197512

computers

and

people

The

Computer

Glass Box (Part 2)

The

Universal Product Code

Software Should

Be

Patentable

Computer-Assisted Tutorials in College Mathematics

Computers and Society: A Course

at

York University

I

SCIENCE

AND

BUS~NESS

'

December,

1975

Vol.

24, No. 12

formerly Computers

and

Automation

UB~y

USE

ONt y

-

H.

A.

Peelle

-Thomas

V.

Sobczak

-ADAPSO

225

CHRISTMAS

FLOWERS

by

William

Kolomyjec

-

J.

L.

Caldwell

and

Doug/as Polley

-

Larry

J.

Murphy

7 3

"RIDE

THE

EAST

WIND:

Parables

of

Yesterday

and

Today"

by

Edmund

C.

Berkeley,

Author

and Anthologist

The Fly, the Spider, and the Hornet

Once a Fly, a Spider, and a Hornet were trapped inside a

window

.screen

in

an attic. For several hours

they

walked up

and

down, left

and right, here

and

there, all over

the

screen.

They

could

look

through

the

screen

at

the

summer woods, feel

the

summer breezes,

and

smell

the

summer smells;

but

they

could

not

find

any

hole

to

pass through

the

screen

to

the

woods

and

fields so tantalizingly close,

yet

so far

away.

Finally

they

decided

to

hold a conference

on

the

problem of

get-

ting through

the

screen. The Fly spoke first, and said,

"My

Col-

leagues,

....

The Fox

of

Mt. Etna and the Grapes

Once

there

was a Fox

who

lived

on

the

lower slopes of Mt. Etna,

the

great volcano in Sicily. These slopes are extremely fertile;

the

grapes

that

grow

there

may

well be

the

most delicious

in

the

world;

and

of all

the

farmers there, Farmer Mario was probably

the

best.

And this Fox longed and longed for some of Farmer Mario's grapes.

But

they

grew very high on arbors, and all

the

arbors were inside a

vineyard with high walls, and

the

Fox

had a problem. Of course,

the

Fox of Mt. Etna had utterly

no

use for his famous ancestor,

who

leaping for grapes

that

he could not reach, called

them

sour,

and

went

away.

The

Fox decided

that

what

he needed was Engineering

Techno-

logy. So he

went

to

a retired Engineer who lived

on

the

slopes of

Mt.

Etna, because he liked

the

balmy climate and

the

view of

the

Mediterranean Sea

and

the

excitement

of

watching his instruments

that

measured

the

degree of sleeping or waking of

Mt.

Etna.

The

Fox

put

his problem before

the

Engineer

....

The Fire

Squ

irrels

Scene: Two squirrels, a

young

one

named

Quo,

and

an

older

one

named

era-era,

are

sitting

by

a

small

campfire

in

a

field

at

the

edge

of

a wood.

Behind

them

hung

on

a

low

branch

of

a tree are

two

squirrel-size hammocks. Over each

of

the

hammocks

is a

small

can-

opy

that

can be

lowered

to

keep

out

biting

insects.

It

is a pleasant

summer

evening,' the sun

has

just

recently

set,

and

the stars

are

com-

ing

out:--

Quo:

Cra-Cra, you know I

don't

believe

the

old

myths

any

more.

Tell me again how it really happened.

era-era:

Just

this:

we

received

our

chance because

they

dropped

theirs. It

is

as simple as

that.

Quo:

In

other

words,

they

were

the

first animals

to

use tools,

and

we

are

the

second?

era-era:

Yes. There

is

a mode of surviving

in

the

world

....

2

Published

by

Quadrangle/The New

York

Times

Book Co., 1974, 224 pp, $6.95

Missile Alarm

from

Grunelandt

Once upon a time

there

were

two

very large

and

strong

coun-

tries called Bazunia

and

Vossnia. There were

many

great,

impor-

tant,

and powerful leaders

of

Bazunia who carefully cultivated

an

enormous

fear of Vossnia. Over

and

over again these

important

and

powerful leaders of Bazunia would say

to

their fellow

coun-

trymen,

"You

can't

trust

the

Vossnians." And

in

Vossnia

there

was a group of great, important, and powerful leaders

who

pointed

out

what

dangerous military activities

the

Bazunians were carrvinQ

on,

and

how

Vossnia had

to

be militarily strong

to

counteract

them.

The

Bazunian leaders persuaded their

countrymen

to

vote

to

give

them

enormous

sums

of

money

to

construct

something

called

the

Ballistic Missile Early Warning System, and

one

of its

stations was installed

in

a land called Grunelandt far

to

the

north

of Bazunia.

Now of course ballistic missiles with nuclear explosives can fly

any

kind of a path all

around

a spherical world,

and

they

do

not

have

to

fly over

northern

regions. But this kind of reasoning had

no influence

on

the

leaders

of

Bazunia

who

wanted

the

money

for building

BMEWS.

Nor did it have influence

on

their

country-

men,

who

were always busy, trying

to

make

money

-in fact

often

too

busy

to

think

clearly

....

52 parables (including fables, anecdotes, allegories)

23 never published before

27

authors

18 full-page illustrations

330 quotations and maxims

7 Parts: The Condition

of

Man /

On

Flattery and

Persuasion /

On

Perseverance

and

Resourcefulness /

Behavior -Moral and Otherwise / The Problem

of

Truth

/

On

Common

Sense

/ Problem Solving

THE

VALUE

OF

THIS

BOOK TO YOU

CAN

BE

VERY

GREAT

JUDGE

FOR

YOURSELF

AT

NO COST

RETURNABLE IN 10

DAYS

FOR

FULL

REFUND

IF NOT SATISFACTORY

You

can

read

it

all in 10 days -

and

keep

it

only

if

you

think

it

is

worth

keeping.

HOW

CAN YOU LOSE?

- - - - (may be copied

on

any piece

of

paper) - - - - - - -

I

I To: Berkeley Enterprises, Inc.

815

Washington St., S9, Newtonville,

MA

02160

Please send me copy(jes) of Ride the East

Wind:

I enclose

$7.00

per

copy

(includes handling).

Total enclosed

____

_ (Prepayment is necessary)

My

name

and

address are attached.

COMPUTERS and PEOPLE for December,

1975

....

The

6th

cumulative

edition

of

ttWHO'S

WHO

IN

COMPUTERS

AND

DATA

PROCESSING"

is due to

be

published in 1976

•

Send

us

your

order at the special prepublication price

of

$34.50

(Price after publication

will

be

$40.00)

The most essential components in computers and

data processing are PEOPLE -who are they?

what

do

they do? where do they do it?

"Who's Who in Computers and Data Processing" is par-

ticularly useful for:

Personnel managers

Libraries

Conference planners

Directors

of

computer

installations

Suppliers to the

computer

industry

Executive search organizations

Prospective authors

Prospective speakers

...

anyone who needs

to

keep up with the important people

in

the field.

Each computer professional has a capsule biography

detailing: last name; first name and middle initial

(if

any); occupation; year

of

birth; university education

and degrees; year entered the computer field; main

interests; job title; organization and its address; pub·

lications, honors and memberships; home address.

We

are confident

that

you

will find

the

subscription will

repay you

many

times over.

In

fact, one day when this

wealth

of

material gives

you

the

inside track

with

some-

one

important

to

you, you'll find

the

information

PRICELESS: the most essential component in EDP

is

CAPABLE PEOPLE.

COMPUTERS

and PEOPLE

for

December,

1975

"Who's Who in Computers and Data Processing"

is

jointly

published

by

Quadrangle/The New York Times

Book Co. and

"Computers

and People" (Berkeley

Enter-

prises Inc.)

This publication

is

based

on

"never ceasing" data gath-

ering

about

computer professionals carried

out

for more

than 10 years

by

"Computers

and People" (formerly

"Computers

and

Automation").

Our files contain inform-

ation

on

more than 17,000 computer professionals.

r -------(may

be

copied on any piece

of

paper)-

---

'-

- - - - - - -

I WHO'S

WHO

IN

COMPUTERS AND DATA PROCESSING

815

Washington St., Newtonville,

Mass.

02160

YES, please enroll me as a subscriber

to

Who's Who

in

Computers

and

Data Processing as follows:

I enclose $34.50 prepublication price for

the

1976

cumulative "Who's Who" when published.

I

can't

wait for a number of months. Please send

me

the

last cumulative edition, and 3 updating

supplements. I enclose $34.50.

Both. I enclose $69.00.

RETURNABLE

IN

10

DAYS

FOR

FULL

REFUND

IF

NOT

SATISFACTORY

Name

______________________________________

_

Tit

I e

______________________________________

_

Organization

_______________________________

_

Address,

___________________________________

_

City

_______________

State &

Zip

________

_

Your

Signature P.O.

No.

__

_

(if

company

order)

3

4

Vol.

24, No.

12

December, 1975

Editor and Edmund C. Berkeley

Publisher

Assistant to

Judith

P.

Callahan

the Publisher

Assistant

Editors

Art

Editor

Software

Editor

Contributing

Editors

London

Correspondent

Barbara

L.

Chaffee

Neil Macdonald

Grace

C.

Hertlein

Stewart

B. Nelson

John

Bennett

John

W.

Carr III

Grace

C.

Hertlein

Linda Ladd Lovett

Ted

Schoeters

Richard

E.

Sprague

Edward A. Tomeski

Thomas

Land

Advisory

Ed

Burnett

Committee

James

J.

Cryan

Editorial

Offices

Advertising

Contact

Berkeley Enterprises, Inc.

815

Washington St.

Newtonville,

MA

02160

617-332-5453

The

Publisher

Berkeley Enterprises, Inc.

815

Washington St.

Newtonville,

MA

02160

617-332-5453

"Computers

and

People,"

formerly

"Computers

and

Automation,"

is

published

monthly,

12

issues

per

year,

at

815

Washing-

ton

St.,

Newtonville,

MA

02160,

by

Berkeley

Enterprises,

I

nco

Printed

in

U.S.A.

Second

Class

Postage

paid

at

Boston,

MA,

and

addi-

tional

mailing

points.

Subscription

rates:

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States,

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for

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year,

$22.00

for

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years.

Canada:

add

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a

year;

elsewhere,

add

$6

a

year.

NOTE:

The

above

rates

do

not

include

our

publication

"The

Computer

Directory

and

Buyers'

Guide",

21

st

annual

edition,

1975:

Should be

off

press

in

December,

1975

-

the

delay

is

regretted.

Key

[A] Article

[C]

Monthly

Column

[E] Editorial

[F]

Forum

[N] Newsletter

[R] Reference

NOTICE

*0

ON

YOUR

ADDRESS

IMPRINT

MEANS

THAT

YOUR

SUBSCRIP-

TION

INCLUDES

THE COMPUTER

DIRECTORY.

*N

MEANS

THAT

YOUR

PRESENT SUBSCRIPTION

DOES

NOT

INCLUDE

THE COM-

PUTER

DIRECTORY.

5

EDITORIAL

The

Potential

Understanding

of

Words

by

a

Computer

There

is

no

doubt

that

a computer can

understand

words

--

especially

if

we

stipulate

as

conditions

"some words" and "some

contexts".

If

I

type

into

a computer

with

an

appropriate

program

the

five-

lettered

word

"three",

the

computer can

translate

that

both

into

the

more customary "3" and

the

ma-

chine

language

for

3, and

it

can respond

appropriately,

as

for

example, by doing something

three

times,

thus

demonstrating

at

least

some

understanding.

Evidence

of

successful

communication

js

evidence

of

under-

standi

ng.

When

a computer program

displays

on

a

screen

"Do

you want

to

make

any

correction?

(Yes, No)" and you

then

type

in

"No",

the

computer

understands:

it

now

accepts

data

previously

labeled

"Tentative",

the

item

of

knowledge

that

you do

not

want

to

make

any

correction;

and

the

computer

proceeds

with

the

of

its

operations.

There

is

no

doubt

that

you can

play

the

game

of

Twenty

Questions

with

a computer

if

it

has an

ap-

propriate

program

inside

of

it,

to

respond

to

the

"Yes"

or

"No" answers

that

you

give

it.

For

example,

you can say

to

a computer

that

is

appropriately

pro-

grammed,

"I

am

thinking

of

a number

--

can you

guess

it?"

The

computer can

then

say,

"Is

it

less

than

a

million?";

and

as

soon

as

you

are

committed

to

ans-

wering "Yes"

or

"No"

to

appropriate

questions

that

will

the

number down,

the

computer has

won

the

game.

If

you

tell

a computer "3

BUZZ

2

BANG

6" and "4

BUZZ

8

BANG

32", a computer

with

an

appropriate

pro-

gram can

promptly

guess

that

BUZZ

stands

for

TIMES

and

BANG

stands

for

EQUALS.

Suppose

you

want

to

edit

a computer program

using

a

certain

common

type

of

on-line

editor,

and

14

is

the

line

number

of

the

line

that

needs

correction.

You

can

type

14L,

for

example,

standing

for

"line

14,

display",

and

line

14

is

displayed

in

front

of

you. Then

you

type

14C.

standing

for

"line

14,

change";

the

computer

shifts

from

command

mode

into

text

mode;

you

retype

the

line

with

corrections:

and

when

you

press

the

appropriate

keys.

the

compu-

ter

returns

from

text

mode

to

command

mode. Then

if

you

type

14L

once more,

the

line

will

be

display-

ed

again

in

front

of

you. and you can

satisfy

your-

self

that

the

line

as

retyped

is

correct.

(If

not

correct,

repeat

the

process

once

more.)

More

and

more

and more,

the

computer

appropriately

programmed

will

understand

words

in

contexts;

and

eventually

active.

purposeful.

and broad

conversa-

tion

with

the

computer

will

take

place.

In

several

6

contexts

this

facility

is

already

arriving:

Diagnosis

of

disease,

by

conversational

inter-

action

between a

doctor

and

the

computer

Taking

of

the

medical

history

of

a

patient,

by

conversational

interaction

between a

pa-

tient

and

the

computer;

Learning

of

a

subject,

by

conversational

in-

teraction

between a

student

and a computer

program, as

in

computer-assisted

instruction

or

computer-m~naged

instruction.

In

this

issue,

we

publish

one

more

article

along

this

road

to

a

land

of

riches:

"Computer-Assisted

Tutorials

in

College

Mathematics"

by

J.

L. Caldwell

and Douglas

Polley.

The

authors

explore

typical

student

mistakes

in

solving

mathematical

problems,

diagnose

the

mistake.

and

then

help

the

student

correct

precisely

the

mistake

which

he

has made.

We

can even imagine a time

when

one

of

the

most

interesting

and

congenial

persons

you

can

talk

to

is

~n

appropriately

programmed computer.

It

will

know

what you want

to

know.

It

will

never

be

boring.

It

likes

questions.

It

is

unfailingly

polite,

pa-

tient,

sympathetic.

courteous,

friendly,

and

tact·

ful;

it

is

programmed

to

be

gently

encouraging.

If

the

computer

is

not

quite

sure

what

you

mean,

it

will

ask

questions

until

it

"knows" what

you

mean.

If

you

say

"Don't

overload

my

mind

by

telling

me

more

than

I can remember,"

then

its

replies

to

you

will

be condensed, and convey

only

the

most impor-

tant

facts.

It

might even

say

"If

you

know

these

5

things

about

the

Bering Sea,

then

you

know

enough

to

begin

with,"

or

"If

you

know

these

8

things

about

the

Russian

conquest

of

the

Caucasus

in

the

1800's,

then

you

know

more

than

10,000

people

taken

at

ran-

dom

know."

The

computer

technology

and

the

programming

technology

all

exist.

The

selection

of

knowledge to

be

stored

in

the

computer

memory

is

a

vast

field

for

research

and development

--

and

this

field

will

it

is

hoped be

cultivated

well

in

the

next twenty

years.

Edmund

C.

Berkeley

Editor

COMPUTERS and PEOPLE

for

December, 1975

..

.,

g

The

Universal

Product

Code:

An

Introduction

to

What

It

Means

for

Consumers

Thomas

V.

Sobczak, Ph.D.

Long Island City,

NY

11101

The

Universal

Product

Code

is

the

group

of

lines

or

bars

which have

appeared

on

almost

all

items

in

the

supermarket.

The

code

is

a planned system,

de-

veloped

by

the

Uniform Grocery

Product

Code

Council,

assigning

an

identification

number

to

every

manufac-

turer

in

the

United

States

and

to

each

of

the

manu-

facturer&'

products.

When

fully

operative

the

sys-

tem

will

enable

every

package

to

carry

a unique

UPC

which

will

enable

the

product

to

be checked

out

at

the

retail

store

counter

by

a combination

of

accur-

ate

scanning

and computer memory.

Why Develop

UPC

The

Supermarket

Industry

had

many

good

reasons,

but

they

can be

summed

up

in

one word, "PROFIT."

1. Labor

rates

in

the

supermarket

industry

are

expected

to

double

by

1980.

UPC

can

cut

the

store

staff

in

half.

2.

Industry

profits,

after

taxes,

are

less

than

1%.

UPC

studies

indicate

a

possible

35%

re-

turn

on

investment

after

taxes.

3.

Misrings

(an

error

made

by

the

checkout

clerk)

are

25%

of

sales.

UPC

eliminates

misrings

and

allows

price

changes

on

the

computer

faster

than

the

time

it

takes

you

to

walk from

the

shelf

to

the

checkout

stand.

How

Widespread

is

UPC

The

concept

of

UPC

is

being

marketed

by

Distribu-

tion

Codes

Inc.

DCI

is

owned

jointly

by

the

Uniform

Grocery Product

Code

Council

and

the

National

Asso-

ciation

of

Wholesalers/Distributors.

NAW/D

is

an

association

of

associations.

Each

association

mem-

ber

is

coordinating

its

activities

through

Distribu-

tion

Codes

Incorporated.

At

present,

UPC

exists

under

several

names.

SPONSORING

DISTRIBUTOR

NAME

ABBREV.

ASSOCIATION

National

Drug

(NDC)

National

Wholesale

Code

Druggists

Health

National

Wholesale

Items

Druggists

Publication

Code

CUPC)

Council

of

Publication

Distributors

Alcoholic

Bever-

CUPC)

Wine

and

Spirits

ages

Wholesalers

COMPUTERS and PEOPLE

for

December, 1975

"With the Universal Product

Code,

you pay more and

know

less

-

while supermarket

profits

change

from

1%

to

35%."

Stationary

& Bus-

(DC)

Business

Records Assoc.

iness

Supplies

Nat. Assoc.

Writing

Code

Instrument

Distribu-

tors

Nat.

Office

Products

Assn.

Nat. School Supply &

Equip. Assn.

Paper,

Stationary

&

Tablet

Manuf. Assn.

Wholesale

Stationers

Assn.

Electrical

Sup- (

DC)

Nat. Assn.

of

Electri-

plies

cal

Dist.

Air

Conditioning

(DC)

A/C-Refrigeration

Wholesalers

Plumbing

(DC)

Nat. Assn. Plumbing

Wholesalers

Distribution

(DC)

NIDA/SIDA

(Na

t.

&

Industries

Southern

Industrial

Distributions

UPC

is

growing

continually,

under

its

many

differ-

ent

names;

therefore

most

people

tend

to

underesti-

mate

its

power.

In

the

Grocery

Industry

the

middle-

men

and

supermarkets,

who

are

staunch

proponents

of

the

UPC,

want

to

eliminate

price

marking

on

the

shelf

items.

Their

lobby

is

so

strong

that:

A Maryland

bill

requiring

price

marking

died

in

a

State

Senate

Committee.

A

price

marking

bill

passed

the

Illinois

House

and

Senate

Committee only

to

lose

on

the

Senate

floor

by

seven

votes.

Virginia

Legislators

killed

a

price

marking

bill

because

they

didn't

feel

Automated Check-

out

Systems had been

given

a

fair

chance.

New

York

State's

price

marking measure

got

sidetracked

until

1976.

The

President's

Consumer

Affairs

advisor

is

favorable

to

UPC,

so

favorable

she

suggested

that

Congress

leave

the

UPC

alone.

Figure

I shows

the

domino

effect

on

industry

as

UPC

moves

from

place

to

place.

It

started

at

Grocery

(UPCC)

but

since

Drugs and

Health

are

sold

in

supermarkets,

the

Food

and Drug

Administra-

tion

were convinced

(lobbied?)

to

change

the

National

Drug

Code

and

the

Health

to

the

7

UPC

format.

Books

are

sold

in

supermarkets,

as

are

magazines.

The

Publishers

were

the

give

in.

Look

at

the

UPC

on

the

cover

of

"Family

Circle".

Recently

the

Alcoholic

Beverage Commission

was

con-

vinced

to

specify

a

UPC

code.

Remember,

outside

of

New

York

State,

alcoholic

beverages

are

sold

in

su-

permarkets.

The

trend

continues

with

stationery

and

business

supplies.

The

logic

is

the

same.

In

time

everything

must

be

scanned

mechanically.

The

mass

merchandising

(Discount)

stores

are

ac-

cepting

UPC

because

it

exists

on

products

they

buy.

The

Federal

Department

of

Transportatiun

is

proposing

to

modify 49CFR577,

the

law

controlling

manufacturer

marking

of

auto

parts.

This

opens

the

door

to

UPC.

It

exists

in

wholesale

electrical,

air

conditioning,

refrigeration,

and plumbing.

UPC

goes

on

and

on

and

on

without

anyone

realizing

how

quickly

it

grows

or

how

much

it

affects

their

daily

lives.

What

Does

the

UPC

Symbol

Mean

The

symbol

is

the

means

by

which a machine

read-

able

identification

mark can be

placed

on

a package.

The

code

is

actually

eleven

digits

which

are

machine

readable.

The

first

digit

for

Grocery

Products

is

the

"0"

centered

before

the

first

Printed

Bar.

It

is

called

the

Number

System

Character.

It

was

added

to

allow

integration

of

other

industries

into

the

Grocery

field.

As

an example, Books, Drugs, and

Health

are

sold

in

Supermarkets

as

are

Stationery

items.

A look

at

the

components

of

the

symbol

will

help

you

to

understand

how

it

works

in

the

scanning

pro-

cess.

Figure

2 should be looked

at

after

reading

each

paragraph

to

get

full

meaning. Let us

read

from

left

to

right.

The

first

area,

at

the

left,

is

a

white

space,

identified

as

the

"Left

Light

Margin."

This

space

separates

the

symbol from

other

printed

matter

on

the

package.

It

tells

the

scanner

that

a

UPC

symbol

is

coming.

have a

double

vertical

dark

bar

separated

by

a

light

bar.

Thi

sis

called

the

"Left

Hand

Guard

Bar."

This

pattern

alerts

the

scanner

to

the

start

of

data

transmission.

The

first

character

scanned

is

the

"Number System

Character"

previously

mentioned.

The

example

(Fig-

ure

2) shows

the

bar

pattern

for

a

"zero"

which means

it

is

a

grocery

product.

The

"0"

in

the

left

light

margin

provides

a

human

readable

character

if

needed.

Random

weight

items

have a

Number

System

Character

of

2; Drugs and

Health

use

3; Coupons

use

5;

Alcoholic

Beverages

will

use

8.

The

remainder

of

the

left

hand

half

of

the

symbol

is

occupied

by

the

five

characters

making

up

the

"Manufacturers

Identification

Number."

As

an exam-

ple,

Kraft

foods code

is

21000.

In

the

middle

of

the

symbol

is

the

"Center

Bar

Pattern".

Its

function

is

to

separate

left

coded

information

from

right

coded

information.

The

right

five

characters

are

the

Product/Part

Code

Number.

This

number

is

assigned

by

the

manufac-

turer

to

uniquely

identify

each item he

produces.

As

a

point

of

interest

the

left

side

is

constructed

of

a

different

combination

of

light

and

dark

bars

than

is

the

right.

This

construction

will

be

ex-

plained

later.

8

Following

the

Product/Part

Code

Number

is

the

Modulo Check

Character.

This

provides

the

method

by

which

the

computer

determines

that

what

the

scanning

machine has

read

is

accurate.

Finally,

the

scanner

sees

the

Right

Hand

Guard Bar

which

tells

the

computer

that

the

data

collection

cycle

for

this

symbol

is

at

an end.

A Right

Light

Margin

again

separates

the

symbol

from any

other

printed

matter.

What's

in

a

Bar

The

symbol

is

designed

so

that

the

computer

will

know

whether a

particular

character

is

on

the

left

or

on

the

right

hand

side

of

the

Center

Bar

Pattern.

A

Bar,

or

more

technically

a

Character,

is

com-

posed

of

7 modulos which

are

series

of

light

and

dark

bars.

Each number from 0

to

9 has a

different

ar-

rangement

of

the

7

light

and

dark

bars

which

make

up

the

character

on

either

the

left

or

right

side

of

Center

Bar

Pattern.

Figure

3 shows a

left

hand "0"

consisting

of

7

modules 2

barsj2

spaces

which

is

Binary

encoded

0001101 where

"0"

equals

light

and 1

equals

dark.

How

Does

the Computer

Check

for Accuracy

From

time

to

time

the

scanner

will

not be

able

to

read

the

UPC

symbol.

This

is

because

th~

Modulo

Check

Character

printed

on

the

symbol does not match

the

computer-calculated

check

character

based

on

what

the

scanner

read.

The

Modulo

Check

Character

is

a

mathematical

tech-

nique

through

which

the

scanner-computer

combination

verifies

each

product

to

make

sure

the

UPC

will

be

rejected

if

it

is

read

incorrectly.

It

works

as

shown

in

Figure

4:

The

complete coded symbol

is

shown

at

the

top

021000 65883.

The

middle

line

of

boxes shows

alternative

odd

numbers

beginning

with

box 1 - 010683. This group

of

numbers

is

added

equaling

18.

Multiply

the

total

by

3.

The

middle

line

total

is

54.

The

bottom

line

of

boxes shows

alternating

even

numbers

beginning

with

box 2 - 20058.

Added

the

to-

tal

is

15.

The

combined

total

of

the

middle and bottom

line

is

69.

This

is

subtracted

from

the

mul-

tiple

of

10.

In

our

example

that

number

is

70.

The

result

is

a

Modulo

Check

Character

of

1,

enab-

ling

the

computer

to

instantaneously

verify

the

ac-

curacy

of

the

scanner

reading.

Mr.

Alan Haberman,

President

of

First

National

Stores,

suggested

that

if

consumers were

really

in-

terested

in

having

prices

on

merchandise,

the

super-

markets

would

be

glad

to

supply

grease

pencils

so

the

consumers could

do

the

marking

themselves.

An

acti-

vist

consumer group

with

grease

pencils

could

cause

havoc

by

making

vertical

lines

in

the

UPC

symbol.

The

computer

will

not

accept

the

scan (machine

read-

ing).

Even more

confusing

is

the

potential

of

con-

sumer

activists

to

break

the

code and modify

certain

items

of

both

the

UPC

and

its

resultant

modulo check

character.

The

computer would

go

berserk,

leaving

the

checkout

clerk

and

the

store

manager

in

chaos.

COMPUTERS

and

PEOPLE

for

December. 1975

•

Factors Affecting the

UPC

Symbol

The

UPC

symbol

is

fragile

in

its

relationship

to

the

scanner.

It

must be

of

a

certain

size.

There

must be

sufficient

contrast

for

the

scanner

to

recog-

nize

light

and

dark

bars.

The

symbol must be

located

in

such a

position

as

to

provide

enough

room

for

the

light

margins,

etc.

The

"UPC

Symbol

Location

Guide-

lines"

as

prepared

by

Distribution

Codes

Incorporated

are

very

precise.

In

the

store

you might

well

find

that

a

greasy

or

oily

hand

passed

over

the

UPC

symbol

will

prevent

an

accurate

read.

Crushed

corners

on

boxes

or

dented

cans

may

again

prevent

a

positive

scan.

The

stores

equipped

with

scanner

systems

are

in

a

minority

now

(less

than

1%

in

1975).

The

supermarkets

while

com-

mitted

to

UPC

are

approaching

the

transition

slowly

because

the

cost

is

very,

very

high.

I

\

Who Benefits

form

UPC

The

winner

with

increased

profits

caused

by

UPC

will

be

the

supermarket

operator

and

the

wholesaler

distributor.

The

McKinsey & Co.

study,

entitled

"Phase

I Report

--

Grocery

Industry

Ad

Hoc

Committee

Universal

Product

Code", shows

that

it

will

cost

(quantifiable)

manufacturers

$37

million

to

gain

a

cost

saving

of

zero.

However Grocery

Retailers

(Supermarkets)

and

Wholesalers

spend $292

millions

to

a

cost

saving

of

$444

million.

Who

Loses

if

UPC

is

Accepted

The

Consumer

--

McKinsey

estimates

it

will

cost

between $50,000 and

$1,500,000

for

a

manufacturer

to

convert

to

UPC.

As

the

manufacturer's

cost

rises

so

does

his

price.

Have

you

noticed

any

savings

from

other

supermarket

gimmicks? Again

the

increases

will

be

passed

down

to

the

consumer. With

the

Universal

Product

Code, you pay more and

know

less

--

while

supermarket

profits

go

from

1%

to

35%.

UPC

elimin-

ates

all

price

marking

on

packages.

Suppose

the

house brand

was

priced

higher

than

the

so-called

pre-

mium

brand;

without

price

marking

how

does

the

consu-

mer

know

this.

No

(Jllt'r,:

0"

~).<.Cc..

..

t"'s

-;

\\.~C~W(~L:.,

"

,."')

'·v",,',"\.

~'(\U"l

What

will

be

the

effect

on

price

as

marginal

manu- '

facturers

drop

out

of

competition?

Could

it

be

that

the

wheeler-dealers

have an even

bigger

innovation

planned

--

a

seller's

market? Supermarket 1984

is

watching.

Big

Brother

is

small

in

comparison

to

what

control

of

foodstuffs

can do.

The

Uniform Grocery

Product

Code

Council,

its

love

child,

Distribution

Codes

Inc.,

and

the

National

Association

of

Wholesalers/Distributors

say,

"Give

the

system a

chance."

Did you

ever

hear

of

a system,

once

started,

that

could be stopped

for

less

than

twice

its

startup

cost?

Do

you

really

believe

that

those

people

investing

$292

million

to

gain

a

35%

return

on

investment

after

taxes

will

give

up

their

profit?

If

you do,

then

you can

believe

in

the

tooth

fairy.

National,

State,

and Local Government, and

the

consumers

are

being

set

up

for

the

great

rip-off:

UPC

for

you and

me.

COMPUTERS and PEOPLE

for

December, 1975

LEFT

HAND

GUAno

___

llfT

LIGHT

NUMBER

SYSTEM

G

R

o

C

E

R

Y

FIGURE 1

CODED

NUMBER

SYSTEM

CHARACTER

PATTERN

/ CODED

MANUF.

IDENTIFICATION

HUMAN READABLE

MANUF. IDENTIFICA·

TION

KRAFT

FOODS

FIGURE 2

CODED PRODUCT

PART

NUMBER

HUMAN READABLE

PRODUCT/PART

NO.

MACARONI

8<

CHEESE

DINNER

7

0

°R~:=~KH~:~RACTER

GUARD

BAR

RIGHT

LIGHT

MARGIN

(please

turn

to

page

20)

9

MULTI-ACCESS

FORUM

COMPUTER GRAPHICS AND

ART

-

OPEN

LETTER

To: Subscribers and Intended Subscribers

of

COMPUTER GRAPHICS

AND

ART

Dear

Colleagues

in

Graphics,

In

our

announcements

we

said

we

hoped

to

publish

the

first

issue

of

COMPUTER

GRAPHICS

AND

ART

in

January,

1976.

We

now

have

to

delay

our

original

plan,

due

to

a temporary

illness

and

hospitalization

of

the

editor.

The

first

issue

of

COMPUTER

GRAPHICS

AND

ART

is

now

scheduled

for

February,

1976.

Our

advisory

board

members

and

contributing

edi-

tors

to

date

include:

Dr.

Al

Bork,

University

of'

California,

Irvine

Dr.

Charles

Csuri,

Ohio

State

University,

Cleveland,

Ohio

Dr.

Herbert

W.

Franke,

Munich,

Germany

Dr.

Ken

Knowlton,

Bell

Telephone

Laboratories,

Murray

Hill,

New

Jersey

Dr. Frank Malina, Edi

tor,

"Leonardo",

Paris,

France

Dr.

Abraham

Moles,

Stuttgart,

Germany

Dr.

Frieder

Nake, Bremen,

Germany

Prof.

Nicholas

Negroponte,

MIT,

Cambridge,

Mass.

Ms.

Jackie

Potts,

Social

Security

Administra-

tion,

Washington, D.C.

Dr. Joseph Raben, Edi

tor,

"Computers &

the

Humanities",

Flushing,

New

York

Prof.

Erich

Teicholz,

Harvard

Spatial

Analysis

Group, Cambridge, Mass.

The

first

issue

is

now

being

prepared.

If

you

are

interested

in

sending

materials

for

this

first

issue,

please

do

so

immediatelyl

If

you

wish

to

participate

in

other

issues

of

this

quarterly,

we

ask

that

you send

your

materials

as

early

as

pos-

sible

for

consideration.

We

look

forward

to

working

with

you,

to

make

this

a

significant

and

useful

periodical

for

people

in

computer

graphics

and

art.

We

need

your

help

and your

subscriptions.

If

you

have

not

yet

paid

for

your

subscription

to

COMPUTER

GRAPHICS

AND

ART,

please

do

so

now.

Or

you

may

wish

to

enter

a

Library

Subscription,

whereby you and your

colleagues

may

share

this

new

quarterly.

10

May

we

hear

from

you

soon?

Yours most

cordially,

Grace

C.

Hertlein

Editor,

COMPUTER

GRAPHICS

&

ART

Berkeley

Enterprises

Inc.

-

Chico Branch

555 Vallombrosa, #35

Chico,

Calif.

95926

IMAGES

AND

REALITY

IN THE COMPUTER

FIELD

-

A DISCUSSION

1.

From the Editor:

It

seems

to

me

that

IBM,

like

the

U.S.

govern-

ment and

the

advertising

people

on

Madison Ave.,

has

given

us

lessons

in

image making

--

the

pic-

turing

of

reality

as something

different

from what

it

is.

For example, I have

never

seen

an

IBM

ad

or

publicity

release

which

admitted

in

any

way

the

existence

of

any

other

computer companies

than

IBM

or

any

other

computer

products

except

those

pro-

duced

by

IBM.

So

if

you

read

only

IBM

advertising

and

publicity,

you

would

never

realize

that

other

companies

besides

IBM

are

in

the

computer

field.

2.

From Jack Biddle

President

Computer Industry Association

1911

N.

Fort Meyer

Dr.,

Suite 801

Rosslyn,

VA

22209

Why

should

IBM

mention

other

companies

in

its

ads?

That's

what an

ad

is

for

--

advertising

one

company

and

its

products.

I

think

it

would be

better

to

show:

(1)

How

IBM

argues

that

it

has

38%

of

the

market

when

their

own

studies

and docu-

ments

show

their

share

to

be 60

to

7~/o;

or

(2)

How

they

participate

in

voluntary

stand-

ards

meeting

to

develop

a communications

protocol

(SDLC)

while

simultaneously

de-

veloping

a

different

standard

internally

and

spring

their

de

facto

standard

on

the

world;

or

(3)

Their

contention

before

the

courts

that

"the

peripherals

market

is

one

big

market

because

of

the

ease

of

developing

inter-

faces,"

when

their

own

internal

studies

showed

that

they

couldn't

enter

the

PCM

market because

of

the

difficulty

and

ex-

pense

of

the

interface.

THE

PURPOSE

OF FORUM

To

give

you,

our

readers,

an

opportunity

to

discuss

ideas,

problems, and

issues

that

seem

to

you

important.

To

express

comments,

suggestions,

and

criticisms

on

what you

find

in

this

magazine.

COMPUTERS and PEOPLE

for

December, 1975

..

tJ

Computers and Society: A Course at

York

University

Larry

J.

Murphy

A tkinson College

York University

4700 Keele

St.

Donwnsview, Ontario M3J

2R7

Canada

"1

believe there

is

an

urgent need to 'humanize' the computer science major, in

fulfillment

of

C.

P.

Snow's efforts

for

a 'bridge between the two

cultures~"

The

Natural

Science

Department

of

Atkinson

Col-

lege,

York

University,

Toronto,

Ontario

has

offered

a

"general

education"

course

entitled

"Computers and

Society"

(N.

S. 178)

for

at

least

seven

years.

When

I began

to

conduct

the

course

five

years

ago,

it

had

already

been

offered

for

at

least

two

years

by

a

mathematician

who

treated

it

much

like

a programming

course.

But

since

the

original

course

outline

des-

cribed

an

~ssentially

humanities'

approach

course

on

computers,

there

was

little

problem doing what I

felt

should have been done

originally:

offer

a

gen-

eral

education

course

on

computers

for

both

non-com-

puter

and computer

majors.

I

believe

there

is

an

urgent

need

to

"humanize"

the

computer

science

major,

in

fulfillment

of

C.

P.

Snow's

efforts

for

a

"bridge

between

the

two

cul-

tures".

I

believe

no

instructors

should keep

him

back from

the

general

history,

the

history

of

the

theory,

the

literature

(both

fiction

and

non-fiction),

and

especially

the

ethics

of

his

chosen

field.

Over

the

past

five

years

N.

S.

178

has been

of-

fered

seven

times

(including

three

summers); a

total

of

about

400

students

have completed

the

course

(five

classes

of

about

50

students,

two

of

about

75).

The

course

is

a

full

year

course

as

is

customary

in

Canadian

universities;

it

meets

for

three

hours

a

week

from September

to

May,

for

a

total

of

about

70

class

hours.

The

summer

sessions

cover

the

same

material

over

the

same

number

of

class

hours,

but

in

half

the

number

of

months

(May

to

August).

Of

the

400

students

who

h~ve

completed

the

course,

approxi-

mately

8%

were Computer

Science

majors.

My

experi-

ence has been

that

they

were,

overall,

the

most

ap-

preciative

single

group

since

when

they

began

they

had

no

idea

there

was

a

"history

of

computers,"

let

alone

such an

extensive

one.

They

also

entered

the

class

with

a

total

lack

of

knowledge

of:

the

"history

of

the

theory

of

computers";

the

literature

on

com-

puters

(except

programming

manuals);

and most

shock-

ingly

of

all,

any

appreciation

for

ethical

questions

regarding

computers and

their

applications!

I

be-

lieve

this

experience

alone

is

enough

to

recommend

courses

in

"Computers and

Society"

to

all

computer

science

majors

and

minors.

The

readings

books used

in

N.

S. 178

are:

Pylyshyn,

Zenon

W.

(ed.):

"Perspecti

ves

on

the

Computer

Revolutio~',

Englewood

Cliffs,

N.

J.:

Prentice-Hall,

1970.

COMPUTERS and PEOPLE

for

December, 1975

Lewis,

Arthur

0.,

Jr.

(ed.):

"Of

Men

and Machines",

New

York: E.P.

Dutton

&

Co.,

1963.

Bowles,

Edmund

A.

(ed.):

"Computers

in

Humanistic

Research",

Englewood

Cliffs,

N.

J.:

Prentice

Hall,

1967.

and

either:

or:

Cress/Dirksen/Graham:

"Fortran

IV

with

Watfor and

Watfi

v",

Englewood

Cliffs,

N.

J.:

Prentice

Hall,

1970.

Smyth,

J.

Morgan: "York

APL",

Toronto:

Ryerson

Poly

technical

Institute,

1972.

For

those

who

feel

they

need

extra

support

in

the

basic

areas:

IBM:

"More About Computers,"

Armonk,

N.

Y.:

IBM,

1971.

Scientific

American:

"Information",

San

Francisco:

W.H.

Freeman &

Co.,

1966.

For

those

who

wish

to

specialize

in

applications

of

computers:

Kanter,

Jerome: "The Computer and

The

Executive",

Englewood

Cliffs,

N.J.:

Prentice

Hall,

Inc.,

1967.

Sanders,

Donald H.: "Computers

in

Business,

An

Introduction",

(2nd

Ed.),

New

York: McGraw-Hill,

1972.

Shorter,

Edward: "The

Historian

and

the

Computer",

Englewood

Cliffs,

N.J.:

Prentice

Hall,

1971.

The

course

is

divided

into

"lecture"

sessions

and

"tutorial/seminar"

sessions;

the

lecture

session

is

used

for

guest

lectures,

films,

and

the

general

dissemination

of

information.

Since

I've

come

to

computers

through

the

history

of

technology

--

Hol-

lerith

and

his

electric

data

tabulating

system

--

and most

research

in

what might be

called

the

"pre-

history

of

computers"

or

"prerequisites

of

the

com-

puter"

is

in

a

very

scattered

primary

literature,

if

even

that,

I can

see

no

better

alternative

to

the

traditional

lecture

as the

best

method

of

sharing

such background

with

the

class.

Certainly

no

ade-

quate

text

or

even

readings

book

has

yet

appeared.

In

the

"tutorial/seminar"

sessions

the

issues

brought

up

by

the

lectures,

the

readings,

and

the

students'

research

are

discussed.

11

In

addition

to

the

"lectures"

and

the

"tutorial/

seminars",

the

student

is

required

to

do

work

out-

side

of

class

which

includes

a minor programming

project

(relying

on

the

York

Computing

Centre

re-

source

personnel),

and

two

bibliographic

projects

(relying

on

the

York

Library

resource

personnel).

These

projects

require

the

student

to

actually

pro-

pose,

flow-chart,

programme, debug, and

successfully

run

a programme

on

the

computer, one

that

is

useful

in

their

area

of

interest.

They

may

use

either

FORTRAN

IV

with

WATFIV,

(or

COBOL

if

more

relevant

to

their

interest),

or

York

APL

(Iverson's

A

Pro-

gramming Language).

This

is

an

interactive-language

developed-at

York

as

an

alternative

to

the

batch-

mode

FORTRAN

IV

with

WATFIV.

The

projects

also

re-

quire

the

student

to

become

familiar

with

the

lit-

erature

of

and

on

computers;

they

require

the

stu-

dent

to

perform (manually

and/or

on-line),

two

bib-

liographic

searches

at

different

levels

on

computer

topics,

to

evaluate

the

retrieved

articles,

and

ultimately

to

abstract

selected

articles.

Systems

of

three

major

computer

manufacturers

are

visited

by

the

students:

IBM

at

York; Univac

at

the

Metro Toronto

Computer-Controlled

Traffic

Light

Centre;

and

CDC

at

the

Control

Data

Institute

in

Toronto.

Obviously,

the

structure

of

NS

178

is

different

from

other

proposed

courses,

but

the

content

is

very

similar,

as

can

be

seen

by

comparing

the

out-

line

below

with

that

of

other

courses

in

Computers

and

Society.

I

am

much

pleased

that

the

U.S. computer

commun-

ity

has been promoting

courses

in

Computers and So-

ciety,

since

I

feel

NS

178 has been very

valuable

to

most

of

the

students

who

have completed

it.

In

closing,

I wish

to

stress

how

important

I

believe

it

is

not

to

restrict

the

courses

in

Compu-

ters

and

Society

to

non-computer majors

or

minors.

In

fact

I

strongly

advocate

that,

if

a

university

has any

required

courses,

a

course

in

Computers and

Society

be

required

of

all

computer majors and

minors

--

and perhaps

not

just

of

the

students,

but

of

faculty

and

practitioners

of

Computer

Science

as

well.

Perhaps even a

national

or

international

so-

ciety

of

computer

scientists

could

(or

should)

offer

and promote such a

course

for

all

their

members.

Course Outline:

First Half Year:

Period 1: Lectures

Brief

history

of

western

civilization

as

the

history

of

science

and

technology.

Define

"field."

"Computer

Science":

is

it

a

science,

or

part

of

"In-

formation

Science"?

Computers

allow

"control"

of

information

for

the

first

time.

"Computer

Revolution"?

the

2nd

Industrial

Revolution.

Period 1: Tutorial/Seminars

Discussion/criticism

of:

Pylyshyn's

"Perspectives

on

the

Computer

Revolution."

12

Period 1: Outside

of

Class

FORTRAN

IV

with

WATFIV

or

York

APL

Visit

to

York

Computer

Centre

Series

of

12

1/2

hour video

tapes

on

Fortran

IV

with

WATFIV

Period 2: Lectures

Survey

of

"Pre-history"

or

"Prerequisi

tes

of

the

computer":

Information

Storage

and/or

Retrieval

Methods/

Devices: Language

(words);

writing,

(clay,

papyrus);

books

(scrolls

and

codices,

tape

and

cards);

Hero(n) odometer;

Vitruvius

odom-

eter;

Danzig

ribbon

weaving loom;

Wren

and

Hooke

(1660s);

Horse

way-wisers;

Falcon;

Bouchon; Vancanson;

Jacquard;

Babbage;

the

Scheutzs;

Ritty

Brothers;

Hollerith;

Powers;

Comrie; Aiken.

Mathematics,

mathematical

regularity:

Language

(numbers);

counting;

one-to-one

correspondence;

bases;

arithmetic

calculating

or

computing;

place

holder;

zero;

Leonardo

da

Pisa;

number

analysis

(concerned

with

calculation);

Stevin;

Napier

(logarithms);

method

of

differences;

Descartes;

Leibniz

(binary

arithmetic);

Boole;

Babbage; Maxwell

(formalization

of

the

gover-

nor);

number

theory.

Period

2:

Tutorial/Seminars

History

(integration

of

lectures

with

Pylyshyn and

general

history

of

western

civilization).

Period 2,

3:

Outside

of

Class

Minor Programming

Project

Period

3:

Lectures

Logic,

logic

devices:

Analysis

of

language

(both

words

and

numbers);

Aristotle's

logic

(syllogism);

Ramon

Lull;

Swift;

Hobbes;

Leibniz;

Charles,

the

Third

Earl

of

Stanhope; Boole;

Venn;

Jevons;

Peirce;

Marquand;

Turing

(Post),

Shannon.

Period

3:

Tutorial/Seminars

Theory:

Algorithms,

automata

(mathematical),

Cyber-

netics

(Wiener, von

Neumann)

Period

4:

Lectures

Digital

devices

(counting

devices:

Fingers

(toes);

one-to-one

representation;

abacus; computing

jetons;

digital

clocks;

Napiers'

bones/rods;

Schickard;

Pascal;

Leibniz;

Morland;

Stern;

De

Colmar; Babbage; the

Scheutzs;

additional

adding

machines

and

the

comptometer;

Ritty

Brothers;

Bollee;

Ludgate;

Richardson

(weather

"forecast

factory");

Shannon; Aiken

(A.S.C.C.);

Manchly

&

Eckert

(ENIAC).

Analog

devices

(measuring

devices):

Stonehenge;

ruler;

"tape

measure";

ancient

Greek computer;

Planetaria;

analog

clocks;

astrolabs;

Arab

plane-

tary

computers;

slide

rules

(circular

and

linear);

Orreries;

Big Horn Medicine Wheel; Amsler

plani-

meter;

Kelvin

(tide

predictor);

Kelvin

(differen-

tial

equation

solver);

Michelson &

Stratton

(harmonic

analyzer);

Bush

(differntial

analyzer).

Period

4:

Tutorial/Seminars

History

of

the

theory,

way

it

came

together.

COMPUTERS and PEOPLE

for

December, 1975

..

•

rJ

e

Period

4:

Outside

of

Class

Visit

to

outside

computer

facility.

Period

5:

Lectures

Feedback

devices;

(C)

or

Ktesibus

(waterclock);

Hero(n) (wine

dispenser);

thermostats;

windmill

control

mechanisms;

Harrison's

chronometer;

Watt's

steam engine

governor;

Babbage's

bell;

Claude

Bernard;

L.J.

Henderson; Walter

B.

Cannon; Wiener

(cybernetics);

von

Neumann.

Automata: Mechanical

regularity;

Hero(n);

Albertus

Magnus;

clocks-clockwork

mechanisms;

Orreries;

Descartes;

Newton

(clockwork

universe);

Borelli;

Vaucanson; Droz;

La

Mettrie;

Industrial

Revolu-

tion

(automatic

actions

sophisticated);

Babbage;

"Turing

Machine."

Period

5:

Tutorial/Seminars

Artificial

Intelligence

Period

5:

Outside

of

Class

First

Bibliographic

Project

(on computer

literature

in

general)

Period

6:

Lectures

Electricity,

communications: Lodestone; atomic

theories

(Democritus &

Lucretius);

compass;

Gil-

bert;

2

fluid

theories

of

electricity;

Franklin;

electrical

games;

electrical

medicine/psychology;

Volta;

Ampere;

Faraday;

Ohm;

Henry; Morse

(tele-

graph);

Bell

(telephone);

Edison

(Pearl

Street

station);

AC/DC

battle;

Niagara

Hydro; Marconi;

Kettering;

relays;

vacuum

tube

(diode/triode);

Shannon & Weaver;

Bell

labs;

transistor.

General

integration

of

the

8

"strands"

which

come

together

to

form

the

modern

digital

computer.

Examples

of

combinations

of

"threads"

prior

to

total

combination.

Arrival

of

modern

digital

computer: U.S. (A.S.C.Co,

ENIAC,

UNIVAC);

England

(National

Lab, Cambridge,

Manchester);

Canada (Saskatchewan);

Rest

of

World (Zuse,

etc.)

Software/Hardware.

Structure

of

a computer

Changing Technology,

futures

re:

technological

limits.

Example

of

subtraction

unit.

Computer

languages

(according

to

Jean Sammet, over

1500

languages),

futures

Period

6:

Tutorial/Seminars

Artificial

Intelligence

Period 6: Outside

of

Class

First

Bibliographic

Project

(on

computer

literature

in

general)

Second Half

of

Course

Lectures

Applications:

Business/Commerce:

Bookkeeping/accounting,

etc.;

Inventory

control

(guest

lecturer

from

local

bank)

Industrial:

Hybrid computers;

Control

of

mfg.

process;

Examples

Physical

sciences:

History

of

use;

Exceptional

use;

Examples

Social

Sciences:

History

of

use;

Exceptional

use;

Examples (Guest

lecturer

from

Traffic

Planning

Department

of

Toronto)

COMPUTERS and PEOPLE

for

December, 1975

Humanities:

Control

of

literature

(umbrella);

Art-graphics

(film,

examples); Music

(listen

to

tapes,

examples);

Poetry

(examples);

Future.

"Where's

it

all

leading?":

Leisure

Ethic

over-

taking

the

Work

Ethic.

T utoria I/Seminars

Discussion/criticism

of

Lewis, "Of

Men

and Machines"

and

latter

part

of

Pylyshyn,

especially

questions/

problems

of

ethics/privacy

(Canada,

Great

Britain,

U.S.

hearings/legislation

on

data

bank,

etc.)

Guarantee

of

privacy

re:

data

banks

Computer Crime

"Computer

as

Friend"

"Computer as

Enemy"

Futures

Discussion/Criticism

of

Bowles "Computers

in

Human-

istic

Research": Comparison

of

humanistic

appli-

cations

with

non-humanistic

applications;

Com-

parison

of

EDP

and computer

applications

in

scholarly

research

•

Outside

of

Class

Second

Bibliographic

Project

(on

the

literature

of

computer

applications,

theory,

history,

in

all

8

choices).

Visit

to

UNIVAC

Computer

facility.

Optional

major

research

project

(historical,

theoret-

ical

or

applied)

in

respect

of

interest

of

stu-

dent

(about

1/3

of

the

class).

0

WHO'S WHO I N COMPUTERS

AND DATA PROCESSING

THE

SIXTH

CUMULATIVE

EDITION

WHO'S WHO

ENTRY

FORM

(may

be

copied and

expanded

on

any

piece of paper)

1.

Name

(please

print)

____________

_

2.

Home Address

(with

Zip)

__________

_

3.

Organization

______________

_

4.

Its Address

(with

Zip)

___________

_

5.

Your

Title

_______________

_

6.

Your

Main Interests:

Applications (

logic

Sales ( )

Business ( Management ( Systems ( )

Construction

( Mathematics (

Other

( )

Design Programming ( please specify:

7.

Year

of

Birth

______________

_

8. Education and

Degrees

___________

_

9. Year Entered Computer Field

________

_

10.

Your

Present Occupation

__________

_

11. Publications, Honors, Memberships, and

other

Distinctions:

______________

_

12. Do you

have

access

to

a computer? ( ) Yes ( ) No

a.

If

yes,

what

kind:

Manufacturer?

_____

_

______

ModeI ?

_________

_

b. Where

is

it

installed: Organization?

___

_

Address?

_________

--::--

____

_

c.

Is

your

access:

Batch ( )

Time-Sh~red

( )

Other ( )

Please

explain

________

_

13. Do you subscribe: -

to

Computers and People (formerly

Computers and Automation):

()

Yes

( ) No

-

to

The

New York Times: ( ) Yes ( ) No

14. Associates

or

colleagues who should

be

sent Who's Who

entry

forms (name and address)

(attach

paper

if needed)

When

completed,

please send

promptly

to:

Who',

Who Editor, Who's

Who in Computers and

Data

Processing. RFD, Box

177,

Hampton,

CT

06247

13

Software

Should

Be

Patentable

ADAPSO

[Association

of

Data

Processing Services/

Software Industry Association]

1420 Walnut St.

Philadelphia,

Pa.

19102

"Making clear that patents

may

be available

for

inventions in software

would unleash enormous innovative talent."

Association

of

Data

Processing

Service

Organiza-

tions,

Software

Industry

Association

(hereinafter

ADAPSO/SIA)

is

a

nonprofit

trade

association

of

62

companies

in

the

computer

field/l/,

approximately

7~/o

of

whom

concentrate

their

attention

in

the

soft-

ware

products

industry,

and

the

remainder

largely

~~

the

furnishing

of

varied

software

services

to

computer

users

and

to

hardware

manufacturers.

ADAPSO/SIA

presents

its

views

to

the

Court

be-

cause

an

inaccurate

description

of

software

tech-

nology and

the

software

products

industry

has been

set

forth

by

Petitioner's

Brief

and

the

supporting

brief

of

the

hardware

manufacturers'

association,

CBEMA.

ADAPSO/SIA

companies

are

not

"idea

or

think

tanks."

They

are

companies engaged

in

building

and

marketing machines

for

which

profit-conscious

companies

will

and

do

expend

money.

ADAPSO/SIA's

members

believe

they

are

entitled

to

the

same

patent

protection

for

their

innovative

products

as

that

granted

the

hardware

manufacturers.

Nature

of

the

Industry

A.

The Absence

of

Competition in Software

Whereas

ADAPSO/SIA

is

an

organization

of

rela-

tively

small companies, with

no

one

company

exert-

ing

dominance

over

all

the

others,

CBEMA

is

an

or-

ganization

of

relatively

large

companies,

operating

in

a computer hardware

industry

"shaped and domina-

ted

by

IBM."/2/ IBM's dominance

is

such

that

its

70%

or

better

share

of

the

computer hardware market

is

nearly

ten

times

that

of

its

nearest

competitor,

Sperry-Rand./3/

Other

giant

companies such as

Honeywell, Burroughs, Control Data and

National

Cash

Register

are

compelled

to

share

the

remaining

portion

of

the

market; General

Electric

and

RCA

found themselves

forced

to

withdraw

entirely

from

competition.

Thus,

it

is

IBM's voice

and

actions

which have

and

which

do

dominate

the

computer

in-

dustry.

In

this

case

the

Government remains

silent

while

CBEMA

distorts

the

history

of

the

computer

industry

to

assert

that

"the

computer

industry

has developed

in

an

atmosphere

of

free

interchange

of

computer

Based

on

a

portion

of

the

Brief

Amicus

Curiae

No.

74-1033

for

ADAPSO/SIA

filed

with

the

U.S. Supreme

Court

on

October 16, 1975.

14

programs

••••

"/4/

How

"free"

the

atmosphere has

been

in

the

computer

industry

is

best

shown

by

the

Government's

pretrial

brief

in

"United

States

of

America v.

International

Business Machines Corpora-

tion./5/

The

Government

in

its

antitrust

action

against

IBM

notes

the

development

of

the

computer

industry

and

fi

nds

that

in

"the

earliest

days

of

the

develop-

ment

of

the

computer

industry,

there

was

nothing

that

could

be

identified

as a

software

industry."/6/

This

was

in

part

because

users

design

some

of

their

own

software

and

because

the

"computer systems manu-

facturers,

following

IBM's

lead,

provided

[free]

much

of

the

software

[that]

users

required."/7/

It

was

not

until

the

late

1960' s

that

"the

in-

dependent

software

products

market emerged,

pioneer-

ed

by

the

fi

rm

Applied Data Research,

Inc.,"

/8/

one

of

the

amici

herein.

As

the

Government

notes,

"in

light

of

the

fact

that

IBM

provided

its

cus-

tomers with

their

software

requirements as

part

of

the

IBM

'total

systems

solution,'

independent

soft-

ware product firms had

to

market

their

offerings

against

products

for

which

there

was

no

identifiable

price.

As

a

result,

only

those

companies which

could

offer

products

not

available

'free'

from

IBM

or

which could demonstrate

the

technological

super-

iority

of

their

products

in

comparison

to

IBM's

had any chance

of

survival."/9/

The

result

was

that

the

independent

software

product firms lacked

"a

realistic

opportunity

to

compete."/lO/

That

this

was

not

an

innocent

case

of

cause and

effect

was

shown

by

IBM

internal

memoranda

which

revealed

that

"the

value

of

this

exclusionary

effect

derived

from bundled

pricing

[so-called

free

software]/ll/

was

fully

appreciated

by

IBM

••••

The

effect

of

IBM's

ability

to

wield such

exclusionary

power has been

felt

most

acutely

•••

by

those

firms seeking

to

market

software

products."/12/

The

Government has

also

noted

that

"IBM

internal

memoranda

.••

reflect

that

from as

early

as 1965,

IBM

was

aware

of

the

marketing

benefits

derived

from

bundled

pricing

and

the

anticompetitive

effect

it

had

on

software

companies."/13/

The

net

effect

was

that

"bundled

pricing

enabled

IBM

to

exclude

com-

petition

from independent

software

vendors."/14/

The

Government concludes

that

its

study

of

IBM

documents

"i

llustrate

wi

thout

ambigui

ty

that.

its

bundled

pricing

marketing approach

was

a

practice

known

by

IBM

to

be,

legally

indefensible.

Neverthe-

COMPUTERS and PEOPLE

for

December, 1975

t

~

.,

C~

s

less,

IBM

consciously

continued

bundled

prIcIng

because

of

the

competitive

leverage

it

afforded

IBM

in

maintaining

its

monopoly

position."/lS/

Software

monopolies

are

also

maintained

by

other

hardware

manufacturers

through

the

use

of

bundling.

A small

software

company

has sued Sperry Rand,

charg-

ing

it

with

refusing

to

place

a

price

on

its

bundled

software

and

thereby

making

it

impossible

for

the

small

company

to

sell

its

software

in

competition.

/16/

Honeywell

in

bundling

its

software

and

hard-

ware

asserts

that

the

software

is

"free."

But

when

the

hardware

buyer

attempts

to

transfer

that

soft-

ware along

with

the

hardware

to

another

company,

Honeywell

claims

that

it

owns

the

software

and

will

control

who

can have

possession./17/

B.

The

Resulting Poor-Quality Software

The

CBEMA

brief

also

boats

of

"the

tremendous

growth

of

the

computer

software

industry

and

the

vast

number

of

breakthroughs

in

the

field

of

pro-

gramming, which have

occurred

in

the

last

two

de-

cades"

(CBEMA

Br.

12).

How

different

the

facts

really

are

in

the

computer

software

field

is

made

clear

by

the

testimony

of

Dr.

Ruty

M.

Davis,

Direc-

tor

of

the

Center

for

Computer

Services

and Tech-

nology

of

the

National

Bureau

of

Standards/18/

char-

acterizing

the

present

condition

of

software

as

"poor-quali

ty

software,"

a condi

ti

on

whi

ch

she

described

as

the

"crucial

computer problem"

con-

fronting

the

nation

today.

Speaking

on

the

"serious-

ness

of

the

problems

besetting

both

the

consumers

of

computer

products

and

services

and

the

suppliers

of

these

products

and

services"

Dr. Davis

stated:

The

crippling

problems

are

lining

up

in

the

software

rather

than

in

the

hardware

field.

In

particular,

they

fall

under what

we

call

the

application-independent

problem

category

..•

these

are

the

software

problems which

are

common

to

many

applications.

That

the

condition

described

by

Dr. Davis

in

1972

still

holds

true

is

seen

by

her

warning

at

the

CBEMA

Spring

meeting,

May

29, 1974

that

"the

difficulty

and

cost

of

developing

and

maintaining

quality

software

have become

the

single

largest

consideration

in

computer

utilization

and composes

a

serious

limitation

on

the

cost-effective

use

of

computers."

Even

IBM

acknowledges

that

"the

biggest

problem

facing

programming today

is

the

extreme

difficulty

and

cost

encountered

in

creating

and

maintaining

large

programming

systems."/19/

At

the

National

Computer Conference

held

early

this

year

it

was

ad-

mitted

by

a

leading

hardware

manufacturer

that

the

"software

dinosaur"

has

not

"kept

pace

with

the

technical

needs

of

the

industry."/20/

As

a

result

of

the

software

users

being

at

the

mercy

of

the

hardware

manufacturers,

the

users

are

forced

to

make

do

with

the

"free,"

poor and

technically

in-

ferior

software./2l/

The

reason

for

the

poor

state

of

the

development

of

software

lies

in

the

shackles

IBM

has

placed

upon

free

competition.

History

shows

that

it

has

been

small

technological

companies and

independent

inventors,

and

not

the

vast

financial

combines such

as

IBM,

which have been

responsible

for

much

of

the

innovation

of

this

age.

A

recent

government

report

has found

that

"studies

of

the

sources

of

invention

and

innovation

have

shown

that

independent

inven-

tors

and

small

technologically

based companies

are

responsible

for

a remarkably high

percentage

of

the

important

inventions

and

innovation

of

this

century.

/22/

COMPUTERS

and

PEOPLE

for

December, 1975

C.

The

Small Company Potential for Competition

The

small,

mostly "young and

struggling",

com-

panies

who

"surely

possess

excellent

technical

in-

novative

capabilities"

and

"the

principal

technical

capability

•••

to

work

.••

on

our

critical

computer

problems"

/23/

have been

wrongfully

denied

the

in-

centive

of

the

patent

system, which has been

as-

sured

to

the

hardware

manufacturers

for

products

they

sell.

The

patent

incentive

is

both a form

of

recognition

and a major

aid

in

obtaining

the

nec-

essary

financing

without

which

these

companies

face

the

prospect

of

shriveling

and

dying.

It

is

no

ac-

cident

that

the

monopolistic

and

exclusionary

prac-

tices

of

IBM

have

permitted

only a small number

of

companies

in

the

software

products

field

to

achieve

a

relative

degree

of

success.

As

the

Government

states

in

its

pretrial

brief

"operating

systems

continue

to

be

part

of

IBM's bundled

price

struc-

ture.

Thes

continue

to

be bundled

for

the

marketing

leverage

they

afford

IBM

in

terms

of

increasing

the

sale

of

IBM

computer equipment and

forestalling

the

growth

of

independent

software

companies."/24/

D.

The Importance

of

Patent Incentives

A

patent

on

a

software

program

creates

an

econ-

omic

toehold

in

the

monopoly-dominated computer

field.

The

software

products

company

characterized

by

the

Government

as

the

pioneer

in

the

independent

software

products

market, Applied Data Research,

Inc.,/2S/

stands

as

proof

of

the

importance

of

soft-

ware

patents./26/

To

a

large

financial

giant,

the

economic

value

of

a

patent

may

not

loom

large;

to

the

small

soft-

ware companies upon which

the

future

of

the

develop-

ment

of

quality

software

depends,

the

financial

value

of

the

patent

may

spell

the

difference

be-

tween

life

and

death.

To

banks

and

financial

in-

stitutions

the

existence

of

apatent

or

even

the

potentiality

of

obtaining

one

may

well

be a

decisive

factor

in

determining

whether

a

loan

should

be

grant-

ed.

To

prospective

investors

a

patent

or

the

pos-

sibility

of

obtaining

one

may

be

the

principal

ele-

ment

in

the

decision

whether

to

invest.

Making

clear

that

patents

may

be

available

for

inventions

in

software

would

unleash

enormous

in-

novative

talent.

It

would have

the

direct

opposite

effect

forecast

by

IBM

and

the

other

hardware manu-

facturers

--

it

would

enable

competition

with

those

companies and

provide

the

needed

incentive

to

stimu-

late

innovation.

Patent

protection

would encourage

the

free

dis-

semination

of

program

innovations

which

is

so

ne-

cessary

to·

stimulate

technological

progress.

Dis-

closure

is

the

statutory

price

paid

by

the

inventor

for

patent

protection.

Without such

protection

inventors

principally

have

to

rely

on

the

law

of

trade

secrets

in

order

to

secure

the

economic

value

of

their

inventions,

thereby

excluding

from

the

world-at-large

disclosure

of

the

invention.

When

the

Patent

Office

for

its

own

convenience/27/

urges

that

inventors

rely

on

trade

secrets

in

lieu

of

patents,

it

is

ignoring

the

mandate

of

the

Patent

Laws, and

when

it

urges

copyrights

as

another

po-

tential

alternative,

it

is

denying

the

inventive-

ness

of

an

entire

technology,

thus

abdicating

its

responsibility

under

the

Patent

Laws

to

grant

pa-

tents

for

machines

that

"advance

the

Progress

of

the

useful

Arts."

Such computer programs as

are

freely

disclosed

in

the

trade

literature

of

the

computer

industry

15

have

little

economic value

or

technological

worth.

All

that

this

kind

of

"free

exchange" has produced

for

the

computer

industry

has been

"crippling

prob-

lems" and

"poor

quali

ty

software."

The

real

strides

forward

in

computer development occurred

in

hard-

ware,

an

area

fully

protected

by

the

patent

laws.

In a

competitive

economy,

that

which

is

given

away

for

nothing

tends

to

have

the

same

value.

Non-profit

companies

are

non-existent

in

the

computer

industry.

CBEMA

favors

its

version

of

"free

interchange

of

programs" because

that

has been

one

of

its

major

techniques

in

excluding

competition

and

in

monopoliz-

ing

the

computer

industry.

It

is

profits

and

not

"free

interchange

of

programs"

or

"innovative

soft-

ware

that

CBEMA

seeks."

The

economic

forces

opposed

to

patent

protection

were

clearly

identified

by

Judge Rich

in

his

dis-

senting

opinion

below.

As

he

stated

it:

On

the

one

side

•••

against

patenting

programs

or

software

[were]

collective

forces

of

major

hardware

(i.e.,

computer) manufacturers and

their

representative

associations

who,

for

economic

reasons,

did

not

want

patents

granted

on

programs

for

their

machines. (Emphasis

in

the

ori

gi

nal.

)

This

portion

of

Judge

Rich's

"dissent"

(a

dis-

sent

whose purpose

was

to

provoke

this

Supreme

Court review

to

obtain

a

ruling

providing

for

soft-

ware

patents)/28/

is

ignored

by

the

Government as

is

the

fact

that

Judge Rich

reaffirmed

his

view as

to

the

soundness

of

his

on

com-

puter

technology.

When

one

knows

that

every

action

taken

by

IBM

has been motivated

by

its

monopolistic

and

exclus-

ionary

desires,

one

understands

why

IBM

has

led

the

legal

fight

against

patents

for

software.

It

is

not

to

strengthen

the

computer

industry

but

only

to

strengthen

IBM's

stranglehold

upon

it

that

IBM

postulates

its

legal

theories

in

opposition

to

patents.

Strange

indeed

is

it

that

the

Government

despite

its

firsthand

knowledge

of

IBM's

efforts

aimed

at

"forestalling

the

growth

of

independent

software

companies"/29/

joins

hands

herein

with

IBM

in

furtherance

of

IBM's

monopolistic

endeavors.

To

arbitrarily

deny

patent

coverage as urged

herein

by

the

Patent

Office

is

to

denigrate

soft-

ware technology and

to

cast

a

chilling

effect

upon

inventi

veness.

Summary

of

Argument

The

writ

of

certiorari

should

be

dismissed as

improvidently

granted.

because

of

the

inadequate

record,

the

jurisdictional

barrier

to

the

recon-

sideration

of

a

central

factual

issue,

and

the

in-

appropriateness

of

the

principal

question

for

which

certiorari

was

granted.

To

consider

what

the

Patent

Commissioner

presents

as

the

key

issues

in

this

case would

require

this

Court

to

undertake a

thor-

ough

inquiry

into

the

complex

technological

issues

of

special-purpose

computer

construction,

but

the

record

does not provide

the

factual

basis

which

would

enable

the

Court

to

do

so.

The

Supreme Court

is

not

the

appropriate

forum

for

initial

fact

find-

ing.

The

most

basic

technological

issue

--

the

Board

of

Appeals'

finding

that

programming a

general-pur-

pose computer

restructures

the

computer

into

a

dif-

ferent

machine

--

is

not

jurisdictionally

subject

to

review because 35 U.S.C. 141,

et.

seq. bind

the

Commissioner

of

Patents

by

Board

determinations.

16

Since

the

Board

is

the

alter

ego

of

the

commission-

er,

his

attempt

to

appeal

its

finding

is

in

essence

a

nonjusticiable

intra-agency

dispute.

Moreover,

the

C.C.P.A.

and

the

Board have

considered

the

basic

technological

fact

issue,

each has

special

creden-

tials

of

technological

expertise

and

both have

found

in

favor

of

the

restructuring

principle.

The

broad

question

for

which

certiorari

was

granted

--

whether

innovative

machines which can be

embodied

in

computer programs

are

patentable

sub-

ject

matter

--

is

inappropriate

for

judicial

reso-

lution

in

this

case because

patentability

depends

on

the

structural

nature

of

the

specific

invention

not

which

of

alternative

types

of

construction

was

employed.

The

petitioner

has conceded

that

the

Court cannot formulate a

rule

of

general

applica-

bility

in

its

decision

of

this

case

and

that

the

only

other

question

presented

--

obviousness under

35

U.S.C. 103

--

is

not

worthy

of

this

Court's

at~

tention.

The

petitioner's

main

legal

arguments depend

on

a

mischaracterization

of

computer program technology.

An

accurate

picture

of

this

technology

reveals

that

a programmed

general

purpose computer

is

a

differ-

ent

machine than

the

unprogrammed machine.

The

de-

signer

of

software,

like

any

engineer,

builds

ma-

chine

structures.

not

methods

of

doing

business;

he

develops machine

solutions

for

machine problems.

Computer

innovations

embodied with

stored

computer

programs

are

legally

entitled

to

the

same

patent

protection

as

innovations

embodied

in

wire-connected

electronic

circuits,

for

technologically

"hardware"

and

"software"

are

equivalent.

The

facts

that

a programmed computer (what

re-

spondent

defines

as

his

invention)

is

a machine and

the

innovative

aspect

of

it

is

a machine

structure

cannot

be

overcome

by

petitioner's

legal

arguments.

A machine

is

not

a method

of

doing

business.

An

innovative

machine

structure

is

not

the

mere embodi-

ment

of

an

abstract

idea.

Machines

are

patentable

subject

matter

and

respondent's

only argument

again-

st

software

being

patentable

subject

matter

is

the

unsupported

statement

--

appealing

perhaps

to

a

layman

but

universally

rejected

by

the

experts

--

that

a program

is

not

a machine

but

merely

an

idea,

"new

use,"

or

"method

of

doing

business."

Patent

protection

for

software

is

vital

to

the

health

of

the

data

processing

industry.

In

a

field

dominated

by

IBM,

the

growth

of

the

small

indepen-

dent

software

company

has been

stifled

by

the

bund-

ling

practices

of

the

hardware

manufacturers

which

continue

to

this

day

in

the

systems programs

area.

Only through

the

availabi

li

ty

of

protecti

on

for

their

products

can

the

software

producers hope

to

bring

competition

to

an

industry

that

sorely

needs

it.

The

absence

of

patent

protection

has

forced

reliance

on

trade

secrecy

and has had

the

negative

effect

of

deterring

disclosure

of

innovations.

The

availability

of

patents,

with

their

public

disclos-

ure

requirement,

would "promote

the

progress

of

the

useful

Arts,"

in

this

most

sophisticated.

pervasive

and

vital

area

of

technology.

Copyright

protection

is

inadequate

and

inappro-

priate

to

protect

innovative

machine

structures.

Copyright

of

a

particular

set

of

computer language

statements

does

not

protect

the

novel machine

struc-

ture

that

is

the

core

of

any

software

invention.

The

Constitution

establishes

innovation

as

the

pre-

requisite

for

a

grant

of

exclusive

rights

to

machine

structures;

attempts

to

protect

them

via

copyright

(please

turn

to

page

20)

COMPUTERS

and

PEOPLE

for December, 1975

,

·r

•

Je

:e;

,

l'

I

,.

'I

I)

;

) ;

It

...

The

Computer

"Glass

Box":

Teaching

with

APL

-Iverson's

"A

Programming

Language"

-

Part

12

Howard A.

Peel/e,

Director

Instructional Applications

of

Computers

University

of

Massachusetts

Amherst,

Mass.

01002

'This

approach utilizes a

computer

program more

as

a

glass

box

than a

black

box,

and

seeks

to

make

key

computer concepts become transparent

to

the

student."

(Continued

from

the November

issue

of

"Computers

and

People", page 26)

The

enterprising

student

might

elect

to

automate

Soon

it

should

become

clear

that

these

two

SCENES

the

production

of

MICROSCENEs:

cannot be

distinguished

on

the

basis

of

random

micro-

scenes

alone.

(Of

course,

if

one

could

trace

se-

[lJ

[2J

[3J

[4J

V

AUTOPEEK

quentially

through a

scene,

its

"connectedness"

or

"non-connectedness"

could

be determined

easily.)

I I

PEEK

MYSTERY

I'

-+1

AUTOPEEK

***

*

***

*

****

**

*

**

Computer Art

The

world of computer

art

can be opened

to

stu-

dents

through a few simple

APL

programs. Beginning

with

an

excursion

into

automated

design,

the

student

can proceed

to

encounter

questions

of

aesthetic

judgement and

artistic

technique.

For example,

consider

the

following

DESIGN

pro-

gram.

V PICTURE +

SIZE

DESIGN

COLORS

[1

J

llOWMANY

+ P

COLORS

[2J

PICTURE + COLORS[?SIZEpliOWMANYJ

V

DESIGN

uses

some

COLORS

(symbols

on

the

keyboard)

and

some

SIZE

(two dimensions of a

matrix)

to

pro-

duce a

PICTURE.

A simple program

like

DESIGN

goes a long

way

with

children.

They

seem

never

to

tire

of

it,

for

it

can produce

quite

a

variety

of

designs:

10

20

DESIGN

'--11-_

I

1-1_-11

1--

-I

--

_I-

--_ - - - - _ -

-I

I

- - I - - I -

--

-

1__

-- I 1- I L - I -

- I I

__

I

1_

I I - - I

_-

- I I

I -_ I I I I 1- -1_ - - I

11--_--1-

11_--_

I-I

_

-1

__

1

---

--

-

- -

--11----1------

COMPUTERS and PEOPLE

for

December, 1975 17

10

20

DESIGN

'//6~V\\'

6\6V\\6V/V/V/V//*\//

V/8VV6V/V\/~\///6/\V

\VV///V~/\~\\/\\8\V\

V/V~/\6//V\//\//V~VV

6V\\*V6\V\/V/~v/\\\\

/88//~V8///\6/8/V~8~

//6\V/\v/V\/\~8il/V\\

VVV\\~\~V/\6Vil~6666/

\/*\VVV~\8V\//\~\V~\

V~b\\\VV\68V\~\\\6\il

0

00

0 0

,0

0

• 0

10

20

DESIGN

,-,

10

20

DESIGN

'0

0 0

00

0

00,0

0 0

00

0

00

0

0000

0

0 0

00

0

00,

0 0

0

00

0

000

0

0000

000

,0

0 0

0 a

o .

10

20

DESIGN

'00*

*00'

*

*UD

*UOOOO*ODD**D

UOOO

0 0000* **00*

*OODUO

*OUO*O*

00*00

*0

00000*0

OOO*UO

OO***OOO**UO

00*0000

***0**00**00*

00*000

* *****00*

**00*00*0

*0*00*00*0*0*0

0*0*

*0

*000*

00*0

*0000

000000000*0*

00*0000

These

black

and

white

"Computer

hieroglyphics"

may

have dubious

aesthetic

appeal.

But one can

imagine

--

instead

of

these

typed symbols

--

randomly

generated

swatches

of

color,

perhaps

displayed

on

a

television-like

screen.

Extensions

of

this

approach

to

computer

art

in-

clude:

(a)

automating

DESIGN,

(b)

weighting

the

selection

of

COLORS,

(c)

asking

for

human

judgement

(Do

you

like

it

or

not?)

in

order

to

adjust

weights

on

COLORS

or

other

aesthetic

factors,

and

(c)

piec-

ing

together

several

computer-generated

PICTUREs

into

a montage.

18

Another approach

to

computer

art

involves

viewing

programs which

simulate

an

artistic

technique.

For

example,

consider

the

program

MONDRIAN

below

(named

after

the

Dutch

abstract

painter).

V

MONDRIAN

[ 1 J t: A

l{

VAS

+ 3 0 5 0

p'

,

[2J

DAB:

COLOR

+

'00*'[?3J

[3J

SIZE

+ 3 5

?6

10

[4]

PICK:

PLACE

+ ?30

50-3I2E

[5]

OVERLAP

+

+/+/CANVAS[PLACE[l]+lSIZE[l];

PLACE[2]+13IZE[2]]~'

,

[6]

+PICK

IF

OVERLAP> 2

[7]

CANVAS[PLACE[1]+lSIZE[1],PLACE[2]+

lSIZE[2]]

+

COLOR

[8]

+DAB

IF

(PERCENT ' ,

ON

CANVAS) >

67

[9]

CANVAS

MONDRIAN

begins

with

a blank canvas

(arbitrarily

set

at.30

by

50).

Then

the

program chooses a random

COLOR,

SIZE

and

PLACE

to

DAB.

OVERLAP

measures

the

extent

of

overlap

with

DABs

already

on

the

CANVAS.

IF

OVERLAP

is

greater

than

2, then

it

will

PICK

another

PLACE.

(This

is

tantamount

to

finding

re-

latively

open space

on

the

CANVAS).

IF,

however,

OVERLAP

is

not too

large,

the

COLOR

is

put

on

the

CANVAS

at

the

PLACE

and

in

the

SIZE

se-

lected.

The

program

continues

to

DAB

IF

the

PERCENT

of

blank

spaces

ON

the

CANVAS

is

greater

than 67. In

other

words, as soon as

it

is

1/3

filled

up,

CANVAS

is

displayed.

Note:

MONDRIAN

uses

two

simple sub-programs (mostly

for

readability).

They

are

PERCENT

and

ON:

V

HUNDREDTHS

+

PBRCBNT

N

[1]

HUNDREDTHS

+LO.5+100

xN

V DBNSITY +

SYMBOL

ON

PICTURE

[1]

DBNSITY + (+/+/SYNBOL=PICTURE) T

( X/pPICTURE)

COMPUTERS and PEOPLE

for

December, 1975

"

e

t

I1S

5

Now,

MONDRIAN

at

work:

UOOOOO

OOOUOO

000000

*****

MONDRIAN

0000000000

**********

**********00000

0000000

00000

OUOOOOUOO

00000

000000000

OUOOOOUOO

00000

0000000

OOOOOuU

0000000

UOOOOOO

*****

00000

OOOOOOOLJ

00000000

OUOOUUOO

*****

***** ******

*****000000

*****OOOLJOO

*****000000

********

*****

0000000000

************

0000000000

*****

******

**********

******

Possible

extensions

of

this

kind of program

in-

clude:

(a)

simulating

and combining

additional

artis-

tic

techniques

(those

that

can be

operationalized),

(b)

computing

abstract

measures of

difference

be-

tween random

"painting"

produced

by

the

computer,

(c)

converging

to

minimal

differences

from a

pre-

viously

specified

"ideal"

painting,

and (d)

develop-

ing

a model

for

aesthetic

judgement

--

perhaps one

which

"evolves."

Computer-Assisted Instruction

In

order

to

emphasize

the

contrast

with

conven-

tional

uses of computers

for

teaching,

the

last

glass

box program

here

illustrated

is

from

the

area

of

computer-assisted

instruction.

Instead

of con-

cealing

the

CAl

program

--

usually

designed

to

con-

trol

the

child's

behavior

--

we

show

him

the

mechan-

ism

itself

so

that

he

may

see

how

it

works and

ul-

timately

see

how

to

control

the

computer and

control

it.

Consider

the

APL

program below which exposes

the

essence

of

drill-and-practice

in

multiplication

skills.

ry

DRILL

[lJ

NEWPROBLEM:

[2J

'lviULT

IPLY'

[3J

o +

FIRST

+

?20

[4J

o +

SECOND

+

?20

[5J

ENTER:

ANSW8R

+ 0

[6J

~NEWPROBLEM

IF

ANSWER

FIRSTxSECOND

[7J

'NOPE. TRY AGAIN. ,

[8J

~ENTER

COMPUTERS and PEOPLE

for

December, 1975

The

DRILL

program beings with a

NEWPROBLEM

and

prints

'MULTIPLY',

a

simplified

message

telling

the

student

what

to

do

with

the

two

numbers

that

will

follow.

The

FIRST

number

is

an

integer

randomly chosen between 1 and 20, and

the

SEC-

OND

number

likewise.

The

student

may

ENTER

his

ANSWER

which

is

then

judged

for

correctness

by

the

program.

IF

the

ANSWER

equals

the

FIRST

number times

the

SECOND

number, a

NEWPROI3LEM

is

gi

ven; otherwi se

(if

ANSWER

is

wrong)

'NOPE.

TRY

AGAIN.'

is

printed,

and

the

student

may

ENTER

his

answer

again.

In

order

to

use

the

DRILL

program,

its

name

is

typed, as

shown

below:

DRILL

MULTIPLY

19

2

0:

38

MULTIPLY

16

18

0:

248

NOPE.

TRY

AGAIN.

0:

288

MULTIPLY

8

12

0:

96

MULTIPLY

14

18

0:

Students

notice

immediately

that

this

program

has a

flaw.

It

does

not

stopl

Scrutinizing

the

program's

definition

reveals

that

after

getting

a

multiplication

problem

correct,

one always

gets

a

new

problem

--

ad

infinitum.

Also,

after

getting

a problem wrong,

the

student

must answer

that

same

problem

again

--

another

potentially

endless

loop.

The

student's

first

task,

then,

might be

to

build

in

an

option

to

stop

the

program

at

will.

DRILL

is,

of

course,

only a

prototype

program.

With

other

modifications

of

one's

choosing,

DRILL

19

may

become

considerably

more

sophisticated.

Possible

extensions

include:

(a)

displaying

pictorial

feed-

back

like

a

"smiley

face"

for

positive

reinforce-

ment

*****

or

a "grouchy face"

*****

*

00*

* V *

*

\_1

*

* x x *

* A *

*

1-\

*

*****

instead

of

'NOPE.

TRY

AGAIN.'

v (b)

presenting

a

pre-

specified

total

number of problems,

(c)

limiting

the

number of

allowable

mistakes

on

individual

problems

(or

all

problems), (d)

generalizing

the

multiplicands

to

create

a

more

flexible

range of problems

(includ-

ing

negative

numbers,

decimals,

etc.),

(e)

gathering

performance

data,

(f)

using

performance

criteria

to

make

diagnoses,

(g)

automatically

adapting

level

of

difficulty

based

on

diagnoses,

(h) adding

personal-

ized

instructions,

and

(i)

building

in

timing

com-

ponents,

jump-ahead

options

and

hints.

Conclusion

These

are

but

a

few

APL

"glass

box" programs

de-

signed

to

stimulate

students

to

think

about

selected

concepts.

Each of

the

sample programs

shown

here

can be used as

is

and, of

course,

can be extended

in

a myriad of

directions.

Other

topics

well-suited

for

this

pedagogical approach

include

topics

drawn

from

linguistics,

statistics,

mathematics,

engineer-

ing,

ecology,

and

physical

sciences.

The

challenge

to

educators,

then,

is

to

identify

such

topics

suitable

for

embodiment as

glass

box

programs,

to

search

out

the

kernel

concepts

to

be

taught,

and

to

lead

students

to

better

understand-

ings

of

those

concepts

using

a programming language.

Notes

/1/

A Programming Language

(abbreviated

APL)

is

a

mUlti-purpose computer programming language

devel-

oped

by

Kenneth

Iverson

of

IBM.

Originally

con-

ceived

as a

unifying

mathematical

notation,

APL

has

since

been used

successfully

in

fields

such as

busi-

ness,

scientific

research

and

education.

/2/

This program

is

similar

to

one

written

in

a

simplified

FORTRAN

by

John Loehlin

in

"Computer

Models

of

Personality",

Random

House,

NY,

1968.

/3/

This

question

is

treated

as

a theorem

by

Minsky

and

Papert

in

their

book

"Perceptrons;'

MIT

Press,

1970.

References

(1)

Papert,

S. "Teaching

Children

Thinking", M.LT.

LOGO

Memo

#2, Oct. 1971.

(2)

Iverson,

K.E.

"APL

in

Exposition",

IBM

Tech.

Report #320-3010,

Jan.

1972.

(3)

Berry,

p.

et.

al.

"APL

and

Insight:

The

Use

of

Programs

to

Represent Concepts

in

Teaching",

IBM

Tech. Report #320-3020,

March

1973. o

ADAPSO

-Continued

from

page

16

or

registration

run

counter

to

this

principle.

At

stake

in

this

case

is

equal

patent

treatment

for

the

products

of

small

software

companies.

The

myth

perpetuated

by

the

Government

and

CBEI\IA

--

that

computer-program embodied

inventions

are

not machine

inventions

--

has been exploded;

there

is

now

no

justification

for

the

denial

of

patent

protection

to

software-embodied machines.

20

Sobczak -Continued

from

page

9

MODULOS

1.

2 3

000

I I o , +-

BINARY

EN·

NUMBER

SYSTEM

CHARACTER

STEP 1

STEP

2

LEFT

SIDE

OF

UPC

SYMBOL ZERO

FIGURE 3

MANUFACTURER

IDENTIFICATION PRODUCT/PART

NUMBER

CODING

18 x 3

54

STEP

3

------------------

__________________

~)

69

STEP

4

--------------------------------7)

70

~

FIGURE 4

NEXT HIGHEST

MULTIPLE

OF

10 ? 1

?

MODULO

CHECK

CHARACTER

o

For

the

meaning

of

the

29

references

and

for

the

rest

of

the

brief,

please

ask

ADAPSO

for

a copy

of

the

printed

brief.

o

COMPUTERS

and

PEOPLE

for

December 1975

a

e

(

m

b

v.

d

u

(

c

(

t

b

c

d

o

b

P

s

a

h

m

f

t

P

w

c

A

t

o

t

r

p

t

c

U

C

r

k

t

f

c

Computers

and

People: Case 1

IIStuart Universityll

Dr.

Edward A. Tomeski

Contributing Editor, "Computers and People"

Fordham University

Bronx,

NY

10458

Stuart

University·

was

founded

in

the

1890s and

has

an

enrollment

of

more

than 10,000

full-time

equivalent

students

and

about 500

faculty

members.

Administratively,

the

university

consists

of

the

board

of

trustees,

the

president,

and

vice

pres-

idents

of

academic

affairs,

research,

financial

affairs,

student

affairs,

public

relations,

and

planning.

The

various

academic

units

are

adminis-

tered

by

deans

and

their

assistants.

Administra-

tion

of

Stuart,

a

private

institution,

has

histori-

cally

been

relatively

centralized

and

informal.

Recently,

there

has been a

gradual

movement

toward

some

decentralized

decision-making

as

well

as

for-

malizing

of

policy

and

procedures.

Long-range

planning,

budgeting,

and

institutional

research

are

all

receiving

increased

attention

at

Stuart.

Overall,

student

enrollment

has had

some

modest

growth. but

some

specific

educational

programs

have had

serious

declines

in

enrollment.

The

data

processing

center

began

operating

in

the

late

1950s. mostly

for

academic uses

in

the

areas

of

mathematics and

science.

At

that

time,

the

center

was

administered

on

a

part-time

basis

by

a

faculty

member.

In

the

1960s,

the

data

pro-

cessing

center

was

placed

under

the

supervision

of

a

full-time

computer

specialist

who

reported

to

the

Vice

President

of

planning.

Several

full-time

computer programmers were

hired.

In

a

few

years

the

major use

of

the

computer

was

for

administra-

tive

applications

(e.g.,

payroll,

accounting,

stu-

dents'

grades,

registration

records)

rather

than

for

academic work.

In

the

early

1970s, a

univer-

sity

computer committee

was

established;

the

com-

mittee

contained

representatives

from

administra-

tion

and academic

departments.

The

committee recom-

mended

the

establishment

of

an

integrated

informa-

tion

system

for

the

university.

A systems

task

force

was

designated

to

design

and develop such a

system.

The

head

of

the

task

force,

a

fUll-time

systems

analyst,

also

reported

directly

to

the

vice

president

of

planning.

Two

goals

were

set

for

the

task

force:

1.

The

design

and development

of

two

data

bases;

a

student

file

and a

faculty

file.

These would

constitute

the

beginning

of

an

inte-

grated

information

system. 2.

An

attempt

to

de-

velop a

university

simulation

model

to

be

used as

an

aid

in

predictive

planning

for

the

university.

';'Whilc

based

on

an

actual

si

tunti

on,

the

case

ma-

terial

has been

slightly

modified

to

conceal

the

identity

of

the

institution.

COMPUTERS and PEOPLE

for

December, 1975

From

time

to

time "Computers and People"

presents

a

capsule

case which

illustrates

practical

prob-

lems and

issues

computer technology

and

its

use

in

organizations.

A

case

includes

questions.

Readers

are

invited

to

compose

their

answers

to

the

questions

and,

if

they wish, mail

them

to

Dr.

Tomeski

before

the

10th

of

the

month

following

the

month

of

publication.

In

a

sub-

sequent

issue

each

case

will

be

discussed

and

selected

responses

by

readers

will

be

printed,

along

with

a proposed

solution

by

Dr. Tomeski.

Recently,

the

use

of

the

computer has been

in-

creasing

in

the

academic

areas

for

educational

and

research

purposes.

The

data

processing

center,

how-

ever,

has a mandate

to

concentrate

most

of

its

time

on

administrative

areas

and

the

integrated

infor-

mation system. Consequently,

there

have been

in-

creasing

complaints from

faculty

that

educational

technology

is

being

neglected,

and

that

such

ne-

glect

harms

the

quality

of

the

university

education

and

research

effort.

Some

professors

use

outside

computers, because

the

university's

computer

is

either

inadequate

for

larger

problems

or

the

response

time

is

poor. Because

of

the

increase

in

operating

costs

(e.g.,

faculty

salaries,

fuel

bills)

and

eco-

nomic

uncertainty,

the

university

is

operating

under

a very

tight

budget.

Questions:

1.

From

the

information

available,

do

you

think

the

faculty

complaints appear

justified?

What

can

the

faculty

do

to

alleviate

the

problem?

2.

What

are

the

dangers,

to

the

university,

if

more

computer power

is

not

made

available

to

academic and

research

users?

3.

What

is

your assessment

of

the

university

com-

puter

committee and

its

role

the

data

processing

center?

Can

you

reconcile

the

re-

sponsibilities

of

the

vice

president

of

planning,

director

of

the

data

processing

center,

and

the

systems

analyst

who

heads

the

systems

task

force?

4.

What

is

the

best

way

of

balancing

the

center's

service

between

the

administrative

and academic

users

of

the

university?

5.

What

actions

would

you

take

if

you

were

the

vice

president

of

planning?

0

21

Computer-Assisted

Tutorials

J.

L.

Caldwell

Dept.

of

Mathematics

University

of

Wisconsin-River Falls

River Falls,

WI

54022

Douglas Polley

Dept.

of

Mathematics

University

of

Minnesota

Minneapolis,

MN

55455

.

In

College

Mathematics

"While operating the programs, the students showed a most unusual enthusiasm

for

quadratic formula and line

problems."

Many

uses

of

computers

in

mathematics

education

are

well

known.

We

believe

that

our approach

dif.·

fers

in

important

aspects

from most

standard

uses.

It

is

hoped

that

this

note

will

encourage

others

to

experiment

with

techniques

similar

to

the

one

pre-

sented.

Analyzing Student Answers

The

programs which

the

authors

have

designed

and

written

were

specifically

intended

to

analyze

the

students'

answers

to

computational

problems.

We

call

this

approach

tutorial

(although

this

terminol-

ogy

is

nonstandard)

because

the

programs mimic

the

role

of

a

tutor

in

the

traditional

sense.

No

new

material

is

presented

via

the

computer.

We

assume

that

the

student

has

received

instruction

in

basic

formulae

before

using

the

programs.

If

the

student

responds

incorrectly

to

problems

generated

by

the

program,

the

program

analyzes

the

student's

answers

in

an

attempt

to

identify

common

errors.

The

first

programs

deal

with

quadratic

equations

and

equations

of

straight

lines.

A program

dealing

with

sums

of

rational

functions

is

under

construc-

tion.

Problems with Randomly

Chosen

Parameters

The

format

of

all

the

programs

is

the

same.

The

student,

seated

at

a

teletype,

receives

a problem

with

randomly chosen

parameters.

The

student

then

solves

the

problem and

enters

his

solution.

If

his

solution

agrees

with

the

computer's

solution,

then

another

problem

is

presented.

If

the

student's

sol-

ution

is

incorrect,

the

computer

then

works

the

pro-

blem

incorrectly

in

several

different

ways,

each

time

checking

its

answer

against

the

student's.

If

a match

is

obtained,

then

the

computer

suggests

that

the

student

has

made

a

certain

error

and

asks

him

to

try

again.

If

none

of

the

incorrect

answers match

the

student's

answer,

then

the

computer

will

check

the

student's

work

step

by

step.

For example,

in

the

case

of

the

quadratic

equation

program,

the

stu-

dent

is

first

asked "What

did

you

get

for

A,

B,

C?"

and

then

later

"What

did

you

get

for

B

-4AC?"

Fi n-

ally,

if

the

student

does not

enter

the

correct

an-

swer,

he

receives

a

detailed

solution.

(For

over

90%

of

the

problems

we

have checked

thus

far,

the

student

has

eventually

entered

the

correct

answer.)

If

a

student

requires

detailed

solutions

to

several

problems,

he

is

asked

to

contact

the

instructor.

Reprinted

with

permission from

the"

American Mathematical

Monthly",

October,

1975

22

Programming

Languages

The

programs were

written

in

FORTRAN

and

imple-

mented

on

a

CDC

6400 computer,

but

other

choices

would

serve

well

also.

In

particular,

the

size

of

the

CDC

6400

is

unnecessary

because

such programs

are

easily

divided

into

subprograms.

FORTRAN

could

be

replaced,

and

in

fact

the

programs

are

currently

being

translated

into

BASIC

to

premit

their

use

on

other

time

sharing

systems.

The

use

of

an

instruc-

tional

dialogue

language (IOL) would

greatly

facili-

tate

the

writing;

but

unfortunately

the

authors

know

of

no

IOL

which has

the

capability

of

generating

problems

at

random.

Hopefully

this

void

will

soon

be

fi

lled.

The

principal

use

of

the

programs has been

by

precalculus

and

linear

algebra

students

at

the

Uni-

versity

of

Wisconsin-River

Falls

and

the

Minneapolis

and Morris campuses

of

the

University

of

Minnesota.

In

addition,

several

other

members

of

the

Minnesota

Educational

Regional

Interactive

Time-Sharing System

(MERITSS)

have been

involved.

Those

readers

desiring

additional

information

about

the

programs

are

invited

to

write

UWRF.

Discovering the Source

of

a Student's Error

It

was

our

intention

to

identify

the

source

of

a

student's

error

as

soon as

possible

with

minimal

interrogation

of

the

student.

This

presents

some

interesting

theoretical,

as

well

as

practical,

ques-

tions.

On

the

theoretical

side,

we

may

ask

just

how

much

can

we

tell

about

the

source

of

the

error

based

on

our knowledge

of

the

incorrect

response,

the

cor-

rect

response,

and a knowledge

of

the

technique

being

used.

On

the

practical

side,

we

have

the

considera-

tions

motivated

by

the

following

example

of

two

in-

correct

solutions

to

the

problem:

"Find

the

equation

of

the

line

through

the

point

(2,

-3)

wi

th

slope

2."

I

II

y 3

2(x

-2) y + 3 =

2(x

-

2)

y 3 2x 4 y + 3 = 2x -4

y 2x y = 2x -

COMPUTERS and PEOPLE for December,

1975

J.

In

I

the

mistake

occurs

in

the

first

line,

while

in

II

the

error

is

in

the

subtraction

of

the

last

line.

In

both

cases

the

answer

given

is

the

same.

Although

the

existence

of

the

error

can

be

readily

identified,

and

it

may

be

reasonable

to

assume

that

any

incorrect

answer of

the

form y =

2x

- 1

is

due

to

one

of

these

methods,

we

still

cannot

tell

which

is

the

case.

In

programming

the

response

to

this

situation

we

may

issue

a message

of

the

form

"I

think

you computed y -

y.

incorrectly,

or

perhaps

you

com-

bined terms

incorrectly."

Alternatively,

we

may

in-

quire

"What

did

you

get

for

y -

y,

?"

While

the

latter

choice

is

less

ambiguous,

it

is

more

diffi-

cult

to

program because

it

involves

additional

de-

cisions.

In

situations

where

the

error

is

not

among

those

errors

deemed most

likely

to

occur,

it

may

be

acceptable

to

respond

in

the

former manner.

System

Design

Considerations

For

those

who

want

to

develop a

series

of

inte-

grated

tutorial

programs

there

will

be

some

addi-

tional

system

design

considerations.

One

problem

is

how

to

allow

a

student

to

progress

through problems

of

varying

levels

of

difficulty.

One

possibility

is

to

have a

level

indicator

which

determines

the

dif-

ficulty

of

the

problem

generated

as

well

as

the

de-

tails

of

the

interrogation

of

the

student.

In

the

case

of a

student

who

has

made

several

mistakes

we

would

assign

a lower number and

ask

him

to

enter

his

work a

step

at

a

time.

For a

student

who

is

not

making

many

mistakes

we

would not ask

for

as

many

intermediate

steps

and

give

more

opportunities

to

correct

mistakes

before

we

present

the

solution.

Another item

of

some

import

will

be a

series

of

software

routines

for

such

things

as

reading

student

input

(e.g.,

polynomials)

and

extracting

relevant

data.

Other

such

routines

might

include

a means

for

comparing

algebraic

expressions

to

determine

if

they

are

equivalent

(see

Uttral

[6]).

Of

course,

once

such

routines

have been

written

they can

serve

a

large

number

of

tutorial

programs.

Immediate Individualized Help

We

believe

that

this

approach

is

a

valid

utiliza-

tion

of

computer

facilities

because

it

offers

imme-

diate,

individualized

help

to

students

in

a manner

that

can be

duplicated

only

by

actual

consultation

with

an

instructor.

The

advantage

to

the

student

is

a

source

of

immediate feedback which might not

be

available

if

he

had

to

compete

with

other

students

for

help

from

the

instructor.

The

advantage

to

the

instructor

is

more time

to

deal

with

conceptual

pro-

blems which

are

basically

computational

in

nature.

Reduction

in

Teletype Time

We

feel

that

this

approach has

advantages

over

the

setting

in

which

the

entire

course

is

presented

via

the

computer.

First

there

is

a

reduction

in

the

teletype

time

required

because

the

student

first

at-

tends

class

or

perhaps

studies

a programmed

text,

then

comes

to

the

computer

to

work

problems.

Even

more

teletype

time can

be

saved

if

our

system

is

modified

by

assigning

to

the

students

problems

that

are

stored

in

the

"computer. Then

the

student

would

come

to

the

computer only

with

problems he could not

work. (Minimizing

teletype

time

is

important

because

it

is

often

more

scarce

than

computer

time.)

A

sec-

ond

advantage

is

that

tutorial

programs

are

compat-

ible

with

different

presentations

of

the

course

ma-

terial,

thus

leaving

more

control

in

the

hands

of

the

individual

instructor.

COMPUTERS and PEOPLE for December, 1975

Experience

in

Developing the Programs

Another

benefit

of

a system

of

tutorial

programs

is

the

experience

gained

in

developing

them.

The

authors

are

currently

having

senior

mathematics

edu-

cation

students

create

additional

programs because

we

believe

that

they

will

thus

obtain

a

better

un-

derstanding

of

the

errors

a

student

may

make

and

also

develop

a

facility

in

explaining

the

material.

The

student

designer

will,

of

course,

learn

much

in

the

area

of

system programming.

Enthusiasm

Our

experience

with

programs developed so

far

has

indicated

that

there

is

considerable

potential

in

this

type

of

computer-assisted

instruction,

particu-

larly

at

the

college

algebra

level.

The

manipula-

tive

nature

of

many

of

the

topics

in

college

alge-

bra

(such

as

determinants,

systems

of

equations,

etc.)

makes

them

suitable

for

the

problem and answer

analysis

framework. Programs

in

this

area

would

also

provide

review

material

for

calculus

students

whose

problem-solving

techniques

need improvement.

In

response

to

a

questionnaire.

students

who

have used

existing

programs

indicated

they

considered

the

pro-

cess

most

helpful

and would

recommend

it

to

their

fellow

students.

They

also

expressed

a

willingness

to

try

new

programs

when

they become

available.

While

operating

the

programs.

the

students

showed

a

most

unusual

enthusiasm

for

quadratic

formula and

line

problems.

It

was

most

encouraging

to

see

the

students'

satisfaction

in

obtaining

the

correct

sol-

tions

with

the

assistance

of

the

computer. For

these

reasons

the

authors

hope

that

this

approach

will

be

expanded and improved.

References

I.

E.

D.

Koffman, A

generative

CAl

tutor

for

com-

puter

science

concepts,

AFIPS

Conference

Pro-

ceedings,

40, 1972.

Spring

Joint

Computer

Con., p. 379.

2.

H.

A.

Lekan, Index

to

Computer

Assisted

Instruc-

tion,

Harcourt.

Brace.

Jovanovich.

New

York.

1971.

3.

A.

W.

Luehrmann. Should

the

computer

teach

the

student,

or

vica

versa?,

AFIPS

Conference

Pro-

ceedings,

40, 1972.

Spring

Joint

Computer

Con.,

p.

407.

4.

W.

Stenberg,

Computing

in

the

high

school

--

past

present

and

future

--

and

its

unreasonable

effectiveness

in

the

teaching

of

mathematics,

AFIPS

Conference

Proceedings,

40. 1972.

Spring

Joint

Computer Con., p. 1051.

5.

P.

C.

Suppes.

M.

Jerman,

D.

Brian

et

al.,

Com-

puter

Assisted

Instruction:

Stanford's

1965-

1966

Arithmetic

Program. Academic

Press.

New

York, 1968.

6.

W.

R.

Uttral.

Reaction

paper.

Computer

Assisted

Instruction

and

the

Teaching

of

Mathematics,

National

Council

of

Teachers

of

Mathematics,

Inc.,

1969. o

23

Computing

and

Data

Processing

Newsletter

COMPUTER "SCENARIOS" FOR THE APPLICATION

OF PESTICIDES BEFORE THEY ARE APPLIED

Robert Silber

Dept.

of

Information

Services

Michigan State University

East Lansing, Mich.

48824

Biological

and computer

scientists

at

Michigan

State

University

are

going

to

attempt

to

head

off

ecological

and

environmental

crises

before

they

start.

They

will

develop

computer

"scenarios"

of

the

expec-

ted

future

effects

of

pesticide

applications.

They

are

funded

by

a

$360,000

grant

from

the

federal

Envi-

ronmental

Protection

Agency. Under

the

general

man-

agement

of

Pesticide

Research

Center

at

MSU,

a

re-

search

team

of

biologists,

a group

of

systems

scien-

tists

and

pesticide

experts

will

examine

the

environ-

mental

impact

of

12

of

the

most commonly used

"soft"

pesticides.

Dr.

Erik

Goodman,

assistant

professor

of

Electrical

Engineering

and Systems

Science

will

head

the

group.

.

Soft

pesticides

--

usually

organic

phosphorous and

carbamate

compounds

--

are

generally

considered

safer

by

environmentalists

because

of

their

relatively

ra-

pid

breakdown

to

nontoxic

compounds. But

in

nature,

things

are

rarely

simple

and

loss

of

toxicity

in

the

laboratory

doesn't

mean

that

a

chemical

will

behave

identically

in

the

field.

Even

transient

toxicity

can have

long-term

detrimental

effects

in

an

ecolo-

gical

system.

Temperature,

humidity,

or

the

activity

of

bacteria

and

fungi

can

drastically

alter

the

per-

sistance

of

a

pesticide.

To

forecast

the

effects

of

an

application,

these

and a number

of

other

variables

should

be,

but

rarely

are,

taken

into

account.

The

characteristics

of

an

ecosystem

--

its

geogra-

phic

location,

the

kinds

of

animals

and

plants

in

it,

its

physical

and

chemical

properties

--

all

can have

tremendous

i~fluence

on

the

effects

of

a

given

~esti

cide.

A

chemical

application

having

minimal

side

effects

in

a

northern

forest,

could

be

disasterous

to

shellfish

living

in

waters

adjacent

to

a

southern

farm

field.

Because

the

ecological

consequences

of

an

improper

chemical

application

can be

severe,

and

because

there

are

so

many

variables

to

consider,

we

need computer

simulations

to

handle

efficiently

all

the

information

relevant

to

rational

decisions.

With

many

scientist

contributing

information

from

many

places,

solving

such a problem

resembles

working

on

a

jigsaw

puzzle

without

being

sure

of

having

all

of

the

pieces.

Computer models

will

help

direct

future

research

by

putting

available

information

in

perspective,

allowing

scientists

to

identify

infor-

mation

gaps and

to

establish

relevant

research

goals.

24

COMPUTER MONITORS PRESCRIPTIONS

AND

HELPS PREVENT ADVERSE DRUG REACTIONS

Ken Fleming

Executive Assistant

for

Public

Affairs

Group Health Cooperative

of

Puget Sound

200

-15th Avenue East

Seattle,

WA

98112

Prescription

drugs

offer

remedies

for

almost

everything

from

circulatory

disease

to

headaches,

these

same

drugs

can pose

hazards

if

taken

in

the

wrong

combinations.

The

average

adult

today

consumes

thousands

of

doses

of

medication

a

year.

Tranquilizers,

antacids,

aspirin,

antibiotics,

cold

remedies

--

the

list

is

long

and

diverse.

We

know

of

at

least

17,000

documented drug

inter-

actions

with

other

drugs,

foods,

miscellaneous

sub-

stances,

conditions

and

circumstances.

Many

of

these

interactions

are

harmless;

others

can produce symp-

toms

requiring

treatment,

or

even

endanger

life.

It

costs

an

estimated

$2

billion

a

year

to

treat

people

in

the

United

States

suffering

adverse

drug

reactions.

Nearly

20

per

cent

of

all

hospital

days

in

the

nation

are

devoted

to

care

of

these

patients.

To

help

prevent

these

mishaps,

Group

Health

Coop-

erative

has

installed

a computer system

to

monitor

more

than

one

million

prescriptions

issued

yearly.

The

Co-Op

is

a

prepaid

health

care

provider.

and

has m6re

than

200,000

m~mbers

in

the

Puget Sound

area

and a

medical

staff

of

200.

It

operates

a

major

hos-

pital

and

ten

neighborhood

medical

centers,

each

with

its

own

pharmacy.

Patient

profiles,

listing

the

medication

history,

drug

allergies

and

chronic

illnesses

of

all

GHC

pati-

ents,

are

stored

in

a

central

computer.

Another

file

lists

all

pharmaceuticals

in

stock.

their

chemical

formulations,

side-effects

and

interaction

problems,

if

any.

This

information

is

instantly

accessible

by means

of

remote

TV-like

computer

terminals

in

the

outlying

pharmacies.

When

a

Co-Op

member

presents

a

new

prescription,

the

pharmacist

enters

the

patient's

name

and number

into

the

system,

which

then

scans

the

appropriate

medication

history.

If

the

drug

prescribed

will

re-

act

negatively

with

those

the

patient

already

is

tak-

ing

--

including

patent

medicines

--

the

computer .

automatically

stops

the

process

and

indicates

that

the

prescription

should

not

be

filled.

If

the

pati-

COMPUTERS and PEOPLE for December.

197G

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ent's

computer

record

shows an

allergy

to

the

medica-

tion,

or

one

of

its

ingredients,

the

system

displays

this

information

on

the

remote

terminal

screen.

In

either

case,

the

pharmacist

then

contacts

the

prescribing

physician

and

requests

alternative

ther-

apy.

For

example,

if

a

person

is

allergic

to

penicillin,

the

doctor

will

prescribe

a

different

type

of

anti-

biotic

drug.

But

if

this

substitute

should

contain

some

form

of

penicillin,

the

computer

will

halt

the

prescription-filling

process

and

alert

the

pharmacist.

The

effects

of

certain

antibiotics

can be

nulli-

fied

if

taken

in

combination

with

food

or

antacids.

If

a Group

Health

Cooperative

member

regularly

takes

antacids,

this

fact

will

be

noted

in

his

computer

record.

When

this

patient

presents

a

prescription

for

an

antibiotic,

the

computer

will

alert

the

phar-

macist

who.

then

advises

the

patient

how

to

avoid

the

interaction.

To

deal

with

another

situation,

the

computer

sys-

tem

will

reject

a

prescription

for

a

sugar-based

cough

syrup,

if

that

should

be

ordered

inadvertently

for

a

diabetic.

If

no

problems

appear

when

the

patient's

profile

is

scanned,

the

new

prescription

is

added

to

the

record

and a

label

is

automatically

printed.

The

system

does

not

replace

the

trained

pharmacist

or

physician,

but

it

serves

as

a

major

aid

in

dispen-

sing

the

most

effective

and

safe

medications.

At

the

same

time,

it

reduces

the

tedious

chores

which

phar-

macists

and

their

assistants

would have

to

perform

by

hand.

All

pharmacies

in

the

State

of

Washington soon

will

be

required

to

maintain

medication

profiles

on

regular

consumers.

The

Cooperative's

computer system

will

keep

these

records,

ensuring

compliance

with

the

new

ruling

and

conserving

thousands

of

hours

of

phar-

macists'

time

--

time

that

would have been

spent

on

maintaining

manual

records.

Another

benefit

of

the

system

is

that

the

computer

is

programmed

to

monitor

the

drug

inventory.

So

the

size

of

the

inventory

can be

reduced,

and

costs

cut,

without

fear

of

sudden

exhaustion

of

stock.

The

sys-

tem

will

generate

reorders

when

quantities

are

low.

The

newly-installed

computer

system

will

save

money

and,

in

addition,

provide

better

service

to

the

CO,Op

members, making a

larger

contribution

to

their

good

health.

The

computer used

is

an

IBM

System 370 Model 125.

MINICOMPUTER HELPS CUT

UNIVERSITY'S

ELECTRIC BILLS

John Kane

Hewlett Packard

1501

Page

Mill

Road

Palo

Alto,

CA

94304

Administrators

at

the

University

of

California

at

Berkeley

have

installed

a

minicomputer

system

to

mon-

itor

the

use

of

about

$125,000

per

month

worth

of

electrical

energy.

The

system

is

helping

facility

managers

here

discover

exactly

where and

how

power

is

consumed and

how

best

to

reduce

the

large

monthly

bi

11.

COMPUTERS and PEOPLE

for

December,

1975

While

itself

consuming

no

more

energy

than

a

room

air

conditioner,

the

system

monitors

more

than

20

megawatts

of

power used

in

75

buildings

on

this

cam-

pus.

The Lawrence

Berkeley

Laboratory

is

separate

electrically

and

accounts

for

another

20

megawatts.

The

system

includes

a

data

acquisition

and

pro-

cessing

system

containing

a

minicomputer

and

31

transducers

which

sense

voltage

and

current

flow

in

the

feeder

circuits

to

all

the

campus

buildings.

The

computer

scans

the

transducers

once

per

minute

to

take

a

new

set

of

readings.

l~ese

transducers

are

situated

in

the

central,

high

voltage

distribu-

tion

cubicles,

each

of

which

suppliesa

single

large

building

or

several

small

buildings.

Signals

from

the

transducers

are

conditioned

by

a

scaling

device.

Then

they

travel

over

both

campus

and

dedicated

telephone

company

lines

through

an

analog-to-digital

converter

and

finally

arrive

at

the

computer.

In

real

time,

the

computer

generates

displays

of

energy

use

in

each

of

the

25

cubicles.

The

displays

are

monitored

by

a

console

in

the

plant

engineer's

office,

and

displayed

data

is

also

stored

on one

of

two

disc

drives.

Later,

the

displays

are

plotted

offline

on

a

digital

plotter,

and

graphi-

cally

display

patterns

of

energy

use

over

periods

of

a

day,

a week,

or

a month. A

teletype

is

also

avail-

able

for

producing

data

tabulations

and

for

program

development

entries

and

output.

The

Berkeley

system

is

being

used

to

examine

the

two

main

factors

which

go

into

the

calculation

of

the

institution's

monthly

bill

--

energy

demand and

energy

usage.

Demand

represents

how

much

energy

the

campus

may

require

at

any

given

moment,

while

the

power

or

energy

used

is,

of

course,

the

summation

for

a

given

time

period.

High demand peaks

occur

at

the

university

when

several

experimental

apparatus

such

as

the

main

campus' wind

tunnel,

small

nuclear

reactors,

and

plasma

experiments

are

turned

on

simultaneously

and

superimposed

on

the

ordinary

"background"

loads

such

as

lighting,

heating,

cooling

and

continuously-run

experiments.

A

high

demand peak pays a heavy

penalty.

To

help

defray

the

costs

of

turbines,

generators

and

trans-

mission

lines

necessary

to

meet

the

highest

peaks

which

may

arise,

no

matter

how

short

their

duration,

the

Pacific

Gas

and

Electric

Company

(PG

&

E)

incor-

porates

peak demand

into

the

billing

equation

very

significantly.

In

charging

for

peaks

in

demand,

PG

& E employs

what

is

called

a

"ratchet

effect",

whereby

the

high-

est

peak

occurring

during

any

half-hour

period

for

the

month

is

carried

forward

in

calculating

the

monthly

bills,

or

until

a

new

half-hour

peak

is

registered

in

some

succeeding

month.

This

ratcheted

peak

is

averaged-in

with

each

month's

actual

peak.

As

an example,

suppose

a

three-megawatt

peak

over

and above

the

normal demand

for

a

half-hour

period

is

recorded

but

never

repeated

again.

At

present

demand

costs

--

about

$1800

per

megawatt

--

this

amounts

to

$5400

extra

for

the

first

month and $2700

for

the

months

for

a

total

cost

of

$35.100

for

the

year

for

that

one

peak.

Facility

managers

are

taking

aim

at

these

costly

peaks

in

demand. They

are

beginning

to

knock them

down

by

a

notch

or

two

through

using

the

minicomputer

system

to

observe

their

occurrence.

25

A

lamp

removal program

is

underway

to

eliminate

all

unnecessary

lamps

while

still

providing

illumin-

ation

required

for

a

practical

environment.

A

pro-

gram

designed

to

upgrade

lighting

fixtures

to

diffuse

light

more

efficiently

has begun.

Also,

a

scheduling

program

is

being

set

up

whereby

experiments

requiring

substantial

amounts

of

electricity

are

staggered,

avoiding

simultaneous

use

wherever

possible

and

util-

izing

evening and weekend time

periods

when

back-

ground

loads

are

lowest.

A look

at

the

pen

plots

generated

by

the

computer

for

Moffitt

Library

demonstrates

how

revealing

the

detailed

information

on

electrical

demand

can

be.

Analysis

showed

that

most

of

Moffitt's

load

was

the

result

of

lighting

rather

than

experimental

equip-

ments,

machinery,

or

HVAC

systems.

Examination of

the

plots

also

revealed

two

unaccounted

for

and

cost-

ly

afternoon

demand

peaks,

two

weeks

apart.

A check

of

weather

conditions

(the

weather

bureau

hai

a

sta-

tion

on

campus) showed

these

were

exceptionaily

warm

winter

days and

air

conditioning

units

were

turned

on.

The

100

kw

air

conditioning

units

operate

automa-

tically

for

Moffitt

from

sensors

located

outdoors.

The

building's

extensive

fluorescent

lighting

pro-

vides

all

the

heat

necessary

on

most

days.

Facili-

ties

managers concluded

that

by

turning

off

50

per-

cent

of

the

lights

on

warm

days,

the

air

conditioners

needn't

be

used as

often.

This

was

accomplished

without

impairing

normal

use

of

the

building.

The

monitoring

of

load

peaking

will

have

other

benefits

as

well.

The

system

functions

as a main-

tenance

tool

for

electricians.

On

the

console,

feed-

er

lines

can be

identified

and

instantaneous

readings

of

voltage

and

current

can

be

taken.

This

permits

electricians

to

find

overloaded

lines

and

switch

loads,

preventing

individual

transformers

and

cables

from

taking

the

brunt

of

the

load,

which

shortens

their

productive

lives.

The

system

installation

was

very

inexpensive.

The

transducers

cost

about

$30

each;

there

was

little

special

wiring

necessary.

Each

of

the

31

monitoring

points

cost

about $150

to

install

completely.

The

monitoring

system should pay

for

itself

in

two

years.

If

so,

the

saving

in

monthly

electric

bill

would

be

more

than

10

percent.

PROMOTING THE

USE

OF A COMPUTER IN TEACHING

News

Service

The

University

of

Iowa

700 Jefferson Building

Iowa City, IA 52242

The

University

of

Iowa has

received

a

National

Science

Foundation

grant

of

$375,000 so

that

it

can

serve

as

a

center

for

the

review,

testing

and

dissem-

ination

of

selected

computer-based

materials

for

col-

lege

science

courses.

The

project

is

being

carried

out

by

CONDUIT,

a

consortium

of

eight

educational

computer networks

directed

by

James

W.

Johnson

of

The

University

of

Iowa Computer

Center.

The

main

objective

of

CONDUIT

is

to

improve

edu-

cation

by

providing

for

instructors

and

students

alternative

ways

of

learning

concepts

and methods.

Because of

the

newness

of

the

use

of

computer

tech-

nology

in

education,

structures

to

effectively

dis-

seminate

innovations

do

not

now

exist.

The

IS-month

grant

will

provide

support

for

the

CONDUIT

central

office

on

the

U

of

I campus

to

re-

26

view,

test,

evaluate,

and

distribute

the

best

avail-

able

computer-based

materials

for

classroom

use

in

the

physical

and

social

sciences.

This

activity

will

require

establishing

quality

standards

for

mat-

erials;

it

also

requires

the

development

of

mechan-

isms

for

delivering

materials

to

instructors.

The

grant

is

from

the

Technological

Innovations

in

Education

Group

of

the

National

Science

Founda-

tion;

it

will

enable

CONDUIT

to

continue

work

on

the

development

of

procedures,

techniques,

standards

and

systems

for

disseminating

complex computer-based

instructional

packages.

In

addition,

CONDUIT

will

assemble

panels

of

ex-

perts

to

provide

state-of-the-art

reports

on

instruc-

tional

computing

in

the

fields

of

chemistry,

physics,

economics,

biology,

mathematics,

sociology,

geogra-

phy,

political

science,

business

and psychology.

CONDUIT

was

founded

in

1972

to

study

and promote

the

exchange

of

computer-based

instructional

materi-

als.

The

original

members

of

the

CONDUIT

consortium

were Dartmouth

College.

North

Carolina

Educational

Computing

Service,

Oregon

State

University,

The

Uni-

versity

of

Iowa. and

the

University

of

Texas,

Austin.

The

project

will

be expanded

this

year

with

the

in-

clusion

of

10

new

members

in

the

consortium.

The

use

of

the

computer

to

provide

new

and

excit-

ing

techniques

for

learning

has become

much

more

fea-

sible

because

of

dramatic

decreases

in

equipment

costs.

But

the

real

effectiveness

of

the

new

tech-

nology depends

on

the

dissemination

of

ideas

on

the

use

of

computers

in

education.

The

main

job

of

CONDUIT

is

to

assure

that

the

best

ideas,

some

of

which

currently

pass

unnoticed,

are

widely

dissem-

i

nated

and

adopted.

0

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C'.~

~tr9;'s

3526

(Page 1)

(See

inJtructiollJ

on

f'n't.'neJ

I

.cOMPUTERS and PEOPLE

for

December, 1975

....

/

GAMES

AND

PUZZLES

for

Nimble

Minds

-

and

Computers

It

is

fun to use one's mind, and it

is

fun

to

use the

artificial mind

of

a computer.

We

publish here a variety

of

puzzles and problems, related

in

one way or another

to

computer game playing and computer puzzle solving, or

NAYMANDIJ

In

this kind

of

puzzle an array

of

random or pseudoran-

dom digits ("produced

by

Nature") has been subjected

to

a

"definite systematic operation" ("chosen

by

Nature") and

the problem ("which

Man

is

faced

with")

is

to figure

out

what was Nature's operation.

A "definite systematic operation" meets the following

requirements: the operation must be performed

on

all the

digits

of

a definite class which can be designated; the result

displays some kind

of

evident, systematic, rational order and

completely removes some kind

of

randomness; the operation

must be expressible

in

not more than four English words.

(But

Man

can use more words to express it and still win.)

NA

YMANDIJ

7512

142

1

346

2 6 7 2 5

493

7 3

201

1 5 9 7 5 3 9

088

6

243

5

331

3 2

7 5 8 6 8 6

028

962

1

879

1

048

5018143

1

291

9

594

9 5

709

3 6 5

766

7

028

032

2

008

244

738

9 2 4 8 6 7 5 4 7 3 6 4 7 4 6

1 6

744

2 6 2 7 6 6 7 7 4 2 2 5

432

1 1 5

099

6 0 3 0

088

2 8 2 3

304

2 4 8

868

7 1

604

2 7

364

6 5

1 8

745

3

2'9

2 3 2 7 5 3 9 5 8 4 1

MAXIMDIJ

In this kind

of

puzzle, a maxim (common saying, proverb,

some good advice, etc.) using 14 or fewer different letters

is

enciphered (using a simple substitution cipher) into the

10 decimal digits

or

equivalent signs for them. To compress

any extra letters into the 10 digits, the encipherer may use

puns, minor misspellings, equivalents like

CS

or

KS

for X

or vice versa, etc. But the spaces between words are kept.

MAXIMDIJ

7512

(D~CD*

<D

~

CD

•

.tl

1r**

.~

COMPUTERS and PEOPLE

for

December, 1975

Neil Macdonald

Assistant Editor

to the programming

of

a computer to understand and

use free and unconstrained natural language.

We

hope these puzzles will entertain and challenge

the readers

of

Computers and People.

NUMBLES

A

"numble"

is

an arithmetical problem in which: digits

have been replaced

by

capital letters; and there are two

messages, one which can be read right away and a second

one in the digit cipher. The problem

is

to

solve for the

digits. Each capital letter in the arithmetical problem

stands for just one digit 0 to 9. A digit may be repre-

sented

by

more than one letter. The second message,

which

is

expressed

in

numerical digits,

is

to

be translated

(using the same key) into letters

so

that it may be read;

but the spelling uses puns, or deliberate (but evident)

mis-

spellings, or

is

otherwise irregular,

to

discourage cryptana-

lytic methods

of

deciphering.

M E

90685

NUMBLE

7512

x

H E

WHO

T E W

S L L

S W T

OMKTW

36549 06851 3254

We

invite our readers

to

send us solutions. Usually

the (or

"a")

solution

is

published in the next issue.

SOLUTIONS

NA

YMANDIJ

7511: Make row 3 even.

MAXIMDIJ

7511:

If

it

is

different, it

is

rong.

NUMBLE

7511: People learn by losing and losing.

Our thanks to the following individuals for sending us

their solutions to -

MAXIMDIJ

7510: T.

P.

Finn, Indiana-

polis, Ind. -

NUMBLE

7510: T.

P.

Finn, Indianapolis, Ind.;

Abraham Schwartz, Jamaica,

N.

Y.

27

.

I

Announcing

plans for a

new

quarterly

magazin~:

COMPUT,ER

GRAPHICS

AND

ART

To

all

persons interested

in:

Applied Arts and Graphics

Architectural Graphics

Cartography Systems

Computer Aided Design

Computer Assisted Instruction

Computer Graphics

in

Physics,

Chemistry, Mathematics, and

Other Sciences

Computer Graphics

in

Business,

I ndustry, and Other Branches

of Knowledge

in

Computer Graphics

in

Literature,

Semantics, Fine Arts, Applied

Arts, and Other Fields

Interactive Graphics Languages

Courses

in

Computer Graphics

Dear

Colleague,

At

the

present

time

we

are

exploring

the

possibi-

lity

of

publishing

a

new

magazine

on

interdisciplin-

ary

computer

graphics

and computer

art

aimed

at

the

college

level.

We

need your

feedback

concerning

the

graphic

interests

that

you have and

that

you

know

of.

We

want

this

magazine

to

be

useful

to

you and

your

colleagues.

Accordingly,

this

is

your

invitation

to

submit

material

and

to

begin

subscribing

(or

indicate

your

intention

of

subscribing)

to

COMPUTER

GRAPHICS

AND

ART

a

new

quarterly

to

be

published

starting

probably

early

in

1976, and

for

which I have been asked

to

be

the

editor.

At

the

present

time

an

advisory

board

of

distin-

guished

people

and a group

of

contributing

editors

well

known

in

,graphic

fields

are

being

assembled.

Your

suggestions

and nominations

will

be welcome.

You

and your

colleagues

are

cordially

invited

to

submit

papers,

articles,

computer

graphics,

photo-

graphs,

reviews,

computer

art,

ideas,

etc.

--

no

holds

barred

--

for

us

to

consider

for

publication.

In

addition,

your

suggestions

about

authors

whom

you

would

like

to

have

papers

from

will

be most welcome.

One

of

our

goals

is

to

publish

materials

on

computer

graphics

early;

and

then

authors

can

more

quickly

establish

their

professional

claims

for

origination

of

good

ideas

and programs. Every

author

receives

permission

to

reprint

his

or

her

material

unlimited-

ly,

although

the

magazine

is

copyrighted

by

the

pub-

lisher.

We

look

on

subscribers

as

colleagues

in

a mutual

effort,

and

not

as

listeners

in

a

lecture

room.

Your

help

and

cooperation

in

this

mutual'under-

taking

is

warmly

invited

and

will

be most

appreciated.

May

we

hear

from you?

Cordially.

~c-.~~.-

~

~race

C.

Hertlein

Editor,

"Computer Graphics and

Art"

Associate

Professor

Department

of

Computer

Science

California

State

University,

Chico

Chico,

Calif.

95926

Here

is

your

chance

for

feedback to us:

-(may

be

copied

on

any

piece

of

paper)-

TO:

COMPUIER

GRAPHICS

AND

ART

Berkeley

Enterprises,

Inc.,

Chico Branch

555 Vallombrosa, #

35

Chico,

Calif.

95926

I.

Yes,

please

enter

my

annual

subscription

to

the

quarterly

COMPUTER

GRAPHICS

AND

ART:

( )

personal,

$10; ( )

library,

$15

( )

department,

, $15

and

bill

me.

2.

Yes,

please

record

my

intention

to

subscribe

annually:

( )

personal,

$10; ( )

library,

$15

( )

department,

, $15

and

notify

me

when

plans

are

firm.

3.

I hope

to

submit

for

consideration

for

pub-

lication,

material

on

the

following

topics:

~'A

4.

I would

be

particularly

interested

in

cove-

rage

of

the

following

subjects:

':'A

5.

I

am

interested

in

reading

material~

by

the

following

authors:

'~A

6.

Please

send

me

further

information

on

bonuses

for

subscribing:

( ) Computer Art

Reprints

( )

FORTRAN

IV

programs

for

computer

art

( ) Computer Graphics

Bibliography

7.

I

suggest

you

send

information

to

my

friends

and

associates

whose

names

and

addresses

follow:

'!<A

8.

Any

Remarks

or

Comments?

____________________

___

':'A

Name

Title

-----

Organization

__________________

__

Address _______________________________________ ___

*A

-

attach

paper

if

needed

c

197512

197512 197512

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