perhaps with lower competencies, provided there is no violation of legal, regulatory, mandatory,
or other specific criteria.

268

9 - PROJECT HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

These factors should be considered and planned for in the planning stages of the project. The project manager or
project management team will be required to reflect the impact of any unavailability of required human resources in
the project schedule, project budget, project risks, project quality, training plans, and the other project management
plans.

9.2.1 Acquire Project Team: Inputs
9.2.1.1 Human Resource Management Plan
Described in Section 9.1.3.1. The human resource management plan provides guidance on how project human
resources should be identified, staffed, managed, and eventually released. It includes:
• Roles and responsibilities defining the positions, skills, and competencies that the project demands;
• Project organization charts indicating the number of people needed for the project; and

• S taffing management plan delineating the time periods each project team member will be needed and
other information important to engage the project team.

9.2.1.2 Enterprise Environmental Factors
Described in Section 2.1.5. The enterprise environmental factors that influence the Acquire Project Team process
include, but are not limited to:
• E xisting information on human resources including availability, competency levels, prior experience,
interest in working on the project and their cost rate;
• Personnel administration policies such as those that affect outsourcing;
• Organizational structure as described in Section 2.3.1; and
• Colocation or multiple locations.

9.2.1.3 Organizational Process Assets
Described in Section 2.1.4. The organizational process assets that influence the Acquire Project Team process
include, but are not limited to, organizational standard policies, processes, and procedures.

269

9 - PROJECT HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

9.2.2 Acquire Project Team: Tools and Techniques
9.2.2.1 Pre-assignment
When project team members are selected in advance, they are considered pre-assigned. This situation can
occur if the project is the result of specific people being identified as part of a competitive proposal, if the project
is dependent upon the expertise of particular persons, or if some staff assignments are defined within the project
charter.

9.2.2.2 Negotiation
Staff assignments are negotiated on many projects. For example, the project management team may need to
negotiate with:
• F unctional managers, to ensure that the project receives appropriately competent staff in the required
time frame and that the project team members will be able, willing, and authorized to work on the project
until their responsibilities are completed;
• O
ther project management teams within the performing organization, to appropriately assign scarce or
specialized human resources; and
• E xternal organizations, vendors, suppliers, contractors, etc., for appropriate, scarce, specialized, qualified,
certified, or other such specified human resources. Special consideration should be given to external
negotiating policies, practices, processes, guidelines, legal, and other such criteria.
The project management team’s ability to influence others plays an important role in negotiating staff
assignments, as do the politics of the organizations involved. For example, a functional manager will weigh the
benefits and visibility of competing projects when determining where to assign exceptional performers requested
by various project teams.

9.2.2.3 Acquisition
When the performing organization is unable to provide the staff needed to complete a project, the required
services may be acquired from outside sources. This can involve hiring individual consultants or subcontracting
work to another organization.

270

9 - PROJECT HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

9.2.2.4 Virtual Teams
The use of virtual teams creates new possibilities when acquiring project team members. Virtual teams can be
defined as groups of people with a shared goal who fulfill their roles with little or no time spent meeting face to
face. The availability of communication technology such as e-mail, audio conferencing, social media, web-based
meetings and video conferencing has made virtual teams feasible. The virtual team model makes it possible to:
• Form teams of people from the same organization who live in widespread geographic areas;
• Add special expertise to a project team even though the expert is not in the same geographic area;
• Incorporate employees who work from home offices;
• Form teams of people who work different shifts, hours, or days;
• Include people with mobility limitations or disabilities; and
• Move forward with projects that would have been ignored due to travel expenses.
There are some disadvantages related to virtual teams, such as possibility for misunderstandings, feeling
of isolation, difficulties in sharing knowledge and experience between team members, and cost of appropriate
technology. Communication planning becomes increasingly important in a virtual team environment. Additional
time may be needed to set clear expectations, facilitate communications, develop protocols for resolving conflict,
include people in decision making, understand cultural differences, and share credit in successes.

9.2.2.5 Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis
Selection criteria are often used as a part of acquiring the project team. By use of a multi-criteria decision
analysis tool, criteria are developed and used to rate or score potential team members. The criteria are weighted
according to the relative importance of the needs within the team. Some examples of selection criteria that can be
used to score team members are shown as follows:
• Availability. Identify whether the team member is available to work on the project within the time period
needed. If there are there any concerns for availability during the project timeline.
• Cost. Verify if the cost of adding the team member is within the prescribed budget.
• Experience. Verify that the team member has the relevant experience that will contribute to the project
success.
• Ability. Verify that the team member has the competencies needed by the project.

271

9 - PROJECT HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

• Knowledge. Consider if the team member has relevant knowledge of the customer, similar implemented
projects, and nuances of the project environment.
• Skills. Determine whether the member has the relevant skills to use a project tool, implementation, or
training.
• Attitude. Determine whether the member has the ability to work with others as a cohesive team.
• International factors. Consider team member location, time zone and communication capabilities.

9.2.3 Acquire Project Team: Outputs
9.2.3.1 Project Staff Assignments
The project is staffed when appropriate people have been assigned to the team. The documentation of these
assignments can include a project team directory, memos to team members, and names inserted into other parts
of the project management plan, such as project organization charts and schedules.

9.2.3.2 Resource Calendars
Resource calendars document the time periods that each project team member is available to work on the project.
Creating a reliable schedule (Section 6.6.3.1) depends on having a good understanding of each person’s availability
and schedule constraints, including time zones, work hours, vacation time, local holidays, and commitments to
other projects.

9.2.3.3 Project Management Plan Updates
Elements of the project management plan that may be updated include, but are not limited to, the human
resource management plan. For example, the person assigned to a predefined role may not fulfill all staffing
requirements outlined in the human resource management plan. When gaps occur, the project management plan
needs to be updated to change the team structure, roles, or responsibilities.

272

9 - PROJECT HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

9.3 Develop Project Team
Develop Project Team is the process of improving competencies, team member interaction, and overall team
environment to enhance project performance. The key benefit of this process is that it results in improved teamwork,
enhanced people skills and competencies, motivated employees, reduced staff turnover rates, and improved overall
project performance. The inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure 9-9.
Figure 9-10 depicts the data flow diagram of the process.
Inputs
.1 Human resource
management plan
.2 Project staff assignments
.3 Resource calendars

Tools & Techniques
.1
.2
.3
.4
.5
.6
.7

Outputs
.1 Team performance
assessments
.2 Enterprise environmental
factors updates

Interpersonal skills
Training
Team-building activities
Ground rules
Colocation
Recognition and rewards
Personnel assessment
tools

Figure 9-9. Develop Project Team: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs

Project Human Resource Management
9.1
Plan Human
Resource
Management

9.2
Acquire Project
Team

• Project staff assignments
• Resource calendars

• Human resource
management plan

12.2
Conduct
Procurements

• Resource
calendars

9.3
Develop
Project Team

• Enterprise
environmental
factors updates

Enterprise/
Organization

• Team performance
assessments

9.4
Manage
Project Team

Figure 9-10. Develop Project Team Data Flow Diagram

273

9 - PROJECT HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

Project managers should acquire skills to identify, build, maintain, motivate, lead, and inspire project teams
to achieve high team performance and to meet the project’s objectives. Teamwork is a critical factor for project
success, and developing effective project teams is one of the primary responsibilities of the project manager.
Project managers should create an environment that facilitates teamwork. Project managers should continually
motivate their team by providing challenges and opportunities, by providing timely feedback and support as
needed, and by recognizing and rewarding good performance. High team performance can be achieved by using
open and effective communication, creating team building opportunities, developing trust among team members,
managing conflicts in a constructive manner, and encouraging collaborative problem solving and decision making.
The project manager should request management support and/or influence the appropriate stakeholders to acquire
the resources needed to develop effective project teams.
Project managers operate in a global environment and work on projects characterized by cultural diversity. Team
members often have diverse industry experience, know multiple languages, and sometimes operate in the “team
language” that may be a different language or norm than their native one. The project management team should
capitalize on cultural differences, focus on developing and sustaining the project team throughout the project life
cycle, and promote working together interdependently in a climate of mutual trust. Developing the project team
improves the people skills, technical competencies, and overall team environment and project performance. It
requires clear, timely, effective, and efficient communication between team members throughout the life of the
project. Objectives of developing a project team include, but are not limited to:
• Improving knowledge and skills of team members to increase their ability to complete project deliverables,
while lowering costs, reducing schedules, and improving quality;
• Improving feelings of trust and agreement among team members to raise morale, lower conflict, and
increase team work; and
• C
reating a dynamic, cohesive, and collaborative team culture to (1) improve individual and team
productivity, team spirit, and cooperation and (2) allow cross training and mentoring between team
members to share knowledge and expertise.

9.3.1 Develop Project Team: Inputs
9.3.1.1 Human Resource Management Plan
Described in Section 9.1.3.1. The human resource management plan provides guidance on how project human
resources should be defined, staffed, managed, controlled, and eventually released. It identifies training strategies
and plans for developing the project team. Items such as rewards, feedback, additional training, and disciplinary
actions can be added to the plan as a result of ongoing team performance assessments and other forms of project
team management.

274

9 - PROJECT HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

9.3.1.2 Project Staff Assignments
Described in Section 9.2.3.1. Team development starts with a list of the project team members. Project staff
assignment documents identify the people who are on the team.

9.3.1.3 Resource Calendars
Described in Section 9.2.3.2. Resource calendars identify times when the project team members can participate
in team development activities.

9.3.2 Develop Project Team: Tools and Techniques
9.3.2.1 Interpersonal Skills

Interpersonal skills, sometimes known as “soft skills,” are behavioral competencies that include proficiencies
such as communication skills, emotional intelligence, conflict resolution, negotiation, influence, team building, and
group facilitation. These soft skills are valuable assets when developing the project team. For example, the project
management team can use emotional intelligence to reduce tension and increase cooperation by identifying,
assessing, and controlling the sentiments of project team members, anticipating their actions, acknowledging their
concerns, and following up on their issues.

9.3.2.2 Training
Training includes all activities designed to enhance the competencies of the project team members. Training
can be formal or informal. Examples of training methods include classroom, online, computer-based, on-the-job
training from another project team member, mentoring, and coaching. If project team members lack the necessary
management or technical skills, such skills can be developed as part of the project work. Scheduled training takes
place as stated in the human resource management plan. Unplanned training takes place as a result of observation,
conversation, and project performance appraisals conducted during the controlling process of managing the project
team. Training costs could be included in the project budget, or supported by performing organization if the added
skills may be useful for future projects. It could be performed by in-house or external trainers.

275

9 - PROJECT HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

9.3.2.3 Team-Building Activities
Team-building activities can vary from a 5-minute agenda item in a status review meeting to an off-site,
professionally facilitated experience designed to improve interpersonal relationships. The objective of team-building
activities is to help individual team members work together effectively. Team-building strategies are particularly
valuable when team members operate from remote locations without the benefit of face-to-face contact. Informal
communication and activities can help in building trust and establishing good working relationships.
As an ongoing process, team building is crucial to project success. While team building is essential during the
initial stages of a project, it is a never-ending process. Changes in a project environment are inevitable, and to
manage them effectively, a continued or a renewed team-building effort should be applied. The project manager
should continually monitor team functionality and performance to determine if any actions are needed to prevent
or correct various team problems.
One of the models used to describe team development is the Tuckman ladder (Tuckman, 1965; Tuckman &
Jensen, 1977), which includes five stages of development that teams may go through. Although it’s common for
these stages to occur in order, it’s not uncommon for a team to get stuck in a particular stage or slip to an earlier
stage. Projects with team members who worked together in the past may skip a stage.
• Forming. This phase is where the team meets and learns about the project and their formal roles and
responsibilities. Team members tend to be independent and not as open in this phase.
• Storming. During this phase, the team begins to address the project work, technical decisions, and the
project management approach. If team members are not collaborative and open to differing ideas and
perspectives, the environment can become counterproductive.
• Norming. In the norming phase, team members begin to work together and adjust their work habits and
behaviors to support the team. The team learns to trust each other.
• Performing. Teams that reach the performing stage function as a well-organized unit. They are
interdependent and work through issues smoothly and effectively.
• Adjourning. In the adjourning phase, the team completes the work and moves on from the project.
This typically occurs when staff is released from the project as deliverables are completed or as part of
carrying out the Close Project or Phase process (Section 4.6).
The duration of a particular stage depends upon team dynamics, team size, and team leadership. Project
managers should have a good understanding of team dynamics in order to move their team members through all
stages in an effective manner.

276

9 - PROJECT HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

9.3.2.4 Ground Rules
Ground rules establish clear expectations regarding acceptable behavior by project team members. Early
commitment to clear guidelines decreases misunderstandings and increases productivity. Discussing ground rules
in areas such as code of conduct, communication, working together, or meeting etiquette allows team members to
discover values that are important to one another. All project team members share responsibility for enforcing the
rules once they are established.

9.3.2.5 Colocation
Colocation, also referred to as “tight matrix,” involves placing many or all of the most active project team
members in the same physical location to enhance their ability to perform as a team. Colocation can be temporary,
such as at strategically important times during the project, or for the entire project. Colocation strategies can
include a team meeting room (sometimes called “war room”), places to post schedules, and other conveniences
that enhance communication and a sense of community. While colocation is considered a good strategy, the use of
virtual teams can bring benefits such as the use of more skilled resources, reduced costs, less travel, and relocation
expenses and the proximity of team members to suppliers, customers, or other key stakeholders.

9.3.2.6 Recognition and Rewards
Part of the team development process involves recognizing and rewarding desirable behavior. The original plans
concerning ways in which to reward people are developed during the Plan Human Resource Management process.
It is important to recognize that a particular reward given to any individual will be effective only if it satisfies a
need which is valued by that individual. Award decisions are made, formally or informally, during the process of
managing the project team through project performance appraisals (Section 9.4.2.2). Cultural differences should
be considered when determining recognition and rewards.
People are motivated if they feel they are valued in the organization and this value is demonstrated by the
rewards given to them. Generally, money is viewed as a tangible aspect of any reward system, but intangible
rewards could be equally or even more effective. Most project team members are motivated by an opportunity to
grow, accomplish, and apply their professional skills to meet new challenges. A good strategy for project managers
is to give the team recognition throughout the life cycle of the project rather than waiting until the project is
completed.

277

9 - PROJECT HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

9.3.2.7 Personnel Assessment Tools
Personnel assessment tools give the project manager and the project team insight into areas of strength and
weakness. These tools help project managers assess the team preferences, aspirations, how they process and
organize information, how they tend to make decisions, and how they prefer to interact with people.
Various tools are available such as attitudinal surveys, specific assessments, structured interviews, ability
tests, and focus groups. These tools can provide improved understanding, trust, commitment, and communications
among team members and facilitate more productive teams throughout the project.

9.3.3 Develop Project Team: Outputs
9.3.3.1 Team Performance Assessments
As project team development efforts such as training, team building, and colocation are implemented, the
project management team makes formal or informal assessments of the project team’s effectiveness. Effective
team development strategies and activities are expected to increase the team’s performance, which increases
the likelihood of meeting project objectives. Team performance assessment criteria should be determined by all
appropriate parties and incorporated in the Develop Project Team inputs.
The performance of a successful team is measured in terms of technical success according to agreed-upon
project objectives (including quality levels), performance on project schedule (finished on time), and performance
on budget (finished within financial constraints). High-performance teams are characterized by these task-oriented
and results-oriented outcomes.
The evaluation of a team’s effectiveness may include indicators such as:
• Improvements in skills that allow individuals to perform assignments more effectively,
• Improvements in competencies that help the team perform better as a team,
• Reduced staff turnover rate, and
• Increased team cohesiveness where team members share information and experiences openly and help
each other to improve the overall project performance.

278

9 - PROJECT HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

As a result of conducting an evaluation of the team’s overall performance, the project management team
can identify the specific training, coaching, mentoring, assistance, or changes required to improve the team’s
performance. This should also include identification of the appropriate or required resources necessary to achieve
and implement the improvements identified in the assessment. These resources and recommendations for team
improvement should be well documented and forwarded to the relevant parties.

9.3.3.2 Enterprise Environmental Factors Updates
The enterprise environmental factors that may be updated as a result of the Develop Project Team process
include, but are not limited to, personnel administration, employee training records, and skill assessments.

9.4 Manage Project Team
Manage Project Team is the process of tracking team member performance, providing feedback, resolving
issues, and managing team changes to optimize project performance. The key benefit of this process is that it
influences team behavior, manages conflict, resolves issues, and appraises team member performance. The inputs,
tools and techniques, and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure 9-11. Figure 9-12 depicts the data flow
diagram of the process.
Inputs
.1 Human resource
management plan
.2 Project staff assignments
.3 Team performance
assessments
.4 Issue log
.5 Work performance
reports
.6 Organizational process
assets

Tools & Techniques
.1 Observation and
conversation
.2 Project performance
appraisals
.3 Conflict management
.4 Interpersonal skills

Outputs
.1 Change requests
.2 Project management plan
updates
.3 Project documents
updates
.4 Enterprise environmental
factors updates
.5 Organizational process
assets updates

Figure 9-11. Manage Project Team: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs

279

9 - PROJECT HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

Project Human Resource Management
9.1
Plan Human
Resource
Management

9.2
Acquire
Project
Team

4.4
Monitor and
Control Project
Work

13.3
Manage
Stakeholder
Engagement

• Human resource
management plan

9.3
Develop
Project
Team

• Project staff
assignments

• Project documents
updates

9.4
Manage
Project Team

• Organizational
process assets

Enterprise/
Organization

• Team
performance
assessments

• Work performance
reports

• Issue log

Project
Documents

• Change requests

4.5
Perform
Integrated
Change Control

• Project
management
plan updates

• Organizational
process assets updates
• Enterprise
environmental
factors updates

4.2
Develop Project
Management
Plan

Figure 9-12. Manage Project Team Data Flow Diagram
As a result of managing the project team, change requests are submitted, the human resource management
plan is updated, issues are resolved, input is provided for performance appraisals, and lessons learned are added
to the organization’s database.
Managing the project team requires a variety of management skills for fostering teamwork and integrating the
efforts of team members to create high-performance teams. Team management involves a combination of skills
with special emphasis on communication, conflict management, negotiation, and leadership. Project managers
should provide challenging assignments to team members and provide recognition for high performance.

280

9 - PROJECT HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

9.4.1 Manage Project Team: Inputs
9.4.1.1 Human Resource Management Plan
Described in Section 9.1.3.1. The human resource management plan provides guidance on how project human
resources should be defined, staffed, managed, controlled, and eventually released. It includes, but is not limited to:
• Roles and responsibilities,
• Project organization, and
• Staffing management plan.

9.4.1.2 Project Staff Assignments
Described in Section 9.2.3.1. Project staff assignments provide documentation, which includes the list of project
team members.

9.4.1.3 Team Performance Assessments
Described in Section 9.3.3.1. The project management team makes ongoing formal or informal assessments of
the project team’s performance. By continually assessing the project team’s performance, actions can be taken to
resolve issues, modify communication, address conflict, and improve team interaction.

9.4.1.4 Issue Log
Issues arise in the course of managing the project team. An issue log can be used to document and monitor who
is responsible for resolving specific issues by a target date.

9.4.1.5 Work Performance Reports
Described in Section 4.4.3.2. Work performance reports provide documentation about the current project status
compared to project forecasts. Performance areas that can help with project team management include results
from schedule control, cost control, quality control, and scope validation. The information from performance reports
and related forecasts assists in determining future human resource requirements, recognition and rewards, and
updates to the staffing management plan.

281

9 - PROJECT HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

9.4.1.6 Organizational Process Assets
Described in Section 2.1.4. The organizational process assets that can influence the Manage Project Team
process include, but are not limited to:
• Certificates of appreciation,
• Newsletters,
• Websites,
• Bonus structures,
• Corporate apparel, and
• Other organizational perquisites.

9.4.2 Manage Project Team: Tools and Techniques
9.4.2.1 Observation and Conversation
Observation and conversation are used to stay in touch with the work and attitudes of project team members.
The project management team monitors progress toward project deliverables, accomplishments that are a source
of pride for team members, and interpersonal issues.

9.4.2.2 Project Performance Appraisals
Objectives for conducting performance appraisals during the course of a project can include clarification of
roles and responsibilities, constructive feedback to team members, discovery of unknown or unresolved issues,
development of individual training plans, and the establishment of specific goals for future time periods.
The need for formal or informal project performance appraisals depends on the length of the project, complexity of
the project, organizational policy, labor contract requirements, and the amount and quality of regular communication.

9.4.2.3 Conflict Management
Conflict is inevitable in a project environment. Sources of conflict include scarce resources, scheduling
priorities, and personal work styles. Team ground rules, group norms, and solid project management practices, like
communication planning and role definition, reduce the amount of conflict.

282

9 - PROJECT HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

Successful conflict management results in greater productivity and positive working relationships. When
managed properly, differences of opinion can lead to increased creativity and better decision making. If the
differences become a negative factor, project team members are initially responsible for their resolution. If conflict
escalates, the project manager should help facilitate a satisfactory resolution. Conflict should be addressed early
and usually in private, using a direct, collaborative approach. If disruptive conflict continues, formal procedures may
be used, including disciplinary actions.
The success of project managers in managing their project teams often depends a great deal on their ability to
resolve conflict. Different project managers may utilize different conflict resolution methods. Factors that influence
conflict resolution methods include:
• Relative importance and intensity of the conflict,
• Time pressure for resolving the conflict,
• Position taken by persons involved, and
• Motivation to resolve conflict on a long-term or a short-term basis.

There are five general techniques for resolving conflict. As each one has its place and use, these are not given
in any particular order:
ithdraw/Avoid. Retreating from an actual or potential conflict situation; postponing the issue to be
• W
better prepared or to be resolved by others.
• Smooth/Accommodate. Emphasizing areas of agreement rather than areas of difference; conceding
one’s position to the needs of others to maintain harmony and relationships.
ompromise/Reconcile. Searching for solutions that bring some degree of satisfaction to all parties in
• C
order to temporarily or partially resolve the conflict.
• F orce/Direct. Pushing one’s viewpoint at the expense of others; offering only win-lose solutions, usually
enforced through a power position to resolve an emergency.
• Collaborate/Problem Solve. Incorporating multiple viewpoints and insights from differing perspectives;
requires a cooperative attitude and open dialogue that typically leads to consensus and commitment.

9.4.2.4 Interpersonal Skills
Project managers use a combination of technical, personal, and conceptual skills to analyze situations and
interact appropriately with team members. Using appropriate interpersonal skills allows project managers to
capitalize on the strengths of all team members.

283

9 - PROJECT HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

Examples of interpersonal skills that a project manager uses most often include:
• Leadership. Successful projects require strong leadership skills. Leadership is important through all
phases of the project life cycle. There are multiple leadership theories defining leadership styles that
should be used as needed for each situation or team. It is especially important to communicate the vision
and inspire the project team to achieve high performance.
• Influencing. Because project managers often have little or no direct authority over team members in a
matrix environment, their ability to influence stakeholders on a timely basis is critical to project success.
Key influencing skills include:
○○ Ability to be persuasive and clearly articulate points and positions;
○○ High levels of active and effective listening skills;
○○ Awareness of, and consideration for, the various perspectives in any situation; and
○○ G
athering relevant and critical information to address important issues and reach agreements
while maintaining mutual trust.
• E ffective decision making. This involves the ability to negotiate and influence the organization and the
project management team. Some guidelines for decision making include:
○○ Focus on goals to be served,
○○ Follow a decision-making process,
○○ Study the environmental factors,
○○ Analyze available information,
○○ Develop personal qualities of the team members,
○○ Stimulate team creativity, and
○○ Manage risk.

9.4.3 Manage Project Team: Outputs
9.4.3.1 Change Requests
Staffing changes, whether by choice or by uncontrollable events, can affect the rest of the project management
plan. When staffing issues disrupt the project team from adhering to the project management plan such as causing
the schedule to be extended or the budget to be exceeded, a change request can be processed through the
Perform Integrated Change Control process. Staffing changes may include moving people to different assignments,
outsourcing some of the work, and replacing team members who leave.

284

9 - PROJECT HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

Preventive actions are those actions that are developed to reduce the probability and/or impact of problems
before they occur. These actions may include cross training to reduce problems during project team member
absences and additional role clarification to ensure all responsibilities are fulfilled.

9.4.3.2 Project Management Plan Updates
Elements of the project management plan that may be updated include, but are not limited to, the human
resource management plan.

9.4.3.3 Project Documents Updates
Project documents that may indirectly be updated include, but are not limited to:
• Issue log,
• Roles description, and

• Project staff assignments.

9.4.3.4 Enterprise Environmental Factors Updates
Enterprise environmental factors that may require updates as a result of the Manage Project Team process
include, but are not limited to:
• Input to organizational performance appraisals, and
• Personnel skill updates.

9.4.3.5 Organizational Process Assets Updates
Organizational process assets that may require updates as a result of the Manage Project Team process include,
but are not limited to:
• Historical information and lessons learned documentation,
• Templates, and
• Organizational standard processes.

285

10 - PROJECT COMMUNICATIONS MANAGEMENT

10
PROJECT COMMUNICATIONS MANAGEMENT
Project Communications Management includes the processes that are required to ensure timely and appropriate
planning, collection, creation, distribution, storage, retrieval, management, control, monitoring, and the ultimate
disposition of project information. Project managers spend most of their time communicating with team members
and other project stakeholders, whether they are internal (at all organizational levels) or external to the organization.
Effective communication creates a bridge between diverse stakeholders who may have different cultural and
organizational backgrounds, different levels of expertise, and different perspectives and interests, which impact or
have an influence upon the project execution or outcome.
Figure 10-1 provides an overview of the Project Communications Management processes, which are as follows:

10.1 Plan Communications Management—The process of developing an appropriate approach and
plan for project communications based on stakeholder’s information needs and requirements, and
available organizational assets.
10.2 Manage Communications—The process of creating, collecting, distributing, storing, retrieving and
the ultimate disposition of project information in accordance with the communications management
plan.
10.3 Control Communications—The process of monitoring and controlling communications throughout
the entire project life cycle to ensure the information needs of the project stakeholders are met.
These processes interact with each other and with processes in other Knowledge Areas as described in detail
in Section 3 and Annex A1.
The communication activities involved in these processes may often have many potential dimensions that need
to be considered, including, but not limited to:
• Internal (within the project) and external (customer, vendors, other projects, organizations, the public);
• Formal (reports, minutes, briefings) and informal (emails, memos, ad-hoc discussions);
• Vertical (up and down the organization) and horizontal (with peers);
• Official (newsletters, annual report) and unofficial (off the record communications); and
• Written and oral, and verbal (voice inflections) and nonverbal (body language).

287

10 - PROJECT COMMUNICATIONS MANAGEMENT

Most communication skills are common for both general management and project management, such as, but
not limited to:
• Listening actively and effectively;
• Questioning and probing ideas and situations to ensure better understanding;
• Educating to increase team’s knowledge so that they can be more effective;
• Fact-finding to identify or confirm information;
• Setting and managing expectations;
• Persuading a person, a team, or an organization to perform an action;
• Motivating to provide encouragement or reassurance;
• Coaching to improve performance and achieve desired results;
• Negotiating to achieve mutually acceptable agreements between parties;
• Resolving conflict to prevent disruptive impacts; and
• Summarizing, recapping, and identifying the next steps.
Project Communications
Management Overview
10.1 Plan Communications
Management

10.2 Manage
Communications

10.3 Control
Communications

.1 Inputs
.1 Project management plan
.2 Stakeholder register
.3 Enterprise environmental
factors
.4 Organizational process assets

.1 Inputs
.1 Communications management
plan
.2 Work performance reports
.3 Enterprise environmental
factors
.4 Organizational process assets

.1 Inputs
.1 Project management plan
.2 Project communications
.3 Issue log
.4 Work performance data
.5 Organizational process assets

.2 Tools & Techniques
.1 Communication requirements
analysis
.2 Communication technology
.3 Communication models
.4 Communication methods
.5 Meetings
.3 Outputs
.1 Communications management
plan
.2 Project documents updates

.2 Tools & Techniques
.1 Communication technology
.2 Communication models
.3 Communication methods
.4 Information management
systems
.5 Performance reporting
.3 Outputs
.1 Project communications
.3 Project management plan
updates
.2 Project documents updates
.4 Organizational process assets
updates

.2 Tools & Techniques
.1 Information management
systems
.2 Expert judgment
.3 Meetings
.3 Outputs
.1 Work performance information
.2 Change requests
.3 Project management plan
updates
.4 Project documents updates
.5 Organizational process assets
updates

Figure 10-1. Project Communications Management Overview

288

10 - PROJECT COMMUNICATIONS MANAGEMENT

10.1 Plan Communications Management
Plan Communications Management is the process of developing an appropriate approach and plan for project
communications based on stakeholder’s information needs and requirements, and available organizational assets.
The key benefit of this process is that it identifies and documents the approach to communicate most effectively
and efficiently with stakeholders. The inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs of this process are depicted in
Figure 10-2. Figure 10-3 depicts the data flow diagram of the Plan Communications Management process.
Inputs

Tools & Techniques

.1 Project management plan
.2 Stakeholder register
.3 Enterprise environmental
factors
.4 Organizational process
assets

.1 Communication
requirements analysis
.2 Communication
technology
.3 Communication models
.4 Communication methods
.5 Meetings

Outputs
.1 Communications
management plan
.2 Project documents
updates

Figure 10-2. Plan Communications Management: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs

Enterprise/
Organization

4.2
Develop Project
Management
Plan

Project Communications Management
Project
Documents

• Organizational
process assets
• Enterprise
environmental
factors

• Project
management plan
• Stakeholder
register

13.1
Identify
Stakeholders

10.1
Plan
Communications
Management
• Communications
management plan

• Project
documents
updates

13.3
Manage
Stakeholder
Engagement

10.2
Manage
Communications

Figure 10-3. Plan Communications Management Data Flow Diagram

289

10 - PROJECT COMMUNICATIONS MANAGEMENT

Planning the project communications is important to the ultimate success of any project. Inadequate
communications planning may lead to problems such as delay in message delivery, communication of information
to the wrong audience, or insufficient communication to the stakeholders and misunderstanding or misinterpretation
of the message communicated.
On most projects, communication planning is performed very early, such as during project management plan
development. This allows appropriate resources, such as time and budget, to be allocated to communication
activities. Effective communication means that the information is provided in the right format, at the right time, to
the right audience, and with the right impact. Efficient communication means providing only the information that
is needed.
While all projects share the need to communicate project information, the information needs and methods of
distribution may vary widely. In addition, the methods of storage, retrieval, and ultimate disposition of the project
information need to be considered and appropriately documented during this process. Important considerations
that may need to be taken into account include, but are not limited to:
• Who needs what information, and who is authorized to access that information;
• When they will need the information;
• Where the information should be stored;
• What format the information should be stored in;
• How the information can be retrieved; and
• Whether time zone, language barriers, and cross-cultural considerations need to be taken into account.
The results of the Plan Communications Management process should be reviewed regularly throughout the
project and revised as needed to ensure continued applicability.

10.1.1 Plan Communications Management: Inputs
10.1.1.1 Project Management Plan
Described in Section 4.2.3.1. The project management plan provides information on how the project will be
executed, monitored, controlled, and closed.

290

10 - PROJECT COMMUNICATIONS MANAGEMENT

10.1.1.2 Stakeholder Register
Described in Section 13.1.3.1. The stakeholder register provides the information needed to plan the
communication with project stakeholders.

10.1.1.3 Enterprise Environmental Factors
Described in Section 2.1.5. The Plan Communications Management process is tightly linked with enterprise
environmental factors, since the structure of an organization will have a major effect on the project’s communication
requirements. All enterprise environmental factors described in Section 2.1.5 are used as inputs for this process,
since communications need to be adapted to the project environment.

10.1.1.4 Organizational Process Assets
Described in Section 2.1.4. All organizational process assets described in Section 2.1.4 are used as inputs to the
Plan Communications Management process. Of these, lessons learned and historical information are of particular
importance because they can provide insights on both the decisions taken regarding communications issues and
the results of those decisions in previous similar projects. These can be used as guiding information to plan the
communication activities for the current project.

10.1.2 Plan Communications Management: Tools and Techniques
10.1.2.1 Communication Requirements Analysis
The analysis of the communication requirements determines the information needs of the project stakeholders.
These requirements are defined by combining the type and format of information needed with an analysis of the
value of that information. Project resources should be expended only on communicating information that contributes
to the success of the project or where a lack of communication can lead to failure.

291

10 - PROJECT COMMUNICATIONS MANAGEMENT

The project manager should also consider the number of potential communication channels or paths as an
indicator of the complexity of a project’s communications. The total number of potential communication channels
is n(n – 1)/2, where n represents the number of stakeholders. For example, a project with 10 stakeholders has
10(10 – 1)/2 = 45 potential communication channels. As a result, a key component of planning the project’s
actual communications is to determine and limit who will communicate with whom and who will receive what
information.
Sources of information typically used to identify and define project communication requirements include, but
are not limited to:
• Organizational charts;
• Project organization and stakeholder responsibility relationships;
• Disciplines, departments, and specialties involved in the project;
• Logistics of how many persons will be involved with the project and at which locations;
• Internal information needs (e.g., when communicating within organizations);
• External information needs (e.g., when communicating with the media, public, or contractors); and
• Stakeholder information and communication requirements from within the stakeholder register.

10.1.2.2 Communication Technology
The methods used to transfer information among project stakeholders may vary significantly. For example, a
project team may use techniques from brief conversations to extended meetings, or from simple written documents
to extensive materials (e.g., schedules, databases, and websites), which are accessible online as methods of
communication.
Factors that can affect the choice of communication technology include:
• Urgency of the need for information. There is a need to consider the urgency, frequency, and format
of the information to be communicated as they may vary from project to project and also within different
stages of a project.
• A
vailability of technology. There is a need to ensure that the technology that is required to facilitate
communication is compatible, available, and accessible for all stakeholders throughout the life of the
project.

292

10 - PROJECT COMMUNICATIONS MANAGEMENT

• E ase of Use. There is a need to ensure that the choice of communication technologies is suitable for
project participants and that appropriate training events are planned for, where appropriate.
• P
roject environment. There is a need to determine if the team will meet and operate on a face-to-face
basis or in a virtual environment; whether they will be located in one or multiple time zones; whether
they will use multiple languages for communication; and finally, whether there are any other project
environmental factors, such as culture, which may affect communications.
• S
ensitivity and confidentiality of the information. There is a need to determine if the information
to be communicated is sensitive or confidential and whether or not additional security measures need
to be taken. Also, the most appropriate way to communicate the information should be considered.

10.1.2.3 Communication Models
The communication models used to facilitate communications and the exchange of information may vary from
project to project and also within different stages of the same project. A basic communication model, shown in
Figure 10-4, consists of two parties, defined as the sender and receiver. Medium is the technology medium and
includes the mode of communication while noise includes any interference or barriers that might compromise the
delivery of the message. The sequence of steps in a basic communication model is:

• Encode. Thoughts or ideas are translated (encoded) into language by the sender.
• Transmit Message. This information is then sent by the sender using communication channel (medium).
The transmission of this message may be compromised by various factors (e.g., distance, unfamiliar
technology, inadequate infrastructure, cultural difference, and lack of background information). These
factors are collectively termed as noise.
• Decode. The message is translated by the receiver back into meaningful thoughts or ideas.
• Acknowledge. Upon receipt of a message, the receiver may signal (acknowledge) receipt of the message
but this does not necessarily mean agreement with or comprehension of the message.
• F eedback/Response. When the received message has been decoded and understood, the receiver
encodes thoughts and ideas into a message and then transmits this message to the original sender.

293

10 - PROJECT COMMUNICATIONS MANAGEMENT

Transmit
Message
Noise

Encode
Noise

Sender

Acknowledge
Message
Medium

Decode
Noise

Decode

Receiver

Feedback
Message

Encode

Figure 10-4. Basic Communication Model
The components of the basic communication model need to be considered when project communications
are discussed. As part of the communications process, the sender is responsible for the transmission
of the message, ensuring the information being communicated is clear and complete, and confirming the
communication is correctly understood. The receiver is responsible for ensuring that the information is received
in its entirety, understood correctly, and acknowledged or responded to appropriately.
There are many challenges in using these components to effectively communicate with project stakeholders,
such as in a highly technical, multinational project team. Successful communication of a technical concept
from one team member to another team member in a different country could involve encoding the message in
the appropriate language, sending the message using a variety of technologies, and having the receiver decode
the message into his or her native language and then reply or provide feedback. Any noise introduced along
the way may compromise the original meaning of the message. In this example, there are multiple factors that
may lead to the intended meaning of the message being misunderstood or misinterpreted.

10.1.2.4 Communication Methods
There are several communication methods that are used to share information among project stakeholders.
These methods are broadly classified as follows:

294

10 - PROJECT COMMUNICATIONS MANAGEMENT

• Interactive communication. Between two or more parties performing a multidirectional exchange
of information. It is the most efficient way to ensure a common understanding by all participants on
specified topics, and includes meetings, phone calls, instant messaging, video conferencing, etc.
• Push communication. Sent to specific recipients who need to receive the information. This ensures
that the information is distributed but does not ensure that it actually reached or was understood by the
intended audience. Push communications include letters, memos, reports, emails, faxes, voice mails,
blogs, press releases, etc.
• P
ull communication. Used for very large volumes of information, or for very large audiences, and
requires the recipients to access the communication content at their own discretion. These methods
include intranet sites, e-learning, lessons learned databases, knowledge repositories, etc.
The choices of communication methods that are used for a project may need to be discussed and agreed upon
by the project stakeholders based on communication requirements; cost and time constraints; and familiarity and
availability of the required tools and resources that may be applicable to the communications process.

10.1.2.5 Meetings

Described in Section 4.3.2.3. The Plan Communications Management process requires discussion and dialogue
with the project team to determine the most appropriate way to update and communicate project information,
and to respond to requests from various stakeholders for that information. These discussions and dialogue are
commonly facilitated through meetings, which may be conducted face to face or online and in different locations,
such as the project site or the customer’s site.
There are several types of project-related meetings where project communications may occur. Most project
meetings consist of stakeholders coming together for the purpose of resolving problems or making decisions.
Although casual discussions may be construed as a meeting, most project meetings are more formal with a
prearranged time, place, and agenda. Typical meetings begin with a defined list of issues to be discussed, which are
circulated in advance with minutes and other information documented specifically for the meeting. This information
is then disseminated to other appropriate stakeholders on an as-needed basis.

295

10 - PROJECT COMMUNICATIONS MANAGEMENT

10.1.3 Plan Communications Management: Outputs
10.1.3.1 Communications Management Plan
The communications management plan is a component of the project management plan that describes how
project communications will be planned, structured, monitored, and controlled. The plan contains the following
information:
• Stakeholder communication requirements;
• Information to be communicated, including language, format, content, and level of detail;
• Reason for the distribution of that information;
• T ime frame and frequency for the distribution of required information and receipt of acknowledgment or
response, if applicable;
• Person responsible for communicating the information;
• Person responsible for authorizing release of confidential information;
• Person or groups who will receive the information;
• Methods or technologies used to convey the information, such as memos, e-mail, and/or press releases;
• Resources allocated for communication activities, including time and budget;
• E scalation process identifying time frames and the management chain (names) for escalation of issues
that cannot be resolved at a lower staff level;
• M
ethod for updating and refining the communications management plan as the project progresses and
develops;
• Glossary of common terminology;
• F low charts of the information flow in the project, workflows with possible sequence of authorization, list
of reports, and meeting plans, etc.; and
ommunication constraints usually derived from a specific legislation or regulation, technology, and
• C
organizational policies, etc.

296

10 - PROJECT COMMUNICATIONS MANAGEMENT

The communications management plan can also include guidelines and templates for project status meetings,
project team meetings, e-meetings, and e-mail messages. The use of a project website and project management
software can also be included if these are to be used in the project.

10.1.3.2 Project Documents Updates
Project documents that may be updated include, but are not limited to:
• Project schedule, and
• Stakeholder register.

10.2 Manage Communications
Manage Communications is the process of creating, collecting, distributing, storing, retrieving, and the ultimate
disposition of project information in accordance to the communications management plan. The key benefit of this
process is that it enables an efficient and effective communications flow between project stakeholders. The inputs,
tools and techniques, and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure 10-5. Figure 10-6 depicts the data flow
diagram of the Manage Communications process.
Inputs

Tools & Techniques

Outputs

.1 Communications
management plan
.2 Work performance
reports
.3 Enterprise environmental
factors
.4 Organizational process
assets

.1 Communication
technology
.2 Communication models
.3 Communication methods
.4 Information management
systems
.5 Performance reporting

.1 Project communications
.3 Project management plan
updates
.2 Project documents
updates
.4 Organizational process
assets updates

Figure 10-5. Manage Communications: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs

297

10 - PROJECT COMMUNICATIONS MANAGEMENT

Project Communications Management
10.1
Plan
Communications
Management

4.4
Monitor and
Control Project
Work

• Communications
management plan

• Work performance
reports

Enterprise/
Organization

• Enterprise
environmental
factors
• Organizational
process assets

10.2
Manage
Communications

4.2
Develop Project
Management
Plan

• Project
management
plan updates

• Project documents
updates

Project
Documents

• Project
communications

• Organizational
process assets updates

10.3
Control
Communications

Figure 10-6. Manage Communications Data Flow Diagram
This process goes beyond the distribution of relevant information and seeks to ensure that the information being
communicated to project stakeholders has been appropriately generated, as well as received and understood. It
also provides opportunities for stakeholders to make requests for further information, clarification, and discussion.
Techniques and considerations for effective communications management include, but are not limited to, the
following:
• S
ender-receiver models. Incorporating feedback loops to provide opportunities for interaction/
participation and remove barriers to communication.
• Choice of media. Situation specifics as to when to communicate in writing versus orally, when to prepare
an informal memo versus a formal report, and when to communicate face to face versus by e-mail.
• Writing style. Appropriate use of active versus passive voice, sentence structure, and word choice.

298

10 - PROJECT COMMUNICATIONS MANAGEMENT

• Meeting management techniques. Preparing an agenda and dealing with conflicts.
• Presentation techniques. Awareness of the impact of body language and design of visual aids.
• Facilitation techniques. Building consensus and overcoming obstacles.
• L istening techniques. Listening actively (acknowledging, clarifying, and confirming understanding) and
removal of barriers that adversely affect comprehension.

10.2.1 Manage Communications: Inputs
10.2.1.1 Communications Management Plan
Described in Section 10.1.3.1. The communications management plan describes how project communications
will be planned, structured, monitored, and controlled.

10.2.1.2 Work Performance Reports

Described in Section 4.4.3.2. Work performance reports are a collection of project performance and status
information that may be used to facilitate discussion and to create communications. To optimize this process, it is
important that reports be comprehensive, accurate, and available in a timely manner.

10.2.1.3 Enterprise Environmental Factors
Described in Section 2.1.5. Specific enterprise environmental factors that can influence the Manage
Communications process include, but are not limited to:
• Organizational culture and structure,
• Government or industry standards and regulations, and
• Project management information system.

10.2.1.4 Organizational Process Assets
Described in Section 2.1.4. Organizational process assets that can influence the Manage Communications
process include, but are not limited to:

299

10 - PROJECT COMMUNICATIONS MANAGEMENT

• Policies, procedures, processes, and guidelines regarding communications management;
• Templates; and
• Historical information and lessons learned.

10.2.2 Manage Communications: Tools and Techniques
10.2.2.1 Communication Technology
Described in Section 10.1.2.2. The choice of communication technology is an important consideration in the
Manage Communications process. As this can vary significantly from project to project and also throughout the life
of a project, the focus is to ensure that the choice is appropriate for the information that is being communicated.

10.2.2.2 Communication Models
Described in Section 10.1.2.3. The choice of communication models is an important consideration
in this process. As the components in the communications all contribute toward an effective and efficient
communications process, the focus is to ensure that the choice of the communication model is appropriate for
the project that is undertaken and that any barriers (noise) are identified and managed.

10.2.2.3 Communication Methods
Described in Section 10.1.2.4. The choice of communication methods is an important consideration in this
process. As there can be many potential barriers and challenges during this process, the focus is to ensure that
the information that has been created and distributed has been received and understood to enable response and
feedback.

10.2.2.4 Information Management Systems
Project information is managed and distributed using a variety of tools, including:
• Hard-copy document management: letters, memos, reports, and press releases;
• E lectronic communications management: e-mail, fax, voice mail, telephone, video and web conferencing,
websites, and web publishing; and
• E lectronic project management tools: web interfaces to scheduling and project management software,
meeting and virtual office support software, portals, and collaborative work management tools.

300

10 - PROJECT COMMUNICATIONS MANAGEMENT

10.2.2.5 Performance Reporting
Performance reporting is the act of collecting and distributing performance information, including status reports,
progress measurements, and forecasts. Performance reporting involves the periodic collection and analysis of
baseline versus actual data to understand and communicate the project progress and performance as well as to
forecast the project results.
Performance reporting needs to provide information at an appropriate level for each audience. The format
may range from a simple status report to more elaborate reports and may be prepared regularly or on an
exception basis. A simple status report might show performance information, such as percent complete or status
dashboards for each area (i.e., scope, schedule, cost, and quality). More elaborate reports may include:
• Analysis of past performance,
• Analysis of project forecasts (including time and cost),
• Current status of risks and issues,
• Work completed during the period,

• Work to be completed in the next period,
• Summary of changes approved in the period, and
• Other relevant information, which is reviewed and discussed.

10.2.3 Manage Communications: Outputs
10.2.3.1 Project Communications
The Manage Communications process involves the activities that are required for information to be created,
distributed, received, acknowledged, and understood. Project communications may include but are not limited to:
performance reports, deliverables status, schedule progress, and cost incurred. Project communications can vary
significantly and are influenced by factors such as, but not limited to, the urgency and impact of the message, its
method of delivery, and level of confidentiality.

301

10 - PROJECT COMMUNICATIONS MANAGEMENT

10.2.3.2 Project Management Plan Updates
The project management plan provides information on project baselines, communications management, and
stakeholder management. Each of these areas may require updates based upon the current performance of the
project against the performance measurement baseline (PMB). The performance measurement baseline is an
approved plan for the project work to which the project execution is compared, and deviations are measured
for management control. The performance measurement baseline typically integrates scope, schedule, and cost
parameters of a project, but may also include technical and quality parameters.

10.2.3.3 Project Documents Updates
Project documents that may be updated include, but are not limited to:
• Issue log,
• Project schedule, and
• Project funding requirements.

10.2.3.4 Organizational Process Assets Updates
The organizational process assets, which may be updated include, but are not limited to:
• S
takeholder notifications. Information may be provided to stakeholders about resolved issues, approved
changes, and general project status.
• Project reports. Formal and informal project reports describe project status and include lessons learned,
issue logs, project closure reports, and outputs from other Knowledge Areas (Sections 4-13).
• P
roject presentations. The project team provides information formally or informally to any or all of the
project stakeholders. The information and presentation method should be relevant to the needs of the
audience.
• Project records. Project records may include correspondence, memos, meeting minutes, and other
documents describing the project. This information should, to the extent possible and appropriate,
be maintained in an organized manner. Project team members can also maintain records in a project
notebook or register, which could be physical or electronic.

302

10 - PROJECT COMMUNICATIONS MANAGEMENT

• F eedback from stakeholders. Information received from stakeholders concerning project operations is
distributed and used to modify or improve future performance of the project.
• L essons learned documentation. Documentation includes the causes of issues, reasoning behind
the corrective action chosen, and other types of lessons learned about communications management.
Lessons learned need to be documented and distributed so that it becomes part of the historical database
for both the project and the performing organization.

10.3 Control Communications
Control Communications is the process of monitoring and controlling communications throughout the entire
project life cycle to ensure the information needs of the project stakeholders are met. The key benefit of this process
is that it ensures an optimal information flow among all communication participants, at any moment in time. The
inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure 10-7. Figure 10-8 depicts the data
flow diagram of the Control Communications process.
Inputs
.1
.2
.3
.4
.5

Project management plan
Project communications
Issue log
Work performance data
Organizational process
assets

Tools & Techniques

Outputs

.1 Information management
systems
.2 Expert judgment
.3 Meetings

.1 Work performance
information
.2 Change requests
.3 Project management plan
updates
.4 Project documents
updates
.5 Organizational process
assets updates

Figure 10-7. Control Communications: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs

303

10 - PROJECT COMMUNICATIONS MANAGEMENT

Project Communications Management
4.2
Develop Project
Management
Plan
4.3
Direct and
Manage Project
Work

• Project
communications
• Project
management
plan
• Work performance data

13.3
Manage
Stakeholder
Engagement

10.2
Manage
Communications

• Project
management
plan updates

• Issue log

• Project documents
updates

10.3
Control
Communications

• Organizational
process assets

Enterprise/
Organization

• Work performance
information

• Change
requests

Project
Documents

4.4
Monitor and
Control Project
Work

4.5
Perform
Integrated
Change Control

• Organizational process
assets updates

Figure 10-8. Control Communications Data Flow Diagram
The Control Communications process can trigger an iteration of the Plan Communications Management and/or
Manage Communications processes. This iteration illustrates the continuous nature of the Project Communications
Management processes. Specific communication elements, such as issues or key performance indicators (e.g.,
actual vs. planned schedule, cost, and quality), may trigger an immediate revision, while others may not. The impact
and repercussions of project communications should be carefully evaluated and controlled to ensure that the right
message is delivered to the right audience at the right time.

10.3.1 Control Communications: Inputs
10.3.1.1 Project Management Plan
Described in Section 4.2.3.1. The project management plan describes how the project will be executed,
monitored, controlled, and closed. It provides valuable information for the Control Communications process such
as, but not limited to:

304

10 - PROJECT COMMUNICATIONS MANAGEMENT

• Stakeholder communication requirements,
• Reason for the distribution of the information,
• Timeframe and frequency for the distribution of required information,
• Individual or group responsible for communication of the information, and
• Individual or group receiving the information.

10.3.1.2 Project Communications
Described in Section 10.2.3.1. The Control Communications process involves the activities that are required
for information and communications to be monitored, acted upon, and released to stakeholders. Project
communications come from multiple sources and may vary significantly in their format, level of detail, degree of
formality and confidentiality. Project communications may include but are not limited to:
• Deliverables status,
• Schedule progress, and

• Costs incurred.

10.3.1.3 Issue Log
Described in Section 13.3.3.1. An issue log is used to document and monitor the resolution of issues. It may be
used to facilitate communication and ensure a common understanding of issues. A written log documents and helps
to monitor who is responsible for resolving specific issues by a target date. Issue resolution addresses obstacles
that can block the team from achieving its goals. This information is important to the Control Communications
process as it provides both a repository for what has already happened in the project and a platform for subsequent
communications to be delivered.

10.3.1.4 Work Performance Data
Described in Section 4.3.3.2. Work performance data organizes and summarizes the information gathered,
and presents the results of comparative analysis to the performance measurement baseline.

305

10 - PROJECT COMMUNICATIONS MANAGEMENT

10.3.1.5 Organizational Process Assets
Described in Section 2.1.4. The organizational process assets that may influence the Control Communications
process include, but are not limited to:
• Report templates;
• Policies, standards, and procedures that define communications;
• Specific communication technologies available;
• Allowed communication media;
• Record retention policies; and
• Security requirements.

10.3.2 Control Communications: Tools and Techniques
10.3.2.1 Information Management Systems
An information management system provides a set of standard tools for the project manager to capture, store,
and distribute information to stakeholders about the project’s costs, schedule progress, and performance. Some
software packages allow the project manager to consolidate reports from several systems and facilitate report
distribution to the project stakeholders. Examples of distribution formats may include table reporting, spreadsheet
analysis, and presentations. Graphic capabilities can be used to create visual representations of project performance
information.

10.3.2.2 Expert Judgment
Expert judgment is often relied upon by the project team to assess the impact of the project communications,
need for action or intervention, actions that should be taken, responsibility for taking such actions, and the timeframe
for taking action. Expert judgment may need to be applied to technical and/or management details and may be
provided by any group or individual with specialized knowledge or training, such as:

306

10 - PROJECT COMMUNICATIONS MANAGEMENT

• Other units within the organization,
• Consultants,
• Stakeholders, including customers or sponsors,
• Professional and technical associations,
• Industry groups,
• Subject matter experts, and
• Project management office (PMO).
The project manager, in collaboration with the project team, then determines the actions required to ensure that
the right message is communicated to the right audience at the right time.

10.3.2.3 Meetings
The Control Communications process requires discussion and dialogue with the project team to determine
the most appropriate way to update and communicate project performance, and to respond to requests from
stakeholders for information. These discussions and dialogues are commonly facilitated through meetings,
which may be conducted face to face or online and in different locations, such as the project site or the
client’s site. Project meetings also include discussions and dialog with suppliers, vendors, and other project
stakeholders.

10.3.3 Control Communications: Outputs
10.3.3.1 Work Performance Information
Described in Section 4.4.1.5. Work performance information organizes and summarizes the performance data
gathered. This performance data typically provides status and progress information on the project at the level of
detail required by the various stakeholders. This information is then communicated to the appropriate stakeholders.

10.3.3.2 Change Requests
Described in Section 4.3.3.3. The Control Communications process often results in the need for adjustment,
action, and intervention. As a result, change requests will be generated as an output. These change requests are
processed through the Perform Integrated Change Control process (Section 4.5) and may result in:

307

10 - PROJECT COMMUNICATIONS MANAGEMENT

• N
ew or revised cost estimates, activity sequences, schedule dates, resource requirements, and analysis
of risk response alternatives;
• Adjustments to the project management plan and documents;
• R
ecommendations of corrective actions that may bring the expected future performance of the project
back in line with the project management plan; and
• R
ecommendations of preventive actions that may reduce the probability of incurring future negative
project performance.

10.3.3.3 Project Management Plan Updates
Control Communications process may trigger updates to the communications management plan as well as
other components of the project management plan (e.g. stakeholders and human resource management plans).

10.3.3.4 Project Documents Updates
Project documents may be updated as a result of the Control Communications process. These updates may
include, but are not limited to:
• Forecasts,
• Performance reports, and
• Issue log.

10.3.3.5 Organizational Process Assets Updates
The organizational process assets that may be updated include, but are not limited to, report formats and
lessons learned documentation. This documentation may become part of the historical database for both this
project and the performing organization and may include the causes of issues, reasons behind the corrective action
chosen, and other types of lessons learned during the project.

308

11 - PROJECT RISK MANAGEMENT

11
PROJECT RISK MANAGEMENT
Project Risk Management includes the processes of conducting risk management planning, identification,
analysis, response planning, and controlling risk on a project. The objectives of project risk management are to
increase the likelihood and impact of positive events, and decrease the likelihood and impact of negative events
in the project.
Figure 11-1 provides an overview of the Project Risk Management processes, which are as follows:
11.1 Plan Risk Management—The process of defining how to conduct risk management activities for a
project.
11.2 Identify Risks—The process of determining which risks may affect the project and documenting
their characteristics.

11.3 Perform Qualitative Risk Analysis—The process of prioritizing risks for further analysis or action
by assessing and combining their probability of occurrence and impact.
11.4 Perform Quantitative Risk Analysis—The process of numerically analyzing the effect of identified
risks on overall project objectives.
11.5 Plan Risk Responses—The process of developing options and actions to enhance opportunities and
to reduce threats to project objectives.
11.6 Control Risks—The process of implementing risk response plans, tracking identified risks, monitoring
residual risks, identifying new risks, and evaluating risk process effectiveness throughout the project.
These processes interact with each other and with processes in other Knowledge Areas as described in detail
in Section 3 and Annex A1.

309

11 - PROJECT RISK MANAGEMENT

Project risk is an uncertain event or condition that, if it occurs, has a positive or negative effect on one or
more project objectives such as scope, schedule, cost, and quality. A risk may have one or more causes and,
if it occurs, it may have one or more impacts. A cause may be a given or potential requirement, assumption,
constraint, or condition that creates the possibility of negative or positive outcomes. For example, causes could
include the requirement of an environmental permit to do work, or having limited personnel assigned to design the
project. The risk is that the permitting agency may take longer than planned to issue a permit; or, in the case of
an opportunity, additional development personnel may become available who can participate in design, and they
can be assigned to the project. If either of these uncertain events occurs, there may be an impact on the project,
scope, cost, schedule, quality, or performance. Risk conditions may include aspects of the project’s or organization’s
environment that contribute to project risk, such as immature project management practices, lack of integrated
management systems, concurrent multiple projects, or dependency on external participants who are outside the
project’s direct control.
Project risk has its origins in the uncertainty present in all projects. Known risks are those that have been
identified and analyzed, making it possible to plan responses for those risks. Known risks that cannot be managed
proactively, should be assigned a contingency reserve. Unknown risks cannot be managed proactively and therefore
may be assigned a management reserve. A negative project risk that has occurred is considered an issue.
Individual project risks are different from overall project risk. Overall project risk represents the effect of
uncertainty on the project as a whole. It is more than the sum of the individual risks within a project, since it includes
all sources of project uncertainty. It represents the exposure of stakeholders to the implications of variations in
project outcome, both positive and negative.
Organizations perceive risk as the effect of uncertainty on projects and organizational objectives. Organizations
and stakeholders are willing to accept varying degrees of risk depending on their risk attitude. The risk attitudes of
both the organization and the stakeholders may be influenced by a number of factors, which are broadly classified
into three themes:

310

11 - PROJECT RISK MANAGEMENT

• Risk appetite, which is the degree of uncertainty an entity is willing to take on in anticipation of a reward.
• Risk tolerance, which is the degree, amount, or volume of risk that an organization or individual will
withstand.
• R
isk threshold, which refers to measures along the level of uncertainty or the level of impact at which a
stakeholder may have a specific interest. Below that risk threshold, the organization will accept the risk.
Above that risk threshold, the organization will not tolerate the risk.
For example, an organization’s risk attitude may include its appetite for uncertainty, its threshold for risk levels
that are unacceptable, or its risk tolerance at which point the organization may select a different risk response.
Positive and negative risks are commonly referred to as opportunities and threats. The project may be accepted
if the risks are within tolerances and are in balance with the rewards that may be gained by taking the risks. Positive
risks that offer opportunities within the limits of risk tolerances may be pursued in order to generate enhanced
value. For example, adopting an aggressive resource optimization technique is a risk taken in anticipation of a
reward for using fewer resources.
Individuals and groups adopt attitudes toward risk that influence the way they respond. These risk attitudes are
driven by perception, tolerances, and other biases, which should be made explicit wherever possible. A consistent
approach to risk should be developed for each project, and communication about risk and its handling should
be open and honest. Risk responses reflect an organization’s perceived balance between risk taking and risk
avoidance.

To be successful, an organization should be committed to address risk management proactively and consistently
throughout the project. A conscious choice should be made at all levels of the organization to actively identify and
pursue effective risk management during the life of the project. Project risk could exist at the moment a project
is initiated. Moving forward on a project without a proactive focus on risk management is likely to lead to more
problems arising from unmanaged threats.

311

11 - PROJECT RISK MANAGEMENT

Project Risk
Management Overview
11.1 Plan Risk
Management
.1 Inputs
.1 Project management plan
.2 Project charter
.3 Stakeholder register
.4 Enterprise environmental
factors
.5 Organizational process assets
.2 Tools & Techniques
.1 Analytical techniques
.2 Expert judgment
.3 Meetings
.3 Outputs
.1 Risk management plan

11.4 Perform Quantitative
Risk Analysis
.1 Inputs
.1 Risk management plan
.2 Cost management plan
.3 Schedule management plan
.4 Risk register
.5 Enterprise environmental
factors
.6 Organizational process assets
.2 Tools & Techniques
.1 Data gathering and
representation techniques
.2 Quantitative risk analysis and
modeling techniques
.3 Expert judgment
.3 Outputs
.1 Project documents updates

11.2 Identify Risks
.1 Inputs
.1 Risk management plan
.2 Cost management plan
.3 Schedule management plan
.4 Quality management plan
.5 Human resource
management plan
.6 Scope baseline
.7 Activity cost estimates
.8 Activity duration estimates
.9 Stakeholder register
.10 Project documents
.11 Procurement documents
.12 Enterprise environmental
factors
.13 Organizational process assets
.2 Tools & Techniques
.1 Documentation reviews
.2 Information gathering
techniques
.3 Checklist analysis
.4 Assumptions analysis
.5 Diagramming techniques
.6 SWOT analysis
.7 Expert judgment
. 3 Outputs
.1 Risk register

11.5 Plan Risk Responses
.1 Inputs
.1 Risk management plan
.2 Risk register
.2 Tools & Techniques
.1 Strategies for negative risks or
threats
.2 Strategies for positive risks or
opportunities
.3 Contingent response
strategies
.4 Expert judgment

11.3 Perform Qualitative
Risk Analysis
.1 Inputs
.1 Risk management plan
.2 Scope baseline
.3 Risk register
.4 Enterprise environmental
factors
.5 Organizational process assets
.2 Tools & Techniques
.1 Risk probability and impact
assessment
.2 Probability and impact matrix
.3 Risk data quality assessment
.4 Risk categorization
.5 Risk urgency assessment
.6 Expert judgment
.3 Outputs
.1 Project documents updates

11.6 Control Risks
.1 Inputs
.1 Project management plan
.2 Risk register
.3 Work performance data
.4 Work performance reports
.2 Tools & Techniques
.1 Risk reassessment
.2 Risk audits
.3 Variance and trend analysis
.4 Technical performance
measurement
.5 Reserve analysis
.6 Meetings
.3 Outputs
.1 Work performance information
.2 Change requests
.3 Project management plan
updates
.4 Project documents updates
.5 Organizational process assets
updates

.3 Outputs
.1 Project management plan
updates
.2 Project documents updates

Figure 11-1. Project Risk Management Overview

312

11 - PROJECT RISK MANAGEMENT

11.1 Plan Risk Management
Plan Risk Management is the process of defining how to conduct risk management activities for a project. The
key benefit of this process is it ensures that the degree, type, and visibility of risk management are commensurate
with both the risks and the importance of the project to the organization. The risk management plan is vital to
communicate with and obtain agreement and support from all stakeholders to ensure the risk management process
is supported and performed effectively over the project life cycle. The inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs of
this process are depicted in Figure 11-2. Figure 11-3 depicts the data flow diagram of the process.
Inputs

Tools & Techniques

.1
.2
.3
.4

Project management plan
Project charter
Stakeholder register
Enterprise environmental
factors
.5 Organizational process
assets

.1 Analytical techniques
.2 Expert judgment
.3 Meetings

Outputs
.1 Risk management plan

Figure 11-2. Plan Risk Management: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs

Project Risk Management
4.1
Develop Project
Charter

4.2
Develop Project
Management
Plan

13.1
Identify
Stakeholders

Enterprise/
Organization

• Project charter

11.1
Plan Risk
Management

• Project
management
plan

• Enterprise
environmental
factors
• Organizational
process assets

• Risk
management
plan

11.2
Identify
Risks

11.4
Perform
Quantitative
Risk Analysis

11.3
Perform
Qualitative
Risk Analysis

11.5
Plan Risk
Responses

• Stakeholder
register

Figure 11-3. Plan Risk Management Data Flow Diagram

313

11 - PROJECT RISK MANAGEMENT

Careful and explicit planning enhances the probability of success for other risk management processes. Planning
is also important to provide sufficient resources and time for risk management activities and to establish an agreedupon basis for evaluating risks. The Plan Risk Management process should begin when a project is conceived and
should be completed early during project planning.

11.1.1 Plan Risk Management: Inputs
11.1.1.1 Project Management Plan
In planning risk management, all approved subsidiary management plans and baselines should be taken into
consideration in order to make the risk management plan consistent with them. The risk management plan is also
a component of the project management plan. The project management plan provides baseline or current state of
risk-affected areas including scope, schedule, and cost.

11.1.1.2 Project Charter
Described in Section 4.1.3.1. The project charter can provide various inputs such as high-level risks, high-level
project descriptions, and high-level requirements.

11.1.1.3 Stakeholder Register
Described in Section 13.1.3.1. The stakeholder register, which contains all details related to the project’s
stakeholders, provides an overview of their roles.

11.1.1.4 Enterprise Environmental Factors
Described in Section 2.1.5. The enterprise environmental factors that can influence the Plan Risk Management
process include, but are not limited to, risk attitudes, thresholds, and tolerances that describe the degree of risk
that an organization will withstand.

11.1.1.5 Organizational Process Assets
Described in Section 2.1.4. The organizational process assets that can influence the Plan Risk Management
process include, but are not limited to:

314

11 - PROJECT RISK MANAGEMENT

• Risk categories,
• Common definitions of concepts and terms,
• Risk statement formats,
• Standard templates,
• Roles and responsibilities,
• Authority levels for decision making, and
• Lessons learned.

11.1.2 Plan Risk Management: Tools and Techniques
11.1.2.1 Analytical Techniques
Analytical techniques are used to understand and define the overall risk management context of the project.
Risk management context is a combination of stakeholder risk attitudes and the strategic risk exposure of a given
project based on the overall project context. For example, a stakeholder risk profile analysis may be performed to
grade and qualify the project stakeholder risk appetite and tolerance. Other techniques, such as the use of strategic
risk scoring sheets, are used to provide a high-level assessment of the risk exposure of the project based on the
overall project context. Depending on these assessments, the project team can allocate appropriate resources and
focus on the risk management activities.

11.1.2.2 Expert Judgment
To ensure a comprehensive establishment of the risk management plan, judgment, and expertise should be
considered from groups or individuals with specialized training or knowledge on the subject area, such as:
• Senior management,
• Project stakeholders,
• Project managers who have worked on projects in the same area (directly or through lessons learned),
• Subject matter experts (SMEs) in business or project area,
• Industry groups and consultants, and
• Professional and technical associations.

315

11 - PROJECT RISK MANAGEMENT

11.1.2.3 Meetings
Project teams hold planning meetings to develop the risk management plan. Attendees at these meetings may
include the project manager, selected project team members and stakeholders, anyone in the organization with
responsibility to manage the risk planning and execution activities, and others, as needed.
High-level plans for conducting the risk management activities are defined in these meetings. Risk management
cost elements and schedule activities should be developed for inclusion in the project budget and schedule,
respectively. Risk contingency reserve application approaches may be established or reviewed. Risk management
responsibilities should be assigned. General organizational templates for risk categories and definitions of terms
such as levels of risk, probability by type of risk, impact by type of objectives, and the probability and impact matrix
will be tailored to the specific project. If templates for other steps in the process do not exist, they may be generated
in these meetings. The outputs of these activities are summarized in the risk management plan.

11.1.3 Plan Risk Management: Outputs
11.1.3.1 Risk Management Plan
The risk management plan is a component of the project management plan and describes how risk management
activities will be structured and performed. The risk management plan includes the following:
• Methodology. Defines the approaches, tools, and data sources that will be used to perform risk
management on the project.
• Roles and responsibilities. Defines the lead, support, and risk management team members for each
type of activity in the risk management plan, and clarifies their responsibilities.
• Budgeting. Estimates funds needed, based on assigned resources, for inclusion in the cost baseline and
establishes protocols for application of contingency and management reserves.
• Timing. Defines when and how often the risk management processes will be performed throughout the
project life cycle, establishes protocols for application of schedule contingency reserves, and establishes
risk management activities for inclusion in the project schedule.

316

11 - PROJECT RISK MANAGEMENT

• Risk categories. Provide a means for grouping potential causes of risk. Several approaches can be
used, for example, a structure based on project objectives by category. A risk breakdown structure (RBS)
helps the project team to look at many sources from which project risk may arise in a risk identification
exercise. Different RBS structures will be appropriate for different types of projects. An organization can
use a previously prepared custom categorization framework, which may take the form of a simple list of
categories or may be structured into an RBS. The RBS is a hierarchical representation of risks according
to their risk categories. An example is shown in Figure 11-4.
Beta Distribution

Triangular Distribution

0.1

0.0

Beta and triangular distributions are frequently used in quantitative risk analysis. The data shown in the figure
on the left (Beta Distribution) is one example of a family of such distributions determined by two "shape
parameters". Other commonly used distributions include the uniform, normal and lognormal. In these charts
the horizontal (X) axes represent possible values of time or cost and the vertical (Y) axes represent relative
likelihood.

Figure 11-4. Example of a Risk Breakdown Structure (RBS)
• Definitions of risk probability and impact. The quality and credibility of the risk analysis requires that
different levels of risk probability and impact be defined that are specific to the project context. General
definitions of probability levels and impact levels are tailored to the individual project during the Plan
Risk Management process for use in subsequent processes. Table 11-1 is an example of definitions of
negative impacts that could be used in evaluating risk impacts related to four project objectives. (Similar
tables may be established with a positive impact perspective). Table 11-1 illustrates both relative and
numerical (in this case, nonlinear) approaches.

317

11 - PROJECT RISK MANAGEMENT

Table 11-1. Definition of Impact Scales for Four Project Objectives
Defined Conditions for Impact Scales of a Risk on Major Project Objectives
(Examples are shown for negative impacts only)
Relative or numerical scales are shown
Project
Objective

Very low /0.05

Low /0.10

Moderate /0.20

High /0.40

Very high /0.80

Cost

Insignificant cost
increase

< 10% cost
increase

10 – 20% cost
increase

20 – 40% cost
increase

> 40% cost
increase

Time

Insignificant time
increase

< 5% time
increase

5 – 10% time
increase

10 – 20% time
increase

> 20% time
increase

Scope

Scope decrease
barely noticeable

Minor areas of
scope affected

Major areas of
scope affected

Scope reduction
unacceptable to
sponsor

Project end item
is effectively
useless

Quality

Quality degradation
barely noticeable

Only very demanding
applications
are affected

Quality reduction
requires sponsor
approval

Quality reduction
unacceptable to
sponsor

Project end item
is effectively
useless

This table presents examples of risk impact definitions for four different project objectives. They should be tailored in the
Risk Management Planning process to the individual project and to the organization's risk thresholds. Impact definitions can be
developed for opportunities in a similar way.

• P
robability and impact matrix. A probability and impact matrix is a grid for mapping the probability
of each risk occurrence and its impact on project objectives if that risk occurs. Risks are prioritized
according to their potential implications for having an effect on the project’s objectives. A typical
approach to prioritizing risks is to use a look-up table or a probability and impact matrix. The specific
combinations of probability and impact that lead to a risk being rated as “high,” “moderate,” or “low”
importance are usually set by the organization.
• Revised stakeholders’ tolerances. Stakeholders’ tolerances, as they apply to the specific project, may
be revised in the Plan Risk Management process.
• Reporting formats. Reporting formats define how the outcomes of the risk management process will
be documented, analyzed, and communicated. It describes the content and format of the risk register as
well as any other risk reports required.
• Tracking. Tracking documents how risk activities will be recorded for the benefit of the current project
and how risk management processes will be audited.

318

11 - PROJECT RISK MANAGEMENT

11.2 Identify Risks
Identify Risks is the process of determining which risks may affect the project and documenting their
characteristics. The key benefit of this process is the documentation of existing risks and the knowledge and ability
it provides to the project team to anticipate events. The inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs of this process
are depicted in Figure 11-5. Figure 11-6 depicts the data flow diagram of the process.
Inputs

Tools & Techniques

.1 Risk management plan
.2 Cost management plan
.3 Schedule management
plan
.4 Quality management plan
.5 Human resource
management plan
.6 Scope baseline
.7 Activity cost estimates
.8 Activity duration
estimates
.9 Stakeholder register
.10 Project documents
.11 Procurement documents
.12 Enterprise environmental
factors
.13 Organizational process
assets

.1 Documentation reviews
.2 Information gathering
techniques
.3 Checklist analysis
.4 Assumptions analysis
.5 Diagramming techniques
.6 SWOT analysis
.7 Expert judgment

Outputs
.1 Risk register

Figure 11-5. Identify Risks: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs

319

11 - PROJECT RISK MANAGEMENT

5.4
Create WBS
• Scope baseline

6.1
Plan Schedule
Management
• Schedule management plan

6.5
Estimate
Activity Durations

Project Risk Management
11.1
Plan Risk
Management

• Activity duration estimates

7.1
Project Cost
Management

• Risk management plan

7.2
Estimate
Costs

• Cost management plan

11.2
Identify
Risks

7.2
Estimate Costs
• Activity cost estimates

8.1
Plan Quality
Management
• Quality management plan

9.1
Plan Human
Resource
Management

8.1
Plan Quality
Management
• Risk register

11.3
Perform
Qualitative
Risk Analysis

11.5
Plan Risk
Responses

11.4
Perform
Quantitative
Risk Analysis

11.6
Control
Risks

12.1
Plan
Procurement
Management

• Human resource
management plan

12.1
Plan Procurement
Management
• Procurement documents

13.1
Identify
Stakeholders
• Stakeholder register

Enterprise/
Organization
• Organizational process assets
• Enterprise environmental
factors

Project
Documents

Figure 11-6. Identify Risks Data Flow Diagram

320

11 - PROJECT RISK MANAGEMENT

Participants in risk identification activities may include the following: project manager, project team members,
risk management team (if assigned), customers, subject matter experts from outside the project team, end
users, other project managers, stakeholders, and risk management experts. While these personnel are often key
participants for risk identification, all project personnel should be encouraged to identify potential risks.
Identify risks is an iterative process, because new risks may evolve or become known as the project progresses
through its life cycle. The frequency of iteration and participation in each cycle will vary by situation. The format of
the risk statements should be consistent to ensure that each risk is understood clearly and unambiguously in order
to support effective analysis and response development. The risk statement should support the ability to compare
the relative effect of one risk against others on the project. The process should involve the project team so they can
develop and maintain a sense of ownership and responsibility for the risks and associated risk response actions.
Stakeholders outside the project team may provide additional objective information.

11.2.1 Identify Risks: Inputs
11.2.1.1 Risk Management Plan

Described in Section 11.1.3.1. Key elements of the risk management plan that contribute to the Identify Risks
process are the assignments of roles and responsibilities, provision for risk management activities in the budget
and schedule, and categories of risk, which are sometimes expressed as a risk breakdown structure (Figure 11-4).

11.2.1.2 Cost Management Plan
Described in Section 7.1.3.1. The cost management plan provides processes and controls that can be used to
help identify risks across the project.

11.2.1.3 Schedule Management Plan
Described in Section 6.1.3.1. The schedule management plan provides insight to project time/schedule
objectives and expectations which may be impacted by risks (known and unknown).

11.2.1.4 Quality Management Plan
Described in Section 8.1.3.1. The quality management plan provides a baseline of quality measures and metrics
for use in identifying risks.

321

11 - PROJECT RISK MANAGEMENT

11.2.1.5 Human Resource Management Plan
Described in Section 9.1.3.1. The human resource management plan provides guidance on how project human
resources should be defined, staffed, managed, and eventually released. It can also contain roles and responsibilities,
project organization charts, and the staffing management plan, which form a key input to identify risk process.

11.2.1.6 Scope Baseline
Described in Section 5.4.3.1. Project assumptions are found in the project scope statement. Uncertainty in
project assumptions should be evaluated as potential causes of project risk.
The WBS is a critical input to identifying risks as it facilitates an understanding of the potential risks at both
the micro and macro levels. Risks can be identified and subsequently tracked at summary, control account, and/or
work package levels.

11.2.1.7 Activity Cost Estimates
Described in Section 7.2.3.1. Activity cost estimate reviews are useful in identifying risks as they provide a
quantitative assessment of the likely cost to complete scheduled activities and ideally are expressed as a range,
with the width of the range indicating the degree(s) of risk. The review may result in projections indicating the
estimate is either sufficient or insufficient to complete the activity (i.e., pose a risk to the project).

11.2.1.8 Activity Duration Estimates
Described in Section 6.5.3.1. Activity duration estimate reviews are useful in identifying risks related to the time
allowances for the activities or project as a whole, again with the width of the range of such estimates indicating
the relative degree(s) of risk.

11.2.1.9 Stakeholder Register
Described in Section 13.1.3.1. Information about the stakeholders is useful for soliciting inputs to identify risks,
as this will ensure that key stakeholders, especially the stakeholder, sponsor, and customer are interviewed or
otherwise participate during the Identify Risks process.

322

11 - PROJECT RISK MANAGEMENT

11.2.1.10 Project Documents
Project documents provide the project team with information about decisions that help better identify project
risks. Project documents improve cross-team and stakeholder communications and include, but are not limited to:
• Project charter,
• Project schedule,
• Schedule network diagrams,
• Issue log,
• Quality checklist, and
• Other information proven to be valuable in identifying risks.

11.2.1.11 Procurement Documents
Defined in Section 12.1.3.3. If the project requires external procurement of resources, procurement
documents become a key input to the Identify Risks process. The complexity and the level of detail of the
procurement documents should be consistent with the value of, and risks associated with, planned procurement.

11.2.1.12 Enterprise Environmental Factors
Described in Section 2.1.5. Enterprise environmental factors that can influence the Identify Risks process
include, but are not limited to:
• Published information, including commercial databases,
• Academic studies,
• Published checklists,
• Benchmarking,
• Industry studies, and
• Risk attitudes.

323

11 - PROJECT RISK MANAGEMENT

11.2.1.13 Organizational Process Assets
Described in Section 2.1.4. Organizational process assets that can influence the Identify Risks process include,
but are not limited to:
• Project files, including actual data,
• Organizational and project process controls,
• Risk statement formats or templates, and
• Lessons learned.

11.2.2 Identify Risks: Tools and Techniques
11.2.2.1 Documentation Reviews
A structured review of the project documentation may be performed, including plans, assumptions, previous
project files, agreements, and other information. The quality of the plans, as well as consistency between those
plans and the project requirements and assumptions, may be indicators of risk in the project.

11.2.2.2 Information Gathering Techniques
Examples of information gathering techniques used in identifying risks can include:
• B
rainstorming. The goal of brainstorming is to obtain a comprehensive list of project risks. The project
team usually performs brainstorming, often with a multidisciplinary set of experts who are not part of the
team. Ideas about project risk are generated under the leadership of a facilitator, either in a traditional
free-form brainstorm session or structured mass interviewing techniques. Categories of risk, such as in a
risk breakdown structure, can be used as a framework. Risks are then identified and categorized by type
of risk and their definitions are refined.
• D
elphi technique. The Delphi technique is a way to reach a consensus of experts. Project risk experts
participate in this technique anonymously. A facilitator uses a questionnaire to solicit ideas about the
important project risks. The responses are summarized and are then recirculated to the experts for
further comment. Consensus may be reached in a few rounds of this process. The Delphi technique helps
reduce bias in the data and keeps any one person from having undue influence on the outcome.

324

11 - PROJECT RISK MANAGEMENT

• Interviewing. Interviewing experienced project participants, stakeholders, and subject matter experts
helps to identify risks.
• R
oot cause analysis. Root-cause analysis is a specific technique used to identify a problem, discover
the underlying causes that lead to it, and develop preventive action.

11.2.2.3 Checklist Analysis
Risk identification checklists are developed based on historical information and knowledge that has been
accumulated from previous similar projects and from other sources of information. The lowest level of the RBS
can also be used as a risk checklist. While a checklist may be quick and simple, it is impossible to build an
exhaustive one, and care should be taken to ensure the checklist is not used to avoid the effort of proper risk
identification. The team should also explore items that do not appear on the checklist. Additionally, the checklist
should be pruned from time to time to remove or archive related items. The checklist should be reviewed during
project closure to incorporate new lessons learned and improve it for use on future projects.

11.2.2.4 Assumptions Analysis
Every project and its plan is conceived and developed based on a set of hypotheses, scenarios, or assumptions.
Assumptions analysis explores the validity of assumptions as they apply to the project. It identifies risks to the
project from inaccuracy, instability, inconsistency, or incompleteness of assumptions.

11.2.2.5 Diagramming Techniques
Risk diagramming techniques may include:
• Cause and effect diagrams. These are also known as Ishikawa or fishbone diagrams and are useful for
identifying causes of risks.
• S
ystem or process flow charts. These show how various elements of a system interrelate and the
mechanism of causation.
• I nfluence diagrams. These are graphical representations of situations showing causal influences, time
ordering of events, and other relationships among variables and outcomes, as shown in Figure 11-7.

325

11 - PROJECT RISK MANAGEMENT

Project
Estimates

Risk
Condition

Project
Activity

Deliverables

Figure 11-7. Influence Diagram

11.2.2.6 SWOT Analysis
This technique examines the project from each of the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (SWOT)
perspectives to increase the breadth of identified risks by including internally generated risks. The technique starts
with identification of strengths and weaknesses of the organization, focusing on either the project, organization,
or the business area in general. SWOT analysis then identifies any opportunities for the project that arise from
organizational strengths, and any threats arising from organizational weaknesses. The analysis also examines
the degree to which organizational strengths offset threats, as well as identifying opportunities that may serve to
overcome weaknesses.

326

11 - PROJECT RISK MANAGEMENT

11.2.2.7 Expert Judgment
Risks may be identified directly by experts with relevant experience with similar projects or business areas.
Such experts should be identified by the project manager and invited to consider all aspects of the project and
suggest possible risks based on their previous experience and areas of expertise. The experts’ bias should be taken
into account in this process.

11.2.3 Identify Risks: Outputs
11.2.3.1 Risk Register
The primary output from Identify Risks is the initial entry into the risk register. The risk register is a document
in which the results of risk analysis and risk response planning are recorded. It contains the outcomes of the other
risk management processes as they are conducted, resulting in an increase in the level and type of information
contained in the risk register over time. The preparation of the risk register begins in the Identify Risks process
with the following information, and then becomes available to other project management and risk management
processes:

• L ist of identified risks. The identified risks are described in as much detail as is reasonable. A
structure for describing risks using risk statements may be applied, for example, EVENT may occur
causing IMPACT, or If CAUSE exists, EVENT may occur leading to EFFECT. In addition to the list of
identified risks, the root causes of those risks may become more evident. These are the fundamental
conditions or events that may give rise to one or more identified risks. They should be recorded and
used to support future risk identification for this and other projects.
• L ist of potential responses. Potential responses to a risk may sometimes be identified during the Identify
Risks process. These responses, if identified in this process, should be used as inputs to the Plan Risk
Responses process.

327

11 - PROJECT RISK MANAGEMENT

11.3 Perform Qualitative Risk Analysis
Perform Qualitative Risk Analysis is the process of prioritizing risks for further analysis or action by assessing
and combining their probability of occurrence and impact. The key benefit of this process is that it enables project
managers to reduce the level of uncertainty and to focus on high-priority risks. The inputs, tools and techniques,
and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure 11-8. Figure 11-9 depicts the data flow diagram of the process.
Inputs

Tools & Techniques

Risk management plan
Scope baseline
Risk register
Enterprise environmental
factors
.5 Organizational process
assets

.1 Risk probability and
impact assessment
.2 Probability and impact
matrix
.3 Risk data quality
assessment
.4 Risk categorization
.5 Risk urgency assessment
.6 Expert judgment

.1
.2
.3
.4

Outputs
.1 Project documents
updates

Figure 11-8. Perform Qualitative Risk Analysis: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs

Project Risk Management
11.1
Plan Risk
Management
5.4
Create
WBS

• Risk management
plan

• Scope baseline

Enterprise/
Organization

11.2
Identify
Risks

• Enterprise
environmental
factors
• Organizational
process assets

• Risk register

11.3
Perform
Qualitative
Risk Analysis

• Project documents
updates

Project
Documents

Figure 11-9. Perform Qualitative Risk Analysis Data Flow Diagram

328

11 - PROJECT RISK MANAGEMENT

Perform Qualitative Risk Analysis assesses the priority of identified risks using their relative probability or
likelihood of occurrence, the corresponding impact on project objectives if the risks occur, as well as other
factors such as the time frame for response and the organization’s risk tolerance associated with the project
constraints of cost, schedule, scope, and quality. Such assessments reflect the risk attitude of the project
team and other stakeholders. Effective assessment therefore requires explicit identification and management
of the risk approaches of key participants in the Perform Qualitative Risk Analysis process. Where these risk
approaches introduce bias into the assessment of identified risks, attention should be paid to identifying bias
and correcting for it.
Establishing definitions of the levels of probability and impact can reduce the influence of bias. The time
criticality of risk-related actions may magnify the importance of a risk. An evaluation of the quality of the
available information on project risks also helps to clarify the assessment of the risk’s importance to the project.
Perform Qualitative Risk Analysis is usually a rapid and cost-effective means of establishing priorities for Plan
Risk Responses and lays the foundation for Perform Quantitative Risk Analysis, if required. The Perform Qualitative
Risk Analysis process is performed regularly throughout the project life cycle, as defined in the project’s risk
management plan. This process can lead into Perform Quantitative Risk Analysis (Section 11.4) or directly into Plan
Risk Responses (Section 11.5).

11.3.1 Perform Qualitative Risk Analysis: Inputs
11.3.1.1 Risk Management Plan
Described in Section 11.1.3.1. Key elements of the risk management plan used in the Perform Qualitative Risk
Analysis process include roles and responsibilities for conducting risk management, budgets, schedule activities
for risk management, risk categories, definitions of probability and impact, the probability and impact matrix,
and revised stakeholders’ risk tolerances. These inputs are usually tailored to the project during the Plan Risk
Management process. If they are not available, they may be developed during the Perform Qualitative Risk Analysis
process.

11.3.1.2 Scope Baseline
Described in Section 5.4.3.1. Projects of a common or recurrent type tend to have more well-understood risks.
Projects using state-of-the-art or first-of-its-kind technology, and highly complex projects, tend to have more
uncertainty. This can be evaluated by examining the scope baseline.

329

11 - PROJECT RISK MANAGEMENT

11.3.1.3 Risk Register
Described in Section 11.2.3.1. The risk register contains the information that will be used to assess and prioritize
risks.

11.3.1.4 Enterprise Environmental Factors
Described in Section 2.1.5. Enterprise environmental factors may provide insight and context to the risk
assessment, such as:
• Industry studies of similar projects by risk specialists, and
• Risk databases that may be available from industry or proprietary sources.

11.3.1.5 Organizational Process Assets
Described in Section 2.1.4. The organizational process assets that can influence the Perform Qualitative Risk
Analysis process include information on prior, similar completed projects.

11.3.2 Perform Qualitative Risk Analysis: Tools and Techniques
11.3.2.1 Risk Probability and Impact Assessment
Risk probability assessment investigates the likelihood that each specific risk will occur. Risk impact
assessment investigates the potential effect on a project objective such as schedule, cost, quality, or performance,
including both negative effects for threats and positive effects for opportunities.
Probability and impact are assessed for each identified risk. Risks can be assessed in interviews or meetings
with participants selected for their familiarity with the risk categories on the agenda. Project team members and
knowledgeable persons external to the project are included.
The level of probability for each risk and its impact on each objective is evaluated during the interview or meeting.
Explanatory detail, including assumptions justifying the levels assigned, are also recorded. Risk probabilities
and impacts are rated according to the definitions given in the risk management plan. Risks with low ratings of
probability and impact will be included within the risk register as part of the watch list for future monitoring.

330

11 - PROJECT RISK MANAGEMENT

11.3.2.2 Probability and Impact Matrix
Risks can be prioritized for further quantitative analysis and planning risk responses based on their risk rating.
Ratings are assigned to risks based on their assessed probability and impact. Evaluation of each risk’s importance
and priority for attention is typically conducted using a look-up table or a probability and impact matrix. Such a
matrix specifies combinations of probability and impact that lead to rating the risks as low, moderate, or high
priority. Descriptive terms or numeric values can be used depending on organizational preference.
Each risk is rated on its probability of occurrence and impact on an objective if it does occur. The organization
should determine which combinations of probability and impact result in a classification of high risk, moderate risk,
and low risk. In a black-and-white matrix, these conditions are denoted using different shades of gray. Specifically
in Figure 11-10, the dark gray area (with the largest numbers) represents high risk: the medium gray area (with
the smallest numbers) represents low risk, and the light gray area (with in-between numbers) represents moderate
risk. Usually, these risk-rating rules are specified by the organization in advance of the project and included in
organizational process assets. Risk rating rules can be tailored in the Plan Risk Management process to the specific
project.

Probability and Impact Matrix
Probability

Threats

Opportunities

0.90

0.05

0.09

0.18

0.36

0.72

0.36

0.18

0.09

0.05

0.70

0.04

0.07

0.14

0.28

0.56

0.28

0.14

0.07

0.04

0.50

0.03

0.05

0.10

0.20

0.40

0.20

0.10

0.05

0.03

0.30

0.02

0.03

0.06

0.12

0.24

0.12

0.06

0.03

0.02

0.10

0.01

0.02

0.04

0.08

0.04

0.02

0.01

0.05/
Very Low

0.10/
Low

0.20/
Moderate

0.40/
High

0.80/
Very High

0.40/
High

0.20/
Moderate

0.10/
Low

0.05/
Very Low

Impact (numerical scale) on an objective (e.g., cost, time, scope or quality)
Each risk is rated on its probability of occurring and impact on an objective if it does occur. The organization's
thresholds for low, moderate or high risks are shown in the matrix and determine whether the risk is scored
as high, moderate or low for that objective.

Figure 11-10. Probability and Impact Matrix

331

11 - PROJECT RISK MANAGEMENT

As illustrated in Figure 11-10, an organization can rate a risk separately for each objective (e.g., cost, time,
and scope). In addition, it may develop ways to determine one overall rating for each risk. Finally, opportunities
and threats are handled in the same matrix using definitions of the different levels of impact that are appropriate
for each.
The risk score helps guide risk responses. For example, risks that have a negative impact on objectives,
otherwise known as threats if they occur, and that are in the high-risk (dark gray) zone of the matrix, may require
priority action and aggressive response strategies. Threats found in the low-risk (medium gray) zone may not
require proactive management action beyond being placed in the risk register as part of the watch list or adding
a contingency reserve. Similarly for opportunities, those in the high-risk (dark gray) zone, which may be obtained
most easily and offer the greatest benefit, should be targeted first. Opportunities in the low-risk (medium gray) zone
should be monitored.

11.3.2.3 Risk Data Quality Assessment
Risk data quality assessment is a technique to evaluate the degree to which the data about risks is useful
for risk management. It involves examining the degree to which the risk is understood and the accuracy, quality,
reliability, and integrity of the data about the risk.
The use of low-quality risk data may lead to a qualitative risk analysis of little use to the project. If data quality is
unacceptable, it may be necessary to gather better data. Often, the collection of information about risks is difficult,
and consumes more time and resources than originally planned. The values used in the example in Figure 11-10
are representative. The numbers of steps in the scale are usually established when defining the risk attitude of the
organization.

11.3.2.4 Risk Categorization
Risks to the project can be categorized by sources of risk (e.g., using the RBS), the area of the project affected
(e.g., using the WBS), or other useful categories (e.g., project phase) to determine the areas of the project most
exposed to the effects of uncertainty. Risks can also be categorized by common root causes. This technique helps
determine work packages, activities, project phases or even roles in the project, which can lead to the development
of effective risk responses.

332

11 - PROJECT RISK MANAGEMENT

11.3.2.5 Risk Urgency Assessment
Risks requiring near-term responses may be considered more urgent to address. Indicators of priority may
include probability of detecting the risk, time to affect a risk response, symptoms and warning signs, and the
risk rating. In some qualitative analyses, the assessment of risk urgency is combined with the risk ranking that is
determined from the probability and impact matrix to give a final risk severity rating.

11.3.2.6 Expert Judgment
Expert judgment is required to assess the probability and impact of each risk to determine its location in
the matrix shown in Figure 11-10. Experts generally are those having experience with similar, recent projects.
Gathering expert judgment is often accomplished with the use of risk facilitation workshops or interviews. The
experts’ bias should be taken into account in this process.

11.3.3 Perform Qualitative Risk Analysis: Outputs
11.3.3.1 Project Documents Updates

Project documents that may be updated include, but are not limited to:
• R
isk register updates. As new information becomes available through the qualitative risk
assessment, the risk register is updated. Updates to the risk register may include assessments
of probability and impacts for each risk, risk ranking or scores, risk urgency information or risk
categorization, and a watch list for low probability risks or risks requiring further analysis.
ssumptions log updates. As new information becomes available through the qualitative risk
• A
assessment, assumptions could change. The assumptions log needs to be revisited to accommodate
this new information. Assumptions may be incorporated into the project scope statement or in a
separate assumptions log.

11.4 Perform Quantitative Risk Analysis
Perform Quantitative Risk Analysis is the process of numerically analyzing the effect of identified risks on overall
project objectives. The key benefit of this process is that it produces quantitative risk information to support decision
making in order to reduce project uncertainty. The inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs of this process are
depicted in Figure 11-11. Figure 11-12 depicts the data flow diagram of the process.

333

11 - PROJECT RISK MANAGEMENT

Inputs

Tools & Techniques

.1 Risk management plan
.2 Cost management plan
.3 Schedule management
plan
.4 Risk register
.5 Enterprise environmental
factors
.6 Organizational process
assets

.1 Data gathering and
representation
techniques
.2 Quantitative risk analysis
and modeling techniques
.3 Expert judgment

Outputs
.1 Project documents
updates

Figure 11-11. Perform Quantitative Risk Analysis: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs

Project Risk Management
6.1
Plan Schedule
Management

7.1
Plan Cost
Management

11.1
Plan Risk
Management
• Risk management
plan

• Risk register

• Schedule
management plan
• Cost management plan

Enterprise/
Organization

11.2
Identify
Risks

• Organizational
process assets
• Enterprise
environmental
factors

11.4
Perform
Quantitative
Risk Analysis

• Project documents
updates

Project
Documents

Figure 11-12. Perform Quantitative Risk Analysis Data Flow Diagram
Perform Quantitative Risk Analysis is performed on risks that have been prioritized by the Perform Qualitative
Risk Analysis process as potentially and substantially impacting the project’s competing demands. The Perform
Quantitative Risk Analysis process analyzes the effect of those risks on project objectives. It is used mostly to
evaluate the aggregate effect of all risks affecting the project. When the risks drive the quantitative analysis, the
process may be used to assign a numerical priority rating to those risks individually.

334

11 - PROJECT RISK MANAGEMENT

Perform Quantitative Risk Analysis generally follows the Perform Qualitative Risk Analysis process. In some
cases, it may not be possible to execute the Perform Quantitative Risk Analysis process due to lack of sufficient
data to develop appropriate models. The project manager should exercise expert judgment to determine the need
for and the viability of quantitative risk analysis. The availability of time and budget, and the need for qualitative or
quantitative statements about risk and impacts, will determine which method(s) to use on any particular project.
Perform Quantitative Risk Analysis should be repeated, as needed, as part of the Control Risks process to determine
if the overall project risk has been satisfactorily decreased. Trends may indicate the need for more or less focus on
appropriate risk management activities.

11.4.1 Perform Quantitative Risk Analysis: Inputs
11.4.1.1 Risk Management Plan
Described in Section 11.1.3.1. The risk management plan provides guidelines, methods, and tools to be used in
quantitative risk analysis.

11.4.1.2 Cost Management Plan

Described in Section 7.1.3.1. The cost management plan provides guidelines on establishing and managing risk
reserves.

11.4.1.3 Schedule Management Plan
Described in Section 6.1.3.1. The schedule management plan provides guidelines on establishing and managing
risk reserves.

11.4.1.4 Risk Register
Described in Section 11.2.3.1. The risk register is used as a reference point for performing quantitative risk
analysis.

11.4.1.5 Enterprise Environmental Factors
Described in Section 2.1.5. Enterprise environmental factors may provide insight and context to the risk analysis,
such as:
• Industry studies of similar projects by risk specialists, and
• Risk databases that may be available from industry or proprietary sources.

335

11 - PROJECT RISK MANAGEMENT

11.4.1.6 Organizational Process Assets
Described in Section 2.1.4. The organizational process assets that can influence the Perform Quantitative Risk
Analysis process include information from prior, similar completed projects.

11.4.2 Perform Quantitative Risk Analysis: Tools and Techniques
11.4.2.1 Data Gathering and Representation Techniques
• Interviewing. Interviewing techniques draw on experience and historical data to quantify the probability
and impact of risks on project objectives. The information needed depends upon the type of probability
distributions that will be used. For instance, information would be gathered on the optimistic (low),
pessimistic (high), and most likely scenarios for some commonly used distributions. Examples of threepoint estimates for cost are shown in Figure 11-13. Additional information on three-point estimates
appears in Estimate Activity Durations (Section 6.5) and Estimate Costs (Section 7.2). Documenting the
rationale of the risk ranges and the assumptions behind them are important components of the risk
interview because they can provide insight on the reliability and credibility of the analysis.
Range of Project Cost Estimates
WBS Element

Low

Most Likely

High

Design

$4M

$6M

$10 M

Build

$16M

$20M

$35 M

Test

$11 M

$15 M

$23 M

Total Project

$31 M

$41M

$68M

Interviewing relevant stakeholders helps determine the three-point estimates for each WBS
element for triangular, beta or other distributions. In this example, the likelihood of completing
the project at or below the most likely estimate of $41 million is relatively small as shown in
the simulation results in Figure 11-17 (Cost Risk Simulation Results).

Figure 11-13. Range of Project Cost Estimates Collected During the Risk Interview

336

11 - PROJECT RISK MANAGEMENT

• Probability distributions. Continuous probability distributions, which are used extensively in modeling
and simulation, represent the uncertainty in values such as durations of schedule activities and costs
of project components. Discrete distributions can be used to represent uncertain events, such as the
outcome of a test or a possible scenario in a decision tree. Two examples of widely used continuous
distributions are shown in Figure 11-14. These distributions depict shapes that are compatible with the
data typically developed during the quantitative risk analysis. Uniform distributions can be used if there
is no obvious value that is more likely than any other between specified high and low bounds, such as in
the early concept stage of design.
Beta Distribution
0.1

Triangular Distribution
0.1

11
0.0

0.0

Figure 11-14. Examples of Commonly Used Probability Distributions

337

11 - PROJECT RISK MANAGEMENT

11.4.2.2 Quantitative Risk Analysis and Modeling Techniques
Commonly used techniques use both event-oriented and project-oriented analysis approaches, including:
• Sensitivity analysis. Sensitivity analysis helps to determine which risks have the most potential
impact on the project. It helps to understand how the variations in project’s objectives correlate with
variations in different uncertainties. Conversely, it examines the extent to which the uncertainty of
each project element affects the objective being studied when all other uncertain elements are held at
their baseline values. One typical display of sensitivity analysis is the tornado diagram (Figure 11-15),
which is useful for comparing relative importance and impact of variables that have a high degree of
uncertainty to those that are more stable. The Tornado diagram is also helpful in analyzing risk-taking
scenarios enabled on specific risks whose quantitative analysis highlights possible benefits greater
than corresponding identified negative impacts. A tornado diagram is a special type of bar chart used
in sensitivity analysis for comparing the relative importance of the variables. In a tornado diagram,
the Y-axis contains each type of uncertainty at base values, and the X-axis contains the spread or
correlation of the uncertainty to the studied output. In this figure, each uncertainty contains a horizontal
bar and is ordered vertically to show uncertainties with a decreasing spread from the base values.

Risk 1

Risk 2

Risk 3

Risk 4

KEY
Risk 5

Negative Impact
Positive Impact

Risk 6

-15,000

-10,000

-5,000

5,000

10,000

15,000

20,000

Figure 11-15. Example of Tornado Diagram

338

11 - PROJECT RISK MANAGEMENT

• E xpected monetary value analysis. Expected monetary value (EMV) analysis is a statistical concept
that calculates the average outcome when the future includes scenarios that may or may not happen
(i.e., analysis under uncertainty). The EMV of opportunities are generally expressed as positive values,
while those of threats are expressed as negative values. EMV requires a risk-neutral assumption—
neither risk averse nor risk seeking. EMV for a project is calculated by multiplying the value of each
possible outcome by its probability of occurrence and adding the products together. A common use of
this type of analysis is a decision tree analysis (Figure 11-16).
Decision Definition
Decision to
be Made

Decision Node
Input: Cost of Each Decision
Output: Decision Made

Chance Node
Input: Scenario Probability,
Reward if it Occurs
Output: Expected Monetary
Value (EMV)
60%

Strong Demand
($200M)

Build New Plant
(Invest $120M)
$36M = .60 ($80M) +
.40 (–$30M)
Build or Upgrade?

Weak Demand
($90M)

EMV (before costs) of Build
New Plant considering demand

Decision EMV = $46M
(the larger of $36M
and $46M)

Decision Node

40%

60%

Strong Demand
($120M)

$46M = .60 ($70M) +
.40 ($10M)

End of Branch

EMV (before costs) of Upgrade
Plant considering demand

Computed:
Payoffs minus Costs
along Path

$80M
$80M = $200M – $120M

-$30M
–$30M = $90M – $120M

$70M
$70M = $120M – $50M

Upgrade Plant
(Invest $50M)

Chance Node

Net Path Value

40%

Weak Demand
($60M)

$10M
$10M = $60M – $50M

Note 1: The decision tree shows how to make a decision between alternative capital strategies (represented as “decision
nodes”) when the environment contains uncertain elements (represented as “chance nodes”).
Note 2: Here, a decision is being made whether to invest $120M US to build a new plant or to instead invest only $50M US
to upgrade the existing plant. For each decision, the demand (which is uncertain, and therefore represents a
“chance node”) must be accounted for. For example, strong demand leads to $200M revenue with the new plant
but only $120M US for the upgraded plant, perhaps due to capacity limitations of the upgraded plant. The end of
each branch shows the net effect of the payoffs minus costs. For each decision branch, all effects are added (see
shaded areas) to determine the overall Expected Monetary Value (EMV) of the decision. Remember to account for
the investment costs. From the calculations in the shaded areas, the upgraded plant has a higher EMV of $46M –
also the EMV of the overall decision. (This choice also represents the lowest risk, avoiding the worst case possible
outcome of a loss of $30M).

Figure 11-16. Decision Tree Diagram

339

11 - PROJECT RISK MANAGEMENT

• M
odeling and simulation. A project simulation uses a model that translates the specified detailed
uncertainties of the project into their potential impact on project objectives. Simulations are typically
performed using the Monte Carlo technique. In a simulation, the project model is computed many times
(iterated), with the input values (e.g., cost estimates or activity durations) chosen at random for each
iteration from the probability distributions of these variables. A histogram (e.g., total cost or completion
date) is calculated from the iterations. For a cost risk analysis, a simulation uses cost estimates. For a
schedule risk analysis, the schedule network diagram and duration estimates are used. The output from a
cost risk simulation using the three-element model and risk ranges is shown in Figure 11-17. It illustrates
the respective probability of achieving specific cost targets. Similar curves can be developed for other
project objectives.
Total Project Cost
Cumulative Chart
100%
Mean = $46.67M

Probability

75%

50%

25%
12%
0%

$41M
$30.00M

$38.75M

$50M
$47.50M

$56.25M

$65.00M

Cost
This cumulative distribution, assuming the data ranges in Figure 11-13 and triangular distributions, shows that the
project is only 12 percent likely to meet the $41 million most likely cost estimate. If a conservative organization wants
a 75% likelihood of success, a budget of $50 million (a contingency of nearly 22 % ($50M - $41M)/$41M)) is required.

Figure 11-17. Cost Risk Simulation Results

340

11 - PROJECT RISK MANAGEMENT

11.4.2.3 Expert Judgment
Expert judgment (ideally using experts with relevant, recent experience) is required to identify potential cost
and schedule impacts, to evaluate probability, and to define inputs such as probability distributions into the tools.
Expert judgment also comes into play in the interpretation of the data. Experts should be able to identify the
weaknesses of the tools as well as their strengths. Experts may determine when a specific tool may or may not be
more appropriate given the organization’s capabilities and culture.

11.4.3 Perform Quantitative Risk Analysis: Outputs
11.4.3.1 Project Documents Updates
Project documents are updated with information resulting from quantitative risk analysis. For example, risk
register updates could include:
• P
robabilistic analysis of the project. Estimates are made of potential project schedule and cost
outcomes listing the possible completion dates and costs with their associated confidence levels.
This output, often expressed as a cumulative frequency distribution, is used with stakeholder risk
tolerances to permit quantification of the cost and time contingency reserves. Such contingency
reserves are needed to bring the risk of overrunning stated project objectives to a level acceptable to
the organization.

• P
robability of achieving cost and time objectives. With the risks facing the project, the probability
of achieving project objectives under the current plan can be estimated using quantitative risk analysis
results. For instance, in Figure 11-17, the likelihood of achieving the cost estimate of US$41 million is
about 12%.
• P
rioritized list of quantified risks. This list includes those risks that pose the greatest threat or present
the greatest opportunity to the project. These include the risks that may have the greatest effect on cost
contingency and those that are most likely to influence the critical path. These risks may be evaluated, in
some cases, through a tornado diagram generated as a result of the simulation analysis.
• T rends in quantitative risk analysis results. As the analysis is repeated, a trend may become apparent
that leads to conclusions affecting risk responses. Organizational historical information on project schedule,
cost, quality, and performance should reflect new insights gained through the Perform Quantitative Risk
Analysis process. Such history may take the form of a quantitative risk analysis report. This report may
be separate from, or linked to, the risk register.

341

11 - PROJECT RISK MANAGEMENT

11.5 Plan Risk Responses
Plan Risk Responses is the process of developing options and actions to enhance opportunities and to reduce
threats to project objectives. The key benefit of this process is that it addresses the risks by their priority, inserting
resources and activities into the budget, schedule and project management plan as needed. The inputs, tools and
techniques, and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure 11-18. Figure 11-19 depicts the data flow diagram
of the process.
Inputs

Tools & Techniques

.1 Risk management plan
.2 Risk register

.1 Strategies for negative
risks or threats
.2 Strategies for positive
risks or opportunities
.3 Contingent response
strategies
.4 Expert judgment

Outputs
.1 Project management plan
updates
.2 Project documents
updates

Figure 11-18. Plan Risk Responses: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs

Project Risk Management
11.1
Plan Risk
Management

11.2
Identify
Risks

• Risk management
plan

Project
Documents

• Risk register

11.5
Plan Risk
Responses

• Project documents
updates

• Project management
plan updates

4.2
Develop Project
Management
Plan

Figure 11-19. Plan Risk Responses Data Flow Diagram

342

11 - PROJECT RISK MANAGEMENT

The Plan Risk Responses process follows the Perform Quantitative Risk Analysis process (if used). Each risk
response requires an understanding of the mechanism by which it will address the risk. This is the mechanism
used to analyze if the risk response plan is having the desired effect. It includes the identification and assignment
of one person (an owner for risk response) to take responsibility for each agreed-to and funded risk response. Risk
responses should be appropriate for the significance of the risk, cost-effective in meeting the challenge, realistic
within the project context, agreed upon by all parties involved, and owned by a responsible person. Selecting the
optimum risk response from several options is often required.
The Plan Risk Responses process presents commonly used approaches to planning responses to the risks.
Risks include threats and opportunities that can affect project success, and responses are discussed for each.

11.5.1 Plan Risk Responses: Inputs
11.5.1.1 Risk Management Plan
Important components of the risk management plan include roles and responsibilities, risk analysis definitions,
timing for reviews (and for eliminating risks from review), and risk thresholds for low, moderate, and high risks. Risk
thresholds help identify those risks for which specific responses are needed.

11.5.1.2 Risk Register
The risk register refers to identified risks, root causes of risks, lists of potential responses, risk owners, symptoms
and warning signs, the relative rating or priority list of project risks, risks requiring responses in the near term, risks
for additional analysis and response, trends in qualitative analysis results, and a watch list, which is a list of lowpriority risks within the risk register.

11.5.2 Plan Risk Responses: Tools and Techniques
Several risk response strategies are available. The strategy or mix of strategies most likely to be effective
should be selected for each risk. Risk analysis tools, such as decision tree analysis (Section 11.4.2.2), can be
used to choose the most appropriate responses. Specific actions are developed to implement that strategy,
including primary and backup strategies, as necessary. A fallback plan can be developed for implementation
if the selected strategy turns out not to be fully effective or if an accepted risk occurs. Secondary risks should
also be reviewed. Secondary risks are risks that arise as a direct result of implementing a risk response. A
contingency reserve is often allocated for time or cost. If developed, it may include identification of the conditions
that trigger its use.

343

11 - PROJECT RISK MANAGEMENT

11.5.2.1 Strategies for Negative Risks or Threats
Three strategies, which typically deal with threats or risks that may have negative impacts on project objectives
if they occur, are: avoid, transfer, and mitigate. The fourth strategy, accept, can be used for negative risks or threats
as well as positive risks or opportunities. Each of these risk response strategies have varied and unique influence
on the risk condition. These strategies should be chosen to match the risk’s probability and impact on the project’s
overall objectives. Avoidance and mitigation strategies are usually good strategies for critical risks with high impact,
while transference and acceptance are usually good strategies for threats that are less critical and with low overall
impact. The four strategies for dealing with negative risks or threats are further described as follows:
• Avoid. Risk avoidance is a risk response strategy whereby the project team acts to eliminate the threat or
protect the project from its impact. It usually involves changing the project management plan to eliminate
the threat entirely. The project manager may also isolate the project objectives from the risk’s impact or
change the objective that is in jeopardy. Examples of this include extending the schedule, changing the
strategy, or reducing scope. The most radical avoidance strategy is to shut down the project entirely.
Some risks that arise early in the project can be avoided by clarifying requirements, obtaining information,
improving communication, or acquiring expertise.
• Transfer. Risk transference is a risk response strategy whereby the project team shifts the impact of
a threat to a third party, together with ownership of the response. Transferring the risk simply gives
another party responsibility for its management—it does not eliminate it. Transferring does not mean
disowning the risk by transferring it to a later project or another person without his or her knowledge or
agreement. Risk transference nearly always involves payment of a risk premium to the party taking on
the risk. Transferring liability for risk is most effective in dealing with financial risk exposure. Transference
tools can be quite diverse and include, but are not limited to, the use of insurance, performance bonds,
warranties, guarantees, etc. Contracts or agreements may be used to transfer liability for specified risks
to another party. For example, when a buyer has capabilities that the seller does not possess, it may be
prudent to transfer some work and its concurrent risk contractually back to the buyer. In many cases, use
of a cost-plus contract may transfer the cost risk to the buyer, while a fixed-price contract may transfer
risk to the seller.

344

11 - PROJECT RISK MANAGEMENT

• Mitigate. Risk mitigation is a risk response strategy whereby the project team acts to reduce the
probability of occurrence or impact of a risk. It implies a reduction in the probability and/or impact of an
adverse risk to be within acceptable threshold limits. Taking early action to reduce the probability and/or
impact of a risk occurring on the project is often more effective than trying to repair the damage after the
risk has occurred. Adopting less complex processes, conducting more tests, or choosing a more stable
supplier are examples of mitigation actions. Mitigation may require prototype development to reduce the
risk of scaling up from a bench-scale model of a process or product. Where it is not possible to reduce
probability, a mitigation response might address the risk impact by targeting linkages that determine the
severity. For example, designing redundancy into a system may reduce the impact from a failure of the
original component.
• Accept. Risk acceptance is a risk response strategy whereby the project team decides to acknowledge
the risk and not take any action unless the risk occurs. This strategy is adopted where it is not possible
or cost-effective to address a specific risk in any other way. This strategy indicates that the project
team has decided not to change the project management plan to deal with a risk, or is unable to identify
any other suitable response strategy. This strategy can be either passive or active. Passive acceptance
requires no action except to document the strategy, leaving the project team to deal with the risks as
they occur, and to periodically review the threat to ensure that it does not change significantly. The
most common active acceptance strategy is to establish a contingency reserve, including amounts of
time, money, or resources to handle the risks.

11.5.2.2 Strategies for Positive Risks or Opportunities
Three of the four responses are suggested to deal with risks with potentially positive impacts on project objectives.
The fourth strategy, accept, can be used for negative risks or threats as well as positive risks or opportunities. These
strategies, described below, are to exploit, share, enhance, and accept.
• Exploit. The exploit strategy may be selected for risks with positive impacts where the organization wishes
to ensure that the opportunity is realized. This strategy seeks to eliminate the uncertainty associated with
a particular upside risk by ensuring the opportunity definitely happens. Examples of directly exploiting
responses include assigning an organization’s most talented resources to the project to reduce the time
to completion or using new technologies or technology upgrades to reduce cost and duration required to
realize project objectives.

345

11 - PROJECT RISK MANAGEMENT

• E nhance. The enhance strategy is used to increase the probability and/or the positive impacts of an
opportunity. Identifying and maximizing key drivers of these positive-impact risks may increase the
probability of their occurrence. Examples of enhancing opportunities include adding more resources to
an activity to finish early.
• Share. Sharing a positive risk involves allocating some or all of the ownership of the opportunity to a
third party who is best able to capture the opportunity for the benefit of the project. Examples of sharing
actions include forming risk-sharing partnerships, teams, special-purpose companies, or joint ventures,
which can be established with the express purpose of taking advantage of the opportunity so that all
parties gain from their actions.
• Accept. Accepting an opportunity is being willing to take advantage of the opportunity if it arises, but
not actively pursuing it.

11.5.2.3 Contingent Response Strategies
Some responses are designed for use only if certain events occur. For some risks, it is appropriate for
the project team to make a response plan that will only be executed under certain predefined conditions, if
it is believed that there will be sufficient warning to implement the plan. Events that trigger the contingency
response, such as missing intermediate milestones or gaining higher priority with a supplier, should be defined
and tracked. Risk responses identified using this technique are often called contingency plans or fallback plans
and include identified triggering events that set the plans in effect.

11.5.2.4 Expert Judgment
Expert judgment is input from knowledgeable parties pertaining to the actions to be taken on a specific and
defined risk. Expertise may be provided by any group or person with specialized education, knowledge, skill,
experience, or training in establishing risk responses.

11.5.3 Plan Risk Responses: Outputs
11.5.3.1 Project Management Plan Updates
Elements of the project management plan that may be updated as a result of carrying out this process include,
but are not limited to:

346

11 - PROJECT RISK MANAGEMENT

• S
chedule management plan. The schedule management plan is updated to reflect changes in process
and practice driven by the risk responses. This may include changes in tolerance or behavior related to
resource loading and leveling, as well as updates to the schedule strategy.
• Cost management plan. The cost management plan is updated to reflect changes in process and
practice driven by the risk responses. This may include changes in tolerance or behavior related to
cost accounting, tracking, and reports, as well as updates to the budget strategy and how contingency
reserves are consumed.
• Q
uality management plan. The quality management plan is updated to reflect changes in process
and practice driven by the risk responses. This may include changes in tolerance or behavior related to
requirements, quality assurance, or quality control, as well as updates to the requirements documentation.
• P rocurement management plan. The procurement management plan may be updated to reflect
changes in strategy, such as alterations in the make-or-buy decision or contract type(s) driven by the risk
responses.
uman resource management plan. The staffing management plan, part of the human resource
• H
management plan, is updated to reflect changes in project organizational structure and resource
applications driven by the risk responses. This may include changes in tolerance or behavior related to
staff allocation, as well as updates to the resource loading.

• Scope baseline. Because of new, modified or omitted work generated by the risk responses, the scope
baseline may be updated to reflect those changes.
• Schedule baseline. Because of new work (or omitted work) generated by the risk responses, the schedule
baseline may be updated to reflect those changes.
• Cost baseline. Because of new work (or omitted work) generated by the risk responses, the cost baseline
may be updated to reflect those changes.

11.5.3.2 Project Documents Updates
In the Plan Risk Responses process, several project documents are updated as needed. For example, when
appropriate risk responses are chosen and agreed upon, they are included in the risk register. The risk register
should be written to a level of detail that corresponds with the priority ranking and the planned response. Often, the
high and moderate risks are addressed in detail. Risks judged to be of low priority are included in a watch list for
periodic monitoring. Updates to the risk register can include, but are not limited to:

347

11 - PROJECT RISK MANAGEMENT

• Risk owners and assigned responsibilities;
• Agreed-upon response strategies;
• Specific actions to implement the chosen response strategy;
• Trigger conditions, symptoms, and warning signs of a risk occurrence;
• Budget and schedule activities required to implement the chosen responses;
• Contingency plans and triggers that call for their execution;
• F allback plans for use as a reaction to a risk that has occurred and the primary response proves to be
inadequate;
• R
esidual risks that are expected to remain after planned responses have been taken, as well as those that
have been deliberately accepted;
• Secondary risks that arise as a direct outcome of implementing a risk response; and
• C
ontingency reserves that are calculated based on the quantitative risk analysis of the project and the
organization’s risk thresholds.
Other project documents updated could include:
• A
ssumptions log updates. As new information becomes available through the application of risk
responses, assumptions could change. The assumptions log needs to be revisited to accommodate this
new information.
• Technical documentation updates. As new information becomes available through the application
of risk responses, technical approaches and physical deliverables may change. Any supporting
documentation needs to be revisited to accommodate this new information.
• Change requests. Planning for possible risk responses can often result in recommendations for changes
to the resources, activities, cost estimates, and other items identified during other planning processes.
When such recommendations are identified, change requests are generated and processed through the
Perform Integrated Change Control process.

348

11 - PROJECT RISK MANAGEMENT

11.6 Control Risks
Control Risks is the process of implementing risk response plans, tracking identified risks, monitoring residual
risks, identifying new risks, and evaluating risk process effectiveness throughout the project. The key benefit of
this process is that it improves efficiency of the risk approach throughout the project life cycle to continuously
optimize risk responses. The inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure 11-20.
Figure 11-21 depicts the data flow diagram of the process.
Inputs
.1
.2
.3
.4

Tools & Techniques

Project management plan
Risk register
Work performance data
Work performance
reports

Outputs
.1 Work performance
information
.2 Change requests
.3 Project management plan
updates
.4 Project documents
updates
.5 Organizational process
assets updates

.1 Risk reassessment
.2 Risk audits
.3 Variance and trend
analysis
.4 Technical performance
measurement
.5 Reserve analysis
.6 Meetings

Figure 11-20. Control Risks: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs

Project Risk Management
4.2
Develop Project
Management
Plan
4.4
Monitor and
Control Project
Work

11.2
Identify
Risks
• Risk register

4.2
Develop Project
Management
Plan

• Project
management
plan
• Work performance
reports

4.3
Direct and
Manage
Project Work

• Project
documents
updates

• Work
performance
data

11.6
Control
Risks

Project
Documents

• Project management
plan updates
• Change requests

• Work performance
information

• Organizational process
assets updates

4.5
Perform
Integrated
Change Control

4.4
Monitor and
Control Project
Work

Enterprise/
Organization

Figure 11-21. Control Risks Data Flow Diagram

349

11 - PROJECT RISK MANAGEMENT

Planned risk responses that are included in the risk register are executed during the life cycle of the project, but
the project work should be continuously monitored for new, changing, and outdated risks.
The Control Risks process applies techniques, such as variance and trend analysis, which require the use of
performance information generated during project execution. Other purposes of the Control Risks process are to
determine if:
• Project assumptions are still valid,
• Analysis shows an assessed risk has changed or can be retired,
• Risk management policies and procedures are being followed, and
• C
ontingency reserves for cost or schedule should be modified in alignment with the current risk
assessment.
Control Risks can involve choosing alternative strategies, executing a contingency or fallback plan, taking
corrective action, and modifying the project management plan. The risk response owner reports periodically to the
project manager on the effectiveness of the plan, any unanticipated effects, and any correction needed to handle
the risk appropriately. Control Risks also includes updating the organizational process assets, including project
lessons learned databases and risk management templates, for the benefit of future projects.

11.6.1 Control Risks: Inputs
11.6.1.1 Project Management Plan
Described in Section 4.2.3.1. The project management plan, which includes the risk management plan, provides
guidance for risk monitoring and controlling.

11.6.1.2 Risk Register
The risk register has key inputs that include identified risks and risk owners, agreed-upon risk responses,
control actions for assessing the effectiveness of response plans, risk responses, specific implementation actions,
symptoms and warning signs of risk, residual and secondary risks, a watch list of low-priority risks, and the time
and cost contingency reserves. The watch list is within the risk register and provides a list of low-priority risks.

350

11 - PROJECT RISK MANAGEMENT

11.6.1.3 Work Performance Data
Described in Section 4.3.3.2. Work performance data related to various performance results possibly impacted
by risks includes, but is not limited to:
• Deliverable status,
• Schedule progress, and
• Costs incurred.

11.6.1.4 Work Performance Reports
Described in Section 4.4.3.2. Work performance reports take information from performance measurements
and analyze it to provide project work performance information including variance analysis, earned value data, and
forecasting data. These data points could be impactful in controlling performance related risks.

11.6.2 Control Risks: Tools and Techniques

11.6.2.1 Risk Reassessment
Control Risks often results in identification of new risks, reassessment of current risks, and the closing of risks
that are outdated. Project risk reassessments should be regularly scheduled. The amount and detail of repetition
that are appropriate depends on how the project progresses relative to its objectives.

11.6.2.2 Risk Audits
Risk audits examine and document the effectiveness of risk responses in dealing with identified risks and their
root causes, as well as the effectiveness of the risk management process. The project manager is responsible for
ensuring that risk audits are performed at an appropriate frequency, as defined in the project’s risk management
plan. Risk audits may be included during routine project review meetings, or the team may choose to hold separate
risk audit meetings. The format for the audit and its objectives should be clearly defined before the audit is conducted.

351

11 - PROJECT RISK MANAGEMENT

11.6.2.3 Variance and Trend Analysis
Many control processes employ variance analysis to compare the planned results to the actual results. For the
purposes of controlling risks, trends in the project’s execution should be reviewed using performance information.
Earned value analysis and other methods of project variance and trend analysis may be used for monitoring overall
project performance. Outcomes from these analyses may forecast potential deviation of the project at completion
from cost and schedule targets. Deviation from the baseline plan may indicate the potential impact of threats or
opportunities.

11.6.2.4 Technical Performance Measurement
Technical performance measurement compares technical accomplishments during project execution to the
schedule of technical achievement. It requires the definition of objective, quantifiable measures of technical
performance, which can be used to compare actual results against targets. Such technical performance measures
may include weight, transaction times, number of delivered defects, storage capacity, etc. Deviation, such as
demonstrating more or less functionality than planned at a milestone, can help to forecast the degree of success
in achieving the project’s scope.

11.6.2.5 Reserve Analysis
Throughout execution of the project, some risks may occur with positive or negative impacts on budget or
schedule contingency reserves. Reserve analysis compares the amount of the contingency reserves remaining to
the amount of risk remaining at any time in the project in order to determine if the remaining reserve is adequate.

11.6.2.6 Meetings
Project risk management should be an agenda item at periodic status meetings. The amount of time required
for that item will vary, depending upon the risks that have been identified, their priority, and difficulty of response.
The more often risk management is practiced, the easier it becomes. Frequent discussions about risk make it more
likely that people will identify risks and opportunities.

352

11 - PROJECT RISK MANAGEMENT

11.6.3 Control Risks: Outputs
11.6.3.1 Work Performance Information
Work performance information, as a Control Risks output, provides a mechanism to communicate and support
project decision making.

11.6.3.2 Change Requests
Implementing contingency plans or workarounds sometimes results in a change request. Change requests are
prepared and submitted to the Perform Integrated Change Control process (Section 4.5). Change requests can
include recommended corrective and preventive actions as well.
• Recommended corrective actions. These are activities that realign the performance of the project
work with the project management plan. They include contingency plans and workarounds. The latter
are responses that were not initially planned, but are required to deal with emerging risks that were
previously unidentified or accepted passively.
• Recommended preventive actions. These are activities that ensure that future performance of the
project work is aligned with the project management plan.

11.6.3.3 Project Management Plan Updates
If the approved change requests have an effect on the risk management processes, the corresponding component
documents of the project management plan are revised and reissued to reflect the approved changes. The elements
of the project management plan that may be updated are the same as those in the Plan Risk Responses process.

353

11 - PROJECT RISK MANAGEMENT

11.6.3.4 Project Documents Updates
Project documents that may be updated as a result of the Control Risk process include, but are not limited to the
risk register. Risk register updates may include:
• Outcomes of risk reassessments, risk audits, and periodic risk reviews. These outcomes may
include identification of new risks, updates to probability, impact, priority, response plans, ownership, and
other elements of the risk register. Outcomes can also include closing risks that are no longer applicable
and releasing their associated reserves.
• A
ctual outcomes of the project’s risks and of the risk responses. This information can help project
managers to plan for risk throughout their organizations, as well as on future projects.

11.6.3.5 Organizational Process Assets Updates
The risk management processes produce information that may be used for future projects, and should be
captured in the organizational process assets. The organizational process assets that may be updated include, but
are not limited to:
• Templates for the risk management plan, including the probability and impact matrix and risk register,
• Risk breakdown structure, and
• Lessons learned from the project risk management activities.
These documents should be updated as needed and at project closure. Final versions of the risk register and the
risk management plan templates, checklists, and risk breakdown structure are included.

354

12 - PROJECT PROCUREMENT MANAGEMENT

12
PROJECT PROCUREMENT MANAGEMENT
Project Procurement Management includes the processes necessary to purchase or acquire products, services,
or results needed from outside the project team. The organization can be either the buyer or seller of the products,
services, or results of a project.
Project Procurement Management includes the contract management and change control processes required to
develop and administer contracts or purchase orders issued by authorized project team members.
Project Procurement Management also includes controlling any contract issued by an outside organization (the
buyer) that is acquiring deliverables from the project from the performing organization (the seller), and administering
contractual obligations placed on the project team by the contract.
Figure 12-1 provides an overview of the Project Procurement Management processes which include the
following:

12.1 Plan Procurement Management—The process of documenting project procurement decisions,
specifying the approach, and identifying potential sellers.
12.2 Conduct Procurements—The process of obtaining seller responses, selecting a seller, and awarding
a contract.
12.3 Control Procurements—The process of managing procurement relationships, monitoring contract
performance, and making changes and corrections as appropriate.
12.4 Close Procurements—The process of completing each project procurement.
These processes interact with each other and with processes in other Knowledge Areas as described in detail
in Section 3 and Annex A1.

355

12 - PROJECT PROCUREMENT MANAGEMENT

Project Procurement
Management Overview
12.1 Plan Procurement
Management

12.2 Conduct
Procurements

.1 Inputs
.1 Project management plan
.2 Requirements documentation
.3 Risk register
.4 Activity resource
requirements
.5 Project schedule
.6 Activity cost estimates
.7 Stakeholder register
.8 Enterprise environmental
factors
.9 Organizational process assets

.1 Inputs
.1 Procurement management
plan
.2 Procurement documents
.3 Source selection criteria
.4 Seller proposals
.5 Project documents
.6 Make-or-buy decisions
.7 Procurement statement of
work
.8 Organizational process assets

.2 Tools & Techniques
.1 Make-or-buy analysis
.2 Expert judgment
.3 Market research
.4 Meetings
.3 Outputs
.1 Procurement management
plan
.2 Procurement statement of
work
.3 Procurement documents
.4 Source selection criteria
.5 Make-or-buy decisions
.6 Change requests
.7 Project documents updates

.2 Tools & Techniques
.1 Bidder conference
.2 Proposal evaluation
techniques
.3 Independent estimates
.4 Expert judgment
.5 Advertising
.6 Analytical techniques
.7 Procurement negotiations
.3 Outputs
.1 Selected sellers
.2 Agreements
.3 Resource calendars
.4 Change requests
.5 Project management plan
updates
.6 Project documents updates

12.3 Control
Procurements
.1 Inputs
.1 Project management plan
.2 Procurement documents
.3 Agreements
.4 Approved change requests
.5 Work performance reports
.6 Work performance data
.2 Tools & Techniques
.1 Contract change control
system
.2 Procurement performance
reviews
.3 Inspections and audits
.4 Performance reporting
.5 Payment systems
.6 Claims administration
.7 Records management system
.3 Outputs
.1 Work performance information
.2 Change requests
.3 Project management plan
updates
.4 Project documents updates
.5 Organizational process assets
updates

12.4 Close Procurements
.1 Inputs
.1 Project management plan
.2 Procurement documents
.2 Tools & Techniques
.1 Procurement audits
.2 Procurement negotiations
.3 Records management system
.3 Outputs
.1 Closed procurements
.2 Organizational process assets
updates

Figure 12-1. Project Procurement Management Overview

356

12 - PROJECT PROCUREMENT MANAGEMENT

The Project Procurement Management processes involve agreements, including contracts, which are legal
documents between a buyer and a seller. A contract represents a mutually binding agreement that obligates the
seller to provide something of value (e.g., specified products, services, or results) and obligates the buyer to provide
monetary or other valuable compensation. An agreement can be simple or complex, and may reflect the simplicity
or complexity of the deliverables or required effort.
A procurement contract includes terms and conditions, and may incorporate other items that the buyer
specifies as to what the seller is to perform or provide. It is the project management team’s responsibility to make
certain that all procurements meet the specific needs of the project while adhering to organizational procurement
policies. Depending upon the application area, a contract can also be called an agreement, an understanding,
a subcontract, or a purchase order. Most organizations document policies and procedures specifically defining
the procurement rules and specifying who has authority to sign and administer such agreements on behalf of
the organization.
Although all project documents may be subject to some form of review and approval, the legally binding nature
of a contract or agreement usually means it will be subjected to a more extensive approval process. In all cases, the
primary focus of the review and approval process is to ensure that the contract language describes the products,
services, or results that will satisfy the identified project need.
The project management team may seek support in early phases from specialists in contracting, purchasing,
law, and technical disciplines. Such involvement can be mandated by an organization’s policies.

The various activities involved in the Project Procurement Management processes form the life cycle of an
agreement. By actively managing the agreement life cycle and carefully wording the terms and conditions of a
procurement, some identifiable project risks may be shared or transferred to a seller. Entering into an agreement
for products or services is one method of allocating the responsibility for managing or sharing potential risks.
A complex project may involve managing multiple contracts or subcontracts simultaneously or in sequence.
In such cases, each contract life cycle may end during any phase of the project life cycle. Project Procurement
Management is discussed within the perspective of the buyer-seller relationship. The buyer-seller relationship
may exist at many levels on any one project, and between organizations internal to and external to the acquiring
organization.
Depending on the application area, the seller may be identified as a contractor, subcontractor, vendor, service
provider, or supplier. Depending on the buyer’s position in the project acquisition cycle, the buyer may be called a
client, customer, prime contractor, contractor, acquiring organization, service requestor, or purchaser. The seller can
be viewed during the contract life cycle first as a bidder, then as the selected source, and then as the contracted
supplier or vendor.

357

12 - PROJECT PROCUREMENT MANAGEMENT

The seller will typically manage the work as a project if the acquisition is not just for shelf material, goods, or
common products. In such cases:
• The buyer becomes the customer, and is thus a key project stakeholder for the seller.
• T he seller’s project management team is concerned with all the processes of project management, not
only with those of this Knowledge Area.
• T erms and conditions of the contract become key inputs to many of the seller’s management processes.
The contract can actually contain the inputs (e.g., major deliverables, key milestones, cost objectives),
or it can limit the project team’s options (e.g., buyer approval of staffing decisions is often required on
design projects).
In this section, it is assumed that the buyer of an item for the project is assigned to the project team and that the
seller is organizationally external to the project team. It is also assumed that a formal contractual relationship will
be developed and exists between the buyer and the seller. However, most of the discussion in this section is equally
applicable to non-contractual work entered into with other units of the project team’s organization.

12.1 Plan Procurement Management
Plan Procurement Management is the process of documenting project procurement decisions, specifying the
approach, and identifying potential sellers. The key benefit of this process is that it determines whether to acquire
outside support, and if so, what to acquire, how to acquire it, how much is needed, and when to acquire it. The
inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure 12-2. Figure 12-3 depicts the data
flow diagram of the process.
Inputs
.1 Project management plan
.2 Requirements
documentation
.3 Risk register
.4 Activity resource
requirements
.5 Project schedule
.6 Activity cost estimates
.7 Stakeholder register
.8 Enterprise environmental
factors
.9 Organizational process
assets

Tools & Techniques
.1
.2
.3
.4

Make-or-buy analysis
Expert judgment
Market research
Meetings

Outputs
.1 Procurement
management plan
.2 Procurement statement
of work
.3 Procurement documents
.4 Source selection criteria
.5 Make-or-buy decisions
.6 Change requests
.7 Project documents
updates

Figure 12-2. Plan Procurements: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs

358

12 - PROJECT PROCUREMENT MANAGEMENT

4.2
Develop Project
Management
Plan

5.2
Collect
Requirements

11.2
Identify
Risks

Project Procurement Management
• Project management plan

• Requirements documentation

• Project schedule

7.2
Estimate
Costs
• Activity cost estimates

• Project
documents
updates

• Activity resource
requirements

12.1
Plan
Procurement
Management

6.4
Estimate Activity
Resources
6.6
Develop
Schedule

Project
Documents

• Risk register

• Make-or-buy decisions
• Procurement
management plan
• Procurement
statement of work
• Source selection
criteria

12.2
Conduct
Procurements

• Change
requests

• Procurement
documents

12.3
Control
Procurements

4.5
Perform
Integrated
Change Control

13.1
Identify
Stakeholders

11.2
Identify
Risks

12.4
Close
Procurements

13.1
Identify
Stakeholders
• Stakeholder register

Enterprise/
Organization

• Organizational
process assets
• Enterprise
env
ironmental
factors

Figure 12-3. Plan Procurement Management Data Flow Diagram
Plan Procurement Management identifies those project needs that can best be met or should be met by
acquiring products, services, or results outside of the project organization, versus those project needs which can
be accomplished by the project team. When the project obtains products, services, and results required for project
performance from outside of the performing organization, the processes from Plan Procurement Management
through Close Procurements are performed for each item to be acquired.

359

12 - PROJECT PROCUREMENT MANAGEMENT

The Plan Procurement Management process also includes evaluating potential sellers, particularly if the buyer
wishes to exercise some degree of influence or control over acquisition decisions. Thought should also be given to
who is responsible for obtaining or holding any relevant permits and professional licenses that may be required by
legislation, regulation, or organizational policy in executing the project.
The requirements of the project schedule can significantly influence the strategy during the Plan Procurement
Management process. Decisions made in developing the procurement management plan can also influence the
project schedule and are integrated with Develop Schedule, Estimate Activity Resources, and make-or-buy analysis.
The Plan Procurement Management process includes evaluating the risks involved with each make-or-buy
analysis. It also includes reviewing the type of contract planned to be used with respect to avoiding or mitigating
risks, sometimes transferring risks to the seller.

12.1.1 Plan Procurement Management: Inputs
12.1.1.1 Project Management Plan
Described in Section 4.2.3.1. The project management plan describes the need, justification, requirements, and
current boundaries for the project. It includes, but is not limited to, the scope baseline contents:
• P
roject scope statement. The project scope statement contains the product scope description, service
description and result description, the list of deliverables, and acceptance criteria, as well as important
information regarding technical issues or concerns that could impact cost estimating. Identified
constraints may include required delivery dates, available skilled resources, and organizational policies.
• WBS. The work breakdown structure (WBS) contains the components of work that may be resourced
externally.
• WBS dictionary. The WBS dictionary and related detailed statements of work provide an identification
of the deliverables and a description of the work in each WBS component required to produce each
deliverable.

360

12 - PROJECT PROCUREMENT MANAGEMENT

12.1.1.2 Requirements Documentation
Described in Section 5.2.3.1. Requirements documentation may include:
• Important information about project requirements that is considered during planning for procurements,
and
• R
equirements with contractual and legal implications that may include health, safety, security,
performance, environmental, insurance, intellectual property rights, equal employment opportunity,
licenses, and permits—all of which are considered when planning for procurements.

12.1.1.3 Risk Register
Described in Section 11.2.3.1. The risk register provides the list of risks, along with the results of risk analysis
and risk response planning. Updates to the risk register are included with project document updates described in
Section 11.5.3.2, from the Plan Risk Responses process.

12.1.1.4 Activity Resource Requirements
Described in Section 6.4.3.1. Activity resource requirements contain information on specific needs such as
people, equipment, or location.

12.1.1.5 Project Schedule
Described in Section 6.6.3.2. Project schedule contains information on required timelines or mandated
deliverable dates.

12.1.1.6 Activity Cost Estimates
Described in Section 7.2.3.1. Cost estimates developed by the procuring activity are used to evaluate the
reasonableness of the bids or proposals received from potential sellers.

12.1.1.7 Stakeholder Register
Described in Section 13.1.3.1. The stakeholder register provides details on the project participants and their
interests in the project.

361

12 - PROJECT PROCUREMENT MANAGEMENT

12.1.1.8 Enterprise Environmental Factors
Described in Section 2.1.5. The enterprise environmental factors that can influence the Plan Procurement
Management process include, but are not limited to:
• Marketplace conditions;
• Products, services, and results that are available in the marketplace;
• Suppliers, including past performance or reputation;
• Typical terms and conditions for products, services, and results or for the specific industry; and
• Unique local requirements.

12.1.1.9 Organizational Process Assets
Described in Section 2.1.4. The various types of contractual agreements used by the organization also influence
decisions for the Plan Procurement Management process. The organizational process assets that influence the Plan
Procurement Management process include, but are not limited to:
• F ormal procurement policies, procedures, and guidelines. Most organizations have formal procurement
policies and buying organizations. When such procurement support is not available, the project team
should supply both the resources and the expertise to perform such procurement activities.
• M
anagement systems that are considered in developing the procurement management plan and selecting
the contractual relationships to be used.
• An established multi-tier supplier system of prequalified sellers based on prior experience.
All legal contractual relationships generally fall into one of two broad families: either fixed-price or cost
reimbursable. Also, there is a third hybrid type commonly in use called the time and materials contract. The more
popular contract types in use are discussed below as discrete types, but in practice it is not unusual to combine
one or more types into a single procurement.
• Fixed-price contracts. This category of contracts involves setting a fixed total price for a defined product,
service, or result to be provided. Fixed-price contracts may also incorporate financial incentives for
achieving or exceeding selected project objectives, such as schedule delivery dates, cost and technical
performance, or anything that can be quantified and subsequently measured. Sellers under fixed-price
contracts are legally obligated to complete such contracts, with possible financial damages if they do
not. Under the fixed-price arrangement, buyers need to precisely specify the product or services being
procured. Changes in scope may be accommodated, but generally with an increase in contract price.

362

12 - PROJECT PROCUREMENT MANAGEMENT

○○ F irm Fixed Price Contracts (FFP). The most commonly used contract type is the FFP. It is
favored by most buying organizations because the price for goods is set at the outset and
not subject to change unless the scope of work changes. Any cost increase due to adverse
performance is the responsibility of the seller, who is obligated to complete the effort. Under
the FFP contract, the buyer should precisely specify the product or services to be procured,
and any changes to the procurement specification can increase the costs to the buyer.
○○ F ixed Price Incentive Fee Contracts (FPIF). This fixed-price arrangement gives the buyer and
seller some flexibility in that it allows for deviation from performance, with financial incentives
tied to achieving agreed upon metrics. Typically such financial incentives are related to cost,
schedule, or technical performance of the seller. Performance targets are established at the
outset, and the final contract price is determined after completion of all work based on the
seller’s performance. Under FPIF contracts, a price ceiling is set, and all costs above the price
ceiling are the responsibility of the seller, who is obligated to complete the work.
○○ Fixed Price with Economic Price Adjustment Contracts (FP-EPA). This contract type is used
whenever the seller’s performance period spans a considerable period of years, as is desired
with many long-term relationships. It is a fixed-price contract, but with a special provision
allowing for pre defined final adjustments to the contract price due to changed conditions, such
as inflation changes, or cost increases (or decreases) for specific commodities. The EPA clause
needs to relate to some reliable financial index, which is used to precisely adjust the final price.
The FP-EPA contract is intended to protect both buyer and seller from external conditions beyond
their control.

• C
ost-reimbursable contracts. This category of contract involves payments (cost reimbursements) to
the seller for all legitimate actual costs incurred for completed work, plus a fee representing seller profit.
Cost-reimbursable contracts may also include financial incentive clauses whenever the seller exceeds,
or falls below, defined objectives such as costs, schedule, or technical performance targets. Three of
the more common types of cost-reimbursable contracts in use are Cost Plus Fixed Fee (CPFF), Cost Plus
Incentive Fee (CPIF), and Cost Plus Award Fee (CPAF).
A cost-reimbursable contract provides the project flexibility to redirect a seller whenever the scope of
work cannot be precisely defined at the start and needs to be altered, or when high risks may exist in
the effort.

363

12 - PROJECT PROCUREMENT MANAGEMENT

○○ C
ost Plus Fixed Fee Contracts (CPFF). The seller is reimbursed for all allowable costs for
performing the contract work, and receives a fixed-fee payment calculated as a percentage of
the initial estimated project costs. A fee is paid only for completed work and does not change
due to seller performance. Fee amounts do not change unless the project scope changes.
○○ C
ost Plus Incentive Fee Contracts (CPIF). The seller is reimbursed for all allowable costs for
performing the contract work and receives a predetermined incentive fee based upon achieving
certain performance objectives as set forth in the contract. In CPIF contracts, if the final costs
are less or greater than the original estimated costs, then both the buyer and seller share costs
from the departures based upon a prenegotiated cost-sharing formula, for example, an 80/20
split over/under target costs based on the actual performance of the seller.
○○ C
ost Plus Award Fee Contracts (CPAF). The seller is reimbursed for all legitimate costs, but
the majority of the fee is earned only based on the satisfaction of certain broad subjective
performance criteria defined and incorporated into the contract. The determination of fee is
based solely on the subjective determination of seller performance by the buyer, and is generally
not subject to appeals.
• Time and Material Contracts (T&M). Time and material contracts are a hybrid type of contractual
arrangement that contain aspects of both cost-reimbursable and fixed-price contracts. They are often
used for staff augmentation, acquisition of experts, and any outside support when a precise statement
of work cannot be quickly prescribed. These types of contracts resemble cost-reimbursable contracts in
that they can be left open ended and may be subject to a cost increase for the buyer. The full value of
the agreement and the exact quantity of items to be delivered may not be defined by the buyer at the
time of the contract award. Thus, T&M contracts can increase in contract value as if they were costreimbursable contracts. Many organizations require not-to-exceed values and time limits placed in all
T&M contracts to prevent unlimited cost growth. Conversely, T&M contracts can also resemble fixed
unit price arrangements when certain parameters are specified in the contract. Unit labor or material
rates can be preset by the buyer and seller, including seller profit, when both parties agree on the values
for specific resource categories, such as senior engineers at specified rates per hour, or categories of
materials at specified rates per unit.

364

12 - PROJECT PROCUREMENT MANAGEMENT

12.1.2 Plan Procurement Management: Tools and Techniques
12.1.2.1 Make-or-Buy Analysis
A make-or-buy analysis is a general management technique used to determine whether particular work can
best be accomplished by the project team or should be purchased from outside sources. Sometimes a capability
may exist within the project organization, but may be committed to working on other projects, in which case, the
project may need to source such effort from outside the organization in order to meet its schedule commitments.
Budget constraints may influence make-or-buy decisions. If a buy decision is to be made, then a further decision
of whether to purchase or lease is also made. A make-or-buy analysis should consider all related costs—both
direct costs as well as indirect support costs. For example, the buy-side of the analysis includes both the actual
out-of-pocket costs to purchase the product, as well as the indirect costs of supporting the purchasing process and
purchased item.
Available contract types are also considered during the buy analysis. The risk sharing between the buyer
and seller determines the suitable contract types, while the specific contract terms and conditions formalize the
degree of risk being assumed by the buyer and seller. Some jurisdictions have other types of contracts defined, for
example, contract types based on the obligations of the seller—not the customer—and the contract parties have
the obligation to identify the appropriate type of contract as soon as the applicable law has been agreed upon.

12.1.2.2 Expert Judgment
Expert judgment is often used to assess the inputs to and outputs from this process. Expert purchasing judgment
can also be used to develop or modify the criteria that will be used to evaluate seller proposals. Expert legal
judgment may involve the services of legal staff to assist with unique procurement issues, terms, and conditions.
Such judgment, including business and technical expertise, can be applied to both the technical details of the
acquired products, services, or results and to various aspects of the procurement management processes.

12.1.2.3 Market Research
Market research includes examination of industry and specific vendor capabilities. Procurement teams may
leverage information gained at conferences, online reviews and a variety of sources to identify market capabilities.
The team may also refine particular procurement objectives to leverage maturing technologies while balancing
risks associated with the breadth of vendors who can provide the materials or services desired.

365

12 - PROJECT PROCUREMENT MANAGEMENT

12.1.2.4 Meetings
Research alone may not provide specific information to formulate a procurement strategy without additional
information interchange meetings with potential bidders. By collaborating with potential bidders, the organization
purchasing the material or service may benefit while the supplier can influence a mutually beneficial approach or
product.

12.1.3 Plan Procurement Management: Outputs
12.1.3.1 Procurement Management Plan
The procurement management plan is a component of the project management plan that describes how a project
team will acquire goods and services from outside the performing organization. It describes how the procurement
processes will be managed from developing procurement documents through contract closure. The procurement
management plan can include guidance for:
• Types of contracts to be used;
• Risk management issues;
• Whether independent estimates will be used and whether they are needed as evaluation criteria;
• T hose actions the project management team can take unilaterally, if the performing organization has a
prescribed procurement, contracting, or purchasing department;
• Standardized procurement documents, if needed;
• Managing multiple suppliers;
• Coordinating procurement with other project aspects, such as scheduling and performance reporting;
• Any constraints and assumptions that could affect planned procurements;
• H
andling the long lead times to purchase certain items from sellers and coordinating the extra time
needed to procure these items with the development of the project schedule;
• H
andling the make-or-buy decisions and linking them into the Estimate Activity Resources and Develop
Schedule processes;

366

12 - PROJECT PROCUREMENT MANAGEMENT

• S etting the scheduled dates in each contract for the contract deliverables and coordinating with the
schedule development and control processes;
• Identifying requirements for performance bonds or insurance contracts to mitigate some forms of project
risk;
• E stablishing the direction to be provided to the sellers on developing and maintaining a work breakdown
structure (WBS);
• Establishing the form and format to be used for the procurement/contract statements of work;
• Identifying prequalified sellers, if any, to be used; and
• Procurement metrics to be used to manage contracts and evaluate sellers.
A procurement management plan can be formal or informal, can be highly detailed or broadly framed, and is
based upon the needs of each project.

12.1.3.2 Procurement Statement of Work
The statement of work (SOW) for each procurement is developed from the project scope baseline and defines
only that portion of the project scope that is to be included within the related contract. The procurement SOW
describes the procurement item in sufficient detail to allow prospective sellers to determine if they are capable of
providing the products, services, or results. Sufficient detail can vary based on the nature of the item, the needs of
the buyer, or the expected contract form. Information included in a SOW can include specifications, quantity desired,
quality levels, performance data, period of performance, work location, and other requirements.

The procurement SOW is written to be clear, complete, and concise. It includes a description of any collateral
services required, such as performance reporting or post-project operational support for the procured item. In some
application areas, there are specific content and format requirements for a procurement SOW. Each individual
procurement item requires a SOW; however, multiple products or services can be grouped as one procurement
item within a single SOW.
The procurement SOW can be revised and refined as required as it moves through the procurement process
until incorporated into a signed agreement.

367

12 - PROJECT PROCUREMENT MANAGEMENT

12.1.3.3 Procurement Documents
Procurement documents are used to solicit proposals from prospective sellers. Terms such as bid, tender, or
quotation are generally used when the seller selection decision will be based on price (as when buying commercial
or standard items), while a term such as proposal is generally used when other considerations, such as technical
capability or technical approach are paramount. Common terms are in use for different types of procurement
documents and may include request for information (RFI), invitation for bid (IFB), request for proposal (RFP), request
for quotation (RFQ), tender notice, invitation for negotiation, and invitation for seller’s initial response. Specific
procurement terminology used may vary by industry and location of the procurement.
The buyer structures procurement documents to facilitate an accurate and complete response from each
prospective seller and to facilitate easy evaluation of the responses. These documents include a description of the
desired form of the response, the relevant procurement statement of work (SOW) and any required contractual
provisions. With government contracting, some or all of the content and structure of procurement documents may
be defined by regulation.
The complexity and level of detail of the procurement documents should be consistent with the value of, and
risks associated with, the planned procurement. Procurement documents are required to be sufficient to ensure
consistent, appropriate responses, but flexible enough to allow consideration of any seller suggestions for better
ways to satisfy the same requirements.
Issuing a procurement request to potential sellers to submit a proposal or bid is normally done in accordance
with the policies of the buyer’s organization, which can include publication of the request in public newspapers, in
trade journals, in public registries, or on the internet.

12.1.3.4 Source Selection Criteria
Source selection criteria are often included as a part of the procurement documents. Such criteria are developed
and used to rate or score seller proposals, and can be objective or subjective.
Selection criteria may be limited to only the purchase price if the procurement item is readily available from
a number of acceptable sellers. Purchase price in this context includes both the cost of the item and all ancillary
expenses such as delivery.
Other selection criteria can be identified and documented to support an assessment for more complex products,
services, or results. Some possible source selection criteria are:

368

12 - PROJECT PROCUREMENT MANAGEMENT

• Understanding of need. How well does the seller’s proposal address the procurement statement of
work?
• O
verall or life-cycle cost. Will the selected seller produce the lowest total cost of ownership (purchase
cost plus operating cost)?
• T echnical capability. Does the seller have, or can the seller be reasonably expected to acquire, the
technical skills and knowledge needed?
• Risk. How much risk is embedded in the statement of work, how much risk will be assigned to the
selected seller and how does the seller mitigate risk?
• M
anagement approach. Does the seller have, or can the seller be reasonably expected to develop,
management processes and procedures to ensure a successful project?
• Technical approach. Do the seller’s proposed technical methodologies, techniques, solutions, and
services meet the procurement documents requirements or are they likely to provide more or less than
the expected results?
• Warranty. What does the seller propose to warrant for the final product, and through what time period?
• F inancial capacity. Does the seller have, or can the seller reasonably be expected to obtain, the necessary
financial resources?
• P
roduction capacity and interest. Does the seller have the capacity and interest to meet potential
future requirements?

• B
usiness size and type. Does the seller’s enterprise meet a specific category of business such as
small business (disadvantaged, specific programs, etc.) as defined by the organization or established by
governmental agency and set forth as a condition of the agreement award?
• Past performance of sellers. What has been the past experience with selected sellers?
• References. Can the seller provide references from prior customers verifying the seller’s work experience
and compliance with contractual requirements?
• Intellectual property rights. Does the seller assert intellectual property rights in the work processes or
services they will use or in the products they will produce for the project?
• P
roprietary rights. Does the seller assert proprietary rights in the work processes or services they will
use or in the products they will produce for the project?

369

12 - PROJECT PROCUREMENT MANAGEMENT

12.1.3.5 Make-or-Buy Decisions
A make-or-buy analysis results in a decision of whether particular work can best be accomplished by the
project team or needs to be purchased from outside sources. If the decision is to make the item, then the
procurement plan may define processes and agreements internal to the organization. A buy decision drives a
similar process of reaching agreement with a supplier for the product or services.

12.1.3.6 Change Requests
A decision that involves procuring goods, services, or resources typically requires a change request. Other
decisions during procurement planning can also create the need for additional change requests. Change requests
are processed for review and disposition through the Perform Integrated Change Control process (Section 4.5).
Changes to the project management plan, its subsidiary plans, and other components may result in change requests
that impact procurement actions. Change requests are processed for review and disposition through the Perform
Integrated Change Control process (Section 4.5).

12.1.3.7 Project Documents Updates
Project documents that may be updated include, but are not limited to:
• Requirements documentation,
• Requirements traceability matrix, and
• Risk register.

370

12 - PROJECT PROCUREMENT MANAGEMENT

12.2 Conduct Procurements
Conduct Procurements is the process of obtaining seller responses, selecting a seller, and awarding a contract.
The key benefit of this process is that it provides alignment of internal and external stakeholder expectations
through established agreements. The inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs of this process are depicted in
Figure 12-4. Figure 12-5 depicts the data flow diagram of the process.
Inputs
.1 Procurement
management plan
.2 Procurement documents
.3 Source selection criteria
.4 Seller proposals
.5 Project documents
.6 Make-or-buy decisions
.7 Procurement statement
of work
.8 Organizational process
assets

Tools & Techniques
.1 Bidder conference
.2 Proposal evaluation
techniques
.3 Independent estimates
.4 Expert judgment
.5 Advertising
.6 Analytical techniques
.7 Procurement
negotiations

Outputs
.1
.2
.3
.4
.5

Selected sellers
Agreements
Resource calendars
Change requests
Project management plan
updates
.6 Project documents
updates

Figure 12-4. Conduct Procurements: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs

371

12 - PROJECT PROCUREMENT MANAGEMENT

Project Procurement Management
12.1
Plan
Procurement
Management

Project
Documents

• Project
documents
updates

• Procurement management plan
• Procurement documents
• Source selection criteria
• Make-or-buy decisions
• Procurement statement of work

• Project
management
plan updates

• Project documents

Enterprise/
Organization

• Organizational
process assets

12.2
Conduct
Procurements

• Seller proposals

Sellers

• Resource
calendars
• Change
requests

• Agreements

• Selected sellers

12.3
Control
Procurements

Project
Documents

4.2
Develop Project
Management
Plan
6.4
Estimate
Activity
Resources
6.5
Estimate
Activity
Durations
6.6
Develop
Schedule

7.3
Determine
Budget
4.1
Develop Project
Charter

9.3
Develop
Project Team
4.5
Perform
Integrated
Change Control

Figure 12-5. Conduct Procurements Data Flow Diagram
During the Conduct Procurements process, the team will receive bids or proposals and will apply previously
defined selection criteria to select one or more sellers who are qualified to perform the work and acceptable as a
seller.

372

12 - PROJECT PROCUREMENT MANAGEMENT

On major procurement items, the overall process of requesting responses from sellers and evaluating
those responses can be repeated. A short list of qualified sellers can be established based on a preliminary
proposal. A more detailed evaluation can then be conducted based on a more specific and comprehensive
requirements document requested from the sellers on the short list. In addition, tools and techniques
described here may be used alone or in combination with select sellers. For example, a weighting system
can be used to:
• Select a single seller that will be asked to sign a standard contract; and
• E stablish a negotiating sequence by ranking all proposals by the weighted evaluation scores assigned to
each proposal.

12.2.1 Conduct Procurements: Inputs
12.2.1.1 Procurement Management Plan
Described in Section 4.2.3.1. The procurement management plan describes how the procurement processes
will be managed from developing procurement documentation through contract closure.

12.2.1.2 Procurement Documents

Described in Section 12.1.3.3. Procurement documents provide an audit trail for contracts and other
agreements.

12.2.1.3 Source Selection Criteria
Described in Section 12.1.3.4.
Source selection criteria can include information on the supplier’s required capabilities, capacity, delivery dates,
product cost, life-cycle cost, technical expertise, and the approach to the contract.

12.2.1.4 Seller Proposals
Seller proposals, prepared in response to a procurement document package, form the basic information that will
be used by an evaluation body to select one or more successful bidders (sellers).

373

12 - PROJECT PROCUREMENT MANAGEMENT

12.2.1.5 Project Documents
Described in Section 11.5.3.2. Project documents that are often considered include the risk-related contract
decisions included within the risk register.

12.2.1.6 Make-or-Buy Decisions
Described in Section 12.1.3.5. Organizations procuring goods or services analyze the need, identify resources,
and then compare procurement strategies when deciding to buy. Organizations also evaluate the need of buying
products versus making the items themselves. Factors that influence make-or-buy decisions may include:
• Core capabilities of the organization,
• Value delivered by vendors meeting the need,
• Risks associated with meeting the need in a cost-effective manner, and
• Capability internally compared with the vendor community.

12.2.1.7 Procurement Statement of Work
Described in Section 12.1.3.2. The procurement statement of work provides suppliers with a clearly stated set
of goals, requirements, and outcomes from which they can provide a quantifiable response. The statement of work
is a critical component of the procurement process and can be modified as needed through this process until a final
agreement is in place. The statements of work may include, but are not limited to:
• Specifications,
• Quantity desired,
• Quality levels,
• Performance data,
• Period of performance,
• Work location, and
• Other requirements.

374

12 - PROJECT PROCUREMENT MANAGEMENT

12.2.1.8 Organizational Process Assets
Described in Section 2.1.4. Elements of the organizational process assets that can influence the Conduct
Procurements process include, but are not limited to:
• Listings of prospective and previously qualified sellers,
• Information on relevant past experience with sellers, both good and bad, and
• Prior agreements.
Whenever a prior agreement is in place, the buyer and seller roles will have already been decided by executive
management. In some cases, the seller may already be working under a contract funded by the buyer or jointly by
both parties. The effort of the buyer and seller in this process is to collectively prepare a procurement statement
of work that will satisfy the requirements of the project. The parties will then negotiate a final contract for award.

12.2.2 Conduct Procurements: Tools and Techniques
12.2.2.1 Bidder Conferences
Bidder conferences (sometimes called contractor conferences, vendor conferences, and pre-bid conferences)
are meetings between the buyer and all prospective sellers prior to submittal of a bid or proposal. They are used
to ensure that all prospective sellers have a clear and common understanding of the procurement requirements),
and that no bidders receive preferential treatment. To be fair, buyers should take great care to ensure that all
prospective sellers hear every question from any individual prospective seller and every answer from the buyer.
Typically fairness is addressed by techniques such as collecting questions from bidders or arranging field visits in
advance of the bidder conference. Responses to questions can be incorporated into the procurement documents
as amendments.

12.2.2.2 Proposal Evaluation Techniques
On complex procurements, where source selection will be made based on seller responses to previously defined
weighted criteria, a formal evaluation review process will be defined by the buyer’s procurement policies. The
evaluation committee will make their selection for approval by management prior to the award.

375

12 - PROJECT PROCUREMENT MANAGEMENT

12.2.2.3 Independent Estimates
For many procurement items, the procuring organization may elect to either prepare its own independent
estimate, or have an estimate of costs prepared by an outside professional estimator, to serve as a benchmark on
proposed responses. Significant differences in cost estimates can be an indication that the procurement statement
of work was deficient, ambiguous, and/or that the prospective sellers either misunderstood or failed to respond fully
to the procurement statement of work.

12.2.2.4 Expert Judgment
Expert judgment may be used in evaluating seller proposals. The evaluation of proposals may be accomplished
by a multi-discipline review team with expertise in each of the areas covered by the procurement documents
and proposed contract. This can include expertise from functional disciplines such as contracting, legal, finance,
accounting, engineering, design, research, development, sales, and manufacturing.

12.2.2.5 Advertising
Existing lists of potential sellers often can be expanded by placing advertisements in general circulation
publications such as selected newspapers or in specialty trade publications. Some organizations use online
resources to communicate solicitations to the vendor community. Some government jurisdictions require public
advertising of certain types of procurement items, and most government jurisdictions require public advertising or
online posting of pending government contracts.

12.2.2.6 Analytical Techniques
Procurements involve defining a need in such a way that vendors can bring value through their offerings. To
ensure that the need can be and is met, analytical techniques can help organizations identify the readiness of a
vendor to provide the desired end state, determine the cost expected to support budgeting, and avoid cost overruns
due to changes. By examining past performance information, teams may identify areas that may have more risk
and that need to be monitored closely to ensure success of the project.

376

12 - PROJECT PROCUREMENT MANAGEMENT

12.2.2.7 Procurement Negotiations
Procurement negotiations clarify the structure, requirements, and other terms of the purchases so that mutual
agreement can be reached prior to signing the contract. Final contract language reflects all agreements reached.
Subjects covered should include responsibilities, authority to make changes, applicable terms and governing law,
technical and business management approaches, proprietary rights, contract financing, technical solutions, overall
schedule, payments, and price. Negotiations conclude with a contract document that can be executed by both buyer
and seller.
For complex procurement items, contract negotiation can be an independent process with inputs (e.g., issues or
an open items listing) and outputs (e.g., documented decisions) of its own. For simple procurement items, the terms
and conditions of the contract can be previously set and nonnegotiable, and only need to be accepted by the seller.
The project manager may not be the lead negotiator on procurements. The project manager and other members
of the project management team may be present during negotiations to provide assistance, and, if needed, to add
clarification of the project’s technical, quality, and management requirements.

12.2.3 Conduct Procurements: Outputs

12.2.3.1 Selected Sellers
The selected sellers are those who have been judged to be in a competitive range based upon the outcome
of the proposal or bid evaluation, and who have negotiated a draft contract that will become the actual contract
when an award is made. Final approval of all complex, high-value, high-risk procurements will generally require
organizational senior management approval prior to award.

12.2.3.2 Agreements
A procurement agreement includes terms and conditions, and may incorporate other items that the buyer
specifies regarding what the seller is to perform or provide. It is the project management team’s responsibility
to make certain that all agreements meet the specific needs of the project while adhering to organizational
procurement policies. Depending upon the application area, an agreement can also be called an understanding,
a contract, a subcontract, or a purchase order. Regardless of the document’s complexity, a contract is a mutually
binding legal agreement that obligates the seller to provide the specified products, services, or results, and
obligates the buyer to compensate the seller. A contract is a legal relationship subject to remedy in the courts.
The major components in an agreement document will vary, but may include the following:

377

12 - PROJECT PROCUREMENT MANAGEMENT

• Statement of work or deliverables,
• Schedule baseline,
• Performance reporting,
• Period of performance,
• Roles and responsibilities,
• Seller’s place of performance,
• Pricing,
• Payment terms,
• Place of delivery,
• Inspection and acceptance criteria,
• Warranty,
• Product support,
• Limitation of liability,
• Fees and retainer,
• Penalties,
• Incentives,
• Insurance and performance bonds,
• Subordinate subcontractor approvals,
• Change request handling, and
• T ermination clause and alternative dispute resolution (ADR) mechanisms. The ADR method can be decided
in advance as a part of the procurement award.

12.2.3.3 Resource Calendars
The quantity and availability of contracted resources and those dates on which each specific resource or
resource group can be active or idle are documented.

12.2.3.4 Change Requests
Change requests to the project management plan, its subsidiary plans, and other components are processed for
review and disposition through the Perform Integrated Change Control process (Section 4.5).

378

12 - PROJECT PROCUREMENT MANAGEMENT

12.2.3.5 Project Management Plan Updates
Elements of the project management plan that may be updated include, but are not limited to:
• Cost baseline,
• Scope baseline,
• Schedule baseline,
• Communications management plan, and
• Procurement management plan.

12.2.3.6 Project Documents Updates
Project documents that may be updated include, but are not limited to:
• Requirements documentation,
• Requirements traceability documentation,
• Risk register, and

• Stakeholder register.

12.3 Control Procurements
Control Procurements is the process of managing procurement relationships, monitoring contract performance,
and making changes and corrections to contracts as appropriate. The key benefit of this process is that it ensures
that both the seller’s and buyer’s performance meets procurement requirements according to the terms of the legal
agreement. The inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure 12-6. Figure 12-7
depicts the data flow diagram of the process.
Inputs

Tools & Techniques

Outputs

Project management plan
Procurement documents
Agreements
Approved change
requests
.5 Work performance
reports
.6 Work performance data

.1 Contract change control
system
.2 Procurement
performance reviews
.3 Inspections and audits
.4 Performance reporting
.5 Payment systems
.6 Claims administration
.7 Records management
system

.1 Work performance
information
.2 Change requests
.3 Project management plan
updates
.4 Project documents
updates
.5 Organizational process
assets updates

.1
.2
.3
.4

Figure 12-6. Control Procurements: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs

379

12 - PROJECT PROCUREMENT MANAGEMENT

Project Procurement Management

4.2
Develop Project
Management
Plan
4.3
Direct and
Manage Project
Work

12.1
Plan
Procurement
Management
• Procurement documents
• Project
management
plan updates

• Project
management
plan
• Work performance data

4.5
Perform
Integrated
Change Control

• Approved change requests

• Work
performance
reports

12.2
Conduct
Procurements

Project
Documents

• Agreements

12.3
Control
Procurements

• Project documents
updates

• Change
requests

• Organizational process
assets updates

4.4
Monitor and
Control Project
Work

4.5
Perform
Integrated
Change Control

Enterprise/
Organization

• Work performance
information

Figure 12-7. Control Procurements Data Flow Diagram
Both the buyer and the seller will administer the procurement contract for similar purposes. Each are required
to ensure that both parties meet their contractual obligations and that their own legal rights are protected. The legal
nature of the contractual relationship makes it imperative that the project management team is aware of the legal
implications of actions taken when controlling any procurement. On larger projects with multiple providers, a key
aspect of contract administration is managing interfaces among the various providers.
Due to varying organizational structures, many organizations treat contract administration as an administrative
function separate from the project organization. While a procurement administrator may be on the project team,
this individual typically reports to a supervisor from a different department. This is usually true if the performing
organization is also the seller of the project to an external customer.

380

12 - PROJECT PROCUREMENT MANAGEMENT

Control Procurements includes application of the appropriate project management processes to the contractual
relationship(s) and integration of the outputs from these processes into the overall management of the project. This
integration will often occur at multiple levels when there are multiple sellers and multiple products, services, or
results involved. The project management processes that are applied may include, but are not limited to:
• Direct and Manage Project Work. To authorize the seller’s work at the appropriate time.
• Control Quality. To inspect and verify the adequacy of the seller’s product.
• P
erform Integrated Change Control. To assure that changes are properly approved and that all those
with a need to know are aware of such changes.
• Control Risks. To ensure that risks are mitigated.
Control Procurements also has a financial management component that involves monitoring payments to the
seller. This ensures that payment terms defined within the contract are met and that seller compensation is linked
to seller progress, as defined in the contract. One of the principal concerns when making payments to suppliers is
that there is a close relationship of payments made to the work accomplished.
The Control Procurements process reviews and documents how well a seller is performing or has performed
based on the contract and establishes corrective actions when needed. This performance review may be used as
a measure of the seller’s competency for performing similar work on future projects. Similar evaluations are also
carried out when it is necessary to confirm that a seller is not meeting the seller’s contractual obligations and
when the buyer contemplates corrective actions. Control Procurements includes capturing the necessary details
for managing any early terminations of the contracted work (for cause, convenience, or default) in accordance with
the termination clause of the agreement. These details are used in the Close Procurements process to terminate
the agreement.

Agreements can be amended at any time prior to contract closure by mutual consent, in accordance with the
change control terms of the agreement. Such amendments are typically captured in writing.

12.3.1 Control Procurements: Inputs
12.3.1.1 Project Management Plan
Described in Section 4.2.3.1. The project management plan describes how the procurement processes will be
managed from developing procurement documentation through contract closure.

381

12 - PROJECT PROCUREMENT MANAGEMENT

12.3.1.2 Procurement Documents
Described in Section 12.1.3.3. Procurement documents contain complete supporting records for administration
of the procurement processes; this includes procurement contract awards and the statement of work.

12.3.1.3 Agreements
Described in Section 12.2.3.2. Agreements are understandings between parties, including understanding of
the duties of each party.

12.3.1.4 Approved Change Requests
Approved change requests can include modifications to the terms and conditions of the contract, including the
procurement statement of work, pricing, and descriptions of the products, services, or results to be provided. All
procurement-related changes are formally documented in writing and approved before being implemented through
the Control Procurements process.

12.3.1.5 Work Performance Reports
Described in Section 4.4.3.2. Seller performance-related documentation includes:
• Technical documentation. Seller-developed technical documentation and other deliverable information
are provided in accordance with the terms of the contract.
• W
ork performance information. The seller’s performance reports indicate which deliverables have
been completed and which have not.

12.3.1.6 Work Performance Data
Described in Section 4.3.3.2. Work performance data includes (1) the extent to which quality standards are
being satisfied, (2) the costs that have been incurred or committed, and (3) identification of the seller invoices
that have been paid. All data are collected as part of project execution.

382

12 - PROJECT PROCUREMENT MANAGEMENT

12.3.2 Control Procurements: Tools and Techniques
12.3.2.1 Contract Change Control System
A contract change control system defines the process by which the procurement can be modified. It includes
the paperwork, tracking systems, dispute resolution procedures, and approval levels necessary for authorizing
changes. The contract change control system is integrated with the integrated change control system.

12.3.2.2 Procurement Performance Reviews
A procurement performance review is a structured review of the seller’s progress to deliver project scope
and quality, within cost and on schedule, as compared to the contract. It can include a review of seller-prepared
documentation and buyer inspections, as well as quality audits conducted during seller’s execution of the work.
The objective of a performance review is to identify performance successes or failures, progress with respect to
the procurement statement of work, and contract noncompliance, which allow the buyer to quantify the seller’s
demonstrated ability or inability to perform work. Such reviews may take place as a part of project status reviews,
which would include key suppliers.

12.3.2.3 Inspections and Audits

Inspections and audits required by the buyer and supported by the seller, as specified in the procurement
contract, can be conducted during execution of the project to verify compliance in the seller’s work processes or
deliverables. If authorized by contract, some inspection and audit teams can include buyer procurement personnel.

12.3.2.4 Performance Reporting
Work performance data and reports supplied by sellers are evaluated against the agreement requirements.
Work performance information from this evaluation is then reported as appropriate. Performance reporting provides
management with information about how effectively the seller is achieving the contractual objectives.

12.3.2.5 Payment Systems
Payments to the seller are typically processed by the accounts payable system of the buyer after
certification of satisfactory work by an authorized person on the project team. All payments should be made
and documented in strict accordance with the terms of the contract.

383

12 - PROJECT PROCUREMENT MANAGEMENT

12.3.2.6 Claims Administration
Contested changes and potential constructive changes are those requested changes where the buyer and seller
cannot reach an agreement on compensation for the change or cannot agree that a change has occurred. These
contested changes are variously called claims, disputes, or appeals. Claims are documented, processed, monitored,
and managed throughout the contract life cycle, usually in accordance with the terms of the contract. If the parties
themselves do not resolve a claim, it may have to be handled in accordance with alternative dispute resolution
(ADR) typically following procedures established in the contract. Settlement of all claims and disputes through
negotiation is the preferred method.

12.3.2.7 Records Management System
A records management system is used by the project manager to manage contract and procurement
documentation and records. It consists of a specific set of processes, related control functions, and automation
tools that are consolidated and combined as part of the project management information system (Section 4.4.2.3).
The system contains a retrievable archive of contract documents and correspondence.

12.3.3 Control Procurements: Outputs
12.3.3.1 Work Performance Information
Work performance information provides a basis for identification of current or potential problems to support later
claims or new procurements. By reporting on the performance of a vendor, the organization increases knowledge
of the performance of the procurement, which supports improved forecasting, risk management, and decision
making. Performance reports also assist in the event there is a dispute with the vendor.
Work performance information includes reporting compliance of contracts, which provides procuring
organizations a mechanism to track specific deliverables expected and received from vendors. Contract compliance
reports support improved communications with vendors so that potential issues are addressed promptly to the
satisfaction of all parties.

384

12 - PROJECT PROCUREMENT MANAGEMENT

12.3.3.2 Change Requests
Change requests to the project management plan, its subsidiary plans, and other components, such as the
cost baseline, schedule baseline, and procurement management plan, may result from the Control Procurements
process. Change requests are processed for review and approval through the Perform Integrated Change Control
process.
Requested but unresolved changes can include direction provided by the buyer or actions taken by the seller,
which the other party considers a constructive change to the contract. Since any of these constructive changes may
be disputed by one party and can lead to a claim against the other party, such changes are uniquely identified and
documented by project correspondence.

12.3.3.3 Project Management Plan Updates
Elements of the project management plan that may be updated include, but are not limited to:
• P
rocurement management plan. The procurement management plan is updated to reflect any approved
change requests that affect procurement management, including impacts to costs or schedules.
• Schedule baseline. If there are slippages that impact overall project performance, the schedule baseline
may need to be updated to reflect the current expectations.

• Cost baseline. If there are changes that impact overall project costs, the cost baseline may need to be
updated to reflect the current expectations.

12.3.3.4 Project Documents Updates
Project documents that may be updated include, but are not limited to, procurement documentation.
Procurement documentation may include the procurement contract with all supporting schedules, requested
unapproved contract changes, and approved change requests. Procurement documentation also includes any
seller-developed technical documentation and other work performance information, such as deliverables, seller
performance reports and warranties, financial documents including invoices and payment records, and the
results of contract-related inspections.

12.3.3.5 Organizational Process Assets Updates
Elements of the organizational process assets that may be updated include, but are not limited to:

385

12 - PROJECT PROCUREMENT MANAGEMENT

• Correspondence. Contract terms and conditions often require written documentation of certain aspects of
buyer/seller communications, such as the need for warnings of unsatisfactory performance and requests
for contract changes or clarification. This can include the reported results of buyer audits and inspections
that indicate weaknesses the seller needs to correct. In addition to specific contract requirements for
documentation, a complete and accurate written record of all written and oral contract communications,
as well as actions taken and decisions made, are maintained by both parties.
• P
ayment schedules and requests. All payments should be made in accordance with the procurement
contract terms and conditions.
• S
eller performance evaluation documentation. Seller performance evaluation documentation is
prepared by the buyer. Such performance evaluations document the seller’s ability to continue to perform
work on the current contract, indicate if the seller can be allowed to perform work on future projects,
or rate how well the seller is performing the project work. These documents may form the basis for
early termination of the seller’s contract or determine how contract penalties, fees, or incentives are
administered. The results of these performance evaluations can also be included in the appropriate
qualified seller lists.

12.4 Close Procurements
Close Procurements is the process of completing each procurement. The key benefit of this process is that
it documents agreements and related documentation for future reference. The inputs, tools and techniques, and
outputs of this process are depicted in Figure 12-8. Figure 12-9 depicts the data flow diagram of the process.
Inputs
.1 Project management plan
.2 Procurement documents

Tools & Techniques
.1 Procurement audits
.2 Procurement
negotiations
.3 Records management
system

Outputs
.1 Closed procurements
.2 Organizational process
assets updates

Figure 12-8. Close Procurements: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs

386

12 - PROJECT PROCUREMENT MANAGEMENT

Project Procurement Management
12.1
Plan
Procurement
Management
• Procurement
documents

4.2
Develop Project
Management
Plan

• Project
management
plan

12.4
Close
Procurements

• Organizational
process assets
updates

Enterprise/
Organization

• Closed
procurements

Figure 12-9. Close Procurements Data Flow Diagram

The Close Procurements process also involves administrative activities such as finalizing open claims, updating
records to reflect final results, and archiving such information for future use. Close Procurements addresses each
contract applicable to the project or a project phase. In multiphase projects, the term of a contract may only be
applicable to a given phase of the project. In these cases, the Close Procurements process closes the procurement(s)
applicable to that phase of the project. Unresolved claims may be subject to litigation after closure. The contract
terms and conditions can prescribe specific procedures for agreement closure. The Close Procurements process
supports the Close Project or Phase process (Section 4.6) by ensuring contractual agreements are completed or
terminated.
Early termination of a contract is a special case of procurement closure that can result from a mutual agreement
by both parties, from the default of one party, or for convenience of the buyer if provided for in the contract. The
rights and responsibilities of the parties in the event of an early termination are contained in the terminations clause
of the contract. Based upon those procurement terms and conditions, the buyer may have the right to terminate
the whole contract or a portion of the contract, at any time, for cause or convenience. However, based upon those
contract terms and conditions, the buyer may have to compensate the seller for seller’s preparations and for any
completed and accepted work related to the terminated part of the contract.

387

12 - PROJECT PROCUREMENT MANAGEMENT

12.4.1 Close Procurements: Inputs
12.4.1.1 Project Management Plan
Described in Section 4.2.3.1. The project management plan contains the procurement management plan, which
provides the details and guidelines for closing out procurements.

12.4.1.2 Procurement Documents
To close the contract, all procurement documentation is collected, indexed, and filed. Information on contract
schedule, scope, quality, and cost performance along with all contract change documentation, payment records,
and inspection results are cataloged. This information can be used for lessons learned information and as a basis
for evaluating contractors for future contracts.

12.4.2 Close Procurements: Tools and Techniques
12.4.2.1 Procurement Audits
A procurement audit is a structured review of the procurement process originating from the Plan Procurement
Management process through Control Procurements. The objective of a procurement audit is to identify successes
and failures that warrant recognition in the preparation or administration of other procurement contracts on the
project, or on other projects within the performing organization.

12.4.2.2 Procurement Negotiations
In all procurement relationships, the final equitable settlement of all outstanding issues, claims, and disputes by
negotiation is a primary goal. Whenever settlement cannot be achieved through direct negotiation, some form of
alternative dispute resolution (ADR) including mediation or arbitration may be explored. When all else fails, litigation
in the courts is the least desirable option.

388

12 - PROJECT PROCUREMENT MANAGEMENT

12.4.2.3 Records Management System
Described in Section 12.3.2.7. A records management system is used by the project manager to manage
contract and procurement documentation and records. Contract documents and correspondence are archived
through the records management system as part of the Close Procurements process.

12.4.3 Close Procurements: Outputs
12.4.3.1 Closed Procurements
The buyer, usually through its authorized procurement administrator, provides the seller with formal written
notice that the contract has been completed. Requirements for formal procurement closure are usually defined in
the terms and conditions of the contract and are included in the procurement management plan.

12.4.3.2 Organizational Process Assets Updates
Elements of the organizational process assets that may be updated include, but are not limited to:
• Procurement file. A complete set of indexed contract documentation, including the closed contract, is
prepared for inclusion with the final project files.

• Deliverable acceptance. Documentation of formal acceptance of seller-provided deliverables may be
required to be retained by the organization. The Close Procurement process ensures this documentation
requirement is satisfied. Requirements for formal deliverable acceptance and how to address
nonconforming deliverables are usually defined in the agreement.
• Lessons learned documentation. Lessons learned, what has been experienced, and process
improvement recommendations, should be developed for the project file to improve future procurements.

389

13 - PROJECT STAKEHOLDER MANAGEMENT

13
PROJECT STAKEHOLDER MANAGEMENT
Project Stakeholder Management includes the processes required to identify the people, groups, or
organizations that could impact or be impacted by the project, to analyze stakeholder expectations and their
impact on the project, and to develop appropriate management strategies for effectively engaging stakeholders
in project decisions and execution. Stakeholder management also focuses on continuous communication with
stakeholders to understand their needs and expectations, addressing issues as they occur, managing conflicting
interests and fostering appropriate stakeholder engagement in project decisions and activities. Stakeholder
satisfaction should be managed as a key project objective.
Figure 13-1 provides an overview of the Project Stakeholder Management processes that include the following:
13.1 Identify Stakeholders—The process of identifying the people, groups, or organizations that
could impact or be impacted by a decision, activity, or outcome of the project; and analyzing and
documenting relevant information regarding their interests, involvement, interdependencies,
influence, and potential impact on project success.

13.2 Plan Stakeholder Management—The process of developing appropriate management strategies to
effectively engage stakeholders throughout the project life cycle, based on the analysis of their needs,
interests, and potential impact on project success.
13.3 Manage Stakeholder Engagement—The process of communicating and working with stakeholders
to meet their needs/expectations, address issues as they occur, and foster appropriate stakeholder
engagement in project activities throughout the project life cycle.
13.4 Control Stakeholder Engagement—The process of monitoring overall project stakeholder
relationships and adjusting strategies and plans for engaging stakeholders.
These processes interact with each other and with processes in other Knowledge Areas as described in detail
in Section 3 and Annex A1.
Every project will have stakeholders who are impacted by or can impact the project in a positive or negative way.
While some stakeholders may have a limited ability to influence the project, others may have significant influence
on the project and its expected outcomes. The ability of the project manager to correctly identify and manage these
stakeholders in an appropriate manner can mean the difference between success and failure.

391

13 - PROJECT STAKEHOLDER MANAGEMENT

Project Stakeholder
Management Overview
13.1 Identify
Stakeholders

13.2 Plan Stakeholder
Management

.1 Inputs
.1 Project charter
.2 Procurement documents
.3 Enterprise environmental
factors
.4 Organizational process assets

.1 Inputs
.1 Project management plan
.2 Stakeholder register
.3 Enterprise environmental
factors
.4 Organizational process assets

.2 Tools & Techniques
.1 Stakeholder analysis
.2 Expert judgment
.3 Meetings

.2 Tools & Techniques
.1 Expert judgment
.2 Meetings
.3 Analytical techniques

.3 Outputs
.1 Stakeholder register

.3 Outputs
.1 Stakeholder management
plan
.2 Project documents updates

13.3 Manage Stakeholder
Engagement
.1 Inputs
.1 Stakeholder management plan
.2 Communications management
plan
.3 Change log
.4 Organizational process assets
.2 Tools & Techniques
.1 Communication methods
.2 Interpersonal skills
.3 Management skills
.3 Outputs
.1 Issue log
.2 Change requests
.3 Project management plan
updates
.4 Project documents updates
.5 Organizational process assets
updates

13.4 Control Stakeholder
Engagement
.1 Inputs
.1 Project management plan
.2 Issue log
.3 Work performance data
.4 Project documents
.2 Tools & Techniques
.1 Information management
systems
.2 Expert judgment
.3 Meetings
.3 Outputs
.1 Work performance
information
.2 Change requests
.3 Project management plan
updates
.4 Project documents updates
.5 Organizational process assets
updates

Figure 13-1. Project Stakeholder Management Overview

392

13 - PROJECT STAKEHOLDER MANAGEMENT

13.1 Identify Stakeholders
Identify Stakeholders is the process of identifying the people, groups, or organizations that could impact or
be impacted by a decision, activity, or outcome of the project, analyzing and documenting relevant information
regarding their interests, involvement, interdependencies, influence, and potential impact on project success. The
key benefit of this process is that it allows the project manager to identify the appropriate focus for each stakeholder
or group of stakeholders. The inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure 13-2.
Figure 13-3 depicts the data flow diagram of the process.
Inputs

Tools & Techniques

.1 Project charter
.2 Procurement documents
.3 Enterprise environmental
factors
.4 Organizational process
assets

Outputs
.1 Stakeholder register

.1 Stakeholder analysis
.2 Expert judgment
.3 Meetings

Figure 13-2. Identify Stakeholders: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs

Project Stakeholder Management
4.1
Develop Project
Charter

12.1
Plan
Procurement
Management

Enterprise/
Organization

5.2
Collect
Requirements

8.1
Plan Quality
Management
• Project charter

• Procurement
documents
• Organizational
process assets
• Enterprise
environmental
factors

13.1
Identify
Stakeholders

• Stakeholder
register

13.2
Plan
Stakeholder
Management

10.1
Plan
Communications
Management
11.1
Plan Risk
Management
11.2
Identify
Risks
12.1
Plan
Procurement
Management

Figure 13-3. Identify Stakeholders Data Flow Diagram

393

13 - PROJECT STAKEHOLDER MANAGEMENT

Project stakeholders are individuals, groups, or organizations who may affect, be affected by, or perceive
themselves to be affected by a decision, activity, or outcome of a project. They are comprised of persons and
organizations such as customers, sponsors, the performing organization, and the public who are actively involved
in the project, or whose interests may be positively or negatively affected by the execution or completion of the
project. They may also exert influence over the project and its deliverables. Stakeholders may be at different
levels within the organization and may possess different authority levels, or may be external to the performing
organization for the project. Section 13.1.2.1 identifies various types of project stakeholders.
It is critical for project success to identify the stakeholders early in the project or phase and to analyze their
levels of interest, their individual expectations, as well as their importance and influence. This initial assessment
should be reviewed and updated regularly. Most projects will have a diverse number of stakeholders depending
on their size, type, and complexity. While the project manager’s time is limited and should be used as efficiently
as possible, these stakeholders should be classified according to their interest, influence, and involvement in the
project, taking into consideration the fact that the affect or influence of a stakeholder may not occur or become
evident until later stages in the project or phase. This enables the project manager to focus on the relationships
necessary to ensure the success of the project.

13.1.1 Identify Stakeholders: Inputs
13.1.1.1 Project Charter
Described in Section 4.1.3.1. The project charter can provide information about internal and external parties
related with the project and affected by the result or the execution of the project, such as project sponsor(s),
customers, team members, groups and departments participating in the project, and other people or organizations
affected by the project.

13.1.1.2 Procurement Documents
Described in Section 12.1.3.3. If a project is the result of a procurement activity or is based on an established
contract, the parties in that contract are key project stakeholders. Other relevant parties, such as suppliers, should
also be considered as part of the project stakeholder list.

394

13 - PROJECT STAKEHOLDER MANAGEMENT

13.1.1.3 Enterprise Environmental Factors
Described in Section 2.1.5. The enterprise environmental factors that can influence the Identify Stakeholders
process include, but are not limited to:
• Organizational culture and structure;
• Governmental or industry standards (e.g., regulations, product standards); and
• Global, regional or local trends, and practices or habits.

13.1.1.4 Organizational Process Assets
Described in Section 2.1.4. The organizational process assets that can influence the Identify Stakeholders
process include, but are not limited to:
• Stakeholder register templates,
• Lessons learned from previous projects or phases, and
• Stakeholder registers from previous projects.

13.1.2 Identify Stakeholders: Tools and Techniques

13.1.2.1 Stakeholder Analysis
Stakeholder analysis is a technique of systematically gathering and analyzing quantitative and qualitative
information to determine whose interests should be taken into account throughout the project. It identifies the
interests, expectations, and influence of the stakeholders and relates them to the purpose of the project. It also
helps to identify stakeholder relationships (with the project and with other stakeholders) that can be leveraged
to build coalitions and potential partnerships to enhance the project’s chance of success, along with stakeholder
relationships that need to be influenced differently at different stages of the project or phase.

395

13 - PROJECT STAKEHOLDER MANAGEMENT

Stakeholder analysis generally follows the steps described below:
• Identify all potential project stakeholders and relevant information, such as their roles, departments,
interests, knowledge, expectations, and influence levels. Key stakeholders are usually easy to identify.
They include anyone in a decision-making or management role who is impacted by the project outcome,
such as the sponsor, the project manager, and the primary customer. Identifying other stakeholders is
usually done by interviewing identified stakeholders and expanding the list until all potential stakeholders
are included.
• A nalyze the potential impact or support each stakeholder could generate, and classify them so as to define
an approach strategy. In large stakeholder communities, it is important to prioritize the stakeholders to
ensure the efficient use of effort to communicate and manage their expectations.
• A ssess how key stakeholders are likely to react or respond in various situations, in order to plan how to
influence them to enhance their support and mitigate potential negative impacts.
There are multiple classification models used for stakeholders analysis, such as:
• Power/interest grid, grouping the stakeholders based on their level of authority (“power”) and their level
or concern (“interest”) regarding the project outcomes;
• Power/influence grid, grouping the stakeholders based on their level of authority (“power”) and their
active involvement (“influence”) in the project;
• Influence/impact grid, grouping the stakeholders based on their active involvement (“influence”) in the
project and their ability to effect changes to the project’s planning or execution (“impact”); and
• Salience model, describing classes of stakeholders based on their power (ability to impose their will),
urgency (need for immediate attention), and legitimacy (their involvement is appropriate).
Figure 13-4 presents an example of a power/interest grid with A-H representing the placement of generic
stakeholders.

396

13 - PROJECT STAKEHOLDER MANAGEMENT

High
•B
Keep
Satisfied

Manage
Closely
•H

•A

•F

Power
•G

•C
Keep
Informed

Monitor

•E

•D
Low
Low

Interest

High

Figure 13-4. Example Power/Interest Grid with Stakeholders

13.1.2.2 Expert Judgment
To ensure comprehensive identification and listing of stakeholders, judgment and expertise should be sought
from groups or individuals with specialized training or subject matter expertise, such as:
• Senior management;
• Other units within the organization;
• Identified key stakeholders;

397

13 - PROJECT STAKEHOLDER MANAGEMENT

• Project managers who have worked on projects in the same area (directly or through lessons learned);
• Subject matter experts (SMEs) in the business or project area;
• Industry groups and consultants; and
• Professional and technical associations, regulatory bodies, and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs).
Expert judgment can be obtained through individual consultations (one-on-one meetings, interviews, etc.) or
through a panel format (focus groups, surveys, etc.).

13.1.2.3 Meetings
Profile analysis meetings are project meetings designed to develop an understanding of major project
stakeholders, and they can be used to exchange and analyze information about roles, interests, knowledge, and the
overall position of each stakeholder facing the project.

13.1.3 Identify Stakeholders: Outputs
13.1.3.1 Stakeholder Register
The main output of the Identify Stakeholders process is the stakeholder register. This contains all details related
to the identified stakeholders including, but not limited to:
• Identification information. Name, organizational position, location, role in the project, contact
information;
• Assessment information. Major requirements, main expectations, potential influence in the project,
phase in the life cycle with the most interest; and
• Stakeholder classification. Internal/external, supporter/neutral/resistor, etc.
The stakeholder register should be consulted and updated on a regular basis, as stakeholders may change—or
new ones identified—throughout the life cycle of the project.

398

13 - PROJECT STAKEHOLDER MANAGEMENT

13.2 Plan Stakeholder Management
Plan Stakeholder Management is the process of developing appropriate management strategies to effectively
engage stakeholders throughout the project life cycle, based on the analysis of their needs, interests, and potential
impact on project success. The key benefit of this process is that it provides a clear, actionable plan to interact with
project stakeholders to support the project’s interests. The inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs of this process
are depicted in Figure 13-5. Figure 13-6 depicts the data flow diagram of the process.
Inputs

Tools & Techniques

.1 Project management plan
.2 Stakeholder register
.3 Enterprise environmental
factors
.4 Organizational process
assets

.1 Expert judgment
.2 Meetings
.3 Analytical techniques

Outputs
.1 Stakeholder management
plan
.2 Project documents
updates

Figure 13-5. Plan Stakeholder Management: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs

Project Stakeholder Management
13.1
Identify
Stakeholders
Enterprise/
Organization
• Organizational
process assets
• Enterprise
environmental
factors

4.2
Develop Project
Management
Plan

• Project
management
plan

• Stakeholder
register

13.2
Plan
Stakeholder
Management
• Stakeholder
management
plan

• Project
documents
updates

Project
Documents

5.2
Collect
Requirements

13.3
Manage
Stakeholder
Engagement

Figure 13-6. Plan Stakeholder Management Data Flow Diagram

399

13 - PROJECT STAKEHOLDER MANAGEMENT

Plan Stakeholder Management identifies how the project will affect stakeholders, which then allows the
project manager to develop various ways to effectively engage stakeholders in the project, to manage their
expectations, and to ultimately achieving the project objectives. Stakeholder management is more than improving
communications and requires more than managing a team. Stakeholder management is about creation and
maintenance of relationships between the project team and stakeholders, with the aim to satisfy their respective
needs and requirements within project boundaries.
This process generates the stakeholder management plan, which contains detailed plans on how effective
stakeholder management can be realized. As the project progresses, the membership of the stakeholder community
and required level of engagement may change, therefore, stakeholder management planning is an iterative process
that is reviewed on a regular basis by the project manager.

13.2.1 Plan Stakeholder Management: Inputs
13.2.1.1 Project Management Plan
Described in Section 4.2.3.1. The information used for the development of the stakeholder management plan
includes, but is not limited to:
• Life cycle selected for the project and the processes that will be applied to each phase;
• Description of how work will be executed to accomplish the project objectives;
• D
escription of how human resources requirements will be met and how roles and responsibilities,
reporting relationships, and staffing management will be addressed and structured for the project;
• Change management plan that documents how changes will be monitored and controlled; and
• Need and techniques for communication among stakeholders.

13.2.1.2 Stakeholder Register
Described in Section 13.1.3.1. The stakeholder register provides the information needed to plan appropriate
ways to engage project stakeholders.

400

13 - PROJECT STAKEHOLDER MANAGEMENT

13.2.1.3 Enterprise Environmental Factors
Described in Section 2.1.5. All enterprise environmental factors are used as inputs to this process, because
the management of stakeholders should be adapted to the project environment. Of these, organizational culture,
structure, and political climate are of particular importance, because they help in determining the best options to
support a better adaptive process for managing stakeholders.

13.2.1.4 Organizational Process Assets
Described in Section 2.1.4. All organizational process assets are used as inputs for the Plan Stakeholder
Management process. Of these, lessons learned database and historical information are of particular importance,
because they provide insights on previous stakeholder management plans and their effectiveness. These can be
used to plan the stakeholder management activities for the current project.

13.2.2 Plan Stakeholder Management: Tools and Techniques
13.2.2.1 Expert Judgment
Based on the project objectives, the project manager should apply expert judgment to decide upon the level of
engagement required at each stage of the project from each stakeholder. For example, at the beginning of a project,
it may be necessary for senior stakeholders to be highly engaged in order to clear away any obstacles to success.
Once these have been successfully removed, it may be sufficient for senior stakeholders to change their level of
engagement from leading to supportive, and other stakeholders, such as end users, may become more important.

In order to create the stakeholder management plan, judgment and expertise should be sought from groups
or individuals with specialized training or subject matter expertise or insight into the relationships within the
organization, such as:
• Senior management;
• Project team members;
• Other units or individuals within the organization;
• Identified key stakeholders;

401

13 - PROJECT STAKEHOLDER MANAGEMENT

• Project managers who have worked on projects in the same area (directly or through lessons learned);
• Subject matter experts in business or project area;
• Industry groups and consultants; and
• Professional and technical associations, regulatory bodies, and nongovernmental organization (NGOs).
Expert judgment can be obtained through individual consultations (one-on-one meetings, interviews, etc.) or
through a panel format (focus groups, surveys, etc.).

13.2.2.2 Meetings
Meetings should be held with experts and the project team to define the required engagement levels of all
stakeholders. This information can be used to prepare the stakeholder management plan.

13.2.2.3 Analytical Techniques
The current engagement level of all stakeholders needs to be compared to the planned engagement levels
required for successful project completion. Stakeholder engagement throughout the life cycle of the project is
critical to project success.
The engagement level of the stakeholders can be classified as follows:
• Unaware. Unaware of project and potential impacts.
• Resistant. Aware of project and potential impacts and resistant to change.
• Neutral. Aware of project yet neither supportive nor resistant.
• Supportive. Aware of project and potential impacts and supportive to change.
• Leading. Aware of project and potential impacts and actively engaged in ensuring the project is
a success.
The current engagement can be documented using Stakeholders Engagement Assessment Matrix, as shown in
Figure 13-7, where C indicates the current engagement, and D indicates the desired engagement. The project team
needs to identify the desired engagement level for the current phase of the project, based on available information.
The example in Figure 13-7 shows that stakeholder 3 is at the desired engagement level, while stakeholders
1 and 2 require further communications and additional actions to move them to the desired level of engagement.

402

13 - PROJECT STAKEHOLDER MANAGEMENT

Stakeholder

Unaware

Stakeholder 1

Resistant

Stakeholder 2

Neutral

Supportive

Leading

D
C

Stakeholder 3

D
DC

Figure 13-7. Stakeholders Engagement Assessment Matrix
Through this analytical process, gaps between the current and desired engagement levels can be identified.
Actions and communications required to close these gaps can be identified by the project team using expert
judgment.

13.2.3 Plan Stakeholder Management: Outputs
13.2.3.1 Stakeholder Management Plan
The stakeholder management plan is a component of the project management plan (Section 4.2.3.1) and
identifies the management strategies required to effectively engage stakeholders. The stakeholder management
plan can be formal or informal, highly detailed or broadly framed, based on the needs of the project.

In addition to the data gathered in the stakeholder register, the stakeholder management plan often provides:
• Desired and current engagement levels of key stakeholders;
• Scope and impact of change to stakeholders;
• Identified interrelationships and potential overlap between stakeholders;
• Stakeholder communication requirements for the current project phase;
• Information to be distributed to stakeholders, including language, format, content, and level of detail;
• Reason for the distribution of that information and the expected impact to stakeholder engagement;
• Time frame and frequency for the distribution of required information to stakeholders; and
ethod for updating and refining the stakeholder management plan as the project progresses and
• M
develops.

403

13 - PROJECT STAKEHOLDER MANAGEMENT

Project managers should be aware of the sensitive nature of the stakeholder management plan and take
appropriate precautions. For example, information on stakeholders who are resistant to the project can be potentially
damaging, and due consideration should be given regarding the distribution of such information. When updating
the stakeholder management plan, the validity of underlying assumptions should be reviewed to ensure continued
accuracy and relevancy.

13.2.3.2 Project Documents Updates
Project documents that may be updated include, but are not limited to:
• Project schedule, and
• Stakeholder register.

13.3 Manage Stakeholder Engagement
Manage Stakeholder Engagement is the process of communicating and working with stakeholders to meet
their needs/expectations, address issues as they occur, and foster appropriate stakeholder engagement in project
activities throughout the project life cycle. The key benefit of this process is that it allows the project manager
to increase support and minimize resistance from stakeholders, significantly increasing the chances to achieve
project success. The inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure 13-8. Figure
13-9 depicts the data flow diagram of the process.
Inputs

Tools & Techniques

Outputs

.1 Stakeholder management
plan
.2 Communications
management plan
.3 Change log
.4 Organizational process
assets

.1 Communication methods
.2 Interpersonal skills
.3 Management skills

.1 Issue log
.2 Change requests
.3 Project management plan
updates
.4 Project documents
updates
.5 Organizational process
assets updates

Figure 13-8. Manage Stakeholder Engagement: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs

404

13 - PROJECT STAKEHOLDER MANAGEMENT

Project Stakeholder Management
13.2
Plan
Stakeholder
Management

4.5
Perform
Integrated
Change Control

• Stakeholder
management
plan
• Change log

10.1
Plan
Communications
Management

• Project
documents
updates

• Communications
management
plan
• Organizational
process
assets

Enterprise/
Organization
• Organizational process
assets updates

13.3
Manage
Stakeholder
Engagement

• Project
management
plan updates

• Change requests

Project
Documents

4.2
Develop Project
Management
Plan

4.5
Perform
Integrated
Change Control

• Issue log

13.4
Control
Stakeholder
Engagement

9.4
Manage
Project
Team

10.3
Control
Communications

Figure 13-9. Manage Stakeholder Engagement Data Flow Diagram
Manage Stakeholder Engagement involves activities such as:
• E ngaging stakeholders at appropriate project stages to obtain or confirm their continued commitment to
the success of the project;
• M
anaging stakeholder expectations through negotiation and communication, ensuring project goals are
achieved;
• A ddressing potential concerns that have not yet become issues and anticipating future problems that
may be raised by stakeholders. Such concerns need to be identified and discussed as soon as possible
to assess associated project risks; and
• Clarifying and resolving issues that have been identified.

405

13 - PROJECT STAKEHOLDER MANAGEMENT

Managing stakeholder engagement helps to increase the probability of project success by ensuring that
stakeholders clearly understand the project goals, objectives, benefits, and risks. This enables them to be active
supporters of the project and to help guide activities and project decisions. By anticipating people’s reactions to the
project, proactive actions can be taken to win support or minimize negative impacts.
The ability of stakeholders to influence the project is typically highest during the initial stages and
gets progressively lower as the project progresses. The project manager is responsible for engaging and
managing the various stakeholders in a project and may call upon the project sponsor to assist as needed.
Active management of stakeholder involvement decreases the risk of the project failing to meet its goals and
objectives.

13.3.1 Manage Stakeholder Engagement: Inputs
13.3.1.1 Stakeholder Management Plan
Described in Section 13.2.3.1. The stakeholder management plan provides guidance on how the various
stakeholders can be best involved in the project. The stakeholder management plan describes the methods and
technologies used for stakeholder communication.
This plan is used to determine the level of interactions of various stakeholders and—together with other
documents—helps define a strategy for identifying and managing stakeholders throughout the project life cycle.

13.3.1.2 Communications Management Plan
Described in Section 10.1.3.1. The communications management plan provides guidance and information on
managing stakeholder expectations. The information used includes, but is not limited to:
• Stakeholder communications requirements;
• Information to be communicated, including language, format, content, and level of detail;
• Reason for distribution of information;
• Person or groups who will receive information; and
• Escalation process.

406

13 - PROJECT STAKEHOLDER MANAGEMENT

13.3.1.3 Change Log
Described in Section 4.5.3.2. A change log is used to document changes that occur during a project. These
changes—and their impact on the project in terms of time, cost, and risk—are communicated to the appropriate
stakeholders.

13.3.1.4 Organizational Process Assets
Described in Section 2.1.4. The organizational process assets that can influence the Manage Stakeholder
Engagement process include, but are not limited to:
• Organizational communication requirements,
• Issue management procedures,
• Change control procedures, and
• Historical information about previous projects.

13.3.2 Manage Stakeholder Engagement: Tools and Techniques
13.3.2.1 Communication Methods

Described in Section 10.1.2.4. The methods of communication identified for each stakeholder in the
communications management plan are utilized during stakeholder engagement management. Based on the
stakeholders’ communication requirements, the project manager decides how, when, and which of these
communication methods are to be used in the project.

13.3.2.2 Interpersonal Skills
The project manager applies interpersonal skills to manage stakeholders’ expectations. For example:
• Building trust,
• Resolving conflict,
• Active listening, and
• Overcoming resistance to change.

407

13 - PROJECT STAKEHOLDER MANAGEMENT

13.3.2.3 Management Skills
The project manager applies management skills to coordinate and harmonize the group toward accomplishing
the project objectives. For example:
• Facilitate consensus toward project objectives,
• Influence people to support the project,
• Negotiate agreements to satisfy the project needs, and
• Modify organizational behavior to accept the project outcomes.

13.3.3 Manage Stakeholder Engagement: Outputs
13.3.3.1 Issue Log
Managing stakeholder engagement may result in the development of an issue log. This log is updated as new
issues are identified and current issues are resolved.

13.3.3.2 Change Requests
Managing stakeholder engagement may result in a change request to the product or the project. It may also
include corrective or preventive actions to the project itself or to the interaction with the impacted stakeholders, as
appropriate.

13.3.3.3 Project Management Plan Updates
Elements of the project management plan that may be updated include, but are not limited to, the stakeholder
management plan. This plan is updated when new or changed stakeholders requirements are identified. For
example, some communications may no longer be necessary, an ineffective communication method may be
replaced by another method, or a new communication requirement may be identified. It is also updated as a result
of addressing concerns and resolving issues. For example, it may be determined that a stakeholder has additional
informational needs.

408

13 - PROJECT STAKEHOLDER MANAGEMENT

13.3.3.4 Project Documents Updates
Project documents that may be updated include, but are not limited to, the stakeholder register. This is updated
as information on stakeholders change, when new stakeholders are identified, or if registered stakeholders are no
longer involved in or impacted by the project, or other updates for specific stakeholders are required.

13.3.3.5 Organizational Process Assets Updates
The organizational process assets that may be updated include, but are not limited to:
• S
takeholder notifications. Information may be provided to stakeholders about resolved issues, approved
changes, and general project status.
• P
roject reports. Formal and informal project reports describe project status and include lessons learned,
issue logs, project closure reports, and outputs from other Knowledge Areas (Sections 4-12).
• P
roject presentations. Information formally or informally provided by the project team to any or all
project stakeholders.
• Project records. Project records include correspondence, memos, meeting minutes, and other
documents describing the project.
• F eedback from stakeholders. Information received from stakeholders concerning project operations
can be distributed and used to modify or improve future performance of the project.

• L essons learned documentation. Documentation includes the root cause analysis of issues faced,
reasoning behind the corrective action chosen, and other types of lessons learned about stakeholder
management. Lessons learned are documented and distributed, and become part of the historical
database for both the project and the performing organization.

13.4 Control Stakeholder Engagement
Control Stakeholder Engagement is the process of monitoring overall project stakeholder relationships and
adjusting strategies and plans for engaging stakeholders. The key benefit of this process is that it will maintain
or increase the efficiency and effectiveness of stakeholder engagement activities as the project evolves and its
environment changes. The inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure 13-10.
Figure 13-11 depicts the data flow diagram of the process.

409

13 - PROJECT STAKEHOLDER MANAGEMENT

Inputs
.1
.2
.3
.4

Project management plan
Issue log
Work performance data
Project documents

Tools & Techniques

Outputs

.1 Information management
systems
.2 Expert judgment
.3 Meetings

.1 Work performance
information
.2 Change requests
.3 Project management plan
updates
.4 Project documents
updates
.5 Organizational process
assets updates

Figure 13-10. Control Stakeholder Engagement: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs

Project Stakeholder Management

4.2
Develop Project
Management
Plan

• Project management
plan updates

• Work
performance
data
• Project
documents

Project
Documents

Enterprise/
Organization
• Issue log

• Project management
plan

4.3
Direct and
Manage Project
Work

13.3
Manage
Stakeholder
Engagement

• Project documents updates

13.4
Control
Stakeholder
Engagement

• Change
requests

• Organizational
process assets
updates

• Work performance
information

4.4
Monitor and
Control Project
Work

4.5
Perform
Integrated
Change Control

Figure 13-11. Control Stakeholder Engagement: Data Flow Diagram
Stakeholder engagement activities are included in the stakeholder management plan and are executed during
the life cycle of the project. Stakeholder engagement should be continuously controlled.

410

13 - PROJECT STAKEHOLDER MANAGEMENT

13.4.1 Control Stakeholder Engagement: Inputs
13.4.1.1 Project Management Plan
Described in Section 4.2.3.1. The project management plan is used to develop the stakeholder management
plan, as described in Section 13.1.3.1. The information used to Control Stakeholder Engagement includes, but is
not limited to:
• The life cycle selected for the project and the processes that will be applied to each phase;
• How work will be executed to accomplish the project objectives;
• H
ow human resources requirements will be met, how roles and responsibilities, reporting relationships,
and staffing management will be addressed and structured for the project;
• A change management plan that documents how changes will be monitored and controlled; and
• Needs and techniques for communication among stakeholders.

13.4.1.2 Issue Log
Described in Section 13.3.3.1. The issue log is updated as new issues are identified and current issues are
resolved.

13.4.1.3 Work Performance Data
Described in Section 4.3.3.2. The work performance data are the primary observations and measurements
identified during activities being performed to carry out the project work. Various measurements on project
activities and deliverables are collected during various controlling processes. Data are often viewed as the
lowest level of abstraction from which information is derived by other processes.
Examples of work performance data include reported percentage of work completed, technical performance
measures, start and finish dates of schedule activities, number of change requests, number of defects, actual costs,
actual durations etc.

13.4.1.4 Project Documents
Multiple project documents originating from initiation, planning, execution, or control processes may be used as
supporting inputs for controlling stakeholder engagement. These include, but are not limited to:

411

13 - PROJECT STAKEHOLDER MANAGEMENT

• Project schedule,
• Stakeholder register,
• Issue log,
• Change log, and
• Project communications.

13.4.2 Control Stakeholder Engagement: Tools and Techniques
13.4.2.1 Information Management Systems
An information management system provides a standard tool for the project manager to capture, store,
and distribute information to stakeholders about the project cost, schedule progress, and performance. It also
allows the project manager to consolidate reports from several systems and facilitate report distribution to
the project stakeholders. Examples of distribution formats may include table reporting, spreadsheet analysis,
and presentations. Graphical capabilities can be used to create visual representations of project performance
information.

13.4.2.2 Expert Judgment
To ensure comprehensive identification and listing of new stakeholders, reassessment of current stakeholders
can be performed. Input should be sought from groups or individuals with specialized training or subject matter
expertise, such as:
• Senior management;
• Other units or individuals within the organization;
• Identified key stakeholders;
• Project managers who have worked on projects in the same area (directly or through lessons learned);
• Subject matter experts in the business or project area;
• Industry groups and consultants; and
• Professional and technical associations, regulatory bodies, and nongovernmental organizations.
Expert judgment can be obtained through individual consultations (such as one-on-one meetings or interviews)
or through a panel format (such as focus groups or surveys).

412

13 - PROJECT STAKEHOLDER MANAGEMENT

13.4.2.3 Meetings
Status review meetings are used to exchange and analyze information about stakeholder engagement.

13.4.3 Control Stakeholder Engagement: Outputs
13.4.3.1 Work Performance Information
The work performance information is the performance data collected from various controlling processes,
analyzed in context, and integrated based on relationships across areas. Thus work performance data have been
transformed into work performance information. Data per se are not used in the decision-making process, because
the meaning may be misinterpreted. Information, however, is correlated and contextualized and provides a sound
foundation for project decisions.
Work performance information is circulated through communication processes. Examples of performance
information are status of deliverables, implementation status for change requests, and forecasted estimates to
complete.

13.4.3.2 Change Requests

Analysis of project performance and interactions with stakeholders often generates change requests. These
change requests are processed through the Perform Integrated Change Control process (Section 4.5) as follows:
• R
ecommended corrective actions include changes that bring the expected future performance of the
project in line with the project management plan; and
• R
ecommended preventive actions can reduce the probability of incurring future negative project
performance.

13.4.3.3 Project Management Plan Updates
As stakeholders engage with the project the overall effectiveness of the stakeholder management strategy
can be evaluated. As needed changes in approach or strategy are identified, affected sections of the project
management plan may need to be updated to reflect these changes. Elements of the project management plan that
may be updated include, but are not limited to the:

413

13 - PROJECT STAKEHOLDER MANAGEMENT

• Change management plan,
• Communications management plan,
• Cost management plan,
• Human resource management plan,
• Procurement management plan,
• Quality management plan,
• Requirements management plan,
• Risk management plan,
• Schedule management plan,
• Scope management plan, and
• Stakeholder management plan.

13.4.3.4 Project Documents Updates
Project documents that may be updated include, but are not limited to:
• Stakeholder register. This is updated as information on stakeholders change, when new stakeholders
are identified, or if registered stakeholders are no longer involved in or impacted by the project, or other
updates for specific stakeholders are required.
• Issue log. This is updated as new issues are identified and current issues are resolved.

414

13 - PROJECT STAKEHOLDER MANAGEMENT

13.4.3.5 Organizational Process Assets Updates
The organizational process assets, which may be updated include, but are not limited to:
• Stakeholder notifications. Information may be provided to stakeholders about resolved issues, approved
changes, and general project status.
• Project reports. Formal and informal project reports describe project status and include lessons learned,
issue logs, project closure reports, and outputs from other Knowledge Areas (Sections 4-12).
• Project presentations. Information formally or informally provided by the project team to any or all
project stakeholders.
• P
roject records. Project records include correspondence, memos, meeting minutes, and other documents
describing the project.
• F eedback from stakeholders. Information received from stakeholders concerning project operations
can be distributed and used to modify or improve future performance of the project.
• L essons learned documentation. Documentation includes the root cause analysis of issues faced,
reasoning behind the corrective action chosen, and other types of lessons learned about stakeholder
management. Lessons learned are documented and distributed so that they become part of the historical
database for both the project and the performing organization.

415

ANNEX A1 - THE STANDARD FOR PROJECT MANAGEMENT OF A PROJECT

ANNEX A1
THE STANDARD FOR PROJECT MANAGEMENT OF A PROJECT
A project is a temporary endeavor undertaken to create a unique product, service, or result. The temporary
nature of projects indicates a definite beginning and end. The end is reached when the project’s objectives have
been achieved or when the project is terminated because its objectives will not or cannot be met, or when the need
for the project no longer exists.
Project management is the application of knowledge, skills, tools, and techniques to project activities to meet
project requirements. Project management is accomplished through the appropriate application and integration of
logically grouped project management processes.
Managing a project typically includes:
• Identifying requirements;
• A ddressing the various needs, concerns, and expectations of the stakeholders as the project is planned
and carried out;
• Setting and maintaining active communication with stakeholders; and
• Balancing the competing project constraints, which include, but are not limited to:
○○ Scope,
○○ Quality,
○○ Schedule,
○○ Budget,
○○ Resources, and
○○ Risks.
The specific project circumstances will influence the constraints on which the project manager needs to focus
and require effective application and management of appropriate project management processes.

417

ANNEX A1 - THE STANDARD FOR PROJECT MANAGEMENT OF A PROJECT

A1.1 What is a Standard?
The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and others define a standard as a “Document approved
by a recognized body, that provides, for common and repeated use, rules, guidelines, or characteristics for products,
processes or services with which compliance are not mandatory.” (ISO 9453) [11]
In October 1998, PMI was accredited as a standards developer by the American National Standards Institute
(ANSI). The processes outlined in this Annex, which are described in the PMBOK® Guide – Fifth Edition, provide the
standard for project management of a project.

A1.2 Framework for this Standard
This standard describes the nature of project management processes in terms of the integration between the
processes, their interactions, and the purposes they serve. For this standard, it is assumed that the project, the
project manager and the project team are assigned to the performing organization. Project management processes
are grouped into five categories known as Project Management Process Groups (or Process Groups):
• Initiating Process Group. Those processes performed to define a new project or a new phase of an
existing project by obtaining authorization to start the project or phase.
• P
lanning Process Group. Those processes required to establish the scope of the project, refine the
objectives, and define the course of action required to attain the objectives that the project was undertaken
to achieve.
• E xecuting Process Group. Those processes performed to complete the work defined in the project
management plan to satisfy the project specifications.
onitoring and Controlling Process Group. Those processes required to track, review, and regulate the
• M
progress and performance of the project; identify any areas in which changes to the plan are required;
and initiate the corresponding changes.
• Closing Process Group. Those processes performed to finalize all activities across all Process Groups to
formally close the project or phase.

418

ANNEX A1 - THE STANDARD FOR PROJECT MANAGEMENT OF A PROJECT

Project Management Process Groups are linked by the outputs they produce. The Process Groups are seldom
either discrete or one-time events; they are overlapping activities that occur throughout the project. The output of
one process generally becomes an input to another process or is a deliverable of the project, subproject, or project
phase. Deliverables at the subproject or project level may be called incremental deliverables. The Planning Process
Group provides the Executing Process Group with the project management plan and project documents, and, as
the project progresses, it often creates updates to the project management plan and the project documents. Figure
A1-1 illustrates how the Process Groups interact and shows the level of overlap at various times. If the project is
divided into phases, the Process Groups interact within each phase.

Initiating
Process
Group

Planning
Process
Group

Executing
Process
Group

Monitoring
and Controlling
Process Group

Closing
Process
Group

Level of
Process
Interaction

Start

Finish

TIME

Figure A1-1. Process Group Interactions in a Project
An example of this interaction would be the exit of a design phase, which requires sponsor acceptance of the
design document. Once it is available, the design document provides the product description for the Planning and
Executing Process Groups in one or more subsequent phases. When a project is divided into phases, the Process
Groups are carried out, as appropriate, to effectively drive the project to completion in a controlled manner. In
multiphase projects, processes are repeated within each phase until the criteria for phase completion have been
satisfied.

419

ANNEX A1 - THE STANDARD FOR PROJECT MANAGEMENT OF A PROJECT

A1.3 Project Management Process Groups
The following sections identify and describe the five Project Management Process Groups required for any
project. These five Process Groups have clear dependencies and are typically performed in each project and
highly interact with one another. These five Process Groups are independent of application areas or industry focus.
Individual Process Groups and individual processes are often iterated prior to completing the project and can have
interactions within a Process Group and among Process Groups. The nature of these interactions varies from project
to project and may or may not be performed in a particular order.
The process flow diagram, Figure A1-2, provides an overall summary of the basic flow and interactions among
Process Groups and specific stakeholders. The project management processes are linked by inputs and outputs
where the result or outcome of one process becomes the input to another process but not necessarily in the same
Process Group. The Process Groups are not project phases. In fact, it is possible that all Process Groups could
be conducted within a phase. As projects are separated into distinct phases or subcomponents, such as concept
development, feasibility study, design, prototype, build, or test, etc., all of the Process Groups would normally be
repeated for each phase or subcomponent along the lines explained above and illustrated in Figure A1-2.

420

ANNEX A1 - THE STANDARD FOR PROJECT MANAGEMENT OF A PROJECT

Project Initiator
or Sponsor

• Project statement of work
• Business case
• Agreements

Initiating
Process
Group

• Stakeholder
register
• Stakeholder
management
strategy

• Project
charter

Planning
Process
Group

• Organizational
process assets
• Enterprise
environmental
factors

Project
Documents

Enterprise/
Organization

• Requirements

• Final product,
service or result

• Project
management
plan

Monitoring
and
Controlling
Process
Group

• Make-or-buy
decisions
• Source selection
criteria

• Resource
calendars

• Teaming
agreements

Customer

• Procurement
documents

Executing
Process
Group

• Seller
proposals
• Procurement
contract award

Sellers

Closing
Process
Group

• Approved change
requests
• Quality control
measurements
• Performance reports

• Deliverables
• Change requests
• Work performance information
• Selected sellers

• Accepted deliverables
• Procurement documentation

NOTE: The darker dotted lines represent relationships between Process Groups; the lighter dotted lines are external to the Process Groups.

Figure A1-2. Project Management Process Interactions

421

ANNEX A1 - THE STANDARD FOR PROJECT MANAGEMENT OF A PROJECT

Table A1-1 reflects the mapping of the 47 project management processes into the 5 Project Management
Process Groups and the 10 Project Management Knowledge Areas.
The project management processes are shown in the Process Group in which most of the activity takes place.
For example, when a process that normally takes place in the Planning Process Group is updated in the Executing
Process Group, it is not considered a new process. The iterative nature of project management means that processes
from any group may be used throughout the project life cycle. For example, executing a risk response may trigger
the Perform Quantitative Risk Analysis process to evaluate the impact.

422

ANNEX A1 - THE STANDARD FOR PROJECT MANAGEMENT OF A PROJECT

Table A1-1. Project Management Process Group and Knowledge Area Mapping
Project Management Process Groups
Knowledge Areas

4. Project
Integration
Management

Initiating
Process
Group
4.1 Develop
Project Charter

Planning
Process
Group
4.2 Develop Project
Management Plan

Executing
Process
Group

Monitoring
and Controlling
Process Group

Closing
Process
Group

4.3 Direct and
Manage Project
Work

4.4 Monitor and
Control Project
Work
4.5 Perform
Integrated Change
Control

4.6 Close Project
or Phase

5. Project Scope
Management

5.1 Plan Scope
Management
5.2 Collect
Requirements
5.3 Define Scope
5.4 Create WBS

5.5 Validate Scope
5.6 Control Scope

6. Project Time
Management

6.1 Plan Schedule
Management
6.2 Define
Activities
6.3 Sequence
Activities
6.4 Estimate
Activity Resources
6.5 Estimate
Activity Durations
6.6 Develop
Schedule

6.7 Control
Schedule

7. Project Cost
Management

7.1 Plan Cost
Management
7.2 Estimate Costs
7.3 Determine
Budget

7.4 Control Costs

8. Project
Quality
Management

8.1 Plan Quality
Management

8.2 Perform Quality
Assurance

9. Project
Human Resource
Management

9.1 Plan Human
Resource
Management

9.2 Acquire Project
Team
9.3 Develop Project
Team
9.4 Manage Project
Team

10. Project
Communications
Management

10.1 Plan
Communications
Management

10.2 Manage
Communications

11. Project Risk
Management

11.1 Plan Risk
Management
11.2 Identify Risks
11.3 Perform
Qualitative Risk
Analysis
11.4 Perform
Quantitative Risk
Analysis
11.5 Plan Risk
Responses

12. Project
Procurement
Management

12.1 Plan
Procurement
Management

12.2 Conduct
Procurements

12.3 Control
Procurements

13.2 Plan
Stakeholder
Management

13.3 Manage
Stakeholder
Engagement

13.4 Control
Stakeholder
Engagement

13. Project
Stakeholder
Management

13.1 Identify
Stakeholders

8.3 Control Quality

10.3 Control
Communications

11.6 Control Risks

12.4 Close
Procurements

423

ANNEX A1 - THE STANDARD FOR PROJECT MANAGEMENT OF A PROJECT

A1.4 Initiating Process Group
The Initiating Process Group consists of those processes performed to define a new project or a new phase
of an existing project by obtaining authorization to start the project or phase. Within the Initiating processes, the
initial scope is defined and initial financial resources are committed. Internal and external stakeholders who will
interact and influence the overall outcome of the project are identified. If not already assigned, the project manager
will be selected. This information is captured in the project charter and stakeholder register. When the project
charter is approved, the project becomes officially authorized. Although the project management team may help
to write the project charter, this standard assumes that business case assessment, approval, and funding are
handled external to the project boundaries (Figure A1-3). A project boundary is defined as the point in time that
a project or project phase is authorized to its completion. The key purpose of this Process Group is to align the
stakeholders’ expectations with the project’s purpose, give them visibility about the scope and objectives, and show
how their participation in the project and it associated phases can ensure that their expectations are achieved.
These processes help to set the vision of the project—what is needed to be accomplished.
Large complex projects should be divided into separate phases. In such projects, the Initiating processes
are carried out during subsequent phases to validate the decisions made during the original Develop Project
Charter and Identify Stakeholders processes. Performing the Initiating processes at the start of each phase
helps to keep the project focused on the business need that the project was undertaken to address. The
success criteria are verified, and the influence, drivers, and objectives of the project stakeholders are reviewed.
A decision is then made as to whether the project should be continued, delayed, or discontinued.
Involving the sponsors, customers, and other stakeholders during initiation creates a shared understanding of
success criteria, reduces the overhead of involvement, and generally improves deliverable acceptance, customer,
and other stakeholder satisfaction.

424

ANNEX A1 - THE STANDARD FOR PROJECT MANAGEMENT OF A PROJECT

Project
Boundaries
Monitoring &
Controlling Processes
Planning
Processes

Project
Initiator/
Sponsor

Project
Inputs

Initiating
Processes

Project
Deliverables

End
Users

Project
Records

Process
Assets

Closing
Processes

Executing
Processes

Figure A1-3. Project Boundaries
Initiating processes may be performed at the organizational, program, or portfolio level and would then
be outside of the project’s level of control. For example, prior to commencing a project, the need for highlevel requirements may be documented as part of a larger organizational initiative. A process of evaluating
alternatives may be utilized to determine the feasibility of the new undertaking. Clear descriptions of the project
objectives may be developed, including the reasons why a specific project is the best alternative to satisfy
the requirements. The documentation for this decision may also contain the initial project scope statement,
deliverables, project duration, and a forecast of the resources for the organization’s investment analysis. As part
of the Initiating processes, the project manager is given the authority to apply organizational resources to the
subsequent project activities.

Project Integration
Management

4.1
Develop Project
Charter

Project Stakeholder
Management

13.1
Identify
Stakeholders

The dashed circular arrow indicates that the process is part of the
Project Integration Management Knowledge Area. This Knowledge
Area coordinates and unifies the processes from the other
Knowledge Areas.

Figure A1-4. Initiating Process Group

425

ANNEX A1 - THE STANDARD FOR PROJECT MANAGEMENT OF A PROJECT

A1.4.1 Develop Project Charter
Develop Project Charter is the process of developing a document that formally authorizes the existence of a
project and provides the project manager with the authority to apply organizational resources to project activities.
The key benefit of this process is a well-defined project start and project boundaries, creation of a formal record of
the project, and a direct way for senior management to formally accept and commit to the project. The inputs and
outputs for this process are shown in Figure A1-5.

Inputs
.1
.2
.3
.4

Project statement of work
Business case
Agreements
Enterprise environmental
factors
.5 Organizational process
assets

Outputs
.1 Project charter

Figure A1-5. Develop Project Charter: Inputs and Outputs

A1.4.2 Identify Stakeholders
Identify Stakeholders is the process of identifying the people, groups, or organizations that could impact or be
impacted by a decision, activity, or outcome of the project; and analyzing and documenting relevant information
regarding their interests, involvement, interdependencies, influence, and potential impact on project success. The
key benefit of this process is that it allows the project manager to identify the appropriate focus for each stakeholder
or group of stakeholders. The inputs and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure A1-6.

Inputs
.1 Project charter
.2 Procurement documents
.3 Enterprise environmental
factors
.4 Organizational process
assets

Outputs
.1 Stakeholder register

Figure A1-6. Identify Stakeholders: Inputs and Outputs

426

ANNEX A1 - THE STANDARD FOR PROJECT MANAGEMENT OF A PROJECT

A1.5 Planning Process Group
The Planning Process Group consists of those processes performed to establish the total scope of the
effort, define and refine the objectives, and develop the course of action required to attain those objectives.
The Planning processes develop the project management plan and the project documents that will be used to
carry out the project. The complex nature of project management may require the use of repeated feedback
loops for additional analysis. As more project information or characteristics are gathered and understood,
additional planning will likely be required. Significant changes occurring throughout the project life cycle
trigger a need to revisit one or more of the planning processes and, possibly, some of the initiating processes.
This progressive detailing of the project management plan is called progressive elaboration, indicating that
planning and documentation are iterative and ongoing activities. The key benefit of this Process Group is to
delineate the strategy and tactics as well as the course of action or a path to successfully complete the project
or phase. When the Planning Process Group is well managed, it is much easier to get stakeholder buy-in and
engagement. These processes describe how this will be done, resulting in the desired objectives.
The project management plan and project documents developed as outputs from the Planning Process Group
will explore all aspects of the scope, time, costs, quality, communications, human resources, risks, procurements,
and stakeholder management.
Updates arising from approved changes during the project (generally during Monitoring and Controlling
processes and specifically during Direct and Manage Project Work process) may significantly impact parts of the
project management plan and the project documents. Updates to these documents provide greater precision with
respect to schedule, costs, and resource requirements to meet the defined project scope.
The project team seeks input and encourages involvement from all stakeholders when planning the project
and developing the project management plan and project documents. Since the feedback and refinement process
cannot continue indefinitely, procedures set by the organization dictate when the initial planning effort ends. These
procedures will be affected by the nature of the project, the established project boundaries, appropriate monitoring
and controlling activities, as well as the environment in which the project will be performed.
Other interactions among the processes within the Planning Process Group are dependent upon the nature of
the project. For example, for some projects there will be little or no identifiable risks until after significant planning
has been done. At that time, the team might recognize that the cost and schedule targets are overly aggressive,
thus involving considerably more risk than previously understood. The results of the iterations are documented as
updates to the project management plan or to various project documents.

427

ANNEX A1 - THE STANDARD FOR PROJECT MANAGEMENT OF A PROJECT

The Planning Process Group (Figure A1-7) includes the project management processes identified in Figures
A1-8 through A1-31 (see Sections A1.5.1 through A1.5.24).

Project Scope
Management

Project Time
Management

Project Cost
Management

5.1
Plan Scope
Management

6.1
Plan Schedule
Management

6.2
Define
Activities

5.2
Collect
Requirements

6.3
Sequence
Activities

6.4
Estimate Activity
Resources

5.3
Define
Scope

6.5
Estimate Activity
Durations

6.6
Develop
Schedule

5.4
Create WBS

7.2
Estimate
Costs

7.3
Determine
Budget

Project Quality
Management
Project Integration
Management

Project Procurement
Management

8.1
Plan Quality
Management

4.2
Develop
Project
Management
Plan

12.1
Plan
Procurement
Management

Project Human
Resource Management
9.1
Develop Human
Resource
Management

Project Risk
Management
11.1
Plan Risk
Management

11.3
Perform
Qualitative
Risk Analysis

11.2
Identify
Risks

11.4
Perform
Quantitative
Risk Analysis

11.5
Plan Risk
Responses

7.1
Plan Cost
Management

Project Communications
Management
10.1
Plan
Communications
Management

Project Stakeholder
Management
13.2
Plan
Stakeholder
Management

The dashed circular arrow indicates that the process is part of the Project
Integration Management Knowledge Area. This Knowledge Area coordinates
and unifies the processes from the other Knowledge Areas.

Figure A1-7. Planning Process Group

428

ANNEX A1 - THE STANDARD FOR PROJECT MANAGEMENT OF A PROJECT

A1.5.1 Develop Project Management Plan
Develop Project Management Plan is the process of defining, preparing, and coordinating all subsidiary plans and
integrating them into a comprehensive project management plan. The key benefit of this process is a central document
that defines the basis of all project work. The inputs and outputs for this process are depicted in Figure A1-8.

Inputs

Outputs

.1 Project charter
.2 Outputs from other
processes
.3 Enterprise environmental
factors
.4 Organizational process
assets

.1 Project management plan

Figure A1-8. Develop Project Management Plan: Inputs and Outputs

A1.5.2 Plan Scope Management
Plan Scope Management is the process of creating a scope management plan that documents how the project
scope will be defined, validated, and controlled. The key benefit of this process is that it provides guidance and
direction on how scope will be managed throughout the project. The inputs and outputs of this process are depicted
in Figure A1-9.

Inputs

Outputs

.1 Project management plan
.2 Project charter
.3 Enterprise environmental
factors
.4 Organizational process
assets

.1 Scope management plan
.2 Requirements
management plan

Figure A1-9. Plan Scope Management: Inputs and Outputs

429

ANNEX A1 - THE STANDARD FOR PROJECT MANAGEMENT OF A PROJECT

A1.5.3 Collect Requirements
Collect Requirements is the process of determining, documenting, and managing stakeholder needs and
requirements to meet project objectives. The key benefit of this process is that it provides the basis for defining
and managing the project scope including product scope. The inputs and outputs of this process are depicted in
Figure A1-10.

Inputs

Outputs

.1 Scope management plan
.2 Requirements
management plan
.3 Stakeholder management
plan
.4 Project charter
.5 Stakeholder register

.1 Requirements
documentation
.2 Requirements traceability
matrix

Figure A1-10. Collect Requirements: Inputs and Outputs

A1.5.4 Define Scope
Define Scope is the process of developing a detailed description of the project and product. The key benefit of
this process is that it describes the project, service, or result boundaries by defining which of the requirements
collected will be included in and excluded from the project scope. The inputs and outputs of this process are
depicted in Figure A1-11.

Inputs

Outputs

.1 Scope management plan
.2 Project charter
.3 Requirements
documentation
.4 Organizational process
assets

.1 Project scope statement
.2 Project documents
updates

Figure A1-11. Define Scope: Inputs and Outputs

430

ANNEX A1 - THE STANDARD FOR PROJECT MANAGEMENT OF A PROJECT

A1.5.5 Create WBS
Create WBS is the process of subdividing project deliverables and project work into smaller, more manageable
components. The key benefit of this process is that it provides a structured vision of what has to be delivered. The
inputs and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure A1-12.

Inputs
.1 Scope management plan
.2 Project scope statement
.3 Requirements
documentation
.4 Enterprise environmental
factors
.5 Organizational process
assets

Outputs
.1 Scope baseline
.2 Project documents
updates

Figure A1-12. Create WBS: Inputs and Outputs

A1.5.6 Plan Schedule Management
Plan Schedule Management is the process of establishing the policies, procedures, and documentation for
planning, developing, managing, executing, and controlling the project schedule. The key benefit of this process is
that it provides guidance and direction on how the project schedule will be managed throughout the project. The
inputs and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure A1-13.

Inputs
.1 Project management plan
.2 Project charter
.3 Enterprise environmental
factors
.4 Organizational process
assets

Outputs
.1 Schedule management
plan

Figure A1-13. Plan Schedule Management: Inputs and Outputs

431

ANNEX A1 - THE STANDARD FOR PROJECT MANAGEMENT OF A PROJECT

A1.5.7 Define Activities
Define Activities is the process of identifying and documenting the specific actions to be performed to produce
the project deliverables. The key benefit of this process is to break down work packages into activities that provide
a basis for estimating, scheduling, executing, monitoring, and controlling the project work. The inputs and outputs
of this process are depicted in Figure A1-14.

Inputs
.1 Schedule management
plan
.2 Scope baseline
.3 Enterprise environmental
factors
.4 Organizational process
assets

Outputs
.1 Activity list
.2 Activity attributes
.3 Milestone list

Figure A1-14. Define Activities: Inputs and Outputs

A1.5.8 Sequence Activities
Sequence Activities is the process of identifying and documenting relationships among the project activities. The
key benefit of this process is that it defines the logical sequence of work to obtain the greatest efficiency given all
project constraints. The inputs and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure A1-15.

Inputs

Outputs

.1 Schedule management
plan
.2 Activity list
.3 Activity attributes
.4 Milestone list
.5 Project scope statement
.6 Enterprise environmental
factors
.7 Organizational process
assets

.1 Project schedule network
diagrams
.2 Project documents
updates

Figure A1-15. Sequence Activities: Inputs and Outputs

432

ANNEX A1 - THE STANDARD FOR PROJECT MANAGEMENT OF A PROJECT

A1.5.9 Estimate Activity Resources
Estimate Activity Resources is the process of estimating the type and quantities of material, human resources,
equipment, or supplies required to perform each activity. The key benefit of this process is that it identifies the type,
quantity, and characteristics of resources required to complete the activity which allows more accurate cost and
duration estimates. The inputs and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure A1-16.

Inputs
.1 Schedule management
plan
.2 Activity list
.3 Activity attributes
.4 Resource calendars
.5 Risk register
.6 Activity cost estimates
.7 Enterprise environmental
factors
.8 Organizational process
assets

Outputs
.1 Activity resource
requirements
.2 Resource breakdown
structure
.3 Project documents
updates

Figure A1-16. Estimate Activity Resources: Inputs and Outputs

A1.5.10 Estimate Activity Durations
Estimate Activity Durations is the process of estimating the number of work periods needed to complete
individual activities with estimated resources. The key benefit of this process is that it provides the amount of
time each activity will take to complete, which is a major input into the Develop Schedule process. The inputs and
outputs of this process are depicted in Figure A1-17.

433

ANNEX A1 - THE STANDARD FOR PROJECT MANAGEMENT OF A PROJECT

Inputs

Outputs

.1 Activity duration estimates
.2 Project documents
updates

Figure A1-17. Estimate Activity Durations: Inputs and Outputs

A1.5.11 Develop Schedule
Develop Schedule is the process of analyzing activity sequences, durations, resource requirements, and
schedule constraints to create the project schedule model. The key benefit of this process is that by entering
schedule activities, durations, resources, resource availabilities, and logical relationships into the scheduling tool,
it generates a schedule model with planned dates for completing project activities. The inputs and outputs of this
process are depicted in Figure A1-18.

434

ANNEX A1 - THE STANDARD FOR PROJECT MANAGEMENT OF A PROJECT

Inputs
.1 Schedule management
plan
.2 Activity list
.3 Activity attributes
.4 Project schedule network
diagrams
.5 Activity resource
requirements
.6 Resource calendars
.7 Activity duration
estimates
.8 Project scope statement
.9 Risk register
.10 Project staff assignments
.11 Resource breakdown
structure
.12 Enterprise environmental
factors
.13 Organizational process
assets

Outputs
.1
.2
.3
.4
.5

Schedule baseline
Project schedule
Schedule data
Project calendars
Project management plan
updates
.6 Project documents
updates

Figure A1-18. Develop Schedule: Inputs and Outputs

A1.5.12 Plan Cost Management
Plan Cost Management is the process that establishes the policies, procedures, and documentation for planning,
managing, expending, and controlling project costs. The key benefit of this process is that it provides guidance and
direction on how the project costs will be managed throughout the project. The inputs and outputs of this process
are depicted in Figure A1-19.

435

ANNEX A1 - THE STANDARD FOR PROJECT MANAGEMENT OF A PROJECT

Inputs
.1 Project management plan
.2 Project charter
.3 Enterprise environmental
factors
.4 Organizational process
assets

Outputs
.1 Cost management plan

Figure A1-19. Plan Cost Management: Inputs and Outputs

A1.5.13 Estimate Costs
Estimate Costs is the process of developing an approximation of the monetary resources needed to complete
project activities. The key benefit of this process is that it determines the amount of cost required to complete
project work. The inputs and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure A1-20.

Inputs
.1 Cost management plan
.2 Human resource
management plan
.3 Scope baseline
.4 Project schedule
.5 Risk register
.6 Enterprise environmental
factors
.7 Organizational process
assets

Outputs
.1 Activity cost estimates
.2 Basis of estimates
.3 Project documents
updates

Figure A1-20. Estimate Costs: Inputs and Outputs

436

ANNEX A1 - THE STANDARD FOR PROJECT MANAGEMENT OF A PROJECT

A1.5.14 Determine Budget
Determine Budget is the process of aggregating the estimated costs of individual activities or work packages to
establish an authorized cost baseline. The key benefit of this process is that it determines the cost baseline against
which project performance can be monitored and controlled. The inputs and outputs of this process are depicted
in Figure A1-21.

Inputs
.1
.2
.3
.4
.5
.6
.7
.8
.9

Cost management plan
Scope baseline
Activity cost estimates
Basis of estimates
Project schedule
Resource calendars
Risk register
Agreements
Organizational process
assets

Outputs
.1 Cost baseline
.2 Project funding
requirements
.3 Project documents
updates

Figure A1-21. Determine Budget: Inputs and Outputs

A1.5.15 Plan Quality Management
Plan Quality Management is the process of identifying quality requirements and/or standards for the project and
its deliverables, and documenting how the project will demonstrate compliance with relevant quality requirements.
The key benefit of this process is that it provides guidance and direction on how quality will be managed and
validated throughout the project. The input and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure A1-22.

437

ANNEX A1 - THE STANDARD FOR PROJECT MANAGEMENT OF A PROJECT

Inputs
.1
.2
.3
.4

Project management plan
Stakeholder register
Risk register
Requirements
documentation
.5 Enterprise environmental
factors
.6 Organizational process
assets

Outputs
.1
.2
.3
.4
.5

Quality management plan
Process improvement plan
Quality metrics
Quality checklists
Project documents
updates

Figure A1-22. Plan Quality Management: Inputs and Outputs

A1.5.16 Plan Human Resource Management
Plan Human Resource Management is the process of identifying and documenting project roles, responsibilities,
required skills, reporting relationships, and creating a staffing management plan. The key benefit of this process
is that it establishes project roles and responsibilities, project organization charts, and the staffing management
plan including the timetable for staff acquisition and release. The input and outputs of this process are depicted in
Figure A1-23.

Inputs
.1 Project management plan
.2 Activity resource
requirements
.3 Enterprise environmental
factors
.4 Organizational process
assets

Outputs
.1 Human resource
management plan

Figure A1-23. Plan Human Resource Management: Inputs and Outputs

438

ANNEX A1 - THE STANDARD FOR PROJECT MANAGEMENT OF A PROJECT

A1.5.17 Plan Communications Management
Plan Communications Management is the process of developing an appropriate approach and plan for project
communications based on stakeholder’s information needs and requirements, and available organizational assets.
The key benefit of this process is that it identifies and documents the approach to communicate most effectively
and efficiently with stakeholders. The inputs and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure A1-24.

Inputs
.1 Project management plan
.2 Stakeholder register
.3 Enterprise environmental
factors
.4 Organizational process
assets

Outputs
.1 Communications
management plan
.2 Project documents
updates

Figure A1-24. Plan Communications Management: Inputs and Outputs

A1.5.18 Plan Risk Management
Plan Risk Management is the process of defining how to conduct risk management activities for a project.
The key benefit of this process is that it ensures that the degree, type, and visibility of risk management are
commensurate with both the risks and the importance of the project to the organization. The input and outputs of
this process are depicted in Figure A1-25.

Inputs
.1
.2
.3
.4

Project management plan
Project charter
Stakeholder register
Enterprise environmental
factors
.5 Organizational process
assets

Outputs
.1 Risk management plan

Figure A1-25. Plan Risk Management: Inputs and Outputs

439

ANNEX A1 - THE STANDARD FOR PROJECT MANAGEMENT OF A PROJECT

A1.5.19 Identify Risks
Identify Risks is the process of determining which risks may affect the project and documenting their
characteristics. The key benefit of this process is the documentation of existing risks and the knowledge and
ability it provides to the project team to anticipate events. The inputs and outputs of this process are depicted in
Figure A1-26.

Inputs
.1 Risk management plan
.2 Cost management plan
.3 Schedule management
plan
.4 Quality management plan
.5 Human resource
management plan
.6 Scope baseline
.7 Activity cost estimates
.8 Activity duration
estimates
.9 Stakeholder register
.10 Project documents
.11 Procurement documents
.12 Enterprise environmental
factors
.13 Organizational process
assets

Outputs
.1 Risk register

Figure A1-26. Identify Risks: Inputs and Outputs

A1.5.20 Perform Qualitative Risk Analysis
Perform Qualitative Risk Analysis is the process of prioritizing risks for further analysis or action by assessing
and combining their probability of occurrence and impact. The key benefit of this process is that it enables project
managers to reduce the level of uncertainty and to focus on high-priority risks. The inputs and outputs of this
process are depicted in Figure A1-27.

440

ANNEX A1 - THE STANDARD FOR PROJECT MANAGEMENT OF A PROJECT

Inputs
.1
.2
.3
.4

Risk management plan
Scope baseline
Risk register
Enterprise environmental
factors
.5 Organizational process
assets

Outputs
.1 Project documents
updates

Figure A1-27. Perform Qualitative Risk Analysis: Inputs and Outputs

A1.5.21 Perform Quantitative Risk Analysis
Perform Quantitative Risk Analysis is the process of numerically analyzing the effect of identified risks on overall
project objectives. The key benefit of this process is that it produces quantitative risk information to support decision
making in order to reduce project uncertainty. The inputs and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure A1-28.

Inputs
.1 Risk management plan
.2 Cost management plan
.3 Schedule management
plan
.4 Risk register
.5 Enterprise environmental
factors
.6 Organizational process
assets

Outputs
.1 Project documents
updates

Figure A1-28. Perform Quantitative Risk Analysis: Inputs and Outputs

441

ANNEX A1 - THE STANDARD FOR PROJECT MANAGEMENT OF A PROJECT

A1.5.22 Plan Risk Responses
Plan Risk Responses is the process of developing options and actions to enhance opportunities and to reduce
threats to project objectives. The key benefit of this process is that it addresses the risks by their priority, inserting
resources and activities into the budget, schedule and project management plan as needed. The inputs and outputs
of this process are depicted in Figure A1-29.

Inputs
.1 Risk management plan
.2 Risk register

Outputs
.1 Project management plan
updates
.2 Project documents
updates

Figure A1-29. Plan Risk Responses: Inputs and Outputs

A1.5.23 Plan Procurement Management
Plan Procurement Management is the process of documenting project procurement decisions, specifying the
approach, and identifying potential sellers. The key benefit of this process is that it determines whether to acquire
outside support, and if so, what to acquire, how to acquire it, how much is needed, and when to acquire it. The
inputs and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure A1-30.

442

ANNEX A1 - THE STANDARD FOR PROJECT MANAGEMENT OF A PROJECT

Inputs
.1 Project management plan
.2 Requirements
documentation
.3 Risk register
.4 Activity resource
requirements
.5 Project schedule
.6 Activity cost estimates
.7 Stakeholder register
.8 Enterprise environmental
factors
.9 Organizational process
assets

Outputs
.1 Procurement management
plan
.2 Procurement statement
of work
.3 Procurement documents
.4 Source selection criteria
.5 Make-or-buy decisions
.6 Change requests
.7 Project documents
updates

Figure A1-30. Plan Procurement Management: Inputs and Outputs

A1.5.24 Plan Stakeholder Management
Plan Stakeholder Management is the process of developing appropriate management strategies to effectively
engage stakeholders throughout the project life cycle, based on the analysis of their needs, interests, and potential
impact on project success. The key benefit of this process is that it provides a clear, actionable plan to interact
with project stakeholders to support the project’s interests. The inputs and outputs of this process are depicted in
Figure A1-31.

Inputs

Outputs

.1 Project management plan
.2 Stakeholder register
.3 Enterprise environmental
factors
.4 Organizational process
assets

.1 Stakeholder management
plan
.2 Project documents
updates

Figure A1-31. Plan Stakeholder Management: Inputs and Outputs

443

ANNEX A1 - THE STANDARD FOR PROJECT MANAGEMENT OF A PROJECT

A1.6 Executing Process Group
The Executing Process Group consists of those processes performed to complete the work defined in the
project management plan to satisfy the project specifications. This Process Group involves coordinating people and
resources, managing stakeholder expectations, as well as integrating and performing the activities of the project in
accordance with the project management plan (Figure A1-32).
During project execution, results may require planning updates and rebaselining. This can include changes
to expected activity durations, changes in resource productivity and availability, and unanticipated risks. Such
variances may affect the project management plan or project documents and may require detailed analysis
and development of appropriate project management responses. The results of the analysis can trigger change
requests that, if approved, may modify the project management plan or other project documents and possibly
require establishing new baselines. A large portion of the project’s budget will be expended in performing
the Executing Process Group processes. The Executing Process Group (Figure A1-32) includes the project
management processes identified in Figures A1-33 through A1-40 (see Sections A1.6.1 through A1.6.8).

444

ANNEX A1 - THE STANDARD FOR PROJECT MANAGEMENT OF A PROJECT

Project Human
Resource Management
9.2
Acquire
Project Team

Project Stakeholder
Management
13.3
Manage
Stakeholder
Engagement

9.3
Develop
Project Team

Project Quality
Management
8.2
Perform Quality
Assurance

9.4
Manage
Project Team

Project Integration
Management
4.3
Direct and
Manage
Project
Work

Project Communications
Management

Project Procurement
Management

10.2
Manage
Communications

12.2
Conduct
Procurements

The dashed circular arrow indicates that the process is part of the Project Integration Management Knowledge
Area. This Knowledge Area coordinates and unifies the processes from the other Knowledge Areas.

Figure A1-32. Executing Process Group

A1.6.1 Direct and Manage Project Work
Direct and Manage Project Work is the process of leading and performing the work defined in the project
management plan and implementing approved changes to achieve the project’s objectives. The key benefit of this
process is that it provides overall management of the project work. The inputs and outputs of this process are
depicted in Figure A1-33.

445

ANNEX A1 - THE STANDARD FOR PROJECT MANAGEMENT OF A PROJECT

Inputs
.1 Project management plan
.2 Approved change
requests
.3 Enterprise environmental
factors
.4 Organizational process
assets

Outputs
.1
.2
.3
.4

Deliverables
Work performance data
Change requests
Project management plan
updates
.5 Project documents
updates

Figure A1-33. Direct and Manage Project Work: Inputs and Outputs

A1.6.2 Perform Quality Assurance
Perform Quality Assurance is the process of auditing the quality requirements and the results from quality
control measurements to ensure that appropriate quality standards and operational definitions are used. The key
benefit of this process is it facilitates the improvement of quality processes. The input and outputs of this process
are depicted in Figure A1-34.

Inputs

Outputs

Quality management plan
Process improvement plan
Quality metrics
Quality control
measurements
.5 Project documents

.1 Change requests
.2 Project management plan
updates
.3 Project documents
updates
.4 Organizational process
assets updates

.1
.2
.3
.4

Figure A1-34. Perform Quality Assurance: Inputs and Outputs

446

ANNEX A1 - THE STANDARD FOR PROJECT MANAGEMENT OF A PROJECT

A1.6.3 Acquire Project Team
Acquire Project Team is the process of confirming human resource availability and obtaining the team necessary
to complete project activities. The key benefit of this process consists of outlining and guiding the team selection
and responsibility assignment to obtain a successful team. The inputs and outputs of this process are depicted in
Figure A1-35.

Inputs

Outputs

.1 Human resource
management plan
.2 Enterprise environmental
factors
.3 Organizational process
assets

.1 Project staff assignments
.2 Resource calendars
.3 Project management plan
updates

Figure A1-35. Acquire Project Team: Inputs and Outputs

A1.6.4 Develop Project Team
Develop Project Team is the process of improving competencies, team member interaction, and overall team
environment to enhance project performance. The key benefit of this process is that it results in improved teamwork,
enhanced people skills and competencies, motivated employees, reduced staff turnover rates, and improved overall
project performance. The inputs and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure A1-36.

Inputs

Outputs

.1 Human resource
management plan
.2 Project staff assignments
.3 Resource calendars

.1 Team performance
assessments
.2 Enterprise environmental
factors updates

Figure A1-36. Develop Project Team: Inputs and Outputs

447

ANNEX A1 - THE STANDARD FOR PROJECT MANAGEMENT OF A PROJECT

A1.6.5 Manage Project Team
Manage Project Team is the process of tracking team member performance, providing feedback, resolving
issues, and managing team changes to optimize project performance. The key benefit of this process is that it
influences team behavior, manages conflict, resolves issues, and appraises team member performance. The inputs
and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure A1-37.

Inputs

Outputs

.1 Human resource
management plan
.2 Project staff assignments
.3 Team performance
assessments
.4 Issue log
.5 Work performance reports
.6 Organizational process
assets

.1 Change requests
.2 Project management plan
updates
.3 Project documents
updates
.4 Enterprise environmental
factors updates
.5 Organizational process
assets updates

Figure A1-37. Manage Project Team: Inputs and Outputs

A1.6.6 Manage Communications
Manage Communications is the process of creating, collecting, distributing, storing, retrieving, and the ultimate
disposition of project information in accordance with the communications management plan. The key benefit of this
process is that it enables an efficient and effective communications flow between project stakeholders. The inputs
and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure A1-38.

Inputs

Outputs

.1 Communications
management plan
.2 Work performance reports
.3 Enterprise environmental
factors
.4 Organizational process
assets

.1 Project communications
.2 Project management plan
updates
.3 Project documents
updates
.4 Organizational process
assets updates

Figure A1-38. Manage Communications: Inputs and Outputs

448

ANNEX A1 - THE STANDARD FOR PROJECT MANAGEMENT OF A PROJECT

A1.6.7 Conduct Procurements
Conduct Procurements is the process of obtaining seller responses, selecting a seller, and awarding a contract.
The key benefit of this process is that it provides alignment of internal and external stakeholder expectations
through established agreements. The inputs and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure A1-39.

Inputs
.1 Procurement management
plan
.2 Procurement documents
.3 Source selection criteria
.4 Seller proposals
.5 Project documents
.6 Make-or-buy decisions
.7 Procurement statement of
work
.8 Organizational process
assets

Outputs
.1
.2
.3
.4
.5

Selected sellers
Agreements
Resource calendar
Change requests
Project management plan
updates
.6 Project documents
updates

Figure A1-39. Conduct Procurements: Inputs and Outputs

A1.6.8 Manage Stakeholder Engagement
Manage Stakeholder Engagement is the process of communicating and working with stakeholders to meet
their needs/expectations, address issues as they occur, and foster appropriate stakeholder engagement in project
activities throughout the project life cycle. The key benefit of this process is that it allows the project manager
to increase support and minimize resistance from stakeholders, significantly increasing the chances to achieve
project success. The inputs and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure A1-40.

449

ANNEX A1 - THE STANDARD FOR PROJECT MANAGEMENT OF A PROJECT

Inputs

Outputs

.1 Stakeholder management
plan
.2 Communications
management plan
.3 Change log
.4 Organizational process
assets

.1 Issue log
.2 Change requests
.3 Project management plan
updates
.4 Project documents
updates
.5 Organizational process
assets updates

Figure A1-40. Manage Stakeholder Engagement: Inputs and Outputs

A1.7 Monitoring and Controlling Process Group
The Monitoring and Controlling Process Group consists of those processes required to track, review, and
orchestrate the progress and performance of the project; identify any areas in which changes to the plan are
required; and initiate the corresponding changes. The key benefit of this Process Group is that project performance
is measured and analyzed at regular intervals, appropriate events or exception conditions to identify variances from
the project management plan. The Monitoring and Controlling Process Group also involves:
• C
ontrolling changes and recommending corrective or preventive action in anticipation of possible
problems,
• M
onitoring the ongoing project activities against the project management plan and the project performance
measurement baseline, and
• Influencing the factors that could circumvent integrated change control or configuration management so
only approved changes are implemented.

450

ANNEX A1 - THE STANDARD FOR PROJECT MANAGEMENT OF A PROJECT

This continuous monitoring provides the project team insight into the health of the project and identifies
any areas requiring additional attention. The Monitoring and Controlling Process Group not only monitors and
controls the work being done within a Process Group, but also monitors and controls the entire project effort.
In multiphase projects, the Monitoring and Controlling Process Group coordinates project phases in order to
implement corrective or preventive actions to bring the project into compliance with the project management
plan. This review can result in recommended and approved updates to the project management plan. For
example, a missed activity finish date may require adjustments and trade-offs between budget and schedule
objectives. In order to reduce control overheads, management by exception procedures and other techniques
can be appropriately considered. The Monitoring and Controlling Process Group (Figure A1-41) includes the
following project management processes (Sections A1.7.1 through A1.7.11):

Project Scope
Management

Project Time
Management

5.5
Validate
Scope

6.7
Control
Schedule

Project Cost
Management
7.4
Control
Costs

5.6
Control
Scope

Project Integration
Management

Project Stakeholder
Management
13.4
Control
Stakeholder
Engagement

4.4
Monitor and
Control
Project Work

4.5
Perform
Integrated
Change Control

Project Procurement
Management
12.3
Control
Procurements

Project Quality
Management
8.3
Control
Quality

Project Communications
Management
Project Risk
Management

10.35
Control
Communications

11.6
Control Risks

The dashed circular arrow indicates that the process is part of the Project Integration Management Knowledge
Area. This Knowledge Area coordinates and unifies the processes from the other Knowledge Areas.

Figure A1-41. Monitoring and Controlling Process Group

451

ANNEX A1 - THE STANDARD FOR PROJECT MANAGEMENT OF A PROJECT

A1.7.1 Monitor and Control Project Work
Monitor and Control Project Work is the process of tracking, reviewing, and reporting the progress to meet the
performance objectives defined in the project management plan. The key benefit of this process is that it allows
stakeholders to understand the current state of the project; the steps taken; and budget, schedule, and scope
forecasts. The inputs and outputs for this process are depicted in Figure A1-42.

Inputs

Outputs

Project management plan
Schedule forecasts
Cost forecasts
Validated changes
Work performance
information
.6 Enterprise environmental
factors
.7 Organizational process
assets

.1 Change requests
.2 Work performance reports
.3 Project management plan
updates
.4 Project documents
updates

.1
.2
.3
.4
.5

Figure A1-42. Monitor and Control Project Work: Inputs and Outputs

A1.7.2 Perform Integrated Change Control
Perform Integrated Change Control is the process of reviewing all change requests; approving changes
and managing changes to deliverables, organizational process assets, project documents, and the project
management plan; and communicating their disposition. It reviews all requests for changes or modifications to
project documents, deliverables, baselines or the project management plan, and approves or rejects the changes.
The key benefit of this process is that it allows for documented changes within the project to be considered in
an integrated fashion while reducing project risk, which often arises from changes made without consideration
to the overall project objectives or plans. The inputs and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure A1-43.

452

ANNEX A1 - THE STANDARD FOR PROJECT MANAGEMENT OF A PROJECT

Inputs

Outputs

Project management plan
Work performance reports
Change requests
Enterprise environmental
factors
.5 Organizational process
assets

.1 Approved change
requests
.2 Change log
.3 Project management plan
updates
.4 Project documents
updates

.1
.2
.3
.4

Figure A1-43. Perform Integrated Change Control: Inputs and Outputs

A1.7.3 Validate Scope
Validate Scope is the process of formalizing acceptance of the completed project deliverables. The key benefit
of this process is that it brings objectivity to the acceptance process and increases the chance of final product,
service, or result acceptance by validating each deliverable. The inputs and outputs of this process are depicted in
Figure A1-44.

Inputs
.1 Project management plan
.2 Requirements
documentation
.3 Requirements traceability
matrix
.4 Verified deliverables
.5 Work performance data

Outputs
.1 Accepted deliverables
.2 Change requests
.3 Work performance
information
.4 Project documents
updates

Figure A1-44. Validate Scope: Inputs and Outputs

453

ANNEX A1 - THE STANDARD FOR PROJECT MANAGEMENT OF A PROJECT

A1.7.4 Control Scope
Control Scope is the process of monitoring the status of the project and product scope and managing changes to
the scope baseline. The key benefit of this process is that it allows the scope baseline to be maintained throughout
the project. The inputs and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure A1-45.

Inputs

Outputs

.1 Project management plan
.2 Requirements
documentation
.3 Requirements traceability
matrix
.4 Work performance data
.5 Organizational process
assets

.1 Work performance
information
.2 Change requests
.3 Project management plan
updates
.4 Project documents
updates
.5 Organizational process
assets updates

Figure A1-45. Control Scope: Inputs and Outputs

A1.7.5 Control Schedule
Control Schedule is the process of monitoring the status of project activities to update project progress and
manage changes to the schedule baseline to achieve the plan. The key benefit of this process is that it provides the
means to recognize deviation from the plan and take corrective and preventive actions and thus minimize risk. The
inputs and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure A1-46.

454

ANNEX A1 - THE STANDARD FOR PROJECT MANAGEMENT OF A PROJECT

Inputs
.1
.2
.3
.4
.5
.6

Project management plan
Project schedule
Work performance data
Project calendars
Schedule data
Organizational process
assets

Outputs
.1 Work performance
information
.2 Schedule forecasts
.3 Change requests
.4 Project management plan
updates
.5 Project documents
updates
.6 Organizational process
assets updates

Figure A1-46. Control Schedule: Inputs and Outputs

A1.7.6 Control Costs
Control Costs is the process of monitoring the status of the project to update the project costs and managing
changes to the cost baseline. The key benefit of this process is that it provides the means to recognize variance
from the plan in order to take corrective action and minimize risk. The inputs and outputs of this process are
depicted in Figure A1-47.

Inputs

Outputs

.1 Project management plan
.2 Project funding
requirements
.3 Work performance data
.4 Organizational process
assets

.1 Work performance
information
.2 Cost forecasts
.3 Change requests
.4 Project management plan
updates
.5 Project documents
updates
.6 Organizational process
assets updates

Figure A1-47. Control Costs: Inputs and Outputs

455

ANNEX A1 - THE STANDARD FOR PROJECT MANAGEMENT OF A PROJECT

A1.7.7 Control Quality
Control Quality is the process of monitoring and recording results of executing the quality activities to assess
performance and recommend necessary changes. The key benefits of this process include: (1) identifying the
causes of poor process or product quality and recommending and/or taking action to eliminate them; and (2)
validating that project deliverables and work meet the requirements specified by key stakeholders necessary for
final acceptance. The inputs and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure A1-48.

Inputs

Outputs

Project management plan
Quality metrics
Quality checklists
Work performance data
Approved change
requests
.6 Deliverables
.7 Project documents
.8 Organizational process
assets

.1 Quality control
measurements
.2 Validated changes
.3 Verified deliverables
.4 Work performance
information
.5 Change requests
.6 Project management plan
updates
.7 Project documents
updates
.8 Organizational process
assets updates

.1
.2
.3
.4
.5

Figure A1-48. Control Quality: Inputs and Outputs

A1.7.8 Control Communications
Control Communications is the process of monitoring and controlling communications throughout the entire
project life cycle to ensure the information needs of the project stakeholders are met. The key benefit of this process
is that it ensures an optimal information flow among all communication participants at any moment in time. The
inputs and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure A1-49.

456

ANNEX A1 - THE STANDARD FOR PROJECT MANAGEMENT OF A PROJECT

Inputs
.1
.2
.3
.4
.5

Project management plan
Project communications
Issue log
Work performance data
Organizational process
assets

Outputs
.1 Work performance
information
.2 Change requests
.3 Project management plan
updates
.4 Project documents
updates
.5 Organizational process
assets updates

Figure A1-49. Control Communications: Inputs and Outputs

A1.7.9 Control Risks
Control Risks is the process of implementing risk response plans, tracking identified risks, monitoring residual
risks, identifying new risks, and evaluating risk process effectiveness throughout the project. The key benefit of this
process is that it improves efficiency of the risk approach throughout the project life cycle to continuously optimize
risk responses. The inputs and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure A1-50.

Inputs
.1
.2
.3
.4

Project management plan
Risk register
Work performance data
Work performance reports

Outputs
.1 Work performance
information
.2 Change requests
.3 Project management plan
updates
.4 Project documents
updates
.5 Organizational process
assets updates

Figure A1-50. Control Risks: Inputs and Outputs

457

ANNEX A1 - THE STANDARD FOR PROJECT MANAGEMENT OF A PROJECT

A1.7.10 Control Procurements
Control Procurements is the process of managing procurement relationships, monitoring contract performance,
and making changes and corrections to contracts as appropriate. The key benefit of this process is that it ensures
that both the seller’s and buyer’s performance meets procurement requirements according to the terms of the legal
agreement. The inputs and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure A1-51.

Inputs

Outputs

Project management plan
Procurement documents
Agreements
Approved change
requests
.5 Work performance reports
.6 Work performance data

.1 Work performance
information
.2 Change requests
.3 Project management plan
updates
.4 Project documents
updates
.5 Organizational process
assets updates

.1
.2
.3
.4

Figure A1-51. Control Procurements: Inputs and Outputs

A1.7.11 Control Stakeholder Engagement
Control Stakeholder Engagement is the process of monitoring overall project stakeholder relationships and
adjusting strategies and plans for engaging stakeholders. The key benefit of this process is that it will maintain
or increase the efficiency and effectiveness of stakeholder engagement activities as the project evolves and its
environment changes. The inputs and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure A1-52.

458

ANNEX A1 - THE STANDARD FOR PROJECT MANAGEMENT OF A PROJECT

Inputs
.1
.2
.3
.4

Project management plan
Issue log
Work performance data
Project documents

Outputs
.1 Work performance
information
.2 Change requests
.3 Project management plan
updates
.4 Project documents
updates
.5 Organizational process
assets updates

Figure A1-52. Control Stakeholder Engagement: Inputs and Outputs

A1.8 Closing Process Group
The Closing Process Group consists of those processes performed to conclude all activities across all Project
Management Process Groups to formally complete the project, phase, or contractual obligations. This Process
Group, when completed, verifies that the defined processes are completed within all the Process Groups to close
the project or a project phase, as appropriate, and formally establishes that the project or project phase is complete.
This Process Group also formally establishes the premature closure of the project. Prematurely closed projects
may include, for example: aborted projects, cancelled projects, and projects in a critical situation. In specific cases,
when some contracts cannot be formally closed (e.g. claims, ending clauses etc.) or some activities are to be
transferred to other organizational units, specific hand-over procedures may be arranged and finalized.
At project or phase closure, the following may occur:
• Obtain acceptance by the customer or sponsor to formally close the project or phase,
• Conduct post-project or phase-end review,
• Record impacts of tailoring to any process,
• Document lessons learned,

459

ANNEX A1 - THE STANDARD FOR PROJECT MANAGEMENT OF A PROJECT

• Apply appropriate updates to organizational process assets,
• A rchive all relevant project documents in the project management information system (PMIS) to be used
as historical data,
• Close out all procurements activities ensuring termination of all relevant agreements, and
• Perform team members’ assessment and release project resources.
The Closing Process Group (Figure A1-53) includes the following project management processes (See
Sections A1.8.1 and A1.8.2):

Project Integration
Management

4.6
Close Project
or Phase

Project Procurement
Management

12.4
Close
Procurements

Figure A1-53. Closing Process Group

A1.8.1 Close Project or Phase
Close Project or Phase is the process of finalizing all activities across all of the Project Management Process
Groups to formally complete the project or phase. The key benefit of this process is that it provides lessons learned,
the formal ending of project work, and the release of organization resources to pursue new endeavors. The inputs
and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure A1-54.

460

ANNEX A1 - THE STANDARD FOR PROJECT MANAGEMENT OF A PROJECT

Inputs

Outputs

.1 Project management plan
.2 Accepted deliverables
.3 Organizational process
assets

.1 Final product, service, or
result transition
.2 Organizational process
assets updates

Figure A1-54. Close Project or Phase: Inputs and Outputs

A1.8.2 Close Procurements
Close Procurements is the process of completing each procurement. The key benefit of this process is that it
documents agreements and related documentation for future reference. The inputs and outputs of this process are
depicted in Figure A1-55.

Inputs
.1 Project management plan
.2 Procurement documents

Outputs
.1 Closed procurements
.2 Organizational process
assets updates

Figure A1-55. Close Procurements: Inputs and Outputs

461

APPENDIX X1 - FIFTH EDITION CHANGES

APPENDIX X1
FIFTH EDITION CHANGES
The purpose of this appendix is to give a detailed explanation of the changes made to A Guide to the Project
Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide)—Fourth Edition to create the PMBOK® Guide—Fifth Edition.

X1.1 Scope of Update
The approved scope for the PMBOK® Guide – Fifth Edition explicitly states:
• C
omments and feedback, both deferred during the development of the PMBOK® Guide – Fourth Edition
and received by PMI since its development, will be reviewed and determined whether material will be
included or excluded in the new edition.
• R
eview all text and graphics in the document to make sure the information is accurate, clear, complete
and relevant, revising as necessary.
• Review, interpret, and ensure appropriate alignment with ISO 21500 [12] in the development of the standard.
• Ensure harmonization with any other relevant PMI standards.
• Consider project management role delineation study results, as appropriate.
• R
eposition Section 3 (The Standard for Project Management) as a stand-alone, ANSI-approved standard
included within the Fifth Edition as an Appendix or attachment.
• Standard is written for project management practitioners and other stakeholders of the project
management profession.
• Standard describes the principles and processes that shape the practices that are unique to projects.
• S tandard ensures that any terminology contained within the PMI Lexicon is represented consistently and
identically in the standard.
With that directive in mind, the update team adopted an approach aimed at achieving a greater degree of
consistency and clarity by refining the processes, standardizing inputs and outputs where possible, and implementing
a global approach for documenting the inputs and outputs.

463

APPENDIX X1 - FIFTH EDITION CHANGES

Along with a focus on consistency and clarity, the update team worked to complete the requirements for
factoring feedback received for the PMBOK® Guide – Fourth Edition, and ensure alignment and harmonization with
relevant PMI standards, ISO 21500, PMI Lexicon of Project Management Terms, and the PMI role delineation study
for project managers.

X1.2 Rules for Handling Inputs, Tools and Techniques, and Outputs (ITTOs)
Business rules were established to further aid consistency in handling the order and detail of information within
the ITTOs for each project management process. These rules are:
• ITTO Fundamental Rules:
○○ Inputs are any documents that are key to the process.
○○ P rocess outputs should map as an input to another project management process unless the
output is a terminal output or embedded within another input such as process documents.
○○ P rocess inputs should map as an output from another project management process unless the
input comes from outside the project.
• Project Documents Rules:
○○ O
n the ITTO input list, if the input is a major project document, it needs to be specifically listed
out.
○○ O
n the ITTO output list, specific project documents are put on the list the first time they are
created as an output. Subsequently, these are listed as “project document updates” on the ITTO
output list, and described in the section narrative.
• Project Management Plan Rules:
○○ O
n the ITTO input list, if the subsidiary plans and baselines from the project management plan
serve as major process inputs, then these need to be specifically listed out.
○○ O
n the ITTO output list, subsidiary plans and baselines for the project management plan are
grouped as a single output as “project management plan updates” and described in the section
narrative.
○○ O
n the ITTO input list, for those planning processes that create a subsidiary plan, the project
management plan is listed as the key input.
○○ F or control processes, the key input is “project management plan,” rather than specific subsidiary
plans. And the output is “project management plan updates” rather than an update to a specific
subsidiary plan.

464

APPENDIX X1 - FIFTH EDITION CHANGES

• EEF/OPA Referencing Rule for Process Inputs:
○○ W
hen referencing EEFs or OPAs, include the phrase “Described in Section” and state 2.1.4 for
OPAs or 2.1.5 for EEFs.
• Other Consistency Rules:
○○ R
ename “project document update” and “organizational process asset updates” to “project
documents updates” and “organizational process assets updates.”
○○ For consistency across the PMBOK® Guide, document titles are not to be capitalized in the text.
• Sequencing Rules:
○ For inputs and outputs: plans, subsidiary plans, and baselines are listed first.
○

Project management plan first, then subsidiary plans, then baselines.

○

When plans are a major output, they are always listed first.

○○ F or inputs work performance data/information/reports, these are listed immediately before the
enterprise environmental factors.
○○ Enterprise environmental factors and organizational process assets are listed last in that order.
○○ Tools and techniques have meetings listed last.
○○ When updates are an output they are listed in the following sequence:
○

Project management plan/subsidiary plan updates,

○

Project documents updates,

○

Enterprise environmental factors updates, and

○

Organizational process assets updates.

X1.3 Established Rules for Ensuring Harmonization Between Glossary Terms
and the PMI Lexicon of Project Management Terms
To ensure that terms used in the PMBOK® Guide align with the PMI Lexicon of Project Management Terms and
harmonize with other PMI standards, business rules were established and adhered to in the Fifth Edition update.

465

APPENDIX X1 - FIFTH EDITION CHANGES

• F or terms found in both the PMBOK® Guide and the PMI Lexicon, the definition from the PMI Lexicon takes
precedence.
• W
here terms used in the PMBOK® Guide are not found in the PMI Lexicon but are found in other relevant
PMI standards (e.g., The Standard for Program Management, Organizational Project Management
Maturity Model (OPM3®), The Standard for Portfolio Management, Practice Standard for Earned Value
Management, Practice Standard for Scheduling, etc.), the definition of the terms shall be the same. If the
definitions do not align with the respective standards, the term is elevated to the PMI Lexicon team for
assistance in creating an acceptable common definition.

X1.4 Project Management Plan and Its Subsidiary Plans
To improve consistency and aid clarity around the various subsidiary plans that make up the overall project
management plan, the team added four planning processes: Plan Scope Management, Plan Schedule Management,
Plan Cost Management, and Plan Stakeholder Management. These changes bring back the scope planning process
from the Third Edition and add three new planning processes. The additions provide clearer guidance for the
concept that each major Knowledge Area has a need for the project team to actively think through and plan how
aspects from the related processes are planned and managed. It also reinforces the concept that each of the
subsidiary plans are integrated through the overall project management plan, which becomes the major planning
document for guiding further project planning and execution.
This change also ensures harmonization with other PMI standards. For example, a detailed planning process
for Plan Schedule Management reinforces the need for detailed planning to address project scheduling issues
such as selecting the scheduling method and tool during early planning stages as part of the overall Project Time
Management processes. This concept of detailed planning for project scheduling related decisions aligns with the
Practice Standard for Scheduling and ensures harmonization across PMI standards.

X1.5 Consistency in Handling Project Management Work Execution Data and
Information Flow
To improve consistency and add clarity regarding project data and information flows during project work
execution, the team redefined work performance data, work performance information, and work performance
reports to align with the DIKW (Data, Information, Knowledge, Wisdom) model used in the field of Knowledge
Management.

466

APPENDIX X1 - FIFTH EDITION CHANGES

• W
ork Performance Data. The raw observations and measurements identified during activities performed
to carry out the project work. Examples include reported percent of work physically completed, quality
technical performance measures, start and finish dates of schedule activities, number of change requests,
number of defects, actual costs, actual durations, etc.
• W
ork Performance Information. The performance data collected from various controlling processes,
analyzed in context and integrated based on relationships across areas. Examples of performance
information are status of deliverables, implementation status for change requests, forecasted estimates
to complete.
• W
ork Performance Reports. The physical or electronic representation of work performance information
compiled in project documents, intended to generate decisions, raise issues, actions, or awareness.
Examples include status reports, memos, justifications, information notes, electronic dashboards,
recommendations, and updates.
The redefined data model was then applied consistently to the inputs and outputs for the various controlling and
executing processes as illustrated in Figure X1-1.

Direct and
Manage
Project Work
Work
performance
data

Validate
Scope

Control
Scope

Control
Schedule

Control
Costs

Control
Quality

Control
Communications

Control
Procurements

Control
Risks

Control
Stakeholder
Engagement

Work
performance
information

Monitor and
Control
Project Work
Work
performance
reports

Perform
Integrated
Change Control

Manage
Communications
Change requests

Project plan updates

Develop Project
Management
Plan

Project document updates

Manage
Project
Team

Figure X1-1. Refined Data Model

467

APPENDIX X1 - FIFTH EDITION CHANGES

X1.6 Section 1—Introduction
Sections 1.2, 1.4, and 1.6 were realigned and harmonized with first sections in The Standard for Program
Management – Third Edition and The Standard for Portfolio Management – Third Edition. This ensures the
information regarding the relationship between projects, programs, and portfolios is treated consistently across
all three standards. Additional text was added to Section 1.4.4 to expand the discussion on project management
offices. Section 1.5 on Project Management and Operations Management was expanded to more broadly address
the relationship among project management, operations management, and organizational strategy. A new section
was added to address the importance of interpersonal skills of a project manager and refers the reader to Appendix
X3 of the PMBOK® Guide for further discussion on the importance of interpersonal skills in managing projects.
Section 1.8 on Enterprise Environmental Factors was moved to Section 2.

X1.7 Section 2—Project Life Cycle and Organization
The content of Section 2 was reorganized to improve content flow and understanding. The section on
organizational influence on project management was moved to the beginning of the section and expanded to
provide broader coverage of how organizational factors can influence the conduct of project teams. The discussion
of enterprise environmental factors was moved into this section from Section 1. The section on stakeholders was
expanded to better address project stakeholders and their impact on project governance. A new section was added
to address the characteristics and structure of the project team. The section on project life cycle was moved to the
end of the section and expanded to further explain life cycles and phases.

X1.8 Section 3 Project Management Processes for a Project
Section 3 of the PMBOK® Guide – Fourth Edition was moved into a new Annex in the PMBOK® Guide – Fifth
Edition (Annex A1 – The Standard for Project Management of a Project). The introduction to this section was
cleaned up and expanded to enable this annex to serve as a stand-alone document. This positions the Standard for
Project Management away from the main body of the PMBOK® Guide material allowing the evolution of the Body of
Knowledge material to be separate from the actual Standard for Project Management.

468

APPENDIX X1 - FIFTH EDITION CHANGES

X1.9 New Section 3 for PMBOK® Guide – Fifth Edition
A replacement Section 3 was developed for the PMBOK® Guide – Fifth edition. This new section bridges the
content between Sections 1 and 2 and the Knowledge Area sections. The new section introduces the project
management processes and Process Groups as in the previous editions of the PMBOK® Guide. However, it does not
list each of the processes associated with each of the Project Management Process Groups.

X1.10 Split Section 10 on Project Communications Management into Two
Separate Sections
Deferred and post-publication comments on the Project Communications Knowledge Area of the PMBOK® Guide
– Fourth Edition uncovered a need to modify this Knowledge Area as well as the processes within the Knowledge
Area. In general, the comments fell into three groups:
• E liminate confusion created between the processes of Distribute Information and Report Performance
and their overlap with processes for Control Scope, Control Schedule, and Control Cost.
• T ighten the focus of Project Communications Management to planning for the communications needs
of the project, collecting, storing, and disseminating project information, and monitoring overall project
communications to ensure its efficiency.
reak out and expand on stakeholder management concepts to reflect not solely upon (a) analyzing
• B
stakeholder expectations and its impact on the project, and (b) developing appropriate management
strategies for effectively engaging stakeholders in project decisions and execution, but also upon
continuous dialogue with stakeholders to meet their needs and expectations, address issues as they
occur, and foster appropriate stakeholder engagement in project decisions and activities.
Planning for and managing the communication needs of the project as well as the stakeholders’ needs are
two distinct keys to project success. The concept being reinforced is that both are discrete Knowledge Areas
in which stakeholder management is not simply better management of communications nor which improved
communications is simply better stakeholder management. This concept drives the need to treat these two critical
keys for project success as distinct areas.
Revamping this Knowledge Area by separating Project Stakeholders Management from Project Communications
Management provides the following benefits:

469

APPENDIX X1 - FIFTH EDITION CHANGES

• F ocuses on not only managing the expectations of the various stakeholder groups but actively working to
ensure an appropriate level of engagement of project stakeholders in the decision making and activities
of the project.
• A ligns with the growing body of research showing stakeholder engagement as one of the keys to overall
project success.
• Improves the alignment between the PMBOK® Guide and The Standard for Program Management.
• A ligns better with the focus on stakeholder management being put forward with the new ISO 21500
standard.
• A llows better emphasis on Project Communications Management by focusing on the main purpose of
communication activities to collect, store, organize, and distribute project information.
• E nables the realignment of project communications processes, thus addressing the confusion and overlap
surrounding project performance analysis and reporting.
Section 10 was separated into two distinct Knowledge Areas: Project Communications Management and Project
Stakeholder Management. This change takes the communication processes currently contained in Section 10
and refocuses them to project communications planning, executing, and controlling. The two current stakeholder
aligned processes within Section 10 (Identify Stakeholders and Manage Stakeholder Expectations) were moved into
a new section addressing stakeholder management. Stakeholder-related text from Section 2.3 was also moved into
this new section. The project management processes related to managing project stakeholders were expanded to
include:
• Identify Stakeholders,
• Develop Stakeholder Management Plan,
• Manage Stakeholder Engagement, and
• Control Stakeholder Engagement.

470

APPENDIX X1 - FIFTH EDITION CHANGES

X1.11 Process Changes
As part of the process, changes several process names were changed to improve consistency across the
processes and to improve clarity. All processes that create a subsidiary plan were named using the form of Plan
{XXX} Management. The Monitor and Controlling processes were named using the form Control {XXX}, since the
act of controlling a process includes monitoring the process. These changes improved the consistency of how
processes are named across all processes. In addition to process name changes, several other processes were
added or modified as described elsewhere in this appendix. The list below summarizes the process changes.
• 4.3 Direct and Manage Project Execution—changed to Direct and Manage Project Work
• 5.1 Plan Scope Management—added
• 5.5 Verify Scope—changed to Validate Scope
• 6.1 Plan Schedule Management—added
• 7.1 Plan Cost Management—added
• 8.1 Plan Quality—changed to Plan Quality Management
• 8.3 Perform Quality Control—changed to Control Quality
• 9.1 Develop Human Resource Plan—changed to Plan Human Resource Management
• 10.2 Plan Communications—changed to Section 10.1 Plan Communications Management
• 10.3 Distribute Information—changed to Section 10.2 Manage Communications
• 10.5 Report Performance—changed to Section 10.3 Control Communications
• 11.6 Monitor and Control Risks—changed to Control Risks
• 12.1 Plan Procurements—changed to Plan Procurement Management
• 12.3 Administer Procurements—changed to Control Procurements
• 10.1 Identify Stakeholders—moved to Section 13.1 Identify Stakeholders
• 13.2 Plan Stakeholder Management—added
• 10.4 Manage Stakeholder Expectations—changed to Section 13.3 Manage Stakeholders Engagement
• 13.4 Control Stakeholders Engagement—added

471

APPENDIX X1 - FIFTH EDITION CHANGES

X1.12 Section 4—Project Integration Management Changes
Process definitions were revised for Develop Project Charter, Develop Project Management Plan, Direct and
Manage Project Work, Monitor and Control Project Work, and Perform Integrated Change Control to better align
with the PMI Lexicon and improve clarity of the definitions. The Direct and Manage Project Execution was
renamed to Direct and Manage Project Work to better align with its definition and reinforce that this process
applies beyond the Executing processes. Other changes consist primarily of expanded explanations, refinements
to tools and techniques for several processes, and refinements to the inputs and outputs for several processes to
better tie the integration processes to other project management processes. A table was added to the discussion
of the output for of the Develop Project Management Plan process to bring clarity to the differentiation between
project documents and Inputs and outputs were adjusted for several processes to reflect the new model of
project data and information flow during the execution of project work.
The following table summarizes the Section 4 processes:
Table X1-1. Section 4 Changes
Fourth Edition Sections

472

Fifth Edition Sections

4.1 Develop Project Charter

4.2 Develop Project Management Plan

4.3 Direct and Manage Project Execution

4.3 Direct and Manage Project Work

4.4 Monitor and Control Project Work

4.5 Perform Integrated Change Control

4.6 Close Project or Phase

APPENDIX X1 - FIFTH EDITION CHANGES

X1.13 Section 5—Project Scope Management Changes
In Section 5.1, the concept of a Develop Scope Management Plan process was brought back as a way to
ensure consistency across all project planning processes and to reinforce that subsidiary plans are developed to
plan the details for each major Knowledge Area. To support consistency in naming, the processes that create the
subsidiary plans, the Develop Scope Management Plan was named Plan Scope Management. The discussion within
the Collect Requirements process was expanded to make clear this process focuses on collecting all requirements
necessary for project success. These requirements include the requirements for the product, service, or result to be
delivered by the project, any quality requirements the project must meet, and any other project management related
requirements deemed critical for project success. The Verify Scope process was renamed to Validate Scope and
the text was reworked to add emphasis that this process is not solely about accepting deliverables but validating
that the deliverables will deliver value to the business and confirms that the deliverables, as provided, will fulfill
the project objectives, as well as their intended use to the project stakeholders. Inputs and outputs were adjusted
for several processes to reflect the new model of project data and information flow during the execution of project
work.
The following table summarizes the Section 5 processes:
Table X1-2. Section 5 Changes
Fourth Edition Sections

Fifth Edition Sections
5.1 Plan Scope Management

5.1 Collect Requirements

5.2 Collect Requirements

5.2 Define Scope

5.3 Define Scope

5.3 Create WBS

5.4 Create WBS

5.4 Verify Scope

5.5 Validate Scope

5.5 Control Scope

5.6 Control Scope

473

APPENDIX X1 - FIFTH EDITION CHANGES

X1.14 Section 6—Project Time Management Changes
Section 6 reflects changes within the industry and detailed in the Practice Standard for Scheduling –
Second Edition.
As part of reinforcing the concept of detailed subsidiary plans being created for each major Knowledge Area
and then aggregated into the overall project management plan, a new process was added for Plan Schedule
Management. This process adds focus on the preliminary decisions around developing and maintaining the
project’s schedule model. Process definitions were revised for Define Activities, Estimate Activity Resources,
Estimate Activity Durations, and Control Schedule to improve clarity of the definitions. Several processes were
modified with new inputs and/or updated outputs. Agile concepts were incorporated into the Develop Schedule
process. Figures and associated text were updated to clarify scheduling concepts addressed in the section.
Added emphasis was placed on resource optimization techniques used in project scheduling. Some inputs and
outputs were renamed for several processes to support consistency between the various project management
processes. Inputs and outputs were adjusted for several processes to reflect the new model of project data and
information flow during the execution of project work.
The following table summarizes the Section 6 processes:
Table X1-3. Section 6 Changes
Fourth Edition Sections

Fifth Edition Sections
6.1 Plan Schedule Management

474

6.1 Define Activities

6.2 Define Activities

6.2 Sequence Activities

6.3 Sequence Activities

6.3 Estimate Activity Resources

6.4 Estimate Activity Resources

6.4 Estimate Activity Durations

6.5 Estimate Activity Durations

6.5 Develop Schedule

6.6 Develop Schedule

6.6 Control Schedule

6.7 Control Schedule

APPENDIX X1 - FIFTH EDITION CHANGES

X1.15 Section 7—Project Cost Management Changes
Section 7 reflects changes coming from within the industry and detailed in the Practice Standard for Estimating
and the Practice Standard for Earned Value Management – Second Edition.
As part of reinforcing the concept of detailed subsidiary plans being created for each major Knowledge
Area and then aggregated into the overall project management plan, a new process was added for Plan Cost
Management. This process adds focus on the preliminary decisions around developing and maintaining the
project’s cost estimates and budget. Added emphasis was placed on reserve analysis including contingency and
management reserves with a new figure, Figure 7-8, added to illustrate the various components making up the
project budget. A new table, Table 7-1 on earned value calculations summary, was added to collect in one place
all of the formulas used for earned value analysis. Figures for earned value and project funding requirements
were updated to reflect the added emphasis on management reserves. Some inputs and outputs were renamed
for several processes to support consistency between the various project management processes. Inputs and
outputs were adjusted for several processes to reflect the new model of project data and information flow during
the execution of project work.
The following table summarizes the Section 7 processes:
Table X1-4. Section 7 Changes
Fourth Edition Sections

Fifth Edition Sections
7.1 Plan Cost Management

7.1 Estimate Costs

7.2 Estimate Costs

7.2 Determine Budget

7.3 Determine Budget

7.3 Control Cost

7.4 Control Costs

475

APPENDIX X1 - FIFTH EDITION CHANGES

X1.16 Section 8—Project Quality Management Changes
No new processes were added in the project management processes contained within this section. The Quality
Planning process was renamed Plan Quality Management to support consistency in naming the processes that
create the subsidiary plans. The definition for Plan Quality Management was updated to better align with the added
focus on quality requirements for the project. The Perform Quality Control process was renamed Control Quality to
support consistency in naming the various controlling processes. Changes consist primarily of expanding discussion
on various tools and techniques within the Quality Management processes. Figure 8-2 on IPECC and PDCA Cycles
in Relation to QA, QC, and COQ, was added to illustrate the fundamental relationships between quality assurance,
quality control, and cost of quality to the Plan-Do-Check-Act and Initiate-Plan-Execute-Control-Close models. A
new input was added for the Plan Quality Management process to better tie the requirements gathered during the
Collect Requirements process to the overall quality planning for the project. More emphasis was placed on the
basic quality management tools used in managing project quality. New figures were added to better summarize
the seven basic quality tools and the seven quality management and control tools. Some inputs and outputs were
renamed for several processes to support consistency between the various project management processes. Inputs
and outputs were adjusted for several processes to reflect the new model of project data and information flow
during the execution of project work.
The following table summarizes the Section 8 processes:
Table X1-5. Section 8 Changes
Fourth Edition Sections

476

Fifth Edition Sections

8.1 Plan Quality

8.1 Plan Quality Management

8.2 Perform Quality Assurance

8.3 Perform Quality Control

8.3 Control Quality

APPENDIX X1 - FIFTH EDITION CHANGES

X1.17 Section 9—Project Human Resource Management Changes
No significant changes were implemented in project management processes contained within this section.
The Human Resource Planning process was renamed Plan Human Resource Management to support consistency
in naming the processes that create the subsidiary plans. Changes consist primarily of some added or modified
inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs, and the replacement of project management plan by human resource
plan as an input of processes 9.2 Acquire Project Team, 9.3 Develop Project Team, and 9.4.Manage Project Team
for consistency with processes in other Knowledge Areas. The definitions for Plan Human Resource Management,
Acquire Project Team, and Develop Project Team were updated to better align with the details of these processes.
Some inputs and outputs were renamed for several processes to support consistency in how information flows
between the various project management processes.
The following table summarizes the Section 9 processes:
Table X1-6. Section 9 Changes
Fourth Edition Sections

Fifth Edition Sections

9.1 Develop Human Resource Plan

9.1 Plan Human Resource Management

9.2 Acquire Project Team

9.3 Develop Project Team

9.4 Manage Project Team

477

APPENDIX X1 - FIFTH EDITION CHANGES

X1.18 Section 10—Project Communications Management Changes
Information about stakeholder management was moved from Section 10 to a new Knowledge Area for
Stakeholder Management. The Plan Communications process was renamed Plan Communications Management
to support consistency in naming the processes that create the subsidiary plans. The processes for Distribute
Information and Report Performance were reworked to clear up confusion between these processes and their
overlap with processes for Control Scope, Control Schedule, and Control Cost. The processes were refocused
toward the activity of communication as performed in projects, considering more the process of communicating
rather than the intent or desired outcome of the message with emphasis on planning for the communications
needs of the project, collecting, storing, and disseminating project information, and monitoring overall project
communications to ensure its efficiency. The process names were changed to Manage Communications and
Control Communications. The definitions for Plan Communications Management, Manage Communications,
and Control Communications were updated to reflect these changes. Some inputs and outputs were renamed
for several processes to support consistency between the various project management processes. Inputs and
outputs were adjusted for several processes to reflect the new model of project data and information flow during
the execution of project work.
The following table summarizes the Section 10 processes:
Table X1-7. Section 10 Changes
Fourth Edition Sections

478

Fifth Edition Sections

10.1 Identify Stakeholders

Moved to 13.1

10.2 Plan Communications

10.1 Plan Communications Management

10.3 Distribute Information

10.2 Manage Communications

10.4 Manage Stakeholder Expectations

Moved to 13.3

10.5 Report Performance

10.3 Control Communications

APPENDIX X1 - FIFTH EDITION CHANGES

X1.19 Section 11—Project Risk Management Changes
No significant changes were implemented in project management processes contained within this section.
The Monitor and Control Risks process was renamed Control Risks to support consistency in naming the various
controlling processes. Changes were made to move the emphasis away from the term “positive risks” toward
“opportunity” to better align with the feedback from the project management community. Text was added to expand
upon the concepts of risk attitude, risk appetite, risk tolerance, and risk thresholds. Other changes consist primarily
of cleaning up text, incorporating feedback, and aligning inputs and outputs with changes from other Knowledge
Areas. Some inputs and outputs were renamed for several processes to support consistency between the various
project management processes. Inputs and outputs were adjusted for several processes to reflect the new model
of project data and information flow during the execution of project work.
The following table summarizes the Section 11 processes:
Table X1-8. Section 11 Changes
Fourth Edition Sections

Fifth Edition Sections

11.1 Plan Risk Management

11.2 Identify Risks

11.3 Perform Qualitative Risk Analysis

11.4 Perform Quantitative Risk Analysis

11.5 Plan Risk Responses

11.6 Monitor and Control Risk

11.6 Control Risks

479

APPENDIX X1 - FIFTH EDITION CHANGES

X1.20 Section 12—Project Procurement Management Changes
The Plan Procurements process was renamed Plan Procurement Management to support consistency in
naming the processes that create the subsidiary plans. The Administer Procurement process was renamed Control
Procurements to support consistency in naming the various controlling processes. Other changes consist primarily
of cleaning up text, incorporating feedback, and aligning inputs and outputs with changes from other Knowledge
Areas. Some inputs and outputs were renamed for several processes to support consistency between the various
project management processes. Inputs and outputs were adjusted for several processes to reflect the new model
of project data and information flow during the execution of project work.
The following table summarizes the Section 12 processes:
Table X1-9. Section 12 Changes
Fourth Edition Sections

480

Fifth Edition Sections

12.1 Plan Procurements

12.1 Plan Procurement Management

12.2 Conduct Procurements

12.3 Administer Procurements

12.3 Control Procurements

12.4 Close Procurements

APPENDIX X1 - FIFTH EDITION CHANGES

X1.21 Section 13—Project Stakeholder Management Changes
In keeping with the evolution of thinking regarding stakeholder management within projects, a new Knowledge
Area was added addressing Project Stakeholder Management. Information on stakeholder identification and
managing stakeholder expectations was moved from Section 10 on Project Communications Management to this
new Knowledge Area to expand upon and increase the focus on the importance of appropriately engaging project
stakeholders in the key decisions and activities associated with the project. New processes were added for Plan
Stakeholders Management and Control Stakeholders Engagement. Some inputs and outputs were renamed for
several processes to support consistency between the various project management processes. Inputs and outputs
were adjusted for several processes to reflect the new model of project data and information flow during the
execution of project work.
The following table summarizes the Section 13 processes:
Table X1-10. Section 13 Changes
Fourth Edition Sections
10.1 Identify Stakeholders

Fifth Edition Sections
13.1 Identify Stakeholders
13.2 Plan Stakeholder Management

10.4 Manage Stakeholders Expectations

13.3 Manage Stakeholder Engagement
13.4 Control Stakeholder Engagement

481

APPENDIX X1 - FIFTH EDITION CHANGES

X1.22 Glossary
The glossary of the PMBOK® Guide – Fifth Edition has been expanded and updated to include those terms within
the PMBOK® Guide that need to be defined to support an understanding of the document’s contents:
• Clarify meaning and improve the quality and accuracy of any translations;
• Eliminate terms not used within the PMBOK® Guide – Fifth Edition; and
• Ensure terms align and harmonize with the terms in the PMI Lexicon and other key PMI standards.

X1.23 Data Flow Diagrams
The data flow diagrams for all project management processes were cleaned up and updated to remove
inconsistencies and ensure each diagram accurately reflects the inputs and outputs associated with a given process.

482

Appendix X2 - Contributors and Reviewers of the PMBOK ® Guide—Fifth Edition

Appendix X2
Contributors and Reviewers of
the PMBOK® Guide—Fifth Edition:
PMI volunteers first attempted to codify the Project Management Body of Knowledge in the Special Report
on Ethics, Standards, and Accreditation, published in 1983. Since that time, other volunteers have come forward
to update and improve that original document and contribute to this globally recognized standard for project
management, PMI’s A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). This appendix lists,
alphabetically within groupings, those individuals who have contributed to the development and production of the
PMBOK® Guide – Fifth Edition. No simple list or even multiple lists can adequately portray all the contributions of
those who have volunteered to develop the PMBOK® Guide – Fifth Edition.
The Project Management Institute is grateful to all of these individuals for their support and acknowledges their
contributions to the project management profession.

X2.1 PMBOK® Guide—Fifth Edition Core Committee
The following individuals served as members, were contributors of text or concepts, and served as leaders
within the Project Core Committee:
The following individuals served as members, were contributors of text or concepts, and served as leaders
within the Project Core Committee:
Dave Violette, MPM, PMP, Chair
Joseph W. Kestel, PMP, Vice Chair
Nick Clemens, PMP (Sections 3 and 4 Lead)
Dan Deakin, PMP (Sections 11 and 12 Lead)
Theofanis C. Giotis, PMP, PMI-ACP (Sections 1 and 2 Lead)
Marie A. Gunnerson, (Sections 6 and 7 Lead)
Vanina Mangano, PMP, PMI-RMP (Integrated Content and Change Control Lead)
Mercedes Martinez Sanz, PMP (Sections 5 and 8 Lead)
Carolina Gabriela Spindola, PMP, SSBB (Quality Control Lead)
Kristin L. Vitello, CAPM, Standards Project Specialist

483

Appendix X2 - Contributors and Reviewers of the PMBOK ® Guide—Fifth Edition

X2.2 PMBOK® Guide—Fifth Edition Subcommittee
The following individuals served as contributors of text or concepts and as leaders of the Project Subcommittee:
Matthew B. Anderson, PMP, PMI-ACP (Section 4 Leader)
Gilbert B. Asher, MBA, PMP (Data Flow Working Group Leader)
Brad Bigelow, PMP, MSP (Section 2 Leader)
Cecilia Boggi, PMP (Section 9 Leader)
Bernardo O. Bustamante, PE, PMP (Section 1 Leader)
Akshata Karanth, PMP (Section 6 Leader)
David L. Keeney, PMP, CTT+ (Section 8 Leader)
David Kramer (Section 12 Leader)
Karthikeyan Kumaraguru MS, PMP (Section 11 Leader)
Mary-Elizabeth Larson, PMP, CBAP (Section 5 Leader)
Charles J. Lesko, Jr., Ph.D., PMP (Section 10 Leader)
Claudia Alex Morris, MBA, PMP (Editorial Leader)
John M. Nevison (Section 7 Leader)
M.K.Ramesh, BE, PMP (Section 3 Leader through 6/2011)
Krupakar Reddy, PMP, PRINCE2 Practitioner (Section 3 Leader)
Yad Senapathy (Section 4 Leader through 6/2011)
Anca E. Slușanschi, MSc, PMP (Section 13 Leader)

X2.3 Significant Contributors
In addition to the members of the Project Core Committee and Subcommittee, the following individuals provided
significant input or concepts:
George F. Burton MBA, PMP
Tammy Clark
Joel R. Erickson, MAcc, PMP
Stanisław Gasik, PhD
Ashok Jain, PMP, CSM
Andrea Pantano, PMP
Federico Roman Demo, PMP, ITIL
Anthony Tsui, MIT, PMP
Jennifer L. Walker, PMP

484

Appendix X2 - Contributors and Reviewers of the PMBOK ® Guide—Fifth Edition

X2.4 PMBOK® Guide—Fifth Edition Content Committee
The following individuals were contributors of text or concepts and provided recommendations on drafts of the
PMBOK® Guide—Fifth Edition:
Humayun Akhtar, PE, PMP
Mark O. Alexander, P.Eng, PMP
Miguel Angel Hernandez Ayala, MBA, PMP
Katherine A. Barnoski, PMP, CPCP
Sameer S. Bendre, PMP, CSM
Manuela Borlovan
Hector E. A. Boye, MSc, PMP
Carlos M. Brenes, MPM
Kevin Brennan, PMP, CBAP
Melissa F. Bull, PMP
Guido Caciagli B., PMP
Jesus Mario Garcia Cano, PMP
Ramesh Chandak
Carol Dekkers, PMP, CFPS
Wayne D. Ellis, PE, PMP
Andrés Falcón, MBA, PMP
Anna Maria Felici, PMP, CMC®
Sachin Ghai, PMP
Juan Carlos González, PMP, ITIL
Mike Griffiths, PMP, PMI-ACP
Joseph Gruber, PMP, CAPM
Sharnikya F. Howard, MBA, PMP
Harold S. Hunt, PMP
Suhail Iqbal, PgMP, PMP
Rajan T. Janjani, PMP, ITIL Expert
Chandrashekhar S. Joshi, PMP,
Chartered Engineer

Puja Kasariya, PMP
Khalid Ahmad Khan, PE, PMP
Terri Herman Kimball, PMP
Vijay Kumar
Gaspar Pacheco Leal, PMP
Nguyen Long Son, PMP, PMI-RMP
Debra J. Lovelace, PMP
Tom Magee, MBA, PMP
Ahsan Maqbool, PMP, PMI-RMP
Conrado Morlan, PgMP, PMP
Tilden Moschetti
Jacob Kottackal Ninan
Abdul Nsubuga
Reuben Oshomah, MSc, PMP
Marcus S. Parker Sr., PMP
Sergio A. Peñaloza, PMP
Ute Riemann, MBA, MCS
Nick Riordan, MBA, PMP
Shivkanth V. Rohith, PMP, PMI-ACP
Bruce Schwickrath, PMP, LSS-MBB
Kishankumar J. Solanki
Tejas V. Sura, MS, PMP
Federico Vargas, PMP, MPM
Srikanth Victory
Himanshu Shripad Warudkar, PMP, ITIL
S. K. Steve Wong, PMP, CMA

485

Appendix X2 - Contributors and Reviewers of the PMBOK ® Guide—Fifth Edition

X2.5 Reviewers:
X2.5.1 SME Review
In addition to the members of the Committee, the following individuals provided their review and recommendations
on drafts of the standard:
Stephen Kwasi Agyei, PMP, LLM
Lavanya Arul, PMP, PMI-RMP
Ernest Baker, PMP, PRINCE2 Practitioner
Mamoun Besaiso, CE
James C. Bradford, Jr., PMP
Damiano Bragantini, PMP
Georgeta Brehoi, PMP
Peter Brown
Andrea Caccamese, PMP, Prince2 Practitioner
Panos Chatzipanos, PhD, PE
Jared Curtis, PMP
Mario C. Delvas, MBA, PMP
Dipti Desai, PMP
Lakshmi Dhruvarao, PMP, CSM
George Diakonikolaou, PhD, PMP
Peter Dimov, PMP, CBM
Richard Egelstaff, PMP, MBA
Charles T. Follin, PMP
Prabhat Garg, PMP
Vivek Goel, PMP, CSM
Mustafa Hafizoglu
Dr. Sheriff Hashem, PhD, PMP
David A. Hillson, PhD, PMI Fellow
Christine Hoffman
Hiroto Horio, PMP
David T. Hulett, PhD
Poornaselvan Jeevanandam
Gregory I. Jepson
Kazuo Kawai, PMP

486

Konstantinos Kirytopoulos, PhD, PMP
Adrian W. Lovel-Hall, PMP, PMI-RMP
Thomas F. McCabe, PMP, CSSMBB
Harold “Mike” Mosley, Jr., PE, PMP
Daud Nasir, PMP, LSSBB
Alexandre Vieira de Oliveira, MBA, PMP
Sneha V. Patel, PMP
Richard Perrin
Walter Plagge, MBA, PMP
Marlene Derian Robertson
Fernan Rodriguez, PMP
Tres Roeder, MBA, PMP
Guy Schleffer, MBA, PgMP
Nitin Shende, PMP, CSM
Nagendra Sherman, PMP
J. Greg Smith
Cyndi Snyder, PMP, EVP
Geree V. Streun, PMP, PMI-ACP
Jurgen Sturany, PMP
Yasuji Suzuki, PMP
Shoji Tajima
Yvonne Tan EY, PMP
Gerhard J. Tekes, PMP, PMI-OPM3
Certified Professional
Biagio Tramontana, Eng., PMP
Thomas M. Walsh, PMP
Juanita M. Woods, PMP, PgMP
Ronaldo Zanardo, CAPM
Heinz Zimmermann, PMP

Appendix X2 - Contributors and Reviewers of the PMBOK ® Guide—Fifth Edition

X2.5.2 Member Advisory Group (MAG) Review
The following individuals served as members of the PMI Standards Program Member Advisory Group and voted
on the final draft of the PMBOK® Guide – Fifth Edition:
Monique Aubry, PhD, MPM
Chris Cartwright, MPM, PMP
Laurence Goldsmith, PMP
Paul E. Shaltry, PMP
Cyndi Snyder, MBA, PMP, EVP

X2.5.3 Consensus Body Review
The following individuals served as members of the PMI Standards Program Consensus Body and voted on the
final draft of the PMBOK® Guide – Fifth Edition:
Monique Aubry, PhD, MPM
Nigel Blampied, PE, PMP
Nathalie Bohbot, PMP
Dennis L. Bolles, PMP
Peggy Brady
Chris Cartwright, MPM, PMP
Sergio Coronado, PdD.
Andrea Demaria, PMP
John L. Dettbarn, Jr., DSc, PE
Charles T. Follin, PMP
Laurence Goldsmith, MBA, PMP
Dana J Goulston, PMP
Dorothy L. Kangas, PMP
Thomas Kurihara
Timothy MacFadyen
David Christopher Miles, CEng, OPM3-CC
Harold “Mike” Mosley, Jr., PE, PMP
Mike Musial, PMP, CBM
Eric S. Norman, PgMP, PMP
Deborah O’Bray, CIM (Hons)

487

Appendix X2 - Contributors and Reviewers of the PMBOK ® Guide—Fifth Edition

Nanette Patton, MSBA, PMP
Crispin (“Kik”) Piney, BSc, PgMP
Michael Reed, PMP
Chris Richards, PMP
Paul E. Shaltry, PMP
Jen L. Skrabak, MBA, PMP
Matthew D. Tomlinson, PgMP, PMP

X2.5.4 Final Exposure Draft Review
In addition to the members of the Committee, the following individuals provided recommendations for improving
the Exposure Draft of the PMBOK® Guide—Fifth Edition:
Javed A. Abbasi, MBA, PMP
Klaus Abert
Biju B. Abraham, PMP
Mohammad I. Abu Irshaid, PMP
Mohammad Adel, PMP
Yaser Afaneh, MSCE, PMP
Eng. Ahmed Taha, MBA, PMP
Mounir Ajam
Phill C. Akinwale, MSc, PMP
Mfon D. Akpan, MBA, PMP
Mobasher Abdu Al-Asmry,
CE, KSA
Homam Al khateeb, PMP,
PMI-RMP
Ahmad Al-Nahar, MBA, PMP
Melad Alaqra, PMP
José Rafael Alcalá Gómez,
MBA, PMP
Martin Alemán Valdés, PMP
Mohammed Faiq Al-Hadeethi,

488

PMP, MSc (Mech.)
Anwar Ali, MBA, PMP
Allam V V S Venu, PMP
Barnabas Seth Amarteifio,
PMP, ITIL
Yousif Amin, PMP
Andy Anderson, MA, PMP
David Angelow, MBA, PMP
Luciano Antoniucci
Mark A. Archer, PhD, PMP
Ondiappan Arivazhagan “Ari”
PMP, PMI-RMP
Wisdom Kwasi AsareAmegashie
Babissakana, PMP
Mohamed A. Badie, PMP,
Prince2 Practitioner
Ammar N. Baidas, PgMP, PMP
Kamal Bajaj, PMP, PGDBA
Jehad J. Baker, PgMP, PMP

J. Balamurali, PMP
Federica Ballone, PMP
Manuel F. Baquero V., MSc, PMP
Brent R. Barton
Anupam Baruah
Olaf Baumgartner, PMP
Iain Begg, PMP
Laura Benedetti
Wayne F. Best
Harwinder Singh Bhatia,
PMP, CSM
Pius Bienz, PhD, PMP
Jean Binder, PMP
Nigel Blampied, PE, PMP
Michael P. Bomi, BSc, PMP
Raúl Borges, PMP
Farid F. Bouges, MSc, PMP
Lynda Bourne, DPM, FAIM
Joao Carlos Boyadjian,
MSc, PMP

Appendix X2 - Contributors and Reviewers of the PMBOK ® Guide—Fifth Edition

Didier Brackx, PMP
Jim Branden, MBA, PMP
Wayne R. Brantley, MSEd, PMP
Ralf Braune, PMP
Tamela J. Brittingham, PMP
Jerry Bucknoff, MBA, PMP
Syed Asad Hasnain Bukhari,
MBA (MIS), PMP
Jeffrey S. Busch, PMP
Mario Castro Caballero
Anthony Cabri, PMP
Andrea Caccamese, PMP,
Prince2 Practitioner
Roberto A. Cadena Legaspi, PMP
Jacob Calabrese, CSP, CBAP
Maria Cardullo
James F. Carilli, PgMP, PMP
Christopher W. Carson,
PMP, CCM
Angela M. Cason, PMP
Ralph Celento
Rebecca Cervoni, PMP
Bruce C. Chadbourne,
PgMP, PMI-RMP
Kameswaran
Chandrasekaran, PMP
Theodore Jiyon Chang
Ramesh Chepur, PMP, PRINCE2
Practitioner
Subrahmanyam VN Chinta
PMP, CSM
Marcin Chomicz, MBA, PMP
Abhishek Chopra

Angel R. Chourio, PMP
Eric Christoph, PMP, EVP
Rose M. Clark, PMP
Rogerio L. Clavello, PMP
Xavier Clerfeuille, MSc, SSL
Black Belt
Paul Converti, PMP, CISSP
Mario Coquillat de
Travesedo, PMP
Franco Cosenza, PE, MScEE
Jeremy Coster, PMP
Raymond Covert
Holly Cowe
Adriano José da Silva Neves,
MSc, PMP
William L. (Bill) Dam, PMP, CPG
Joseph W. Daniel, PMP
Richard Gary Daniels
Mohamed Daoud
Russell W. Darnall, DM, PMP
Fariborz Davarpanah, MBA, PMP
Luiz Guilherme de Carvalho
Elisa De Mattia
P.H. Manjula Deepal De Silva,
BSc, PMP
Vijay Deshpande
Salvatore Di’iorio
George Diakonikolaou
John H. Dittmer, VI, CISSPISSMP, PMP
Marcelo Sans Dodson,
PMP, MPM
Roland Doerr, MBA, PMP

Serge Dolivet, PMP
Bhushan Dongare
R. Bernadine Douglas, MS, PMP
Xinhua Du
Arun Dubagunta
Stephen Duffield, MPM, CPPD
Pradip Kumar Dwevedi, PMP
Hany A. Elhay, PMP
Bilal M. El Itani, MBA, PMP
Abdurazag Elkhadrawe
William Ernest, MPM, PMP
Dmitry A. Ezhov, PMP
Leandro Faria, PMP, PMI-ACP
Daniel Fay, PMP
Madhu Fernando, DBA, PMP
Jesse Fewell, PMP, CST
Claudia Fiallo, PMP
John C. ‘Buck’ Field, MBA, PMP
Robinson Figueroa, MS, PMP
David Foley, MBA
Sandra Fonseca-Lind
Scott D. Freauf, PMP, IPMA-C
Sakae Fujino
Yoichi Fukuhara, PMP
Nestor C. Gabarda Jr., ECE, PMP
Luca Gambetti, PMP, CFPS
Gerardo A. Garavito F, PMP,
PMI-ACP
Jose Eduardo Motta Garcia,
MBA, PMP
Jorge Garcia Solano, PMP, MPM

489

Appendix X2 - Contributors and Reviewers of the PMBOK ® Guide—Fifth Edition

Sergio Garon, MS
Jay D. Gassaway, PMP, PMP-SP
Michael J. Gauthier, MA, CPM
Darline Georges
Soumajit (Sam) Ghosh, PMP,
PhD Candidate
Carl M. Gilbert, PMP, Cert OPM3
Professional
Peter James Gilliland, PMP
Sulema de Oliveira Barcelos
Gobato, MsC, PMP
Emily Godinet Lounge, PMP
Peter Goldberg
Andrés F. Gómez, MSc, PMP
Guillermo Gomez Hdez., CSM
José Abranches Gonçalves,
MSc, PMP
Himanshu Kumar Goswami
Jean Gouix, Eng, PgMP, PMP
Gary J. Graham, CISM, CISSP
Charlie Green, PMP
Roy C. Greenia, MPM, PMP
Salomon Pineda Guerrero
Pier Luigi Guida, PgMP, PMP
Lakshmeesha T. Gundurao,
PMP, CSM
Guo Ming-Hui (MARS), PMP
Kapil Gupta, PMP
Edward Hall, PMP
Noha Hamdy
Sharad S Harale, MBA, PMP
Simon Harris, PMP, D4®
Accredited

490

Abdulrahman M Hassan, MSc
Gregory T. Haugan, Sr.,
PhD, PMP
Larry J. Hawkins, DSc, PMP
Susumu Hayakawa, PMP
Kym Henderson, RFD
MSc (Comp)
Robert Hierholtz
Robert N. Higgins V, PMP
Danny N. Hinton, PMP
Shirley P. Hinton, PMP
Hisashi Hirose, PMP
Jack J. Holmes, PMP
Keith D. Hornbacher, MBA
Tim Hornett, PMP
Christina M. House, PMP, EMBA,
Seth Huckabee
Robert F. Hull, PE, PMP
Guillermo A. Ibañez, PMP, ITIL
Shuichi Ikeda, PMP
Hemant Israni, PMP, PMI-RMP
Vladimir Ivanov, IPMA-B
Assessor, ITIL Expert
Vidya Iyer, PMP
Can Izgi, PMP
Elaine T. Jackson, BS, PMP
James M. Jackson, PMP, FLMI
Rajesh Jadhav, PgMP, PMI-RMP
Rebecca Jahelka, PMP
Gagan Jain, MBA, PMP
Don R. James, PMP
Vicki James
Chandra Shekar Jayanna, PMP

Johannan ‘Johnny’ Jhirad, B.
Tech (IIT Bombay)
Marco Antonio Jimenez,
MBA, PMP
Jaime Jiménez Ayala, PhD, PMP
Tony Johnson, PgMP, PMP
Fayez Jolani, MBA, PMP
Michele J. Jones, PMP
Yves Jordan, PMP
Chandrashekhar S. Joshi, PMP,
Chartered Engineer
Rameshchandra Joshi
Donaliya K. Porter, MBA, MPM
SS Kanagaraj, PMP, ITIL
Edwin J. Kapinus, PE, PgMP
Madhavi Karanam, MBA
Heinrich Karageorgou,
MBA, DBA
Naoki Kasahara, PMP
Ramakrishna Kavirayani, PMP
Kenichi Kawamata, PMP
Babatunde Oluwayomi Kayode,
MS ProjM, MSc(PM)
Tarig A. Khalid, PMP, CBAP
Adil Khan
Muhammad Ehsan Khan, PhD,
PgMP, PMP
Nader Khorrami Rad, PMP
Mangesh A Khunte, PMP,
PMI-ACP
Mostafa Kilani
Athens Kolias, PMP, MPM
Walter Kriegl, PMP

Appendix X2 - Contributors and Reviewers of the PMBOK ® Guide—Fifth Edition

Srikanth Krishnamoorthy,
PMP, PGDSA
Kannan Krishnan
Casimer “Casey” Kroll,
PMP, MASc
Gustavo Krowczuk, PMP
Devesh Kumar, PMP, PMI-ACP
L. Senthil Kumar, PMP
Pavan S. Kumar, PMP
Raghu Kumar
Vladimir Kupershteyn, PhD, PMP
Thomas M. Kurihara
Puneet Kuthiala, PMP, CGEIT
Massimo La Rosa, PMP
Thierry Labriet, PMP, IPMA-B
Rangarajan Lakshminarasimhan,
PMP
Arun Lal
Elixender Lamprea León,
PE-ITIL, MSc IT
Hagit Landman, PMP, PMI-SP
Ayotunde O. Lawal, PMP, CAPM
Roberta Lawrence, BAppMgt
(Project Management) PMP
S. Douglas Leard, PMP, ACP
Oliver F. Lehmann, PMP, CLI-CP
Ginger Levin, PhD, PgMP, PMP
Jean-Pierre Lhomme, PMP
Jian Liang
Kanak Limbu, PMP, ITILV3
Frank MC Lin
Marco Antonio L. Lo Visco,
MBA, PMP
Lohokare

Anand Lokhande, PMP
Alberto J. Lopez, PMP
Samuel López González de
Murillo, PMP
Zheng Lou, MBA, PMP
Sérgio Lourenço, PMI-RMP, PMP
Hugo K. M. Lourenço, PMP
Robert A. Lyell, PMP
Frederick G. Mackaden,
MBA, PMP
Engr. Sangu Maha Rajan, BTech
Abhijit A. Maity, PMP
Richard Maltzman
Anthony Mampilly, PMP
Kenneth Manahl
Ammar Mango
David Mantle, PMP
Len Marchese, PMP
Daniel Marigliano
Shobhana M., BTech, Prince2
Antonio Marino, PMP, PMI-ACP
Tom Mastal, PMP, CSM
Flávio Matsuyama, PhD
Vincent McGevna, PMP, PRINCE2
Practitioner
Jon McGlothian, MBA, PMP
Alan McLoughlin, BE, MPM
Suzette A. McNaught, MBA, PMP
Peter Berndt de Souza Mello,
SpS, PMI-SP
Yan Bello Méndez, PMP
Katia M. Méndez Madrigal,
MAP, PMP
Ernst Menet, PMP

Rashmi Menon
Mohammed M’hamdi, PMP
Joachim Modern, PMP
Megat Ahmad Zainuri B.
Mohamed, PMP
Mannan Mohammed, PMP, PEng
Haitham K. M. Mokhtar, BSc,
PG Dip
Andres Molano Trujillo
Marshciene Hendrix Moor,
MBA, MS
Lacheta Moore
Carlos Morais
John Morck, Med, PMP
Harold “Mike” Mosley, Jr.,
PE, PMP
Saradhi Motamarri, MTech, PMP
Henrique Moura, PMP
Nathan M. Mourfield, MBA, PMP
Hazim Muhssin
Kristin Munro
Mike Musial, PMP, CBM
Khalid M. Musleh, PMP, ISO
9001 LA
Arul SP Muthupandian
Amir Naderi, Msc, PMP
Basab Nandi
Sergio Nascimento
Faig Nasibov, PMP
Mthokozisi Ncube, MSc, PMP
Ta-Tianna K. Nealy, PMP, RMP
Shashank Neppalli, PMP
Nghi M. Nguyen, PhD, PMP
Thuthuy C. Nguyen, PMP

491

Appendix X2 - Contributors and Reviewers of the PMBOK ® Guide—Fifth Edition

Tri Hue Nguyen, PMP
Idika U Ngwobia, MSc, PMP
Jonathan Nickerson, PMP
Praveen K. Nidumolu, PMP, CSM
Eric Nielsen, PMP
Jeffrey S. Nielsen, PgMP, PMP
Sanjay Nivargikar
Takuji Noguchi, PMP
Michael Nollet
Alireza Noordoust Behtouei
Fernando Nunes de Oliveira,
PMP, PMI-SP
Henry Lapid Nuqui, PEE, PMP
Kevin T. O’Brien, PEng, PMP
Peter O’Driscoll, PMP
Dayo Odunlami, MBA, PMP
Siobhan-Louise O’Keefe
Bayonle Oladoja, mnse, PMP
Neil Olshansky
Johnson O. Omosule, Bsc
Thomas Q. O’Rourke, PMP,
PMI-RMP
Venkateswar P. Oruganti,
PMP, FIETE
Mahmoud Assaad Othmane,
PMP, CIPM
Maksym Ovsianikov, PMP
Hariyo D. Pangarso, MT, PMP
James W. Parcels
Sandro Pasini, MBA, PMP
Yadaiah Pathkula
Marcello Patrese, PMP, PMC
Dražen Penzar, PMP

492

Richard J Perrin, PMP, MBB
D. John Peter, PMP
Lachlan Peter, CPEng, PMP
Massimo Pica, Brig. Gen.(ret.)Italian Army, Dr (Eng)
Joseph Pignato
Raj Pillai, PMP, MIFireE
Teresita L. Pineda, PMP, LEED AP
Crispin (“Kik”) Piney, BSc, PgMP
Jose Angelo Pinto, PMP,
OPM3 CC
Alan L. Plastow, PMP, MAT
Fredric L. Plotnick, PhD, PE
Shaligram Pokharel, PhD, REng
George E. Porter, MBA, PMP
Marcus Possi, MBA-FGV, SpS
Edwin A. Provencal, MBA, PMP
Naseer Pervaz Qureshi
Norman Radatz, PMP
João Ramalho, PMP
S. Ramani, PgMP, PMP
Phalguna K Ramaraju, PMP,
PMI-ACP
Rajkumar Ramaswamy,
P Eng, PMP
M.K.Ramesh, BE, PMP
Gurdev Randhawa
Raghunathan Rangapathy, PMP
Madhavan S Rao , PMP
Raju N Rao , PMP, Cert OPM3
Professional
Michael Reed, PMP
Vicky Restrepo, PMP

Gustavo De Abreu Ribas, PMP
Andriele Ribeiro, MSc, PMP
Juan Carlos Ribero Gomez, PMP
Richard A. Rodberg, PMP
Bernard Roduit
David Roe, PMP
Brandon Joseph Rogers, PMP
Yvette Roserie, PMP
Cecile T Ross, PMP
Mohamed Saad
Kumar Sadasivan, PMP
Mihail I.E. Sadeanu, PhD, PMP
Keiko Sakagami, PMP
Eng. Salem Mahaboob Saliha
Sheriff MBA, PMP
Christian Q. Salvaleon
Angela M. Sammon, PMP
Ranga Sarangan, MBA, PMP
Vikas Sarin, PMP, ME(SS)
Kyoichi Sato, PMP
Sara Sattar, PMP
Anatoliy A. Savin, PMP
Doina T. Scafaru, PMP
Danilo Scalmani, PMP
Gary D. Schmitz, PMP
Martin R. Schneider
William T. Schulz, PMP
Ulrich Schumann, PMP
Hemant Seigell, MBA, PMP
Yoshiro Sekihara
Dhruba P. Sen, PMP, CSDP
Maharajan Skandarajah, PMP
Shrenik Shah, PMP

Appendix X2 - Contributors and Reviewers of the PMBOK ® Guide—Fifth Edition

Nitin Shende, PMP, CSM
Kazuo Shimizu, PMP
David Shirley, MBA, PMP
Sandeep Shouche, PgMP, PMP
Hilary Shreter, MBA, PMP
Sameer Siddhanti, MSc, PMP
Edson Silva
Evandro Silva
Fay Simcock
Gurpreet Singh, MBA, PMP
Ravi H. Singh, PMP
Nabakishore Singha Y.,
EMBA, PMP
Rajesh Singla, PMP
Darnell Singleton, PMP, MSPM
Sumit Kumar Sinha, PMP
Malik Skaljic, PMP, MBA
Charles D. Smith, PMP
J. Greg Smith
Kenneth F. Smith, PMP, DPA
Cyndi Snyder, PMP, EVP
Pamela Soderholm, PMP
Emad Eldin Soliman
Wang Songping
Mauro Sotille, PMP
Frank Spiegel, PMP
Babou Srinivasan, PMP
Ravishankar Srinivasan, PMP
Sriram Srinivasan, PMP,
ITIL Expert
Dennis E. Stevens
Kevin Stokes
Zendre Strother

Murali Sundararaju, PMP
Yasuji Suzuki, PMP
Sudhir Swamy, PMP
Marcus Tabart, PMP
Afif Tabsh, PMP
Shoji Tajima, PMP, ITC
Roberto Taraschi, PMP
Isabella Taschetta, PMP
Sunil Telkar, PMP, MIMA
John G Terdik, PMP, CSM
Carlos Tessore, PhD, PMP
Riad Thalji, PMP
Srinivasan Thiruvengadathan
John B. Thomas, PMP
Sal J. Thompson, MBA, PMP
Ronald Togatorop, PMP
Mark Tolbert, PMP
Ricardo Torres
Luis Eduardo Torres
Calzada, PMP
John T. Tracy, MBA, PMP
Mario H Trentim, PMP, PMI-RMP
Ankit M. Trivedi, MS, PMP
Mahmoud M. Turkistani, PMP
Bruce E. Turner, PhD, PMP
Junichi Uchiyama, PMP
Hafiz Umar
Krishnakant T Upadhyaya, PMP
Srikanth U.S., MS, PGCPM
M. Fahad Usmani, PMP, PMIRMP
Ali Vahedi Diz, PgMP, PMP
Richard E. Vail, PMP

Jorge Valdés Garciatorres,
PMP, ACB
José Félix Valdez, PMP
Tom Van Medegael, PMP
Mårten van Rheinberg, PMP,
PMI-ACP
Stephan Vandevoorde, Ing.
Ravi Vanukuru, B.E., PMP
Lelio Varella, PMP
Ricardo Viana Vargas, MSc, PMP
Jouko Vaskimo, PMP, IPMA
Level B
Cynthia A. Vaughn, MBA, PMP
Isabel Rosario Vega
Palomino, PMP
Vedananda V Venkata, MS, PMP
Thierry Verlynde, MS, PMP
Basskar Verma
Aloysio Vianna Jr., PMP
Jaime Videla, PMP
Carlos Augusto Freitas,
PMP, CAPM
Tiziano Villa, PMP, CMC
Jorge Archivaldo Villa, CE
Ananth Vishakantiah, PMP
Mangi Vishnoi, PMP, MIEAust
Poonam Vishnoi, PMGTI
Yiannis Vithynos PMP, PMI-ACP
Atin Wadehra, MBA, PMP
Paul Waits Jr., PMP, CPM
Xiaojin Wang, PhD, PMP
Patrick Weaver, PMP, FAICD
Kevin R. Wegryn, PMP, MA

493

Appendix X2 - Contributors and Reviewers of the PMBOK ® Guide—Fifth Edition

Stacia Weiner, PMP
Roger K. Weld, PE, PMP
Philip Wells PMP, CEH
Sean Whitaker, MBA, PMP
S. White
Rebecca A. Winston, JD
Stephen Wise, PMP

Sheng Jun Tony Wu, PMP
Wenyi Xiao, PMP
Chen YanJi, PMP
Clement C.L. Yeung, PMP
Masafumi Yoshizawa, PMP
Yong Yu
Ricardo T. Yugue, MSc, PMP

Azam M. Zaqzouq, MCT, PMP
Omran Mohamed Zbeida,
PMP, BSP
Bin Zhang
Salim Zid, PMP, LEED AP BD+C

X2.6 PMI Standards Program Member Advisory Group (MAG)
The following individuals served as members of the PMI Standards Program Member Advisory Group during
development of the PMBOK® Guide—Fifth Edition:
Monique Aubry, PhD, MPM
Margareth F.S. Carneiro, MSc, PMP
Chris Cartwright, MPM, PMP
Terry Cooke-Davies, PhD
Laurence Goldsmith, PMP
Paul E. Shaltry, PMP
Cyndi Snyder, MBA, PMP, EVP
John Zlockie, MBA, PMP, PMI Standards Manager

494

Appendix X2 - Contributors and Reviewers of the PMBOK ® Guide—Fifth Edition

X2.7 Harmonization Team
Karl F. Best, CAPM, CStd
Steve Butler, MBA, PMP
Folake Dosunmu, PgMP, OPM3
Randy Holt, MBS, PMP, Chair
Dorothy L. Kangas, PMP
Joseph W. Kestel, PMP
M. Elaine Lazar, AStd, MA
Timothy MacFadyen
Vanina Mangano
David Christopher Miles CEng, OPM3-CC
Eric S. Norman, PgMP, PMP
Michael Reed, PMP
Chris Richards, PMP
Jen L. Skrabak, MBA, PMP
Carol Steuer, PMP
Bobbye S. Underwood, PMP, PMI-ACP®
Dave Violette, MPM, PMP
Kristin Vitello, CAPM
Quynh Woodward, MBA, PMP
John Zlockie, MBA, PMP

X2.8 Production Staff
Special mention is due to the following employees of PMI:
Donn Greenberg, Publications Manager
Roberta Storer, Product Editor
Barbara Walsh, Publications Production Supervisor

495

Appendix X2 - Contributors and Reviewers of the PMBOK ® Guide—Fifth Edition

X2.9 Contributors to Past Editions
X2.9.1 The PMBOK® Guide—Fourth Edition:
Cynthia Stackpole, MBA, PMP, Project Manager
Karen Rasmussen Noll, Deputy Project Manager
Murray Grooms, BA, PMP (Communications)
Sandra Hyman (Chapter Coordinator)
Joseph W. Kestel, PMP, MSIS (Chapter 3 and 5 Lead)
Tom Malicki (Volunteer Lead, Front & Back Lead)
Clifford W. Sprague, PMP (Volunteer Coordinator)
Geree V. Streun, CSQE, PMP (Chief Architect)
Kristin L. Vitello, Standards Project Specialist

X2.9.2 Other Contributors:
Wayne F. Abba
Ahmed Taha Abd El Hameed
Ir Hj Ahmad Khairiri Abdul Ghani,
Int PE, ASEAN Eng
Klaus Abert
Biju B. Abraham, PMP
Ed Adelman, PMP
Yasser Thiab Ali Afaneh
Mohit Agarwal
Upinder Aggarwal, PMP
Eva D. Aimable
Shigeru Akiba, PMP
Phill C. Akinwale, PMP
James E. Aksel, MS, PMP
Neil F. Albert
Mohammad M. Ali

496

Hussain Ali Al-Ansari,
Eur Ing, C Eng
Mohammed Abdulla Al-Kuwari,
Eur Ing, PMP
Graeme A. Allan,
BSc(Hons), PMP
Marcia de Almeida
Wasel A. Al-Muhammad,
MBA, PMP
Noor Hamad Alnisif, PMP
Fayez Mosaed Al-Talhi, PMP
Alonso Loaiza A., PMP
Barnabas Seth Amarteifio, PMP
Ketal Amin, BB, PMP
Alok N. Anadkat, BS, PMP
P. Lingesh Ananth, PMP

Abel Andrew Anderson,
CBM, PMP
Chet R. Anderson, PMP
Niels Erik Andersen, MSc CS
Jagathnarayanan P. Angyan,
FIE, CE
Ondiappan Arivazhagan “Ari”,
PMP, CSSBB
Muhammad Waqar Asghar, PMP
Syed S. Asghar, MSA, PMP
Usman Asif, PMP
Naing Moe Aung, PMP
Shigeo Awamura
Mike Awuah, MBA, PMP
Tanin I. Ayabakan, MD, PMP

Appendix X2 - Contributors and Reviewers of the PMBOK ® Guide—Fifth Edition

Jacklyn Ayoung-Chee,
MBA, PMP
Mahadhir Aziz, PMP
Karthegesan B., MBA, PMP
Rozinah Bachik, MSc (PM), PMP
Ernest Baker, PMP
Ramanan Balakrishna, PMP
Sunil Bansal, PMP
Ricardo do Rêgo Barros, PMP
Patricia J. Bartl, PMP
Nazir M. Bashir, PMP
Herminia Bastos, PMP, CMC
Mohammed Safi Batley, MIM
Fred Beckmann, PMP
Debra C. Bedford
Julia M. Bednar, PMP
Eric Berry, PMP
Stephen Berté, PhD, PMP
Mamoun A. Besaiso, CE
Dale L. Beyer, MBA, PMP
Christie Biehl, EdD, PMP
Shantanu Bhamare, PMP
Alok Bhaskar, MBA, PMP
Kurmarao V. Bhavanasi, PMP
Artur Bialy, PMP
Craig Nicholas Blackford
Rhonda R. Blevins, PMP
Edward Bogak, MBA
Dennis L. Bolles, PMP, LLC
Stephen F. Bonk, PMP, PE
Adolfo Borja, MBS. PMP
Al Bornmann, PE, PMP
Lyn Bos, MHA, MBA

Jean-Luc Boulanger, PMP
Lynda Bourne, DPM, PMP
Didier Brackx, EMS Prof, PMP,
Robin G. Bradshaw, PMP
Carlos Eduardo M. F. Braga, PMP
Wayne R. Brantley, MS Ed, PMP
Ralf Braune, PMP
Michael C. Broadway, PMP
Alex S. Brown, PMP IPMA-C
Ian A. Brown, MBA, PMP
Jerry L. Brown, PMP
Joan Browne
Jeannine Allison Bryan
Pat Buckna, PMP
Camper Bull, PMP
Mitchell S. Burke, MS, MBA
Janet P. Burns, PMP
Kenny E. Burrow, PhD, PMP
Bernardo O. Bustamante,
PE, PMP
John Buxton, PE, PMP
Andrea Caccamese, PMP,
PRINCE2 Practitioner
Roberto Alejandro Cadena
Charles Cain, PMP
Teresa W. Calhoon, PMP
Sergio A. Calvo, PMP
Luis Eduardo Torres Calzada,
MPM, PMP
Franco Caron, PhD
Alejandro M. Polanco Carrasco
Chris Cartwright, MPM, PMP
Brian L. Cassita

Roberto Castro
William A Cather, PhD, PMP
Roberto Celkevicius, PMP, ITIL
Bruce C. Chadbourne,
PMP, PgMP
K. K. Chakraborty, PMP, BE
Krishna Datta Nallani
Chakravartula, MBA, PMP
Ka-Keung Chan, PMP, MBA
Paul E. Chaney, PMP
Supriyo Chatterji, MCA, PMP
Tony Tze Wai Chau, PMP, MAPM
Noman Zafar Chaudry, PE, PMP
Ashish Chawla, MS
Zhen Cheng
David Kwok Keung Chenung
Ramesh Chepur, CSQA, PMP
David K. Cheung, MSc, MBA
Tomio Chiba, PMP
Ananaba Marcellinus
Chikwendu, MBA, PMP
Hsing-Tung Chou, PhD
Lung-Hung Roger Chou,
PMP, MCT
David Christensen
Manuel Cisneros, MBA, PMP
Douglas Clark
Darrell S. Cleavenger, PMP
Alexandre Coelho, PMP
Richard J. Coffelt, PMP
Brenda Connor, PMP
Terry Cooke-Davies, PhD, FCMI
Edmund H. Conrow, PhD, PMP

497

Appendix X2 - Contributors and Reviewers of the PMBOK ® Guide—Fifth Edition

Betty Corbin, PMP
John E. Cormier, PMP
Mauricio E. Cornejo, PMP
Anthony R. Corridore, PMP
William T. Craddock
Larry E. Criger, PE, PMP
Darren D. Criglar, MLA, MA
Jacqueline M. Cruit, PMP
Mary Colleen Cullinan, PMP
Michael J. Cunningham, PMP
Craig Curran-Morton, MA, PMP
Robert L. Cutler, PMP
Barbara Y. DaCosta, MPA, PMP
Venkatesh Dakshinamurthy
Claudio D’Arcangelo, PMP
Claudio Da Rold, PMP
Anirban Das, PMP
Venkateswarlu B. Dasigi,
PhD, PMP
Patricia A. David-Gentsch
Allan Edward Dean, MBA, PMP
Jim Delrie, PE, PMP
Madhavi Desai, MS, PMP
Rahul P. Deshpande
Anita Dhir, PMP
Laurie Diethelm, CAPM
David Dominguez
Nick Doralp, PMP, ECM
George R. Dorer, MBA, PMP,
Bernadine Douglas
Nicolas Douliez
Nigel O. D’Souza, PMP, ITIL
John A. Dullnig, PMP

498

Francine J. Duncan, MIEEE, PMP
Azra Duric, PMP
Teresa Duvall, PMP, CDR
Phillip Dyer, PMP
G. Ebynayagam
Susan Holly Edelman, PMP
Judith A. Edwards, PhD, PMP
Paul J. Egan
Tarek El-Misalami, PhD, PMP
Waleed M. ElToulkhy, PMP
Ramon Espinoza, PMP
Brian M. Evans, PMP
Peter Ewart-Brookes, PMP
Steven L. Fahrenkrog, PMP
Bruce E. Falk, PMP
John L. Fallon, PMP
Giovanni Fanduiz, MSc, PMP
Sabeeh U. Faruqui,
BE Elect, PMP
Kathleen M. Federici,
MEd, CAPM
AnnaMaria Felici, PMP, CMC
Luis Cláudio Tavares
Fernandes, PMP
Marcelo B. Ferreira
Ann Marie Ficarra, PMP
Michael H. Fisher, MSPM, PMP
Matthew J. Fiske, PE, PMP
Cheryl Fitzgarrald, PMP
Edgardo J. Fitzpatrick, PMP
Martin Flank, MBA, PMP
Joel E. Fleiss, PMP
Quentin W. Fleming

Gloria Elena Folle Estrada
Charles T. Follin, PMP
Dean J. Fragos
Amanda Freitick
Scott D. Freauf, PMP
Mark R. Friedman, CISA, PMP
Scott J. Friedman, PMP
Andrew H. Furber, PMP, PRINCE2
W. Anders Fusia, PMP
Ravindra Gajendragadkar, PMP
Sharyn H. Gallagher, EdD, PMP
Xue Gang (Gabriel), PMP, QSLA
George F. Garas, MBA
Jose Eduardo Motta Garcia,
MBA, PMP
Anand Swaroop Garg
Stanisław Gasik
Jay D. Gassaway
David P. Gent, CEng, PMP
Mitchlyn Gentry, MISM
Joseph Sanju George
Subir Ghosh, PMP
Carl M. Gilbert, PMP, OPM3A/C
Peter James Gilliland, PMP
Theofanis Giotis, MSc, PMP
Fernando Hurtado Giraldo
Jonathan Glaser, PhD, PMP
Sulema de Oliveira Barcelos
Gobato, MSc, PMP
Joelle A. Godfrey, PMP
Vivek Goel, PMP
Marshall Goldman, PMP
Roger K. Goodman, PMP

Appendix X2 - Contributors and Reviewers of the PMBOK ® Guide—Fifth Edition

Jean Gouix, Eng, PMP
Priyesh Gopalakrishnan
Derek R. Grant, BSc, PMP
Thomas J. Gray, PE, PMP
Paul A. Green, BSc (Hons)
Donn Greenberg
Roy Greenia
Stephen Grey, PhD
Mireya Grieco, PMP
Liz Grinzo, PMP
Torben Grut, PMP
Jeff Jianfei Gu, MBA, PMP
Ruth Anne Guerrero, MBA, PMP
Pier Luigi Guida, Ing, PMP
Joy Gumz, CPA, PMP
Marie Gunnerson
Swati Gupta, PMP
Raj Guttha
Anne N. Gwankobe, PMP, CSSGB
Mustafa Hafizoglu, PMP
Edward Hall, PMP, CQM
Matthew W. Handi, PMP
John Haneiko, PMP
Sharad S. Harale, PMP, MIM
Kurt J. Harris, PMP
Donna M. Harrison, PMP
Akkiraju V. Harshavardhan, PMP
Dr. Sheriff Hashem, PhD, PMP
Mohamed Hassan, PMP, CSWP
Lawrence Hattenburg, PMP
Larry J. Hawkins, DSc, PMP
Ernesto Yo Hayashi, MEng
Jim Hayden, PMP

Gary R. Heerkens, PMP, PE
Mohamed S. Hefny, MSc, PMP
Krzysztof Hejduk, PhD, PMP
Kel Henderson
Robert Hierholtz
Gary Higgs
Hideyuki Hikida, PMP
Merleen Cowie Hilley
Bob Hillier, PMP
David A. Hillson, PhD, PMP
Lecia L. Hogan, MPM
Mark Holdrege
Carol Holliday, MA, PMP
Felicia Hong, PMP, MBA
George H. Hopman, PhD , PE
Tim Hornett, PMP
Gheorghe Hriscu, PMP, OCP
Chih-Yang Hsia, PMP, MBA
Jeff M Hughes, BA (Hons), PMP
David T. Hulett, PhD
Theresa L. Hunt, CSQE, CSTE
Marta Hurst, CLSSBB
Jean-Pierre Husereau, PMP,
OPM3-CC
Huma Hydari, MBA, PMP
Zulfiqar Hussain, PE, PMP
Midori Ito
Suhail Iqbal, PE, PMP
George Jackelen
David S. Jacob, MS, PE
Tony Jacob, PMP
Dhanojkumar D. Jadhav
Ashok Jain, PAHM, PMP

T.D. Jainendrakumar, PMP
Nilesh D. Jaltare, PMP
Ganesh Jambunathan, PMP
Raj Kumar Jhajharia, PMP
Marco Antonio Jimenez,
PMP, MBA
Merna M. Johnson, PMP
Tony Johnson, PMP, PgMP
Elden F. Jones II, PMP, MSPM
Marylinda Jones, PMP, Six
Sigma Greenbelt
Michele J. Jones, PMP
Nancy A. Joseph, PMP
George Jucan, PMP
Marijana Jurgec
Lenin Babu Kamma, PMP
Nils Kandelin, PhD, PMP
Edwin J. Kapinus, PMP, PE
Sanjay Kapoor
Carl Karshagen, PMP
Puja Kasariya, PMP
Kenneth P. Katz, PMP
Ramakrishna Kavirayani, PMP
Kenichi Kawamata, PMP
Genny Kelly
Lance Kelson, CISSP, PMP
Tom Kendrick, PMP
Roger Kent, PMP
Joseph W. Kestel, MSIS, PMP
Rameshchandra B. Ketharaju
Thomas C. Keuten, PMP,
OPM3-CC
Hamed Keyvanfar

499

Appendix X2 - Contributors and Reviewers of the PMBOK ® Guide—Fifth Edition

Tausif Khawaja
Jim Kinard, PMP
Konstantinos Kirytopoulos,
PhD, PMP
Joan Knutson, PMP
Kimberly A. Kook, PMP, ITIL
Foundations
Roman S. Kosarzycki, PMP
Chetana S. Koulagi, PMP, CSQA
Mark Krahn, PhD, PMP
Edie E. Kubomoto, PMP, CQM
Takahiko Kuki, PMP, JPE
Milan Kumar, MCM, ITIL
Sasi Kumar, PMP
Karthikeyan Kumaraguru,
MS, PMP
Vijaya Kurada, MBA, PMP
Thomas M. Kurihara
Lisa M. LaCourse, PMP
Jerry D. Lainhart, PMP
S Lakshminarasimhan,
MBA(Fin), PMP
Tim K.Y. Lam, PMP, MBA
Philippe Landucci, PMP
David J. Lanners, MBA, PMP
David K. Larson
Mary-Elizabeth Larson,
PMP, CBAP
Richard G. Larson, PMP, CBAP
Marta M. Laszcz, PMP
Charlene Lattier, PMP
Jim Lee Sr., PMP
Patty Leung
Juanita Jane Lightfoot

500

Donald Likens
Diana Lilla, MA, PMP
Michelle Z. Lim-Watson
Robin Lindenmeier, PMP
Michael Linegar, PMP, MBA
Kristin Linoski, PMP
John D. Lissaman, BEng, PMP
Arden Lockwood, MBA, PMP
Mary K. Lofsness
Anand Lokhande, PMP
Alberto Lopez, PMP
Enrique López-Mingueza, PMP
Margaret L. Love, PMP
Adrian Lovel-Hall
Angela Cheng-Jui Lu, PhD, PMP
Chuanqing James Lu, PMP
Yves M. Lucas, PMP
Christina Luik
Raymond Maczka
Shankar Mahadevan, PMP, CWA
Robin Maher
Catryana C. Malcolm, PMP
Konstantinos Maliakas, PMP
Rich Maltzman, PMP
Vasantha R. Manda, MS, PMP
Rick Mandarino, PMP, MBA
Srinivas Mandgi, PMP, SAP HR
Carmelene Mangahis
Ammar W. Mango, PgMP, PMP
Brian J. Mangravite
Joachim Manz, PhD, PMP
Lou Marks, PMP
Mark Marlin, PMP, PE
Robert A. Marshall, PhD, PMP

Cristinel Damian Martalogu
John A. Marzullo, PMP
Rebecca P. Masucci
Jamie Mata
Mohit Raj Mathur, PMP
Nael Mattar
Rahma Mbarki Eng, MSc, MBA
Laura McDonough, PMP
Colleen A. McGraw, PMP
David McKenna, MSc, PMP
Yan Bello Méndez, PMP
Louis J. Mercken, PMI
Fellow, PMP
Su Mei-Shih, PMP
Kenneth Merten
Predrag Fred Mikanovic,
MBA, PMP
Berne C. Miller, PMP, CPL
Walter Warren Miller III,
PhD, PMP
Sumith Alvet Miranda, PMP
Purvi Sheth Mishra
Gregg Mohrmann
Mark A. Monteleone, PMP, CBAP
Gary Monti, PMP
Carlos Morais, PMP
John Morck
Alberto Moreno, PMP
Paola Morgese, PE, PMP
Kaoru Mori, PMP
Rogan Morrison, PMP
Saradhi Motamarri, MTech, PMP
Bhagchand S. Motwani
Stephen E. Mueller, PMP, EVP

Appendix X2 - Contributors and Reviewers of the PMBOK ® Guide—Fifth Edition

Hazim Muhssin, PMP
Rita Mulcahy, PMP
Philips Tharakan Mulackal,
PMP, CCE
Gerald Mulenburg, DBA, PMP
John L. Murphy, PE, PMP
Pradeep Murti
Carlo Muzzarelli
Takamichi Nagano
Prakash Nagaraju, PMP
John T. Napier
Kalyanraman Narayanswamy,
PMP
Faig Nasibov, PMP
Muhammad Nasir
John T. Nelson, BSc
Mohammed Taher Netarwala,
BE Mech, PMP
Edgard Pedreira de Cerqueira
Neto, PhD, PMP
Michael Newell, PMP
Thuthuy C. Nguyen, PMP
Praveen K. Nidumolu, PMP
Jeffrey S. Nielsen, PMP
James S. Niziurski, PMP
Michael C. Nollet, MBA, PMP
Peter Ntiforo, PMP, BSc (Hons)
Jeff Nuding, PMP
Michael O’Brochta, MPM, PMP
Deborah O’Bray, CIM (Hons)
Edward A. O’Connor, PMP
Charis Ogbonna
Kazuhiko Okubo, PE, PMP
James Ostad, PMP

Dmitry Ostroushko, PhD
Beth Ouellette, MBA, PMP
Priya Padmanabhan, PMP
Nariman Panahian, PhD, PMP
Mohan Pandey, MPharm,
PGDM(IIMA)
Tara Pangakis, PMP
Leah Paras, PMP
Balaji Parasuraman
Kent D. Paris, PMP
Hyung Ki Park, PMP
William J. Parkes, PMP
Frank R. Parth, MBA, PMP
Jerry L. Partridge, PMP
George Pasieka, aCPP, PMP
Marcello Patrese, PMP, MPM
Mridul Paul, PMP, MBA
Peter B. Paulauskas, PMP
Seenivasan Pavanasam,
B Tech, PMP
Almir dos Santos Pereira, PMP
Nancy Perosio, PMP
Robert E. Perrine, PMP
Sitarama Chakravarthy
Peruvel, PMP
Bruce T. Petro, PMP
Daniel Picard, PMP
Crispin (“Kik”) Piney, BSc, PMP
George Pitagorsky, PMP
Rama P. Pokala, PMP
Morris A. Pondfield, MBA, MS
Roberto Henrique Nogueira Pons
Charles M. Poplos, EdD, PMP
Steven S. Popovich

Steven R. Potter, PMP
Janice Preston, PMP
Carl L. Pritchard, PMP, EVP
Carl W. Pro, PMP
Nathan Pryce, EMTM, PMP
Javier Pumar, PMP
Jan F.M. Raes, PhD, PMP
Regina Rahmilov
V. Raja, PMP
Aditya Rajguru, PMP
S. Ramani, PgMP, PMP
Ananthakrishnan
Ramaswami, PMP
Claudia Elisa Ramírez, PMP
Dave Randell, PMP
Gurdev S. Randhawa, PMP
Shrish Rangaramanujam, PMP
Banshidhar Rayaguru, PMP,
M Tech
Krupakara Reddy, PMP, PRINCE2
Practitioner
Caroline Robison, PMP
Ana I. Rodríguez García, PMP
Asbjørn Rolstadås, PhD, Ing
Rafael Fernando Ronces
Rosas, PMP
Kenneth H. Rose, PMP
Prakash Roshan, PMP
David W. Ross, PMP, PgMP
Neal L. Rowland, PMP
Jaideep Roy
Laurie M. Rudnitsky, PMP
Lee Ryan
Nani Sadowski-Alvarez, PMP

501

Appendix X2 - Contributors and Reviewers of the PMBOK ® Guide—Fifth Edition

Osamu Sakamoto, PMP
Brian Salk, MA Ed, PMP
Gladstone Leslie Samuel
Paul Sanghera, PhD, PMP
Satheesh Santhangopalan, PMP
Otavio Ritter Santos, PMP
Rick B. Santos, MBA, PMP
Vikas Sarin, ME(SS),MCA
Ramanathan Sathianaraynan,
PMP, CSQA
Kyoichi Sato, PMP
Curt Schlonies, PMP
Eugene Schreiner
John Schuyler, PE, PMP
Salvatore J. Sciascia, PMP
Anna Self
Benjamin R. Sellers, PMP, CPCM
Kathakali Seth
Mark B. Shadowens, PMP
Paul E. Shaltry, PMP
Archana Sharma, MS, PMP
Dhilan N. Shah, CPA, PMP
Manar Shami, PhD, PMP
Shervin Shariatpanahi
Mojtabanejad
Pawan Sharma
Rachna Sharma
John Sheers, PMP
Jinmei Shen, PMP
Nitin Shende
Eng. S.M. Saliha Sheriff,
MBA, PMP
Kazuo Shimizu, PMP
Toshihiro Shoji, PMP

502

Hilary Shreter, MBA, PMP
Evandro L.P. Silva
João Carlos A. Silva Neto,
Msc, PMP
Michael D. Simants
Michael Simmering, PE,
OPM3-CC
Nicklaus B. Sims, PMP
Manas Singh
Siddharth Singh
John Singley, PhD, PMP
Marzena Zych- Skrzypkowska
Kathy J. Slater, PMP
Martin J. Smit, PMP
Carolyn E. Smith, PMP
Bruce F. Snow
Juliette A. Soczka
Jorge Garcia Solano, PMP
John P. Soltesz, PE, PMP
Nguyen Hoanh Son
Brijesh Sonawane, PMP
Mauro Sotille, PMP
Patricia Spadea, PMP
Bernd Spiehl
Carolina Gabriela Spindola,
SSBB, PMP
Clifford W. Sprague, PMP
Rob Spurgeon
Varadarajan Sriram
Pranay Srivastava, PMP, CISA
Jolene R. Staruch, PMP
Joyce Statz, PhD, PMP
Doug Stephon
Samuel N. Stevens III, PhD

Delores Stimpson, PMP
Roberta Storer
Dr Kenneth D Strang, PhD, PMP
Geree V. Streun, CSQE, PMP
Michael E. (Mike) Strom, PMP
Juergen Sturany, PMP
Chinta V.N. Subrahmanyam,
PMP
Brian T. Sullivan, PMP
Raghavan Sundararajan, PMP
Yasuji Suzuki, PMP
Rashid M. Syed, MBA, PMP
Michal Szymaczek, PMP
Amin Tabatabayi, BEng, MBA
Shoji Tajima, PMP
Masanori Takahashi, PMP, MA
Paraminder Talwar, PMP
Randy Tangco, PMP, CSM
Nilesh Adrian Pieris Tavarayan,
AMBCS, MACS (Prov)
John Terdik, PMP, DCB
Gangesh Thakur, CPIM, CSCP
Jaimini Thakore
Pham Minh Thang
Claire-Jodane Thermidor
William M. Thom, PMP
Darin Thomas, PMP
William J. Thompson, PE, PMP
Rocky Thurston, PMP
Linus G. Tibayan, FLMI, PMP
Surendra Tipparaju, ME
Lulu V. Tobin, PMP
Victoria Todas-Lozada, PMP
Mark Tolbert

Appendix X2 - Contributors and Reviewers of the PMBOK ® Guide—Fifth Edition

Nagla Toma, MA
Carolyn A. Toomer, PMP
Terry D. Tosh, PMP
Lee Towe, PMP, MBA
Biagio Tramontana, Ing, PMP
R. Trant, BA, C Mar Eng
Ricardo Triana, PMP
Daniel J. Troxell, MBA, PMP
Shi-Ja Tseng
William Stephen Turner
Vidyasagar Uddagiri, PMP
Nnanna Charles Ukaegbu,
PE, PMP
Krishnakant T. Upadhyaya, PMP
Eric Uyttewaal,
MS Business, PMP
Ali Vahedi Diz, MSc, PMP
Jorge Valdés Garciatorres,
PMP, ITIL
Dennis K. Van Gemert, MS, PMP
Paula Ximena Varas, PMP
Ricardo Viana Vargas, MSc, PMP
Jouko Vaskimo, PMP
Thierry Verlynde, PMP
Malay Verma, PMP, PGCBM
Vijay K. Verma, PMP, MBA

Aloysio Vianna Jr.
David Violette, MPM, PMP
Pepijn Visser
Cornelis (Kees) Vonk
Paul E. Waits, Jr., PMP, CPM
Mike Wakshull, PMP, MSc
Ronald P. C. Waller,
PMI Fellow, PMP
Barbara Walsh, CAPM
Thomas M. Walsh, PMP
Steve J. Walter, PhD, CSEP, PMP
Xiaojin Wang, PhD, PMP
Lou Ware, PMP
William W. Wassel, PE, PMP
Ian J. Watson, PMP
Michael D. Watson, PMP
Patrick Weaver, PMP, FAICD
John A. Weber, PMP
Kevin R. Wegryn, PMP, CPM
Linda Westfall, CSQE, PE
John White
Mark Wilfer, PMP
Donald Wilkinson, PMP
Nancy Wilkinson, MBA, PMP
Dale K. Williams, PMP, CSM
Terry Williams, PhD, PMP

John Wilson, PhD, PMP
Rebecca A. Winston, JD
Michael Witzorky, PMP
Audrey R. Wojcik
Nan Wolfslayer, AStd
Rick Woods, SSBB, PMP
Mark A. Wright, PMP
Vicki Wrona, PMP
Andrew Lam Tug Wye, PMP,
CITPM (Associate)
Kazuo Yamamoto, PMP
Shahrzad Yazdani, PMP, LSS GB
Clement C.L. Yeung, PMP
Masakazu Yonezaki
Tan EE Yuen Yvonne
Azam M. Zaqzouq, MCT, PMP
Omran M. Zbeida
Xuyan Zhang
Rob Zilay, MBA, PMP
K. Kimi Hirotsu Ziemski, PMP
Paul W. Zilmer, PMP
William A. Zimmer, PMP
Heinz Zimmermann, MSc, PMP
John Zlockie, MBA, PMP

503

Appendix X2 - Contributors and Reviewers of the PMBOK ® Guide—Fifth Edition

X2.10 The PMBOK® Guide—Third Edition
Dennis Bolles, PMP, Project Manager
Darrel G. Hubbard, PE, Deputy Project Manager
J. David Blaine, PMP (Quality Control Coordinator)
Theodore R. Boccuzzi, PMP (Document Research Team Leader)
Elden Jones, PMP (Configuration Management Coordinator)
Dorothy Kangas, PMP (Product Overview Team Leader)
Carol Steuer, PMP (Framework Team Leader)
Geree Streun, PMP (Process Groups Team Leader)
Lee Towe, PMP (Special Appointment)

X2.10.1 Other Contributors:
Abdallah Abi-Aad, PMP, PEng
Muhamed Abdomerovic, PMP
Adrian Abramovici, PMP
Fred Abrams, PMP, CPL
Yassir Afaneh
Hussain Ali Al-Ansari,
Eur Ing, CEng
Mohammed Abdulla Al-Kuwari,
Eur Ing, CEng
Jamie K. Allen, PMP
Mark Allyn, PMP
Sumner Alpert, PMP, CMC
Frank Anbari
Scott C. Anderson, PMP
Lionel Andrew, MBA, ISP
Russell Archibald, PMP
Prabu V. Ayyagari, PhD, PMP

504

William W. Bahnmaier, PMP
Alfred Baker
Ernest Baker, PMP
Pamela M. Baker, PMP
W. Clifton Baldwin, PMP
B. D. Barnes
Kevin E. Bast, PMP
Jefferson Bastreghi
Mohammed Safi Batley, MIM
Julia M. Bednar, PMP
James S. Bennett, PMP
Cynthia A. Berg, PMP
Sally Bernstein, PMP
Mamoun A. Besaiso, CE
Ionut C. Bibac
Howland Blackiston
J. David Blaine, PMP, CSQE

Ray Blake, PMP
Nigel Blampied, PE, PMP
Dennis Bolles, PMP
Stephen Bonk
Barbara Borgmann, PMP
Charles W. Bosler, Jr.
Gregory M. Bowen, CSDP
Rollin O. Bowen, Jr.
Carolyn Boyles, MBA, PMP
David Bradford, PMP
James (Jim) P. Branden,
MBA, PMP
Wayne R. Brantley, PMP, MS Ed
Gary D. Brawley, PEng., PMP
Alex S. Brown, PMP
Timothy S. Brown
Stephen C. Burgan, PMP

Appendix X2 - Contributors and Reviewers of the PMBOK ® Guide—Fifth Edition

Anne Cagle, PMP
Dean J. Calabrese, PMP
Neil R. Caldwell
Giuseppe A. Caruso, PMP
Edgard P. Cerqueira Neto,
PhD, PMP
Bruce Chadbourne
Bill Chadick, PMP
Clare Chan
Porfirio Chen Chang, MBA, PMP
Ho Lee Cheong, PhD, MIMechE
Gene Chiappetta, PMP
Tomio Chiba, PMP
Mark T. Chism, PMP
Aaron Coffman, PMP, CQM
Kim D. Colenso, PMP, CSQE
Edmund H. Conrow, PhD, PMP
Helen S. Cooke, PMP
Michael Corish
John E. Cormier, PMP
John Cornman, PMP, MBA
Sergio R. Coronado
Andy Crowe, PMP
Robert L. Cutler, PMP
Darren Dalcher, PhD, MAPM
Mario Damiani, PMP
Shari M. Daniel, PMP
Arindam Das
Pranab Das, PMP
Aloysio da Silva
Allan E. Dean
Robert de Jong, PMP
Juan De La Cruz
M. Pilar De La Cruz

Alfredo del Cano, PE, PhD
Connie Delisle
Andrea Giulio Demaria, PMP
John M. Dery, PMP
Barbara De Vries, PMP
Ravi Kumar Dikshit, PMP
Jerry Dimos, PMP
James A. Doanes
Capt. Nick Doralp, PMP
John Downing
Magnus Karl Drengwitz, PMP
Daniel Dudek
Peter Duignan, PMP
Lloyd R. Duke, Jr., PMP
Suhas Dutta, PMP
Judith Edwards, PhD, PMP
Bradford R. Eichhorn, PMP
Gary S. Elliott, MS, MD
Robert L. Emerson, PMP
Alison Evanish
Gregory William Fabian, PMP
Steven L. Fahrenkrog, PMP
Morten Fangel, PhD
Keith Farndale, PEng, PMP
Martin Christopher Fears, PMP
Eve Featherman
AnnaMaria Felici
Flynn M. Fernandes, MSPM,
PMP
John C. “Buck” Field, MBA, PMP
Linda Fitzgerald
Quentin W. Fleming
David Foley, MBA
Kirby Fortenberry, PMP

Gary W. Fortune, PMP
John M. Foster, PMP, MBA
Scott D. Freauf, PMP
Denis Freeland
Ichiro Fujita, PMP
John S. Galliano
Donald G. Gardner, PMP
Stanisław Gasik
Jackelen George
Jose A. George, B Tech, PGDM
Dan Georgopulos
Paul H. Gil, MCP, PMP
Greg Githens, PMP
Earl Glenwright, PE, VEA
Leo A.Giulianetti, PMP
Christopher A. Goetz, PMP
Donna Golden
Dan Goldfischer
Neil P. Goldman, PMP
Margarida Goncalves, PhD
John C. Goodpasture, PMP
Dana J. Goulston, PMP
Neal S. Gray, PMP
Steve Grey, PhD, PMP
Robert J. Gries, PE, PMP
Mike Griffiths, PMP
Patrick D. Guest, PMP
Jinendra Gunathilaka, PE
Navneet Gupta, PMP
David R. Haas, PMP, FLMI
Aaron S. Hall, PMP
Robert W. Harding, RA
Delbert K. Hardy, PMP
Patti Harter

505

Appendix X2 - Contributors and Reviewers of the PMBOK ® Guide—Fifth Edition

J. Ray Harwood, PMP
Ali Hassan, PMP
Ralph Hernandez
Rick Hiett
Pat Hillcoat, PMP
Bob Hillier, PMP
David Hillson, PhD, PMP
Guy N. Hindley, MAPM, MILT
Danny N. Hinton, PMP
Bobby Tsan Fai Ho, PMP, CISM
J. Brian Hobbs, PhD, PMP
Piet Holbrouck, MSc
Carol Holliday, PMP
Gopi V. Hombal
Martin Hopkinson, BSc, APMP
Keith D. Hornbacher, MBA
Darrel G. Hubbard, PE
Kenneth Alan Hudacsko, PMP
David T. Hulett, PhD, PMP
Clinton in’t Veld
Adesh Jain, PMP, MPD
Don R. James, PMP
Grant Jefferson
Noel C. Jensen, PMP
Wei Jing
Bruce Johnson, PMP
Elden Jones, MSPM, PMP
Granville H. Jones, Sr.,
MBA, PMP
Kevin B. Jones, BMath, PMP
Howard J. Kalinsky, PMP, MPM
Constance Katsanis
Roger Kent

506

Tom Kerr, PMP
Ajmal Afzal Khan
Asadullah Khan, PMP
Lucy Kim, PE, PMP
Mihail Kitanovski
Jennifer Eileen Kraft
Takahiko Kuki, PE, PMP
Polisetty V.S. Kumar,
M Tech, PMP
Avis Kunz
Thomas Kurihara
Antonio Carlos Laranjo da Silva
John S. Layman, PMP
Lawrence (Larry) P. Leach, PMP
Craig Letavec
Ben Linders
Erik D. Lindquist, PE, PMP
Mary K. Lofsness
Elizabeth Ann Long, PMP
Raul S. Lopez, PE, PMP
Enrique Lopez-Mingueza, PMP
Pier Paolo Lo Valvo, PMP
Karen Griffin MacNeil, PMP
Sajith K. Madapatu, PMP
Vijaya Kumar Mani, PMP
Mark Marlin, PMP
Enrique Martinez
Victor J. Matheron, PMP
Stephen S. Mattingly
Christopher J. Maughan,
CEng, PMP
Giuseppe Mauri
Yves Mboda, PMP

David L. McPeters, PMP
Ed Mechler, PMP
Godfrey I. Meertens, PMP
Richard Meertens, MBA, PMP
Yan Bello Mendez, PMP
Gordon R. Miller, PMP, CCP
Liu Min
Santosh Kumar Mishra,
PMP, CSQA
Andrew H. Moore, MBA, PMP
Colin Morris, PE, PMP
Saradhi Motamarri, M Tech, PMP
Mhlabaniseni Moses Mitmunye
Rita Mulcahy, PMP
Charles L. Munch, PMP
K.S. Keshava Murthy
Jo Musto, PMP
AnathaKrishnan
S. Nallepally, PMP
NB Narayanan
Vijayalakshimi Neela, MCA, PMP
Beatrice Nelson, PMP
Brian D. Nelson, PMP
Jeffrey S. Nielsen, PMP
Isabella Nizza, PMP
Jim O’Brien, PMP
Kazuhiko Okubo, PE, PMP
David M. Olson, MBA (ITM)
Peter Ostrom, PhD, PMP
Jeffery L. Ottesen, PE
Michael T. Ozeranic
Laura Dorival Paglione
Ravindranath Palahalli

Appendix X2 - Contributors and Reviewers of the PMBOK ® Guide—Fifth Edition

Glen R. Palmer
Jon Palmquist
Nick Palumbo, PMP
David Parker
Jerry L. Partridge, PMP
George Pasieka, PMP
Eric Patel
Anil Peer, PEng, PMP
Francisco Perez-Polo
Paul W. Phister, Jr., PhD, PE
Crispin (Kik) Piney, BSc, PMP
Natasha Pollard
Sreenivasa Rao Potti, MCA, PMP
Manohar Powar, PMP
Ravindranath P S
Patrick J. Quairoli
Ge Qun
Vara Prasad Raju Kunada
Gurdev Randhawa
Prem Ranganath, PMP
Raju Rao, PMP
Ulka Rathi
Carol Rauh, PhD, PMP
Tony Raymond
Vijay Sai Reddy, PMP, CSQA
J. Logan C. Rice
Steven Ricks, PMP
Steven F. Ritter, PMP
Thad B. Ring, PMP
Dee Rizor
Susan Rizzi
Michael C. Roach
Alexandre G. Rodrigues, PhD

Cheryl N. Rogers, PMP
Asbjorn Rolstadas, PhD
Hans (Ron) Ronhovde, PMP
Scott A. Rose, PMP
Ed Rosenstein, PMP
David W. Ross, PMP
Samuel S. Roth, PMP
Joseph A. Roushdi
Gurdev Roy, PMP
Paul S. Royer, PMP
James J. Rutushni, PMP
Robbi Ryan
Frank Ryle, PMP
Anjali Sabharwal, PMP
Srinivasa R. Sajja, PMP
Brian Salk, MA Ed, PMP
Nashaat A. Salman, PMP
Kyoichi Sato
Markus Scheibel, PMP, Dipl-Ing
Suzanne Lee Schmidt, PMP
John Schmitt, PMP
Amy Schneider, PMP
Michael J. Schollmeyer, PMP
Randa Schollmeyer, PMP
Richard E. Schwartz
Andrea R. Scott
Benjamin R. Sellers, PMP, CPCM
Tufan Sevim, PMP
Sanjay Shah, PMP
Mundaje S. Shetty, PMP
Kazuo Shimizu, PMP
Rali Shital
Ganga Siebertz

Larry Sieck
Melvin Silverman, PhD, PE
Fernando Demattio de O.
Simoes, PMP
Richard L. Sinatra, PhD, PMP
Raghavendra Singh
John E. Singley, PhD, PMP
Edward Smith
Patricia Smith
Cynthia Snyder, MBA, PMP
Antonio Soares
Paul Solomon, PMP
Richard Spector, PMP
Allison St. Jean
Michael Stefanovic, PEng, PMP
Geree Streun, PMP
Juergen Sturany
Donglin Su
Sambasivam S., PMP, CSQA
George Sukumar, MSChe, OE
Karen Z. Sullivan, PMP
Karen Tate, MBA, PMP
David E. Taylor, PMP
James E. Teer, Jr.
Sai K. Thallam, MBA, PMP
John A. Thoren, Jr., PhD, PMP
Surendra Tipparaju, ME
Massimo Torre, PhD, PMP
Luis Eduardo Torres Calzada,
MBA, PMP
Rogerio Carlos Traballi
Lee Towe, MBA, PMP
Rufis A. Turpin, CQA, CSQE

507

Appendix X2 - Contributors and Reviewers of the PMBOK ® Guide—Fifth Edition

Marion J. Tyler, PMP
M. Raj Ullagaraj, PhD
Bobbye Underwood, PMP
Eric Uyttewaal, PMP
Dalton L. Valeriano-Alves, ME
JR Vanden Eynde, PMP
Gary Van Eck
Judy Van Meter
J.R. Vanden Eynde, PMP
Gerrit van Otterdijk, BSc
Thomas G. Van Scoyoc, PMP
Paula X. Varas, PMP
Ricardo Vargas
Ricardo Viana Vargas, MSc, PMP
Aloysio Vianna, Jr.
Mark M. Vertin, PE, PMP

Craig Veteto, PMP, CPIM
Roberto Viale, PMP
Eduardo Newton Vieira, PMP
Dave Violette, MPM, PMP
Desmond Joseph Vize, PMP
Cornelius (Kees) Vonk, PMP
J. Wendell Wagner, PMP
Barbara Walsh
Thomas M. Walsh, PMP
William W. Wassel, PE, PMP
Patrick Weaver, PMP, FAICD
Kevin R. Wegryn, PMP, CPM
Timothy E. Welker, PMP
Linda Westfall, PE, CSQE
Gwen Whitman, PMP
Tammo T. Wilkens, PE, PMP

Alan K. Williams, Sr., PMP
Charles M. Williamson,
MBA, PMP
Stephen D. Wise
Allan Wong
Robert Wood
Kristin L. Wright
Thomas Wuttke, PMP, CPM
Uma S. Yalamanchili, PMP
Clement C.L. Yeung, PMP
Angela F. Young, PMP
John Zachar, BSc, APMP
Kathy Zandbergen
Cristine Zerpa
Paul Zilmer
Eire E. Zimmermann, PMP

X2.11 The PMBOK® Guide—2000 Edition
Cynthia A. Berg, PMP
Judith A. Doll, PMP
Daniel Dudek, PMP
Quentin Fleming
Greg Githens, PMP
Earl Glenwright
David T. Hulett, PhD
Gregory J. Skulmoski

508

Appendix X2 - Contributors and Reviewers of the PMBOK ® Guide—Fifth Edition

X2.11.1 Other Contributors:
Muhamed Abdomerovic, PMP,
D. Eng.
John R. Adams
Yassir Afaneh
Frank Allen, PMP
Jon D. Allen, PMP
MaryGrace Allenchey, PMP
Robert A. Andrejko, PMP
Ichizo Aoki
Paul C. Aspinwall
Ronald Auffrédou, PMP
Edward Averill, PMP
Frederick L. Ayer, PMP
William W. Bahnmaier, PMP
A. C. “Fred” Baker, PMP
Carole J. Bass, PMP
George Belev
Berndt Bellman
Sally Bernstein, PMP
Nigel Blampied, PE, PMP
John Blatta
Patrick Brown, PMP
Alfredo del Caño
Chris Cartwright, PMP
Bruce C. Chadbourne, PMP
Michael T. Clark, PMP
Raymond C. Clark, PE
Elizabeth Clarke
David Coates, PMP
Kim Colenso, PMP

Edmund H. Conrow, PMP
Kenneth G. Cooper
Sergio Coronado Arrechedera
John Cornman, PMP
Richard F. Cowan, PMP
Kevin Daly, PMP
Mario Damiani, PMP
Thomas Diethelm, PMP
David M. Drevinsky, PMP
William R. Duncan
Frank D. Einhorn, PMP
Steven L. Fahrenkrog
Edward Fern, PMP
Lisa Fisher
Christian Frankenberg, PMP
Scott D. Freauf, PMP
Jean-Luc Frere, PMP
Ichiro Fujita, PMP
Chikako Futamura, PMP
Serge Garon, PEng, PMP
Brian L. Garrison, PMP
Lewis M. Gedansky
Linda V. Gillman
Eric Glover
Eva T. Goldman
Peter Bryan Goldsbury
Michael Goodman, PMP
Jean Gouix, PMP
Paul Grace
Alexander Grassi Sr., PMP

Roger Graves
Franz X. Hake
Peter Heffron
Chris Herbert, PMP
Dr. David Hillson, PMP, FAPM
J. Brian Hobbs, PMP
Marion Diane Holbrook
Robin Hornby
David Hotchkiss, PMP
Bill Hubbard
Charles L. Hunt
Thomas P. Hurley, PMP
George Jackelen
Angyan P. Jagathnarayanan
Sandy Jenkins
Elden F. Jones II, PMP, CMII
Sada Joshi, PMP
Lewis Kana, PMP
Subramaniam Kandaswamy,
PhD, PMP
Ronald L. Kempf, PMP
Robert Dohn Kissinger,
PhD, PMP
Kurt V. Kloecker
Toni D. Knott
Jan Kristrom
Blase Kwok, PMP
Sam Lane
Lawrence P. Leach
Philip A. Lindeman

509

Appendix X2 - Contributors and Reviewers of the PMBOK ® Guide—Fifth Edition

Gábor Lipi
Lyle W. Lockwood, PMP
J. W. Lowthian, PMP
Arif Mahmood, PMP
James Martin (on behalf
of INCOSE)
Stephen S. Mattingly
Glen Maxfield
Peter McCarthy
Rob McCormack, PMP
John McHugh
Krik D. McManus
Dewey L. Messer
David Michaud
Mary F. Miekoski, PMP
Oscar A. Mignone
Gordon R. Miller, PMP
Roy E. Morgan, PMP
Jim Morris, PMP
Bert Mosterd, PMP
William A. Moylan, PMP
John D. Nelson, PMP
Wolfgang Obermeier
Cathy Oest, PMP
Masato Ohori, PMP
Kazuhiko Okubo, PE, PMP
Edward Oliver
Michelle Triggs Owen
Mark S. Parker
Shirley B. Parker
Matthew H. Parry

510

Jerry Partridge, PMP
Francisco Perez-Polo, PMP
James M. Phillips, PMP
Crispin (Kik) Piney, PMP
George Pitagorsky, PMP
David L. Prater, PMP
Janice Preston
Bradford S. Price, PMP
Samuel L. Raisch, PMP
Naga Rajan
G. Ramachandran, PMP
Stephen Reed
Bill Righter, PMP
Bernice L. Rocque, PMP
Wolfgang Theodore Roesch
Fernando Romero Peñailillo
Jon Rude
Linda Rust, PMP
Fabian Sagristani, PMP
James N. Salapatas, PMP
Seymour Samuels
Bradford N. Scales
H. Peter Schiller
John R. Schuyler, PMP
Maria Scott, PMP
Shoukat Sheikh, MBA, PMP
Larry Sieck
Kazuo Shimizu, PMP
David Shuster
Melvin Silverman, PhD, PE
Loren J. Simer Jr.

Keith Skilling, PE, PMP
Ed Smith
Kenneth F. Smith, PMP
Barry Smythe, PMP
Paul J. Solomon
Joe Soto Sr., PMP
Christopher Wessley Sours, PMP
Charlene Spoede, PMP
Joyce Statz, PMP
Emmett Stine, PMP
Alan Stretton
Thangavel Subbu
Jim Szpakowski
Ahmet N. Taspinar, PMP
John A. Thoren Jr., PMP
Iesha D. Turner-Brown
Alan D. Uren, PMP
Juan Luis Valero, PMP
S. Rao Vallabhaneni
William Simon Vaughan
Robinson
Ana Isabel Vazquez Urbina
Ricardo Viana Vargas, PMP
Mike Wakshull
Stephen E. Wall, PMP
William W. Wassel, PMP
R. Max Wideman
Tammo T. Wilkens, PE, PMP
Robert Williford, PMP
Robert Youker

Appendix X2 - Contributors and Reviewers of the PMBOK ® Guide—Fifth Edition

X2.12 The PMBOK® Guide—1996 Edition
William R. Duncan
Frederick Ayer
Cynthia Berg
Mark Burgess
Helen Cooke
Judy Doll
Drew Fetters
Brian Fletcher
Earl Glenwright
Eric Jenett
Deborah O’Bray
Diane Quinn
Anthony Rizzotto
Alan Stretton
Douglas E. Tryloff

X2.12.1 Other Contributors:
John Adams
Edward L. Averill
C. “Fred” Baker
F. J. “Bud” Baker
Tom Belanger
John A. Bing
Brian Bock
Paul Bosakowski
Keely Brunner
Dorothy J. Burton

Jeannette M. Cabanis
Louis J. Cabano
Kim Colenso
Samuel K. Collier
Karen Condos-Alfonsi
E. J. Coyle
Darlene Crane
David Curling
Russ Darnall
Misty N. Dillard

Maureen Dougherty
John J. Downing
Daniel D. Dudek
Lawrence East
Quentin W. Fleming
Rick Fletcher
Linda V. Gillman
Greg Githens
Douglas Gordon
Leo Giulianeti

511

Appendix X2 - Contributors and Reviewers of the PMBOK ® Guide—Fifth Edition

Martha D. Hammonds
Abdulrazak Hajibrahim
G. Alan Hellawell
Bobby R. Hensley
Jonathan Hicks
Paul Hinkley
Wayne L. Hinthorn
Mark E. Hodson
David T. Hulett
Edward Ionata
Lew Ireland
Elvin Isgrig
Murray Janzen
Frank Jenes
Sandy Jenkins
Walter Karpowski
William F. Kerrigan
Harold Kerzner
Robert L. Kimmons
Richard King
J. D. “Kaay” Koch
Lauri Koskela
Richard E. Little
Lyle W. Lockwood
Lawrence Mack
Christopher Madigan
Michael L. McCauley
Hugh McLaughlin
Frank McNeely
Pierre Menard
Dewey L. Messer

512

Rick Michaels
Raymond Miller
Alan Minson
Colin Morris
R. Bruce Morris
Danell Moses
David J. Mueller
Gary Nelson
John M. Nevison
John P. Nolan
Louise C. Novakowski
James O’Brien
JoAnn C. Osmer
Jon V. Palmquist
Mark S. Parker
Shirley B. Parker
Matthew Parry
John G. Phippen
Hans E. Picard
Melissa Pendergast
James S. Pennypacker
Serge Y. Piotte
PMI Houston Chapter
PMI Manitoba Chapter
PMI New Zealand Chapter
Charles J. Pospisil
Janice Y. Preston
Mark T. Price
Christopher Quaife
Peter E. Quinn
Hadley Reynolds

Steven F. Ritter
William S. Ruggles
Ralph B. Sackman
Agnes Salvo
Alice Sapienza
W. Stephen Sawle
Darryl M. Selleck
Melvin Silverman
Roy Smith
Leonard Stolba
Craig T. Stone
Hiroshi Tanaka
Ahmet Taspinar
Robert Templeton
Dick Thiel
Saul Thomashow
J. Tidhar
Janet Toepfer
Michelle Triggs
Vijay K. Verma
Alex Walton
Jack Way
Francis M. Webster Jr.
R. Max Wideman
Rebecca Winston
Hugh M. Woodward
Lisa Woodring
Robert Youker
Shakir H. Zuberi
Dirk Zwart

APPENDIX X3 - INTERPERSONAL SKILLS

APPENDIX X3
INTERPERSONAL SKILLS
Project managers accomplish work through the project team and other stakeholders. Effective project managers
acquire a balance of technical, interpersonal, and conceptual skills that help them analyze situations and interact
appropriately. This appendix describes important interpersonal skills, such as:
• Leadership
• Team building
• Motivation
• Communication
• Influencing
• Decision making
• Political and cultural awareness
• Negotiation
• Trust building
• Conflict management
• Coaching
While there are additional interpersonal skills that project managers use, the appropriate use of these skills
assists the project manager in effectively managing the project.

X3.1 Leadership
Leadership involves focusing the efforts of a group of people toward a common goal and enabling them to
work as a team. In general terms, leadership is the ability to get things done through others. Respect and trust,
rather than fear and submission, are the key elements of effective leadership. Although important throughout all
project phases, effective leadership is critical during the beginning phases of a project when the emphasis is on
communicating the vision and motivating and inspiring project participants to achieve high performance.

513

APPENDIX X3 - INTERPERSONAL SKILLS

Throughout the project, the project team leaders are responsible for establishing and maintaining the vision,
strategy, and communications; fostering trust and team building; influencing, mentoring, and monitoring; and
evaluating the performance of the team and the project.

X3.2 Team Building
Team building is the process of helping a group of individuals, bound by a common purpose, to work with each
other, the leader, external stakeholders, and the organization. The result of good leadership and good team building
is teamwork.
Team-building activities consist of tasks (establish goals, define, and negotiate roles, responsibilities, and
procedures) and processes (interpersonal behavior with emphasis on communication, conflict management,
motivation, and leadership). Developing a team environment involves handling project team problems and
discussing these as team issues without placing blame on individuals. Team building can be further enhanced by
obtaining top management support; encouraging team member commitment; introducing appropriate rewards,
recognition, and ethics; creating a team identity; managing conflicts effectively; promoting trust and open
communication among team members; and providing leadership.
While team building is essential during the front end of a project, it is an ongoing process. Changes in a project
environment are inevitable. To manage these changes effectively, a continued or renewed team-building effort is
required. Outcomes of team building include mutual trust, high quality of information exchange, better decision
making, and effective project management.

X3.3 Motivation
Project teams are comprised of team members with diverse backgrounds, expectations, and individual objectives.
The overall success of the project depends upon the project team’s commitment, which is directly related to their
level of motivation.
Motivating in a project environment involves creating an environment to meet project objectives while providing
maximum satisfaction related to what people value most. These values may include job satisfaction, challenging
work, a sense of accomplishment, achievement and growth, sufficient financial compensation, and other rewards
and recognition the individual considers necessary and important.

514

APPENDIX X3 - INTERPERSONAL SKILLS

X3.4 Communication
Communication has been identified as one of the single biggest reasons for project success or failure. Effective
communication within the project team and between the project manager, team members, and all external
stakeholders is essential. Openness in communication is a gateway to teamwork and high performance. It improves
relationships among project team members and creates mutual trust.
To communicate effectively, the project manager should be aware of the communication styles of other parties,
cultural nuances/norms, relationships, personalities, and the overall context of the situation. Awareness of these
factors leads to mutual understanding and thus to effective communication. Project managers should identify
various communication channels, understand what information they need to provide, what information they need
to receive, and which interpersonal skills will help them communicate effectively with various project stakeholders.
Carrying out team-building activities to determine team member communications styles (e.g., directive, collaborative,
logical, explorer, etc.), allows managers to plan their communications with appropriate sensitivity to relationships
and cultural differences.
Listening is an important part of communication. Listening techniques, both active and passive give the user
insight to problem areas, negotiation and conflict management strategies, decision making, and problem resolution.

X3.5 Influencing
Influencing is a strategy of sharing power and relying on interpersonal skills to get others to cooperate towards
common goals. Using the following guidelines can influence team members:
• Lead by example, and follow through with commitments.
• Clarify how a decision will be made.
• Use a flexible interpersonal style and adjust the style to the audience.
Apply your power skillfully and cautiously. Think of long-term collaboration.

515

APPENDIX X3 - INTERPERSONAL SKILLS

X3.6 Decision Making
There are four basic decision styles normally used by project managers: command, consultation, consensus,
and coin flip (random). There are four major factors that affect the decision style: time constraints, trust, quality,
and acceptance. Project managers may make decisions individually, or they may involve the project team in the
decision-making process.
Project managers and project teams use a decision-making model or process such as the six-phase model
shown below.
• Problem Definition. Fully explore, clarify, and define the problem.
• P
roblem Solution Generation. Prolong the new idea-generating process by brainstorming multiple
solutions and discouraging premature decisions.
• Ideas to Action. Define evaluation criteria, rate pros and cons of alternatives, select best solution.
• S
olution Action Planning. Involve key participants to gain acceptance and commitment to making the
solution work.
• Solution Evaluation Planning. Perform post-implementation analysis, evaluation, and lessons learned.
• E valuation of the Outcome and Process. Evaluate how well the problem was solved or project goals
were achieved (extension of previous phase).

X3.7 Political and Cultural Awareness
Organizational politics are inevitable in project environments due to the diversity in norms, backgrounds, and
expectations of the people involved with a project. The skillful use of politics and power helps the project manager
to be successful. Conversely, ignoring or avoiding project politics and inappropriate use of power can lead to
difficulty in managing projects.
Today project managers operate in a global environment, and many projects exist in an environment of cultural
diversity. By understanding and capitalizing on cultural differences, the project management team is more likely
to create an environment of mutual trust and a win-win atmosphere. Cultural differences can be both individual
and corporate in nature and may involve both internal and external stakeholders. An effective way to manage
this cultural diversity is through getting to know the various team members and the use of good communication
planning as part of the overall project plan.

516

APPENDIX X3 - INTERPERSONAL SKILLS

Culture at a behavioral level includes those behaviors and expectations that occur independently of geography,
ethnic heritage, or common and disparate languages. Culture can impact the speed of working, the decisionmaking process, and the impulse to act without appropriate planning. This may lead to conflict and stress in some
organizations, thereby affecting the performance of project managers and project teams.

X3.8 Negotiation
Negotiation is a strategy of conferring with parties of shared or opposed interests with a view toward compromise
or reaching an agreement. Negotiation is an integral part of project management and done well, increases the
probability of project success.
The following skills and behaviors are useful in negotiating successfully:
• Analyze the situation.
• Differentiate between wants and needs, both theirs and yours.
• Focus on interests and issues rather than on positions.
• Ask high and offer low, but be realistic.
• When you make a concession, act as if you are yielding something of value, don’t just give in.
• B
oth parties should feel as if they have won. This win-win negotiating style is preferred but not
always achievable. If possible, don’t let the other party leave feeling as though he or she has been taken
advantage of.
• Listen attentively and communicate articulately.

X3.9 Trust Building
The ability to build trust across the project team and other key stakeholders is a critical component in effective
team leadership. Trust is associated with cooperation, information sharing, and effective problem resolution. Without
trust it is difficult to establish the positive relationships necessary between the various stakeholders engaged in the
project. When trust is compromised, relationships deteriorate, people disengage, and collaboration becomes more
difficult, if not impossible.
Some actions project managers can take to help build trust:

517

APPENDIX X3 - INTERPERSONAL SKILLS

• Engage in open and direct communications to resolve problems.
• Keep all stakeholders informed, especially when fulfilling commitments is at risk.
• S pend time directly engaged with the team asking nonassumptive questions to gain a better understanding
of the situations affecting the team.
• Be direct and explicit about what you need or expect.
• D
o not withhold information out of a fear of being wrong but be willing to share information even if you
may be wrong.
• Be receptive to innovation and address any issues or concerns in a forthright manner.
• Look beyond your own interests.
• D
emonstrate a true concern for others and avoid engaging in pursuits that could be viewed as being
detrimental to the interest of others.

X3.10 Conflict Management
Conflict is inevitable in a project environment. Incongruent requirements, competition for resources, breakdowns
in communications, and many other factors could become sources of conflict. Within a project’s environment,
conflict may yield dysfunctional outcomes. However, if actively managed, conflicts can actually help the team arrive
at a better solution. The project manager must be able to identify the causes for conflict and then actively manage
the conflict thus minimizing potential negative impacts. The project team is then able to deliver better solutions and
increase the probability of project success.
Project managers must develop the skills and experience necessary to effectively adapt their personal conflict
management style to the situation. Managing conflict in a project environment involves building the trust necessary
for all involved parties to be open and honest, and to engage in seeking a positive resolution to the situation creating
the conflict. Project managers strive to establish a collaborative approach among the team members involved in
order to fully resolve the problems. In situations where a collaborative approach is not possible, the project manager
must then revert to other active management styles for handling the conflict; e.g., assertiveness, accommodation,
avoidance, or compromise.
Managing conflict is one of the biggest challenges a project manager faces. It draws upon all of the other
interpersonal skills of a project manager in order to lead the team to a successful resolution of the situation in
conflict.

518

APPENDIX X3 - INTERPERSONAL SKILLS

X3.11 Coaching
Coaching is a means of developing the project team to higher levels of competency and performance. Coaching
is about helping people recognize their potential through empowerment and development. Coaching is used to aid
team members in developing or enhancing their skills or to build new skills required to enable project success.
Coaching can take many forms and approaches. In some instances, formal or informal training may be developed
to increase technical skills or assist team-building efforts and facilitate consistent interpersonal interactions.
Coaching is also used to address poor performance and to help team members overcome deficiencies in their
skill sets. Coaching is distinct from counseling. Counseling focuses on addressing situations where team members
“won’t do” something rather than “can’t do.” If the situation is one where the team member is not performing or
meeting expectations due to a lack of skill, knowledge, or experience, coaching can be employed to help the team
member to develop this skill and thus turn a “can’t do” situation into one of “can do.”
Coaching can be a powerful motivator for teams. As teams develop their skills, abilities, and confidence, their
willingness to take on challenging or demanding tasks is increased. This can lead to more effective and productive
teams.

X3.12 References
Covey, S. R. “Seven Habits of Highly Effective People,” A Fireside Book, Simon and Schuster, New York, NY.
insmore, P.C. “Human Factors in Project Management (Revised Edition),” American Management Association:
D
New York, NY.
Levin, G. and Flannes, S. “Essential People Skills for Project Managers,” Management Concepts Inc., Vienna, VA.
Verma, V. K. “Organizing Projects for Success,” PMI, Newtown Square, PA.
Verma, V. K. “Human Resource Skills for the Project Manager,” PMI, Newtown Square, PA.
Verma, V. K. “Managing the Project Team,” PMI, Newtown Square, PA.

519

REFERENCES

REFERENCES
[1] Project Management Institute. 2012. PMI Lexicon of Project Management Terms. Available from
http://www.pmi.org/lexiconterms
[2] Project Management Institute. PMI Code of Ethics and Professional Conduct. Available from
http://www.pmi.org/codeofethicsPDF
[3] Project Management Institute. 2013. The Standard for Program Management – Third Edition. Newtown
Square, PA: PMI.
[4] Project Management Institute. 2013. The Standard for Portfolio Management – Third Edition. Newtown
Square, PA: PMI.
[5]
Project Management Institute. 2013. Organizational Project Management Maturity Model (OPM3®) –
Third Edition. Newtown Square, PA: PMI.
[6] International Standards Organization. 2008. ISO/IEC 15288:2008. Systems and Software Engineering –
System Life Cycle Processes. Geneva, Switzerland: ISO.
[7]
Project Management Institute. 2006. Practice Standard for Work Breakdown Structures (WBS) –
Second Edition (Reaffirmed). Newtown Square, PA: PMI.
[8] Project Management Institute. 2011. Practice Standard for Scheduling – Second Edition. Newtown Square,
PA: PMI.
[9] Project Management Institute. 2011. Practice Standard for Earned Value Management – Second Edition.
Newtown Square, PA: PMI.
[10] International Standards Organization. 2008. ISO 9000:2008. Quality Management Systems – Fundamentals
and Vocabulary. Geneva, Switzerland: ISO.
[11] International Standards Organization. 2004. ISO/IEC 2:2004. Standardization and Related Activities– General
Vocabulary. Geneva, Switzerland: ISO.
[12] International Standards Organization. 2012. ISO 21500:2012 Guidance on Project Management. Geneva,
Switzerland: ISO.

521

Glossary

Glossary
1. Inclusions and Exclusions
This glossary includes terms that are:
• U
nique or nearly unique to project management (e.g., project scope statement, work package, work
breakdown structure, critical path method).
• N
ot unique to project management, but used differently or with a narrower meaning in project management
than in general everyday usage (e.g., early start date,).
This glossary generally does not include:
• Application area-specific terms.
• Terms used in project management which do not differ in any material way from everyday use
(e.g., calendar day, delay).
• Compound terms whose meaning is clear from the combined meanings of the component parts.
• Variants when the meaning of the variant is clear from the base term.
As a result of the above inclusions and exclusions, this glossary includes:
• A preponderance of terms related to Project Scope Management, Project Time Management, and Project
Risk Management, since many of the terms used in these Knowledge Areas are unique or nearly unique
to project management.
• M
any terms from Project Quality Management, since these terms are used more narrowly than in their
everyday usage.
elatively few terms related to Project Human Resource Management, Project Communications
• R
Management, and Project Stakeholder Management, since most of the terms used in these Knowledge
Areas do not differ significantly from everyday usage.
• R
elatively few terms related to Project Cost Management, Project Integration Management, and Project
Procurement Management, since many of the terms used in these Knowledge Areas have narrow
meanings that are unique to a particular application area.

523

Glossary

2. Common Acronyms

524

actual cost

ACWP

actual cost of work performed

BAC

budget at completion

CCB

change control board

COQ

cost of quality

CPAF

cost plus award fee

CPFF

cost plus fixed fee

CPI

cost performance index

CPIF

cost plus incentive fee

CPM

critical path methodology

cost variance

EAC

estimate at completion

early finish date

EMV

expected monetary value

early start date

ETC

estimate to complete

earned value

EVM

earned value management

finish-to-finish

FFP

firm fixed price contract

FMEA

failure mode and effect analysis

FP-EPA

fixed price with economic price adjustment

FPIF

fixed price incentive fee

finish to start

Glossary

IFB

invitation for bid

late finish date

LOE

level of effort

late start date

OBS

organizational breakdown structure

PDM

precedence diagramming method

PMBOK

Project Management Body of Knowledge

planned value

QFD

quality function deployment

RACI

responsible, accountable, consult, and inform

RAM

responsibility assignment matrix

RBS

risk breakdown structure

RFI

request for information

RFP

request for proposal

RFQ

request for quotation

start-to-finish

SOW

statement of work

SPI

schedule performance index

start-to-start

schedule variance

SWOT

strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats

T&M

time and material contract

WBS

work breakdown structure

525

Glossary

3. Definitions
Many of the words defined here have broader, and in some cases different, dictionary definitions.
The definitions use the following conventions:
• In some cases, a single glossary term consists of multiple words (e.g., risk urgency assessment).
• W
hen synonyms are included, no definition is given and the reader is directed to the preferred term (i.e.,
see preferred term).
• R
elated terms that are not synonyms are cross-referenced at the end of the definition (i.e., see also
related term).
Acceptance Criteria. A set of conditions that is required to be met before deliverables are accepted.
Accepted Deliverables. Products, results, or capabilities produced by a project and validated by the project
customer or sponsors as meeting their specified acceptance criteria.
Accuracy. Within the quality management system, accuracy is an assessment of correctness.
Acquire Project Team. The process of confirming human resource availability and obtaining the team necessary
to complete project activities.
Acquisition. Obtaining human and material resources necessary to perform project activities. Acquisition implies
a cost of resources, and is not necessarily financial.
Activity. A distinct, scheduled portion of work performed during the course of a project.
Activity Attributes. Multiple attributes associated with each schedule activity that can be included within the activity
list. Activity attributes include activity codes, predecessor activities, successor activities, logical relationships, leads
and lags, resource requirements, imposed dates, constraints, and assumptions.
Activity Code. One or more numerical or text values that identify characteristics of the work or in some way
categorize the schedule activity that allows filtering and ordering of activities within reports.
Activity Cost Estimates. The projected cost of the schedule activity that includes the cost for all resources required
to perform and complete the activity, including all cost types and cost components.
Activity Duration. The time in calendar units between the start and finish of a schedule activity. See also duration.

526

Glossary

Activity Duration Estimate. A quantitative assessment of the likely amount or outcome for the duration of an
activity.
Activity Identifier. A short, unique numeric or text identification assigned to each schedule activity to differentiate
that project activity from other activities. Typically unique within any one project schedule network diagram.
Activity List. A documented tabulation of schedule activities that shows the activity description, activity identifier,
and a sufficiently detailed scope of work description so project team members understand what work is to be
performed.
Activity Network Diagrams. See project schedule network diagram.
Activity-on-Node (AON). See precedence diagramming method (PDM).
Activity Resource Requirements. The types and quantities of resources required for each activity in a work
package.
Actual Cost (AC). The realized cost incurred for the work performed on an activity during a specific time period.
Actual Duration. The time in calendar units between the actual start date of the schedule activity and either the
data date of the project schedule if the schedule activity is in progress or the actual finish date if the schedule
activity is complete.
Adaptive Life Cycle. A project life cycle, also known as change-driven or agile methods, that is intended to
facilitate change and require a high degree of ongoing stakeholder involvement. Adaptive life cycles are also
iterative and incremental, but differ in that iterations are very rapid (usually 2–4 weeks in length) and are fixed in
time and resources.
Additional Quality Planning Tools. A set of tools used to define the quality requirements and to plan effective
quality management activities. They include, but are not limited to: brainstorming, force field analysis, nominal
group techniques and quality management and control tools.
Adjusting Leads and Lags. A technique used to find ways to bring project activities that are behind into alignment
with plan during project execution.
Advertising. The process of calling public attention to a project or effort.

527

Glossary

Affinity Diagram. A group creativity technique that allows large numbers of ideas to be classified into groups for
review and analysis.
Agreements. Any document or communication that defines the initial intentions of a project. This can take the
form of a contract, memorandum of understanding (MOU), letters of agreement, verbal agreements, email, etc.
Alternative Analysis. A technique used to evaluate identified options in order to select which options or
approaches to use to execute and perform the work of the project.
Alternatives Generation. A technique used to develop as many potential options as possible in order to identify
different approaches to execute and perform the work of the project.
Analogous Estimating. A technique for estimating the duration or cost of an activity or a project using historical
data from a similar activity or project.
Analytical Techniques. Various techniques used to evaluate, analyze, or forecast potential outcomes based on
possible variations of project or environmental variables and their relationships with other variables.
Application Area. A category of projects that have common components significant in such projects,
but are not needed or present in all projects. Application areas are usually defined in terms of either the
product (i.e., by similar technologies or production methods) or the type of customer (i.e., internal versus
external, government versus commercial) or industry sector (i.e., utilities, automotive, aerospace, information
technologies, etc.). Application areas can overlap.
Applying Leads and Lags. A technique that is used to adjust the amount of time between predecessor and
successor activities.
Apportioned Effort. An activity where effort is allotted proportionately across certain discrete efforts and not
divisible into discrete efforts. [Note: Apportioned effort is one of three earned value management (EVM) types of
activities used to measure work performance.]
Approved Change Request. A change request that has been processed through the integrated change control
process and approved.
Approved Change Requests Review. A review of the change requests to verify that these were implemented as
approved.

528

Glossary

Assumption. A factor in the planning process that is considered to be true, real, or certain, without proof or
demonstration.
Assumptions Analysis. A technique that explores the accuracy of assumptions and identifies risks to the project
from inaccuracy, inconsistency, or incompleteness of assumptions.
Attribute Sampling. Method of measuring quality that consists of noting the presence (or absence) of some
characteristic (attribute) in each of the units under consideration. After each unit is inspected, the decision is made
to accept a lot, reject it, or inspect another unit.
Authority. The right to apply project resources, expend funds, make decisions, or give approvals.
Backlog. A listing of product requirements and deliverables to be completed, written as stories, and prioritized
by the business to manage and organize the project’s work.
Backward Pass. A critical path method technique for calculating the late start and late finish dates by working
backward through the schedule model from the project end date.
Bar Chart. A graphic display of schedule-related information. In the typical bar chart, schedule activities or work
breakdown structure components are listed down the left side of the chart, dates are shown across the top, and
activity durations are shown as date-placed horizontal bars. See also Gantt chart.
Baseline. The approved version of a work product that can be changed only through formal change control
procedures and is used as a basis for comparison.
Basis of Estimates. Supporting documentation outlining the details used in establishing project estimates such as
assumptions, constraints, level of detail, ranges, and confidence levels.
Benchmarking. Benchmarking is the comparison of actual or planned practices, such as processes and operations,
to those of comparable organizations to identify best practices, generate ideas for improvement, and provide a
basis for measuring performance.
Bidder Conference. The meetings with prospective sellers prior to the preparation of a bid or proposal to ensure
all prospective vendors have a clear and common understanding of the procurement. Also known as contractor
conferences, vendor conferences, or pre-bid conferences.

529

Glossary

Bottom-Up Estimating. A method of estimating project duration or cost by aggregating the estimates of the
lower-level components of the work breakdown structure (WBS).
Brainstorming. A general data gathering and creativity technique that can be used to identify risks, ideas, or
solutions to issues by using a group of team members or subject matter experts.
Budget. The approved estimate for the project or any work breakdown structure component or any schedule
activity.
Budget at Completion (BAC). The sum of all budgets established for the work to be performed.
Buffer. See reserve.
Business Case. A documented economic feasibility study used to establish validity of the benefits of a selected
component lacking sufficient definition and that is used as a basis for the authorization of further project management
activities.
Business Value. A concept that is unique to each organization and includes tangible and intangible elements.
Through the effective use of project, program, and portfolio management disciplines, organizations will possess the
ability to employ reliable, established processes to meet enterprise objectives and obtain greater business value
from their investments.
Buyer. The acquirer of products, services, or results for an organization.
Cause and Effect Diagram. A decomposition technique that helps trace an undesirable effect back to its root
cause.
Central Tendency. A property of the central limit theorem predicting that the data observations in a distribution
will tend to group around a central location. The three typical measures of central tendency are the mean, median,
and mode.
Change Control. A process whereby modifications to documents, deliverables, or baselines associated with the
project are identified, documented, approved, or rejected.
Change Control Board (CCB). A formally chartered group responsible for reviewing, evaluating, approving,
delaying, or rejecting changes to the project, and for recording and communicating such decisions.

530

Glossary

Change Control System. A set of procedures that describes how modifications to the project deliverables and
documentation are managed and controlled.
Change Control Tools. Manual or automated tools to assist with change and/or configuration management. At a
minimum, the tools should support the activities of the CCB.
Change Log. A comprehensive list of changes made during the project. This typically includes dates of the change
and impacts in terms of time, cost, and risk.
Change Request. A formal proposal to modify any document, deliverable, or baseline.
Charter. See project charter.
Checklist Analysis. A technique for systematically reviewing materials using a list for accuracy and completeness.
Checksheets. A tally sheet that can be used as a checklist when gathering data.
Claim. A request, demand, or assertion of rights by a seller against a buyer, or vice versa, for consideration,
compensation, or payment under the terms of a legally binding contract, such as for a disputed change.
Claims Administration. The process of processing, adjudicating, and communicating contract claims.
Close Procurements. The process of completing each project procurement.
Close Project or Phase. The process of finalizing all activities across all of the Project Management Process
Groups to formally complete a project or phase.
Closed Procurements. Project contracts or other procurement agreements that have been formally acknowledged
by the proper authorizing agent as being finalized and signed off.
Closing Process Group. Those processes performed to finalize all activities across all Process Groups to formally
close a project or phase.
Code of Accounts. A numbering system used to uniquely identify each component of the work breakdown
structure (WBS).
Collect Requirements. The process of determining, documenting, and managing stakeholder needs and
requirements to meet project objectives.

531

Glossary

Colocation. An organizational placement strategy where the project team members are physically located
close to one another in order to improve communication, working relationships, and productivity.
Communication Constraints. Restrictions on the content, timing, audience, or individual who will deliver a
communication usually stemming from specific legislation or regulation, technology, or organizational policies.
Communication Methods. A systematic procedure, technique, or process used to transfer information among
project stakeholders.
Communication Models. A description, analogy or schematic used to represent how the communication
process will be performed for the project.
Communication Requirements Analysis. An analytical technique to determine the information needs of the
project stakeholders through interviews, workshops, study of lessons learned from previous projects, etc.
Communication Technology. Specific tools, systems, computer programs, etc., used to transfer information
among project stakeholders.
Communications Management Plan. A component of the project, program, or portfolio management plan that
describes how, when, and by whom information about the project will be administered and disseminated.
Compliance. A general concept of conforming to a rule, standard, law, or requirement such that the assessment of
compliance results in a binomial result stated as “compliant” or “noncompliant.”
Conduct Procurements. The process of obtaining seller responses, selecting a seller, and awarding a contract.
Configuration Management System. A subsystem of the overall project management system. It is a collection
of formal documented procedures used to apply technical and administrative direction and surveillance to:
identify and document the functional and physical characteristics of a product, result, service, or component;
control any changes to such characteristics; record and report each change and its implementation status; and
support the audit of the products, results, or components to verify conformance to requirements. It includes the
documentation, tracking systems, and defined approval levels necessary for authorizing and controlling changes.
Conflict Management. Handling, controlling, and guiding a conflictual situation to achieve a resolution.
Conformance. Within the quality management system, conformance is a general concept of delivering results that
fall within the limits that define acceptable variation for a quality requirement.

532

Glossary

Conformance Work. In the cost of quality framework, conformance work is done to compensate for imperfections
that prevent organizations from completing planned activities correctly as essential first-time work. Conformance
work consists of actions that are related to prevention and inspection.
Constraint. A limiting factor that affects the execution of a project, program, portfolio, or process.
Context Diagrams. A visual depiction of the product scope showing a business system (process, equipment,
computer system, etc.), and how people and other systems (actors) interact with it.
Contingency. An event or occurrence that could affect the execution of the project that may be accounted for
with a reserve.
Contingency Allowance. See reserve.
Contingency Reserve. Budget within the cost baseline or performance measurement baseline that is allocated for
identified risks that are accepted and for which contingent or mitigating responses are developed.
Contingent Response Strategies. Responses provided which may be used in the event that a specific trigger
occurs.
Contract. A contract is a mutually binding agreement that obligates the seller to provide the specified product
or service or result and obligates the buyer to pay for it.
Contract Change Control System. The system used to collect, track, adjudicate, and communicate changes to a
contract.
Control. Comparing actual performance with planned performance, analyzing variances, assessing trends to
effect process improvements, evaluating possible alternatives, and recommending appropriate corrective action
as needed.
Control Account. A management control point where scope, budget, actual cost, and schedule are integrated and
compared to earned value for performance measurement.
Control Chart. A graphic display of process data over time and against established control limits, which has a
centerline that assists in detecting a trend of plotted values toward either control limit.
Control Communications. The process of monitoring and controlling communications throughout the entire project
life cycle to ensure the information needs of the project stakeholders are met.

533

Glossary

Control Costs. The process of monitoring the status of the project to update the project costs and managing
changes to the cost baseline.
Control Limits. The area composed of three standard deviations on either side of the centerline or mean of a
normal distribution of data plotted on a control chart, which reflects the expected variation in the data. See also
specification limits.
Control Procurements. The process of managing procurement relationships, monitoring contract performance,
and making changes and corrections as appropriate.
Control Quality. The process of monitoring and recording results of executing the quality activities to assess
performance and recommend necessary changes.
Control Risks. The process of implementing risk response plans, tracking identified risks, monitoring residual
risks, identifying new risks, and evaluating risk process effectiveness throughout the project.
Control Schedule. The process of monitoring the status of project activities to update project progress and manage
changes to the schedule baseline to achieve the plan.
Control Scope. The process of monitoring the status of the project and product scope and managing changes to
the scope baseline.
Control Stakeholder Engagement. The process of monitoring overall project stakeholder relationships and
adjusting strategies and plans for engaging stakeholders.
Corrective Action. An intentional activity that realigns the performance of the project work with the project
management plan.
Cost Aggregation. Summing the lower-level cost estimates associated with the various work packages for a
given level within the project’s WBS or for a given cost control account.
Cost Baseline. The approved version of the time-phased project budget, excluding any management reserves,
which can be changed only through formal change control procedures and is used as a basis for comparison to
actual results.
Cost Management Plan. A component of a project or program management plan that describes how costs will
be planned, structured, and controlled.

534

Glossary

Cost of Quality. A method of determining the costs incurred to ensure quality. Prevention and appraisal costs
(cost of conformance) include costs for quality planning, quality control (QC), and quality assurance to ensure
compliance to requirements (i.e., training, QC systems, etc.). Failure costs (cost of nonconformance) include costs
to rework products, components, or processes that are non-compliant, costs of warranty work and waste, and loss
of reputation.
Cost Performance Index (CPI). A measure of the cost efficiency of budgeted resources expressed as the ratio of
earned value to actual cost.
Cost Plus Award Fee Contracts (CPAF). A category of contract that involves payments to the seller for all legitimate
actual costs incurred for completed work, plus an award fee representing seller profit.
Cost Plus Fixed Fee Contract (CPFF). A type of cost-reimbursable contract where the buyer reimburses the seller
for the seller’s allowable costs (allowable costs are defined by the contract) plus a fixed amount of profit (fee).
Cost Plus Incentive Fee Contract (CPIF). A type of cost-reimbursable contract where the buyer reimburses the
seller for the seller’s allowable costs (allowable costs are defined by the contract), and the seller earns its profit if
it meets defined performance criteria.
Cost Variance (CV). The amount of budget deficit or surplus at a given point in time, expressed as the difference
between the earned value and the actual cost.
Cost-Benefit Analysis. A financial analysis tool used to determine the benefits provided by a project against its
costs.
Cost-Reimbursable Contract. A type of contract involving payment to the seller for the seller’s actual costs, plus
a fee typically representing seller’s profit. Cost-reimbursable contracts often include incentive clauses where, if the
seller meets or exceeds selected project objectives, such as schedule targets or total cost, then the seller receives
from the buyer an incentive or bonus payment.
Crashing. A technique used to shorten the schedule duration for the least incremental cost by adding
resources.
Create WBS. The process of subdividing project deliverables and project work into smaller, more manageable
components.

535

Glossary

Criteria. Standards, rules, or tests on which a judgment or decision can be based or by which a product, service,
result, or process can be evaluated.
Critical Chain Method. A schedule method that allows the project team to place buffers on any project schedule
path to account for limited resources and project uncertainties.
Critical Path. The sequence of activities that represents the longest path through a project, which determines the
shortest possible duration.
Critical Path Activity. Any activity on the critical path in a project schedule.
Critical Path Method. A method used to estimate the minimum project duration and determine the amount of
scheduling flexibility on the logical network paths within the schedule model.
Customer. Customer is the person(s) or organization(s) that will pay for the project’s product, service, or result.
Customers can be internal or external to the performing organization.
Customer Satisfaction. Within the quality management system, a state of fulfillment in which the needs of a
customer are met or exceeded for the customer’s expected experiences as assessed by the customer at the
moment of evaluation.
Data Date. A point in time when the status of the project is recorded.
Data Gathering and Representation Techniques. Techniques used to collect, organize, and present data and
information.
Decision Tree Analysis. A diagramming and calculation technique for evaluating the implications of a chain of
multiple options in the presence of uncertainty.
Decomposition. A technique used for dividing and subdividing the project scope and project deliverables into
smaller, more manageable parts.
Defect. An imperfection or deficiency in a project component where that component does not meet its
requirements or specifications and needs to be either repaired or replaced.
Defect Repair. An intentional activity to modify a nonconforming product or product component.
Define Activities. The process of identifying and documenting the specific actions to be performed to produce the
project deliverables.

536

Glossary

Define Scope. The process of developing a detailed description of the project and product.
Deliverable. Any unique and verifiable product, result, or capability to perform a service that is required to be
produced to complete a process, phase, or project.
Delphi Technique. An information gathering technique used as a way to reach a consensus of experts on a
subject. Experts on the subject participate in this technique anonymously. A facilitator uses a questionnaire to
solicit ideas about the important project points related to the subject. The responses are summarized and are
then recirculated to the experts for further comment. Consensus may be reached in a few rounds of this process.
The Delphi technique helps reduce bias in the data and keeps any one person from having undue influence on
the outcome.
Dependency. See logical relationship.
Dependency Determination. A technique used to identify the type of dependency that is used to create the logical
relationships between predecessor and successor activities.
Design of Experiments. A statistical method for identifying which factors may influence specific variables of a
product or process under development or in production.
Determine Budget. The process of aggregating the estimated costs of individual activities or work packages to
establish an authorized cost baseline.
Develop Project Charter. The process of developing a document that formally authorizes the existence of a project
and provides the project manager with the authority to apply organizational resources to project activities.
Develop Project Management Plan. The process of defining, preparing, and coordinating all subsidiary plans and
integrating them into a comprehensive project management plan.
Develop Project Team. The process of improving competencies, team member interaction, and overall team
environment to enhance project performance.
Develop Schedule. The process of analyzing activity sequences, durations, resource requirements, and schedule
constraints to create the project schedule model.
Diagramming Techniques. Approaches to presenting information with logical linkages that aid in understanding.
Dictatorship. A group decision-making technique in which one individual makes the decision for the group.

537

Glossary

Direct and Manage Project Work. The process of leading and performing the work defined in the project
management plan and implementing approved changes to achieve the project’s objectives.
Discrete Effort. An activity that can be planned and measured and that yields a specific output. [Note: Discrete
effort is one of three earned value management (EVM) types of activities used to measure work performance.]
Discretionary Dependency. A relationship that is established based on knowledge of best practices within a
particular application area or an aspect of the project where a specific sequence is desired.
Document Analysis. An elicitation technique that analyzes existing documentation and identifies information
relevant to the requirements.
Documentation Reviews. The process of gathering a corpus of information and reviewing it to determine accuracy
and completeness.
Duration (DU or DUR). The total number of work periods (not including holidays or other nonworking periods)
required to complete a schedule activity or work breakdown structure component. Usually expressed as workdays
or workweeks. Sometimes incorrectly equated with elapsed time. Contrast with effort.
Early Finish Date (EF). In the critical path method, the earliest possible point in time when the uncompleted
portions of a schedule activity can finish based on the schedule network logic, the data date, and any schedule
constraints.
Early Start Date (ES). In the critical path method, the earliest possible point in time when the uncompleted
portions of a schedule activity can start based on the schedule network logic, the data date, and any schedule
constraints.
Earned Value (EV). The measure of work performed expressed in terms of the budget authorized for that work.
Earned Value Management. A methodology that combines scope, schedule, and resource measurements to
assess project performance and progress.
Effort. The number of labor units required to complete a schedule activity or work breakdown structure component,
often expressed in hours, days, or weeks.
Emotional Intelligence. The capability to identify, assess, and manage the personal emotions of oneself and other
people, as well as the collective emotions of groups of people.

538

Glossary

Enterprise Environmental Factors. Conditions, not under the immediate control of the team, that influence,
constrain, or direct the project, program, or portfolio.
Estimate. A quantitative assessment of the likely amount or outcome. Usually applied to project costs, resources,
effort, and durations and is usually preceded by a modifier (i.e., preliminary, conceptual, feasibility, order-ofmagnitude, definitive). It should always include some indication of accuracy (e.g., ± x percent). See also budget
and cost.
Estimate Activity Durations. The process of estimating the number of work periods needed to complete individual
activities with estimated resources.
Estimate Activity Resources. The process of estimating the type and quantities of material, human resources,
equipment, or supplies required to perform each activity.
Estimate at Completion (EAC). The expected total cost of completing all work expressed as the sum of the actual
cost to date and the estimate to complete.
Estimate Costs. The process of developing an approximation of the monetary resources needed to complete
project activities.
Estimate to Complete (ETC). The expected cost to finish all the remaining project work.
Execute. Directing, managing, performing, and accomplishing the project work; providing the deliverables; and
providing work performance information.
Executing Process Group. Those processes performed to complete the work defined in the project management
plan to satisfy the project specifications.
Expected Monetary Value (EMV) Analysis. A statistical technique that calculates the average outcome when
the future includes scenarios that may or may not happen. A common use of this technique is within decision tree
analysis.
Expert Judgment. Judgment provided based upon expertise in an application area, knowledge area, discipline,
industry, etc., as appropriate for the activity being performed. Such expertise may be provided by any group or
person with specialized education, knowledge, skill, experience, or training.

539

Glossary

External Dependency. A relationship between project activities and non-project activities.
Facilitated Workshops. An elicitation technique using focused sessions that bring key cross-functional
stakeholders together to define product requirements.
Failure Mode and Effect Analysis (FMEA). An analytical procedure in which each potential failure mode in
every component of a product is analyzed to determine its effect on the reliability of that component and, by
itself or in combination with other possible failure modes, on the reliability of the product or system and on the
required function of the component; or the examination of a product (at the system and/or lower levels) for all
ways that a failure may occur. For each potential failure, an estimate is made of its effect on the total system
and of its impact. In addition, a review is undertaken of the action planned to minimize the probability of failure
and to minimize its effects.
Fallback Plan. Fallback plans include an alternative set of actions and tasks available in the event that the primary
plan needs to be abandoned because of issues, risks, or other causes.
Fast Tracking. A schedule compression technique in which activities or phases normally done in sequence are
performed in parallel for at least a portion of their duration.
Fee. Represents profit as a component of compensation to a seller.
Finish Date. A point in time associated with a schedule activity’s completion. Usually qualified by one of the
following: actual, planned, estimated, scheduled, early, late, baseline, target, or current.
Finish-to-Finish (FF). A logical relationship in which a successor activity cannot finish until a predecessor
activity has finished.
Finish-to-Start (FS). A logical relationship in which a successor activity cannot start until a predecessor
activity has finished.
Firm-Fixed-Price Contract (FFP). A type of fixed price contract where the buyer pays the seller a set amount
(as defined by the contract), regardless of the seller’s costs.
Fishbone diagram. See Cause and Effect Diagram.
Fixed Formula Method. An earned value method for assigning a specified percentage of budget value for a
work package to the start milestone of the work package with the remaining budget value percentage assigned
when the work package is complete.

540

Glossary

Fixed Price Incentive Fee Contract (FPIF). A type of contract where the buyer pays the seller a set amount (as
defined by the contract), and the seller can earn an additional amount if the seller meets defined performance
criteria.
Fixed Price with Economic Price Adjustment Contracts (FP-EPA). A fixed-price contract, but with a special
provision allowing for predefined final adjustments to the contract price due to changed conditions, such as inflation
changes, or cost increases (or decreases) for specific commodities.
Fixed-Price Contracts. An agreement that sets the fee that will be paid for a defined scope of work regardless of
the cost or effort to deliver it.
Float. Also called slack. See total float and free float.
Flowchart. The depiction in a diagram format of the inputs, process actions, and outputs of one or more processes
within a system.
Focus Groups. An elicitation technique that brings together prequalified stakeholders and subject matter experts
to learn about their expectations and attitudes about a proposed product, service, or result.
Forecast. An estimate or prediction of conditions and events in the project’s future based on information and
knowledge available at the time of the forecast. The information is based on the project’s past performance and
expected future performance, and includes information that could impact the project in the future, such as estimate
at completion and estimate to complete.
Forward Pass. A critical path method technique for calculating the early start and early finish dates by working
forward through the schedule model from the project start date or a given point in time.
Free Float. The amount of time that a schedule activity can be delayed without delaying the early start date of any
successor or violating a schedule constraint.
Functional Manager. Someone with management authority over an organizational unit within a functional
organization. The manager of any group that actually makes a product or performs a service. Sometimes called a
line manager.
Functional Organization. A hierarchical organization where each employee has one clear superior, and staff are
grouped by areas of specialization and managed by a person with expertise in that area.

541

Glossary

Funding Limit Reconciliation. The process of comparing the planned expenditure of project funds against any
limits on the commitment of funds for the project to identify any variances between the funding limits and the
planned expenditures.
Gantt Chart. A bar chart of schedule information where activities are listed on the vertical axis, dates are
shown on the horizontal axis, and activity durations are shown as horizontal bars placed according to start and
finish dates.
Grade. A category or rank used to distinguish items that have the same functional use (e.g., “hammer”) but do
not share the same requirements for quality (e.g., different hammers may need to withstand different amounts of
force).
Ground Rules. Expectations regarding acceptable behavior by project team members.
Group Creativity Techniques. Techniques that are used to generate ideas within a group of stakeholders.
Group Decision-Making Techniques. Techniques to assess multiple alternatives that will be used to generate,
classify, and prioritize product requirements.
Guideline. An official recommendation or advice that indicates policies, standards, or procedures for how
something should be accomplished.
Hammock Activity. See summary activity.
Hard Logic. See mandatory dependency.
Histogram. A special form of bar chart used to describe the central tendency, dispersion, and shape of a
statistical distribution.
Historical Information. Documents and data on prior projects including project files, records, correspondence,
closed contracts, and closed projects.
Human Resource Management Plan. A component of the project management plan that describes how the
roles and responsibilities, reporting relationships, and staff management will be addressed and structured.
Idea/Mind Mapping. Technique used to consolidate ideas created through individual brainstorming sessions into
a single map to reflect commonality and differences in understanding and to generate new ideas.
Identify Risks. The process of determining which risks may affect the project and documenting their characteristics.

542

Glossary

Identify Stakeholders. The process of identifying the people, groups, or organizations that could impact or be
impacted by a decision, activity, or outcome of the project; and analyzing and documenting relevant information
regarding their interests, involvement, interdependencies, influence, and potential impact on project success.
Imposed Date. A fixed date imposed on a schedule activity or schedule milestone, usually in the form of a
“start no earlier than” and “finish no later than” date.
Incentive Fee. A set of financial incentives related to cost, schedule, or technical performance of the seller.
Incremental Life Cycle. A project life cycle where the project scope is generally determined early in the project
life cycle, but time and cost estimates are routinely modified as the project team’s understanding of the product
increases. Iterations develop the product through a series of repeated cycles, while increments successively add to
the functionality of the product.
Independent Estimates. A process of using a third party to obtain and analyze information to support prediction
of cost, schedule, or other items.
Influence Diagram. A graphical representation of situations showing causal influences, time ordering of events,
and other relationships among variables and outcomes.
Information Gathering Techniques. Repeatable processes used to assemble and organize data across a spectrum
of sources.
Information Management Systems. Facilities, processes, and procedures used to collect, store, and distribute
information between producers and consumers of information in physical or electronic format.
Initiating Process Group. Those processes performed to define a new project or a new phase of an existing project
by obtaining authorization to start the project or phase.
Input. Any item, whether internal or external to the project that is required by a process before that process
proceeds. May be an output from a predecessor process.
Inspection. Examining or measuring to verify whether an activity, component, product, result, or service conforms
to specified requirements.
Inspections and Audits. A process to observe performance of contracted work or a promised product against
agreed-upon requirements.

543

Glossary

Interpersonal Skills. Ability to establish and maintain relationships with other people.
Interrelationship Digraphs. A quality management planning tool, the interrelationship digraphs provide a
process for creative problem-solving in moderately complex scenarios that possess intertwined logical
relationships.
Interviews. A formal or informal approach to elicit information from stakeholders by talking to them directly.
Invitation for Bid (IFB). Generally, this term is equivalent to request for proposal. However, in some application
areas, it may have a narrower or more specific meaning.
Issue. A point or matter in question or in dispute, or a point or matter that is not settled and is under discussion or
over which there are opposing views or disagreements.
Issue Log. A project document used to document and monitor elements under discussion or in dispute between
project stakeholders.
Iterative Life Cycle. A project life cycle where the project scope is generally determined early in the project life
cycle, but time and cost estimates are routinely modified as the project team’s understanding of the product
increases. Iterations develop the product through a series of repeated cycles, while increments successively add to
the functionality of the product.
Lag. The amount of time whereby a successor activity is required to be delayed with respect to a predecessor
activity.
Late Finish Date (LF). In the critical path method, the latest possible point in time when the uncompleted portions
of a schedule activity can finish based on the schedule network logic, the project completion date, and any schedule
constraints.
Late Start Date (LS). In the critical path method, the latest possible point in time when the uncompleted portions
of a schedule activity can start based on the schedule network logic, the project completion date, and any schedule
constraints.
Lead. The amount of time whereby a successor activity can be advanced with respect to a predecessor activity.
Lessons Learned. The knowledge gained during a project which shows how project events were addressed or
should be addressed in the future with the purpose of improving future performance.
Lessons Learned Knowledge Base. A store of historical information and lessons learned about both the outcomes
of previous project selection decisions and previous project performance.

544

Glossary

Level of Effort (LOE). An activity that does not produce definitive end products and is measured by the passage
of time. [Note: Level of effort is one of three earned valued management (EVM) types of activities used to measure
work performance.]
Leveling. See resource leveling.
Life Cycle. See project life cycle.
Log. A document used to record and describe or denote selected items identified during execution of a process or
activity. Usually used with a modifier, such as issue, quality control, action, or defect.
Logical Relationship. A dependency between two activities, or between an activity and a milestone.
Majority. Support from more than 50 percent of the members of the group.
Make-or-Buy Analysis. The process of gathering and organizing data about product requirements and analyzing
them against available alternatives including the purchase or internal manufacture of the product.
Make-or-Buy Decisions. Decisions made regarding the external purchase or internal manufacture of a product.
Manage Communications. The process of creating, collecting, distributing, storing, retrieving, and the ultimate
disposition of project information in accordance with the communications management plan.
Manage Project Team. The process of tracking team member performance, providing feedback, resolving issues,
and managing team changes to optimize project performance.
Manage Stakeholder Engagement. The process of communicating and working with stakeholders to meet their
needs/expectations, address issues as they occur, and foster appropriate stakeholder engagement in project
activities throughout the project life cycle.
Management Reserve. An amount of the project budget withheld for management control purposes. These
are budgets reserved for unforeseen work that is within scope of the project. The management reserve is not
included in the performance measurement baseline (PMB).
Management Skills. The ability to plan, organize, direct, and control individuals or groups of people to achieve
specific goals.
Mandatory Dependency. A relationship that is contractually required or inherent in the nature of the work.

545

Glossary

Market Research. The process of gathering information at conferences, online reviews, and a variety of sources
to identify market capabilities.
Master Schedule. A summary-level project schedule that identifies the major deliverables and work breakdown
structure components and key schedule milestones. See also milestone schedule.
Material. The aggregate of things used by an organization in any undertaking, such as equipment, apparatus, tools,
machinery, gear, material, and supplies.
Matrix Diagrams. A quality management and control tool used to perform data analysis within the organizational
structure created in the matrix. The matrix diagram seeks to show the strength of relationships between factors,
causes, and objectives that exist between the rows and columns that form the matrix.
Matrix Organization. Any organizational structure in which the project manager shares responsibility with the
functional managers for assigning priorities and for directing the work of persons assigned to the project.
Methodology. A system of practices, techniques, procedures, and rules used by those who work in a discipline.
Milestone. A significant point or event in a project, program, or portfolio.
Milestone List. A list identifying all project milestones and normally indicates whether the milestone is mandatory
or optional.
Milestone Schedule. A summary-level schedule that identifies the major schedule milestones. See also master
schedule.
Monitor. Collect project performance data with respect to a plan, produce performance measures, and report and
disseminate performance information.
Monitor and Control Project Work. The process of tracking, reviewing, and reporting the progress to meet the
performance objectives defined in the project management plan.
Monitoring and Controlling Process Group. Those processes required to track, review, and regulate the progress
and performance of the project; identify any areas in which changes to the plan are required; and initiate the
corresponding changes.

546

Glossary

Monte Carlo Simulation. A process which generates hundreds or thousands of probable performance outcomes
based on probability distributions for cost and schedule on individual tasks. The outcomes are then used to generate
a probability distribution for the project as a whole.
Most Likely Duration. An estimate of the most probable activity duration that takes into account all of the known
variables that could affect performance.
Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis. This technique utilizes a decision matrix to provide a systematic analytical
approach for establishing criteria, such as risk levels, uncertainty, and valuation, to evaluate and rank many ideas.
Near-Critical Activity. A schedule activity that has low total float. The concept of near-critical is equally applicable
to a schedule activity or schedule network path. The limit below which total float is considered near critical is
subject to expert judgment and varies from project to project.
Negotiated Settlements. The process of reaching final equitable settlement of all outstanding issues, claims, and
disputes through negotiation.
Negotiation. The process and activities to resolving disputes through consultations between involved parties.
Network. See project schedule network diagram.
Network Analysis. See schedule network analysis.
Network Logic. The collection of schedule activity dependencies that makes up a project schedule network
diagram.
Network Path. Any continuous series of schedule activities connected with logical relationships in a project
schedule network diagram.
Networking. Establishing connections and relationships with other people from the same or other organizations.
Node. One of the defining points of a schedule network; a junction point joined to some or all of the other dependency
lines.
Nominal Group Technique. A technique that enhances brainstorming with a voting process used to rank the
most useful ideas for further brainstorming or for prioritization.

547

Glossary

Nonconformance Work. In the cost of quality framework, nonconformance work is done to deal with the
consequences of errors and failures in doing activities correctly on the first attempt. In efficient quality management
systems, the amount of nonconformance work will approach zero.
Objective. Something toward which work is to be directed, a strategic position to be attained, a purpose to be
achieved, a result to be obtained, a product to be produced, or a service to be performed.
Observations. A technique that provides a direct way of viewing individuals in their environment performing their
jobs or tasks and carrying out processes.
Opportunity. A risk that would have a positive effect on one or more project objectives.
Optimistic Duration. An estimate of the shortest activity duration that takes into account all of the known
variables that could affect performance.
Organizational Breakdown Structure (OBS). A hierarchical representation of the project organization that
illustrates the relationship between project activities and the organizational units that will perform those activities.
Organizational Process Assets. Plans, processes, policies, procedures, and knowledge bases that are specific to
and used by the performing organization.
Organizational Project Management Maturity. The level of an organization’s ability to deliver the desired strategic
outcomes in a predictable, controllable, and reliable manner.
Output. A product, result, or service generated by a process. May be an input to a successor process.
Parametric Estimating. An estimating technique in which an algorithm is used to calculate cost or duration
based on historical data and project parameters.
Pareto Diagram. A histogram, ordered by frequency of occurrence, that shows how many results were
generated by each identified cause.
Path Convergence. A relationship in which a schedule activity has more than one predecessor.
Path Divergence. A relationship in which a schedule activity has more than one successor.
Payment Systems. The system used to provide and track supplier’s invoices and payments for services and
products.

548

Glossary

Percent Complete. An estimate expressed as a percent of the amount of work that has been completed on an
activity or a work breakdown structure component.
Perform Integrated Change Control. The process of reviewing all change requests; approving changes
and managing changes to deliverables, organizational process assets, project documents, and the project
management plan; and communicating their disposition.
Perform Qualitative Risk Analysis. The process of prioritizing risks for further analysis or action by assessing and
combining their probability of occurrence and impact.
Perform Quality Assurance. The process of auditing the quality requirements and the results from quality control
measurements to ensure that appropriate quality standards and operational definitions are used.
Perform Quantitative Risk Analysis. The process of numerically analyzing the effect of identified risks on overall
project objectives.
Performance Measurement Baseline. An approved, integrated scope-schedule-cost plan for the project work
against which project execution is compared to measure and manage performance. The PMB includes contingency
reserve, but excludes management reserve.
Performance Reporting. See work performance reports.
Performance Reports. See work performance reports.
Performance Reviews. A technique that is used to measure, compare, and analyze actual performance of
work in progress on the project against the baseline.
Performing Organization. An enterprise whose personnel are most directly involved in doing the work of the
project or program.
Pessimistic Duration. Estimate of the longest activity duration that takes into account all of the known variables
that could affect performance.
Phase. See project phase.
Phase Gate. A review at the end of a phase in which a decision is made to continue to the next phase, to
continue with modification, or to end a project or program.
Plan Communications Management. The process of developing an appropriate approach and plan for project
communications based on stakeholder’s information needs and requirements and available organizational assets.

549

Glossary

Plan Cost Management. The process that establishes the policies, procedures, and documentation for planning,
managing, expending, and controlling project costs.
Plan Human Resource Management. The process of identifying and documenting project roles, responsibilities,
required skills, reporting relationships, and creating a staffing management plan.
Plan Procurement Management. The process of documenting project procurement decisions, specifying the
approach, and identifying potential sellers.
Plan Quality Management. The process of identifying quality requirements and/or standards for the project and its
deliverables, and documenting how the project will demonstrate compliance with quality requirements.
Plan Risk Management. The process of defining how to conduct risk management activities for a project.
Plan Risk Responses. The process of developing options and actions to enhance opportunities and to reduce
threats to project objectives.
Plan Schedule Management. The process of establishing the policies, procedures, and documentation for
planning, developing, managing, executing, and controlling the project schedule.
Plan Scope Management. The process of creating a scope management plan that documents how the project
scope will be defined, validated, and controlled.
Plan Stakeholder Management. The process of developing appropriate management strategies to effectively
engage stakeholders throughout the project life cycle, based on the analysis of their needs, interests, and potential
impact on project success.
Planned Value (PV). The authorized budget assigned to scheduled work.
Planning Package. A work breakdown structure component below the control account with known work
content but without detailed schedule activities. See also control account.
Planning Process Group. Those processes required to establish the scope of the project, refine the objectives, and
define the course of action required to attain the objectives that the project was undertaken to achieve.
Plurality. Decisions made by the largest block in a group, even if a majority is not achieved.
Policy. A structured pattern of actions adopted by an organization such that the organization’s policy can be
explained as a set of basic principles that govern the organization’s conduct.

550

Glossary

Portfolio. Projects, programs, subportfolios, and operations managed as a group to achieve strategic objectives.
Portfolio Management. The centralized management of one or more portfolios to achieve strategic objectives.
Practice. A specific type of professional or management activity that contributes to the execution of a process
and that may employ one or more techniques and tools.
Precedence Diagramming Method (PDM). A technique used for constructing a schedule model in which
activities are represented by nodes and are graphically linked by one or more logical relationships to show the
sequence in which the activities are to be performed.
Precedence Relationship. The term used in the precedence diagramming method for a logical relationship. In current
usage, however, precedence relationship, logical relationship, and dependency are widely used interchangeably,
regardless of the diagramming method used. See also logical relationship.
Precision. Within the quality management system, precision is a measure of exactness.
Predecessor Activity. An activity that logically comes before a dependent activity in a schedule.
Predictive Life Cycle. A form of project life cycle in which the project scope, and the time and cost required to
deliver that scope, are determined as early in the life cycle as possible.
Preferential Logic. See discretionary dependency.
Preferred Logic. See discretionary dependency.
Preventive Action. An intentional activity that ensures the future performance of the project work is aligned
with the project management plan.
Prioritization Matrices. A quality management planning tool used to identify key issues and evaluate suitable
alternatives to define a set of implementation priorities.
Probability and Impact Matrix. A grid for mapping the probability of each risk occurrence and its impact on
project objectives if that risk occurs.
Procedure. An established method of accomplishing a consistent performance or result, a procedure typically
can be described as the sequence of steps that will be used to execute a process.
Process. A systematic series of activities directed towards causing an end result such that one or more inputs
will be acted upon to create one or more outputs.

551

Glossary

Process Analysis. A process analysis follows the steps outlined in the process improvement plan to identify
needed improvements.
Process Decision Program Charts (PDPC). The PDPC is used to understand a goal in relation to the steps for
getting to the goal.
Process Improvement Plan. A subsidiary plan of the project management plan. It details the steps for analyzing
processes to identify activities that enhance their value.
Procurement Audits. The review of contracts and contracting processes for completeness, accuracy, and
effectiveness.
Procurement Documents. The documents utilized in bid and proposal activities, which include the buyer’s
Invitation for Bid, Invitation for Negotiations, Request for Information, Request for Quotation, Request for Proposal,
and seller’s responses.
Procurement Management Plan. A component of the project or program management plan that describes
how a project team will acquire goods and services from outside the performing organization.
Procurement Performance Reviews. A structured review of the seller’s progress to deliver project scope and
quality, within cost and on schedule, as compared to the contract.
Procurement Statement of Work. Describes the procurement item in sufficient detail to allow prospective sellers
to determine if they are capable of providing the products, services, or results.
Product. An artifact that is produced, is quantifiable, and can be either an end item in itself or a component item.
Additional words for products are material and goods. Contrast with result. See also deliverable.
Product Analysis. For projects that have a product as a deliverable, it is a tool to define scope that generally means
asking questions about a product and forming answers to describe the use, characteristics, and other the relevant
aspects of what is going to be manufactured.
Product Life Cycle. The series of phases that represent the evolution of a product, from concept through delivery,
growth, maturity, and to retirement.
Product Scope. The features and functions that characterize a product, service, or result.
Product Scope Description. The documented narrative description of the product scope.

552

Glossary

Program. A group of related projects, subprograms, and program activities managed in a coordinated way to
obtain benefits not available from managing them individually.
Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT). A technique for estimating that applies a weighted
average of optimistic, pessimistic, and most likely estimates when there is uncertainty with the individual activity
estimates.
Program Management. The application of knowledge, skills, tools, and techniques to a program to meet the
program requirements and to obtain benefits and control not available by managing projects individually.
Progressive Elaboration. The iterative process of increasing the level of detail in a project management plan as
greater amounts of information and more accurate estimates become available.
Project. A temporary endeavor undertaken to create a unique product, service, or result.
Project-Based Organizations (PBOs). A variety of organizational forms that involve the creation of temporary
systems for the performance of projects. PBOs conduct the majority of their activities as projects and/or provide
project over functional approaches.
Project Calendar. A calendar that identifies working days and shifts that are available for scheduled activities.
Project Charter. A document issued by the project initiator or sponsor that formally authorizes the existence
of a project and provides the project manager with the authority to apply organizational resources to project
activities.
Project Communications Management. Project Communications Management includes the processes that
are required to ensure timely and appropriate planning, collection, creation, distribution, storage, retrieval,
management, control, monitoring, and the ultimate disposition of project information.
Project Cost Management. Project Cost Management includes the processes involved in planning, estimating,
budgeting, financing, funding, managing, and controlling costs so that the project can be completed within the
approved budget.
Project Funding Requirements. Forecast project costs to be paid that are derived from the cost baseline for total
or periodic requirements, including projected expenditures plus anticipated liabilities.
Project Governance. The alignment of project objectives with the strategy of the larger organization by the
project sponsor and project team. A project’s governance is defined by and is required to fit within the larger
context of the program or organization sponsoring it, but is separate from organizational governance.

553

Glossary

Project Human Resource Management. Project Human Resource Management includes the processes that
organize, manage, and lead the project team.
Project Initiation. Launching a process that can result in the authorization of a new project.
Project Integration Management. Project Integration Management includes the processes and activities needed
to identify, define, combine, unify, and coordinate the various processes and project management activities within
the Project Management Process Groups.
Project Life Cycle. The series of phases that a project passes through from its initiation to its closure.
Project Management. The application of knowledge, skills, tools, and techniques to project activities to meet the
project requirements.
Project Management Body of Knowledge. An inclusive term that describes the sum of knowledge within
the profession of project management. As with other professions, such as law, medicine, and accounting, the
body of knowledge rests with the practitioners and academics that apply and advance it. The complete project
management body of knowledge includes proven traditional practices that are widely applied and innovative
practices that are emerging in the profession. The body of knowledge includes both published and unpublished
materials. This body of knowledge is constantly evolving. PMI’s PMBOK® Guide identifies a subset of the project
management body of knowledge that is generally recognized as good practice.
Project Management Information System. An information system consisting of the tools and techniques used to
gather, integrate, and disseminate the outputs of project management processes. It is used to support all aspects
of the project from initiating through closing, and can include both manual and automated systems.
Project Management Knowledge Area. An identified area of project management defined by its knowledge
requirements and described in terms of its component processes, practices, inputs, outputs, tools, and techniques.
Project Management Office (PMO). An organizational structure that standardizes the project-related governance
processes and facilitates the sharing of resources, methodologies, tools, and techniques.
Project Management Plan. The document that describes how the project will be executed monitored, and
controlled.
Project Management Process Group. A logical grouping of project management inputs, tools and techniques,
and outputs. The Project Management Process Groups include initiating processes, planning processes, executing
processes, monitoring and controlling processes, and closing processes. Project Management Process Groups are
not project phases.

554

Glossary

Project Management Staff. The members of the project team who perform project management activities such as
schedule, communications, risk management, etc.
Project Management System. The aggregation of the processes, tools, techniques, methodologies, resources, and
procedures to manage a project.
Project Management Team. The members of the project team who are directly involved in project management
activities. On some smaller projects, the project management team may include virtually all of the project team
members.
Project Manager (PM). The person assigned by the performing organization to lead the team that is responsible
for achieving the project objectives.
Project Organization Chart. A document that graphically depicts the project team members and their
interrelationships for a specific project.
Project Phase. A collection of logically related project activities that culminates in the completion of one or
more deliverables.
Project Procurement Management. Project Procurement Management includes the processes necessary to
purchase or acquire products, services, or results needed from outside the project team.
Project Quality Management. Project Quality Management includes the processes and activities of the performing
organization that determine quality policies, objectives, and responsibilities so that the project will satisfy the needs
for which it was undertaken.
Project Risk Management. Project Risk Management includes the processes of conducting risk management
planning, identification, analysis, response planning, and controlling risk on a project.
Project Schedule. An output of a schedule model that presents linked activities with planned dates, durations,
milestones, and resources.
Project Schedule Network Diagram. A graphical representation of the logical relationships among the project
schedule activities.
Project Scope. The work performed to deliver a product, service, or result with the specified features and functions.
Project Scope Management. Project Scope Management includes the processes required to ensure that the
project includes all the work required, and only the work required, to complete the project successfully.

555

Glossary

Project Scope Statement. The description of the project scope, major deliverables, assumptions, and constraints.
Project Stakeholder Management. Project Stakeholder Management includes the processes required to identify
all people or organizations impacted by the project, analyzing stakeholder expectations and impact on the project,
and developing appropriate management strategies for effectively engaging stakeholders in project decisions and
execution.
Project Statement of Work. See statement of work.
Project Team. A set of individuals who support the project manager in performing the work of the project to
achieve its objectives.
Project Team Directory. A documented list of project team members, their project roles, and communication
information.
Project Time Management. Project Time Management includes the processes required to manage the timely
completion of the project.
Projectized Organization. Any organizational structure in which the project manager has full authority to assign
priorities, apply resources, and direct the work of persons assigned to the project.
Proposal Evaluation Techniques. The process of reviewing proposals provided by suppliers to support contract
award decisions.
Prototypes. A method of obtaining early feedback on requirements by providing a working model of the expected
product before actually building it.
Quality. The degree to which a set of inherent characteristics fulfills requirements.
Quality Audits. A quality audit is a structured, independent process to determine if project activities comply
with organizational and project policies, processes, and procedures.
Quality Checklists. A structured tool used to verify that a set of required steps has been performed.
Quality Control Measurements. The documented results of control quality activities.
Quality Function Deployment (QFD). A facilitated workshop technique that helps to determine critical
characteristics for new product development.
Quality Management and Control Tools. They are a type of quality planning tools used to link and sequence the
activities identified.

556

Glossary

Quality Management Plan. A component of the project or program management plan that describes how an
organization’s quality policies will be implemented.
Quality Management System. The organizational framework whose structure provides the policies, processes,
procedures, and resources required to implement the quality management plan. The typical project quality
management plan should be compatible to the organization’s quality management system.
Quality Metrics. A description of a project or product attribute and how to measure it.
Quality Policy. A policy specific to the Project Quality Management Knowledge Area, it establishes the basic
principles that should govern the organization’s actions as it implements its system for quality management.
Quality Requirement. A condition or capability that will be used to assess conformance by validating the
acceptability of an attribute for the quality of a result.
Quantitative Risk Analysis and Modeling Techniques. Commonly used techniques for both event-oriented and
project-oriented analysis approaches.
Questionnaires and Surveys. Written sets of questions designed to quickly accumulate information from a large
number of respondents.
RACI. A common type of responsibility assignment matrix that uses responsible, accountable, consult, and inform
statuses to define the involvement of stakeholders in project activities.
Records Management System. A specific set of processes, related control functions, and tools that are
consolidated and combined to record and retain information about the project.
Regression Analysis. An analytic technique where a series of input variables are examined in relation to their
corresponding output results in order to develop a mathematical or statistical relationship.
Regulation. Requirements imposed by a governmental body. These requirements can establish product, process, or
service characteristics, including applicable administrative provisions that have government-mandated compliance.
Reporting Systems. Facilities, processes, and procedures used to generate or consolidate reports from one or
more information management systems and facilitate report distribution to the project stakeholders.
Request for Information (RFI). A type of procurement document whereby the buyer requests a potential seller
to provide various pieces of information related to a product or service or seller capability.

557

Glossary

Request for Proposal (RFP). A type of procurement document used to request proposals from prospective
sellers of products or services. In some application areas, it may have a narrower or more specific meaning.
Request for Quotation (RFQ). A type of procurement document used to request price quotations from
prospective sellers of common or standard products or services. Sometimes used in place of request for
proposal and, in some application areas, it may have a narrower or more specific meaning.
Requested Change. A formally documented change request that is submitted for approval to the integrated
change control process.
Requirement. A condition or capability that is required to be present in a product, service, or result to satisfy a
contract or other formally imposed specification.
Requirements Documentation. A description of how individual requirements meet the business need for the
project.
Requirements Management Plan. A component of the project or program management plan that describes how
requirements will be analyzed, documented, and managed.
Requirements Traceability Matrix. A grid that links product requirements from their origin to the deliverables
that satisfy them.
Reserve. A provision in the project management plan to mitigate cost and/or schedule risk. Often used with a
modifier (e.g., management reserve, contingency reserve) to provide further detail on what types of risk are meant
to be mitigated.
Reserve Analysis. An analytical technique to determine the essential features and relationships of components in
the project management plan to establish a reserve for the schedule duration, budget, estimated cost, or funds for
a project.
Residual Risk. A risk that remains after risk responses have been implemented.
Resource. Skilled human resources (specific disciplines either individually or in crews or teams), equipment,
services, supplies, commodities, material, budgets, or funds.
Resource Breakdown Structure. A hierarchical representation of resources by category and type.
Resource Calendar. A calendar that identifies the working days and shifts on which each specific resource is
available.

558

Glossary

Resource Histogram. A bar chart showing the amount of time that a resource is scheduled to work over a series of
time periods. Resource availability may be depicted as a line for comparison purposes. Contrasting bars may show
actual amounts of resources used as the project progresses.
Resource Leveling. A technique in which start and finish dates are adjusted based on resource constraints with
the goal of balancing demand for resources with the available supply.
Resource Optimization Techniques. A technique that is used to adjust the start and finish dates of activities that
adjust planned resource use to be equal to or less than resource availability.
Resource Smoothing. A technique which adjusts the activities of a schedule model such that the requirement for
resources on the project do not exceed certain predefined resource limits.
Responsibility. An assignment that can be delegated within a project management plan such that the assigned
resource incurs a duty to perform the requirements of the assignment.
Responsibility Assignment Matrix (RAM). A grid that shows the project resources assigned to each work
package.
Result. An output from performing project management processes and activities. Results include outcomes
(e.g., integrated systems, revised process, restructured organization, tests, trained personnel, etc.) and documents
(e.g., policies, plans, studies, procedures, specifications, reports, etc.). Contrast with product. See also deliverable.
Rework. Action taken to bring a defective or nonconforming component into compliance with requirements or
specifications.
Risk. An uncertain event or condition that, if it occurs, has a positive or negative effect on one or more project
objectives.
Risk Acceptance. A risk response strategy whereby the project team decides to acknowledge the risk and not
take any action unless the risk occurs.
Risk Appetite. The degree of uncertainty an entity is willing to take on, in anticipation of a reward.
Risk Audits. Examination and documentation of the effectiveness of risk responses in dealing with identified risks
and their root causes, as well as the effectiveness of the risk management process.
Risk Avoidance. A risk response strategy whereby the project team acts to eliminate the threat or protect the
project from its impact.

559

Glossary

Risk Breakdown Structure (RBS). A hierarchical representation of risks according to their risk categories.
Risk Categorization. Organization by sources of risk (e.g., using the RBS), the area of the project affected (e.g.,
using the WBS), or other useful category (e.g., project phase) to determine the areas of the project most exposed
to the effects of uncertainty.
Risk Category. A group of potential causes of risk.
Risk Data Quality Assessment. Technique to evaluate the degree to which the data about risks is useful for risk
management.
Risk Management Plan. A component of the project, program, or portfolio management plan that describes how
risk management activities will be structured and performed.
Risk Mitigation. A risk response strategy whereby the project team acts to reduce the probability of occurrence
or impact of a risk.
Risk Reassessment. Risk reassessment is the identification of new risks, reassessment of current risks, and the
closing of risks that are outdated.
Risk Register. A document in which the results of risk analysis and risk response planning are recorded.
Risk Threshold. Measure of the level of uncertainty or the level of impact at which a stakeholder may have a
specific interest. Below that risk threshold, the organization will accept the risk. Above that risk threshold, the
organization will not tolerate the risk.
Risk Tolerance. The degree, amount, or volume of risk that an organization or individual will withstand.
Risk Transference. A risk response strategy whereby the project team shifts the impact of a threat to a third
party, together with ownership of the response.
Risk Urgency Assessment. Review and determination of the timing of actions that may need to occur sooner than
other risk items.
Role. A defined function to be performed by a project team member, such as testing, filing, inspecting, or coding.
Rolling Wave Planning. An iterative planning technique in which the work to be accomplished in the near term
is planned in detail, while the work in the future is planned at a higher level.

560

Glossary

Root Cause Analysis. An analytical technique used to determine the basic underlying reason that causes a
variance or a defect or a risk. A root cause may underlie more than one variance or defect or risk.
Scatter Diagram. A correlation chart that uses a regression line to explain or to predict how the change in an
independent variable will change a dependent variable.
Schedule. See project schedule and see also schedule model.
Schedule Baseline. The approved version of a schedule model that can be changed only through formal change
control procedures and is used as a basis for comparison to actual results.
Schedule Compression. Techniques used to shorten the schedule duration without reducing the project scope.
Schedule Data. The collection of information for describing and controlling the schedule.
Schedule Forecasts. Estimates or predictions of conditions and events in the project’s future based on information
and knowledge available at the time the schedule is calculated.
Schedule Management Plan. A component of the project management plan that establishes the criteria and the
activities for developing, monitoring, and controlling the schedule.
Schedule Model. A representation of the plan for executing the project’s activities including durations,
dependencies, and other planning information, used to produce a project schedule along with other scheduling
artifacts.
Schedule Network Analysis. The technique of identifying early and late start dates, as well as early and late finish
dates, for the uncompleted portions of project schedule activities. See also backward pass, critical path method,
critical chain method, and resource leveling.
Schedule Network Templates. A set of activities and relationships that have been established that can be used
repeatedly for a particular application area or an aspect of the project where a prescribed sequence is desired.
Schedule Performance Index (SPI). A measure of schedule efficiency expressed as the ratio of earned value to
planned value.
Schedule Variance (SV). A measure of schedule performance expressed as the difference between the earned
value and the planned value.
Scheduling Tool. A tool that provides schedule component names, definitions, structural relationships, and
formats that support the application of a scheduling method.

561

Glossary

Scope. The sum of the products, services, and results to be provided as a project. See also project scope and
product scope.
Scope Baseline. The approved version of a scope statement, work breakdown structure (WBS), and its associated
WBS dictionary, that can be changed only through formal change control procedures and is used as a basis for
comparison.
Scope Change. Any change to the project scope. A scope change almost always requires an adjustment to the
project cost or schedule.
Scope Creep. The uncontrolled expansion to product or project scope without adjustments to time, cost, and
resources.
Scope Management Plan. A component of the project or program management plan that describes how the
scope will be defined, developed, monitored, controlled, and verified.
Secondary Risk. A risk that arises as a direct result of implementing a risk response.
Selected Sellers. The sellers which have been selected to provide a contracted set of services or products.
Seller. A provider or supplier of products, services, or results to an organization.
Seller Proposals. Formal responses from sellers to a request for proposal or other procurement document
specifying the price, commercial terms of sale, and technical specifications or capabilities the seller will do for the
requesting organization that, if accepted, would bind the seller to perform the resulting agreement.
Sensitivity Analysis. A quantitative risk analysis and modeling technique used to help determine which risks have
the most potential impact on the project. It examines the extent to which the uncertainty of each project element
affects the objective being examined when all other uncertain elements are held at their baseline values. The typical
display of results is in the form of a tornado diagram.
Sequence Activities. The process of identifying and documenting relationships among the project activities.
Seven Basic Quality Tools. A standard toolkit used by quality management professionals who are responsible for
planning, monitoring, and controlling the issues related to quality in an organization.
Simulation. A simulation uses a project model that translates the uncertainties specified at a detailed level into
their potential impact on objectives that are expressed at the level of the total project. Project simulations use
computer models and estimates of risk, usually expressed as a probability distribution of possible costs or durations
at a detailed work level, and are typically performed using Monte Carlo analysis.

562

Glossary

Soft Logic. See discretionary dependency.
Source Selection Criteria. A set of attributes desired by the buyer which a seller is required to meet or exceed to
be selected for a contract.
Specification. A document that specifies, in a complete, precise, verifiable manner, the requirements, design,
behavior, or other characteristics of a system, component, product, result, or service and the procedures for
determining whether these provisions have been satisfied. Examples are: requirement specification, design
specification, product specification, and test specification.
Specification Limits. The area, on either side of the centerline, or mean, of data plotted on a control chart that
meets the customer’s requirements for a product or service. This area may be greater than or less than the area
defined by the control limits. See also control limits.
Sponsor. A person or group who provides resources and support for the project, program, or portfolio and is
accountable for enabling success.
Sponsoring Organization. The entity responsible for providing the project’s sponsor and a conduit for project
funding or other project resources.
Staffing Management Plan. A component of the human resource plan that describes when and how project
team members will be acquired and how long they will be needed.
Stakeholder. An individual, group, or organization who may affect, be affected by, or perceive itself to be
affected by a decision, activity, or outcome of a project.
Stakeholder Analysis. A technique of systematically gathering and analyzing quantitative and qualitative
information to determine whose interests should be taken into account throughout the project.
Stakeholder Management Plan. The stakeholder management plan is a subsidiary plan of the project management
plan that defines the processes, procedures, tools, and techniques to effectively engage stakeholders in project
decisions and execution based on the analysis of their needs, interests, and potential impact.
Stakeholder Register. A project document including the identification, assessment, and classification of project
stakeholders.
Standard. A document that provides, for common and repeated use, rules, guidelines, or characteristics for
activities or their results, aimed at the achievement of the optimum degree of order in a given context.

563

Glossary

Start Date. A point in time associated with a schedule activity’s start, usually qualified by one of the following:
actual, planned, estimated, scheduled, early, late, target, baseline, or current.
Start-to-Finish (SF). A logical relationship in which a successor activity cannot finish until a predecessor activity
has started.
Start-to-Start (SS). A logical relationship in which a successor activity cannot start until a predecessor activity has
started.
Statement of Work (SOW). A narrative description of products, services, or results to be delivered by the project.
Statistical Sampling. Choosing part of a population of interest for inspection.
Subnetwork. A subdivision (fragment) of a project schedule network diagram, usually representing a subproject
or a work package. Often used to illustrate or study some potential or proposed schedule condition, such as
changes in preferential schedule logic or project scope.
Subproject. A smaller portion of the overall project created when a project is subdivided into more manageable
components or pieces.
Successor Activity. A dependent activity that logically comes after another activity in a schedule.
Summary Activity. A group of related schedule activities aggregated and displayed as a single activity.
SWOT Analysis. Analysis of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats of an organization, project,
or option.
Tailor. The act of carefully selecting process and related inputs and outputs contained within the PMBOK® Guide
to determine a subset of specific processes that will be included within a project’s overall management approach.
Team Members. See project team members.
Technique. A defined systematic procedure employed by a human resource to perform an activity to produce a
product or result or deliver a service, and that may employ one or more tools.
Templates. A partially complete document in a predefined format that provides a defined structure for collecting,
organizing, and presenting information and data.
Threat. A risk that would have a negative effect on one or more project objectives.

564

Glossary

Three-Point Estimate. A technique used to estimate cost or duration by applying an average of optimistic,
pessimistic, and most likely estimates when there is uncertainty with the individual activity estimates.
Threshold. A cost, time, quality, technical, or resource value used as a parameter, and which may be included in
product specifications. Crossing the threshold should trigger some action, such as generating an exception report.
Time and Material Contract (T&M). A type of contract that is a hybrid contractual arrangement containing aspects
of both cost-reimbursable and fixed-price contracts. Time and material contracts resemble cost-reimbursable type
arrangements in that they have no definitive end, because the full value of the arrangement is not defined at the
time of the award. Thus, time and material contracts can grow in contract value as if they were cost-reimbursabletype arrangements. Conversely, time and material arrangements can also resemble fixed-price arrangements. For
example, the unit rates are preset by the buyer and seller, when both parties agree on the rates for the category of
senior engineers.
Time-Scaled Schedule Network Diagram. Any project schedule network diagram drawn in such a way that the
positioning and length of the schedule activity represents its duration. Essentially, it is a bar chart that includes
schedule network logic.
To-Complete Performance Index (TCPI). A measure of the cost performance that is required to be achieved with
the remaining resources in order to meet a specified management goal, expressed as the ratio of the cost to finish
the outstanding work to the remaining budget.
Tolerance. The quantified description of acceptable variation for a quality requirement.
Tornado Diagram. A special type of bar chart used in sensitivity analysis for comparing the relative importance of
the variables.
Tool. Something tangible, such as a template or software program, used in performing an activity to produce a
product or result.
Total Float. The amount of time that a schedule activity can be delayed or extended from its early start date without
delaying the project finish date or violating a schedule constraint.
Tree Diagram. A systematic diagram of a decomposition hierarchy used to visualize as parent-to-child
relationships a systematic set of rules.

565

Glossary

Trend Analysis. An analytical technique that uses mathematical models to forecast future outcomes based on
historical results. It is a method of determining the variance from a baseline of a budget, cost, schedule, or scope
parameter by using prior progress reporting periods’ data and projecting how much that parameter’s variance from
baseline might be at some future point in the project if no changes are made in executing the project.
Trigger Condition. An event or situation that indicates that a risk is about to occur.
Unanimity. Agreement by everyone in the group on a single course of action.
Validate Scope. The process of formalizing acceptance of the completed project deliverables.
Validated Deliverables. Deliverables that are result of executing quality control process to determine correctness.
Validation. The assurance that a product, service, or system meets the needs of the customer and other identified
stakeholders. It often involves acceptance and suitability with external customers. Contrast with verification.
Value Engineering. An approach used to optimize project life cycle costs, save time, increase profits, improve
quality, expand market share, solve problems, and/or use resources more effectively.
Variance. A quantifiable deviation, departure, or divergence away from a known baseline or expected value.
Variance Analysis. A technique for determining the cause and degree of difference between the baseline and
actual performance.
Variance at Completion (VAC). A projection of the amount of budget deficit or surplus, expressed as the
difference between the budget at completion and the estimate at completion.
Variation. An actual condition that is different from the expected condition that is contained in the baseline plan.
Velocity. A measure of a team’s productivity rate at which the deliverables are produced, validated, and
accepted within a predefined interval. Velocity is a capacity planning approach frequently used to forecast
future project work.
Verification. The evaluation of whether or not a product, service, or system complies with a regulation, requirement,
specification, or imposed condition. It is often an internal process. Contrast with validation.
Voice of the Customer. A planning technique used to provide products, services, and results that truly reflect
customer requirements by translating those customer requirements into the appropriate technical requirements for
each phase of project product development.

566

Glossary

WBS Dictionary. A document that provides detailed deliverable, activity, and scheduling information about each
component in the work breakdown structure.
Weighted Milestone Method. An earned value method that divides a work package into measurable segments,
each ending with an observable milestone, and then assigns a weighted value to the achievement of each milestone.
What-If Scenario Analysis. The process of evaluating scenarios in order to predict their effect on project objectives.
Work Authorization. A permission and direction, typically written, to begin work on a specific schedule activity or
work package or control account. It is a method for sanctioning project work to ensure that the work is done by the
identified organization, at the right time, and in the proper sequence.
Work Authorization System. A subsystem of the overall project management system. It is a collection of formal
documented procedures that defines how project work will be authorized (committed) to ensure that the work is
done by the identified organization, at the right time, and in the proper sequence. It includes the steps, documents,
tracking system, and defined approval levels needed to issue work authorizations.
Work Breakdown Structure (WBS). A hierarchical decomposition of the total scope of work to be carried out by
the project team to accomplish the project objectives and create the required deliverables.
Work Breakdown Structure Component. An entry in the work breakdown structure that can be at any level.
Work Package. The work defined at the lowest level of the work breakdown structure for which cost and duration
can be estimated and managed.
Work Performance Data. The raw observations and measurements identified during activities being performed to
carry out the project work.
Work Performance Information. The performance data collected from various controlling processes, analyzed in
context and integrated based on relationships across areas.
Work Performance Reports. The physical or electronic representation of work performance information compiled
in project documents, intended to generate decisions, actions, or awareness
Workaround. A response to a threat that has occurred, for which a prior response had not been planned or was
not effective.

567

INDEX

INDEX
A
AC. See Actual cost
Acceptance criteria, 123, 526
Accepted deliverables. See under Deliverables
Accuracy, 228, 526
level of, 148, 162, 170, 171, 175
Acquire Project Team process, 255, 447, 526
inputs, 269
outputs, 272
overview, 267–269
tools and techniques, 270–272
Acquisition, 270, 526
Acquisition activities, 265
Action item tracking, 27, 83, 91
Activity, 526
Activity attributes, 185, 526
as input, 155, 162, 167, 175
as output, 153
Activity code, 526
Activity cost estimates, 526
as input, 163, 210, 322, 361
as output, 207
Activity duration, 526
Activity duration estimate, 170, 527
See also Estimate Activity Durations process
as input, 175, 322
range of possible results, 172
Activity identifier (ID), 153, 527
Activity list, 527
as input, 155, 162, 167, 175
as output, 152
Activity network diagrams, 246
See also Project schedule network diagram
Activity on Arrow (AOA), 246
Activity-on-Node (AON), 156, 246

See also Precedence Diagramming Method
Activity resource requirements, 185, 527
See also Estimate Activity Resources process
as input, 167, 175, 259, 361
as output, 165
Activity sequencing. See Sequence Activities process
Actual cost (AC), 218, 219, 527
Actual duration, 527
Adaptive life cycles, 46, 527
Additional quality planning tools, 240, 527
Adjusting leads and lags, 527
ADR. See Alternative dispute resolution
Advertising, 376, 527
AE. See Apportioned effort
Affinity diagram, 115, 245, 528
Agile approach, 1, 114, 187
Agreements, 70, 528
See also Collective bargaining agreements; Service level
agreements
as input, 211, 382
as output, 377–378
Alternative analysis, 164, 528
Alternative dispute resolution (ADR), 378, 384, 388
Alternatives generation, 123, 528
American National Standards Institute (ANSI), 418
Analogous estimating, 169–170, 204–205, 528
Analytical techniques, 91–92, 103, 147–148, 198, 315, 376, 528
stakeholder engagement level, 402–403
ANSI. See American National Standards Institute
AON. See Activity-On-Node
Application area, 528
Applying leads and lags, 528
Apportioned effort (AE), 528
Approved change request, 96, 528
as input, 82, 251, 382
as output, 99

569

INDEX

Approved change request review, 252, 528
Arbitrary total float, 158
Arbitration, 388
Assumption(s), 124, 168, 348, 529
Assumptions analysis, 325, 529
Assumptions log updates, 333, 348
Attribute sampling, 250, 529
Audits, 135. See also Quality audits
configuration verification and, 97
inspections and, 383
procurement, 388
project success or failure, 101
quality, 247, 556
risk, 351, 354, 559
Authority, 264, 529

B
BAC. See Budget at completion
Backlog, 529
Backward pass, 176, 177, 529
Balanced matrix organization, 23-24
Bar chart, 182, 183, 529
Baseline, 76, 88, 140, 529. See also Cost baseline; Rebaselining;
Schedule baseline; Scope baseline
Baseline schedule, 218. See also Schedule baseline
Basis of estimates, 529
as input, 210
as output, 208
Benchmarking, 116, 239, 529
Best practices
benchmarking and, 116, 239
discretionary dependencies and, 158
meeting types and, 84
quality audits and, 247
systematic achievement of, 7
Beta distribution, 171, 206
Bias, risk attitudes and, 311
Bid(s), 207, 368, 371. See also Proposals
Bidder. See Seller(s)
Bidder conferences, 375, 529
Bottom-up estimating, 205
definition, 530
description of, 164

570

Boundaries
process, 241
project, 54, 424
Brainstorming, 115, 171, 207, 240
definition, 530
meetings and, 84
risk identification and, 324
Budget, 365, 530
Budget at completion (BAC), 89, 218, 219, 530
Budgeting, 316
Budget reserve analysis, 211
Buffer(s), 178, 189. See also Reserve
Buffer management, 178
Business case, 69, 530
Business need, 68
Business partners, 33, 36
Business requirements, 112, 117
Business value, 15–16, 530
Buyer
definition, 530
terms for, 357
Buyer-seller relationship, 357
Buy versus lease decision, 201

C
CA. See Control account
Calendar, 185. See also Project calendar; Resource calendars
Capability Maturity Model Integrated (CMMI®), 229
Causal analysis, 91
Causal influences, 325–326
Cause-and-effect diagram, 236, 325, 530
CCB. See Change control board
Central tendency, 530
Certified Associate in Project Management (CAPM)®, 1
Change control, 530. See also Perform Integrated Change
Control process
management reserves and, 213
meetings, 99
procedures, 27
Change control board (CCB), 74, 96, 530
change management plan and, 96
meetings and, 99
Change control system, 531. See also Contract change control
system

INDEX

Change control tools, 99, 531
Change log, 100, 407, 531
Change management plan/system, 138
Change request(s).
See also Approved change request; Requested change
approved, 528
approved change requests review, 528
change control board and, 96
constructive change, 384
corrective actions and, 353
definition, 531
as input, 97
as output, 85, 136, 140, 225, 247, 253, 284–285, 307–308,
370, 378, 385, 408, 413
preventive actions and, 191, 353
types of, 92–93
updates, 348
Charter. See Project charter
Checklist analysis, 325, 531
Checklist(s), 254. See also Quality checklists
Checksheets, 237, 531
Claim, 531
Claims administration, 384, 531
Closed procurements, 389, 531
Close Procurements process, 354, 461, 531
inputs, 388
outputs, 389
overview, 386–387
tools and techniques, 388–389
Close Project or Phase process, 63, 460–461, 531
inputs, 102
outputs, 103–104
overview, 100–101
tools and techniques, 102–103
Closing Process Group, 418
definition, 531
overview, 57–58, 459–460
processes in, 61
CMMI®. See Capability Maturity Model Integrated
Code of accounts, 132, 531
Code of Ethics and Professional Conduct, 1
Collaboration
project manager and, 48, 91, 128, 307
virtual collaboration techniques, 25

Collective bargaining agreements, 203, 268
Collect Requirements process, 105, 430, 531
inputs, 113
outputs, 117–119
overview, 110–112
tools and techniques, 114–117
Colocated teams, 25, 277, 532
See also Project team(s); Team
Commercial information, published, 204
Communication
See also Control Communications process
activity, dimensions of, 287
channels, 81, 176, 292, 293, 294
constraints, 532
correspondence, 386
diverse stakeholders and, 287
informal, 274, 282
methods, 294–295, 407, 532
models, 293–294, 298, 300, 532
organizational, 20
project, 301, 305
skills, 288
styles, 21
technology, 38, 292–293, 300
Communication planning
See also Plan Communications process; Project
Communications Management
Communication requirements analysis, 291–292, 532
Communications management plan, 296–297, 532
as input, 299, 406
Communication technologies, 38, 292–293, 300, 532
See also E-mail; Web conferencing
Competency, 264
Compliance, 267, 532
Composite organization, 25, 26
Concurrent project phases, 42
Conduct Procurements process, 354, 449, 532
inputs, 373–375
outputs, 377–379
overview, 371–373
tools and techniques, 375–377
Confidentiality, 293
Configuration control, 96
Configuration identification, 96

571

INDEX

Configuration management plan, 138
Configuration management system
change requests and, 96
definition, 532
Configuration status accounting, 97
Configuration verification and audit, 97
Conflict management, 282–283, 532
Conformance, 235, 532
Conformance work, 533
Constraints, 5, 124, 168, 365, 533
Context diagrams, 117, 533
Contingency, 533
Contingency allowance. See Reserve
Contingency plan, 348
Contingency reserve, 171, 206, 213, 348, 533
See also Reserve analysis
Contingent response strategies, 346, 533
Continuous distributions, 337
Continuous improvement, 229
Contract(s), 533
See also Time and Material Contract (T&M);
Union labor/contracts
amendments to, 381
closure of, 366, 373, 381
communications and, 386
cost-reimbursable, 363–364, 535
documentation, 389
early termination of, 387
legal implications of, 203, 357, 380, 387
procurement contract, 357
procurement negotiations and, 375
requirements of, 96, 282, 384
termination clause, 378, 380
terms and conditions, 387
types of, 362–363
Contract change control system, 383, 533
Contract management, 355
Contractor. See Seller(s)
Contractor conferences. See Bidder conferences
Control, 88, 533
Control account (CA), 132, 533
Control chart, 238, 533
Control Communications process, 287, 456–457, 533
inputs, 304–306

572

outputs, 307–308
overview, 303–304
tools and techniques, 306–307
Control Costs process, 193, 455, 534
inputs, 216–217
outputs, 225–226
overview, 215–216
tools and techniques, 217–225
Control limits, 534. See also Specification limits
Control Procurements process, 354, 458, 534
inputs, 381–382
outputs, 384–386
overview, 379–381
tools and techniques, 383–384
Control Quality process, 227, 456, 534
inputs, 250–251
outputs, 252–254
overview, 248–250
tools and techniques, 252
Control Risks process, 309, 457, 534
inputs, 350–351
outputs, 353–354
overview, 349–350
tools and techniques, 351–352
Control Schedule process, 141, 454–455, 534
inputs, 187–188
outputs, 190–192
overview, 184–187
tools and techniques, 188–190
Control Scope process, 105, 454, 534
inputs, 137–138
outputs, 139–140
overview, 136–137
tools and techniques, 139
Control Stakeholder Engagement process, 391, 458–459, 534
inputs, 411–412
outputs, 413–415
overview, 409–410
tools and techniques, 412–413
Control thresholds, 148, 199
COQ. See Cost of quality
Corrective action, 81
change request for, 85, 93, 353
definition, 534

INDEX

Correspondence, 386
Cost(s). See also Actual cost
aggregation of, 211, 534
indirect, 202, 207, 218, 365
and time objectives, 341
Cost aggregation, 211, 534
Cost baseline, 191, 216, 226, 233, 534
as output, 212–214, 385
updates, 347
Cost-benefit analysis, 235, 535
Cost contingency reserve, 207, 349
Cost control. See Control Costs process
Cost estimating. See Estimate Costs process
Cost forecasts, 89, 225
Cost management. See Project Cost Management
Cost management plan, 216, 226, 534
as input, 202, 209, 321, 335
updates, 347
Cost of quality (COQ), 206, 229, 231, 235, 535
Cost performance index (CPI), 89, 219, 535
Cost performance measurements, 222
Cost Plus Award Fee contract (CPAF), 364, 535
Cost-plus contract, 344
Cost Plus Fixed Fee (CPFF) contract, 364, 535
Cost Plus Incentive Fee (CPIF) contract, 364, 535
Cost-reimbursable contracts, 363–364, 535
Cost risk simulation, 340
Cost variance (CV), 89, 218–219, 535
CPAF. See Cost Plus Award Fee contract
CPFF. See Cost Plus Fixed Fee
CPI. See Cost performance index
CPIF. See Cost Plus Incentive Fee (CPIF) contract
CPM. See Critical path method
Crashing, 181, 190, 535
Create WBS process, 105, 431, 535
inputs, 127
outputs, 131–132
overview, 125–126
tools and techniques, 128–131
Criteria, 536
Critical chain, 178
Critical chain method (CCM), 142, 178, 188, 536
Critical path, 176, 536
Critical path activity, 177, 536

Critical path method (CPM), 142, 176–177, 188, 246, 536
Cultural diversity
cross-cultural considerations, 290
multinational team, 294
projects characterized by, 274
recognition and rewards, 277
Culture. See Organizational culture
Customer(s)
definition, 536
external, 70, 380
in project team, 36
request, 9
requirements, 228
users and, 32
Customer satisfaction, 229, 536
CV. See Cost variance

D
Data date, 536
Data gathering and representation techniques, 536
interviewing, 336
probability distributions, 337
Decision making
business case and, 69
effective, 284
quantitative risk information and, 333, 441
Decision-making skills, 284
Decision tree analysis, 339, 536
Decoding/encoding of messages, 293–294
Decomposition, 112, 536
excessive, 131
into work packages, 120–131, 128
Dedicated project team, 37
Defect(s), 3
definition, 536
identification of, 237
number of, 59, 85, 228
prevention of, 229, 243
Defect repair, 81
change request for, 82, 85, 93, 97, 140
definition, 536
quality audits and, 247
Define Activities process, 141, 432, 536

573

INDEX

inputs, 150–151
outputs, 152–153
overview, 149–150
tools and techniques, 151–152
Define Scope process, 105, 430, 537
inputs, 121–122
outputs, 123–124
overview, 120–121
tools and techniques, 122–123
Deliverable(s). See also Result; Verified deliverables
accepted, 102, 135, 389, 526
definition, 84, 123, 537
as input, 251
as output, 84
validated, 566
verified, 134, 135
Delphi technique, 171, 207, 324, 537
Dependency. See Logical relationship
Dependency determination, 537
discretionary dependencies, 158
external dependencies, 158
internal dependencies, 158
mandatory dependencies, 157, 545
Design of experiments (DOE), 239–240, 537
Determine Budget process, 193, 437, 537
inputs, 209–211
outputs, 212–214
overview, 208–209
tools and techniques, 211–212
Develop Project Charter process, 63, 426, 537
inputs, 68–70
outputs, 71–72
overview, 66–68
tools and techniques, 71
Develop Project Management Plan process, 63, 429, 537
inputs, 74–75
outputs, 76–78
overview, 72–74
tools and techniques, 76
Develop Project Team process, 255, 447, 537
inputs, 274–275
outputs, 278–279
overview, 273–274
tools and techniques, 274–278

574

Develop Schedule process, 141, 434–435, 537
inputs, 175–176
outputs, 181–184
overview, 172–174
tools and techniques, 176–180
Diagramming techniques, 325–326, 537
Dictatorship, 115, 537
Direct and Manage Project Work process, 63, 445–446, 538
inputs, 82–83
outputs, 84–86
overview, 79–81
tools and techniques, 83–84
Discounted cash flow, 195, 198
Discrete effort, 538
Discretionary dependencies, 158, 538
Diversity. See Cultural diversity
Document(s). See also Project documents
analysis of, 117, 538
archival of, 460
management, hard-copy, 300
phase closure, 104
Documentation. See also Requirements documentation
lessons learned, 254, 303, 389, 409, 415
reviews, 324, 538
seller performance evaluation, 382
technical, 348
written, 386
DOE. See Design of experiments
DU or DUR. See Duration
Duration (DU or DUR), 538. See also Most likely duration;
Optimistic duration; Pessimistic duration
Duration estimates. See Activity duration estimates;
Estimate Activity Durations process

E
EAC. See Estimate at completion
EAC forecasts, 220–221
Early Finish date (EF), 538
Early Start date (ES), 538
Earned value (EV), 132, 218, 219, 538
analysis, 224, 351
Earned value management (EVM), 92, 149, 189
cost management plan and, 199

INDEX

definition, 538
reports, 96
work packages, control accounts and, 217–219
Earned value performance, 223
EF. See Early Finish date
Effort, 538
Emotional intelligence, 538
Employees. See also Human resource management plan;
Staffing management plan
morale of, 266, 274
motivation of, 273, 447
virtual teams and, 271
EMV. See Expected Monetary Value (EMV) analysis
Encoding/decoding of messages, 293–294
Enterprise environmental factors, 29, 127, 539
examples of, 146, 151, 155, 169, 197, 203–204, 234
as input, 70, 74–75, 82, 90, 98, 108, 163, 176, 259, 269,
291, 299, 324, 330, 335, 362, 395, 401
updates, 279, 285
Environmental consideration, 9
ES. See Early Start date
Escalation procedures, 259
Estimate, 376, 539. See also Analogous estimating; Basis of
estimates; Independent estimates; Parametric estimating;
Three-point estimate
Estimate Activity Durations process, 141, 433–434, 539
inputs, 167–169
outputs, 172
overview, 165–167
tools and techniques, 169–171
Estimate Activity Resources process, 141, 433, 539
inputs, 162–163
outputs, 165
overview, 160–162
tools and techniques, 164
Estimate at completion (EAC), 89, 199, 220–221, 539
Estimate Costs process, 193, 436, 539
inputs, 202–204
outputs, 207–208
overview, 200–202
tools and techniques, 204–207
Estimate to complete (ETC), 89, 219–220, 539
ETC. See Estimate to complete
EV. See Earned value

EVM. See Earned value management
Execute, 539
Executing Process Group, 418, 444–445
definition, 539
overview, 56
processes in, 61
Expected Monetary Value (EMV) analysis, 339, 539
Expert judgment, 76, 91, 98–99, 109, 122, 128, 147, 152,
164, 169, 198, 204, 211, 263, 306–307, 315, 327, 333,
341, 346, 365, 376, 397–398, 401–402, 412, 539
External dependencies, 158, 540

F
Facilitated workshops, 114, 123, 540
Facilitation techniques, 71, 76
Failure costs, 235
Failure mode and effect analysis (FMEA), 92, 540
Fallback plan, 343, 348, 540
Fast tracking techniques, 43, 147, 158, 181, 190, 540
Fault tree analysis (FTA), 92
Fee, 540
Feeding buffers, 178
FF. See Finish-to-finish
FFP. See Firm-fixed-price contract
Final product, service, or result transition, 103
Finish date, 540
Finish-to-finish (FF), 154, 156, 540
Finish-to-start (FS), 154, 156, 540
Firm Fixed Price contract (FFP), 363, 540
Fishbone diagram, 236, 325. See also Cause-and-effect
diagram
Fixed formula method, 540
Fixed-price contracts, 362–363, 540
Fixed Price Incentive Fee contract (FPIF), 363, 541
Fixed Price with Economic Price Adjustment contracts (FP-EPA),
363, 541
Float. See Free float; Total float
Flowcharts, 236, 541
FMEA. See Failure mode and effect analysis
Focus groups, 114, 278, 402, 412, 541
Force field analysis, 240
Forecast(s)
cost, 89, 225

575

INDEX

definition, 541
schedule, 89, 561
Forecasting methods, 92, 220–221
Forming, storming, norming, performing, adjourning, 276
FP-EPA
See Fixed Price with Economic Price Adjustment contract
FPIF. See Fixed Price Incentive Fee contract
FPP. See Firm Fixed Price contracts
Fragment network. See Subnetwork
Framework for standard, 418–419
Free float, 177, 541
FS. See Finish-to-start
FTA. See Fault tree analysis
Fully plan-driven life cycles. See Predictive life cycle
Functional manager, 33, 541
Functional organization, 22, 541
Function points, 250
Funding limit reconciliation, 212, 542
Funding requirements, 214

G
Gantt chart, 182, 542
Globalization/global environment
cultural diversity and, 274
cultural influences and, 21
international factors, 272
Governance. See also Project governance
organizational, 13
project, 34–35, 553
Government jurisdictions, 376. See also Regulatory bodies
Government regulations, 68, 267
Grade of products/services, 228, 542
Graphical analysis techniques, 223
Ground rules, project team, 277, 542
Group creativity techniques, 115, 542
Group decision-making techniques, 115–116, 135, 171, 207, 542
Grouping methods, 91
Guideline, 542

H
Hammock activity, 182. See also Summary activity
Hard logic, 157. See also Mandatory dependency

576

Hierarchical-type organization charts, 261
High-level plan, 45, 316
High-level project/product description, 72, 108, 121, 314
High-level requirements, 55, 71, 117, 314, 425
High-level vision, 45, 121
High-performance teams, 278
Histograms, 238, 265–266, 340, 542
Historical information, 104, 542
Historical relationships, 212
Human resource management plan, 264–267, 542
as input, 202, 269, 274, 281, 322
roles and responsibilities, 264
updates, 347
Human resource requirements
See Staffing management plan

I
ID. See Activity identifier
Idea/mind mapping, 115, 542
Identified risks, list of, 327
Identify Risks process, 309, 440, 542
inputs, 320–324
outputs, 327
overview, 319–321
tools and techniques, 324–327
Identify Stakeholders process, 391, 426, 543
inputs, 394–395
outputs, 398
overview, 394–395
tools and techniques, 395–398
IFB. See Invitation for bid
Imposed date, 543
Incentive fee, 543
Incremental life cycle, 543
Independent estimates, 376, 543
Indirect costs, 202, 207, 218, 365
Inflation allowance, 202, 207
Influence diagram, 325–326, 543
Influence/impact grid, stakeholder analysis, 396
Influencing skills, 284
Information. See also Documentation; Project information
confidentiality/sensitivity of, 293
and report flow, 59

INDEX

urgency of need for, 292
Information gathering techniques, 324–325, 543
Information management systems, 300, 306, 412, 543
See also Project management information system
Information storage and retrieval
See Corporate knowledge base
Initiating Process Group, 418, 543
overview, 54–55, 424–425
processes in, 61
project boundaries and, 54
Input, 543. See also specific process
Inspection(s), 135
audits and, 383, 543
description of, 252
Integrated change control
See Perform Integrated Change Control process
Interactive communication, 295
Internal dependencies, 158
International Organization for Standardization
(ISO), 228, 418
Interpersonal skills, 17–18, 283–284, 407
communication skills, 288
decision making, 284
definition, 544
influencing, 284
leadership, 284
as “soft skills,” 275
Interrelationship diagraphs, 245, 544
Interviews, 114, 325, 336, 544
Invitation for bid (IFB), 368, 544
IPECC, 231
Ishikawa diagrams, 236, 325
ISO. See International Organization for Standardization
Issue, 310, 544
Issue log, 544
as input, 281, 305, 411
as output, 408, 414
Iterative and incremental life cycles, 45–46
Iterative life cycle, 121, 544

J
JAD
See Joint Application Development (or Design) (JAD)sessions

Joint Application Development (or Design) (JAD) sessions, 114
Joint venture, 19, 37, 347
Judgment. See Expert judgment

K
Key performance indicators (KPIs), 84
Knowledge Areas
mapping of, 422–423
Process Groups and, 61
Project Communications Management, 289–290, 553
Project Cost Management, 192–195, 553
Project Human Resource Management, 255–257, 554
Project Integration Management, 63–65, 554
Project Procurement Management, 355–358, 555
Project Quality Management, 227, 555
Project Risk Management, 309–312, 555
Project Scope Management, 105, 555
Project Time Management, 142, 556
role of, 60
Knowledge base, lessons learned, 151, 544
KPIs. See Key performance indicators

L
Lag(s), 180
adjusting, 190, 527
applying, 528
definition, 159, 544
example of, 158
Late finish date (LF), 544
Late start date (LS), 544
Leadership skills, 284
Lead(s), 180
adjusting, 190, 527
applying, 528
definition, 544
example of, 158
Lean Six Sigma, 229
Legal requirements, 9, 31
contractual obligations, 203, 361, 380, 387
Lessons learned, 259
definition, 544
documentation, 254, 303, 389, 409, 415

577

INDEX

knowledge base, 151, 544
Leveling. See Resource leveling
Level of accuracy, 148, 199
Level of effort (LOE), 153, 545
Level of precision, 199
LF. See Late finish date
Life cycle. See Incremental life cycle; Iterative life cycle;
Predictive life cycle; Product life cycle; Project life cycle
LOE. See Level of effort
Log, 545. See also Issue log
Logical relationship, 154, 159, 545
See also Precedence relationship
LS. See Late start date

M
Majority, 115, 545
Make-or-buy analysis, 360, 365, 545
Make-or-buy decisions, 370, 545
as input, 374
Manage Communications process, 287, 448, 545
inputs, 299–300
outputs, 300–303
overview, 297–299
tools and techniques, 300–301
Management. See also Portfolio management; Program
management; Project management; Project Quality
Management
responsibility, 229
skills, 408, 545
Management reserve, 171, 206, 213, 545
See also Reserve
Manage Project Team process, 255, 448, 545
inputs, 280–281
outputs, 284–285
overview, 279–280
tools and techniques, 282–284
Manager(s). See also Project manager
functional, 33, 541
program, 14
Manage Stakeholder Engagement process, 391, 449–450, 545
inputs, 406–407
outputs, 408–409
overview, 404–406

578

tools and techniques, 407–408
Mandatory dependency, 157, 545
Market research, 365, 546
Master schedule, 546. See also Schedule
Material, 546
Matrix-based responsibility charts, 262
Matrix diagrams, 246, 546
Matrix organization(s), 21, 22–24, 546
Meetings, 307, 352, 398, 402
change control board and, 99
participants in, 109, 148, 198, 241
potential bidders and, 366
project-related, 295
risk management and, 316
status review, 297, 352, 413
types of, 84, 92, 103
“war room” for, 277
Methodology, 546
Metrics. See Quality metrics
Milestone. See also Weighted milestone method
closure of phase, 41
definition, 546
zero duration of, 153
Milestone charts, 182, 183
Milestone list, 546
as input, 155
as output, 153
Milestone schedule, 546. See also Master schedule
Mind mapping, 115, 542
Mitigation. See Risk mitigation
Modeling
simulation and, 340
techniques, 180, 189
Monitor, 546
Monitor and Control Project Work process, 63, 452, 546
inputs, 88–91
outputs, 92–94
overview, 86–88
tools and techniques, 91–92
Monitoring and Controlling Process Group, 418, 546
as “background” process, 50
overview, 57, 450–451
processes in, 61
project or phase closure, 57

INDEX

Monte Carlo simulation, 171, 340, 547
Most likely duration, 547. See also Duration
Multi-criteria decision analysis, 115, 271–272, 547
Multiphase projects, 51, 57, 69, 387, 419, 451

N
Near-critical activity, 547
Negative risks, 203, 310, 311, 344–345
Negotiated settlements, 547
Negotiation, 547
invitation for, 368
procurement, 377
staff assignments and, 270
Network. See Project schedule network diagram
Network analysis. See Schedule network analysis
Networking, 263, 547
Network logic, 547
Network path, 547
Network schedule analysis activity, 176
Node, 547
Nominal group technique, 115, 171, 207, 240, 547
Nonconformance, 229
cost of, 235
work, 548

O
Objective, 548
OBS. See Organizational breakdown structure
Observations, 116, 282, 548
Operational stakeholders, 13–14
Operations management, 12
OPM. See Organizational Project Management
OPM3®. See Organizational Project Management Maturity Model
Opportunities, 345–346, 548
Optimistic duration, 548. See also Duration
Organization(s)
project management and, 14–15
Organizational breakdown structure (OBS), 245, 261, 548
Organizational characteristics, 21–26
Organizational charts, 131, 258, 292
Organizational culture. See also Cultural diversity
project team composition and, 37

styles and, 20–21
Organizational groups, 33
Organizational knowledge base. See Corporate knowledge base
Organizational procedures links, 148, 199
Organizational process assets, 23–24
corporate knowledge base, 28
definition, 548
examples of, 147, 151, 156, 163, 169, 217, 234, 251
as input, 70, 75, 83, 91, 98, 102, 109, 122, 127, 139, 188,
197, 204, 211, 259, 281, 291, 299–300, 306, 324, 330,
336, 362, 375, 395, 401, 407
processes and procedures, 27–28
updates, 103, 140, 192, 226, 248, 254, 285, 302–303, 308,
354, 389, 409, 415
Organizational project management (OPM), 7
Organizational project management maturity, 548
Organizational strategy
project management, operations management and, 11
project management and, 15
Organizational structures, 21–26
composite organization, 26
functional organization, 22
interactions and, 26
matrix organizations, 22–24
overlapping project phases, 43–44
projectized organization, 25
project-related characteristics, 21
reporting relationships and, 17
Organizational theory, 263
Organization charts and position descriptions, 261–262
hierarchical-type charts and, 261
matrix-based charts, 262
text-oriented formats, 262
Output(s), 548
Overlapping project phases, 43

P
Parametric estimating, 170, 205, 548
Pareto diagram, 237, 548
Path convergence, 548
Path divergence, 548
Payment systems, 383, 548
PBOs. See Project-based organizations (PBOs)

579

INDEX

PDCA. See Plan-do-check-act (PDCA) cycle
PDM. See Precedence Diagramming Method
PDPC. See Process Decision Program Charts (PDPC)
Percent complete, 549
Performance appraisals, 282
Performance measurement baseline (PMB), 302, 549
Performance reporting, 300, 383.
See also Work performance reports
Performance reviews, 188–189, 222–223, 549
procurement, 383, 552
Performing organization, 549. See also Seller(s)
Perform Integrated Change Control process, 63, 452–453, 549
inputs, 97–98
outputs, 99–100
overview, 94–97
tools and techniques, 98–99
Perform Qualitative Risk Analysis process, 309, 440–441, 549
inputs, 329–330
outputs, 333
overview, 328–329
tools and techniques, 330–333
Perform Quality Assurance process, 227, 446, 549
inputs, 244–245
outputs, 247–248
overview, 242–244
tools and techniques, 245–247
Perform Quantitative Risk Analysis process, 309, 441, 549
inputs, 335–336
outputs, 341
overview, 333–335
tools and techniques, 336–341
Personnel assessment tools, 278
PERT. See Program Evaluation and Review Technique
Pessimistic duration, 549. See also Duration
Phase. See Project phase(s)
Phase closure, 104. See also Close Project or Phase process
Phase gate, 41, 549
Phase-to-phase relationships, 42–44
overlapping relationship, 43
sequential relationship, 42
Plan Communications Management process, 287, 439, 549
inputs, 290–291
outputs, 296–297
overview, 289–290

580

tools and techniques, 291–295
Plan Cost Management process, 193, 435–436, 550
inputs, 196–197
outputs, 198–200
overview, 195–196
tools and techniques, 198
Plan-do-check-act (PDCA) cycle, 229
Plan Human Resource Management process, 255, 438, 550
inputs, 259–260
overview, 258–259
tools and techniques, 261–264
Planned risk responses, 104, 347–348
Planned value (PV), 218, 219, 550
Planning package, 132, 550. See also Control account
Planning Process Group, 418, 550
overview, 55–56, 427–428
processes in, 61
Plan Procurement Management process, 354, 442–443, 550
inputs, 360–364
outputs, 366–370
overview, 358–360
tools and techniques, 355–356
Plan Quality Management process, 227, 437–438, 550
inputs, 233–234
outputs, 241–242
overview, 230–233
tools and techniques, 235–241
Plan Risk Management process, 309, 430, 550
inputs, 314–315
outputs, 316–318
overview, 313–314
tools and techniques, 315–316
Plan Risk Responses process, 309, 442, 550
inputs, 343
outputs, 346–347
overview, 342–343
tools and techniques, 343-346
Plan Schedule Management process, 141, 431, 550
inputs, 146–147
outputs, 148–149
overview, 145–146
tools and techniques, 147–148
Plan Scope Management process, 105, 429, 550
inputs, 108–109

INDEX

outputs, 109–110
overview, 107–108
tools and techniques, 109
Plan Stakeholder Management process, 391, 443, 550
inputs, 400–401
outputs, 403–404
overview, 399–400
tools and techniques, 401–403
Plurality, 115, 550
PM. See Project manager
PMB. See Performance measurement baseline; PV baseline
PMIS. See Project Management Information System
PMO. See Project management office
Policy, 550
Portfolio, 551
Portfolio management, 551
Positive risks, 311, 345–346
Power/influence grid, stakeholder analysis, 396
Power/interest grid, stakeholder analysis, 396
Pre-assignment of team members, 270
Pre-bid conferences. See Bidder conferences
Precedence Diagramming Method (PDM), 156–157, 246, 551
Precedence relationship, 156–157, 551.
See also Logical relationship
Precision, 228, 551
Predecessor activity, 156, 158–159, 180, 551
Predictive life cycle, 44–45, 551
Preferential logic, 158. See also Discretionary dependencies
Presentations, 302, 409, 415
Prevention, 229, 250
Preventive action, 81, 551
change request for, 93, 191, 353
characteristics of, 85
Prioritization matrices, 246, 551
Probabilistic analysis of project, 341
Probability and impact matrix, 318, 331–332, 551
Probability distributions, 337
Procedure, 551
Process analysis, 247, 552
Process assets. See Organizational process assets
Process closure. See Closing Process Group
Process Decision Program Charts (PDPC), 245, 552
Process(es)
definition, 551

descriptions of, 50, 149, 200
Processes and procedures, 27–28
See also specific process or procedure
Process flow charts, 325
Process flow diagram, 419–420
Process Groups
categories of, 48–49
Closing Process Group, 57–58
Executing Process Group, 56
Initiating Process Group, 54–55
interactions of, 51, 420–421
Knowledge Areas mapping and, 61
Monitoring and Controlling Process Group, 57
as overlapping activities, 51
overview, 5, 52–53
Planning Process Group, 55–56
Process improvement models, 229
Process improvement plan, 552
as input, 244
as output, 241
Process interactions.
See Project management process interactions
Procurement audits, 388, 552
Procurement documents, 552
as input, 323, 373, 382, 388, 394
as output, 368
procurement contract, 357, 380
Procurement file, 389
Procurement management plan, 552
as input, 373
as output, 366–367, 385
updates, 347
Procurement negotiations, 377, 388
Procurement performance reviews, 383, 552
Procurement statement of work, 552
as input, 374
as output, 367
Product, 552
Product analysis, 122, 552
Product life cycle, 552
Product-oriented processes, 47–48
Product quality improvement, 229
Product requirements, 64, 106, 114, 115, 118, 227
Product scope, 105, 552

581

INDEX

Product scope description, 68, 123, 552
Program(s), 553
Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT), 170,
246, 553
Program management
definition, 553
description of, 9
OPM and, 6
portfolio management and, 6–7
project management and, 6–7
Program manager, 14
Progressive elaboration, 5
definition, 553
project management plan and, 55
prototypes and, 116
rolling wave planning as, 151
Project(s)
boundaries, 54, 424
definition, 3–4, 417, 553
portfolios, programs and, 4–5
temporary nature of, 35
Project-based organizations (PBOs), 14, 553
Project boundaries, 54, 424
Project calendar, 553
as input, 188
as output, 184
Project charter, 553. See also Develop Project Charter process
authorization and, 54, 424
description of, 67
as input, 74, 108, 113, 121, 146, 197, 394
as output, 71–72
project scope statement and, 124
Project closure
documents, 104, 354
guidelines, 75
Project communication requirements.
See Communication requirements analysis
Project communications, 301, 305
Project Communications Management, 287-308
definition, 553
overview, 287–288
Project Cost Management, 193-226, 553
Project documents. See also Documents
as input, 245, 251, 323, 374, 411–412

582

project management plan and, 78
updates, 86, 94, 100, 125, 132, 136, 140, 160, 165, 172,
185, 191, 208, 214, 226, 242, 248, 285, 297, 302, 308,
333, 341, 354, 370, 379, 385, 404, 409
Project execution. See Executing Process Group
Project files, 104
Project funding requirements, 553
as input, 217
as output, 214
Project governance, 34–35, 553. See also Governance
Project Human Resource Management, 255-285, 554
Project initiation, 554
Project Integration Management, 63-104
definition, 554
overview, 63–65
Projectized organization, 25, 556
Project life cycle
adaptive life cycles, 46
characteristics of, 38–40
cost, staffing levels and, 39–40
definition, 38, 554
iterative and incremental life cycles, 45–46
overview, 38
predictive life cycles, 44–45
project time and, 39
Project management
business value and, 16
definition, 417, 554
description of, 5–6
iterative nature of, 422
operational stakeholders in, 13–14
operations management and, 12
organizational governance and, 13
organizational influences on, 19
organizational strategy and, 11, 15
organizations and, 14–15
Process Groups in, 5
process interactions, 50–51, 53, 422–423
Project management body of knowledge, 554
Project management information system (PMIS), 57, 58, 92,
151, 155, 460, 554
Project Management Knowledge Areas, 554
Project management office (PMO), 99, 554
Project management plan, 554.

INDEX

See also Develop Project Management Plan process
components and project documents, 78
cost control and, 216
cost management plan and, 196
elements of, 146
as input, 82, 88–89, 97, 102, 108, 134, 187, 233, 250, 259,
290, 304–305, 314, 350, 360, 381, 388, 400, 411
as output, 76–77, 140
progressive detailing of, 55
schedule management plan and, 142
scope control and, 138
updates, 85–86, 93, 100, 140, 184, 191, 225–226, 248,
253, 272, 284, 302, 308, 346–347, 353, 379, 385, 408,
413–414
Project management processes
categories of, 48–49, 418
interactions, 50–51, 53
mapping of, 422–423
overview, 47–49
Project Management Process Groups. See also Process Groups
definition, 554
and Knowledge Area Mapping, 422–423
linked by outputs, 419
Project management software, 154, 164, 189, 207, 225
Project management staff, 555
Project management system, 555
Project management team, 77, 555.
See also Project team(s)
Project management tools, electronic, 300
Project manager (PM)
definition, 555
interpersonal skills, 17–18
responsibilities/competencies, 17
role of, 12, 16–17
Project objectives, agreed upon, 278
Project organization chart, 265, 555
Project performance appraisals, 282
Project phases, 41–46, 555
overlapping of, 43
overview, 41–42
phase-to-phase relationships, 42–44
sequential relationship, 42–43
single-phase project, 42
Project presentations, 302, 409, 415

Project Procurement Management, 355-389
definition, 555
overview, 355–358
Project Quality Management, 227-254
See also Quality management plan
definition, 555
overview, 227–231
Project records, 302, 409, 415
Project reports, 302, 409, 415
Project requirements, 112, 118
Project risk, 310
Project Risk Management, 309-354
definition, 555
overview, 309–312
Project schedule, 191, 555
development, 142
as input, 187, 203, 210, 361
as output, 182–184
presentation, 142
Project schedule model
development, 148
maintenance, 148
Project schedule network diagram, 182
definition, 555
description of, 159–160
as input, 175
Project scope, 105, 555. See also Control Scope process;
Define Scope process; Verify Scope process
Project scope creep, 108. See also Verify Scope process
Project Scope Management, 105-140, 555
overview, 105–106
Project scope statement, 105, 131, 202, 210, 233
assumptions and constraints, 168
contents of, 360
definition, 556
as input, 127, 155, 175
as output, 123–124
project charter and, 124
Project sponsor, 32
Project staff assignments
as input, 175, 275, 281
as output, 272
Project Stakeholder Management, 391-415
definition, 556

583

INDEX

584

overview, 391–392
Project stakeholders. See Stakeholder(s)
Project statement of work. See Statement of work
Project team(s).
colocation of, 25, 277, 532
composition of, 37–38
definition, 556
influencing, 256
multinational, 294
pre-assignment of members, 270
professional and ethical behavior, 256
roles of members of, 36
stakeholders and, 30–31
virtual, 25, 38, 271
Project team directory, 556
Project Time Management, 141-192
definition, 556
overview, 141–144
Proposal(s). See Seller proposals
Proposal evaluation techniques, 375, 556
Proprietary rights, 369
Prototypes, 116, 556
Pull communication, 295
Push communication, 295
PV. See Planned value
PV baseline (PMB)

as output, 252
Quality function deployment (QFD), 114, 556
Quality management. See Project Quality Management
Quality management and control tools, 240, 245–246, 556
Quality management plan, 557.
See also Project Quality Management
as input, 244, 321
as output, 241
updates, 347
Quality management system, 557
Quality metrics, 557
as input, 244, 250
as output, 242
Quality planning tools, 527.
See also Additional quality planning tools
Quality policy, 557
Quality requirements, 112, 557
Quality standards. See Standard
Quality tools. See Seven basic quality tools
Quantified risks, prioritized list of, 341
Quantitative risk analysis and modeling techniques, 338–340, 557
expected monetary value (EMV) analysis, 339
modeling and simulation, 340
sensitivity analysis, 338
Quantitative risk analysis results, trends in, 341
Questionnaires and surveys, 116, 557

QFD. See Quality Function Deployment
Qualified seller list, 386
Qualitative analysis, 343.
See also Perform Quantitative Risk Analysis process
Quality, 228.
See also Plan Quality process; Seven basic quality tools
audits for, 247, 556
definition, 556
Quality assurance. See Perform Quality Assurance process
Quality audits, 247, 556. See also Audits
Quality checklists, 556
as input, 250
as output, 242
Quality control measurements, 556
as input, 244

RACI. See Responsible, accountable, consult and inform
(RACI) chart
RAM. See Responsibility assignment matrix
RBS. See Resource breakdown structure;
Risk Breakdown Structure
Rebaselining, 444. See also Baseline
Recognition and rewards, 266, 277
Records, project, 302, 409, 415
Records management system, 384, 389, 557
Regression analysis, 91, 103, 557
Regulation, 557
Regulatory bodies, 398, 402.
See also Government regulations
Report(s)
information flow and, 59

INDEX

project, 302, 409, 415
work performance, 59, 97
Reporting formats, 149, 200, 318
Reporting systems, 557
Requested change, 558. See also Change requests
Request for information (RFI), 68, 368, 557
Request for proposal (RFP), 68, 368, 558
Request for quotation (RFQ), 368, 558
Requirement(s). See also Product requirements
definition, 558
types of, 112
Requirements documentation, 558.
See also Collect Requirements process; Contracts
as input, 121, 127, 134, 138, 234, 361
as output, 117
Requirements management plan, 110, 113, 138, 558
Requirements traceability matrix, 558
as input, 134, 138
as output, 118–119
Reserve, 558. See also Management reserve
Reserve analysis, 92, 171, 206, 211, 225, 352, 558.
See also Contingency reserve
Residual risk, 350, 558
Resolution of conflicts. See Conflict management
Resource(s), 163, 558
Resource assignments, 182
Resource breakdown structure (RBS), 261, 558
as input, 168, 175
as output, 165
Resource calendars, 558
as input, 163, 168, 175, 210, 275
as output, 272, 378
staffing management plan and, 265
Resource histogram, 265–266, 559
Resource leveling, 179, 559
Resource optimization techniques, 179–180, 189, 559
Resource requirements. See Activity resource requirements;
Human resource requirements
Resource smoothing, 180, 559
Responsibility, 264, 316, 559
Responsibility assignment matrix (RAM), 262, 559
Responsible, accountable, consult, and inform (RACI) chart, 262
Result, 559. See also Deliverable(s)
Result transition, 103

Reviews. See also Performance reviews; Program Evaluation
and Review Technique
approved change requests, 252, 528
documentation, 324, 538
peer, 252
procurement performance, 383, 552
product, 135
risk, 354
Rewards. See Recognition and rewards
Rework, 235, 559
RFI. See Request for information
RFP. See Request for proposal
RFQ. See Request for quotation
Risk, 559. See also Negative risks; Opportunities;
Positive risks; Threat(s)
Risk acceptance, 345–346, 559
Risk analysis. See also Perform Qualitative Risk Analysis
process; Perform Quantitative Risk Analysis process
Risk appetite, 311, 559
Risk audits, 351, 354, 559
Risk avoidance, 344, 559
Risk breakdown structure (RBS), 245, 317, 324, 560
Risk categorization, 332, 560
Risk category, 317, 560
Risk data quality assessment, 332, 560
Risk event, 52, 163, 203, 225
Risk identification. See Identify Risks process
Risk impact. See Probability and impact matrix
Risk management. See also Project Risk Management
Risk management plan, 560.
See also Plan Risk Management process
as input, 321, 329, 335, 343
as output, 316–318
Risk mitigation, 345, 560
Risk probability and impact, 317, 330
Risk reassessment, 351, 354, 560
Risk register, 191, 330, 560
identified risks list, 327
as input, 163, 168, 175, 203, 210, 234, 330, 335, 343,
350, 361
as output, 185
potential responses list, 327
updates, 333, 341
Risk responses, 311, 354.

585

INDEX

See also Plan Risk Responses process
Risk reviews, 354
Risks, secondary, 343, 348, 562
Risk score, 332
Risk threshold, 311, 560
Risk tolerance, 311, 329, 560
Risk transference, 344, 560
Risk urgency assessment, 332, 560
Role(s), 264, 316, 560
Rolling wave planning, 45, 131, 152, 560
ROM. See Rough order of magnitude
Root cause analysis, 92, 325, 561
Rules of performance measurement, 149, 199

S
Safety, 267
Salience model, stakeholder analysis, 396
Scatter diagram, 238, 561
Schedule, 561.
See also Master schedule; Project schedule;
Schedule model
Schedule baseline, 191, 196, 233, 561.
See also Baseline schedule; Control Schedule process
as output, 181, 385
updates, 347
Schedule compression, 190, 561
Schedule compression techniques
crashing, 181
fast tracking, 158, 181
Schedule control. See Control Schedule process
Schedule data, 142, 191, 561
as input, 188
as output, 184
Schedule development. See Develop Schedule process
Schedule forecasts, 561
as input, 89
as output, 190
Schedule management plan, 142, 561.
See also Develop Schedule process criteria and activities
established by, 148–149
as input, 150, 154, 162, 167, 175, 321, 335
updates, 191, 347
Schedule model, 142, 561

586

Schedule network analysis, 561. See also Backward pass;
Critical chain method; Critical path method; Resource leveling
Schedule network templates, 561
Schedule performance index (SPI), 89, 149, 189, 219, 561
Schedule variance (SV), 89, 149, 189, 218, 561
Scheduling
methods, 142, 151
overview, 142, 144
Scheduling software, 158, 177
Scheduling tool, 181, 190, 561
Scope, 562. See also Product scope; Project scope
Scope baseline, 101, 138, 146, 196, 562. See also Control
Scope process
elements of, 233
as input, 151, 202–203, 210, 322, 329
as output, 131–132
updates, 140, 347
Scope change, 48, 562
Scope creep, 137, 562
Scope management plan, 138, 562
as input, 113, 121, 127
as output, 109–110
Scope statement. See Project scope statement
Secondary risks, 343, 350, 562
Selected sellers, 377, 562
Seller(s), 33. See also Buyer-seller relationship;
Project Procurement Management
definition, 562
performance-related documentation, 382
prequalified, 361
in project team, 36
qualified seller list, 386
selected, 377, 562
Seller performance evaluation documentation, 382
Seller proposals
definition, 562
as input, 373
Sensitivity analysis, 338, 562
Sequence Activities process, 141, 432, 562
inputs, 154–156
outputs, 159–160
overview, 153–154
tools and techniques, 156–159
Sequencing, 154

INDEX

Sequential relationship, 42–43
Service level agreements (SLAs), 70
Seven basic quality tools (7QC Tools), 236–239, 252, 562
cause-and-effect diagrams, 236
checksheets, 237
control charts, 238
flowcharts, 236
histograms, 238
scatter diagrams, 238
storyboard illustrating, 239
SF. See Start-to-finish
Simulation, 180, 562
Single-phase project, 42
SIPOC model, 236, 237
Slack. See Free float; Total float
SLAs. See Service level agreements
Slippage, 178
SMEs. See Subject matter experts
Soft logic, 158. See also Discretionary dependency
Soft skills, 275
Software, 306. See also Project management software;
Scheduling software
Software development, 116
grade and quality, 228
subsystem interfaces, 155
Solution requirements, 112, 118
Source selection criteria, 368–369, 373, 563
SOW. See Statement of work
Specification, 563
Specification limits, 563. See also Control limits
SPI. See Schedule performance index
Sponsor, 563. See Project sponsor
Sponsoring organization, 563
SS. See Start-to-start
Staffing management plan, 258–259, 265-267, 563.
See also Human resource management plan;
Stage gate, 41
Stakeholder(s), 30–33.
See also Identify Stakeholders process; Manage
Stakeholder Engagement process; Project stakeholder
definition, 563
engagement level of, 402–403
examples of, 33
expectations, 31

external, 34, 54, 371, 424
internal, 33, 54, 371, 424
key, 93, 114, 117, 248, 277, 395
requirements, 112, 117
tolerances, 318
Stakeholder analysis, 395–397, 563
Stakeholder management plan, 563
as input, 113, 406
as output, 403–404
Stakeholder notifications, 302, 409, 415
Stakeholder register, 563
as input, 113, 234, 291, 322, 361, 400
as output, 398, 414
Standard, 563
Start date, 564
Start-to-finish (SF), 156, 564
Start-to-start (SS), 154, 156, 564
Statement of work (SOW), 68, 367, 564
Statistical sampling, 240, 252, 564
Storyboarding, 116, 239, 246
Strategic planning
organizational strategy and, 11
statement of work and, 68
Strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats.
See SWOT analysis
Strong matrix organizations, 24
Subcontractors, 270
Subject matter experts (SMEs), 71, 99, 315, 398
Subnetwork, 564
Subproject, 564
Subsidiary plans, 77, 88
Successor activity, 156, 158–159, 180, 564
Summary activity, 564
Supplier. See Seller(s)
Surveys, 116, 557
SV. See Schedule variance
SWOT analysis, 326, 564
System or process flow charts, 325

T
T&M. See Time and Material Contract
Tailor, 564
Tailoring, 48, 459

587

INDEX

TCPI. See To-complete performance index
Team. See Colocated teams; Develop Project Team process;
Project management team; Project team(s)
Team-based approaches, 171, 207
Team-building activities, 276
Team performance assessments, 278–279, 281
Teamwork, 274. See also Develop Project Team process
Technical documentation, 382
Technical documentation updates, 348
Technical performance measurement, 352
Technique, 564
Templates, 564
Text-oriented formats, roles and responsibilities, 262
Threat(s)
definition, 564
strategies for, 344–345
Three-phase project, 42–43
Three-point estimate, 170–171, 205–206, 565
Threshold, 565
Time and Material Contract (T&M), 364, 565
Time management. See Project Time Management
Time-scaled schedule network diagram, 565
To-complete performance index (TCPI), 221–222, 565
Tolerance, 250, 565
Tools, 300, 565. See also Seven basic quality tools
Tornado diagram, 338, 565
Total float, 158, 177, 565
Total Quality Management (TQM), 229
TQM. See Total Quality Management
Training, 275
Training needs, 266
Transition requirements, 112, 118
Tree diagram, 245, 565
Trend analysis, 92, 103, 188, 223, 352, 566
Triangular distribution, 171, 206
Trigger condition, 566
Tuckman ladder of team development, 276

U
Unanimity, 115, 566
Union labor/contracts, 203. See also Contracts
Updates, change request for, 85
User(s)

588

customers and, 32
in project team, 36

V
VAC. See Variance at completion
Validated changes, 90, 252
Validated deliverables, 566
Validate Scope process, 105, 453, 566
inputs, 134–135
outputs, 135–136
overview, 133–134
tools and techniques, 135
Validation, 566
Value, business, 15–16
Value analysis, 122, 352.
See also Expected Monetary Value (EMV) analysis
Value engineering, 566
Variance, 566
Variance analysis, 92, 139, 189, 222, 352, 566
Variance at completion (VAC), 566
Variation, 566
Velocity, 566
Vendor. See Seller(s)
Vendor bid analysis, 207
Vendor conferences. See Bidder conferences
Verification, 566
Verified deliverables, 134
as input, 135
as output, 253
Virtual meetings, 84
Virtual project teams
collaboration techniques and, 25, 38
virtual team model, 271
VOC. See Voice of the Customer
Voice of the Customer (VOC), 114, 566

W
Watch list, risks and, 330, 332, 333, 343, 347–348, 350
WBS. See Work breakdown structure
WBS dictionary, 105, 132, 202, 210, 233, 360, 567
WBS ID, 153
Weak matrix organizations, 22

INDEX

Weighted milestone method, 567
What-if scenario analysis, 180, 567
Workaround, 567
Work authorization, 567
Work authorization system, 146, 567
Work breakdown structure (WBS), 105, 202, 210.
See also Create WBS process
bottom-up approach, 129
contents of, 360
definition, 567
description of, 132, 233
hierarchical-type charts and, 261
top-down approach, 129
Work breakdown structure component, 567
Work packages, 128, 150, 165, 567
Work performance data, 59, 81, 567
as input, 135, 139, 187, 217, 251, 305, 351, 382, 411
as output, 85
Work performance information, 59, 567
as input, 90, 382
as output, 136, 139, 190, 225, 253, 307, 353, 384, 413
Work performance reports, 59, 567
as input, 97, 281, 299, 351, 382
as output, 93
Workshops. See Facilitated workshops
Written documentation, 386

589

Source Exif Data:

File Type                       : PDF
File Type Extension             : pdf
MIME Type                       : application/pdf
PDF Version                     : 1.6
Linearized                      : No
Subject                         : 
Title                           : 
Creator                         : 
Author                          : 
Page Count                      : 616
XMP Toolkit                     : Adobe XMP Core 5.4-c005 78.147326, 2012/08/23-13:03:03
Modify Date                     : 2012:12:21 10:42:09-05:00
Create Date                     : 2012:12:20 15:46:02-05:00
Metadata Date                   : 2012:12:21 10:42:09-05:00
Document ID                     : uuid:2efcd1e8-5fa6-41cd-bb80-f95b5464dbf2
Instance ID                     : uuid:a67be2de-03da-654a-acde-4335026f5cba
Format                          : application/pdf
Producer                        : Creo Normalizer JTP
Has XFA                         : No

EXIF Metadata provided by EXIF.tools

PMBOK® Guide 5th Edition(EN)

Navigation menu

Versions of this User Manual:

Views

Navigation