197512

197512 197512

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SCIENCE AND BUS~NESS

computers

and people

December, 1975
Vol. 24, No. 12
formerly Computers and Automation

UB~y USE ONt y

225 CHRISTMAS
FLOWERS
by William
Kolomyjec

The Computer Glass Box (Part 2)
The Universal Product Code
Software Should Be Patentable
Computer-Assisted Tutorials in College Mathematics
Computers and Society: A Course at York University

H. A. Peelle
Thomas V. Sobczak

ADAPSO
J. L. Caldwell and Doug/as Polley
Larry J. Murphy

"RIDE THE EAST WIND:

Parables of Yesterday and Today"

by Edmund C. Berkeley, Author and Anthologist
Published by Quadrangle/The New York Times
Book Co., 1974, 224 pp, $6.95

Missile Alarm from Grunelandt

The Fly, the Spider, and the Hornet
Once a Fly, a Spider, and a Hornet were trapped inside a window
.screen in an attic. For several hours they walked up and down, left
and right, here and there, all over the screen. They could look through
the screen at the summer woods, feel the summer breezes, and smell
the summer smells; but they could not find any hole to pass through
the screen to the woods and fields so tantalizingly close, yet so far
away.
Finally they decided to hold a conference on the problem of getting through the screen. The Fly spoke first, and said, "My Colleagues, ....

The Fox of Mt. Etna and the Grapes
Once there was a Fox who lived on the lower slopes of Mt. Etna,
the great volcano in Sicily. These slopes are extremely fertile; the
grapes that grow there may well be the most delicious in the world;
and of all the farmers there, Farmer Mario was probably the best.
And this Fox longed and longed for some of Farmer Mario's grapes.
But they grew very high on arbors, and all the arbors were inside a
vineyard with high walls, and the Fox had a problem. Of course, the
Fox of Mt. Etna had utterly no use for his famous ancestor, who
leaping for grapes that he could not reach, called them sour, and
went away.
The Fox decided that what he needed was Engineering Technology. So he went to a retired Engineer who lived on the slopes of
Mt. Etna, because he liked the balmy climate and the view of the
Mediterranean Sea and the excitement of watching his instruments
that measured the degree of sleeping or waking of Mt. Etna. The
Fox put his problem before the Engineer ....

The Fire Squ irrels
Scene: Two squirrels, a young one named Quo, and an older one
named era-era, are sitting by a small campfire in a field at the edge
of a wood. Behind them hung on a low branch of a tree are two
squirrel-size hammocks. Over each of the hammocks is a small canopy that can be lowered to keep out biting insects. It is a pleasant
summer evening,' the sun has just recently set, and the stars are coming out:-Quo: Cra-Cra, you know I don't believe the old myths any more.
Tell me again how it really happened.
era-era: Just this: we received our chance because they dropped
theirs. It is as simple as that.
Quo: In other words, they were the first animals to use tools,
and we are the second?
era-era: Yes. There is a mode of surviving in the world ....

Once upon a time there were two very large and strong countries called Bazunia and Vossnia. There were many great, important, and powerful leaders of Bazunia who carefully cultivated an
enormous fear of Vossnia. Over and over again these important
and powerful leaders of Bazunia would say to their fellow countrymen, "You can't trust the Vossnians." And in Vossnia there
was a group of great, important, and powerful leaders who pointed
out what dangerous military activities the Bazunians were carrvinQ
on, and how Vossnia had to be militarily strong to counteract
them. The Bazunian leaders persuaded their countrymen to vote
to give them enormous sums of money to construct something
called the Ballistic Missile Early Warning System, and one of its
stations was installed in a land called Grunelandt far to the north
of Bazunia.
Now of course ballistic missiles with nuclear explosives can fly
any kind of a path all around a spherical world, and they do not
have to fly over northern regions. But this kind of reasoning had
no influence on the leaders of Bazunia who wanted the money
for building BMEWS. Nor did it have influence on their countrymen, who were always busy, trying to make money - in fact
often too busy to think clearly ....

52 parables (including fables, anecdotes, allegories)
23 never published before
27 authors
18 full-page illustrations
330 quotations and maxims
7 Parts: The Condition of Man / On Flattery and
Persuasion / On Perseverance and Resourcefulness /
Behavior - Moral and Otherwise / The Problem
of Truth / On Common Sense / Problem Solving
THE VALUE OF THIS BOOK TO YOU
CAN BE VERY GREAT
JUDGE FOR YOURSELF AT NO COST
RETURNABLE IN 10 DAYS FOR FULL REFUND
IF NOT SATISFACTORY
You can read it all in 10 days - and keep it only if
you think it is worth keeping.

HOW CAN YOU LOSE?
- - - - (may be copied on any piece of paper) - - - - - - -

I To:

Berkeley Enterprises, Inc.
815 Washington St., S9, Newtonville, MA 02160
Please send me
copy(jes) of Ride the East Wind:
I enclose $7.00 per copy (includes handling).
Total enclosed _ _ _ __

(Prepayment is necessary)

My name and address are attached.
COMPUTERS and PEOPLE for December, 1975

The 6th cumulative edition of

ttWHO'S WHO IN COMPUTERS
AND DATA PROCESSING"
is due to be published in 1976

• Send us your order at the special prepublication price of $34.50
(Price after publication will be $40.00)

"Who's Who in Computers and Data Processing" is
jointly published by Quadrangle/The New York Times
Book Co. and "Computers and People" (Berkeley Enterprises Inc.)

The most essential components in computers and
data processing are PEOPLE - who are they?
what do they do? where do they do it?

"Who's Who in Computers and Data Processing" is particularly useful for:
Personnel managers
Libraries
Conference planners
Directors of computer installations
Suppliers to the computer industry
Executive search organizations
Prospective authors
Prospective speakers ...

....

This publication is based on "never ceasing" data gathering about computer professionals carried out for more
than 10 years by "Computers and People" (formerly
"Computers and Automation"). Our files contain information on more than 17,000 computer professionals.

r - - - - - - - (may be copied on any piece of paper)- - - - '- - - - - - - I

WHO'S WHO IN COMPUTERS AND DATA PROCESSING
815 Washington St., Newtonville, Mass. 02160
YES, please enroll me as a subscriber to Who's Who
in Computers and Data Processing as follows:

I enclose $34.50 prepublication price for the 1976
cumulative "Who's Who" when published.

anyone who needs to keep up with the important people
in the field.

I can't wait for a number of months. Please send
me the last cumulative edition, and 3 updating
supplements. I enclose $34.50.

Each computer professional has a capsule biography
detailing: last name; first name and middle initial (if
any); occupation; year of birth; university education
and degrees; year entered the computer field; main
interests; job title; organization and its address; pub·
lications, honors and memberships; home address.

Both. I enclose $69.00.

RETURNABLE IN 10 DAYS FOR FULL REFUND
IF NOT SATISFACTORY

Name_______________________________________

We are confident that you will find the subscription will
repay you many times over. In fact, one day when this
wealth of material gives you the inside track with someone important to you, you'll find the information
PRICELESS: the most essential component in EDP is
CAPABLE PEOPLE.
COMPUTERS and PEOPLE for December, 1975

Tit I e_______________________________________
Organization ________________________________
Address, ____________________________________
City_______________ State & Zip _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
Your Signature

P.O. No. _ __
(if company order)

Vol. 24, No. 12
December, 1975

Editor and
Publisher

and people

formerly Computers and Automation

Edmund C. Berkeley

Computer-Readable Marking and Consumers

Assistant to
Judith P. Callahan
the Publisher
Assistant
Editors

Barbara L. Chaffee
Neil Macdonald

Art Editor

Grace C. Hertlein

Software
Editor

Stewart B. Nelson

Contributing
Editors

John Bennett
John W. Carr III
Grace C. Hertlein
Linda Ladd Lovett
Ted Schoeters
Richard E. Sprague
Edward A. Tomeski

Thomas Land
London
Correspondent

Advisory
Committee

Ed Burnett
James J. Cryan

Editorial
Offices

Berkeley Enterprises, Inc.
815 Washington St.
Newtonville, MA 02160
617-332-5453

Advertising
Contact

The Publisher
Berkeley Enterprises, Inc.
815 Washington St.
Newtonville, MA 02160
617-332-5453

"Computers and
People,"
formerly
"Computers and Automation," is published
monthly, 12 issues per year, at 815 Washington St., Newtonville, MA 02160, by Berkeley
Enterprises, I nco Printed in U.S.A. Second
Class Postage paid at Boston, MA, and additional mailing points.
Subscription rates: United States, $11.50
for one year, $22.00 for two years. Canada:
add $1 a year; elsewhere, add $6 a year.
NOTE: The above rates do not include
our publication "The Computer Directory
and Buyers' Guide".
If you elect to receive "The Computer Directory and Buyers'
Guide," please add $12.00 per year to yo~r
subscription rate in U.S. and Canada. and
$15.00 elsewhere.
Please address mall to: Berkeley Enterprises, Inc., 815 Washington St., Newtonville, MA 02160.
.
Postmaster: Please send all forms 3579
to Berkeley Enterprises, Inc., 815 Washington St., Newtonville, MA 02160.
© Copyright 1975, by Berkeley Enterprises, Inc.
Change of address:
If your address
changes, please send us both your new
address and your old address (as it appears on the magazine address imprint), and
allow three weeks for the change to be
made.

computers

[A]
7 The Universal Product Code: An Introduction to What
It Means for Consumers
by Thomas V. Sobczak, Ph.D., Long Island City, NY 11101
What the new code marking on grocery store products means and how it is likely to affect customers,
who will no longer have readable prices marked on
the products.

The Computer Industry
14 Software Should Be Patentable
by ADAPSO (Association of Data Processing Services/
Software Industry Association), Philadelphia, PA
A vigorous argument full of cogent reasons why
computer programs should be patentable.

[A]

10 Images and Reality in the Computer Field - A
Discussion
by the Editor and Jack Biddle, President, Computer
Industry Association, Rosslyn, Va.
Some of the things that I BM appears to do and
actually does - in advertising, standards setting,
entry into the computer peripherals market, and
so on.

[F]

Computers and Education
22 Computer-Assisted Tutorials in College Mathematics
by J. L. Caldwell, Dept. of Mathematics, University of
Wisconsin- River Falls, River Falls, WI, and Douglas
Polley, Dept. of Mathematics, University of Minnesota,
Minneapolis, MN
How to apply a computer in a way that spots the
plausible mistakes that students make, and then provides specific instruction that removes that class of
mistake.

[A]

17 The Computer "Glass Box": Teaching with APL
(Iverson's "A Programming Language") - Part II
by Howard.A. Peelle, Director, Instructional Applications of Computers, University of Massachusetts,
Amherst, Mass.
A black box that you can see into and can see how
it works becomes a "glass box"; and this article
describes how a true innovator in computer education
is making algorithms and programming transparent to
his students.

[A]

26 Promoting the Use of a Computer in Teaching
by News Service, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA

[N]

"',

COMPUTERS and PEOPLE for December, 1975

The magazine of the design, applications, and implications of
information processing systems - and the pursuit of truth in
input, output, and processing, for the benefit of people.

Computer Graphics and Art
10 "Computer Graphics and Art" - Open Letter
by Grace C. Hertlein, Editor
The first issue of this new quarterly is expected to
be published in February, 1976; and who are the
contributing editors and advisory board.

[F]

28 "Computer Graphics and Art"
Announcement

[F]

Front Cover Picture
"225 Christmas Flowers" is by
William Kolomyjec, Instructor in
the College of Engineering, Michigan
State University, East Lansing, Michigan. It was drawn on a Ca IComp
plotter driven by an IBM 1800, at
the computer research facility of
the College of Engineering.

Announcements
"Who's Who in Computers and
Data Processing":

Computer Applications
24 Computer "Scenarios" for the Application of Pesticides
Before They Are Applied
by Robert Silber, Michigan State University, East
Lansing, MI

[N]

24 Computer Monitors Prescriptions and Helps Prevent
Adverse Drug Reactions
by Ken F leming, Group Health Cooperative of Puget
Sound, Seattle, WA

[N]

25 Minicomputer Helps Cut University's Electric Bills
by John Kane, Hewlett Packard, Palo Alto, CA

[N]

3
13

[A]

6 The Potential Understanding of Words by a Computer
by Edmund C. Berkeley, Editor
How computers may and do understand words, and
where such understanding may lead in the future.

Notice
"The Computer Directory and
Buyers' Guide", 21 st annual
edition, 1975:

[A]

Should be off press in
December, 1975 - the
delay is regretted.

Key

Computers and the Understanding of Ordinary Language
."

Notice
Statement of Circulation
and Ownership:

Computers and Society
11 Computers and Society: A Course at York University
by Larry J. Murphy, Atkinson College, York University,
Downsview, Ontario, Canada
The philosophy, the course outlines, and the references for a successful course in computers and society
taught for seven years in a Canadian university.

Entry Form
"Ride the East Wind:
Parables of Yesterday
and Today":

Computers and Human Reiatiol1s
21 Computers and People: Case 1 - "Stuart University"
by Dr. Edward A. Tomeski, Contributing Editor,
"Computers and People", Fordham University,
Bronx, NY
How should "Stuart University", with given conditions and data, solve a set of problems about the
use and applications of its computer?

Notice

[E]

[A]
[C]
[E]
[F]
[N]
[R]

Article
Monthly Column
Editorial
Forum
Newsletter
Reference

Computers, Puzzles, and Games
27 Games and Puzzles for Nimble Minds - and Computers
[C]
by Neil Macdonald, Assistant Editor
NAYMANDIJ - A systematic pattern among randomness?
NUMBLES - Deciphering unknown digits from
arithmetical relations.
MAXIMDIJ - Guessing a maxim expressed in digits.

COMPUTERS and PEOPLE for December, 1975

NOTICE
*0 ON YOUR ADDRESS IMPRINT
MEANS THAT YOUR SUBSCRIPTION INCLUDES THE COMPUTER
DIRECTORY.
*N MEANS THAT
YOUR PRESENT SUBSCRIPTION
DOES NOT INCLUDE THE COMPUTER DIRECTORY.

EDITORIAL

The Potential Understanding of
Words by a Computer

There is no doubt that a computer can understand
words -- especially if we stipulate as conditions
"some words" and "some contexts". If I type into
a computer with an appropriate program the fivelettered word "three", the computer can translate
that both into the more customary "3" and the machine language for 3, and it can respond appropriately,
as for example, by doing something three times, thus
demonstrating at least some understanding. Evidence
of successful communication js evidence of understandi ng.
When a computer program displays on a screen "Do
you want to make any correction? (Yes, No)" and you
then type in "No", the computer understands: it
now accepts data previously labeled "Tentative", the
item of knowledge that you do not want to make any
correction; and the computer proceeds with the next
step of its operations.
There is no doubt that you can play the game of
Twenty Questions with a computer if it has an appropriate program inside of it, to respond to the
"Yes" or "No" answers that you give it. For example,
you can say to a computer that is appropriately programmed, "I am thinking of a number -- can you guess
it?" The computer can then say, "Is it less than a
million?"; and as soon as you are committed to answering "Yes" or "No" to appropriate questions that
will pin the number down, the computer has won the
game.
If you tell a computer "3 BUZZ 2 BANG 6" and "4
BUZZ 8 BANG 32", a computer with an appropriate program can promptly guess that BUZZ stands for TIMES
and BANG stands for EQUALS.
Suppose you want to edit a computer program using
a certain common type of on-line editor, and 14 is
the line number of the line that needs correction.
You can type 14L, for example, standing for "line
14, display", and line 14 is displayed in front of
you. Then you type 14C. standing for "line 14,
change"; the computer shifts from command mode into
text mode; you retype the line with corrections:
and when you press the appropriate keys. the computer returns from text mode to command mode. Then
if you type 14L once more, the line will be displayed again in front of you. and you can satisfy yourself that the line as retyped is correct. (If not
correct, repeat the process once more.)
More and more and more, the computer appropriately
programmed will understand words in contexts; and
eventually active. purposeful. and broad conversation with the computer will take place. In several
6

contexts this facility is already arriving:
Diagnosis of disease, by conversational interaction between a doctor and the computer

Taking of the medical history of a patient,
by conversational interaction between a patient and the computer;
Learning of a subject, by conversational interaction between a student and a computer
program, as in computer-assisted instruction
or computer-m~naged instruction.
In this issue, we publish one more article along
this road to a land of riches: "Computer-Assisted
Tutorials in College Mathematics" by J. L. Caldwell
and Douglas Polley. The authors explore typical
student mistakes in solving mathematical problems,
diagnose the mistake. and then help the student
correct precisely the mistake which he has made.
We can even imagine a time when one of the most
interesting and congenial persons you can talk to
is ~n appropriately programmed computer. It will
know what you want to know. It will never be boring.
It likes questions. It is unfailingly polite, patient, sympathetic. courteous, friendly, and tact·
ful; it is programmed to be gently encouraging. If
the computer is not quite sure what you mean, it
will ask questions until it "knows" what you mean.
If you say "Don't overload my mind by telling me
more than I can remember," then its replies to you
will be condensed, and convey only the most important facts. It might even say "If you know these
5 things about the Bering Sea, then you know enough
to begin with," or "If you know these 8 things about
the Russian conquest of the Caucasus in the 1800's,
then you know more than 10,000 people taken at random know."
The computer technology and the programming
technology all exist. The selection of knowledge to
be stored in the computer memory is a vast field
for research and development -- and this field will
it is hoped be cultivated well in the next twenty
years.

Edmund C. Berkeley
Editor

COMPUTERS and PEOPLE for December, 1975

The Universal Product Code: An Introduction to
What It Means for Consumers

Thomas V. Sobczak, Ph.D.
Long Island City, NY 11101

"With the Universal Product Code, you pay more and know less while supermarket profits change from 1% to 35%."

The Universal Product Code is the group of lines
or bars which have appeared on almost all items in
the supermarket. The code is a planned system, developed by the Uniform Grocery Product Code Council,
assigning an identification number to every manufacturer in the United States and to each of the manufacturer&' products. When fully operative the system will enable every package to carry a unique UPC
which will enable the product to be checked out at
the retail store counter by a combination of accurate scanning and computer memory.
Why Develop UPC

The Supermarket Industry had many good reasons,
but they can be summed up in one word, "PROFIT."
1. Labor rates in the supermarket industry are
expected to double by 1980. UPC can cut the
store staff in half.
2. Industry profits, after taxes, are less than
1%. UPC studies indicate a possible 35% return on investment after taxes.
3. Misrings (an error made by the checkout clerk)
are 25% of sales. UPC eliminates misrings and
allows price changes on the computer faster
than the time it takes you to walk from the
shelf to the checkout stand.
How Widespread is UPC

The concept of UPC is being marketed by Distribution Codes Inc. DCI is owned jointly by the Uniform
Grocery Product Code Council and the National Association of Wholesalers/Distributors. NAW/D is an
association of associations. Each association member is coordinating its activities through Distribution Codes Incorporated. At present, UPC exists
under several names.
NAME
National Drug
Code
Health Related
Items
Publication Code
Alcoholic Beverages

ABBREV.
(NDC)
(HRI)
CUPC)
CUPC)

SPONSORING DISTRIBUTOR
ASSOCIATION
National Wholesale
Druggists
National Wholesale
Druggists
Council of Publication
Distributors
Wine and Spirits
Wholesalers

COMPUTERS and PEOPLE for December, 1975

Stationary & Business Supplies
Code

(DC)

Electrical Supplies
Air Conditioning

( DC)

Plumbing

(DC)

Distribution
Industries

(DC)

Business Records Assoc.
Nat. Assoc. Writing
Instrument Distributors
Nat. Office Products
Assn.
Nat. School Supply &
Equip. Assn.
Paper, Stationary &
Tablet Manuf. Assn.
Wholesale Stationers
Assn.
Nat. Assn. of Electrical Dist.
A/C-Refrigeration
Wholesalers
Nat. Assn. Plumbing
Wholesalers
NIDA/SIDA (Na t. &
Southern Industrial
Distributions

UPC is growing continually, under its many different names; therefore most people tend to underestimate its power. In the Grocery Industry the middlemen and supermarkets, who are staunch proponents of
the UPC, want to eliminate price marking on the shelf
items. Their lobby is so strong that:
A Maryland bill requiring price marking died
in a State Senate Committee.
A price marking bill passed the Illinois House
and Senate Committee only to lose on the Senate
floor by seven votes.
Virginia Legislators killed a price marking
bill because they didn't feel Automated Checkout Systems had been given a fair chance.
New York State's price marking measure got
sidetracked until 1976.
The President's Consumer Affairs advisor is
favorable to UPC, so favorable she suggested
that Congress leave the UPC alone.
Figure I shows the domino effect on industry as
UPC moves from place to place. It started at Grocery
(UPCC) but since Drugs and Health related items are
sold in supermarkets, the Food and Drug Administration were convinced (lobbied?) to change the National
Drug Code and the Health related item code to the

UPC format. Books are sold in supermarkets, as are
magazines. The Publishers were the next to give in.
Look at the UPC on the cover of "Family Circle".
Recently the Alcoholic Beverage Commission was convinced to specify a UPC code. Remember, outside of
New York State, alcoholic beverages are sold in supermarkets.
The trend continues with stationery and business
supplies. The logic is the same. In time everything
must be scanned mechanically.
The mass merchandising (Discount) stores are accepting UPC because it exists on products they buy.
The Federal Department of Transportatiun is proposing
to modify 49CFR577, the law controlling manufacturer
marking of auto parts. This opens the door to UPC.
It exists in wholesale electrical, air conditioning,
refrigeration, and plumbing. UPC goes on and on and
on without anyone realizing how quickly it grows or
how much it affects their daily lives.
What Does the UPC Symbol Mean

The symbol is the means by which a machine readable identification mark can be placed on a package.
The code is actually eleven digits which are machine
readable. The first digit for Grocery Products is
the "0" centered before the first Printed Bar. It is
called the Number System Character. It was added
to allow integration of other industries into the
Grocery field. As an example, Books, Drugs, and
Health Related items are sold in Supermarkets as are
Stationery items.
A look at the components of the symbol will help
you to understand how it works in the scanning process. Figure 2 should be looked at after reading
each paragraph to get full meaning. Let us read from
left to right.

Following the Product/Part Code Number is the
Modulo Check Character. This provides the method by
which the computer determines that what the scanning
machine has read is accurate.
Finally, the scanner sees the Right Hand Guard Bar
which tells the computer that the data collection
cycle for this symbol is at an end.
A Right Light Margin again separates the symbol
from any other printed matter.
What's in a Bar

The symbol is designed so that the computer will
know whether a particular character is on the left
or on the right hand side of the Center Bar Pattern.
A Bar, or more technically a Character, is composed of 7 modulos which are series of light and dark
bars. Each number from 0 to 9 has a different arrangement of the 7 light and dark bars which make up
the character on either the left or right side of
Center Bar Pattern.
Figure 3 shows a left hand "0" consisting of 7
modules 2 barsj2 spaces which is Binary encoded
0001101 where "0" equals light and 1 equals dark.
How Does the Computer Check for Accuracy

From time to time the scanner will not be able to
read the UPC symbol. This is because th~ Modulo
Check Character printed on the symbol does not match
the computer-calculated check character based on what
the scanner read.
The Modulo Check Character is a mathematical technique through which the scanner-computer combination
verifies each product to make sure the UPC will be
rejected if it is read incorrectly.

The first area, at the left, is a white space,
identified as the "Left Light Margin." This space
separates the symbol from other printed matter on the
package. It tells the scanner that a UPC symbol is
coming.

The complete coded symbol is shown at the top
021000 65883.

Next we have a double vertical dark bar separated
by a light bar. Thi sis called the "Left Hand Guard
Bar." This pattern alerts the scanner to the start
of data transmission.

The middle line of boxes shows alternative odd
numbers beginning with box 1 - 010683. This group of
numbers is added equaling 18. Multiply the total by
3. The middle line total is 54.

The first character scanned is the "Number System
Character" previously mentioned. The example (Figure 2) shows the bar pattern for a "zero" which means
it is a grocery product. The "0" in the left light
margin provides a human readable character if needed.
Random weight items have a Number System Character
of 2; Drugs and Health Related items use 3; Coupons
use 5; Alcoholic Beverages will use 8.

The bottom line of boxes shows alternating even
numbers beginning with box 2 - 20058. Added the total is 15.

The remainder of the left hand half of the symbol
is occupied by the five characters making up the
"Manufacturers Identification Number." As an example, Kraft foods code is 21000.
In the middle of the symbol is the "Center Bar
Pattern". Its function is to separate left coded
information from right coded information.
The right five characters are the Product/Part
Code Number. This number is assigned by the manufacturer to uniquely identify each item he produces.
As a point of interest the left side is constructed
of a different combination of light and dark bars
than is the right. This construction will be explained later.
8

It works as shown in Figure 4:

The combined total of the middle and bottom line
is 69. This is subtracted from the next highest multiple of 10. In our example that number is 70.
The result is a Modulo Check Character of 1, enabling the computer to instantaneously verify the accuracy of the scanner reading.
Mr. Alan Haberman, President of First National
Stores, suggested that if consumers were really interested in having prices on merchandise, the supermarkets would be glad to supply grease pencils so the
consumers could do the marking themselves. An activist consumer group with grease pencils could cause
havoc by making vertical lines in the UPC symbol.
The computer will not accept the scan (machine reading). Even more confusing is the potential of consumer activists to break the code and modify certain
items of both the UPC and its resultant modulo check
character. The computer would go berserk, leaving
the checkout clerk and the store manager in chaos.
COMPUTERS and PEOPLE for December. 1975

•

Factors Affecting the UPC Symbol

The UPC symbol is fragile in its relationship to
the scanner. It must be of a certain size. There
must be sufficient contrast for the scanner to recognize light and dark bars. The symbol must be located
in such a position as to provide enough room for the
light margins, etc. The "UPC Symbol Location Guidelines" as prepared by Distribution Codes Incorporated
are very precise.

G
R

o
C
E

In the store you might well find that a greasy or
oily hand passed over the UPC symbol will prevent an
accurate read. Crushed corners on boxes or dented
cans may again prevent a positive scan. The stores
equipped with scanner systems are in a minority now
(less than 1% in 1975). The supermarkets while committed to UPC are approaching the transition slowly
because the cost is very, very high.

R
Y

I
\

Who Benefits form UPC

The winner with increased profits caused by UPC
will be the supermarket operator and the wholesaler
distributor. The McKinsey & Co. study, entitled
"Phase I Report -- Grocery Industry Ad Hoc Committee
Universal Product Code", shows that it will cost
(quantifiable) manufacturers $37 million to gain a
cost saving of zero. However Grocery Retailers
(Supermarkets) and Wholesalers spend $292 millions
to a cost saving of $444 million.

FIGURE 1

Who Loses if UPC is Accepted

The Consumer -- McKinsey estimates it will cost
between $50,000 and $1,500,000 for a manufacturer to
convert to UPC. As the manufacturer's cost rises so
does his price. Have you noticed any savings from
other supermarket gimmicks? Again the increases will
be passed down to the consumer. With the Universal
Product Code, you pay more and know less -- while
supermarket profits go from 1% to 35%. UPC eliminates all price marking on packages. Suppose the
house brand was priced higher than the so-called premium brand; without price marking how does the consumer know this. No (Jllt'r,: 0" ~).<.Cc... t"'s -; \\.~C~W(~L:., "

CODED NUMBER
SYSTEM
CHARACTER

PATTERN

7
0

LEFT HAND
GUAno _ _ _

CODED MANUF.
IDENTIFICATION

CODED PRODUCT
PART NUMBER

llfT LIGHT

°R~:=~KH~:~RACTER
GUARD BAR

RIGHT LIGHT
MARGIN

NUMBER
SYSTEM

,."')

'·v",,',"\. ~'(\U"l

What will be the effect on price as marginal manufacturers drop out of competition? Could it be that
the wheeler-dealers have an even bigger innovation
planned -- a seller's market? Supermarket 1984 is
watching. Big Brother is small in comparison to what
control of foodstuffs can do.
The Uniform Grocery Product Code Council, its love
child, Distribution Codes Inc., and the National
Association of Wholesalers/Distributors say, "Give
the system a chance." Did you ever hear of a system,
once started, that could be stopped for less than
twice its startup cost? Do you really believe that
those people investing $292 million to gain a 35%
return on investment after taxes will give up their
profit? If you do, then you can believe in the
tooth fairy.
National, State, and Local Government, and the
consumers are being set up for the great rip-off:
UPC for you and me.

COMPUTERS and PEOPLE for December, 1975

HUMAN READABLE
MANUF. IDENTIFICA·
TION
KRAFT FOODS

HUMAN READABLE
PRODUCT/PART NO.
MACARONI 8< CHEESE
DINNER

FIGURE 2

(please turn to page 20)

MULTI-ACCESS FORUM
COMPUTER GRAPHICS AND ART - OPEN LETTER

To:

Subscribers and Intended Subscribers of
COMPUTER GRAPHICS AND ART

Dear Colleagues in Graphics,
In our announcements we said we hoped to publish
the first issue of COMPUTER GRAPHICS AND ART in
January, 1976.
We now have to delay our original plan, due to
a temporary illness and hospitalization of the
editor. The first issue of COMPUTER GRAPHICS AND
ART is now scheduled for February, 1976.
Our advisory board members and contributing editors to date include:
Dr. Al Bork, University of' California, Irvine
Dr. Charles Csuri, Ohio State University,
Cleveland, Ohio
Dr. Herbert W. Franke, Munich, Germany
Dr. Ken Knowlton, Bell Telephone Laboratories,
Murray Hill, New Jersey
Dr. Frank Malina, Edi tor, "Leonardo", Paris,
France
Dr. Abraham Moles, Stuttgart, Germany
Dr. Frieder Nake, Bremen, Germany
Prof. Nicholas Negroponte, MIT, Cambridge,
Mass.
Ms. Jackie Potts, Social Security Administration, Washington, D.C.
Dr. Joseph Raben, Edi tor, "Computers & the
Humanities", Flushing, New York
Prof. Erich Teicholz, Harvard Spatial Analysis
Group, Cambridge, Mass.
The first issue is now being prepared. If you
are interested in sending materials for this first
issue, please do so immediatelyl If you wish to
participate in other issues of this quarterly, we
ask that you send your materials as early as possible for consideration. We look forward to working
with you, to make this a significant and useful
periodical for people in computer graphics and art.
We need your help and your subscriptions.
If you have not yet paid for your subscription
to COMPUTER GRAPHICS AND ART, please do so now.
Or you may wish to enter a Library Subscription,
whereby you and your colleagues may share this new
quarterly.
May we hear from you soon?
Yours most cordially,
Grace C. Hertlein
Editor, COMPUTER GRAPHICS & ART
Berkeley Enterprises Inc. Chico Branch
555 Vallombrosa, #35
Chico, Calif. 95926

IMAGES AND REALITY IN THE COMPUTER FIELD A DISCUSSION

1. From the Editor:

It seems to me that IBM, like the U.S. government and the advertising people on Madison Ave.,
has given us lessons in image making -- the picturing of reality as something different from what
it is.
For example, I have never seen an IBM ad or
publicity release which admitted in any way the
existence of any other computer companies than IBM
or any other computer products except those produced by IBM. So if you read only IBM advertising
and publicity, you would never realize that other
companies besides IBM are in the computer field.
2.

From Jack Biddle
President
Computer Industry Association
1911 N. Fort Meyer Dr., Suite 801
Rosslyn, VA 22209

Why should IBM mention other companies in its
ads? That's what an ad is for -- advertising one
company and its products.
I think it would be better to show:
(1) How IBM argues that it has 38% of the
market when their own studies and documents show their share to be 60 to 7~/o;
or
(2) How they participate in voluntary standards meeting to develop a communications
protocol (SDLC) while simultaneously developing a different standard internally
and spring their de facto standard on the
world; or
(3) Their contention before the courts that
"the peripherals market is one big market
because of the ease of developing interfaces," when their own internal studies
showed that they couldn't enter the PCM
market because of the difficulty and expense of the interface.

THE PURPOSE OF FORUM

To give you, our readers, an opportunity to
discuss ideas, problems, and issues that seem
to you important.
To express comments, suggestions, and criticisms
on what you find in this magazine.

COMPUTERS and PEOPLE for December, 1975

Computers and Society:

A Course at York University

Larry J. Murphy
A tkinson College
York University
4700 Keele St.
Donwnsview, Ontario M3J 2R7
Canada

"1 believe there is an urgent need to 'humanize' the computer science major, in fulfillment
of C. P. Snow's efforts for a 'bridge between the two cultures~"

The Natural Science Department of Atkinson College, York University, Toronto, Ontario has offered
a "general education" course entitled "Computers and
Society" (N. S. 178) for at least seven years. When
I began to conduct the course five years ago, it had
already been offered for at least two years by a
mathematician who treated it much like a programming
course. But since the original course outline described an ~ssentially humanities' approach course on
computers, there was little problem doing what I
felt should have been done originally: offer a general education course on computers for both non-computer and computer majors.
I believe there is an urgent need to "humanize"
the computer science major, in fulfillment of C. P.
Snow's efforts for a "bridge between the two cultures". I believe no instructors should keep him
back from the general history, the history of the
theory, the literature (both fiction and non-fiction),
and especially the ethics of his chosen field.

Over the past five years N. S. 178 has been offered seven times (including three summers); a total
of about 400 students have completed the course
(five classes of about 50 students, two of about 75).
The course is a full year course as is customary in
Canadian universities; it meets for three hours a
week from September to May, for a total of about 70
class hours. The summer sessions cover the same
material over the same number of class hours, but in
half the number of months (May to August). Of the
400 students who h~ve completed the course, approximately 8% were Computer Science majors. My experience has been that they were, overall, the most appreciative single group since when they began they
had no idea there was a "history of computers," let
alone such an extensive one. They also entered the
class with a total lack of knowledge of: the "history
of the theory of computers"; the literature on computers (except programming manuals); and most shockingly of all, any appreciation for ethical questions
regarding computers and their applications! I believe this experience alone is enough to recommend
courses in "Computers and Society" to all computer
science majors and minors.
The readings books used in N. S. 178 are:
Pylyshyn, Zenon W. (ed.): "Perspecti ves on the
Computer Revolutio~', Englewood Cliffs, N. J.:
Prentice-Hall, 1970.

COMPUTERS and PEOPLE for December, 1975

Lewis, Arthur 0., Jr. (ed.): "Of Men and Machines",
New York: E.P. Dutton & Co., 1963.
Bowles, Edmund A. (ed.): "Computers in Humanistic
Research", Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice Hall,
1967.
and either:
Cress/Dirksen/Graham: "Fortran IV with Watfor and
Watfi v", Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice Hall,
1970.
or:
Smyth, J. Morgan: "York APL", Toronto: Ryerson
Poly technical Institute, 1972.
For those who feel they need extra support in
the basic areas:
IBM: "More About Computers," Armonk, N. Y.: IBM,
1971.
Scientific American: "Information", San Francisco:
W.H. Freeman & Co., 1966.
For those who wish to specialize in applications
of computers:
Kanter, Jerome: "The Computer and The Executive",
Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1967.
Sanders, Donald H.: "Computers in Business, An
Introduction", (2nd Ed.), New York: McGraw-Hill,
1972.
Shorter, Edward: "The Historian and the Computer",
Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1971.
The course is divided into "lecture" sessions and
"tutorial/seminar" sessions; the lecture session is
used for guest lectures, films, and the general
dissemination of information. Since I've come to
computers through the history of technology -- Hollerith and his electric data tabulating system -and most research in what might be called the "prehistory of computers" or "prerequisites of the computer" is in a very scattered primary literature, if
even that, I can see no better alternative to the
traditional lecture as the best method of sharing
such background with the class. Certainly no adequate text or even readings book has yet appeared.
In the "tutorial/seminar" sessions the issues
brought up by the lectures, the readings, and the
students' research are discussed.

In addition to the "lectures" and the "tutorial/
seminars", the student is required to do work outside of class which includes a minor programming
project (relying on the York Computing Centre resource personnel), and two bibliographic projects
(relying on the York Library resource personnel).
These projects require the student to actually propose, flow-chart, programme, debug, and successfully
run a programme on the computer, one that is useful
in their area of interest. They may use either
FORTRAN IV with WATFIV, (or COBOL if more relevant
to their interest), or York APL (Iverson's A Programming Language). This is an interactive-language
developed-at York as an alternative to the batchmode FORTRAN IV with WATFIV. The projects also require the student to become familiar with the literature of and on computers; they require the student to perform (manually and/or on-line), two bibliographic searches at different levels on computer
topics, to evaluate the retrieved articles, and
ultimately to abstract selected articles.
Systems of three major computer manufacturers
are visited by the students: IBM at York; Univac
at the Metro Toronto Computer-Controlled Traffic
Light Centre; and CDC at the Control Data Institute
in Toronto.
Obviously, the structure of NS 178 is different
from other proposed courses, but the content is
very similar, as can be seen by comparing the outline below with that of other courses in Computers
and Society.
I am much pleased that the U.S. computer community has been promoting courses in Computers and Society, since I feel NS 178 has been very valuable
to most of the students who have completed it.

Period 1: Outside of Class

FORTRAN IV with WATFIV or York APL
Visit to York Computer Centre
Series of 12 1/2 hour video tapes on Fortran IV
with WATFIV
Period 2: Lectures

Survey of "Pre-history" or "Prerequisi tes of the
computer":
Information Storage and/or Retrieval Methods/
Devices: Language (words); writing, (clay,
papyrus); books (scrolls and codices, tape
and cards); Hero(n) odometer; Vitruvius odometer; Danzig ribbon weaving loom; Wren and
Hooke (1660s); Horse way-wisers; Falcon;
Bouchon; Vancanson; Jacquard; Babbage; the
Scheutzs; Ritty Brothers; Hollerith; Powers;
Comrie; Aiken.
Mathematics, mathematical regularity: Language
(numbers); counting; one-to-one correspondence;
bases; arithmetic calculating or computing;
place holder; zero; Leonardo da Pisa; number
analysis (concerned with calculation); Stevin;
Napier (logarithms); method of differences;
Descartes; Leibniz (binary arithmetic); Boole;
Babbage; Maxwell (formalization of the governor); number theory.
Period 2: Tutorial/Seminars

History (integration of lectures with Pylyshyn and
general history of western civilization).
Period 2, 3: Outside of Class

Minor Programming Project
In closing, I wish to stress how important I
believe it is not to restrict the courses in Computers and Society to non-computer majors or minors.
In fact I strongly advocate that, if a university
has any required courses, a course in Computers and
Society be required of all computer majors and
minors -- and perhaps not just of the students, but
of faculty and practitioners of Computer Science as
well. Perhaps even a national or international society of computer scientists could (or should) offer
and promote such a course for all their members.

Period 3: Lectures

Logic, logic devices: Analysis of language (both
words and numbers); Aristotle's logic (syllogism);
Ramon Lull; Swift; Hobbes; Leibniz; Charles, the
Third Earl of Stanhope; Boole; Venn; Jevons;
Peirce; Marquand; Turing (Post), Shannon.
Period 3: Tutorial/Seminars

Theory: Algorithms, automata (mathematical), Cybernetics (Wiener, von Neumann)
Course Outline:

First Half Year:

Period 1: Lectures

Brief history of western civilization as the history
of science and technology.
Define "field."
"Computer Science": is it a science, or part of "Information Science"?
Computers allow "control" of information for the
first time.
"Computer Revolution"? the 2nd Industrial Revolution.
Period 1: Tutorial/Seminars

Discussion/criticism of: Pylyshyn's "Perspectives
on the Computer Revolution."

Period 4: Lectures

Digital devices (counting devices: Fingers (toes);
one-to-one representation; abacus; computing
jetons; digital clocks; Napiers' bones/rods;
Schickard; Pascal; Leibniz; Morland; Stern; De
Colmar; Babbage; the Scheutzs; additional adding
machines and the comptometer; Ritty Brothers;
Bollee; Ludgate; Richardson (weather "forecast
factory"); Shannon; Aiken (A.S.C.C.); Manchly
& Eckert (ENIAC).
Analog devices (measuring devices): Stonehenge;
ruler; "tape measure"; ancient Greek computer;
Planetaria; analog clocks; astrolabs; Arab planetary computers; slide rules (circular and linear);
Orreries; Big Horn Medicine Wheel; Amsler planimeter; Kelvin (tide predictor); Kelvin (differential equation solver); Michelson & Stratton
(harmonic analyzer); Bush (differntial analyzer).
Period 4: Tutorial/Seminars

History of the theory, way it came together.

COMPUTERS and PEOPLE for December, 1975

Period 4: Outside of Class

Visit to outside computer facility.
Period 5: Lectures

Feedback devices; (C) or Ktesibus (waterclock);
Hero(n) (wine dispenser); thermostats; windmill
control mechanisms; Harrison's chronometer; Watt's
steam engine governor; Babbage's bell; Claude
Bernard; L.J. Henderson; Walter B. Cannon; Wiener
(cybernetics); von Neumann.
Automata: Mechanical regularity; Hero(n); Albertus
Magnus; clocks-clockwork mechanisms; Orreries;
Descartes; Newton (clockwork universe); Borelli;
Vaucanson; Droz; La Mettrie; Industrial Revolution (automatic actions sophisticated); Babbage;
"Turing Machine."
Period 5: Tutorial/Seminars

•

Artificial Intelligence

Discussion/criticism of Lewis, "Of Men and Machines"
and latter part of Pylyshyn, especially questions/
problems of ethics/privacy (Canada, Great Britain,
U.S. hearings/legislation on data bank, etc.)
Guarantee of privacy re: data banks
Computer Crime
"Computer as Friend"
"Computer as Enemy"
Futures
Discussion/Criticism of Bowles "Computers in Humanistic Research": Comparison of humanistic applications with non-humanistic applications; Comparison of EDP and computer applications in
scholarly research •
Outside of Class

First Bibliographic Project (on computer literature
in general)

Second Bibliographic Project (on the literature of
computer applications, theory, history, in all 8
choices).
Visit to UNIVAC Computer facility.
Optional major research project (historical, theoretical or applied) in respect of interest of student (about 1/3 of the class).
0

Electricity, communications: Lodestone; atomic
theories (Democritus & Lucretius); compass; Gilbert; 2 fluid theories of electricity; Franklin;
electrical games; electrical medicine/psychology;
Volta; Ampere; Faraday; Ohm; Henry; Morse (telegraph); Bell (telephone); Edison (Pearl Street
station); AC/DC battle; Niagara Hydro; Marconi;
Kettering; relays; vacuum tube (diode/triode);
Shannon & Weaver; Bell labs; transistor.
General integration of the 8 "strands" which come
together to form the modern digital computer.
Examples of combinations of "threads" prior to
total combination.
Arrival of modern digital computer: U.S. (A.S.C.Co,
ENIAC, UNIVAC); England (National Lab, Cambridge,
Manchester); Canada (Saskatchewan); Rest of
World (Zuse, etc.)
Software/Hardware.
Structure of a computer
Changing Technology, futures re: technological limits.
Example of subtraction unit.
Computer languages (according to Jean Sammet, over
1500 languages), futures
Period 6: Tutorial/Seminars

Artificial Intelligence
Period 6: Outside of Class

First Bibliographic Project (on computer literature
in general)
Second Half of Course
Lectures

T utoria I/Seminars

Period 5: Outside of Class

Period 6: Lectures

Humanities: Control of literature (umbrella);
Art-graphics (film, examples); Music (listen
to tapes, examples); Poetry (examples); Future.
"Where's it all leading?": Leisure Ethic overtaking the Work Ethic.

Applications:
Business/Commerce: Bookkeeping/accounting, etc.;
Inventory control (guest lecturer from local
bank)
Industrial: Hybrid computers; Control of mfg.
process; Examples
Physical sciences: History of use; Exceptional
use; Examples
Social Sciences: History of use; Exceptional use;
Examples (Guest lecturer from Traffic Planning
Department of Toronto)
COMPUTERS and PEOPLE for December, 1975

WHO'S WHO I N COMPUTERS
AND DATA PROCESSING
THE SIXTH CUMULATIVE EDITION
WHO'S WHO ENTRY FORM
(may be copied and expanded on any piece of paper)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Name (please print) _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
Home Address (with Zip) _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
Organization _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
Its Address (with Zip) _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
Your Title _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

6. Your Main Interests:
Applications (
(
Business
Construction (
Design

7.
8.
9.
10.

logic
Management (
Mathematics (
Programming (

( )
Sales
Systems ( )
( )
Other
please specify:

Year of Birth _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
Education and Degrees _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
Year Entered Computer Field _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
Your Present Occupation _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

11. Publications, Honors, Memberships, and other
Distinctions: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
12. Do you have access to a computer? ( ) Yes ( ) No
a. If yes, what kind: Manufacturer? _ _ _ _ __
_ _ _ _ _ _ModeI ?_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
b. Where is it installed: Organization? _ _ __
Address? _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _--::--_ _ _ __
c. Is your access: Batch ( ) Time-Sh~red ( )
Other ( ) Please explain _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
13. Do you subscribe: - to Computers and People (formerly
Computers and Automation):
( ) Yes ( ) No
( ) Yes ( ) No
- to The New York Times:
14. Associates or colleagues who should be sent Who's Who
entry forms (name and address)

(attach paper if needed)
When completed, please send promptly to: Who', Who Editor, Who's
Who in Computers and Data Processing. RFD, Box 177, Hampton,

CT 06247

Software Should Be Patentable
ADAPSO
[Association of Data Processing Services/
Software Industry Association]
1420 Walnut St.
Philadelphia, Pa. 19102
"Making clear that patents may be available for inventions in software
would unleash enormous innovative talent."

Association of Data Processing Service Organizations, Software Industry Association (hereinafter
ADAPSO/SIA) is a nonprofit trade association of 62
companies in the computer field/l/, approximately
7~/o of whom concentrate their attention in the software products industry, and the remainder largely
~~ the furnishing of varied software services to
computer users and to hardware manufacturers.
ADAPSO/SIA presents its views to the Court because an inaccurate description of software technology and the software products industry has been
set forth by Petitioner's Brief and the supporting
brief of the hardware manufacturers' association,
CBEMA.
ADAPSO/SIA companies are not "idea or think
tanks." They are companies engaged in building
and marketing machines for which profit-conscious
companies will and do expend money. ADAPSO/SIA's
members believe they are entitled to the same patent
protection for their innovative products as that
granted the hardware manufacturers.
Nature of the Industry
A. The Absence of Competition in Software

Whereas ADAPSO/SIA is an organization of relatively small companies, with no one company exerting dominance over all the others, CBEMA is an organization of relatively large companies, operating
in a computer hardware industry "shaped and dominated by IBM."/2/ IBM's dominance is such that its
70% or better share of the computer hardware market
is nearly ten times that of its nearest competitor,
Sperry-Rand./3/ Other giant companies such as
Honeywell, Burroughs, Control Data and National
Cash Register are compelled to share the remaining
portion of the market; General Electric and RCA
found themselves forced to withdraw entirely from
competition. Thus, it is IBM's voice and actions
which have and which do dominate the computer industry.
In this case the Government remains silent while
CBEMA distorts the history of the computer industry
to assert that "the computer industry has developed
in an atmosphere of free interchange of computer
Based on a portion of the Brief Amicus Curiae No.
74-1033 for ADAPSO/SIA filed with the U.S. Supreme
Court on October 16, 1975.

programs •••• "/4/ How "free" the atmosphere has
been in the computer industry is best shown by the
Government's pretrial brief in "United States of
America v. International Business Machines Corporation./5/

The Government in its antitrust action against
IBM notes the development of the computer industry
and fi nds that in "the earliest days of the development of the computer industry, there was nothing
that could be identified as a software industry."/6/
This was in part because users design some of their
own software and because the "computer systems manufacturers, following IBM's lead, provided [free]
much of the software [that] users required."/7/
It was not until the late 1960' s that "the independent software products market emerged, pioneered by the fi rm Applied Data Research, Inc.," /8/
one of the amici herein. As the Government notes,
"in light of the fact that IBM provided its customers with their software requirements as part of
the IBM 'total systems solution,' independent software product firms had to market their offerings
against products for which there was no identifiable
price. As a result, only those companies which
could offer products not available 'free' from IBM
or which could demonstrate the technological superiority of their products in comparison to IBM's
had any chance of survival."/9/ The result was
that the independent software product firms lacked
"a realistic opportunity to compete."/lO/ That
this was not an innocent case of cause and effect
was shown by IBM internal memoranda which revealed
that "the value of this exclusionary effect derived
from bundled pricing [so-called free software]/ll/
was fully appreciated by IBM •••• The effect of IBM's
ability to wield such exclusionary power has been
felt most acutely ••• by those firms seeking to market
software products."/12/

The Government has also noted that "IBM internal
memoranda .•• reflect that from as early as 1965, IBM
was aware of the marketing benefits derived from
bundled pricing and the anticompetitive effect it
had on software companies."/13/ The net effect was
that "bundled pricing enabled IBM to exclude competition from independent software vendors."/14/
The Government concludes that its study of IBM
documents "i llustrate wi thout ambigui ty that. its
bundled pricing marketing approach was a practice
known by IBM to be, legally indefensible. Neverthe-

COMPUTERS and PEOPLE for December, 1975

less, IBM consciously continued bundled prIcIng
because of the competitive leverage it afforded
IBM in maintaining its monopoly position."/lS/
Software monopolies are also maintained by other
hardware manufacturers through the use of bundling.
A small software company has sued Sperry Rand, charging it with refusing to place a price on its bundled
software and thereby making it impossible for the
small company to sell its software in competition.
/16/ Honeywell in bundling its software and hardware asserts that the software is "free." But when
the hardware buyer attempts to transfer that software along with the hardware to another company,
Honeywell claims that it owns the software and will
control who can have possession./17/
B. The Resulting Poor-Quality Software

The CBEMA brief also boats of "the tremendous
growth of the computer software industry and the
vast number of breakthroughs in the field of programming, which have occurred in the last two decades" (CBEMA Br. 12). How different the facts
really are in the computer software field is made
clear by the testimony of Dr. Ruty M. Davis, Director of the Center for Computer Services and Technology of the National Bureau of Standards/18/ characterizing the present condition of software as
"poor-quali ty software," a condi ti on whi ch she
described as the "crucial computer problem" confronting the nation today. Speaking on the "seriousness of the problems besetting both the consumers
of computer products and services and the suppliers
of these products and services" Dr. Davis stated:
The crippling problems are lining up in the
software rather than in the hardware field.
In particular, they fall under what we call
the application-independent problem category
..• these are the software problems which are
common to many applications.
That the condition described by Dr. Davis in
1972 still holds true is seen by her warning at
the CBEMA Spring meeting, May 29, 1974 that "the
difficulty and cost of developing and maintaining
quality software have become the single largest
consideration in computer utilization and composes
a serious limitation on the cost-effective use of
computers."

Even IBM acknowledges that "the biggest problem
facing programming today is the extreme difficulty
and cost encountered in creating and maintaining
large programming systems."/19/ At the National
Computer Conference held early this year it was admitted by a leading hardware manufacturer that the
"software dinosaur" has not "kept pace with the
technical needs of the industry."/20/ As a result
of the software users being at the mercy of the
hardware manufacturers, the users are forced to
make do with the "free," poor and technically inferior software./2l/
The reason for the poor state of the development
of software lies in the shackles IBM has placed
upon free competition. History shows that it has
been small technological companies and independent
inventors, and not the vast financial combines such
as IBM, which have been responsible for much of the
innovation of this age. A recent government report
has found that "studies of the sources of invention
and innovation have shown that independent inventors and small technologically based companies are
responsible for a remarkably high percentage of the
important inventions and innovation of this century.
/22/
COMPUTERS and PEOPLE for December, 1975

C. The Small Company Potential for Competition

The small, mostly "young and struggling", companies who "surely possess excellent technical innovative capabilities" and "the principal technical
capability ••• to work .•• on our critical computer
problems" /23/ have been wrongfully denied the incentive of the patent system, which has been assured to the hardware manufacturers for products
they sell. The patent incentive is both a form of
recognition and a major aid in obtaining the necessary financing without which these companies face
the prospect of shriveling and dying. It is no accident that the monopolistic and exclusionary practices of IBM have permitted only a small number of
companies in the software products field to achieve
a relative degree of success. As the Government
states in its pretrial brief "operating systems
continue to be part of IBM's bundled price structure. Thes continue to be bundled for the marketing
leverage they afford IBM in terms of increasing the
sale of IBM computer equipment and forestalling the
growth of independent software companies."/24/
D. The Importance of Patent Incentives

A patent on a software program creates an economic toehold in the monopoly-dominated computer
field. The software products company characterized
by the Government as the pioneer in the independent
software products market, Applied Data Research,
Inc.,/2S/ stands as proof of the importance of software patents./26/
To a large financial giant, the economic value
of a patent may not loom large; to the small software companies upon which the future of the development of quality software depends, the financial
value of the patent may spell the difference between life and death. To banks and financial institutions the existence of apatent or even the
potentiality of obtaining one may well be a decisive
factor in determining whether a loan should be granted. To prospective investors a patent or the possibility of obtaining one may be the principal element in the decision whether to invest.
Making clear that patents may be available for
inventions in software would unleash enormous innovative talent. It would have the direct opposite
effect forecast by IBM and the other hardware manufacturers -- it would enable competition with those
companies and provide the needed incentive to stimulate innovation.
Patent protection would encourage the free dissemination of program innovations which is so necessary to· stimulate technological progress. Disclosure is the statutory price paid by the inventor
for patent protection.
Without such protection
inventors principally have to rely on the law of
trade secrets in order to secure the economic value
of their inventions, thereby excluding from the
world-at-large disclosure of the invention.
When the Patent Office for its own convenience/27/
urges that inventors rely on trade secrets in lieu
of patents, it is ignoring the mandate of the Patent
Laws, and when it urges copyrights as another potential alternative, it is denying the inventiveness of an entire technology, thus abdicating its
responsibility under the Patent Laws to grant patents for machines that "advance the Progress of
the useful Arts."
Such computer programs as are freely disclosed
in the trade literature of the computer industry

have little economic value or technological worth.
All that this kind of "free exchange" has produced
for the computer industry has been "crippling problems" and "poor quali ty software." The real strides
forward in computer development occurred in hardware, an area fully protected by the patent laws.
In a competitive economy, that which is given away
for nothing tends to have the same value. Non-profit
companies are non-existent in the computer industry.
CBEMA favors its version of "free interchange of
programs" because that has been one of its major
techniques in excluding competition and in monopolizing the computer industry. It is profits and not
"free interchange of programs" or "innovative software that CBEMA seeks."
The economic forces opposed to patent protection
were clearly identified by Judge Rich in his dissenting opinion below. As he stated it:
On the one side ••• against patenting programs
or software [were] collective forces of major
hardware (i.e., computer) manufacturers and
their representative associations who, for
economic reasons, did not want patents granted
on programs for their machines. (Emphasis in
the ori gi nal. )
This portion of Judge Rich's "dissent" (a dissent whose purpose was to provoke this Supreme
Court review to obtain a ruling providing for software patents)/28/ is ignored by the Government as
is the fact that Judge Rich reaffirmed his view as
to the soundness of his previous opinions on computer technology.
When one knows that every action taken by IBM
has been motivated by its monopolistic and exclusionary desires, one understands why IBM has led the
legal fight against patents for software. It is
not to strengthen the computer industry but only
to strengthen IBM's stranglehold upon it that IBM
postulates its legal theories in opposition to
patents. Strange indeed is it that the Government
despite its firsthand knowledge of IBM's efforts
aimed at "forestalling the growth of independent
software companies"/29/ joins hands herein with
IBM in furtherance of IBM's monopolistic endeavors.
To arbitrarily deny patent coverage as urged
herein by the Patent Office is to denigrate software technology and to cast a chilling effect upon
inventi veness.
Summary of Argument

The writ of certiorari should be dismissed as
improvidently granted. because of the inadequate
record, the jurisdictional barrier to the reconsideration of a central factual issue, and the inappropriateness of the principal question for which
certiorari was granted. To consider what the Patent
Commissioner presents as the key issues in this
case would require this Court to undertake a thorough inquiry into the complex technological issues
of special-purpose computer construction, but the
record does not provide the factual basis which
would enable the Court to do so. The Supreme Court
is not the appropriate forum for initial fact finding.
The most basic technological issue -- the Board
of Appeals' finding that programming a general-purpose computer restructures the computer into a different machine -- is not jurisdictionally subject
to review because 35 U.S.C. 141, et. seq. bind the
Commissioner of Patents by Board determinations.

Since the Board is the alter ego of the commissioner, his attempt to appeal its finding is in essence
a nonjusticiable intra-agency dispute. Moreover,
the C.C.P.A. and the Board have considered the basic
technological fact issue, each has special credentials of technological expertise and both have
found in favor of the restructuring principle.
The broad question for which certiorari was
granted -- whether innovative machines which can be
embodied in computer programs are patentable subject matter -- is inappropriate for judicial resolution in this case because patentability depends
on the structural nature of the specific invention
not which of alternative types of construction was
employed. The petitioner has conceded that the
Court cannot formulate a rule of general applicability in its decision of this case and that the
only other question presented -- obviousness under
35 U.S.C. 103 -- is not worthy of this Court's at~
tention.
The petitioner's main legal arguments depend on
a mischaracterization of computer program technology.
An accurate picture of this technology reveals that
a programmed general purpose computer is a different machine than the unprogrammed machine. The designer of software, like any engineer, builds machine structures. not methods of doing business; he
develops machine solutions for machine problems.
Computer innovations embodied with stored computer
programs are legally entitled to the same patent
protection as innovations embodied in wire-connected
electronic circuits, for technologically "hardware"
and "software" are equivalent.
The facts that a programmed computer (what respondent defines as his invention) is a machine and
the innovative aspect of it is a machine structure
cannot be overcome by petitioner's legal arguments.
A machine is not a method of doing business. An
innovative machine structure is not the mere embodiment of an abstract idea. Machines are patentable
subject matter and respondent's only argument against software being patentable subject matter is the
unsupported statement -- appealing perhaps to a
layman but universally rejected by the experts -that a program is not a machine but merely an idea,
"new use," or "method of doing business."
Patent protection for software is vital to the
health of the data processing industry. In a field
dominated by IBM, the growth of the small independent software company has been stifled by the bundling practices of the hardware manufacturers which
continue to this day in the systems programs area.
Only through the availabi li ty of protecti on for
their products can the software producers hope to
bring competition to an industry that sorely needs
it.
The absence of patent protection has forced
reliance on trade secrecy and has had the negative
effect of deterring disclosure of innovations. The
availability of patents, with their public disclosure requirement, would "promote the progress of the
useful Arts," in this most sophisticated. pervasive
and vital area of technology.
Copyright protection is inadequate and inappropriate to protect innovative machine structures.
Copyright of a particular set of computer language
statements does not protect the novel machine structure that is the core of any software invention.
The Constitution establishes innovation as the prerequisite for a grant of exclusive rights to machine
structures; attempts to protect them via copyright
(please turn to page 20)

COMPUTERS and PEOPLE for December, 1975

·r

•

The Computer "Glass Box":
Teaching with APL -Iverson's "A Programming Language" - Part 12
Howard A. Peel/e, Director
Instructional Applications of Computers
University of Massachusetts
Amherst, Mass. 01002

'This approach utilizes a computer program more as a glass box than a black box,
and seeks to make key computer concepts become transparent to the student."

:e;

,
(Continued from the November issue of "Computers and People", page 26)

The enterprising student might elect to automate
the production of MICROSCENEs:

l 'I

V AUTOPEEK

Soon it should become clear that these two SCENES
cannot be distinguished on the basis of random microscenes alone. (Of course, if one could trace sequentially through a scene, its "connectedness" or
"non-connectedness" could be determined easily.)

I I

[lJ

Computer Art

PEEK MYSTERY

[2J
[3J

[4J

-+1

The world of computer art can be opened to students through a few simple APL programs. Beginning
with an excursion into automated design, the student
can proceed to encounter questions of aesthetic
judgement and artistic technique.
For example, consider the following DESIGN program.
V PICTURE

SIZE DESIGN COLORS

AUTOPEEK

I) ;

llOWMANY

+ P

[2J

PICTURE

***
*
***
*

...

*
*
****

*
) ;

COMPUTERS and PEOPLE for December, 1975

COLORS[?SIZEpliOWMANYJ

DESIGN uses some COLORS (symbols on the keyboard)
and some SIZE (two dimensions of a matrix) to produce a PICTURE.
A simple program like DESIGN goes a long way with
children. They seem never to tire of it, for it
can produce quite a variety of designs:

**
*

COLORS

DESIGN

'--11-_

1-1_-11 1-- -I -_I- - -_ - - - - _ - -I I
- - I
- - I - -- 1__ -- I 1- I L - I - I I __ I 1_ I I - - I _I I
I -_ I I I I 1- -1_ - - I
11--_--1- 11_--_
I-I _ -1 __ 1 --- -- - - --11----1------

DESIGN

Another approach to computer art involves viewing
programs which simulate an artistic technique. For
example, consider the program MONDRIAN below (named
after the Dutch abstract painter).

'//6~V\\'

6\6V\\6V/V/V/V//*\//
V/8VV6V/V\/~\///6/\V
\VV///V~/\~\\/\\8\V\
V/V~/\6//V\//\//V~VV

V MONDRIAN

6V\\*V6\V\/V/~v/\\\\
/88//~V8///\6/8/V~8~

//6\V/\v/V\/\~8il/V\\

VVV\\~\~V/\6Vil~6666/
\/*\VVV~\8V\//\~\V~\
V~b\\\VV\68V\~\\\6\il

DESIGN

0 0
00
00
00,0 0
0 0 00 0 00
000 0
0 00 0 0
0000
0000 0
0
0 00
,0 0 0
0 00 ,0 0
00 0
0
0
00,
a
0
•0
o.

'00*'[?3J

[2J

DAB: COLOR

[3J

SIZE

[4]

PICK: PLACE

[5]

OVERLAP

[6]

+PICK IF OVERLAP> 2

[7]
[8]

CANVAS[PLACE[1]+lSIZE[1],PLACE[2]+
lSIZE[2]] + COLOR
+DAB IF (PERCENT ' , ON CANVAS) > 67

[9]

CANVAS

?6 10

5
+

?30 50-3I2E

+ +/+/CANVAS[PLACE[l]+lSIZE[l];
PLACE[2]+13IZE[2]]~'
,

OVERLAP measures the extent of overlap with DABs
already on the CANVAS.
IF OVERLAP is greater than 2, then it will PICK
another PLACE. (This is tantamount to finding relatively open space on the CANVAS).
IF, however, OVERLAP is not too large, the COLOR is
put on the CANVAS at the PLACE and in the SIZE selected.
20

DESIGN

'00* *00'

*UD *UOOOO*ODD**D
UOOO 0 0000* **00*
*OODUO *OUO*O* 00*00
*0 00000*0 OOO*UO
OO***OOO**UO 00*0000
***0**00**00* 00*000
* *****00* **00*00*0
*0*00*00*0*0*0 0*0*
*0 *000* 00*0 *0000
000000000*0* 00*0000

The program continues to DAB IF the PERCENT of blank
spaces ON the CANVAS is greater than 67. In other
words, as soon as it is 1/3 filled up, CANVAS is
displayed.
Note: MONDRIAN uses two simple sub-programs (mostly
for readability). They are PERCENT and ON:

V HUNDREDTHS

[1]

These black and white "Computer hieroglyphics"
may have dubious aesthetic appeal. But one can
imagine -- instead of these typed symbols -- randomly
generated swatches of color, perhaps displayed on a
television-like screen.
Extensions of this approach to computer art include: (a) automating DESIGN, (b) weighting the
selection of COLORS, (c) asking for human judgement
(Do you like it or not?) in order to adjust weights
on COLORS or other aesthetic factors, and (c) piecing together several computer-generated PICTUREs into
a montage.
18

3 0 5 0 p'

MONDRIAN begins with a blank canvas (arbitrarily set
at.30 by 50). Then the program chooses a random
COLOR, SIZE and PLACE to DAB.

t: Al{ VAS

,-,

00
0 0

PBRCBNT N

HUNDREDTHS +LO.5+100 x N

V DBNSITY

[1]

SYMBOL ON PICTURE

DBNSITY + (+/+/SYNBOL=PICTURE)
( X/pPICTURE)

COMPUTERS and PEOPLE for December, 1975

Now, MONDRIAN at work:

The DRILL program beings with a NEWPROBLEM and
prints 'MULTIPLY', a simplified message telling
the student what to do with the two numbers that
will follow. The FIRST number is an integer
randomly chosen between 1 and 20, and the SECOND number likewise.

MONDRIAN

0000000000
0000000000
0000000000

UOOOOO
OOOUOO
000000

0000000
0000000
0000000

**********
**********
**********
**********00000
00000
00000
0000000
0000000
0000000

OOOOOuU

00000
00000
OUOOOOUOO 00000
000000000

*****
OUOOOOUOO
*****
*****
*****000000
*****OOOLJOO
*****000000

*****
*****
*****

0000000000
0000000000
0000000000

0000000

UOOOOOO

00000
00000
00000

The student may ENTER his ANSWER which is then
judged for correctness by the program. IF the
ANSWER equals the FIRST number times the SECOND
number, a NEWPROI3LEM is gi ven; otherwi se (if
ANSWER is wrong) 'NOPE. TRY AGAIN.' is printed,
and the student may ENTER his answer again.
In order to use the DRILL program, its name is
typed, as shown below:

OOOOOOOLJ
00000000
00000000
00000000
00000000
OUOOUUOO

*****
*****
*****
******
******
******
********
******
********
******
********
**********
********
******
********
******
************
******
*****
******
*****
******

DRILL
MULTIPLY
19
2

0:
38

MULTIPLY
16
18

0:
Possible extensions of this kind of program include: (a) simulating and combining additional artistic techniques (those that can be operationalized),
(b) computing abstract measures of difference between random "painting" produced by the computer,
(c) converging to minimal differences from a previously specified "ideal" painting, and (d) developing a model for aesthetic judgement -- perhaps one
which "evolves."
Computer-Assisted Instruction

I1S

In order to emphasize the contrast with conventional uses of computers for teaching, the last
glass box program here illustrated is from the area
of computer-assisted instruction. Instead of concealing the CAl program -- usually designed to control the child's behavior -- we show him the mechanism itself so that he may see how it works and ultimately see how to control the computer and control

NOPE. TRY AGAIN.
0:
288

MULTIPLY
8

0:
96

MULTIPLY

it.

Consider the APL program below which exposes the
essence of drill-and-practice in multiplication
skills.
ry DRILL

[lJ

NEWPROBLEM:

[2J

'lviULT IPLY'

[3J

FIRST

[4J

SECOND

[5J

ENTER: ANSW8R

[6J

~NEWPROBLEM

[7J
[8J
5

248

?20

+
+

?20
+

IF ANSWER
FIRSTxSECOND
'NOPE. TRY AGAIN. ,

~ENTER

COMPUTERS and PEOPLE for December, 1975

Students notice immediately that this program
has a flaw. It does not stopl Scrutinizing the
program's definition reveals that after getting a
multiplication problem correct, one always gets a
new problem -- ad infinitum. Also, after getting
a problem wrong, the student must answer that same
problem again -- another potentially endless loop.
The student's first task, then, might be to build
in an option to stop the program at will.
DRILL is, of course, only a prototype program.
With other modifications of one's choosing, DRILL
19

may become considerably more sophisticated. Possible
extensions include: (a) displaying pictorial feedback
like a "smiley face" for positive reinforcement
*****
or a "grouchy face"
*****
*

00*

*
*

V
\_1

*
*

1-\

Sobczak - Continued from page 9
MODULOS

*
*

*****

instead of 'NOPE. TRY AGAIN.' v (b) presenting a prespecified total number of problems, (c) limiting the
number of allowable mistakes on individual problems
(or all problems), (d) generalizing the multiplicands
to create a more flexible range of problems (including negative numbers, decimals, etc.), (e) gathering
performance data, (f) using performance criteria to
make diagnoses, (g) automatically adapting level of
difficulty based on diagnoses, (h) adding personalized instructions, and (i) building in timing components, jump-ahead options and hints.

1. 2

3
a
e
(

m
b

Conclusion

These are but a few APL "glass box" programs designed to stimulate students to think about selected
concepts. Each of the sample programs shown here
can be used as is and, of course, can be extended
in a myriad of directions. Other topics well-suited
for this pedagogical approach include topics drawn
from linguistics, statistics, mathematics, engineering, ecology, and physical sciences.
The challenge to educators, then, is to identify
such topics suitable for embodiment as glass box
programs, to search out the kernel concepts to be
taught, and to lead students to better understandings of those concepts using a programming language.

u
(

c
(
t

000

I I

, +-

BINARY EN·
CODING

b
c
d

LEFT SIDE OF UPC
SYMBOL ZERO

Notes

/1/ A Programming Language (abbreviated APL) is a
mUlti-purpose computer programming language developed by Kenneth Iverson of IBM. Originally conceived as a unifying mathematical notation, APL has
since been used successfully in fields such as business, scientific research and education.
/2/ This program is similar to one written in a
simplified FORTRAN by John Loehlin in "Computer
Models of Personality", Random House, NY, 1968.

s
a

FIGURE 3

m
m
f
NUMBER
SYSTEM
CHARACTER

MANUFACTURER
IDENTIFICATION

PRODUCT/PART
NUMBER

P
w

/3/ This question is treated as a theorem by Minsky
and Papert in their book "Perceptrons;' MIT Press,
1970.

STEP 1

References

STEP 3

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -__________________~) 69

STEP 4

--------------------------------7) 70

A
t
o
t
t

18 x 3

STEP 2

Papert, S. "Teaching Children Thinking", M.LT.
LOGO Memo #2, Oct. 1971.
(2) Iverson, K.E. "APL in Exposition", IBM Tech.
Report #320-3010, Jan. 1972.
(3) Berry, p. et. al. "APL and Insight: The Use of
Programs to Represent Concepts in Teaching", IBM
Tech. Report #320-3020, March 1973.

(1)

NEXT HIGHEST
MULTIPLE OF 10

r
p
t

Continued from page 16

or registration run counter to this principle.
At stake in this case is equal patent treatment
for the products of small software companies. The
myth perpetuated by the Government and CBEI\IA -- that
computer-program embodied inventions are not machine
inventions -- has been exploded; there is now no
justification for the denial of patent protection
to software-embodied machines.

MODULO
CHECK
CHARACTER

ADAPSO -

c
FIGURE 4

For the meaning of the 29 references and for the
rest of the brief, please ask ADAPSO for a copy of
the printed brief.

COMPUTERS and PEOPLE for December 1975

Computers and People: Case 1
IIStuart Universityll
r

Dr. Edward A. Tomeski
Contributing Editor, "Computers and People"
Fordham University
Bronx, NY

10458

Stuart University· was founded in the 1890s and
has an enrollment of more than 10,000 full-time
equivalent students and about 500 faculty members.

Administratively, the university consists of
the board of trustees, the president, and vice presidents of academic affairs, research, financial
affairs, student affairs, public relations, and
planning. The various academic units are administered by deans and their assistants. Administration of Stuart, a private institution, has historically been relatively centralized and informal.
Recently, there has been a gradual movement toward
some decentralized decision-making as well as formalizing of policy and procedures. Long-range
planning, budgeting, and institutional research
are all receiving increased attention at Stuart.
Overall, student enrollment has had some modest
growth. but some specific educational programs
have had serious declines in enrollment.
The data processing center began operating in
the late 1950s. mostly for academic uses in the
areas of mathematics and science. At that time,
the center was administered on a part-time basis
by a faculty member. In the 1960s, the data processing center was placed under the supervision of
a full-time computer specialist who reported to
the Vice President of planning. Several full-time
computer programmers were hired. In a few years
the major use of the computer was for administrative applications (e.g., payroll, accounting, students' grades, registration records) rather than
for academic work. In the early 1970s, a university computer committee was established; the committee contained representatives from administration and academic departments. The committee recommended the establishment of an integrated information system for the university. A systems task
force was designated to design and develop such a
system. The head of the task force, a fUll-time
systems analyst, also reported directly to the
vice president of planning. Two goals were set for
the task force: 1. The design and development of
two data bases; a student file and a faculty file.
These would constitute the beginning of an integrated information system. 2. An attempt to develop a university simulation model to be used as
an aid in predictive planning for the university.
';'Whilc based on an actual si tunti on, the case material has been slightly modified to conceal the
identity of the institution.

COMPUTERS and PEOPLE for December, 1975

From time to time "Computers and People" presents
a capsule case which illustrates practical problems and issues related to computer technology
and its use in organizations. A case includes
questions. Readers are invited to compose their
answers to the questions and, if they wish, mail
them to Dr. Tomeski before the 10th of the month
following the month of publication. In a subsequent issue each case will be discussed and
selected responses by readers will be printed,
along with a proposed solution by Dr. Tomeski.
Recently, the use of the computer has been increasing in the academic areas for educational and
research purposes. The data processing center, however, has a mandate to concentrate most of its time
on administrative areas and the integrated information system. Consequently, there have been increasing complaints from faculty that educational
technology is being neglected, and that such neglect harms the quality of the university education
and research effort. Some professors use outside
computers, because the university's computer is
either inadequate for larger problems or the response
time is poor. Because of the increase in operating
costs (e.g., faculty salaries, fuel bills) and economic uncertainty, the university is operating under
a very tight budget.
Questions:
1. From the information available, do you think
the faculty complaints appear justified? What
can the faculty do to alleviate the problem?
2. What are the dangers, to the university, if
more computer power is not made available to
academic and research users?
3. What is your assessment of the university computer committee and its role related to the data
processing center? Can you reconcile the responsibilities of the vice president of planning,
director of the data processing center, and the
systems analyst who heads the systems task force?
4. What is the best way of balancing the center's
service between the administrative and academic
users of the university?
5. What actions would you take if you were the
vice president of planning?
0

Computer-Assisted Tutorials In College Mathematics
J. L. Caldwell
Dept. of Mathematics
University of Wisconsin-River Falls
River Falls, WI 54022

Douglas Polley
Dept. of Mathematics
University of Minnesota
Minneapolis, MN 55455
"While operating the programs, the students showed a most unusual enthusiasm for
quadratic formula and line problems."

Many uses of computers in mathematics education
are well known. We believe that our approach dif.·
fers in important aspects from most standard uses.
It is hoped that this note will encourage others to
experiment with techniques similar to the one presented.
Analyzing Student Answers

The programs which the authors have designed and
written were specifically intended to analyze the
students' answers to computational problems. We
call this approach tutorial (although this terminology is nonstandard) because the programs mimic the
role of a tutor in the traditional sense. No new
material is presented via the computer. We assume
that the student has received instruction in basic
formulae before using the programs. If the student
responds incorrectly to problems generated by the
program, the program analyzes the student's answers
in an attempt to identify common errors.
The first programs deal with quadratic equations
and equations of straight lines. A program dealing
with sums of rational functions is under construction.

Programming Languages

The programs were written in FORTRAN and implemented on a CDC 6400 computer, but other choices
would serve well also. In particular, the size of
the CDC 6400 is unnecessary because such programs
are easily divided into subprograms. FORTRAN could
be replaced, and in fact the programs are currently
being translated into BASIC to premit their use on
other time sharing systems. The use of an instructional dialogue language (IOL) would greatly facilitate the writing; but unfortunately the authors know
of no IOL which has the capability of generating
problems at random. Hopefully this void will soon
be fi lled.
The principal use of the programs has been by
precalculus and linear algebra students at the University of Wisconsin-River Falls and the Minneapolis
and Morris campuses of the University of Minnesota.
In addition, several other members of the Minnesota
Educational Regional Interactive Time-Sharing System
(MERITSS) have been involved.
Those readers desiring additional information
about the programs are invited to write UWRF.
Discovering the Source of a Student's Error

Problems with Randomly Chosen Parameters

The format of all the programs is the same. The
student, seated at a teletype, receives a problem
with randomly chosen parameters. The student then
solves the problem and enters his solution. If his
solution agrees with the computer's solution, then
another problem is presented. If the student's solution is incorrect, the computer then works the problem incorrectly in several different ways, each
time checking its answer against the student's. If
a match is obtained, then the computer suggests that
the student has made a certain error and asks him to
try again. If none of the incorrect answers match
the student's answer, then the computer will check
the student's work step by step. For example, in
the case of the quadratic equation program, the student is first asked "What did you get for A, B, C?"
and then later "What did you get for B -4AC?" Fi nally, if the student does not enter the correct answer, he receives a detailed solution. (For over
90% of the problems we have checked thus far, the
student has eventually entered the correct answer.)
If a student requires detailed solutions to several
problems, he is asked to contact the instructor.

It was our intention to identify the source of a
student's error as soon as possible with minimal
interrogation of the student. This presents some
interesting theoretical, as well as practical, questions. On the theoretical side, we may ask just how
much can we tell about the source of the error based
on our knowledge of the incorrect response, the correct response, and a knowledge of the technique being
used. On the practical side, we have the considerations motivated by the following example of two incorrect solutions to the problem: "Find the equation
of the line through the point (2, -3) wi th slope 2."
II

2(x - 2)

y + 3 = 2(x - 2)
y + 3 = 2x - 4
y = 2x -

Reprinted with permission from the" American Mathematical Monthly",
October, 1975

COMPUTERS and PEOPLE for December, 1975

In I the mistake occurs in the first line, while
in II the error is in the subtraction of the last
line. In both cases the answer given is the same.
Although the existence of the error can be readily
identified, and it may be reasonable to assume that
any incorrect answer of the form y = 2x - 1 is due
to one of these methods, we still cannot tell which
is the case. In programming the response to this
situation we may issue a message of the form "I think
you computed y - y. incorrectly, or perhaps you combined terms incorrectly." Alternatively, we may inquire "What did you get for y - y, ?" While the
latter choice is less ambiguous, it is more difficult to program because it involves additional decisions. In situations where the error is not among
those errors deemed most likely to occur, it may be
acceptable to respond in the former manner.
System Design Considerations

For those who want to develop a series of integrated tutorial programs there will be some additional system design considerations. One problem is
how to allow a student to progress through problems
of varying levels of difficulty. One possibility is
to have a level indicator which determines the difficulty of the problem generated as well as the details of the interrogation of the student. In the
case of a student who has made several mistakes we
would assign a lower number and ask him to enter his
work a step at a time. For a student who is not
making many mistakes we would not ask for as many
intermediate steps and give more opportunities to
correct mistakes before we present the solution.
Another item of some import will be a series of
software routines for such things as reading student
input (e.g., polynomials) and extracting relevant
data. Other such routines might include a means for
comparing algebraic expressions to determine if they
are equivalent (see Uttral [6]). Of course, once
such routines have been written they can serve a
large number of tutorial programs.
Immediate Individualized Help

We believe that this approach is a valid utilization of computer facilities because it offers immediate, individualized help to students in a manner
that can be duplicated only by actual consultation
with an instructor. The advantage to the student is
a source of immediate feedback which might not be
available if he had to compete with other students
for help from the instructor. The advantage to the
instructor is more time to deal with conceptual problems which are basically computational in nature.

Experience in Developing the Programs

Another benefit of a system of tutorial programs
is the experience gained in developing them. The
authors are currently having senior mathematics education students create additional programs because
we believe that they will thus obtain a better understanding of the errors a student may make and
also develop a facility in explaining the material.
The student designer will, of course, learn much in
the area of system programming.
Enthusiasm

Our experience with programs developed so far has
indicated that there is considerable potential in
this type of computer-assisted instruction, particularly at the college algebra level. The manipulative nature of many of the topics in college algebra (such as determinants, systems of equations,
etc.) makes them suitable for the problem and answer
analysis framework. Programs in this area would also
provide review material for calculus students whose
problem-solving techniques need improvement. In
response to a questionnaire. students who have used
existing programs indicated they considered the process most helpful and would recommend it to their
fellow students. They also expressed a willingness
to try new programs when they become available.
While operating the programs. the students showed a
most unusual enthusiasm for quadratic formula and
line problems. It was most encouraging to see the
students' satisfaction in obtaining the correct soltions with the assistance of the computer. For these
reasons the authors hope that this approach will be
expanded and improved.
References
I.

E. D. Koffman, A generative CAl tutor for computer science concepts, AFIPS Conference Proceedings, 40, 1972. Spring Joint Computer
Con., p. 379.

H. A. Lekan, Index to Computer Assisted Instruction, Harcourt. Brace. Jovanovich. New York.
1971.

A. W. Luehrmann. Should the computer teach the
student, or vica versa?, AFIPS Conference Proceedings, 40, 1972. Spring Joint Computer
Con., p. 407.

W. Stenberg, Computing in the high school -past present and future -- and its unreasonable
effectiveness in the teaching of mathematics,
AFIPS Conference Proceedings, 40. 1972. Spring
Joint Computer Con., p. 1051.

P. C. Suppes. M. Jerman, D. Brian et al., Computer Assisted Instruction: Stanford's 19651966 Arithmetic Program. Academic Press. New
York, 1968.

W. R. Uttral. Reaction paper. Computer Assisted
Instruction and the Teaching of Mathematics,
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics,
Inc., 1969.

Reduction in Teletype Time

We feel that this approach has advantages over
the setting in which the entire course is presented
via the computer. First there is a reduction in the
teletype time required because the student first attends class or perhaps studies a programmed text,
then comes to the computer to work problems. Even
more teletype time can be saved if our system is
modified by assigning to the students problems that
are stored in the "computer. Then the student would
come to the computer only with problems he could not
work. (Minimizing teletype time is important because
it is often more scarce than computer time.) A second advantage is that tutorial programs are compatible with different presentations of the course material, thus leaving more control in the hands of the
individual instructor.

COMPUTERS and PEOPLE for December, 1975

TIl(
infc
inpi

Computing and Data Processing Newsletter
COl

1(J

COMPUTER "SCENARIOS" FOR THE APPLICATION
OF PESTICIDES BEFORE THEY ARE APPLIED

COMPUTER MONITORS PRESCRIPTIONS AND
HELPS PREVENT ADVERSE DRUG REACTIONS

Robert Silber
Dept. of Information Services
Michigan State University
East Lansing, Mich. 48824

Ken Fleming
Executive Assistant for Public Affairs
Group Health Cooperative of Puget Sound
200 - 15th Avenue East
Seattle, WA 98112

Biological and computer scientists at Michigan
State University are going to attempt to head off
ecological and environmental crises before they start.
They will develop computer "scenarios" of the expected future effects of pesticide applications. They
are funded by a $360,000 grant from the federal Environmental Protection Agency. Under the general management of Pesticide Research Center at MSU, a research team of biologists, a group of systems scientists and pesticide experts will examine the environmental impact of 12 of the most commonly used "soft"
pesticides. Dr. Erik Goodman, assistant professor
of Electrical Engineering and Systems Science will
head the group.
.
Soft pesticides -- usually organic phosphorous and
carbamate compounds -- are generally considered safer
by environmentalists because of their relatively rapid breakdown to nontoxic compounds. But in nature,
things are rarely simple and loss of toxicity in the
laboratory doesn't mean that a chemical will behave
identically in the field. Even transient toxicity
can have long-term detrimental effects in an ecological system. Temperature, humidity, or the activity
of bacteria and fungi can drastically alter the persistance of a pesticide. To forecast the effects of
an application, these and a number of other variables
should be, but rarely are, taken into account.
The characteristics of an ecosystem -- its geographic location, the kinds of animals and plants in it,
its physical and chemical properties -- all can have
tremendous i~fluence on the effects of a given ~esti
cide. A chemical application having minimal side
effects in a northern forest, could be disasterous
to shellfish living in waters adjacent to a southern
farm field. Because the ecological consequences of
an improper chemical application can be severe, and
because there are so many variables to consider, we
need computer simulations to handle efficiently all
the information relevant to rational decisions.
With many scientist contributing information from
many places, solving such a problem resembles working
on a jigsaw puzzle without being sure of having all
of the pieces. Computer models will help direct
future research by putting available information in
perspective, allowing scientists to identify information gaps and to establish relevant research goals.

Cal
2~

Prescription drugs offer remedies for almost
everything from circulatory disease to headaches,
these same drugs can pose hazards if taken in the
wrong combinations.
The average adult today consumes thousands of
doses of medication a year. Tranquilizers, antacids,
aspirin, antibiotics, cold remedies -- the list is
long and diverse.

COl

We know of at least 17,000 documented drug interactions with other drugs, foods, miscellaneous substances, conditions and circumstances. Many of these
interactions are harmless; others can produce symptoms requiring treatment, or even endanger life.

It costs an estimated $2 billion a year to treat
people in the United States suffering adverse drug
reactions. Nearly 20 per cent of all hospital days
in the nation are devoted to care of these patients.
To help prevent these mishaps, Group Health Cooperative has installed a computer system to monitor
more than one million prescriptions issued yearly.

Co,
l'

The Co-Op is a prepaid health care provider. and
has m6re than 200,000 m~mbers in the Puget Sound area
and a medical staff of 200. It operates a major hospital and ten neighborhood medical centers, each with
its own pharmacy.
Patient profiles, listing the medication history,
drug allergies and chronic illnesses of all GHC patients, are stored in a central computer. Another file
lists all pharmaceuticals in stock. their chemical
formulations, side-effects and interaction problems,
if any.
This information is instantly accessible by means
of remote TV-like computer terminals in the outlying
pharmacies.
When a Co-Op member presents a new prescription,
the pharmacist enters the patient's name and number
into the system, which then scans the appropriate
medication history. If the drug prescribed will react negatively with those the patient already is taking -- including patent medicines -- the computer .
automatically stops the process and indicates that
the prescription should not be filled. If the patiCOMPUTERS and PEOPLE for December. 197G

Co
."

Co
2

'tarnation

ent's computer record shows an allergy to the medication, or one of its ingredients, the system displays
this information on the remote terminal screen.
In either case, the pharmacist then contacts the
prescribing physician and requests alternative therapy.
For example, if a person is allergic to penicillin,
the doctor will prescribe a different type of antibiotic drug. But if this substitute should contain
some form of penicillin, the computer will halt the
prescription-filling process and alert the pharmacist.
The effects of certain antibiotics can be nullified if taken in combination with food or antacids.
If a Group Health Cooperative member regularly takes
antacids, this fact will be noted in his computer
record. When this patient presents a prescription
for an antibiotic, the computer will alert the pharmacist who. then advises the patient how to avoid the
interaction.

[A]

[F]

[A]

To deal with another situation, the computer system will reject a prescription for a sugar-based
cough syrup, if that should be ordered inadvertently
for a diabetic.
If no problems appear when the patient's profile
is scanned, the new prescription is added to the
record and a label is automatically printed.

The system includes a data acquisition and processing system containing a minicomputer and 31
transducers which sense voltage and current flow in
the feeder circuits to all the campus buildings.
The computer scans the transducers once per minute
to take a new set of readings. l~ese transducers
are situated in the central, high voltage distribution cubicles, each of which suppliesa single large
building or several small buildings.
Signals from the transducers are conditioned by
a scaling device. Then they travel over both campus
and dedicated telephone company lines through an
analog-to-digital converter and finally arrive at
the computer. In real time, the computer generates
displays of energy use in each of the 25 cubicles.
The displays are monitored by a console in the plant
engineer's office, and displayed data is also stored
on one of two disc drives. Later, the displays are
plotted offline on a digital plotter, and graphically display patterns of energy use over periods of
a day, a week, or a month. A teletype is also available for producing data tabulations and for program
development entries and output.

The system does not replace the trained pharmacist
or physician, but it serves as a major aid in dispensing the most effective and safe medications. At the
same time, it reduces the tedious chores which pharmacists and their assistants would have to perform
by hand.

The Berkeley system is being used to examine the
two main factors which go into the calculation of
the institution's monthly bill -- energy demand and
energy usage. Demand represents how much energy the
campus may require at any given moment, while the
power or energy used is, of course, the summation
for a given time period.

All pharmacies in the State of Washington soon
will be required to maintain medication profiles on
regular consumers. The Cooperative's computer system
will keep these records, ensuring compliance with the
new ruling and conserving thousands of hours of pharmacists' time -- time that would have been spent on
maintaining manual records.

High demand peaks occur at the university when
several experimental apparatus such as the main
campus' wind tunnel, small nuclear reactors, and
plasma experiments are turned on simultaneously and
superimposed on the ordinary "background" loads such
as lighting, heating, cooling and continuously-run
experiments.

Another benefit of the system is that the computer
is programmed to monitor the drug inventory. So the
size of the inventory can be reduced, and costs cut,
without fear of sudden exhaustion of stock. The system will generate reorders when quantities are low.

A high demand peak pays a heavy penalty. To help
defray the costs of turbines, generators and transmission lines necessary to meet the highest peaks
which may arise, no matter how short their duration,
the Pacific Gas and Electric Company (PG & E) incorporates peak demand into the billing equation very
significantly.

The newly-installed computer system will save
money and, in addition, provide better service to the
CO,Op members, making a larger contribution to their
good health.
The computer used is an IBM System 370 Model 125.
MINICOMPUTER HELPS CUT
UNIVERSITY'S ELECTRIC BILLS

John Kane
Hewlett Packard
1501 Page Mill Road
Palo Alto, CA 94304

[N]

While itself consuming no more energy than a room
air conditioner, the system monitors more than 20
megawatts of power used in 75 buildings on this campus. The Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory is separate
electrically and accounts for another 20 megawatts.

Administrators at the University of California at
Berkeley have installed a minicomputer system to monitor the use of about $125,000 per month worth of
electrical energy. The system is helping facility
managers here discover exactly where and how power
is consumed and how best to reduce the large monthly
bi 11.

COMPUTERS and PEOPLE for December, 1975

In charging for peaks in demand, PG & E employs
what is called a "ratchet effect", whereby the highest peak occurring during any half-hour period for
the month is carried forward in calculating the next
II monthly bills, or until a new half-hour peak is
registered in some succeeding month. This ratcheted
peak is averaged-in with each month's actual peak.
As an example, suppose a three-megawatt peak over
and above the normal demand for a half-hour period
is recorded but never repeated again. At present
demand costs -- about $1800 per megawatt -- this
amounts to $5400 extra for the first month and $2700
for the next 11 months for a total cost of $35.100
for the year for that one peak.
Facility managers are taking aim at these costly
peaks in demand. They are beginning to knock them
down by a notch or two through using the minicomputer
system to observe their occurrence.

A lamp removal program is underway to eliminate
all unnecessary lamps while still providing illumination required for a practical environment. A program designed to upgrade lighting fixtures to diffuse
light more efficiently has begun. Also, a scheduling
program is being set up whereby experiments requiring
substantial amounts of electricity are staggered,
avoiding simultaneous use wherever possible and utilizing evening and weekend time periods when background loads are lowest.
A look at the pen plots generated by the computer
for Moffitt Library demonstrates how revealing the
detailed information on electrical demand can be.
Analysis showed that most of Moffitt's load was the
result of lighting rather than experimental equipments, machinery, or HVAC systems. Examination of
the plots also revealed two unaccounted for and costly afternoon demand peaks, two weeks apart. A check
of weather conditions (the weather bureau hai a station on campus) showed these were exceptionaily warm
winter days and air conditioning units were turned
on.
The 100 kw air conditioning units operate automatically for Moffitt from sensors located outdoors.
The building's extensive fluorescent lighting provides all the heat necessary on most days. Facilities managers concluded that by turning off 50 percent of the lights on warm days, the air conditioners
needn't be used as often. This was accomplished
without impairing normal use of the building.
The monitoring of load peaking will have other
benefits as well. The system functions as a maintenance tool for electricians. On the console, feeder lines can be identified and instantaneous readings
of voltage and current can be taken. This permits
electricians to find overloaded lines and switch
loads, preventing individual transformers and cables
from taking the brunt of the load, which shortens
their productive lives.
The system installation was very inexpensive.
The transducers cost about $30 each; there was little
special wiring necessary. Each of the 31 monitoring
points cost about $150 to install completely. The
monitoring system should pay for itself in two years.
If so, the saving in monthly electric bill would be
more than 10 percent.

view, test, evaluate, and distribute the best available computer-based materials for classroom use in
the physical and social sciences. This activity
will require establishing quality standards for materials; it also requires the development of mechanisms for delivering materials to instructors.
The grant is from the Technological Innovations
in Education Group of the National Science Foundation; it will enable CONDUIT to continue work on the
development of procedures, techniques, standards and
systems for disseminating complex computer-based
instructional packages.
In addition, CONDUIT will assemble panels of experts to provide state-of-the-art reports on instructional computing in the fields of chemistry, physics,
economics, biology, mathematics, sociology, geography, political science, business and psychology.
CONDUIT was founded in 1972 to study and promote
the exchange of computer-based instructional materials. The original members of the CONDUIT consortium
were Dartmouth College. North Carolina Educational
Computing Service, Oregon State University, The University of Iowa. and the University of Texas, Austin.
The project will be expanded this year with the inclusion of 10 new members in the consortium.
The use of the computer to provide new and exciting techniques for learning has become much more feasible because of dramatic decreases in equipment
costs. But the real effectiveness of the new technology depends on the dissemination of ideas on the
use of computers in education. The main job of
CONDUIT is to assure that the best ideas, some of
which currently pass unnoticed, are widely dissemi nated and adopted.
0

FAEOUENCYM:n~:~~

LOCATION OF KNOWN OFFtCEOf PUBLICATION (8"...1.

!~~=SW;;::PA$~ .50

NAMES AND ADDRESSES OF PUBLISHER, EDITOR, AND MANAGING EDITOR

Edmund C. Berkeley. 615 Washington St .. Newtonville. Mass. 02160
EDITOR (Na". .....ndaddn ..,

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of New Yor~~~LW.a.Sh'~ntnn~;,

James J. CrYan
Ed Burnett

News Service
The University of Iowa
700 Jefferson Building
Iowa City, IA 52242

Fore go

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8. KNOWN BONDHOLDERS, MORTGAGEES, ANO OTHER SECURITY HOLDERS OWNING OR HOLDING 1 PERCENT OA MORE OF
TOTAL AMOUNT OF BONOS MORTGAGES OR OTHER SECURITIES I the", 0"' "anI!' .odoll!'

9. FOR OPTIONAL COMPLETION BY PUBLISHERS MAILING AT THE REGULAR RATES (Section 1:12.121, Polloi S.MJice Man!lal!

The University of Iowa has received a National
Science Foundation grant of $375,000 so that it can
serve as a center for the review, testing and dissemination of selected computer-based materials for college science courses. The project is being carried
out by CONDUIT, a consortium of eight educational
computer networks directed by James W. Johnson of
The University of Iowa Computer Center.
The main objective of CONDUIT is to improve education by providing for instructors and students
alternative ways of learning concepts and methods.
Because of the newness of the use of computer technology in education, structures to effectively disseminate innovations do not now exist.
The IS-month grant will provide support for the
CONDUIT central office on the U of I campus to re-

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AVERAGE NO. COPIES

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B. PAID CIRCULATION
1. SALES THROUGH OEALERS ANO CARRIERS, STREET
VENOORS ANO COUNTER SA LES

O. FREE DISTRIBUTION BY MAIL, CARRIER OR OTHER MEANS
SAMPLES,COMPLIMENTARY,AND OTHER FREE COPIES
E. TOTAL OISTRIBUTION (SUi'll ofC.1Id DJ
F. COPIES NOTOIliTRIBVTED

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.cOMPUTERS and PEOPLE for December, 1975

....

GAMES AND PUZZLES for Nimble Minds - and Computers
Neil Macdonald
Assistant Editor
I

It is fun to use one's mind, and it is fun to use the
artificial mind of a computer. We publish here a variety
of puzzles and problems, related in one way or another to
computer game playing and computer puzzle solving, or

to the programming of a computer to understand and
use free and unconstrained natural language.
We hope these puzzles will entertain and challenge
the readers of Computers and People.

.
NAYMANDIJ

NUMBLES

In this kind of puzzle an array of random or pseudorandom digits ("produced by Nature") has been subjected to a
"definite systematic operation" ("chosen by Nature") and
the problem ("which Man is faced with") is to figure out
what was Nature's operation.
A "definite systematic operation" meets the following
requirements: the operation must be performed on all the
digits of a definite class which can be designated; the result
displays some kind of evident, systematic, rational order and
completely removes some kind of randomness; the operation
must be expressible in not more than four English words.
(But Man can use more words to express it and still win.)

A "numble" is an arithmetical problem in which: digits
have been replaced by capital letters; and there are two
messages, one which can be read right away and a second
one in the digit cipher. The problem is to solve for the
digits. Each capital letter in the arithmetical problem
stands for just one digit 0 to 9. A digit may be represented by more than one letter. The second message,
which is expressed in numerical digits, is to be translated
(using the same key) into letters so that it may be read;
but the spelling uses puns, or deliberate (but evident) misspellings, or is otherwise irregular, to discourage cryptanalytic methods of deciphering.

NUMBLE 7512

NA YMANDIJ 7512

142 1 346 2 6 7 2 5 493 7 3 201
1 5 9 7 5 3 9 088 6 243 5 331 3 2
7 5 8 6 8 6 028 962 1 879 1 048
5 0 1 8 1 4 3 1 291 9 594 9 5 709
3 6 5 766 7 028 032 2 008 244
738 9 2 4 8
6 7 5 4 7 3 6 4 7
4 6
1 6 744 2 6 2 7 6 6 7 7 4 2 2 5 432
1 1 5 099 6 0 3 0 088 2 8 2 3 304
2 4 8 868 7 1 604
2 7 364
6 5
745 3 2'9 2 3 2 7 5 3 9 5 8 4 1
1 8

H E

WHO

T E W

S L L
S W T

OMKTW
90685

36549

06851

3254

We invite our readers to send us solutions. Usually
the (or "a") solution is published in the next issue.

MAXIMDIJ
In this kind of puzzle, a maxim (common saying, proverb,
some good advice, etc.) using 14 or fewer different letters
is enciphered (using a simple substitution cipher) into the
10 decimal digits or equivalent signs for them. To compress
any extra letters into the 10 digits, the encipherer may use
puns, minor misspellings, equivalents like CS or KS for X
or vice versa, etc. But the spaces between words are kept.

SOLUTIONS
NA YMANDIJ 7511: Make row 3 even.
MAXIMDIJ 7511: If it is different, it is rong.
NUMBLE 7511: People learn by losing and losing.

MAXIMDIJ 7512

(D~CD*

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