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aboensis

Aaboensis
Tommi Syrjänen
July 24, 2021
qUuo usque tandm abutere, Ccatilina, patientia nostra? Qqua diu etiam f uror jste tuus nos eludt? Qquem ad finem sese ef renata jacabit audacia? Nnihilne te nocurnu prae sidium palati, nihil ur bis vigliae, nihil timor populi, nihil concurs us bonor omnium, nihil hi munitissimu habendi senatu locus, nihil horum ora voltusq moverunt? Ppatere tua consilia non sentis, constrita iam hor omnium scientia teneri coniurationem tuam non vids? Qquid pro xima, quid s upioe noce egeris, ubi f ueris, quos convocveris, quid consili ceeris, quem nostr u ignorae arbitraris? !*************>>>>><

The text in the previous page is the beginning of Marcus Tullius Cicero's Oratio in catilinam primo that has been used to set typographical speciments at least since the days of Gianbattista Bodoni (17401813). In modern fonts its text reads:
Quo usque tandem abutere, Catilina, patientia nostra? quam diu etiam furor iste tuus nos eludet? quem ad finem sese effrenata iactabit audacia? Nihilne te nocturnum praesidium Palati, nihil urbis vigiliae, nihil timor populi, nihil concursus bonorum omnium, nihil hic munitissimus habendi senatus locus, nihil horum ora voltusque moverunt? Patere tua consilia non sentis, constrictam iam horum omnium scientia teneri coniurationem tuam non vides? Quid proxima, quid superiore nocte egeris, ubi fueris, quos convocaveris, quid consilii ceperis, quem nostrum ignorare arbitraris?
C. D. Yonge [25] translated the paragraph as:
When, O Catiline, do you mean to cease abusing our patience? How long is that madness of yours still to mock us? When is there to be an end of that unbridled audacity of yours, swaggering about as it does now? Do not the nightly guards placed on the Palatine Hill--do not the watches posted throughout the city--does not the alarm of the people, and the union of all good men--does not the precaution taken of assembling the senate in this most defensible place--do not the looks and countenances of this venerable body here present, have any effect upon you? Do you not feel that your plans are detected? Do you not see that your conspiracy is already arrested and rendered powerless by the knowledge which every one here possesses of it? What is there that you did last night, what the night before--where is it that you were--who was there that you summoned to meet you--what design was there which was adopted by you, with which you think that any one of us is unacquainted?
The font Aboensis is copyrighted by Tommi Syrjänen, 2021. It may be used and distributed under the Open Font License 1.1 (see page 115 for details).
The documentation and LaTeX style files are also copyrighted by Tommi Syrjänen, 2021, and they may be distributed under the terms of Latex Project Public License 1.3c (see the accompanying file lppl.txt for details or refer to http://www.latex-project.org/lppl.txt).
The image files showing original medieval documents are either Public Domain or are licensed under Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License by the organizations that digitized them. Their individual licenses are listed on pages 113114.

The Short Version of Important Stuff
· Aboensis is a free OpenType/CFF font intended for em-
ulating late medieval manuscripts. · It should be used in relatively large size (14+ points). · It is licensed under Open Font License (see the end of the
document for details). · It is a 15th century typeface. It contains a large number
of symbols (see pages 107113) that are no longer in common use but it lacks many symbols that are nowadays in common use. · It has a large number of OpenType features that control its behavior. See section 8 for details. The "Standard ligatures" (liga) and "Contextual alternates" (calt) features should be always turned on for proper function of the font. · It is designed to be used with XeLaTeX. See section 5 for details.
· Aboensis works in recentish programs. Some old font ren-
derers will mess up the spacing between letters. This happens at least in some old versions of MS Word. Newer programs shouldn't have problems. However, some care is necessary when using highlighted initials symbols with XeLaTeX, see section 3.2 for details.
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· Abbreviate with brackets:
eorum
eorum

= eor
eo[rum]

· Add an abbreviation symbol over a letter by preceding it with tilde or single quote (use \abtildes to make tilde regular letter):

ecca tminus

ecc~ia

'tminus

· Place a letter as a superscript using a grave accent:
iic
iiii`c

· Use asterisk to prevent initial and final forms as needed:

non = non

non

*non*

· Add red highlighting to capital letters by writing the letter three times on top of itself: first with text color, then with the highlight preceded by a slash, and finally in darker highlight color with two slashes:
A a a = Aa
A /A //A

With XeLaTex you can use command \abcapital to add a highlighted capital.
· Enter Lombardic initials by surrounding the letter with '+' signs.

A a

+A+

· Enter cursive initials by surrounding the letter with two '+' signs and use font size 5.5 times larger than the main body

a A

++A++

· Prevent uneven line spacing in XeLaTex with \abl{line}.

Table 1: A quick partial guide to special symbols

Contents

1 Introduction

1.1 OpenType . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1.2 Open Font License v.1.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1.3 Latex Project Public License version 1.3c . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

1.4 Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License . . . . . 12

2 Historical background

2.1 Codex Aboensis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

2.2 King Magnus Eriksson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

2.3 Swedish laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

2.4 The Black Book of Abo Cathedral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

3 Typesetting Medieval Cursive

3.1 Creating highlighted capitals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

3.2 Selecting correct forms of letters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

3.3 Lombard and cursive initials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

3.4 Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

3.5 Punctuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

3.6 Miscellaneous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

3.7 Making complete books . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

4 Abbreviations

4.1 Abbreviation marks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

4.2 Abbreviation symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

4.3 Abbreviation superscripts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

4.4 Names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

5 The LaTeX style

5.1 Package options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

5.2 Selecting the font . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

5.3 The Color Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

5.4 Line spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

5.5 Capitals and Initials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

5.6 Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

6 Medieval Swedish Units

6.1 Measuring silver and money . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

6.2 Scale weights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

6.3 Besman weights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

6.4 Dry Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

6.5 Wet capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

6.6 Length measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

6.7 Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

6.8 Seed grain based units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

6.9 Length based units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

6.10 Counting units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

7 LaTeX Command Reference

7.1 General commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

7.2 Color handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

7.3 Capitals and initials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

7.4 Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

7.5 Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

8 OpenType Features

9 Examples

9.1 The accounts of Kalliala parish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

9.2 The account book of Olaf Nilsson Tawast . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

9.3 Table of contents of Konunx balker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

9.4 The rules of noble service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

9.5 Excommunication of Sääksmäki peasants . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

9.6 The charter of the Viborg town . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

9.7 Privilege letter of Olof Nilsson Tawast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

9.8 Bishop Magnus Olai Tawast's admonition . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

9.9 Cursive initials in The Black Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

10 List of Symbols

107

11 License

113

A B C DEFG H I J K LM N OPQ RST
UVWXY Z ÄÅÖ
Aa Bb Cc Dd Ee Ff Gg Hh Ii Jj Kk Ll Mm Nn Oo Pp Qq Rr Ss Tt
Uu Vv Ww Xx Yy Zz Äa Åa Öo
Table 2: The capital letters with and without red strikes
a b cde f ghi jk l mnopq r r s stuv w xyz äåö
Table 3: The lower case alphabet. There are two symbols for r and s.
1 Introduction
Aboensis is a free unicode OpenType font that is intended for emulating late-
medieval documents. The font is an example of a 15th century book cursive hand that was used in the Scandinavian countries. The main source for the glyphs is Codex Aboensis that is a richly-illustrated law book written in the 1430s. The font also includes a number of glyphs taken from other roughly contemporary manuscripts. The largest group of them are cursive initials taken from The Black Book of Abo Cathedral that was compiled around the end of the 15th century.
As medieval cursive is very difficult to read for modern readers, this font is not really suitable for any normal practical purposes. Instead, it is aimed for users who want to recreate medieval-looking documents with a computer.
Table 2 shows the basic capital letters of the font. Capitals in 15th century texts were often further marked by drawing a red strike over them. This font includes glyph variants for capitals that can be used to draw the struck capitals and those are enabled using OpenType features as described in section 3.1. Table 3 shows the basic forms of lower case letters. However, many letters have than one form: an initial form that is used when it starts a word, a final form if it ends a word, and possibly others to tie it to other cursive letters better.
The font has two sets of initials. The first ones are in the Lombardic style
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and are taken from Codex Aboensis.1 These are shown in table 4. These have two sets: one for letters written in single color and another for two-colored letters. Additionally, some of the capitals have variant forms, one simpler and one more complex one. These too are controlled with OpenType features and they are described in section 3.3.
The Lombardic initials are suitable when typesetting a medieval book, but normal medieval documents did not use them as a rule. For this reason Aboensis has another set of initials that are suitable for documentary use such as charters and deeds. These intials have been taken from The Black Book of Abo Cathedral,2 that is a cartulary that was compiled in the late 15th century. These are shown in table 5. Note that these initials need a lot of manual adjustment when they are added to the text because they all should be positioned in a different way respective to the main block of text. Section 3.3 describes how they are enabled using OpenType Features and section 9.9 shows how they are used in The Black Book.
All images of original texts that are in this document are from digitized collections of Riksarkivet and Kansallisarkisto.
1.1 OpenType
OpenType is a technology that combines two different approaches of creating fonts under one package: Microsoft's true type (OpenType/TT) and Adobe's type 1 (OpenType/PS or OpenType/CFF) fonts. The PS technology is older and it originated in the 80s for defining digital fonts for printing. The true type fonts were designed primarily for high-quality screen fonts for Windows.
Aboensis is a PS font that has been designed explicitly for printing and it is not very usable a screen font as many letters are practically indistinguishable in screen sizes.
OpenType features OpenType fonts may contain a number of features that alter their behavior. The most common ones that are used with European languages are ligature substitutions where two individual characters are replaced by a glyph that contains both of them. For example, in many fonts 'f' and 'l' are combined into 'fl'.
f+l=f
Different programs use different conventions for selecting features. For example, in Photoshop the features are specified in a well-hidden menu that's shown in figure 1.
1.2 Open Font License v.1.1
Aboensis may be used and distributed under the conditions of the Open Font Li-
cense v.1.1. The full text of the license is at the end of this document. It and answers to frequently asked questions about it are available at http://scripts.sil.org/OFL. The most important features of OFL are:
1With the exception of X, Y, Z, Ä, Å and Ö that do not occur in the book. 2Except for X, Z, Ä, Å, and Ö that do not occur in the text.
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a b cdef ghi j kl mno pq r st uv wx yz aa o
aa bb cc dd ee ff gg hh ii j kk ll mm nn oo pp qq rr ss tt uu vv ww xx yy zz aa aa oo
Table 4: The Lombardian intials, one color and two colors.
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a b c de f gh i j
k l mno p qrs t
u v w xy
za ao
Table 5: The cursive initials. Three of the letters (A, S, and W ) have variant forms. These should be used in sizes 56 times larger than the main body of text (the style file defaults to 5.5) and they need considerble amount of manual adjustment when positioned. Some of them extend far above baseline and some far below.
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Figure 1: The OpenType menu in Photoshop
Figure 2: Selecting character variants in Photoshop 11

1. You may freely use the font in your documents, including embedding it in it.
2. You may freely give the font to whoever you want, but you should give the whole package (including the documentation files). You may also sell it as long as you comply with the few restrictions that are enumerated in the text of the license.
3. You may freely modify the font, but if you distribute the modified font you should give it a different name and release it under OFL.
1.3 Latex Project Public License version 1.3c
The documentation files (except for images showing original medieval documents) and the LaTeX style file are distributed under the Latex Project Public License (LPPL version 1.3c). The exact conditions of the license are defined in the file lppl.txt that should be included in the font package but is also available at http://www.latex-project.org/lppl.txt.
The terms of LPPL are similar to those of the OFL. The short and incomplete version is:
1. You may freely use the files however you want.
2. You may freely distribute the package in its original form.
3. If you modify the files, you may distribute them but you must document what changes you have made in the files, make it clear that the changed version is not the original, and distribute either the original version or information on how it can be obtained with it.
1.4 Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
Most of the images that show reproductions original medieval documents are copyrighted under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0) by the institutions that digitized them. The list of copyright holders is on pages 113114.
The exact conditions of the license are defined in the file ccby4.txt that should be included in the font package but the text is also available at
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.
The short and incomplete version of the license is that you are free to:
1. Share -- copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format
2. Adapt -- remix, transform, and build upon the material for any purpose, even commercially.
under the following terms:
1. Attribution -- You must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made. You may do so in any reasonable manner, but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use
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2. No additional restrictions -- You may not apply legal terms or technological measures that legally restrict others from doing anything the license permits.
All images in this document that are licensed under CC BY 4.0 have been cropped from larger originals, including those that show the complete text of the document.
2 Historical background
2.1 Codex Aboensis
The Codex Aboensis (Cod. Holm. B 172) is a richly-illustrated late-medieval book that is currently held in the Swedish National Archives. It is known also by the name Codex Kalmar as it was for a time stored in a school library in Chalmers before it was donated to the Archives in 1884.
The main content of the book is the Law of the Realm of King Magnus Eriksson that has been supplemented by the Church Law of Uppland, the Manor Justice of Magnus Eriksson, and the Ledung code of Uppland that decrees how the coastal fleet was organized.
The book is connected to Finland and the city Turku (Abo in Latin) in several ways. The most notable is that the book starts with an ecclestical calendar of the Turku diocese. The other is that it is known to have been in Finland for most of the 16th century.3 However, the calendar is older than the bulk of the text and dates from the latter half of the 14th century with some modifications made around the beginning of the 1400s.
The most striking feature of the manuscript are the large illuminated initials that start almost every page. The images were drawn by the original scribe, and he likely drew himself in one of them. The folio 78v shows a man in tunic, red hose and red hat holding a speech scroll that declares him to be the master of books (figure 3). The page initials usually start mid-sentence.
Most but by no means all of the images are at least loosely related to the text where they occur. The figure 4 shows a few more samples.
a. A fox preaching to geese from a transportable pulpit of the type that friars used. This is in a section that defines how the bishop should inspect a church that is suspected to have been desacrated.
b. A cleric carrying a woman. This is not directly related to text that is about punishments for fighting in a tavern.
c. A hare playing bagpipes. This is probably connected to the mention that a bride of a wedding may not donate wedding cloths to musicians but only to a church or a monastery.
d. A man carrying an ale barrel while saying: "Now we drink". This is in a section that gives rules on gifts given on the morning after a wedding and it may refer to custom of drinking a toast when it happened.
3Its front and back leaves also contain material written by the hand of Micael Agricola (151057) who was the main Lutheran reformer of Finland.
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Figure 3: Possibly the scribe of Codex Aboensis himself. The speech scroll reads: jak är een mesther i bokenä which translates to I am a master of books. f.78v
e. This and the next picture show probably scenes from the story of Ivan Lejonriddare, Ivan the Lion Knight who killed a dragon and befriended a lion that became his mount. The connection to the text is that the text describes complex inheritance cases and Ivan of the story was involved in one himself.
There have been differing opinons on where and when the manuscript was written. Paleographical details place it in the first half of the 15th century. The two main opinions have been Uppland in Sweden and Turku-Naantali region in Finland, both areas being proposed on linguistic basis.
The most recent paleographic analysis by Per-Axel Wiktorsson suggests that the main body of text was written by an anonymous scribe who was active in Stockholm between 142336. The scribe was connected to Bengt Jönsson Oxenstierna (c.1390 c.1450) who was one of the highest-ranking noblemen in Sweden, a Privy Council member who served as a co-regent in 1448. Wiktorsson's theory is that Bengt Jönsson commisioned the book in mid-1430s as a preparation for his bid to become the lagman (Lord Justice) of Uppland. He recived the position in 1439.
The manuscript contains 123 parchment folios that are sandwiched between blocks of paper at front and end. First six parchment folios contain the calendar and the rest make up the legal text. The folios are 24×16.5 cm in size where the text area is 16.5 × 11.5 cm. There are 2529 lines of text per page where 27 is the most common number. The pages in the front and at the end contain later writing. For example, the end contains astrological material written in hand of Micael Agricola (figure 7).
The Realm of the Land is written in a cursive script of the kind that was in wide use in Sweden around the time. The scribe used very clear and careful hand suitable for a high-profile manuscript or an important document.
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(a) A fox preaching to geese, f.18v

(b) A cleric carrying a woman, f.30v

(d) A man carrying an ale barrel. The speech scroll reads wiliom wi dricka, that is now we drink. f.38v

(e) Ivan Lejonriddaren kills a dragon, f.39r (f) Ivan Lejonriddaren riding his lion, f.39v
Figure 4: Picture samples from Codex Aboensis.
15

Figure 5: A sales deed dated 1.7.1423 at Almarestäk castle. Wiktorsson identified it as being by the same scribe that copied Codex Aboensis, SDHK 20000.
16

Figure 6: Sample from Jöns Budde's Book that shows a less clear cursive text from slightly later period c.1490 (Codex HS A 58, f.9v)
Figure 7: A part of an astrological text written by Michael Agricola on the end pages of Codex Aboensis (f14v)
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2.2 King Magnus Eriksson
Magnus Eriksson was born in 1316. At the time the situation in Sweden was tense. King Birger Magnusson had fought a bitter civil war against his brothers Erik and Valdemar, Dukes of Södermanland and Finland, and now there was an uneasy peace. Magnus was the first son of Duke Erik and Ingeborg of Norway, who was the daughter of King Haakon Magnusson of Norway.
The truce was broken in 1317 when Birger captured his brothers during a celebration in Nyköping and had them killed. According to the Eric Chronicle they were starved to death. The supporters of the dukes raised a rebellion and forced Birger to exile to Denmark where he died in 1321. The 3-year old Magnus was elected as king at the Stones of Mora in 1319. A few months later he was declared the hereditary King of Norway after the death of his grandfather.
Magnus was crowned in 1331 after a 12-year regency and he became the longest-reigning King of Sweden before the currently reigning Karl XVI Gustav. His rule as a King of Norway didn't last as long. The Norwegian nobles were not enthuastic about union of Norway and Sweden and after a series of revolts they came to a settlement in 1343 where Magnus abdicated the throne in favour of his younger song Haakon. Magnus continued to be the regent until Haakon came of age in 1355.
In Sweden Magnus started a legislative reform. In the 1330s he insituted his Manor Justice, the The Law of the Realm that was intended to become the unified law in the whole country was written in 1340s and in the next decade he followed it with The Law of the Towns. In practice these two law collections did not come to force immediately and some areas used their old laws for the next century.
In 1360 King Valdemar IV of Denmark attacked Magnus's lands and reconquered Scania that Magnus had held for a few decades. The next year he conquered the island of Gotland. The decicively lost war triggered a rebellion in Sweden that Magnus vanquished. A few of the rebels, led by Bo Jonsson Grip went to the court of Albrecht of Mecklenburg and offered the crown to him. With the support of the Hanseatic league Albrecht conquered central parts of Sweden and he was crowned a king in 1364.
After that there was a civil war between supporters of Magnus and Albrecht that lasted for almost eight years. Magnus himself was captured at the Battle of Gataskogen in 1365 and had to spend years in prison. In there was a peace agreement where Magnus agreed to leave the kingdom for Albrecht and to go to exile in Norway where he died in a shipwreck two years later in 1374.
2.3 Swedish laws
At the beginning of the 14th century there were several provincial law codes in effect in Sweden. The contents of nine of them are known completely or partially, but there may have been others that are not mentioned in sources. For example, it is not known what law code or codes were followed in Finland. There are a few references to the Hälsinge Law but there are also vague references to "laws and customs of the land" that may refer to local law codes. The codes were divided into two basic groups: Göta Laws4 were followed in the Western provinces and
4Including the Older and Younger Västgöta, the Östgöta, and the Småland Laws.
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Svea Laws5 of Eastern Sweden. The Scania Laws are nowdays usually grouped with the Danish medieval laws because Scania belonged to the Danish crown for almost the whole middle ages.
The development of the laws is not clear. It is probable that at least some of them existed orally before they were written down. The oldest legal manuscripts contain The Older Västgöta Law and they date to the early 13th century.
Magnus Eriksson's The Laws of the Realm contains 14 chapters that are called balke. The term translates literally to beam. Its etymology is not certain, but it may have been intended to convey the meaning of support.
Konungs balker King's Beam
The Konungs balker starts with laws about the election and coronation of the king as well as giving the text of the regnal oath that limited his powers. Then it describes the rules of the armed service for noblemen. The third main part of the balke gives rules on how king's court work. In addition to these main parts there are regulations on various matters. For example, the section 23 decrees that taverns should be established along the main roads of the kingdom and gives rules for their operation.
Giffto balken Wedding Beam
The Giffto balken establishes regulations on the marriage. It defines when an engagement and a marriage are legal and how dowry and morning gift6 are given. It also establishes limits on the gifts and for the number of guests in a wedding. The limit on the guests were probably intended to prevent large gatherings that could be used as cover for mustering forces for a rebellion.
Ärffdha balker Inheritance Beam
The Ärffdhe balker is a short code that establishes rules for dividing the inheritance. The basic principles are that the inheritance goes to closest relatives and that a daughter inherits half as much as her brothers. A special emphasis is placed on ensuring that no one can inherit a person they have killed.
Jordha balker Land Beam
The Jordha balker is a long code giving rules on how land properties work. Land holdings were divided into two classes: inherited and bought. The general rule was that a person could freely sell land that they had bought, but inherited land needed to be first offered for the relatives to buy. The law also decreed that there needed to be a written sales for every land sale. The balk contains also regulations for tenant farmers who rented the land that they farmed.
Bygningah balker Building Beam
5The Uppland, Dala, Västmanna, Hälsinge and Södermanna Laws. 6A gift given by the husband to his new wife on the first morning of their marriage.
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The Bygningah balke contains mostly rules on how villages work: how the building plots are arranged and how common fields and meadows were divided beween farms. Because each farm had a share on each field, the whole village had to coordinate their work. Other parts of the balk describe how servants are hired, how borders between villages are marked, and how mills and bridges are built, among a few other things.
Köpmala balker Trade Beam
The Köpmala balker is a short code that contains regulations on how trades are legally made. It establishes penalties for selling fake or stolen things as well as regulates how loans are given and guaranteed.
Thingmaala balker Court Beam
The thing was an assembly of men of a given area that functioned also as the court of justice. The Thingmaala balker decrees how courts are held. It starts by giving rules on how lagmans and judges are selected and then establishes how and when the things were held. Each district had three sessions each year (from Epiphany to Ash Wednesday, from June 17 to July 39, and from St Michael's day to the First Advent) and during the sessions the court sat on one day a week.
Sworn oaths were the integral part of court proceedings. For each possible dispute the rules said whether the plaintiff, the defendant, or the jury needed to swear the oath and how many men were necessary for it.7 It was not allowed to counter an oath with another oath and no one was allowed to swear an oath alone but instead needed to find a number of co-swearers to go along him. Very simple cases needed only an oath of two men, serious cases needed 12.
The balk also establishes rules on how fines could be collected and decreed forced labour for those who couldn't pay them.
Edzöris balker Peace Oath Beam
The peace oaths were laws that gave special protection to different areas of life. They originated in Germany and the first mentions for them in Sweden come from the 12th century. They came to prominence during the reign of King Magnus Ladulås (reigned 127590). The penalty for breaking them was usually outlawry but doubling the normal fines was used for less serious offences. Because children and women couldn't be outlawed, they also could not be punished for breaking the peace oath.
The Edzöris balker gave protection to:
· Homes: attacking someone in his home broke the oath;
· Justice: exacting a revenge on the other participant of a trial after the case was settled in the court broke the oath as did participating in a blood feud;
· Women: raping a woman broke the oath;
7Men is literal here because women were not allowed to swear an oath at a thing.
20

· Church: wounding or killing people in church or who were traveling to or from church broke the oath;
· Court: wounding or killing people at court or who were traveling to or from it broke the oath.
· Mutilation: mutilating someone by cutting of their body parts broke the oath;
· Fieldwork: attacking someone who was working on fields carried a penalty of double fines but not outlawry.
Attempts were not criminalized under the beam. Trying to attack someone going to church but failing the attempt was explicitly said to not break the oath.
Högmalis balker Capital Matters Beam
The Högmalis balker lists crimes for which the sentence was death on a wheel for men or stoning for women.
The crimes were secret murder where the body was hidden, killing one's own child or parent, bigamy, killing someone with witchcraft or poison, armed rebellion, helping an invading foreign army, killing one's liege lord, and arsony.
The final paragraph of the law decrees that an attempt to harm someone with witchcraft or poison was punished by a fine of 40 marks.
Draapmala balker medh wiliä Murder Beam
There are two balker about killings. The Draapmala balker medh wiliä handles the cases where the killing was intentional. This has some overlap with the Högmalis balker.
In contrast to modern laws, the punishment for murder depended on when the criminal was caught if it was not a secret murder. If the criminal was caught within a day of the murder, then the punishment was death, but if captured later, then the punishment was a fine that was typically 40 marks but in some cases it could be smaller or larger. The fine was divided into three parts, one third going to the plaintiff, one third to the king, and one third to the parish. In case the fine was larger than 40 marks, the shares of king and the parish were capped at 13 marks 8 öres that corresponded to their share of the 40 marks.
Magnus Eriksson's The Laws of the Realm have still vestiges of old feuding culture. If a close relative of a murder victim killed the killer within one day of the murder, he could not get a death sentence even if caught immediately afterwards and he would need to pay only the king and the parish thirds of the fine.
The balk also gives rules on how an exiled killer can get a safe conduct to king's court and obtain reconciliation.
Draapmala balker medh wadha Manslaughter Beam
The Draapmala balker medh wadha considers accidental killings. It gives rules on when a killing is counted as accidental and specifies fines for different
21

causes of death. The general rule is that when the killer has taken some active action that causes death, the fine is 9 marks divided in three, and if the death is because the defendant has neglected to do something or if the victim was an active participant of whatever caused the death, then the fine is four and half marks.
Saramalä balker medh wiliä Intentional Wounding Beam
There are also two balker about woundings and Saramalä balker medh wiliä is about cases where someone intended to cause an injury. The balk lists different types of injuries and gives compensations and fines that needed to be paid for them. The compensation went fully to the injured party while the fine was divided in three parts just like the fines for murders were.
For example, cutting a hand away called for compensation of 12 marks and a fine of 20 marks. Cutting a thumb had a nine mark compensation and 12 mark fine.
Saramalä balker medh wadha Accidental Wounding Beam
The second wounding balk is about accidental woundings. It defines when an injury is an accident and enumerates the compensations. In general, the compensations were much smaller than for the intentional cases. For example, accidentally causing the loss of a thumb called for 12 öres compensation and 12 öres fines.
The Saramalä balker medh wadha considers accidental injuries.
Thiuffua balker Thief Beam
The Thiuffa balker decrees punishments for thieves. As with the case of murders, the punishment for thieves differed based on whether they were caught in act or later. A thief who stole property worth of half a mark or more who was caught in act would be hanged but if caught later the punishment would be a fine of 40 marks and they would need to pay the value of the goods. If the stolen property was worth between 3 and 4 öres the punishment was flogging and cutting of ears if caught in act or nine marks fine if not. If the value was between 2 and 3 öres, it was flogging and losing one ear or six marks fine, and smaller thefts if was flogging or a fine of three marks.
The balk also gives rules how home inspections could be made to find stolen goods and how someone who found lost property should act to avoid been accused of thievery.
Gardz rättir Manor Justice
The Gards rättir is a law for royal manors and the king's army and its last section permits the lords of the Privy Council to apply it also for their manors. In Codex Aboensis it comes in the middle of the Law of the Realm between Konungs balker and Giffto balken. This was the earliest law that Magnus Eriksson enacted during his reign.
22

The law decrees punishments for various crimes. In contrast to the common law, violent crimes are punished by corporal punishment instead of fines. This is probably because soldiers and servants would not be able to pay fines.
Kyrko balker Church Beam The Kyrko balker of provincial laws established the organization of parish churches in Sweden. They originated during time when canon law was not yet fully established. By Magnus Eriksson's time the church was adamant that secular law should have nothing to do with any matters relating to the church. This is almost certainly the reason why Magnus didn't include Kyrko balker in his laws. Instead, the old provincial law balks were used in conjunction with the new code.
Codex Aboensis contains the Kyrko balker of the Uppland law. In addition of decreeing how the parishes work, it also contains statutes about moral crimes.
Ledung rules The ledung institution was established near the end of the Viking age. Its aim was to organize a semi-permanent navy. Each province was responsible for providing a set number of ships and their crews and provisions when king called for it. By Magnus Eriksson's time the custom was antiquated enough that he didn't include it in the laws, but Codex Aboensis contains the ledung rules from the Uppland provincial law.
2.4 The Black Book of Abo Cathedral
The other main source for charaters in Aboensis is Registrum ecclesia Aboensis
or The Black Book of Abo Cathedral that is a cartulary originally compiled in the 1470s and new documents were appended to it until 1515. The oldest documents that were copied into it date from 1229 and the latest are from 1515. The most probable date for when it was started is 1474 when the chancellary of the diocese was was reformed.
The first Swedish cartulary was the Uppsala Archdiocese Registrum that was started in 1344 and the cartularies of other diacoses followed its example.
The book is about the size of modern A4 the leaves being 28.5 × 21 cm in size. There are 329 paper quarto folios8 in it. The paper block is protected by two sheets of vellum that have been added to the front sometime after the reformation.
The Black Book contains copies of 727 documents that are arranged by the subject and not chronologically. The book starts with an index of the documents that were copied prior to 1486. Most of the documents relate to the possessions of the cathedral and their distribution between different tables of the chapter. When Reinhald Hausen published its contents in the early 20th century he moved the documents to chronological order to make searching for them easier.
3 Typesetting Medieval Cursive
This section gives a general view on using Aboensis to write medieval cursive,
and the next section will give specific instructions of using the LaTeX style file aboensis.sty. As a general note I will use in the examples the letters ä and
8About 1/3 of the folios are left empty.
23

ö even though it would be more accurate to use æ and ø. The font itself uses same symbols for both.
Medieval cursive writing differs from modern computer-generated text in many ways. The most obvious differences are that many letters have multiple variant forms that occur in different positions, there are many abbreviations,
and punctuation conventions are very different from modern. The Aboensis font
is made with OpenType features that automatically choose the correct letter variant in most cases, but there are cases where manual adjustment is needed. Many of the adjustments are necessary because of limitations of OpenType engines as changing the set of active features often breaks the letter context that the automation relies on.
The first thing to note is that many letters have specific initial and final forms. The letter m has also an additional isolated form. The different forms of m are:
m m m m
Normal Initial Final Isolated
For example, the word non is written as:
non
These forms are selected using the calt feature and the feature should always be turned on with the font.
The two forms for letter s are usually called long ( ) and short s. In gothic scripts the long was used in initial and middle positions while the short s was used only in word-final positions:9
s s
Long Short
For example, the word suspicious is written with long s in first two places and short s at the end:
s usiious

If an s occurred by itself, the Swedish texts usually wrote it with a long s. Some other areas preferred a short s for isolated forms.
A double s is written either with two long s or with the ß ligature.10 The ligature is most often used at the end of the word:
mas
mass

The letter r has also two forms, straight and round:

9This differs from later Fraktur convention where the short s was used also at the end of

syllables.

ß 10Old Swedish often uses z in place of e after h and s so

can also mean se.

r r
Straight Round
The general rule for them in Gothic scripts is that the round r is used after 'round' letters and the straight r in other positions. What counts as a round letter varies between scripts. In Codex Aboensis the round letters are a, e, o, and w. The scribe was inconsistent about the letter h and there are some places with round r after and others with straight r. The calt feature uses the round r with h.11
ar er or wr hr hr

A special feature in Swedish writing is that both er and re at the end of the word are written with the same re-ligature:

riddae ele

riddare

eller

This usage is almost universal in Codex Aboensis and very common other Swedish texts, though many hands write the re-ligature as an superscript abbreviation mark:

riddá el'
riddare eller

During the middle ages the symbols u and v were still considered to be variant ways of writing the same letter. Both forms were used for the vowel and consonant and there was no standard rule for selecting between them. One reasonably common convention was that initial positions were written with v and other positions used u.12

vniuerse seruus

universe

servus

The symbols i and j were also considered to be variant forms of the same letter. The most typical use was that i was the default form but j was used as in final positions and as the last letter in a sequence of i letters. The letter y was also used often for ii.
xii wi wy lif gudi

xiii

wii wii

liiff

gudi

Gothic cursive tends to have the problem that sequences of m, n, u and i letters are quite unreadable. To make these more legible, the font adds a dot over i in a place where it is next to a minim. For example, the word minimum looks without and with dots like:
11Most Gothic scripts use round r after u and p but Codex Aboensis uses straight.
k lof ue 12A peculiar Swedish custom was to write v in the middle of a word as ffu as in

minimum minimum

Medieval scribes used many abbreviations in the texts. The most commmon abbreviation was to leave out a m or n and mark it by drawing a tilde over the previous letter:
nõ kongx
non konungx
The tilde was also used to mark places where longer sequences of letters were left out. There were several standard sigla for abbreviating syllables. The
abbreviations supported in Aboensis are described in section 4. Few further
examples are:
ecca pheta q eor
ecclesia propheta quod eorum
Capital letters were used in a different way from modern. Proper nouns were generally not capitalized and even God was usually written lowercase. In Codex Aboensis capital letters are mostly used to mark beginning of paragraphs. In high-profile manuscripts capitals were often marked by drawing a red strike through them.

3.1 Creating highlighted capitals
The capital letters may have a highlight strike added to them. This is implemented by writing three letters on top of each other: first the capital itself, then a strike of the highlight color, and finally a partial strike on a darker highlight color that covers the parts of letters that are left under the strike. The two strikes are interpreted as zero-width variant characters whose glyphs lie over the previous character.

A + a + a = Aa

//A

The most common medieval highlight color was red but Codex Aboensis contains also highlights in green. Figure 8 shows HTML hex code values for three colors. The red and blue are taken from Missale Aboense facsimile while the green is from the digitized version of Codex Aboensis. All values are in color space sRGB. These colors are also defined in the LaTeX style file, the details are in section 5.3.

3.2 Selecting correct forms of letters
Aboensis tries to automate selecting correct form a letter but that is not always
possible. Many OpenType rendering engines break substitution context when the set of active features change. The most obvious problem that it causes is that letters in the middle of word get turned to initial forms. Using ligature

Color Red
Green
Blue

Highlight B1523E 62876E 455F9B

Dark highlight 4D231C 3F4D3C 202F4D

xcolor name abred
abgreen
abblue

Figure 8: Predefined highlighting colors

substitutions for inserting special characters helps to avoid most of these problems. However, when parts of a word are in different colors, many font engines insert a context break there. This happens most often when a word starts with a highlighted capital letter. For example the n has the initial form in the following word:
Iint e
Inter

There are two special ligature substitutions with symbols * and !. Both of them are treated as zero-width letters when used next to a letter. We can add either of them between I and n to remove the initial form:
Iint e
I*nter

The difference between * and ! is in how they tie surrounding letters together. Several of the letters have two forms, normal and tailed, where tailed is used to connect the letter to the next letters that have beaks at the left edge. For example, the letter a has the following forms:
a a
Normal Tailed

If there is a string ai where the letters belong to different contexts, then the a will have the wrong form and they do not tie together properly. Adding ! to the same context as a solves the issue
ai ai

a!i

In practice, it is rare for a situation to crop out where ! is necessary and you can almost always use * to solve context breaking problems.
The asterisk and exclamation mark can also be used to change a round r to straight or short s to long if desired:
or or is is
or o*r is is*

Conversely, a straight r or long s can be changed to round r or short s by adding : after them:

iOoc mies wapauta taco hänen hyf uydhens, mikä hän on Rriddari taik Sswenni, ei ycäken eroitadhen, hänen pitä hyf uydhens
Figure 9: Sample for typical Lombardic initial use
br br sa sa
br br: sa s:a
Abbreviation symbols can be added to symbols by prefixing them with ~, ', and /. Not all combinations exists. Most lettes have one with a tilde, many have single quote ones but there are only a few with a slash.13
dtd
~d 't /d
3.3 Lombard and cursive initials
The font has three sets of initials: two sets of Lombardian initials and one set of cursive initials. Lombardian initials were used in books and cursive initials were used for documents. All three sets can be accessed either using ligature substitutions or by turning on suitable opentype features, and there are also XeLaTeX macros for inserting them.
The kind of Lombardian initials that are included in the font were most often used as two-line initials in books, but they may also be used as three- or one-line size. Larger initials were usually more elaborate than these. Figure 9 shows a typical example for two-line initial use. A longer version of the text is in section 9.4.
Simpler Lombardian initials The simpler set of Lombardian initials is accessed by writing the capital between + signs or by enabling the feature ss03:
m
+M+ (or ss03)
Swash Lombardian initials The more complex Lombardian intials can be used either in one color or with two colors in the same way that capitals may be highlighted. The initial itself is written by adding a colon : before the closing plus and differently-colored parts are written using / in place of the colon:
13Note that the slash implements highlighting for capital letters.
28

w yi

++W:++

++Y++ ++I++

Figure 10: The difference between the largest and smallest cursive initials. The W is set hanging left outside of its box.

m mm

+M:+

+M:++M/+

The one-colored swash intials can also be accessed by using two features: ss03 and swsh at the same time. The second color can be accessed by adding the feature ss04 in top of them.

Cursive initials In the 15th century Sweden, high-end books typically used Lombardic initials and large cursive initials were used in documents. Low-end books could have smaller cursive initials in them instead of Lombardic ones.
The cursive initials in Aboensis do not form a unified set as I based them14 on
historical examples and they were not all written by the same scribe in the same context. Some of them, like the alternate form for W are suitable for starting important charters while others like Y and I are very low-key. The initials are designed so that the stroke width looks about right when they are set in 5-6 times as big size of the main text.
The metrics for the initials are set on the assumption that the intials are set with a font size that is 5.5 times the size of the text body font. The initials will then be placed approximately like they were in the documents from where I got them. There are reference images in section 9.9. In practice, you will probably need to do a lot of manual adjustments to get them exactly where you want them and to ensure that they do not mess up the following lines of text too much.
The initials are set by either writing them in lower case and turning on the
m feature ss03 or by writing them in upper case surrounded by two plus signs:

++M++
14Except for X that I designed myself and Å, Ä, and Ö where I modified the base initials.

Symbol I
V X

Value
i , j
v x

Symbol 1
5 10

Value
0 x0

Symbol
5000 10 000

Value
j
v x

1/2
4 1/2 9 1/2

50 l0

50 000

100 c0

100 000

1000 m0 1 000 000

Table 6: Roman numerals

Three letters have variant forms that are activated by writing a colon : after the letter:
a a ssw w

++A++ ++A:++ ++S++ ++S:++ ++W++ ++W:++
3.4 Numbers
Even though Arabic numerals were already known in the 15th century and are included in the font, the primary notation for numbers were still Roman numerals. There were several different conventions for using them and Aboensis gives some support for using them.
The basic principle was additive: different letters carried different numerical values that are shown in table 6 and the number was the total value of the letters. The numerals were written from largest to the smallest. For example,
164 = 100 + 50 + 10 + 4 = CLXIIII = clxii .
This basic form was used in medieval documents, but it was more common to combine addition with subtraction. Whenever there would be four identical symbols in a row, the three last of them would be replaced by the next larger numeral. The previous example would be written as:
164 = 100 + 50 + 10 + (5 - 1) = CLXIV = clxiv .
Large numbers There were several different ways to represent large numbers. Aboensis supports two of them. First, a line drawn above a number multiplied
30

t 1/3 tredjedel 1/4 qvarter qt 1/6 setting s
Table 7: Common fractions in Swedish
its value by 1000. Some writers used the letter m with this notation, some used . For example:
12539 = 10000 + 2000 + 500 + 3 + (10 - 1)
= xmmdxxxix = xiidxxxix
A positional notation came in use with Roman numerals in late medieval times. There the hundreds and thousands would be marked by writing superscript m and c bewteen parts of numbers. The previous example would look like:
12539 = 12000 + 500 + 3 + (10 - 1) = ximvcxxxix
In France this notation extended to the numbers using the base of 20. For example, the number 220 could be written as:
220 = 11 × 20 = xixx

Fractions The modern fraction notation x/y was yet used. Instead, the denominator was written out. The denominators that were in common in everyday use were usually abbreviated as in table 7. The half was a special case that was marked by adding a stroke or a loop to a letter. For numbers less than ten the halves were marked:

1/2

j 5 1/2 v

1 1/2 i 6 1/2 v

2 1/2 i 7 1/2 v

3 1/2 i 8 1/2 j

4 1/2 v 9 1/2 x

The half-notation was used in combination of other fractions to represent other fractions. For example,
1/8 = 1/2 × 1/4 = j qt 3/12 = (1 1/2) × 1/6 = i s .

Automatic Roman number conversion Turning on the feature onum makes the font to convert numbers into Roman numerals. This feature works for numbers 1999 999 and it uses the subtractive method and supports halves but not other fractions:
v xlix xidli

4.5

onum onum

34552 onum

Arabic numerals The Codex Aboensis does not have Arabic numbers. However, the font has two sets of them. The default set that is close to modern forms of the symbols is taken from Hans Talhoffer's 1459 fencing treatise Alte Armatur und Ringkunst (Ms.Thott.290.2, f.150v, Det Kgl. Bibliotek) while the other set is from a 15th century illuminated copy of Fibonacci's Liber Abaci (C.Vari 529.52, f.3r, Biblioteca nazionale centrale di Firenze). The Liber Abaci numbers are entered using the tnum feature:

1234567890 1234567890

-tnum

+tnum

Arabic fractions After Arabic numbers came to use, Swedish sources started to use notation where a superscript le was added to a number to denote its basic fraction:
½ ¼
1/2 1/3 1/4 1/5 1/6 1/7 1/8 1/9 Unicode: 00BD 2153 00BC 2155 2159 2150 215B 2151

3.5 Punctuation

Medieval punctuation did not follow the modern conventions. Essentially they were used to mark pauses of various lengths in speech while reading them. Codex Aboensis uses three different symbols but if the difference between two of them is intended or accidental. The symbols are:

, or /

virgule punctus punctus

The virgule signifies a shorter pause than a punctus. It is not clear to me whether the two different heights of periods signify different lengths of pauses or if the scribe just put those on different levels by chance.
The font has also some other punctuation symbols:

: ;? ()¶

:;? ()

3.6 Miscellaneous
Pointing fingers The font has four pointing fingers that are based on two images taken from the Nådendal Cloister's Book (Codex Holm. A 49) that was written in the first half of the 15th century. Image from folio 76r provides a small finger that points left that is also mirror in the font and an image from folio 94v provides a large upwards pointing finger that is also mirrorer to point down.
The smaller finger can be used at a size approximately 5 times the font size and the larger finger at 7 times. The images can be accessed with their unicode
values or with LaTeX macros defined for them:15

261C

261E

261D

261F

Line end doodles Many partial lines in Codex Aboensis are filled by drawing doodles with green ink. The font contains a selection of them that can be combined to form lines. These are placed into symbols that do not occur in medieval texts:

! *_><

*_> <

For example,

!**!___>><
!**!___>><

3.7 Making complete books
Page numbers Because medieval books were written by hand, they differed from modern books in several ways. In structure they were written on separate quires, each containing several sheets of parchament or paper that were folded to produce a booklet. Quires typically had four sheets that were folded to product 16 pages. A bookbinder took the written quires and bound them into one volume.
The books did not have title pages and instead the text started right from the top of the first page, though there might be some explanatory rubrics added to describe the nature of the work. If more than one text was written at the same time, the next would start immediately after the previous one ended.
Modern page numbering was not taken to use before the 17th century. Most medieval books are without page numbers. Those that have numbers generally use either quire, sheet, or folio numbering. In quire numbering each individual quire has its own number that is written on either its first or last page using Roman numerals or letters. These were added to help bookbinders to keep the quires in correct order.
15Macros \ableftindex, \abrightindex, \abupindex, and \abdownindex.

In sheet numbering the first page of each sheet has its own number but the other three pages are empty. This is usually combined with quire numbering where quires are marked with sequential letters and sheets within the quire with Roman numbers. For example, B iv would be the fourth sheet of the second quire.
Folio numbering extends the sheet numbering by putting the number on each folio, that is, each individual leaf of the book. In almost all cases the folio number is on the right hand side of the spread. In modern terms this means that all odd pages are numbered and even are not. Folio numbers also usually went by quires. Folio numbering was typically used only for books that needed an index.
When using LaTeX, the medieval page numbering conventions can be done using the package foliono.
Individual manuscripts Many medieval books were made by taking a number of existing manuscripts that had been written in different times by different people and binding them into one volume. This can be simulated by making each part of the book to have slightly different margins and font size, and by ensuring that separate manuscripts don't end up in the same quire. You can add a few empty pages between the texts to fill up the quires.
Rulings Most books were ruled before writing to ensure that lines were straight. The rulings should show us thin faint lines between the lines of text. The ruling patterns were different in different places and different times.
In very simple cases it is possible to product rulings using LaTeX tables, though I have found that to be quite cumbersome. The tabu package contains useful functionality for it as it allows the user to specify the line colors easily.
Complex cases can be handled by creating a png image that contains the rulings and then adding it to the page using \AddToShipoutPictureBG* command of the eso-pic package.
4 Abbreviations
Medieval texts typically have many abbreviations. In the Swedish cursive writing of the 15th century three different ways of marking abbreviated words were used:
· a mark, usually a tilde ~ was added to the word at the place where letters were left off;
· a special symbol replaced a word or a part of it; and
· a letter was written above the word to mark the abbreviation.
In some cases it's debatable whether something is an abbreviation mark or symbol.
One area where abbreviations were used particularly often was in measurement units. Medieval Swedish units were such a confusing affair that they are discussed in detail in section 6.
34

4.1 Abbreviation marks

Tilde By far the most common abbreviation mark in use was the tilde. Most often it signified that a nasal consonant (m or n) was left out from the word, but it could also be used as a general mark showing that something was left out. When used at the end of a word it was drawn as a loop over the letter:

mañe xpi ma

ma~ne

x~pi m~a

manne Christi man

A-abbreviation Another abbreviation mark that occurs in Codex Aboensis is the a-abbreviation that is writing a squished a on top of a letter to signify that something containing an a is abbreviated. However, in the book it occurs only in one context: when writing the word mark. Another place where it is see is in Latin manuscripts where it stands for qua. These two letters are the only
ones in Aboensis that have the mark and it accessed using ligature substitution
instead of the accent syntax:
m qua
[ma] [qua]

R-abbreviation Texts written in Sweden in the 15th century commonly used r-abbrevation mark in the form of a hooked s-shape that was placed over a letter to signify that something containing an r was removed. It was most commonly used for removing the er syllable. It occurs in Codex Aboensis in only few places. In the font it is implemented as the acute accent. It can be put over most letters. The commonly used syllables ter, ver, and vir have also ligature substitutions defined for them.
tra tra vgnis silfv
´tra [ter]ra [vir]ginis silff[ver] terra terra virginis silff[ver]
Texts that used the r-abbreviation mark tended to use it also in places where
Aboensis uses the re-ligature:

ele el´
eller ell´

Ur-abbreviation A rare way to abbreviate tur and mur syllables was to write a sideways hook over the base letters. These are implemented as ligature substitutions:
[mur] [tur]
[mur] [tur]

Loop When the end of a word is left out, it is marked by drawing a loop after the last letter. In texts written in Latin the syllable is most often is but it has also other meanings. In Swedish texts this is particularly common with measurement units, and those will be described in section 6.
The loops are implemented as ligature substitutions. The basic [is] ligature draws a loop that attaches to a previous tailed character:

divini
divin[is]

There are substitutions for adding loops for c, d, g, r, and t:

brod
bro[der]
docor
docto[res]

cr ucis
cru[cis]
terris
ter[ris]

cupung
caupun[gis]
mentis
men[tis]

heng
hen[ges]

Stroke An additional stroke could be added to a letter to signify the abbre-
viation. In Aboensis there is only one such letter, d:
d
/d
In practice, Swedish texts used this symbol in abbreviations of measurement units penning and pund.

4.2 Abbreviation symbols
This section goes through the abbreviation symbols that are included in the font and that are activated with ligature substitutions. The symbols that are included among the loop-abbreviations of previous section could also be placed here.

C While Codex Aboensis does not use it, using a mirrored c that possibly had a cedilla attached to it was a common way to abbreviate the syllable con. It was typically used only at the beginning of the word, but occasionally it can be seen in the middle of a word:
cont r a
[con]tra

E The Latin word et was often abbreviated with so called Tironian et symbol, that was named after its inventor Marcus Tullius Tiro who devised a stenograph system for Latin:
&
[et]

[bet] b [Per] Per [qui] q

[bus] b [per] p [quo] q

[con] con

[pi]

p [quod] q

[ei]

[por] p [quos] /q

[eo]

e [prae] p [rum] r

[et:]

[pre] p [sed] ß

[et] & [pro] p [thet] t

[ger] g [qua] qua [uer] u

[gre] g [quae] [quae] [ver] v

i q [item]

[quam]

[vir]

[mi] m *[que] q [us:] e

[par]

q [que]

[us]

Table 8: Abbreviation ligatures

Scribes often used it to mean and when writing in other languages. A long form of the letter z was commonly used as suffix -et or -ed in Latin
texts and it was also used when writing Swedish. This was most common after letters b, h, and s. As the z is placed in slightly different places after each of the letters, there are ligature substitutions with all of them in addtion of having it by itself, and there is also one for the word thet that is very common in Swedish:
e hab t ß
[et:] ha[bet] [thet] [sed]

G An initial and medial form of the letter g combined with the r-abbreviation is treated as an abbreviation symbol in the font:

ggorius gmanus

[gre]gorius

[ger]manus

I The loop that often but not always denotes is-suffix is described in the previous section. Other than that there is one abbreviation symbol for i. When making lists the symbol for item was commonly used with all languages:
i
[item]

P There are three symbols for abbreviating syllables that start with p, and two of them have more than one meaning:

[per], [par], [por] [pro] [pre], [prae]

There is also a capital version of Per:

Per

Per/[Per]

[Per] [Per]/[Per]//[Per]

It is also possible to add abbreviation marks over per and pro

p [per] p [´pro]
[~per] [´per] [~pro] [´pro]

Q Medieval Latin texts typically have a large number of abbreviation symbols defined for q. They don't occur in Codex Aboensis, but the font has several that have been added from various 15th century sources:16
q q q q q qua [quae] q /q
[que] *[que] [quod] [qui] [quo] [qua] [quae] [quam] [quos]
The difference between the two que symbols is that the first one was used for the word que while the second was used for the suffix -que:
usq
us[que]

R The only abbreviation symbol for r in the font is the suffix -rum:
r
[rum]
Cursive scripts typically used the rotunda r as a base for rum in all places, even in those that would normally have the straight r.

U, V There were two ways to abbreviate the Latin suffix -us depending on the grammatical case:

Dative suffix us

Other suffix us.

The dative suffix us occurs also in words that end in -bus even if they are in a different case.
du omnib trib
de[us] omni[bus] tri[bus]

16Note that different hands used some of these symbols with different meanings.

Name Anders Bertil Eric Henric Jacob
Johan
Laurentius (Lars)

Abbreviation
and berl eirc hen jac
joh
lau

Name Marten Nicolaus Nils Olof Peder
Per
Thomas

Abbreviation
marth niõ ni: ol ped
p
tõ

Table 9: Common ways to abbreviate Swedish names

Note that -bet and -bus endings are the same and you need to determine which is which by the context:
hab trib
ha[bet] tri[bus]
A common way to mark the syllable ver was to draw the r-abbreviation with a long tail:
u
[uer]
A variant version for that was to add a r-abbreviation mark to the letter:
vv
[ver] [vir]
4.3 Abbreviation superscripts Medieval scribes saved space by writing lettes as superscripts. In Aboensis there
is an accent substitution with grave accent and also there are a few combinations that have ligature substitutions defined for them.
erik pd omnib e e m p q q
e`rik p`/d omni`[bus] [ei] [eo] [mi] [pi] [qui] [quo]
4.4 Names
It was very common in the 15th century to write common names in an abbreviated form. Table 9 shows the short forms of some of the Swedish male names. Women's names were written down with less frequency so there weren't corresponding standard abbreviations for them.

5 The LaTeX style
This section gives a functional overview of most of the commands in the aboensis.sty style file. The full command reference is in section 7.
All user-visible commands in the style file start with the prefix \ab. They can be roughly divided into five classes:
· selecting the font;
· color handling;
· typesetting capitals and initials;
· typesetting an even page with cursive; and
· typesetting symbols and abbreviations.
The style file is designed to be used together with XeLaTeX, fontspec and xcolor. It hasn't been tested on other systems and may or may not work on them.
5.1 Package options
The only selectable option in the style file is Fibonacci. Turning it on changes the Arabic numbers to have the shape taken from the Fibonacci manuscript C.Vari 529.52.
5.2 Selecting the font There are two basic commands to turn on Aboensis:
· \abcursivefamily: this changes the font to Aboensis and color to the specified text color. In addition, it makes the tilde (~) and underscore (_) to be normal letters so that they can be used in text.
· \aboensis{text}: typesets text in Aboensis using the specified text color. Note that this does not make tilde and underscore normal letters.
Because the tilde ~ and underscore _ are special characters in TeX, there is a command \abtildes that makes them letters so that they can be used for ligature substitutions and as line fillers. The \abcursivefamily calls it automatically but the rules for TeX catcode handling prevents \aboensis from doing the same.
5.3 The Color Model
The rubrics and highlighting macros work on the assumption that a three have been defined: text, primary rubrics and secondary rubrics. The text color defaults to black, primary rubrics to red, and secondary rubrics to green.
The xcolor is used to create darker versions of highlight colors to simulate the effect of text color showing through the highlight strike. This is done by mixing the highlight color with the text color using a user-settable mixing percentage to do it. The commands that are used to define and use colors are
40

Text color

Use:

\abtext{text}

Set:

\absettextcolor{color}

Default: black 000000

black

Primary rubrics color

Use:

\abrubric{text}

Set:

\absetrubriccolor{color}

Default red B1523E

abred

Secondary rubrics color

Use:

\abotherrubric{text}

Set:

\absetotherrubriccolor{color}

Default: green 62876E

abgreen

xcolor color mixing percentages

Set:

\absetcolormixpercentage{value}

\absetothercolormixpercentage{value}

Default: 45

Figure 11: Colors and how they are defined

Set primary rubrics color \abrubricred \abrubricgreen \abrubricblue
Set secondary rubrics color \abotherrubricred \abtherrubricgreen \abtherrubricblue

Figure 12: Commands to use predefined colors

shown in figure 11. There are shortcut commands for using the three predefined rubrics color. They have the forms:

\abrubricCOLOR

use COLOR for primary rubrics

\abotherrubricCOLOR use COLOR for secondary rubrics

The complete set of these commands is in figure 12. The xcolor color mixing combines two colors according to a mixing per-
centage that tells how much of the first color is taken into the mix:

abred 45% black

The color mixing percentage is set with the command \absetcolormixpercentage. Figure 13 shows how the mixing percentage affects the predefined colors against black and dark brown text colors.

5.4 Line spacing
One feature in cursive text is that the descenders of letters on a line often overlap the ascenders of the next line. XeLaTeX really does not want to do that, which

Text black, highlight red
Aa Aa Aa Aa Aa Aa Aa

Text black, highlight green
Aa Aa Aa Aa Aa Aa Aa

Text black, highlight blue
Aa Aa Aa Aa Aa Aa Aa

Text brown (40311B), highlight red
Aa Aa Aa Aa Aa Aa Aa

Text brown (40311B), highlight green
Aa Aa Aa Aa Aa Aa Aa

Text brown (40311B), highlight blue
Aa Aa Aa Aa Aa Aa Aa

%=30

%=35

%=40

%=45

%=50

%=55

Figure 13: xcolor highlighted capitals with different color mix percentages

%=60

causes uneven line spacing unless the line spacing is large. To combat this aboensis.sty has a command \ablline that sets one line of text. It sets its argument in a horizontal box and then smashes it to remove its vertical metrics. This forces the line spacing to be completely even.

Qquo usque tandm
abutere, ctilina, patientia nostra. Qquam diu etiam f uror jste tuus nos
eludt.
Default spacing

Qquo usque tandm abutere, ctilina, patientia nostra. Qquam diu etiam f uror jste tuus nos eludt.
with \abl{line}

The right hand side is created using:

\raggedright \fontsize{16}{17}\fontspec{Aboensis} \abl{\abcapital{Q}uo usque tandem} \abl{abutere, catilina,} \abl{patientia nostra. } \abl{\abcapital{Q}uam diu etiam} \abl{furor jste tuus nos} \abl{eludet.}

5.5 Capitals and Initials

There are two commands to set highlighted capitals, one for both rubrics color:

\abcapital{A} \abcapitalother{A}

Lombardic initials Adding a Lombardic initial is a bit more complex as there are two different shapes for all letters and the swash shape can have two colors. The swash initials are entered using ligature substitutions S:.
To add two-line high initials in rubric colors you use:
a a aa

\abinitial{A}
a

\abinitial{A:}
a

\abinitialtwo{A}
aa

\abinitialother{A} \abinitialother{A:} \abinitialothertwo{A} 43

\abinitwpos{A}{1.1}{-2pt}{2pt} \abinitwowpos{A}{1.25}{0pt}{2pt}

\abinitowpos{A}{1.1}{3mm}{-1mm} \abinitotwowpos{A}{1.25}{-3pt}{0pt} Figure 14: Commands to scale and kern Lombardic initials

However, there are also additional commands that can be used to add small variety to initial size and position.17 This is useful when there are many copies of the same initial on the same spread and you do not want them to be exactly the same. The commands are listed in figure 14 They have the form:
\abinitwpos{letter}{scale}{x}{y}
Here the argument scale adds an additional scaling factor to the letter so that the final size is 2.2 × scale, x is the amount of horizontal space that the letter is moved and y is the same for vertical space. Note that LaTeX's rules for adding space are occasionally arcane so you may need to do a lot manual tweaking to get the letters positioned right. For example:

n n yt tule kuningan walans waño kiri

yt tule k uningan walans waño kiri

an ja pyhydhen pääle an ja pyhydhen pääle

\abinitial{N}

\abinitwpos{N}{1.2}{-3mm}{-1mm}

The Lombardic initials are set hanging down from the baseline, so you need to reserve space for them from the next line. To help do that there is a command \abindent that inserts space that is as wide as the previously set initial. The \abstartchapter macros use it automate setting the space.

Cursive initials There are two commands for using cursive initials. One sets the initial in the default position scaled 5.5 times the text size, and the other lets you to adjust scaling and positioning. Some letters set out nicely without adjustment, but others need to have space added on the following row or rows.

17You can add more variety by using initials from the font Missaali (https://ctan.org/pkg/missaali). Most of its Lombardic intials are suitable for use in.
44

\abcursiveinitial{S} \abcursiveinitialwithpos{S}{1.2}{-5mm}{2mm} The arguments of the second command are:

\abcursiveinitialwithpos{letter}{scale}{horizontal pos}{vertical pos}
They are the same as with the positioned Lombardic initial commands.
Chapter start macros For every Lombardic initial command there is a corresponding command that sets the initial as a chapter start initial. There are no corresponding commands for cursive initials because they have so varied shapes.
The commands for the primary rubrics color are shown in figure 15. The commands for the secondary rubrics color have the same form but they add the string \other after \chapter in the command name. For example,
\abstartchapter becomes \abstartchapterother
In the basic form the commands set the initial and two first lines of the text. For example, the Cicero quote from the beginning of the document is set as:
qUuo usque tandm abutere, Ccatilina, patientia nostra? Qqua diu etiam f uror jste
\abstartchapter{Q}{\abcapital{U}o usque tandem abutere, \abcapital{C}atilina, pati-}{entia nostra? \abcapital{Q}u~a
diu etiam furor jste}
As with the case of commands for Lombardic initials
qUuo usque tandm abutere, Ccatilina, patientia nostra? Qqua diu etiam f uror jste
\abstartchapterwithpos{Q}{0.85}{0pt}{2mm}{ \abcapital{U}o usque tandem abutere, \abcapital{C}atilina, pati-}{entia nostra? \abcapital{Q}u~a diu etiam furor jste}

5.6 Numbers

There are two commands that help writing Roman numerals. The command \abroman takes as its argument a number that is either an integer or an integer and a half, and formats it as a Roman numeral using the subtractive method. This works for numbers between one half and a million.

xxiv

x0ccxlv

\abroman{9.5} \abroman{24} \abroman{10245.5}

qUuo usque tandm abutere, Ccatilina, patientia nostra? Qqua

\abstartchapter{Q}{...}{...}
qqUuo usque tandm abutere, Ccatilina, patientia nostra? Qqua
\abstartchaptertwo{Q}{...}{...}

\abstartchapter{Q:}{...}{...}
qUuo usque tandm abutere, Ccatilina, patientia nostra? Qqua
\abstartchapterwithpos{Q} {1.1}{-3pt}{-1pt}{...}{...}

qUuo usque tandm abutere, Ccatilina, patientia nostra? Qqua

qqUuo usque tandm abutere, Ccatilina, patientia nostra? Qqua

\abstartchapterwithpos{Q:} {0.9}{-1m}{1mm}{...}{...}

\abstartchaptetwowithpos{Q} {1.25}{-2mm}{0mm}{...}{...}

Figure 15: Chapter start macros with primary rubrics color

The second number command uses the positional numbering:
ximvcxxxix
12539 \abromanother{12}{5}{39}
The command \abothernum{number} changes the number glyphs to the alterate number shapes:
1234567890
\abothernum{1234567890}
6 Medieval Swedish Units
The Aboensis font contains many abbreviations for measurement units that were used in texts written in medieval Sweden. There was no one coherent system but instead many different ones that in some cases used completely different units altogther. To make the confusion worse, the different measuring systems used the same names for units of different sizes and the reader must know from the context what is the intended value. For example, the symbol p (coming from Latin libra) was used both for a skålpund of approximately 350 grams and for besmanspund of 612 kg. This section is not an in-depth explanation of the different systems, but it shows some systems that were used somewhere in the realm.
Establishing exact modern equivalents to medieval units has proven to be very difficult. Systematic conversion tables between units are practically nonexistent until the mid 16th century so they postdate the medieval period. Sources are conflicting and different researchers have gotten very different results when examining them. The figures given here mostly correspond to the situation in the early 16th century. My two main sources for them are Sam Jansson's Mått, mål och vikt i Sverige till 1500-talets mitt [6] and Kurt Melander's Muistiinpanoja Suomen mitta- ja painosuhteista 15-sataluvun loppupuolella ja seuraavan vuosisadan alulla [10], both very old sources. I have augmented them with some newer sources and by examining Finnish 16th century bailiff's records [23] myself. It is very likely that there are errors and misunderstandings in the figures.
6.1 Measuring silver and money
Money and precious metals were measured using same units. However, the sizes of the units were different as silver coins were significantly lighter than the weight units that bore the same names. So medieval sources tend to be quite clear on whether they mean coins or weight when speaking about valuable metals.
m m m Mark, markka
The mark was a unit that was used to measure precious metals, silver and gold. Its weight in Sweden was typically a bit over 200 grams. For example, in the 1320s the mark of Stockholm was 207 g while the mark of Skara was 213 g. Both were smaller than the Avignose mark from France
47

mark öre örtug penning Metric Symbol

mark, markka

1 8 24

192 207.2 g m , m , m

öre, äyri

25.9 g o

örtug, äyrityinen

8.6 g o , sol

penning, penni

1 1.07 g pen , d

Table 10: Stockholm 14th century silver weights

mark lod quintin Metric Symbol

mark, markka

1 16 64 207.2 g m , m

lod, luoti

1 4 12.95 g lodh

quintin, kvintiini

3.23 g q

Table 11: Lod division for Stockholm silver weights.

that was 234 g. Traditionally a mark was divided into öres and örtugs but in the late medieval times division into lods and quintins came also to use. In some areas the weights of gold and silver marks were different.
Up to the beginning of the 16th century mark was usually written so that the a was written over the m in an open-topped form. The symbol often ended with a loop. This font contains three versions of the mark sign.
Mark was a pure weight measure until 1522 when first coins of that denomination were struck. A silver mark coin of Gustav I weighed only 11 grams, or about 1/20 of the nominal weight. Around that time a new symbol was introduced that was a simplified letter m followed with a double-loop. Aboensis does not have that symbol because all the contemporary examples that I have found have used significantly different hands.

[mark] [mark:] [mark::]

m
m m

\abmark \abmarc \abmk

o Öre, äyri
The öre was an eight of a mark or a bit over 25 grams. Like mark it too was used purely as a weight measure during the Middle Ages. First öre coins were struck in 1522 and they weighed 3.3 grams, or slighly over 13% of the nominal weight.

o [ore]

\abore

o , Örtug, äyrityinen
The örtug as a unit goes back to the Viking times and there were three örtugs in each öre, meaning that it weighed a bit over 8 grams. During the medieval times örtug was the largest coin that was minted. The oldest örtug coins were struck by king Albrecht von Mecklenburg in the 1360s and they weighed between 1.1 1.5 grams. Texts written in Latin could use solidus to denote örtugs but solidus had also other meanings.

o [ortug]

\abortug

pen Penning, penni
The penning was the smallest weight unit used for precious metals. There were eight penning in an örtug and 24 in an öre, which puts the weight in a bit over a gram.18 Penning coins had a quite large variety in their weighs, going from 0.4 0.7 grams depending on the issuer. Text written in Latin often used denarius to denote pennings.
pe~n pen \abpenning
sol Solidus
Latin texts written in Sweden used often old solidus as a translation for örtug. However, the same word could also be used for schilling coins struck in cities in Northern Germany.
so~l sol \absolidus

d Denarius
Latin texts used commonly Denarius as a translation for penning.

d /d

\abdenarius

lodh Lod, luoti
In later medieval times lighter units of scale weights started to be used also for silver and gold. However, the scale and mint units were usually not exactly the same size even though were close. The lod divided marks into 16 parts, so a lod weighed a bit over 13 grams. There was no special abbreviation for it, but it was written with different spelling than noaways.
lodh lodh \ablod
18However, in some regions there were 36 or 48 pennings in an öre.

skeppund lispund

skeppund 1

lispund 20 1

skålpund 400 20

Metric 137 kg 7.2 kg

Symbol
skep[pund] , s lis[pund] , l ,

(skål)pund

360 g p , p , pd , p

Table 12: Stockholm large scale weights in early 16th century

skålpund lod quintin Metric

(skål)pund

32 128 450 g

lod

14 g

quintin

3.5 g

Symbol
p , p pd lodh q

Table 13: Stockholm small scale weights in early 16th century

q Quintin, kvintiini
A quintin was a fourth of a lod weighing about 3.25 grams.

q [quintin]

\abquintin

6.2 Scale weights
Expensive commodities such as spices and silk thread was measured using scales and the scale weight system. Cheap commodities were measured with counterweight balance beams and they used different units. The basic unit for scale weights was lispund that could be divided either into skålpunds or markpunds.
lis[pund] , l , lp , l Lispund, leiviskä, talentum livonicum
The name lispund comes from Livonian pound which betrays the Baltic origins of the unit. Latin texts commonly used talentum livonicum for it. The lispund proper weighed 8.2 kg, but the same name was used for units of wildly different sizes, ranging from about 6.5 kg to 12 kg.
A lispund was divided into either 16 or 20 punds where 20 was the more common one.
The Stockholm lispund was perhaps the most important weight measurement unit in Sweden. It changed size at least once, in 1557, and it may have changed also in the first decade of the 16th century. Before 1557 it was about 7.2 kg in modern units. Figures 12 and 13 show how Stockholm scale weights are split into smaller units.
Perhaps the most common way of abbreviating lispund in the medieval
times was: lis[pund] but many others were used.

lis[pund] [lispund] l[pund] [lispund:]

lis[pund] l lp l

\ablispund \ablispundtwo \ablispundthree \ablispundfour

skep[pund] , s , Skeppund, kippunta
A skeppund was the largest weight unit for most commodities. It was not used much with scale weights as most of the things measured with scales were so expensive that it was rare to have a full skeppund at one place. In some areas there was only one skeppund that was divided either to scale or to besmar units.
A scale skeppund had 20 lispund. In Stockholm weight that was about 137 kg during the first half of the 16th century.

skep[pund] [skeppund]

skep[pund] s

\abskeppund \abskeppundtwo

pd , skalp , p , p Skålpund, pund, naula, libra
When pund is used as a weight measure without any other specifier, it likely denotes a skålpund. There were 16 or 20 skålpund to a lispund and it itself was divided into 32 lods. In some areas a skålpund was equal to two marks of silver weight and in the 17th century this division became universal over the realm. In Latin sources the unit is usually called libra.
A skålpund of Stockholm weight was approximately 450 grams before 1557.

[pund] p~ud ~p [libra] skaal[pund]

p pd p
p
skalp

\pund \abpundtwo \abpundthree \ablibra \abskaalpund

lodh Lod, luoti
There were 32 lods in a skålpund. Typically, a scale weight lod was slightly heavier than the precious metal lod. In early 16th century Stockholm weight a lod was about 14 grams.
lodh lodh \ablod

Figure 16: A wooden besman from 1818. The wooden bulb hides a lead weight

läst skeppund pund mark Metric Symbol

läst

240 4800 1560 kg läst

skeppund besmanspund, pund besmansmark, mark

20 400 130 kg skep[pund] , s

1 20 6.54 kg p , p , pd

1 327 g m , m

Table 14: Stockholm besman weights of early 16th century

q Quintin, kvintiini

There were 4 quintins in a lod. In the earlt 16th century Stockholm weight a quintin weighed about 3.5 g.

q [quintin]

\abquintin

mp , mp , Markpund, vaakamarkka
A medieval markpund was a division of lispund. This contrasts to postmedieval use where a markpund was the equivalent of lispund when weighing iron or copper.
In the areas where markpund was used, it was 1/20 lispund.

m[pund] [ma][pund]

mp mp

\abmarkpund \abmarkpundtwo

6.3 Besman weights
A besman (puntari in Finnish) is a beam lever scale with a fixed counterweight. In medieval times they were usually made from wood with a lead weight in the end. When weighing things with them one finds the balance point on the lever and reads the mark at that point. Besmans are less precise than scales so it usually wasn't possible to measure smaller units than half a mark and the heavier the measured thing was, the less precision was available for the results.
läst Läst, lästi
A läst was a large unit that was used to measure ship loads. Because of the

cargo aspect, it was used as a weight measure only for heavy commodities such as metals. For other products a läst was usually measured in barrels (tunna). With metals a läst was typically 12 skeppunds, or around two metric tons depending on which particular skeppund was used. The word läst was usually not abbreviated in texts.
läst kolm \ablast

skep[pund] , s Skeppund, kippunta, talentum navale
The skeppund was the largest Swedish weight unit (around 130180 kg). Beacause of the large size it is typically used only for metals and when describing large stockpiles of commodities such as salted fish. In Latin sources it was often written as talentum navale.
A skeppund was usually divided into 20 punds, but there are some 14th century references for having 24 pund skeppunds.

skep[pund] [skeppund]

skep[pund] s

\abskeppund \abskeppundtwo

p , p , pd , p , p Besmanspund, pund, leiviskä

The besmanspund (or shorter pund) was the besman weight equivalent of lispund but in some regions the name lispund was used for both. In many areas, for example in Stockholm, a lispund was reckoned to be a besmanspund and two besmansmarks.

In most areas besmanspund was lighter than the proper lispund. For ex-

ample, in Stockholm it was about 6.5 kg. However, on the other end of the

scales was the Porvoo pund that was about 13 kg for a while. The most

common besman weight around Northern Baltic was Tallinn lispund that

was used for trading and taxation in many areas, for example, in most

of Finland. Most contemporary conversion tables state that the Tallinn

lispund was equal to 25 Stockholm besmansmark, but some use more exact

figure

27 40

besmansmark.

p Confusingly many writers used the Latin abbreviation libra ( ) for

besmanspunds even though it was used also the much lighter skålpund.

[libra]
[pund] [p~ud] [~p] [~pp]

p
p pd p p

\abbesmanspund
\abpund \abpundtwo \abpundthree \abpundfour

Year 1490 1540 1557

Scale / Besman 8/7
22/20 21/20

Table 15: Weight ratios between Stockholm scale and besman on some years

Stockholm Tallinn lispund Turku town leiviskä Turku castle tax leiviskä Hollola leiviskä Pohjanmaa leiviskä Porvoo leiviskä Raasepori leiviskä Satakunta leiviskä Turku castle leiviskä

6.5 kg 8.2 kg 9.8 kg 8.2 kg 9.2 kg 9.5 kg 13 kg 9.8 kg 9.8 kg 6.8 or 6.5 kg

25 Stockholm besmansmark 30 Stockholm besmansmark Tallinn lispund 28 Stockholm besmansmark 29 Stockholm besmansmark 2 Stockholm besmanspund 30 Stockholm besmansmark 30 Stockholm besmansmark Four marks lighter than tax leiviskä

Table 16: Some different besman weights. Conversion rations from various times of the 16th century, using contemporary rounding.

m m ,

Besmansmark, mark, naula

The basic unit for besman weights was besmansmark that was usually called simply mark. A besmansmark was typically about 50% heavier than the precious metal mark or approximately 330 g, but the size range goes around 300400g.

The besmansamark was written the same way as the precious metal mark.

[mark] [mark:] [mark::]

m
m m

\abmark \abmarc \abmk

6.4 Dry Volume
Old Swedish weight measurement systems are simple compared with the systems for measuring dry capacity by volume. The basic unit was spann in most parts of the whole realm, but its size and how it divided and combined into other units varied greatly.
Modern estimates on sizes of different units in different places at different times vary greatly so the figures given in tables should be taken with a large grain of salt. The figures are generally obtained by using conversion ratios that occur in old texts (typically tax accounts) from some known base. Sam Jansson gives the size of Stockholm's spann as 47 liters that he calculated from the size of a surviving Lübeck schepel (40.5 liters) measure from early 15th century and conversion rates Lübeck and Stockholm units given in a letter written in 1405.19
19Number 16524 in Svenskt Diplomaratiums huvudkartor över medeltidsbreven (SDHK).

pund tunna spann fjärding fat Metric Symbol

pund

1 5

tunna

1 2

spann

32 160 376 l p , p

t 50 117.5 l

20 47 l s

fjärding

5 11.75 l f

fat

1 2.35 l ft

skäppa

5 12

19.6 l skäpa

Table 17: Stockholm dry capacity units

pund spann fjärding skåle Metric Symbol

pund

spann

120 450 l p

24 90 l s

fjärding

6 22.5 l f

skåle

1 3.l5 l skale

Table 18: Närke dry capacity units

In the tables I've generally used Jansson's figures. For those that I've calculated myself, I used Jansson's Stockholm spann as the fixed point. These results are different from many published values. For example, the size of a Häme spann is usually given as "about 90 liters", but my computation has it at only 66 liters. However, I am using a conversion rate that comes from over hundred years later than Jansson's figures for Stockholm's unit, so it is possible that something had changed in the mean time. The sizes of at least Pohjanmaa and Viipuri spann changed during the 16th century.
This section contains quite few tables for dry volume units from all over Sweden, with a heavy emphasis on the Finnish side. The ratios between units are probably mostly correct, but the modern equivalences may well not be.
ft fat
The fat (bowl) was a Swedish measure that was used in the middle ages. Its size had a large variance, and it ranged from 20 fat in a Stockholm spann (2.35 liters) to a fifth of a spann. The Finnish crown accounts often used 'Stockholm kappa' in unit conversions when they meant Stockholm fat.
fat ft \abfat
f , fjardg fjärding, nelikko, neljännes, quartale modii
A fjärding was a fourth of a spann. In Finland the unit was usually

pund spann fjärding

pund 1

spann 12 1

fjärding 48 4 1

Metric 360 l 30 l 7.5 l

Symbol
p s
f

Table 19: Hälsingaland dry capacity units

pund tön spann sättung Metric Symbols

pund tön spann

1 3

48 380 l p , p

36 360 l þyn

60 l s

sättung

10 l s

Table 20: Uppland dry capacity units

called nelikko or neljännes but some areas used different names for it. For

example,

vakka

was

commonly

used

for

1 4

spann

around

Turku.

After the tunna replaced pund as the main large unit for dry capacity,

both fjärding and nelikko switched to mean a quarter tunna instead of a

quarter spann. But that didn't happen until mid-16th century.

~ffi

\abfjarding

fjard~ug fjardg \abfjardingtwo

cp , kp , kappe, kappa
A kappa was a Finnish unit that was used in large parts of the country as the smallest unit of dry volume and it still survives: it is used to measure potatoes in marketplaces. The kappa was typically in the range of 35 liters in modern units and there were 16 to 24 of them in a spann.
The kappa is one of the oldests units attested in Finland, it first occurs in a letter written in 1334. In the 16th century kappa was written with either intial k or c. When the Finnish spelling got standardized in the early 17th century, the form cappa took over and was used for about 150 years until kappa returned around the end of the 19th century.
After the middle ages the name kappa was taken to Swedish as a loan word kappe.

cap[per] kap[per]

cp kp

\abkappa \abkappatwo

lästi punta panni karpio nelikko vakka Metric Symbol

lästi

120

240 1440 3.96 m2 läst

punta panni karpio nelikko vakka

120 330 l p

66 l s

12 33 l k p

16.5 l f

1 2.75 l vaca

Table 21: Hämeo dry capacity units. The size of spann is computed from 1540 accounts of Häme castle that gives a conversion rate of 5 Häme spann to 7 Stockholm spann.

k p karp, karpio
A karpio was another specifically Finnish unit that occurs also in Swedish texts under the name karp. It was a half of a spann in size or approximately 30 liters.
Some Latin texts written in Finland use modius to mean a karpio instead of a spann.

*k[per] k mo~d

k p k mod

\abkarpio \abkarpiotwo \abmodius

kolm kylm kolmannes, kylmitta, oravainen
The kolmannes, kylmitta and oravainen were names for similar units that were used in Finland. As the name kolmannes tells, they all were thirds of something. The names kolmannes and oravainen were used in Savo to denote a third of a karpio so the size was somewhat over 10 liters. At Viipuri kolmannes and kylmitta were used for a third of a spann, making them about 18 liters in size.
kol~m kolm \abkolmannes kyl~m kylm \abkylmitta

läst läst, lästi
The läst was the largest unit for volume measurements as it was also for weight measurements. The läst could be counted in two different ways:
· pundeläst: a läst containing a specific number of punds, typically 12. · tunnaläst: a läst containing a specific number of tunnas, usually 12
or 18.

punta panni
vakka/nelikko kappa

pund 1

spann 6 1

vakka 24 4
1

kappa 120 20
5 1

Metric 432 l 72 l
18 l 3.6 l

Symbol
p s
vaca , f cp

Table 22: Varsinais-Suomi dry capacity computed using the conversion rate of 30 Turku kappa = 46 Stockholm fat.

As a pund was usually much greater unit than tunna, a pundeläst could be well over 10 times greater in volume than a tunnaläst.
läst kolm \ablast
skale skåle
The skåle was the smallest unit of dry capacity measure in Närke and Västmanland. There 24 skåle in a spann.
skaale skale \abskole

p , p pund, punta
In most parts of Sweden the principal large unit for dry volume was the pund. The most typical pund contained eight spann but that too varied. Around Närke and Häme there were only five spann in a pund, and in most parts of Finland there were six. The areas with smallest spanns had 12 to a pund.
The Stockholm pund was about 380 liters in modern units.

[pund] p~ud ~p ~pp

p
pd p p

\pund \abpundtwo \abpundthree \abpundfour

s , mod spann, panni, modius
The size of the base unit spann varied greatly. In Hälsingaland it was only 30 liters while Närke used spann of over 90 liters. Perhaps the most common sizes were around 60 liters, but the capital Stockholm used only 47 liter ones.
Latin texts often used the term modius to denote the spann, but modius was used also for many different units in different parts.

punta panni
karpio kolmannes kappa

punta 1

panni 6 1

karpio 12 2
1

kolmannes 36 6
3 1

kappa 108 18
9 3 1

Metric 396 l 66 l
33 l 11 l 3.7 l

Symbol
p s
k p kolm cp

Table 23: Savo dry capacity units. Computed from equivalence where 1 Savo

kolmannes

2 3

Stockholm

fat.

punta panni karpio kylmitta vakka kappa Metric

punta

108 138 324 l

panni

23 54 l

karpio kylmitta vakka kappa

1 2

27 l

18 l

1 2.35 l

Symbol
p s
k p kylm vaca cp

Table 24: Viipuri dry capacity. Computed from equivalence: Viipuri spann = 23 Stockholm fat. In the late 16th century the size of Viipuri spann changed several times, ranging from 23 fat to 26.

~sp mo~d

s mod

\abspann \abmodius

saaldh såll, cribrum
Västergotaland and Värmland used såll as the the larger unit than skäppa or spann. Later the unit fell out of use and was replaced by tunna that had the same size as såll in those areas.
saaldh saaldh \absoll

skäpa , mod skäppa, modius
In Västergötaland and Småland the base volume unit was not the spann but the skäppa. In these areas the Latin modius usually ment the skäppa instead of the spann. In size the skäppa was somewhat smaller than the spann with its size ranging from 18 to 23 liters. The Stockholm skäppa was unusual in that it was not fully integrated in the complete system of measurements. It was reckoned to be 5/12 spann
59

läst såll skäppa fjärding Metric Symbol

läst

1 12 72

288 1.728 m3 läst

sål l/tunna

144 l saaldh , t

skäppa

24 l skäpa

fjärding

Table 25: Västergötaland dry capacity units

Lästi Punta Panni Vakka Metric Symbol

Lästi

96 960 4 m3 läst

Punta Panni

80 336 l p , p

42 l s

Vakka

1 4.2 l vaca

Table 26: Pohjanmaa dry capacity units. Computed from ratio 1 panni = 18 Stockholm fat

(aobut 19.6 liters) which meant that it did not divide any of the units exactly.

skäppa mo~d

skäpa mod

\abskappa \abmodius

s sättung
Dalsland and Uppland areas divided their spanns into sixths sättung instead of fourths (fjärding). The size of a sättung was approximately 10 liters in modern units.
s* s \absattung

t , t tunna, tynnyri
The tunna (barrel) was a rare unit in that it had a separate abbreviation for the plural tunnor:

tunna (s) tunnor (pl)

In the oldest times it was primarily a measure for wet goods but slowly over the time it became used also for dry capacity. Mentions of dry tunnas are quite rare before the 15th century, then they became more common until by mid-16th century it is in very common use for grain.

Talvikuorma Kesäkuorma Dragu Parmas

Kesä kuorma
1

Talvikuorma
2
1

Dragu 4
2

Parmas 8 4 1 1

Metric 4.4 m3 2.2 m3 1.1 m3 0.55 m3

Symbol
las
somarlas
dr agu pmas

Table 27: Larger Häme straw measurements. Metric sizes are very rough approximations computed by assuming a parmas of 120 cm long straws with a 2.4 meter circumference.

With dry capacity a tunna ranged from 1.5 spann to 4 spann. In modern units its size was typically in the range 110150 l. The size of tunna tended to increase over time and a late 16th century tunna is typically larger than a 15th century one. The tunna of the Stockholm castle was 2.5 Stockholm spanns or about 120 liters.

t [tunna]

\abtunna

t [tunna]

\abtunnor

þyn tön
The tön or thyn was a large unit that was used instead of pund in early times in Uppland and neighbouring areas. It was later replaced by pund, but the last mentions of tön go to the late 16th century.
There were six spann in a tön so it was slightly smaller than a pund.
þyn þyn \abthyn

vaca vakka
A vakka was a Finnish unit that had very large variance in size. In some areas (for example, Häme and Viipuri) it was the smallest unit of dry volume at about three liters in size. However, in other areas it contained some multiples of kappas, typically four or five. For example, at Turku a vakka was used as a synonym for nelikko and it contained five kappas.
vacka vaca \abvakka

6.4.1 Hay and straw
Measuring the volume of hay and straw stores was usually done using special units20 The units and the ratios between them here are taken mostly from Finnish sources.
Translating the hay units to modern terms is almost impossible as they were vague already at the time and the way they were used varied a lot even in a small geographical area.
20However, there are occasional mentions of punds of hay in account books.

las lass, kuorma
The lass is the unit of hay and straw volume that occurs most often in medieval and early modern accounts. Its size is very difficult to determine exactly but generally it was as much hay that could be transported with one cart or sleigh. In many areas two different lasses were used at the same time: the larger winter lass (vinterlass, talvikuorma) and the smaller summer lass (sommarlass, kesäkuorma). Some sources also use the term tax lass, which probably meant the larger vinterlass
A winter lass might be about 35 m3 in size. In Finland a summer lass was often half of the size of a winter lass.

lass vin[ter]lass so~marlass

las
vintlas somarlas

\ablass \abvinterlass \absommarlass

pmas , parmas
The parmas was a Finnish united defined to be the amount of hay or straw that can be tied for transport using a cord of a given length. For example, at Viipuri it was a cord of 4 famn (a bit over 7 m) that is tied crosswise, while at Sääksmäki the cord was 8 aln (about 4 m) but it is not mentioned if the rope was crosswise or not. In Finland a talvikuorma usually contained 8 parmas but some areas used 12 parmas per kuorma.
[par]mas pmas \abparmas
fangh fångh, ruko
The fångh contained as much hay that a person could carry without tying the bundle up. A common computational ratio was that there would be four ruko in a parmas.
faangh fangh \abfangh

kärf ue kärve, kupo
The kärve was reckoned to be as much hay that a person could carry under their arm. A common computation in Finland was that there was four kupo in a ruko.
kärffue kärf ue \abkarve

dr agu dragu
The origins of the unit dragu are obscure. The word is originally Swedish
but it is attested only in Finnish accounts before the 17th century.

Läst Tunna Fjärding Ämbar Kanna Stop Metric Symbol

Läst

144 576 1152 1410 l läst

Tunna Fjärding

t 96 117.5 l

24 29.4 l f

Ämbar

6 12 14.7 l ämbar

Kanna Stop

2 2.4 l k

1 1.2 l stope

Table 28: Wet capacity units based on the Rostock barrel

The dragu had a large variation in size. For example, the accounts of the Korsholma royal manor have it to be roughly the size of common parmas but around Viipuri a dragu was a synonym for kesäkuorma, or about four times the amount.
Some parts of Finland used two different dragu: winter and summer where a winter dragu was twice the size of the summer dragu.

dragu v~iterdragu so~mardragu

dr agu vterdr agu somardr agu

\abdragu \abvinterdragu \absommardragu

aam åm, aami
Several areas in Finland used the aami to measure hay in addition of its use as a wet capacity measurement. It was generally used as a synonym to parmas.
aam aam \abaam
6.5 Wet capacity
The units that were used to measure wet capacity were simpler than the dry capacity ones. Their sizes varied on different parts of the country, but the units themselves tended to be the same.
stope stop, tuoppi
During the high middle ages the base unit for measuring wet goods in the Baltic areas was the stop. The name translates to a tankard. The size of a stop varied in different areas, in modern units it varied from somewhat under liter to over. The most common size of stop in the later middle ages was probably 1.2 liters that was one 1/96 of the Rostock barrel. In the 17th century it got standardized to 1.3 liters.
stope stope \abstop

qt , kvarter, kortteli
Later sources divide a stop into four kvarters but it is not certain if the unit was used already during the middle ages.
q~t qt \abquarter

k , kña kanna, kannu
During the 15th century the kanna ("jug") replaced the stop as the base unit. There were two stops in a kanna, meaning that it ranged from a bit under two liters to almost three liters. The kanna that corresponded to the size of the Rostock barrel was 2.45 liters in size. The later standardization fixed kanna to 2.6 liters.

[kanna] ka~na

k kña

\abkanna \abkannatwo

t , t tunna, tynnyri
The primary large wet capacity measure was a tunna (barrel) from the earliest times. The most common barrel size in use around the Baltic sea was the Rostock barrel of 117.5 liters, but others were also in use.
In the middle ages a typical tunna contained 48 kanna, but during the 16th century it became common to use larger barrels and there are mentions of 50 or 52 kanna tunnas.

t [tunna]

\abtunna

t [tunna]

\abtunnor

f , fjardg fjärding, nelikko, neljännes
A fjärding was the fourth of a tunna for wet capacity measurements so its size was about 30 liters. Note that while both fjärding and kvarter mean a fourth, they are units of very different sizes.

~ffi

\abfjarding

fiärd~ug fjardg \abfjardingtwo

ämbar , atug ämbar, åtting, ämpäri
A half of a fjärding was either åtting (en eighth) or ämbar (a bucket) in different parts of the country. Its size was approximately 15 liters.
ämbar ämbar \ämbar attu~g atug \abotting

Båt Åm Kanna Metric Symbol

Båt

1 3 180 440 l baat

Åm, fat

1 60 147 l aam , ft

Kanna

2.4 l k

Table 29: Wet capacity units for blubber and wine

aam , ft åm, aami
The åm was used to measure seal blubber. Later it became also a measure for wine. In that role it was a synonym for fat. The an åm was reckoned to be equal to 60 kanna (about 150 liters) in volume and for blubber 20 lispund in weight.
aam aam \abaam fat ft \abfat

baat båt
Wine and seal blubber trade used båt to measure large quantities. A båt contained three åm, or approximately 450 liters in volume. For blubber it was 60 lispund in weight.
baat baat \abbaat
6.6 Length measures
The units of length were mostly same with same rations in the whole Sweden, but their exact sizes were different in different areas. It is possible to establish a few of them exactly as they were marked on the walls or doors of stone churches. For example, the door of Vadsbo church had marks for the halvaln of about 32 cm, which gives the length of Västergötland aln to be 64 cm. Three churches (Stånga, Havdhem and Hemse) all have markings for the Gotland aln. They are not exactly equal, 55.4 cm at Stånga and Hemse while 55.1 cm at Hemse, but they are close enough that we can reckon that the Gotland aln was a bit over 55 cm.
aln aln, kyynärä
The basic length unit was aln (kyynärä) that corresponds to cubit. Its length varied between 4765 cm in different areas. The Stockholm aln was one of the shortest with its 52.5 cm length.
aln aln \abaln
qt kvarter, kortteli
The principal division of an aln was to divide it into four quarters of 1216 cm. The Stockholm kvarter was 13.1 cm long.

Area Gotland Götlunda Lund Stockholm "new" Stockholm "old " Vadstena Västergötland Öland Östergotland

Modern 55.4 cm 62.8 cm 55.7 cm 52.5 cm 55.5 cm 53.9 cm 64 cm 47 cm 59.4 cm

Table 30: Aln lengths that are known with some certainty.

Stång

Stång Famn Aln Fot Quarter Tum Metric Symbol

6 12

s 144 3.15 m

Famn Aln Fot Quarter

72 1.58 m fapn

24 52.5 cm aln

12 26.3 cm fot

6 13.1 cm qt

Tum

1 2.2 cm tum

Table 31: Stockholm length measures

q~t qt \abquarter

fot fot, jalka
The foot (fot, jalka) was also used in Sweden, but was secondary compared with aln and quarter and some places used a halvaln instead. There were two quarters in a fot and two fot in an aln.

fot

\abfot

halvaln halvaln \abhalvaln

tum tum, tuuma
The tum was the equivalent of inch and there were six tum in a quarter and 24 tum in an aln. The Stockholm tum was 2.2 cm long.
tum tum \abtum
fapn famn, syli
The famn was the equivalent of a fathom. In most parts of Sweden there were three aln per famn but in Norrland each famn contained 3 1/2 aln.
ffa~pn fapn \abfamn

Unit Västgötaland mil Småland mil Dalarland mil Finland mil Vecka (sjömil)

Modern ~13 km ~7.5 km ~15 km ~6 km ~7.5 km

Table 32: Long distance measurements

s stång, tanko
The stång corresponded to a rod. It was typically six aln long, but in parts of Östergötland and Småland also five aln stång was used and there are occasional records for eight aln lengths.

s [stång]

\abstang

mil , r ast mil, rast, peninkulma
The mil was a length measure with a vague length that varied a lot in different parts of Sweden. The old name for the unit was rast but that got superseded by mil during the middle ages. The mil in Finland corresponded to about 6 modern kilometers while the mil in Dalarland was almost three times that length with its 15 km distance. Before the country was surveyed it was not possible to measure long distances exactly so all measurements that are given in mils are approximations. Later mil was standardized to 18000 aln but that didn't happen until the 17th century.
mil mil \abmil rast r ast \abrast

vik , veca vecka, sjömil
The vika or vecka was the marine equivalent of mil (hence, sjömil or sea mil). It too was vaguely defined, but it seems to have been approximately 7.5 km in modern terms.
vika vik \abvika vecka veca \abvecka

6.7 Area
During the medieval times there were two main reasons for measuring land: taxation and economical. The crown wanted to assess how much taxes a farm could or should pay, and a landowner (especially a noble one with many estates) wanted to know how much a farm could produce. Determining the exact land area in the modern sense was not necessary for either purpose.

A 2 stång 3 öre

1 stång

1 2

öre

1 stång

1 2

öre

Figure 17: The stång division of a field in a village of 6 öresland and 4 stång.
The capacity to pay taxes was not completely determined by its size but also the land quality and opportunities for non-farming income such as fishing affected it. For this reason the medieval units for area are extremely vague and using them was highly subjective. There were some rough guidelines but they were not used as binding rules. For example, in the 16th century Hälsingaland a spannland was reckoned to be a square of field with eight stång sides or about 830 m2, but this assumed "good land".
In general, only fields and meadows were measured and the units can be roughly divided into three classes:
· units directly tied to the amount of taxes that should be paid (e.g. marksland, öresland).
· units describing how much grain is sown in the field (tunnland, spannland)
· units tied to units of length (e.g. stång, aln)
Some units, like pundsland were used in two senses: they were both units for measuring seed grain and also abstract units for taxation.
6.7.1 Tax units
In the areas that used taxation based on land area, the basic principle was that each village had some amount of taxes assigned to it, and that tax was then allocated to individual farms by counting what proportion of the fields it owned.
For example, suppose that there was a village that had been assessed to be two rök in size. The crown assigned the taxed so that each rök had to pay a specific amount of taxes, so in this example the village would need to pay two tax units.
The rök would then be divided into smaller parts. In Upper Satakunta each rök had 12 öresland. Each village was allocated some number of öres out of the rök. Each farm of the village was allocated a number of stångs. The communal fields of the village were divided into thin strips and allocated to the farms
68

Area Varsinais-Suomi Ala-Satakunta Ylä-Satakunta Häme Länsi-Uusimaa Itä-Uusimaa Kymenkartano Viipurin lääni Savo Pohjanmaa Åland

Unit rök, savu rök, savu krok, koukku krok, koukku skattemark, veromarkka full skatte, täysvero full skatte, täysvero full skatte, täysvero skatteskin, veronahka pundsland, punnanala marksland rök full skatte

Divides into 32 öresland 12 öresland 12 öresland 12 öresland 18 aln 18 aln 18 aln
10 spannland

Table 33: Land-area based taxation units in Finland according to [14]

in proportion to the stångs of the farms. The farm also had to pay taxes in proportion to its stång count. This is illustrated in figure 17. Typically each stång corresponded to 12 öres.

maland , marksland, markanmaa
Marksland was perhaps the oldest taxation unit in Sweden for agricultural areas. Originally it denoted an area that was supposed to pay one mark in taxes, but over time it became a computational unit. In Finnish side it was used only at Åland.

[mark]aland maland \abmarksland

[mark::]al~ad malãd

\abmarkslandtwo

oslãd , öresland, äyrinmaa
Originally aboresland was the amount of land suposed to pay an öre in taxes. Later it was used as a computational division for other units, such as rök, krok, skattemark, and marksland.
[ore]sl~ad oslãd \aboresland

oalãd , örtugsland, aurtuanmaa
An ortugsland was a further subdivision of an öresland.
[ortug]al~ad oalãd \abortugsland

peñalãd , penningsland, penninmaa
The smallest subdivision of a marksland was penningsland. It was already so small that there are not that many mentions of it in sources.

bol halvbol

bol halvbol fjärding åtting Symbol

8 bool

4 half bool

fjärding

åtting

1 atug

Table 34: The bol division of land

pe~nal~ad peñalãd \abpenningsland

rök , rök, savu
A rök (smoke) originally meant a single inhabited farm but it evolved into a general land measure for taxation. It kept the original meaning in most of Finland for the whole middle ages, but got the general meaning in Åland and Varsinais-Suomi.
k rok , krok, aura
A krok was also a specific unit that evolved into general land measure. It means a plough and it is not certain whether it originally meant a single physical plough or the area that could be plowed with one team.
skteskin , skatteskin, veronahka, oravainen
A skatteskin (tax skin) was a taxation unit for areas without strong agriculture. Originally it denoted an area that was responsible for paying a set amount of fur skins as taxes, but as agriculture improved it became another general land area measure. A skatteskin was also called oravainen (little squirrel) in Finnish, because the tax was usually assessed in winter squirrel skins.
sktem skattemark, veromarkka,
The skattemark was a unit that was used in two different senses. In some areas it was used like marksland but it was divided into alns instead of öreslands. In Pohjanmaa where agriculture was poorly developed it was a property assessment: for each skattemark of property there were in an area, the inhabitants had to collectively pay one silver mark of taxes.
skathe[mark] sktem \abskattemark

f ul skte , full skatte, täysvero
The full skatte was a similar unit as markland but it was introduced later and to different parts of the country. In areas with established agriculture it was divided into stångs and alns, while in Savo it was divided into halves, quarters, and eighths.
half skte , halv skatte, puolivero
The halv skatte was a half of a full skatte.

bool , bol
Like a rök, a bol originally meant one inhabited farm but it later became a general land measure. As a measure it was first divided into halves and quarters, but later it grew bigger and contained 20 skattemark. In Finland bol was used only in areas where the population was Swedish-speaking.
booll bool \abbol

half bool , halvbol
A half of a bol was a halvbol.
halffbooll half bool

\abhalvbol

f , fjardg , fjärding
During the middle ages a fjärding was a fourth of a bol or a full skatte.

~ffi

\abfjarding

fjard~ug fjardg \abfjardingtwo

atug , otting
An otting was a eighth of a bol or full skatte.
attu~g atug \abotting
6.8 Seed grain based units
Measuring the size of a field by the amount of seed grain that was sown to it was a common practice. However, the values were approximate because the amount depended on the grain. For example, rye was sown in a sparser pattern than barley and a farmer would use 3050% more barley seeds than rye seeds on the same field.
The most common crop rotation schema in Finland for normal fields was that a half of farms fields were left fallow each year so a farmer with 20 spannland of land would sow 10 spanns each year.
saland spannland, panninala
A spannland corresponded to the size of a field that was sown with a spann of grain.
~spl~ad saland \abspannland

plãd pundland, punnanala
A pundland corresponded to the size of a field that was sown with a pund of grain.
71

[pund]al~ad plãd

\abpundland

p~udal~ad pdalãd \abpundlandtwo

tland tunnland, tynnyrinala
The tunnland corresponded to the size of a field that was sown with a tunna of grain. The unit came to use when the tunna was introduced as a dry measure so it was rare before the 16th century.
tynia , thynia
The unit thynia occurs in some 14th century Swedish documents. It denoted the amount of land that could be sown with a thyn of grain.

6.9 Length based units

s stång, tanko
When stång was used as a unit of area, it measured the width of a strip of field. It was also used as a computational unit of taxation as a measure of the general size of a farm without being tied to the actual area of the fields. As a computational unit there were usually 3 or 1218 stång in a taxation unit in Finland.

s [stång]

\abstang

aln aln, kyynärä
The aln was used as an area measure in the same way as stång. It was both a real measurement of strip width and a computational unit for taxation.
aln aln \abaln

6.10 Counting units
Some goods had separate units that were used for counting them.
ask ask, aski
An ask was a small box made from wood or birch bark that was used when buying or selling small amounts of butter, honey, or similar substances.
boge , b boge, jousi
The boge (a bow) was used to count men who were old enough to take part in hunting and it was perhaps the oldest unit of taxation in Finland. It is probable that it was originally used in a literal sense and every man who could draw a full-strength bow was counted. Later it was expanded to mean every men over a set age, often 14 or 15.
sintene centener
The name centener comes from Latin meaning 100, but for some obscure reason it was adopted to mean a group of 12 windowpanes in Sweden when glass windows started to be used.

Name ask boge bok centener dussin gång göpen hundra
kast knippa krok par mantal näbbe näveful
rök skock släpp
storhundra stycke tolft tiogh
däcker timber

Amount 1 1 24 12 12 4 inexact 100
4 various 1 2 various 1 inexact
1 60 210
120 1 12 10 or 20
10 40

Symbol
ask boge bok sintene dussin gaang göpen hundr a
kst
knipa k rok par mantal nebbe näuef ul
rök skoc släp
storhundr a
st tolf t tiogh
dk e tim

Usage butter, honey men sheets of paper windowpanes merchandise horseshoes small things held in a hand anything
things held in hands (two in each) things bound together taxation unit (literal meaning plough) anything men adults small things held in a hand
farms (for taxation) merchandise dogs
anything anything lumber eggs, planks
furs, skins, sheets of parchment furs

Table 35: Names for quantitites

dussin dussin, tusina
A dussin (a dozen) as a counting term (12) came to Sweden from Germany and it was quite rare during the middle ages and did not gain widspread use until the early modern times. It was usually used when buying or selling individual goods.
gaang gång, kerta
Horseshoes were counted in gångs. A gång had four shoes, enough to shoe one horse.
hundr a hundra
A hundra means literally 'a hundred' and it was used as a unit meaning 100. This was also called lilla hundret, meaning 'a small hundred'.
kst kast
A kast was a unit that was used to count small things that could be carried in hand such as coins and nails. It usually denoted four items (two in both hands) but there were some exceptions. For example, in Jämntland a kast of nails was 5 nails: three in one hand and two in another.
knipo knippa, nippu
A knippa is a bundle where many things have been tied together somehow. How many things there were in a knippa depended on what was being counted. For example, a knippa of brooms was 10 pieces, and a knippa of shingles was 100.
mantal , mantal, manttaali
Under the old mantal system a number of men were grouped together and they were collectively responsible for some obligation. For example, equipping a ship for the fleet. The number of men in a mantal depended on area and the nature of obligation. In the 16th century a new mantal count was introduced that acted as an area measurement for taxation.
nebbe , näbbe, nokka
A näbbe (beak) was a person who was considered adult for the purpose of certain taxes. In some areas all adults were included in the näbbe count, in other areas service folk were excluded.
näuef ul , göpen näveful,göpen, koura
The näveful was used when handling small things. It contained as much material that could be held in one closed hand. For example, in Finland it was common that a person who helped shearing sheep would receive as a salary a set number of koura of wool.
par par, pari
A par is two of something. It was usually used to count things that come in pairs.
74

skoc skock, parvi
Like a dussin, a skock was a unit that was imported from Germany in late middle ages. It denoted 60 pieces and it too was mostly used for merchandise.
släp släpp, ajue
A släpp is a team of hunting dogs. You needed at least two dogs to have a släpp but there might be several.
storhundr a storhundra
A storhundra translates literally to "a big hundred" and it meant 120 pieces.
styce , st stycke, kappale
A stycke simply means a piece. It was used in account books as a unit in cases where there was no special unit to use.
s~t st \abstycke

tim , t timmer, timber, kiihtelys
In Finland furs were divided into two basic classes by their value: harmaanahka (greyskin) and valkonahka (whiteskin). The cheaper greyskins, most imortant of whom was the squirrel, were counted using a 40 piece kiihtelys as the basic unit. In Swedish texts this is usually written either as timber or timmer. However, Swedish texts written in Finland often use timber also when counting whiteskins, and then it means 10 of them.

ti~m [timber]

tim t

\abtimmer \abtimber

dk e däcker, tikkuri
The more valuable whiteskins (such as winter ermine and black fox) were counted using a 10 piece tikkuri as the unit in Finland. The word is a loan word from Swedish däcker and it was used for also large skins and sheets of parchment. As mentioned above, Swedish texts written in Finland often use timber for tikkuri instead of däcker when speaking about whiteskins.
tiogh tiogh, tiu
Originally a tiogh computed in units of 10 and it was primarily used of planks. By the mid 16th century its meaning had changed to 20 pieces and it was most commonly used of eggs.
tolf t tolft, toltti
A tolft (toltti in Finnish) meant 12 pieces and it was most often used of lumber: beams and planks.

Name bast klove kärve
rynkie snesa spide
stig stock val vårda

Amount 24 100240 1216
300 20 24
20 30 80 10

Symbol
bast
klof ue kärue
r ynkie snes sidh
stig stig val vaardh

Usage eels and lampreys dried fish salmon
whitefish eels fish
fish fish herring dried fish

Table 36: Units for counting fish

6.10.1 Counting fish
There were particularly many different words for counting different kinds of fish. Large amounts of fish were usually counted in barrels, but for small amounts individual counts were used.
bast bast
The bast was used to count eels and lampreys and there were 24 fish per bast.
klof ue klove, pihti
The klove was perhaps the most important unit for counting fish. It was used exclusively of dried fish and its size varied in different areas ranging from 100 to 240. It seems that in Stockholm there were 200 fish in a klove.
In Finland klove was called pihti and it was used also for counting sheets of birch bark. When counting small fish like vendance a pihti may have had up to 1000 fish.
kärf ue kärve
A kärve was either 12 or 16 salmons.
r ynkie rynkie
The rynkie was a unit that was used in Satakunta to count whitefish. A rynkie had 300 fish.
snesa snesa
The snesa was another unit for counting eels. There were 20 eels in a snesa.

sidh spide
The spide was used in Gotland to count all kinds of fish. There were 24 fish in a spide.
stig stig
The stig was also used to count all kinds of fish. There were 20 fish in a stig.
stoc stock, joukko
A stock was a group of 30 fish.
val val, vaali
The val was a unit of counting herrings. Each val had 80 herrings.
vaardh vårda, nippu
A vårda was a unit for dried fish (most often cods). A vårda usually had 10 or 12 fish. A vårda of lampreys typically had one more than other fish because one of them was used to tie the others.
7 LaTeX Command Reference
7.1 General commands
\abcursivefamily
Switch to Aboensis with the current size and set text color. This also
makes ~ and _ be normal letters.
\aboensis{text} Sets text in Aboensis with set text color.
\abtildes Change ~ and _ to normal letters.
7.2 Color handling
\abtext{text} Set text using the text color.
\abrubric{text} Set text using the primary rubrics color.
\abotherrubric{text} Set text using the secondary rubrics color.
\abtorubric Change the color to the primary rubrics color.
\abtootherrubric Change the color to the secondary rubrics color.
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\absettextcolor{color} Set the text color to color.
\absetrubriccolor{color} Set the primary rubric color to color.
\absetotherrubriccolor{color} Set the secondary rubric color to color.
\absetcolormixpercentage{percentage} Set the primary rubrics color mix percentage to percentage.
\absetothercolormixpercentage{percentage} Set the secondary rubrics color mix percentage to percentage.
\abrubricred Set the primary rubrics color to red (default).
\abrubricgreen Set the primary rubrics color to green.
\abrubricblue Set the primary rubrics color to blue.
\abotherrubricred Set the secondary rubrics color to red.
\abotherrubricgreen Set the secondary rubrics color to green (default).
\abotherrubricblue Set the secondary rubrics color to blue.
7.3 Capitals and initials
\abcapital{letter} Add a two-colored capital letter with the primary rubrics color for highlighting.
\abcapitalother{letter} Add a two-colored capital letter with the secondary rubrics color for highlighting.
\abinitial{letter} Add a Lombardic initial letter in the primary rubrics color.
\abinitialother{letter} Add a Lombardic initial letter in the secondary rubrics color.
\abinitialtwo{letter} Add a two-colored Lombardic inititial letter where main color is the primary rubrics color and the other color is the secondary rubrics color.
\abinitialothertwo{letter} Add a two-colored Lombardic inititial letter where main color is the secondary rubrics color and the other color is the primary rubrics color.
78

\abinitwpos{letter}{scale}{xpos}{ypos} Add a Lombardic initial letter that is scaled by scale and moved by xpos and ypos. The letter is in the primary rubrics color.
\abinitowpos{letter}{scale}{xpos}{ypos} Add a Lombardic initial letter that is scaled by scale and moved by xpos and ypos. The letter is in the secondary rubrics color.
\abinittwowpos{letter}{scale}{xpos}{ypos} Add a two-colored Lombardic initial scaled by scale and moved by xpos and ypos. The main color is the primary rubrics color and the other color is the secondary rubrics color.
\abinitotwowpos{letter}{scale}{xpos}{ypos} Add a two-colored Lombardic initial scaled by scale and moved by xpos and ypos. The main color is the secondary rubrics color and the other color is the primary rubrics color.
\abcursiveinitial{letter} Add a cursive initial letter using the text color.
\abcursiveinitialwithpos{letter}{scale}{xpos}{ypos} Add a cursive initial letter scaled by scale and moved by xpos and ypos.
\abstartchapter{letter}lineline Add a two-line chapter start Lombardic initial and fhe first two lines of text. The initial is in the primary rubrics color.
\abstartchapterother{letter}lineline Add a two-line chapter start Lombardic initial and fhe first two lines of text. The initial is in the secondary rubrics color.
\abstartchaptertwo{letter}lineline Add a two-line chapter start with a two-colored Lombardic initial where main color is the primary rubrics color and the other is the secondary rubrics color.
\abstartchapterothertwo{letter}lineline Add a two-line chapter start with a two-colored Lombardic initial where main color is the secondary rubrics color and the other is the primary rubrics color.
\abstartchapterwithpos{letter}scalexposyposlineline Add a two-line chapter start with a scaled and positioned Lombardic initial in the primary rubrics color.
\abstartchapterotherwithpos{letter}scalexposyposlineline Add a two-line chapter start with a scaled and positioned Lombardic initial in the secondary rubrics color.
\abstartchaptertwowithpos{letter}scalexposyposlineline Add a chapter start with a two-line two-color scaled and positioned Lombardic initial where the main color is the primary rubrics color and other color is the secondary rubrics color.
79

\abstartchapterothertwowithpos{letter}scalexposyposlineline Add a chapter start with a two-line two-color scaled and positioned Lombardic initial where the main color is the secondary rubrics color and other color is the primary rubrics color.
7.4 Other
Numbers
\abothernum{number} Change the number glyphs in number to the alternate Arabic numbers.
\abroman{number} Format number as a Roman numeral using the standard subtractive numerals. This works for numbers from one to million and halves are also supported.
\abromanother{thousands}{hundreds}{number} Format a number as a Roman numeral using the alternative shema where thousands and hundreds are shown separately.
\abthousand Add a thousands marker for the alternative Roman numeral encoding.
\abhundred Add a hundreds marker for the alternative Roman numeral encoding.
\abthird Add a Swedish symbol for one third.
\abfourth Add a Swedish symbol for one fourth.
\absixth Add a Swedish symbol for one sixth.
Line handling
\abl{text} Typeset text in one line while removing the height of letters. This is used to enforce even spacing between lines.
\abb{text} Typeset text in one line while removing the height of letters. The difference between this and the previous one is that \abl automatically adds a newline after the line while \abb does not. This means that \abb is safe to use insida the tabular environment.
\abindent Add space equal to the width of the last lombardic initial.
80

\abaam \abaln \abambar \abbaat \abbesmanspund \abbol \abdacker \abdenarius
\abdragu \abfamn \abfangh \abfat \abfjarding \abfjardingtwo
\abfot \abhalvaln \abhalvbol \abkanna \abkannatwo \abkappa \abkappatwo \abkarpio

aam aln ämbar baat p bool
dk e d
dr agu
fapn fangh ft f
fjardg
fot
halvaln half bool k kña cp kp k p

\abkarpiotwo \abkarve \abkolmannes \abkylmitta \ablass \ablast \ablibra \ablispund
\ablispundtwo \ablispundthree \ablispundfour \ablod \abmarc \abmark
\abmarkpund \abmarkpundtwo \abmarksland \abmarkslandtwo \abmil \abmk \abmodius \aboresland

k kärf ue kolm kylm las läst
p lis[pund]
l
lp l lodh m
m
mp
mp maland malãd mil m mod oslãd

Table 37: Medieval unit commands 1/2

\abore \abortugsland \abortug \abotting \abparmas \abpenningsland \abpenning \abpundfour
\abpundland \abpundlandtwo
\abpund \abpundtwo \abpundthree \abquarter \abquintin \abrast \absattung
\abskaalpund \abskappa
\abskattemark
\abskeppund
\abskeppundtwo

o oalãd o atug pmas peñalãd pen p
plãd pdalãd
p pd p qt q r ast s
skalp skäpa
sktem
skep[pund]
s

\abskole \absolidus \absoll \absommardragu \absommarlass \abspannland \abspann \abstang
\abstop \abstycke
\abthyn \abtimber \abtimmer \abtum \abtunna \abtunnland \abtunnor
\abvakka \abvecka
\abvika
\abvinterdragu
\abvinterlass

skale sol saaldh somardr agu somarlas saland s s
stope st
þyn t tim tum t tland t
vaca veca
vik
vterdr agu
vintlas

Table 38: Medieval unit commands 2/2

7.5 Symbols
The commands for setting medieval swedish measurement units are shown in tables 37 and 38. Other symbol commands are listed below.
\abpara Add the paragraph start pillcrow symbol ¶ in the primary rubrics color.
\abparaother Add the paragraph start pillcrow symbol ¶ in the secondary rubrics color.
\abitem Add the 'item' symbol with text color.
\ableftindex Add a finger pointing left.
\abrightindex Add a finger pointing right.
\abupindex Add a finger pointing up.
\abdownindex Add a finger pointing down.

8 OpenType Features
The features in Aboensis are divided into two classes: those that should be
always on and those that should be turned on only when necessary. The two features that are necessary for the proper function of the font are calt and liga. Most modern programs turn both of them on by default.
aalt Access all alternates. This feature is used by some software to provide access to all letters to the user.
calt The contextual alternate substitution. This changes the letter forms based on the surrounding context. In particular, this substitutes the correct forms of r and s as well as makes the letters tie together better. This feature should always be turned on.
manor manor

-calt

+calt

dlig Abbreviation ligature substitution. This feature substitutes parts of words by their abbreviations. In most cases you want to use the bracketed substitutions that are defined in liga and shown in table 8.

Function List of all alternaties Contextual alternate forms Abbreviation ligatures Fractions Initial forms Isolated forms Standard ligatures Roman numbers Capital letter highlight Capital letter highlight overlap Initial substitution Lombardic initial second color Swash Lombardic initial Superscript letters Swash letters Alternate Arabic numbers

Feature
aalt calt dlig frac init isol liga onum ss01 ss02 ss03 ss04 ss05 sups swsh tnum

Always on ×
×

Table 39: OpenType features

cope cop
-dlig +dlig
frac Changes vulgar fractions into ordinals with the le-syntax:
1/4 ¼
-frac +frac
init Changes letters to their initial forms. This is done automatically by feature calt.
isol Changes letters to their isolated forms. This is done automatically by feature calt.
liga Enables the standard ligature substitution. This should be In this font it is used for two things:
· add ligatures in the the normal manner · add special symbols as ligature substitutions in the way described in
section 4.
onum Converts numbers into Roman numerals.
123 cxxii
-onum +onum

ss01 Changes a capital letter into a highlight strike through the letter.
Aa
-ss01 +ss01
ss02 Changes a capital letter into the intersection of the letter and the highlight strike through it:
Aa
-ss02 +ss02
ss03 Changes a capital letter into a Lombardic initial and a lower case letter into a cursive initial. You may want to use the ligature substitutions +A+ and ++A++, instead.

Aa
-ss03 +ss03

aa
-ss03 +ss03

ss04 Changes a capital letter into the second color of a Lombard initial.
Aa
-ss04 +ss04
ss05 Changes a capital letter into a swash Lombardic initial.

Aa
-ss05 +ss05
sups Switches letters to superscripts:

sample `sample

-sups

+sups

swsh Switches some letters to alternate forms.

-swsh +swsh
g g

-swsh +swsh
x x

y y

z z

tnum Change Arabic numbers to the form used in the Fibonacci manuscript:

1234567890 1234567890

-tnum

+tnum

9 Examples

9.1 The accounts of Kalliala parish

In 1851 vicar Antero Warelius found the account book of the Church of St Olaf from a small niche in the church. The book is the only medieval account book of a parish that has survived in Finland and it contains entries from the period 14691524. The figure 18 is from a list of loans taken from the parish granary in 1480.

Anno domini MCDLXXX Concessa de granario ec kalliala

Item Jacob Leyko

i karp

Item Lauri Lukkari 1 span

Item Kauppi-Kestin leski 1 span 1 karp

Item Johan Kokkopoika 1 karp, Item Knuth Liuha i karp

Item Nikolaus Sveniläst 1 karp

Item Henrik Andersson Tyrvääst 1 karp

Item Peder Michelsson 1 karp

Item Olaus Kauppamies ibidem 1 karp

Item Matheus Viljakalast 1 karp

Item Nikolaus Marthensson Kykas 1 karp

9.2 The account book of Olaf Nilsson Tawast
Olaf Nilsson (Tawast) (c. 14001460) belonged to the Finnish nobility and the base of his power was in Tavastia where he was first a judge from c. 1433 and the castellan of Häme Castle from 1455. He was the nephew of Bishop Magnus Olai (Tawast) of Åbo Diacose and a supporter of King Karl Knutsson (Bonde). Their patronage helped Olaf to greatly enlarge his holdings in Tavastia. His book of household accounts has survived.
Figure 19 has a snippet gives details of a land sale circa 1455.
Jtem fik iak aff Willoyn j Sayriala ij las engh; ther pa hafwer iak betalat j karp miøl for v ortuger, j karp korn for iiij ortuger ok j pund salt for v ortuger, jtem xij öre peninga for j stykke jordh widher wæghen, jtem j stykke jordh for vj øre østher nor wedh aker gardhen, som wedh byen liggher, jtem 1/2 mark, jtem v ørtuger, jtem v mark flæsk for j øre.
Item I received a 2 lass meadow from Willoyn of Sairiala; for which I paid 1 karp flour valued at 5 ortuger, 1 karp barley at 4 örtuger and 1 pund salt at 5 örtuger. Item 12 öre in coins for one piece of land next to road, item 1 piece of land for 6 öre to East of field that is next to the village, item 1/2 mark in coins, item 5 örtuger, item 5 marks of pork at 1 öre.

Annodni mcdlxxx0 Cõcessa d gnario ec i jacõ leyko i k , i lau lukkri i san, i kwpi gästin läsk i san i krp, i joan kokkopoyk i k , i knut liha i k i niõ senilast i k , i hen and tyrwest i k , i ped mihls mesklast i k , i ola kwpamies iid i k , i math wiliaklast i k , i niõ martensz kyks i k ,
Figure 18: Year 1480 in Kalliala parish granary accounts. Kallialan kirkontilit, Valtionarkisto, folio 16r.
87

i fik iak af wiloyn i sayriala i las engh th pa haf ue jak betalad th pa haf ue jak betalad j kp miöl for v o, i kp korn for ii o oc i p salc for v o. i xi o pen for et styk ke jordh vidhe wäghen. i i stykke jord for vi o, öste nor wed ake gardhen som vedh byen lighe i j m, i v o, i v m fäsk for i o

Figure 19: Snippet from accounts of Olaf Nilsson Tawast, c. 1455. DF 3001, SDHK 43935, Riksarkivet codices C 38, folio r2r

9.3 Table of contents of Konunx balker
Each chapter of Codex Aboensis starts with a table of contents of that chapter. Figure 20 shows the beginning of the Konunx balker.
Här byrias konungx balker ok tälias y honom flokkar fyra ok trätigh item

¶ Wm suerikis konungx rike kuilket i sik haffue siw biscops döme 1 och nio lagmanz döme
¶ Offuer akth suerike ager ey konunglixlik krona och ei knongher 2 wtan een wara
¶ Ey ma konungher minsca kronunnan räth firi androm konunghe 3 ¶ Yn är til koningxrikit i suerike konungr wäliandhe och ey ärf- 4
fuandhe ¶ Tesse ärä nonungx edha först ath han scal elsca gud och the helghä 5
kirkio och agher edh syn suäria aa book och helgho doma
Here begings the Kings Beam that contains four and thirty items

¶ On the King's realm of Sweden that has seven diacoses and nine 1

judicical districts

¶ There is only one king's crown and one king over the Sweden

¶ The king may not diminish the crown's income from later kings 3

¶ The kingship in Sweden is by election and not inherited

¶ This is the king's oath: to love God and the Holy Church and to 5

swear by the Bible and holy relics

9.4 The rules of noble service
During the middle ages the borders of Swedish noble class were fluid. Being a noble was not yet officially hereditary but instead it was tied to service as a man-at-arms. In practice, powerful families had noble status from generation to generation but but the door was still open for a common peasant to rise to the ranks of nobles.
The core concept was that of frälse freedom from paying taxes. This could be obtained by equipping a man-at-arms to serve in the king's army. The men-at-arms were divided into riddare and sven, knights and squires.
The Konunx balker lists the required equipment and establishes the dates of annual inspections of the nobles in the section 11.
Hwilikin man som frelsth wil haffua. sith godhz huat heldlsz han är riddarä eller swen änghnin wiidhan taknom. skal haffua swa godgan hesth ath hã see wel werdhs fyrethige markea päningha. bäthre och ey weier och thz til örsäsadul wpgiörran hielm och fulwapn badhe til been och liiff, engho wudhan takno thz som een gadher man ma sik niedh wäria. Hwar attunda dagh epther Sancte peders dagh scal wapnäsyn haff wäs i wpsala aff upsala biscops döme. I westraros. aff westraros biskops döme. I strengänes aff sudhermanna lande. I örabroo aff närikke. I lynköpinghe aff östergöthlandha, Kyndh, Thiwsth, widhboo, Ydhre. Twäthä. wistho grännä. Wisixö. I kalmrarum aff kalmarnna foghate. och ölaidh i rydaholm. aff tyhäradh i falkinbergh. aff badhom hallandhum norrä och sudhrä. y skarum. Aff werstergöthlandhe oh dall y tiugwallun. aff wermalandhe. Kan thet swa wara ath nokor aff, bondhum wil frelsis man wardha. tha skal han sik redha innan then daghen badhe medh hästh och wapnum. swa ath the som wapnasynna skuld skudha a konungx wegna. Skundhe badhe mandõ hans. fräght hans hesth. ok wipen swa och än han ma thz frelse wppe haldhä. medh godz som förra ez saght.
He who wants to have noble privileges for his properties, be he a knight or a squire, without forgetting anyone, should have a horse worth 40 marks in coins or more, but not less, and a war saddle, good helmet, armor for limbs and body and weapons with which a good man can defend himself.
Each year on the eight day after the Saint Peter's day there is an inspection of arms in Uppsala for the whole diacose of Uppsala, in Västerås for the Västerås diacose, in Strängnäs for Södermanland, in Örebro för Närke, in Linköping for Östergötaland, Kinda, Tjust, Vedbo, Ydre, Gränna, Tveta, Vista and Visingö, in Chalmers for the Chalmers bailiff county and Öland, in Rydaholm for Tiohäräd, in Falkenberg for North and South Halland, in Skara for Västergötaland and Dal, in Tingvalla for Vermland.
If a peasant wants to become a noble man he much obtain a horse and weapons before that day so that those who inspect the arms for the king can check his manliness and fitness, his horse and weapons, and whether he can support his armed service with his properies.
89

hhär·byrias·kongx·balke·ok · tälias·y· honom·fok kr·fyra · ok · trätigh ·i·
¶ Wwm s uerikis kongx rike huilket i sik haf ue I si biscops döme oc nio lagmanz döme ! **<
¶ Oof ue akt s uerike age ey kongxlik krona oc i ei konghe wtan een wara ! ******<
¶ Eey ma konghe minsc kronuñä rät firi ii andrõ konghe ! !****<
¶ Yyn är til kongxrikit i s uerike. kongr wälia ii ndhe oc ey ärf uandhe ! !*****<
¶ Ttesse ära kongx edha först at han scl v elsc gud oc te helghä kirkio. oc aghe edh syn s uäria aa book oc helgho doma. ! _***<
Figure 20: The beginning of table of contents of Konungx balker, Codex Aboensis folio 22 r.
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Figure 21: The rules of noble service in Konungx balker in Codex aboensis. Note how the initial of aff occurs in the middle of sentence.
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hwilikin man som f relst wil haf ua. sit godh huat heldlsz han är riddarä ele sen änghnin widhan taknom. skl haf ua sa godgan hest at ha see wel werdhs fyretige m pänigha. bäte oc ey weie oc tz til örsäsadul wpgörran hielm oc f ulwap badhe til been oc lif, engho wudhan takno tz som ee gadhe ma ma sik niedh wäria. Hhwar atda dagh ete Ssance pedrs dagh. scl wapnäsyn haf wäs i wpsala. af upsala biscops döme. Ii westraros. af wes tra ros biskops döme Ii strengänes af s udhrmanna land Ii örabroo af närik ke Ii lynköpinghe af östergöt landha Kkyndh. Tthist. widhboo. Ydhe. Ttwätä. wisto grännä. Wwisixö. Ii klmrarun af klmarña foghate. oc ölaidh i rydaholm. af tyhäradh i flkbergh. af badhom halandhu norrä oc s udhrä. y skrum. Aaf werstergöt landhe oh dal y tiugwalu. af wermalandhe. Kkan tet sa wara at nokor af, bondhum wil f relsis man wardha. ta skl han sik redha inna ten daghen badhe medh häst oc wapnu. sa at te som wapnasynna sk uld sk udha a konugx wegna. Ssk undhe badhe mand~o hans. f räght hans hest. ok wipen sa oc än han ma tz f relse wpe hal dhä. medh god som förra ez saght. !>>>***>>>!
Figure 22: The requirements of noble service in Konungx balker, Codex Aboensis folio 27 r.
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The King Kristofer's The Laws of the Realm from the 15th century have the same rules expressed in almost the same form. The enigmatic Herra Martti21 translated Kirstofer's laws to Finnish in 1540s. His translation is typeset to
Aboensis in figure 23.
Ioca mies wapautta tacto hänen hyfuydhens, mikä hän on Riddari taicka Swenni, ei yctäken eroittadhen, hänen pitä hyfwydhestens crvnvn palueluxen tekemen, ia idze pitämen nijn hyfwen hewoisen, että hän maxa 40 marca Ruotzin penningeitä, pareman ia ei paheman, sihen mös täydhet odhatt se rwmin että jalkain pällä, ei mitän eroittadhen, sen iälkin, quin hyfwä mies machta idzens wariella. Joca wuosi wijkon peräst Sant petarin päiven, pitä kilpein katzelmuxen olemen. Wpsalos caikest Wpsalon Pispan hijppacunnast; wästeråxes, wästråxen hijppacunnast; Stregnäisis Södermannin maalda, Örebros, Närikäst, Jäneköpungis, Östergöthin maalda, Kijnd, Tiust, widbro, Idra, Tveta, wistgräna, Wisingzöö, Kalmarisa, fogdi ia Ölandimaa, Ridbåholmis, Tijhan kihlacunda, falckenbäris, molemist Hållandeist, sekä pohia että Etelä, Skara wästergöthin maalda ia Dalast, Tingwallist, wärmlandis; Turgusa caickelda Suomenmalda. Jos nijn taita tapachtu että ioku talonpoijst tacto tulla wapadex nijn tule hän itzens walmista ennen tätä päiwä sekä hewoisen että odhain cansa. Nijn että ne quin kilpen cadzelmust pitä pitämen kuningan puolest, että he näkevet sekä henen miehudens woiman että hewoisen ia odhat ia ios hän woipi sen wapaudhen ylöspitä hyfwydellä. Caicki pitä wapadhet miehet kilpein Cadzelmuxella tuleman, ia ioka mies nijn Riddarit quin Swennitkin heidhen harniskans pällens wetämen, ia idze cukin oman hewoisens pälle istuman, walmistettun hewoisen ia kilpein cansa quin io edhellä on sanottu.
9.5 Excommunication of Sääksmäki peasants
In late 1330s there was some sort of unrest in the Sääksmäki parish where a number of peasants refused to pay their tithes to their vicar Henrik Harmansson. The exact cause of the issue is not known, but the issue was important enough that Henrik himself traveled to Avignon in Spring 1340 and obtained a bull from Pope Benedictus XII that excommunicated the 25 peasants until they paid the tithes and a fine of three marks for each week that they refused to pay them.
This bull is the first document in the Black Book and it is one of the most famous medieval documents in Finland. In particular interest is the list of peasants that have caused a lot of speculation about their backgrounds and roles in the society. The scribe made an error when copying the document to the cartulary and accidentally left two lines out of it just after the list of names, jumping from eiusdem ecclesie to eidem ecclesie. Hausen filled the missing lines for his transcription from another cartulary.
21Probably Martinus Olai, the priest of Stockholm's Finnish concegration but that is not certain.
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iOc mies wapauta taco hänen hyf uydhens, mikä hän on Rriddari taik Sswenni, ei ycäken eroitadhen, hänen pitä hyf uydhens cr vnvn palueluxen tekemen, ia ide pitämen nij hyfwen hewoisen, etä hän maxa 40 m Rruotzin peñgeitä, pareman ia ei paheman, sihen mös täydhet odhat se wmin etä jalkin pälä, ei mitän eroitadhen, sen iälkin, quin hyfwä mies macta idens wariela. Jjoc wuosi wijkon peräst Ssant petarin päiven, pitä kilpein ktzelmuxen olemen. Wwpsalos cikest Wwpsalon Ppisan hijpacuñast; wästeråxes, wästråxen hijpa cuñast; Sstregnäisis Ssödrmannin maalda, Öorebros, Nnärikäst, Jjäneköpungs, Öostergötin maalda, Kkijnd, Ttiust, widbro, Iidra, Ttveta, wistgräna, Wwisingzöö, Kkalmarisa, fogdi ia Öolandimaa, Rridbholmis, Ttijhan kihlacda, flcenbäris, molemist Hhålan dist, sekä pohia etä Eetelä, Sskra wästergötin maalda ia Ddalast, Ttingwalist, wärmlandis; Tturgusa cikelda Ssuomen malda. Jjos nij taita tapactu etä iok u talonpoijst taco tula wapadx nij tule hän itzens walmista ennen tätä päiä sekä hewoisen etä odhain cnsa. Nnij etä ne quin kilpen cdelmust pitä pitämen k uningan puolest, etä he näkevet sekä henen miehudns woiman etä hewoisen ia odhat ia ios hän woipi sen wapaudhen ylösitä hyfwydlä. Ccaik pitä wapadhet miehet kilpein Ccadelmuxela tuleman, ia iok mies nij Rriddarit quin Sswennitkin heidhen harniskns päle~ wetämen, ia ide cukin oman hewoisens päle istuman, walmistetun hewoisen ia kilpein cnsa quin io edhelä on sanotu.
Figure 23: The same paragraph from the Kunungx balker of the King Kristofer's Laws of the Realm in a 1540s Finnish translation of the law by Herra Martti (B 96, f.2r)
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Figure 24: The beginning of an excommunication letter (DF 467, REA 99, Registrum ecclesia Aboensis f.1r.)
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Prlegm Benediti pe

Ssup dcimis soluend q si inf ra certm tmi num

nõ soluerint moniti ab eccia excludant & exclusi

b p quaß tum doncãr soluant 3s marcas Eneditus es ßr uus ßr uorum di Ddileco filio dcno eccie vpn Ssalute et apliam

bened~nem Ssua nobis dilecus filius henrius hartmani retor procialis eccie De sexamäk

aboen dyoce petiione monstrauit qd d antiqua et apbata et hacenus pacifie obßr uata cons uene in ciuite et dyocis ac puincia vpn d qua quidm puincia ciuitas et dyocis aboen foe

noscun exstitit q recoes procialium ecciar ciuitati et dyocis ac puincie pditar procianos

eccr s uar . dcimas sii et pditis eccs dbitas nõ soluentes monere poss unt vt dcimas ipsas a se dbitas recorib psoluant eisdm et si idm prociani p eosd recores cononie

moniti vt dcimas psoluant easdm pftas dcimas non psoluerint inf ra conpetentem tmi num ad hoc pfixum eisd pfti recores procianis ipsis poss unt ingress um eccie inter-

diere et dind eor contumacia excrescente, eos a s uscecõne sacmentor ecctior s use

Figure 25: The beginning of an excommunication letter (DF 467, REA 99, Registrum ecclesia Aboensis f.1r.)

Benedictus episcopus, seruus seruorum Dej, dilecto filio decano ecclesie Vpsalensis salutem et apostolicam benediccionem. Sua nobis dilectus filius Henricus Hartmanj, rector parrochialis ecclesie de Sexamæki, Aboensis dyocesis, peticione monstrauit, quod de antiqua et approbata et hactenus pacifice obseruata consuetudine in ciuitate et dyocesi ac prouincia Vpsalensi, de qua quidem prouincia ciuitas et dyocesis Aboensis fore noscuntur, exstitit, quod rectores parrochialium ecclesiarum ciuitatis et dyocesis ac prouincie predictarum parrochianos, ecclesiarum suarum decimas sibi et predictis ecclesiis debitas non soluentes, monere possunt, vt decimas ipsas a se debitas rectoribus persoluant eisdem; et, si iidem parrochiani per eosdem rectores canonice moniti, vt decimas persoluant, easdem prefatas decimas non persoluerint infra competentem terminum ad hoc prefixum, eisdem prefati rectores parrochianis ipsis possunt ingressum ecclesie interdicere et deinde, eorum contumacia excrescente, eos a suscepcione sacramentorum ecclesiasticorum suspendere; Bishop Benedictus, servant of God's servants, presents the Dean of Uppsala church, his beloved son, with greetings and apostolic blessing. Or beloved son Henrik Hartmansson, vicar of Sääksmäki in Abo diacose has shown us with his petition that old, accepted and thus far peacefully followed custom of Uppsala province that was the origin of Abo province, district, and diocese, has been that the vicars of parish churches in the said province, district, and diocese, can urge their parishioners who do not pay their tithes to the their churches, to pay their said tithes to the said vicars. And if the said parishioners do not after the vicars remind them to pay the tithes according to the canon law, still do not pay the said tithes in due time, the said vicars can prohibit the said parishioners from entering the church and thus prevent them, when their defiance increases, form participating from ecclesiastical sacraments.
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a tpe, cuius conrij memoria nõ existit, et qd cum matias d Rapalum, Cuningas d rapalum olj neuari d rapalum lazo d vendntak Menracs d vendtak pauo d vendntak oli d salu ola dysa d voypala Nykkivargh d voypala Calas d voypala, meilanpeti d voypala, andi d voypala, marci d voypala, Handupote d hicla memo d r yduala Somalayni d riduala, henri d hacissanpoyc Azio d hacissänpoyc Juddi d hacissänpoyc, melio d iudiala melunca d crtala, melita d hyrfla, ye d oncla Satato d Laynamässe et Somalayna d harala laii pfta aboensi dyocis puincie s updite, piani eiusd eccie, dbitas pfto henrio retori soluere nõ
Figure 26: The list of excommunicated peasants (DF 467, REA 99, Registrum ecclesia Aboensis f.1r.)

a tempore, cuius contrarij memoria non existit, et quod, cum Mathias de Rapalum, Cuningas de Rapalum, Ollj Neuari de Rapalum, Lazo de Vendentaka, Menracas de Vende[n]taka, Pauo de Vendentaka, Olli de Salu, Olla Dysa de Voypala, Nykki Vargh de Voypala, Callas de Voypala, Meilanpeti de Voypala, Anundi de Voypala, Marci de Voypala, Handupoter de Hiccala, Memo de Ryduala, Somalayni de Riduala, Henric de Hactissanpoyca, Azico de Hactissænpoyca, Juddi de Hactissænpoyca, Melico de Iudicala, Meluncta de Cartala, Melita de Hyrfala, Ye de Oncala, Satato de Laynamæsse et Somalayna de Harala, laici prefata Aboensis dyocesis prouincie supradicte, parrochiani eiusdem ecclesie [ ...] debitas prefato henrico retori soluere non
9.6 The charter of the Viborg town
The Viborg Castle was built at the site of an old Karelian trading center starting from 1293. It is possible that there was an older wooden fortification in the site. During the next century the settlement to the South East of the castle grew up to be a town. King Eric Pomeranian (13811459, reigned in Sweden 13961434, 14341439) issued a charter of privileges to the town in 1403.
Wy Eric, meth Gudz nadh Swerikes, Danmarks, Norghes, Wendes oc Godes konung oc hertugh i Pomeren, kunnogt gyørom thet meth thætte wart opne breff allom mannom swa the nu ære som the hær æpter komme scule, at wy hafwom ont oc gifuet ware borgher, som bygge oc bo i war kyøpstadh Wyborgh, stadz ræt æpter thy som stadz boghene i Upsalom utwyser. Thy forbyuthom wy allom warom foghedom oc æmbetzmannom oc allom androm e ho the hælzt æren, at hindre thom i naghre made hær amot, swa frampt the wyliu wart hylle hafue oc war hefnd fly. In euidenciam premissorum secretum nostrum presentibus duximus appendendum. Datum in castro nostro Wyborgh, anno Domini m°cd°tertio, dominica infra octauam assumpcionis virginis gloriose.
We Eric, by God's Grace the King of Sweden, Denmark, Norway, Wends and Goths and Duke of Pomerania, proclaim with this open letter to all people, both those who are no alive and those who will come later, that we have granted and bestowed those of our burghers who live in the town of Viborg the same town rights as the charter of the Uppsala town decrees. Thus we forbid all our bailifs and officials and everyone else, whoever they may be, from preventing them in any way against this letter if they want to enjoy our favor and avoid our punishments. Dated in our castle Viborg AD 1403 on the Sunday following the Assumption of the Glorious Virgin.
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100

wy eri mz gud nadh Swerikes danmarks norges wends oc gods konug oc htugh i pomeren
k unokt györöm tz mz täte wart opne bref alõ mañom sa te nu äe som te här äpte kome scule at wy hafon vnt oc gf uet wae borghe som bygge oc bo war kyöpstadh wyborgh, stad rät äpte ty som stad boghene i upsalom wtwys e, Thy forbytom wy alom. warõ foghedom oc änetzmañom oc alõ androm ä ho te hälzt ären at hinde tom i naghe mad, här amot, sa f rampt te wyliu wart hyle haf ue oc war hefnd fy In Euidncia premissor Secretu nrm presentib duximu apenddu Date in cstro nrõ wyborgh Anno dm mo cdo ttia, dmc inf ra ocaua Asspcionis virgnis glõse ( (
Figure 27: Charter of the town of Vyborg, DF 1173, SDHK 16161, Kansallisarkisto, Pergamentti-kokoelma, Viipuri 1403-1403.

9.7 Privilege letter of Olof Nilsson Tawast
In addition to the account book of Olof Nilsson Tawast (example 9.2 also one privilege letter of his has survived.
A rebellion against King Karl Knutsson broke out in 1457 and he was forced to take exile in Danzig. Archbishop Jöns Bengtsson (Oxenstierna) and Erik Axelsson (Tott) were named regents. At that point Olof Nilsson swapped sides and pledged support to Erik Axelsson. As a reward Erik extended Olof's noble privileges to several properties that he had bought from peasants of Tavastia.
For alle the thettæ breff höræ eller see kænnes och kvndgör jak Eric Akselsson, riddare och Sverges rikes forstondare pa thennæ tid, at for throskap och wilioghe thyænæsth ærlighen och wælboren man thennæ breffuisare hær Olaff Tawasth, riddare, hafuer longelige och throlighe beuisth Swerges rike och æn fframdelis beuisa skal oc vil saa lenghe Gudi tekkis at han maa liffue, tha hafuer jak pa wærdogaste fadhers och herres her Jönis, erkebiscops j Vpsala, och mene rikesens raadz wægnæ vnth oc giffuid honom och hans rætthom ærffuingom ffriheth oc frælse pa nogor godz, som konungh Karl vnthe honom at köpæ aff skatta bönder, som ær ved viij kroka j Tawastaland, och saa mygyn jord, som görs j halff mark aff j skatten, liggændis j Pemar sokn j Mariaworeby. Pa thennæ forscriffnæ godz giffuer oc wnder jak fornempdom her Olaff oc hans rættho ærffuingo saa dana ffrihet oc frælsse, som andra goda friborna oc frælssis mæn her j biscops dömed och ower alt riked nivta oc aff aldher nvtid hafua, och vil jak throlige ther til hiælpæ, ath for:da hær Olaff skal faa stadfæstilse pa thennæ frihet oc frælse aff then högborna herren och försten, som mene rikesens raad och jnbyggære j Swerge vordda endræktelige væliænde och stadfæstænde sik til konungh och fvldmæktoghan herræ over Sverigis rike. Til meræ visso lather jak witherligd hengæ mith jncigle vid thetta breff, som ær scriffuid oc vtgiffuid aarom epter Gudz börd mcdlvij jn profesto beate Margarete.
To all who hear or see this letter I, Eric Akselsson, knight and at the time regent of the Swedish Realm, tell and make known that for loyalty and willing service that the beloved and high-born man, the recipient of this letter, Sir Olaff Tawast, knight, has long shown to the Swedish realm and will continue to show for so long as God wills him live, have I with the worthy Father and Lord, Sir Jöns, Archbishop of Uppsala, and the advice of the Council of the Realm given him and his lawful heirs freedom and privileges for several farmsteads that King Karl let him to buy from tax farmers that make 8 ploughs in Tavastia and to so much land that pays a half mark in taxes that is in Mariavuori village in the Paimio parish. For these named farmsteads I give the named Sir Olaff and his lawful heirs those freedoms and privileges that other good freeborn and privileged men here in bishop's diocese and all over the realm have and have always enjoyed, and I will truthfully help to ensure that Sir Olaf shall recive these freedoms and privileges when the high-born men and lords as the Council of the Realm and the inhabitants of
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Figure 28: Privilege letter of Olof Tawast 1457. DF3038, SDHK 27022 Sweden elect and set the King and allmigthy Lord of the Swedish Realm. For further proof I will attach my seal to this letter that is written and given in Year of the Lord mcdlvii on the Feast of St Margarete.
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for ale te ttä bref hörä ele see käñes oc kvndgör jak Eirc aksels riddae oc sverg rikes
forstondae pa teñä tid, at for troskp oc wilioghe tyänäst Ärlighe oc wälbore ma teñä bref uisae här Olaf Tawast, riddae, haf ue longelige oc trolighe beuist serg rike, oc än f ramdli beuisa skl oc vil saa lenghe gudi täkkis at ha maa lif ue, ta haf ue jak pa wärdogaste fdhers oc herres, hr Jönis, erkebiscops j vpsala oc mene rikesens raad wägnä, vnt oc gf uid hom oc hans räthõ ärf uingõ f rihet oc f rälse pa nogor god, som kongh krl vnte hom at köpä af skta bönde som är ved vii krok j Tawastalãd, Oc saa mygyn jord, som görs j half m af j skte, ligändis j Pemar sokn j mariaworeby, pa teñä for scrifnä god, gf ue oc wnde jak , fornpdom hr Olaf oc hans rätho ärf uingo saa dana f rihet oc f rälsse, som andra goda f riorna oc f räls ma, hr j biscops dömed oc owe alt riked nivta oc af aldhr nvtid haf ua, Oc vil jak trolige tr til hiälpä, at forda här Olaf skl fa stadfästilse pa teñä f rihet oc f rälse af tn högborna herre oc förste, sõ mene rikesens raad oc jnbyggäe j serge vordda endräktelige väliänd, oc stadfästad sik til kongh oc fldmäktogha hrä ove sverig rike. Til merä visso latr jak witerligd hengä mit jncigle vid teta bref, sõ är scrif uid oc vtgf uid aarõ ete gudbörd mcdlvi j pfesto bte margarete.
Figure 29: Privilege letter of Olof Tawast 1457. DF3080, SDHK 27022

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Figure 30: Bishop Magnus Olai Tawast's admonition DF1423
9.8 Bishop Magnus Olai Tawast's admonition
The copy book of Bishop Magnus Olai Tawast (c. 1370-1452) has survived. Sometime circa 1430 he reissued an order that a previous Bishop of Abo, Blessed Hemming had issued 80 years earlier that prohibited priests to keep their children in their households or to permit them reside on vicarages. This order was later copied into the personal copy book of Bishop Magnus Nicolai Särkilahti.
Quia jn iure cautum est, quod ille solus recognoscendus est filius, quem nupcie demonstrant, et in statutis Sabinensibus prohibetur sub pena excommunicacionis late vniuersis et singulis sacerdotibus filios proprios secum tenere uel eos recognoscere esse suos, precipimus in virtute sancte obediencie vniuersis et singulis sacerdotibus dyocesis Aboensis, quatenus statim, visis presentibus et perlectis, filios suos et filias a familiaritate sua et cotidiana conuersacione procul abiciant, eciam extra parrochias, ne occasionem habeant cum eis iterum conuersandj.
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Quia in jue cutm e q ile solus ecognoscedus e filius que nupcie dmõstrant, Et in statutis Sabinensib phiet s ub pena exconiacion late vniu & singlis sacedob filios pas secum tenere vel eos ecognoscere esse s uos, pcipimus i vtute ste obe vnivs & singulis sacedob diocs aboe~ Quate stati vis pr tius & pleci, filios s uos & filias, a fm milirte s ua & qtdna convsacione pcul abiiat, ecia extra procias, ne occsionem habeat cm eis iter consandi
Figure 31: Beginning of Blessed Hemming's order to priest as given in Magnus Nicolai's copybook (DF 1423, DF 563)
9.9 Cursive initials in The Black Book
This section shows a bit of the context for the cursive initials that were taken from The Black Book of Åbo Cathedral to show how they were positioned among the text. The Y is not actually a initial, but it was the only capital Y that I could find from the book.

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10 List of Symbols

0041

00c4

00c5

0061

AÄÅ a

f514

00e1

aá

f570
a

ä00e4

f569

00e5

f568

aå

00e3

f4b2

f52c

f496

ãaãa

f401

f41f

f43c

f402

a aa a

af52f

af530

af579

f54e
a

f574

æ00e6

f476

f458

f41d
a

f43a
a

f477

f459

f400

f41e

f43b

a aa

f478
a

f45a
a

af52e

0042

0062

f420

f43d

B b bb

f403

f479

f45b
b

bf531

C0043

0063
c

0107

f4b6
c

f421

f43e

f404
c

cf47a

f54f
b

f5e3

cf45c

cf532

f550
c

f583

f584

f5f5

cis con c

0044

f457

0064

f4b7

Dd d d

f519

f54d

f422

f43f

f405
d

df47b

df45d

df493

df475

df533

f586
d

f551

f578

107

f5ef

f5f0

d~a d~n

f5f1

f5f2

d~o d~e

E0045

0065
e

f4b3
e

f497
e

00e9

f571

ée

ë00eb

1ebd

f4b4

f498

f4d1

eee

f58b

f4d2

f423

f440

e ee

f406

f47c

0046
F

f0066

f424

f441

f407
f

ff47d

G0047

g0067

gf4ad

01f5

f4bb

f4c5

gf536

f554
g

f589

f58a

gf5e6

ef45e

ef534

ff45f

ff535

f425
g

f442
g

e e[per] f552

f5e5

f553
f

f408

f47e

f460

ggg

0048
H

0068
h

f555
h

f56a
h

f537
h

f5ca

f426

f443

f409

f47f
h

f461
h

hf4aa

0049

0069

f495

00ed

Ii i í

if462

if538

f557
j

0129

f4b8

f49a

f427

f444
i

f40a
i

if480

004a
J

j006a

if499

jf49f

jf481

jf463

jf539

f5ce
i

f521

f51a

f4bf

f5cc

f428

f445

f40b

jjj

004b

006b

f4a0

f56b

Kk k k

f522

f429

f446

f40c

f482

f464

f53a

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11 License
This font is licensed under the SIL Open Font License. The text of the license has been written by Summer Institute of Linguistics International (http://www.sil.org). I am not affiliated with SIL and this font is not endorsed by SIL, so please don't bug them about it.
This user's manual as a whole and the XeLaTeX style file are licensed under the LaTeX Project Public License.
The image files of showing original medieval documents are either in Public Domain or licensed by their producing organizatons Kansallisarkisto and Riksarkivet under Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. All images have been cropped from larger original images.
The following section lists licenses of individual images.

Licences of medieval document images
Figures 3, 4, 7, 20, 21

License:

Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Reproduction: Andrea Davis Kronlund, Kungliga biblioteket

Source:

Stockholm, National Library, B 172 (Codex Aboensis; Codex f.d.

Kalmar). Magnus Eriksson's Landslag

URL:

https://www.codicesfennici.fi/items/show/53

Full document as PDF available at Kungliga biblioteket

Figure 5

License:

Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Reproduction: Riksarkivet

Source:

Stockholm, Riksarkivet, Stora pergamentsbrevsamlingen,

SE/RA/0101. SDHK 20000

URL:

https://sok.riksarkivet.se/sdhk?SDHK=20000

Figure 6

113

License:

Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Reproduction: Andrea Davis Kronlund, Kungliga biblioteket

Source:

Stockholm, National Library, A 58. Jöns Buddes bok

URL:

https://www.codicesfennici.fi/items/show/110

Full document as PDF available at Kungliga biblioteket

Figure 18

License:

Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Reproduction: Finnish Literature Society (SKS), Codices Fennici

Source:

Helsinki, National Archives, Kallialan kirkontilit. Tyrvää church

accounts, 14691524

URL:

https://www.codicesfennici.fi/items/show/31

Figure 19

License: Source:
URL:

Public Domain Stockholm, National Archives, C 38. Olof Nilsson Tawast's accounts https://www.codicesfennici.fi/items/show/93

Figure 24, 26, 30, cursive samples on pages 105107

License: Source: URL:
Figure 27

Public Domain Stockholm, National Archives, A10. Registrum Ecclesie Aboensis https://www.codicesfennici.fi/items/show/196

License:

Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Reproduction: Kansallisarkisto

Source:

Helsinki, Kansallisarkisto, Pergamentti-kokoelma, 6. Diplomatar-

ium Fennicum DF 1173

URL:

https://http://df.narc.fi/document/1173

Figure 28

License:

Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Reproduction: Riksarkivet

Source:

Stockholm, Riksarkivet, Stora pergamentsbrevsamlingen,

SE/RA/0101. SDHK 27022

URL:

https://sok.riksarkivet.se/sdhk?SDHK=27022

Figure 31

License: Source:
URL:

Public Domain Stockholm, National Archives, A 3. Biskop Magnus kopiebok (Register of Bishop Magnus) https://www.codicesfennici.fi/items/show/195

114

SIL OPEN FONT LICENSE Version 1.1
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2. Original or Modified Versions of the Font Software may be bundled, redistributed and/or sold with any software, provided that each copy contains the above copyright notice and this license. These can be included either as stand-alone text files, human-readable headers or in the appropriate machine-readable metadata fields within text or binary files as long as those fields can be easily viewed by the user.
3. No Modified Version of the Font Software may use the Reserved Font Name(s) unless explicit written permission is granted by the corresponding Copyright Holder. This restriction only applies to the primary font name as presented to the users.
115

4. The name(s) of the Copyright Holder(s) or the Author(s) of the Font Software shall not be used to promote, endorse or advertise any Modified Version, except to acknowledge the contribution(s) of the Copyright Holder(s) and the Author(s) or with their explicit written permission.
5. The Font Software, modified or unmodified, in part or in whole, must be distributed entirely under this license, and must not be distributed under any other license. The requirement for fonts to remain under this license does not apply to any document created using the Font Software.
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This license becomes null and void if any of the above conditions are not met.
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THE FONT SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO ANY WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT OF COPYRIGHT, PATENT, TRADEMARK, OR OTHER RIGHT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT HOLDER BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, INCLUDING ANY GENERAL, SPECIAL, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF THE USE OR INABILITY TO USE THE FONT SOFTWARE OR FROM OTHER DEALINGS IN THE FONT SOFTWARE.
References
[1] Codices Fennici. https://www.codicesfennici.fi/.
[2] Albert Derolez. The Palaeography of Gothic Manuscript Books. Cambridge University Press, 2003.
[3] Diplomatorium Fennica. http://df.narc.fi/.
[4] Olle Ferm and Staffan Nyström, editors. Bengt Jönsson (Oxenstierna) och hans värld. Sällskapet Runica et Mediaevelia och Kungliga biblioteket, 2004.
[5] Reinhald Hausen and Elisa Pispala. Registrum Ecclesiae Aboensis eller Åbo Domkyrkos Svartbok The Black Book of Abo Cathedral. Art House, 1996/1890. http://df.narc.fi/Images/Editions/REA_1996.pdf.
[6] Sam~Owen Jansson. Mått, mål och vikt i sverige till 1500-talets mitt. In Maal og vægt. Nordisk kultur 30. 1936.
[7] Sam~Owen Jansson. Måttordboken. Nordiska Museets förlag, 1998.
[8] Mikko Juva, Vilho Niitemaa, and Päiviö Tommila, editors. Suomen historian dokumentteja 1. Otava, 1968.
116

[9] Eemil Keränen. Kymmenysverotus Maskussa, Mynämäessä ja Nousiaisissa 1560-luvulla. Helsingin yliopisto, 2018.
[10] K.~R. Melander. Muistiinpanoja suomen mitta- ja painosuhteista 15sataluvun loppupuolella ja seuraavan vuosisadan alulla. Historiallinen arkisto, 11:23155, 1892.
[11] Anneli Mäkelä-Alitalo. Vanhat käsialat, avain Ruotsin ajan asiakirjoihin. Suomalaisen kirjallisuuden seura, 2007.
[12] Riksarkivet Codices A. https://sok.riksarkivet.se/amnesomrade? postid=Arkis+a0972403-9ab7-11d5-a700-0002440207bb.
[13] Riksarkivet Codices C. https://sok.riksarkivet.se/?postid= ArkisRef+SE%2FRA%2F0301 .
[14] Suvianna Seppälä. Viljana, nahkoina, kapakalana Talonpoikien maksamat kruununverot Suomessa vuosina 15391609. Suomalaisen kirjallisuuden seura, 2009.
[15] Seppo Suvanto. Yksilö myöhäiskeskiajan talonpoikaisyhteiskunnassa. Suomalaisen kirjallisuuden seura, 1995.
[16] Svenskt Diplomatariums huvudkartotek. https://sok.riksarkivet.se/sdhk .
[17] Lars Svensson. Nordisk paleografi: handbok med transkriberade och kommenterade skrift-prov. Lund : Studentlitteratur, 1974.
[18] Gabriel Thulin. De svenska jordmåtten under äldre tid intill år 1628. In Maal og vægt. Nordisk kultur 30. 1936.
[19] Valtionarkisto. Vanhat käsialat ja asiakirjat. Valtion painatuskeskus, 1977. [20] Anna-Maria Vilkuna. Kruunun taloudenpito Hämeen linnassa 1500-luvun
puolivälissä. Suomalaisen kirjallisuuden seura, 1998. [21] Kustaa Vilkuna. Codex Aboensis Turun käsikirjoitus. Koneen Säätiö,
1977. [22] Väinö Voionmaa. Bitesmedel, värdeberäkningar, mått och vikt i finland
under medeltiden. In Maal og vægt. Nordisk kultur 30. 1936. [23] Voudintilit. http://digi.narc.fi/digi/dosearch.ka?amtun=36987.KA. [24] Per-Axel Wiktorsson. Handskrifter som mötts. In Bengt Jönsson (Oxen-
stierna) och hans värld. 2004. [25] Charles~Duke Yonge. The Orations of Marcus Tullius Cicero. Henry G.
Bohn, 1856.
117

XeTeX output 2021.07.24:1417 xdvipdfmx (20210318)