2012june Caspro Manual

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CAMEL MANUAL
FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

INTRODUCTION

CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

Chapter Authors: Ernest N. Mbogo, Christopher R. Field, Kisa Juma Ngeiywa, Khalif A. Abey

Kenya Camel Association
P.O. Box 6067 - 00100
Nairobi Kenya
Tel: +254 20 2731975
Email: kenya.camel@gmail.com

Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI)
Kenya Arid and Semi-Arid Lands Research Programme (KASAL)
KARI Headquarters
P.O. Box 57811 - 00200
Tel: + 254 20 4183302 - 20, + 254 722 206986 - 88
Nairobi Kenya
Website: www.kari.org/kasal

A camel freely grazing on prickly pear (Opuntia ficus-indica) an exotic plant infesting large areas in the Horn of Africa.
(Source: Maurizio Dioli)

Pastoralists say in the past camels could stay over 21
days without water but today can last no more than
14 days. These problems, among others, are partly a
result of poor management of animal health, breeding
and nutrition.

Why this manual?
Ministry of Livestock Development
ASAL Based Livestock and Rural Livelihood Support Project
(ALLPRO)
P.O. Box 34188 - 00100
Hill Plaza, Nairobi
Tel: +254 20 6751799
Fax: +254 20 2721001
Email: pc@allpro.go.ke

VSF Suisse
Regional Office - Nairobi
Olekejuado Road
P.O. Box 25656 - 00603 Nairobi - Kenya
Tel: +254 20 4343441
Fax: +254 20 4343442

Editorial Team:
Mario Younan, Ali Zaidi, Patrick Sikuku
Photos: Maurizio Dioli, Simon Kuria, Tura Isako, Chris Field, John Kihumba,
Piers Simpkin, Amos Adongo, Klaus Lorenz

In Kenya’s arid lands, the majority of people are
pastoralists who keep camels for a living. Camels
provide them with milk, transport, meat, hides and, for
some communities, also blood. From selling camel milk
and other products, they get cash for other necessities
of life. But while people who keep other livestock have
been using modern treatment methods and veterinary
drugs for a long time now, camel keeping has lagged
behind and pastoralists are getting poorer. Poverty
levels in the arid lands are said to be up to 70%.

But, as the Hon Mohamed Kuti, Kenya’s Minister of
Livestock Development, said, the camel can be the
animal of the future. It is uniquely adapted to the
harsh conditions of the arid and semi-arid lands; its
feeding habits mean it does not compete with other
livestock, while it remains productive throughout
the year. This is why camel keeping has spread to
communities like the Maasai, Pokot, Samburu and
others who traditionally kept only cattle and smaller
livestock. Camel keeping is also spreading to countries
like Tanzania, Botswana and recently to Uganda.

Camel keepers report that their herds are no longer as
healthy and productive as in the past. Somali, Gabbra
and Rendille pastoralists say that in the old days, one
female camel gave enough milk for four people; today,
it only gives enough for two. This is because there is
now less forage and what there is, is of poor quality,
as repeated droughts dry up the rangelands, which are
shrinking as the human population rises.

In the past, the government, universities, research
centres, development organisations and others
did not pay much attention to camel keeping; so
many pastoralists felt they were being sidelined in
development. When the Structural Adjustment
Programmes began in the late 1980s, the government
stopped employing animal health providers such as
veterinarians and animal health assistants, which
made the situation even worse. To fill the gap, NGOs
and donor agencies began training Community Animal
Health Workers (CAHWs) with a focus on cattle, sheep
and goats; but there was still little interest in camels.
This scenario is now changing fast and development
workers in the arid and semi-arid regions of Kenya
and beyond are beginning to understand the pivotal

That means that herds are no longer growing as quickly
as they used to, the calves also grow more slowly, take
longer to reach physical maturity and have fewer calves
in their turn. Due to higher camel population densities
and more frequent contact between different herds,
camels are also increasingly falling ill with poorly
understood diseases like Swollen Glands / Hemorrhagic
Septicaemia. They also no longer adapt as well to the
harsh environment, perhaps because pastoral lifestyles
are changing and becoming more sedentary – that is,
they no longer move around as much as they used to.

CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

It is hoped the manual will be useful at four levels:
Trainers of CASPROs, CAHWs and AHAs.
The CASPROS and CAHWs themselves, who
will be community based and conduct hands-on
training for camel keepers in the village, camp or at
the boma/pen-side.
The camel keepers – many camel owners and in
particular their children are literate and can use the
manual to find solutions to their camel problems.
The manual can also be useful as teaching material
for beginners in camel keeping at primary, secondary
and tertiary institutions of learning. With more
school camel programmes and out of school
learning, it is hoped that this manual will also reach
educated youth in the pastoralist community.

role of the camel. They realise that better management
of their camels will greatly improve the livelihoods of
pastoralists. But there are still many gaps in knowledge
and communication among camel keepers, extension
workers and others interested in camel development.
This manual tries to bridge these gaps by providing
a practical, quick field guide to camel management,
health and products. It does not try to present all
the existing knowledge and skills about camels; it is
instead a simple and easy to read reference manual for
hands-on users that can be carried around in the field.
After all, in the remote and mobile situations where
camels are kept, there are few sources of information
and help on camels to turn to. The language used has
been kept as simple and non-technical as possible
(except when dealing with specific camel diseases,
though local names of the diseases where known are
included) so that even those with limited knowledge of
English will hopefully find it useful. Illustrations and
extension messages are included.

CHAPTER 1
ORIGIN AND USES OF CAMELS

Role and selection
of CASPROs and CAHWs
CASPROs and CAHWs are multipurpose community
workers with prior animal health training. Their main
role is to:
Provide a link between trainers, government line
ministries, NGOs, CBOs, other stakeholders and the
livestock/camel owners, by for example, translating
and interpreting during community meetings.
Deliver extension messages and share basic
knowledge with livestock/camel keepers.
Mobilise livestock/camel keepers in the community
when needed.
Report on livestock/camel diseases and take part in
disease surveillance and control activities.
Be part of the veterinary drug supply chain to
livestock/camel keepers.

The manual is divided into five chapters. Chapter One
describes the uses of the camel; Chapters Two, Three
and Four look at camel management, camel health and
camel products & marketing respectively. Chapter Five
explores crosscutting issues affecting camel keepers
such as gender, conflict, environment and HIV/AIDS
and reflects on the future of camel keeping in Kenya.
For those who want more in-depth information, the
manual can be used together with other reference
materials, a list of some of which is provided at the
end of the manual.

Who can use this manual?

They should be:
Preferably trained CAHWs and actively delivering
animal health services before being trained in camel
issues.
Living among camel keepers and used to handling
camels.
Literate in English and/or Kiswahili and speak the
language of the local community.
Responsive to community priorities and aspirations.
Motivated to make an income-generating career as
a private service provider.
Able to provide leadership and have the desire to
serve the community and to train successors.
Willing to share their knowledge with all members
of the community without bias.

The information contained in this manual includes the
natural vegetation, traditional management practices,
camel diseases and available treatments that can be
found in arid Kenya. Camels in the lowlands of Ethiopia
and in the whole of Somalia are kept in very similar
environments and under comparable conditions. It is
hoped that this manual will be of practical use to all
those working with dromedary camels in the Greater
Horn of Africa but also outside the region, wherever
camels are kept to provide food and transport.
The manual is designed as both a quick handson reference and as a training tool to be used by
veterinarians, animal health professionals and field
trainers – government extension staff, NGOs, CBOs
and others – to train Animal Health Assistants (AHAs),
Camel Service Providers (CASPROs), Community
Animal Health Workers (CAHWs), and others. It is
also intended for use by literate, especially younger
camel keepers who have limited or no access to camel
specific information.

Undoubtedly, these qualities will not be easy to find
in one person and in all communities. Such a person
is quite likely to have employment already. However,
it is our hope that this manual will reveal the full
potential of the camel so that not only will its milk be
regarded as the “white gold of the desert” but all its
other qualities as well.

Adult females carrying water for the household. This is a very important method to increase herd productivity in
marginal areas without destroying the environment. Households that are able to settle in areas far from watering points
have access to better and more abundant fodder sources since these areas, being too far from water sources, cannot be
utilized by other livestock species and are not overgrazed. (from Schwartz, H.,J., Dioli, M., 1992.

1.1. Origin and domestication of camels

currently between India and Pakistan. As early as
1800 BC, trade routes from Asia and Africa crossed
the Arabian Peninsula, with camel caravans carrying
spices, incense, gold, ivory, and silk on their way to
Europe and the lands of the Fertile Crescent
In Kenya tour companies and some pastoralists train
camels for trekking safaris. The dromedary has also
been used for racing in Sudan and the Middle East
for many years, and more recently in Kenya. Camels
can run at up to 65 km an hour in short bursts and
for long distances at speeds of up to 40 km/h.

Camel-like animals are thought to have originated

from North America about 50-60 million years
ago. Over the years, they evolved into two main
types: The Bactrian camel, which has two humps
and mainly lives in the cold deserts of China
and Mongolia, and the dromedary, which is onehumped and is found in the hot deserts of Africa
and the Middle East. The dromedary is the subject
of this manual. It is thought that the dromedary
was first domesticated in southern Arabia about
5,000 years ago. It is used for transport, as a beast
of burden, and for meat, milk and hides and, in
some communities, for its blood too.
Camels can live for 40 years, but the productive
lifespan is between 20 and 30 years.
Camels have been used for long distance travel,
for trade, exploration, and in the Colonial Police
patrols to keep the peace in northern Kenya and

1.2. Made for the desert: Why the
dromedary camel is so suited to arid
conditions
The camel, unlike other domestic animals, has no less
than 20 specific adaptations of its body that help it
survive extreme heat and go without water for long

CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

of the sun when it is directly overhead at mid-day.

periods. This means it can travel to remote pastures
over a huge area – camels can walk up to 60 kilometres
in a day – and go on giving milk during drought when
other animals stop lactating or even die. Camels will
also eat everything, fresh plants, dried plants, very
salty plants, bones, fish, meat, even leather.

Camels breathe slowly and so lose less water from

the lungs, while a large amount of water vapour
condenses in the nostrils when breathing out and
is returned to the body. The inside of the nose
contains a unique cooling system to cool down the
blood flowing to the brain, protecting the brain
against overheating. Body heat is lost through blood
vessels near the skin and not from the coat, allowing
more cooling for less sweat. Camels urinate down
their hind legs, when the urine evaporates it cools
them down.
Camels can loose up to 25% of their body weight in
fluids, they can also drink large quantities of water.
(over 100 litres in 10 minutes) at one watering
without any damage, because their red blood cells
can swell several times their normal size after
drinking without rupture – in other words, they
do not suffer what is known as ‘water poisoning’
in other livestock. In the desert, where watering
holes are few and far apart, this allows the camel to
quickly drink up enough water to last through the
long journey to the next watering hole. To save water,
camels reduce sweating, instead they store heat in
their body during the day and release it during the
night. They can allow their body temperature to
super-heat up to 41 degrees centigrade before they
need to sweat and also super-cool down to below 35
degrees centigrade at night – the kind of changes in
body temperature that would kill other mammals.

The ‘anatomical adaptations’ of the camel – how its
body is constructed to help it survive in the desert –
include:
Long legs that lift it well above the hot ground, and
sternal pads – very hard skin pads at the back of its
front leg joints, and the front of its back leg joints –
that keep its body clear of the ground when seated,
allowing air to circulate around it and keep it cool
(Fig. 1.1).
Nostrils that can close against dust; large padded
feet to support its weight in sand; protruding frontal
orbit and long eyelashes that shadow the eye against
the sun; a membrane also found in other animals,
that moves like a very thin third eyelid across the
eye and brushes away sand from the eye; the ears
are small and covered in hair, including the inside of
the ear, which helps keep out sand and dust.
A unique fore-stomach (rumen) which has only
three chambers (rumen of other ruminants has four
chambers) and contains so-called glandular sacs
that produce a saliva-like liquid; such glandular sacs
are not found in the rumen of any other ruminant.
The ‘physiological adaptations’ – how its body
functions – include:
Fat is stored in the hump during times of plenty to
be used in times of need. Also, the fact that most of
the fat in the camel’s body is found in the hump,
helps it stay cool. If a camel’s fat were distributed
over its body like a human’s, it would insulate the
body and make it harder to cool down. The fat
itself also insulates the camel’s back from the heat

Fig 1.1. A camel controls its body temperature
by facing the sun and sitting clear of the ground,
allowing free air circulation around the body

CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

Camels are very efficient at recycling water inside the
body. Their kidneys and intestines are very good at
retaining water, producing thick concentrated urine
and very dry dung that can be used immediately as
fuel for cooking.

In Kenya, camels were first kept by the Somali people
of North Eastern Province where their much larger
breed and herds are found. Camel keeping later spread
to the Rendille, Gabbra and afterwards to the Turkana
of Marsabit and Turkana districts. In recent times,
camels have spread farther to the Samburu, Pokot,
Massai and beyond the southern rangelands of Kenya
into northern Tanzania.

‘Behavioral adaptations’ include:
Sitting and standing facing the sun so as to expose the
minimum surface area to the sun, avoid too much rise
in body heat and water loss through sweating.

Traditionally, camels in Kenya were classified according
to the communities that kept them. However, a study
on the physical, production and genetic characteristics
of Kenya camels by KARI Marsabit, International
Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) and University of
Hohenheim confirmed four breeds, namely:
Somali
Rendille/Gabbra
Turkana
Pakistani

1.3. Camel distribution in Kenya
Kenya is normally estimated to have about 900,000
camels supporting a population of over 1,583,000
people. Surveys show a 78% increase in camel numbers
between 1982 and 2010. Based on the 2009 human
population census, the Kenyan government estimates
that the national camel population may have reached
as many as 3 million animals. In these days of global
warming, with all its problems especially in the arid
and semiarid lands of Kenya, the camel is likely to
become more, not less important for pastoralists and
agro-pastoralists in the future.

Pakistani camels were imported from Pakistan in the
early 1990s. More details on camel breeds can be
found in Chapter Two.

Fig 1.2 Camel distribution and
density in Kenya

CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

1.4. Use of camels for food and transport

Depending on the season, camel milk also has more
fat, protein, and minerals than cow or goat milk.
The milk is also believed to have medicinal value,
helping in the management of high blood pressure
and diabetes. Due to increased urbanisation and
sedentarisation of pastoralists, an informal camel
milk trade to supply urban consumers has become
an important source of income for camel keepers.
There are many cultural practices around milking
camels. For example, among the Rendille and
Gabbra, females and sexually active men are not
allowed to milk camels whose calves are below one
year of age. This does not apply to Somali and
Turkana camel keepers, but, apart from the herders
and owners, Somalis do not allow strangers to milk
their camels. And enough milk must be left for the
calves so the herd can continue to multiply.
The presence of the calf is very important in milking
as it stimulates the milk let-down. If the calf dies,
the herder can use a dummy with the skin of the
dead calf to encourage milk let-down. A dam can
also develop a liking for a particular herder and will
let down the milk when she sees him or her.
Camel meat is very healthy because it has lower
cholesterol and less fat than beef, since the fat is
mostly stored in the camel’s hump
The Gabbra and Rendille rarely slaughter camels
except during severe drought or during major
traditional ceremonies like weddings, the death of
prominent persons in the family and during peace
talks. But castrated, fractured or deformed camels
are slaughtered at home.
The Turkana people regularly slaughter male camels
for meat. The Somalis slaughter both males and
female camels for meat. Camel meat is preferred
to other meat, so camels are slaughtered in large
numbers in North Eastern Province. Camel meat
consumption is rising with the recent influx of
Somali refugees into Kenya.
Meat from old camels is usually tough and has to be
cooked for a longer time. Camels have softer meat
when they are less than 5 years of age.
Camel fat is traditionally used in the treatment of
fractures and cooking.
Some pastoralist communities such as the Turkana,
Rendille and Samburu drink camel blood, but since
taking blood in any form is forbidden in Islam, the
Somali do not do so.
Camel hides were traditionally used to make ropes
for loading camels, also for making traditional
beds, gourd covers, sleeping and prayer mats,
cushions, sandals etc. During times of famine, some
pastoralists cook camel hides for food.
Tanned camel hides are used to make high quality
leather goods like shoes and bags that are sold in
some shops in Nairobi.
Pastoralists use male camels mainly for drawing
water, carrying their tents and other belongings,
carrying young children, old people and young

Camels produce milk, meat, hides, and bones, which
are used by camel keepers’ families for their own needs
but are also now being more and more sold in the
market on a commercial basis, being professionally
packaged and marketed. Untapped potentials are
also being explored, such as value addition along the
market chain, ecotourism, and draught power – for
example, for pulling farm carts and for ploughing.
A camel can produce 20 litres of milk a day without
drinking any water for up to 10 days! Camels are
kept mainly for milk, which has been called ‘the
white gold of the desert’. However, outside the camel
keeping communities, few Kenyans consume camel
milk despite its nutritional value. Some people
look down on the milk because they know so little
about camels. The fact is that camel milk has a high
vitamin C content, which is very useful to people
living in the arid and semi-arid lands (ASAL) who
do not have much access to fruits and vegetables.

Rendille elders milking (Source: Simon Kuria)

Rendille Camel being milked. Camel milk is the main food
for millions of pastoralists living in arid areas. (Source:
Maurizio Dioli)

CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

water from far distances or provide for his family,
especially during drought.
A family without camels is therefore considered
poor, even if it possesses other livestock. The camel
is a symbol of wealth, status and prestige. For
example, among the Somali pastoralists, families or
clans with large camel herds are regarded as being
wealthy, with a high social status and influence,
and often become opinion leaders within the
community.
The culture of most camel keepers revolves
around the camel; the Rendille and Gabbra, for
example, have regular traditional ceremonies for
blessing camels. Camels are required in important
ceremonies such as marriage, burial and religious
events. Among the Somalis, camels are used to
pay Zakat (tithe or offering). In fact, camels are
now used as dowry even among communities that
have recently adopted camels such as the Samburu
and Borana. There are many cultural dances in
praise of camels. Camels are also used to settle
damages caused by conflicts between individuals,
families or clans. For example, among the Somalis,
compensation for the death of a man is still 100
camels and for the death of a woman 50 camels,
according to the Mogadishu Declaration.

stock and for ferrying surplus milk to the market.
A baggage camel easily carries loads of 200
kilogrammes. But due to increasing demand for
slaughter camels, the transport function of camels
is now being taken over by donkeys and the males
are being sold in larger numbers.
Camels are also harnessed and used as draught
animals, for ploughing and pulling carts.

1.5. Use of camels for tourism and mobile
services

Camel racing and trekking safaris are beginning
to earn their owners and trainers a good income
from ecotourism. Parts of northern Kenya and the
Rift Valley are ideally suited to this as they offer
a combination of wildlife and mountain scenery.
Camel racing in Kenya is still in its infancy, though.
Camels can also be used to provide mobile special
outreach services such as carrying CASPROs and
CAHWs and Village Health Assistants to remote
destinations with their equipment; camels are being
used for mobile library services by the Garissa
branch of the Kenya National Library Services.

1.6. Wealth and respect: Social and cultural
uses of the camel

Camels are seen as a store of wealth and security
against drought, disease and other natural calamities.
In some communities, camels are also loaned to the
needy to help them get back on their feet.

Camels play an important role in the society,
culture and religion of camel keeping communities.
A man without camels is like a cripple because he
cannot travel with the rest of the community, draw

Gabbra camels carrying water (Source: Tura Isako)

Desert ambulance about to take children to hospital
(Source: Tura Isako)

Camel ploughing on Mt Marsabit (Source: Tura Isako)

Camel de silting a dam (Source: Chris Field)

CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

CHAPTER 2
CAMEL MANAGEMENT
‘There are no problems with camels, only with the camel keeper’- Rendille saying
Chapter Authors: Simon G. Kuria, Abdi Y. Guliye, Fredrick O. Aloo, Tura A. Isacko, Christopher R. Field, Mario Younan

A Camel used for ploughing in Ukambani (Source J. Kihumba)

Mating camels (Source: Maurizio Dioli)

A very important part of good camel management
is good feeding/grazing and good breeding practices.
These includes management of the dam before birth,
management of parturition, care of the young calves
(timely feeding of colostrum, diarrhoea management,
tick control), timing of weaning and time for presenting
the dam to the bull for mating after calving.

2.1 Breeding
2.1.1 Different camel breeds in Kenya
There are four camel breeds in Kenya namely Somali,
Rendille/Gabbra, Turkana and “Pakistani,” which
have different physical, productive and genetic
characteristics, as shown below.

Somali Camel Bull (Source: Maurizio Dioli)

Somali
Largest body, weighing 450 - 850 kg.
Milk yield of 3-5 litres a day; Hoor type camels

Rendille/Gabbra

Compared with the Somali breed, it is:
Smaller in size (300-550kg).
Lower in milk yield (average 1-3 litres a day).
Does better under poor pasture conditions and on
rough hilly terrain.
Coat colour is mainly creamy or brown.

produce 6-8 litres per day.
Heavy feeder, needs good pasture.
Not suited for hilly terrain because of its size and
weight.
Mostly cream coloured coat.

CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

Mainly chocolate in colour and has more fur than
Kenyan camel breeds.
Drooping lower lip

CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

Table1: Good breeding camels
Good breeding bull
Fast growth rate
Good body conformation (tall, large body frame,

Good breeding female
History of producing high milk volumes
Adapts well to the environment
Good body conformation (slender body and large

well built), upright in standing, with good ability
to chase and mount females
Adapts well to the environment – available feed,
terrain etc
Mother of the bull is a very good milker

stomach)

Well developed, pronounced milk veins
Large and well set udder with four normally
shaped and normal size teats

Good fertility record and proven good mothering
ability

Rendille/Gabbra Camel Breed (Source: Simon Kuria)

Turkana

Compared with other breeds, this is:
Smallest in size (250-500 kg).
Lowest in milk yield (1-2.5 litres a day).
Does well in very poor pasture conditions and on
rough terrain.
Coat colour is mainly grey.

Pakistani Camel Breed (Source: Tura Isako)

Within each camel breed, pastoralists differentiate
different types of camels, which they breed for
different uses; e.g. within the Somali breed, pastoralists
differentiate between:
Sifdaar – large, good pack camel, medium milk
yield.
Hoor – delicate, high milk yield.
Gelab - small and very hardy, low milk yield,
survives harsh conditions.
Similar differentiation is found within the Rendille/
Gabbra breed.

Source: Simon Kuria

at around 6, when his canine teeth are sufficiently
developed for fighting and he shows signs of “rut”
(see next page).

Mating
Mating among camels can be a violent affair and

Breeding season
Camels are seasonal breeders; the onset of the

run loose with a small herd of females, since it can
injure the females and the calves.
Sometimes the female will not sit on her own; when
this happens, she is often forced to do so by the
male who chases her around, biting her neck, the
back of her hump, and pressing her down. This may
result in severe injuries to the female. So it is a good
idea to make the female sit before bringing the male
to mate with her.
Mating can take a very long time and the herder
sometimes has to intervene. This has given rise to
the belief that male camels need help in mating.
Release of the egg (ovulation) in females only takes
place after mating. To ensure successful conception,
it is good practice to allow for repeat mating.
Rutting males should be herded by strong, mature
people since they can be aggressive and easily hurt
children.

may lead to injury to females.

A breeding bull in rut should not be allowed to

breeding season is triggered by availability of fresh
green feed.
The breeding season coincides with the rainy period
of the year; a clear sign is bulls coming into rut.

2.1.2 Recommended bull:female ratio

A camel keeper should have one dominant bull

6 to 12 years of age with one younger bull as his
replacement.
More than one breeding bull may be needed
depending on the herd size. A bull:female ratio of
1:50 is best when sufficient forage is available.

Adult females: Turkana(L), crossbred S x T (C), and Somali
(R), (Source: Piers Simpkin)

Pakistani

2.1.3. Sexual maturity, breeding season,
courtship and mating

Very small population in Kenya (currently less than 20
pure bred Pakistani) used for cross-breeding with local
camels. Its characteristics:
Smaller in body size than the Somali camel but
larger than the Gabbra/Rendille at 400-700 kg, with
stocky proportions and shorter legs.
High milk yield, although in Kenya yields do not
exceed 8–9 litres per day.
Very heavy feeder, needs very good pasture, not
suited for arid bush or for running in large herds.

Sexual maturity depends on nutrition and health as
well as the breed of the camel.

Sexual maturity
Females become active at 4 to 5 years of age and
give birth when about 5 to 6 years old.

A male on the other hand becomes sexually mature

2.1.4. Signs of rut in male and heat in female
camels

Mating camels. The one-humped camel, including
bactrian camel and south American camelids, is the
only ungulate that copulates in a couched position.
Young breeding male camels (4-6 years) often require the
assistance of the herdsman for a successful copulation.
(Source: Maurizio Dioli)

Signs of rut in a male camel
Loss of appetite; its coat becomes dull.
Unusually aggressive and difficult to handle (chases
away all the other males and even humans).

Urinates frequently and splashes urine on to its

at around 5 years of age but begins to serve actively

back by flicking its tail.

CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

A tar-like greasy discharge comes out of glands on

the neck behind the ears, which the bull then rubs
onto plants to mark its territory and warn other
males.
The dulla, a soft flap filled with air, sticks out from
the mouth, looking like a pink balloon (as shown in
the picture).
Makes noises by grinding its teeth, while saliva
flows from its mouth.
Rutting bulls should be separated from each other
as they can fight to the death.

CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

Using aged males for breeding

High return to heat in females

Use young bulls below 12 years.
Such bulls have:
Good ability to mate females
Come to rut faster after the dry
season and serve for a longer
period in any given breeding
season
Higher conception rates of
females served

Using aged females for breeding
(females with more than 6 calves)

Females after the 6th calving

Use females who have had no
more than 6 calvings.

A pregnant camel (Source: Maurizio Dioli)

Signs of heat in a female camel
May become restless.
May show swelling of the vulva with a mucous
discharge.

Urinates frequently.
May yield less milk than normal.
May sniff urine from other females.

The heat lasts 3-4 (sometimes up to 6!) days and
is repeated after 20-25 days for females that fail to
conceive

Selection along female line to
breed for better production

served by old bulls
Low conception rate
Aged bulls have reduced
economic value when sold as
meat animals

have lower fertility resulting in
more frequent return to heat
They also have worn-out teeth
and more udder problems
leading to poor body condition,
low milk yield and increased
calf mortality

No substantial improvement in

milk yield and other production
traits in the camel herd

2.1.5 How to tell if a camel is pregnant

If a she-camel is pregnant, it will raise its tail when
a bull approaches it; sometimes it will both raise
its tail and urinate at the same time. The same
behaviour is shown by pregnant female camels
when the camel keeper comes close.
This behaviour in pregnant camels can be observed
as early as 2-4 weeks after the calf has been
conceived.

Adult male in rut displaying the “dulaa” an expandable
pouch of the soft palate. This balloon-like structure is
expelled from the mouth as part of sexual display and
as a threatening behaviour towards other males (and
humans). The inflation and expulsion of the structure is
accompanied by profuse salivation, grinding of teeth and
loud vocalization. The “dulaa” is fully developed only in
adult males and it is absent in the two-humped camel.
(Source: Maurizio Dioli)

2.1.6 Bad breeding practices
A study of the traditional breeding practices of camel
keeping communities in Kenya found several bad
practices that can make camels less productive. Table
2 gives details of these practices, their harmful effects
and the good practices to be introduced instead.

Inbreeding

Signs
Congenital problems like

deformities (e.g. overshot or
undershot jaws)
Slow calf growth
High calf mortality

Select bulls who are the offspring
of very productive females and
show superior performance
(weight gain, fertility) to spread
desired features in camel herds
For spreading desired traits
in the herd, bull selection is
faster than selection along
the female line because one
breeding bull can serve 50 dams
every breeding season while
one female gives birth to less
than one calf per year and to
only about 7 calves during her
productive life span

2.1.7 Management of pregnant camels,
one month before calving
Pregnancy in the camel on average lasts 387 days – or
one year and three weeks. A month prior to calving,
pregnant camels require special care as described in
Table 3.

Table 3: Care of pregnant camels one month before birth

Table 2: Bad breeding practices and how to avoid them
Malpractice

Such younger females normally:
Have good body condition
Produce more milk
Their calves show higher
survival and growth rates

Correct Practice
Avoid inbreeding by:
Replacing the breeding bull
at 12 years when its first
daughters become sexually
mature
Exchanging bulls with
neighbours (bulls not related to
each other)
Using two or more breeding
bulls who are not related to
each other

What to do
Reserve good grazing for pregnant camels nearer

Why
This is the most critical stage of pregnancy

Graze the camels near settlement or boma during

Heavily pregnant camels are not fit for long treks

to homestead or boma

last month of pregnancy for close monitoring and
to avoid long treks
Avoid grazing in areas with potholes, gullies, rocky
areas, slippery ground
Do not allow the camel to wallow in dust or mud
Do not put camels in badly made, weak or dirty
bomas

and calving must be closely observed and may
require some assistance
The pregnant camel can fall down and injure itself

The pregnant camel cannot easily stand up on
sloping or muddy ground

Increased risk of infection and predation for the
newborn

CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

2.1.8: Signs of giving birth

2.1.9 Calving management

The camel’s udder becomes enlarged.
The ligaments at the root of its tail begin sagging.
It becomes restless, lying down and standing up

It is important to only assist the camel during calving
if absolutely necessary! Compared with cattle, camels
need far less assistance during calving. If the position
of the calf inside the mother is normal, it is very
important to be patient. In exceptional cases, camels
have been known to give birth to a normal calf after as
long as 300 minutes of labour. Table 4 details what
the herder or helper should do.

frequently.
It loses appetite.
It makes an unmistakable noise.
It separates itself from the herd and may wander off
into the bush.
Unlike in cattle, labour in the camel lasts for a short
time and takes only between 10 and 30 minutes on
average.

Note: In camels, the normal calf presentation during
birth is ‘anterior’ – it comes out with its head and
forelegs first – though occasionally there is ‘posterior’
presentation – it comes out hind legs first. When the
two feet (and the head in the anterior position) are
presented, both positions are considered normal.

Table 4: The camel is giving birth
What you should do
Before giving birth camels like to separate

Why
If the camel calves without a human caretaker the

themselves from the herd and wander off into the
bush; when that happens, one herder must stay
close to the camel and if possible, keep the camel
near the boma
Let the mother lie down outside the boma, be
very gentle and quiet with the camel; noise makes
the mother nervous, interfering with birth
Camels calve fast; pushing out the calf takes only
15-30 minutes but may take longer in first calving
heifers
In case the camel has difficulties delivering the calf
and you don’t have experience with camels giving
birth, call an experienced herder, community
based animal health worker or veterinarian to
assist; as long as the calf is inside the mother, it
will stay alive for hours
If you cannot get assistance and the calf is already
visible and you can see two front feet and the
head of the calf, attach two new clean ropes, one
to each leg, and pull very gently. If you can see the
two hind feet and the tail, you can also attach a
rope to the hind legs and pull gently
The camel calf is born inside a membrane (like
an envelope). This membrane separates the calf
from the fluids; in case it does not rupture, open it
immediately after birth with your hand and allow
the calf to breathe
If the umbilical cord breaks spontaneously, dip the
navel in iodine if available

birth progress cannot be observed; besides, the
newborn calf may suffocate or be taken by hyenas.
Also, if the mother calves alone in the bush, she
may abandon the calf after giving birth and then it
is very difficult to find the calf!
Dropping the calf while the mother is standing
can injure the calf, also calving inside the boma
exposes calf and mother to a lot of dirt and may
cause dangerous infections
In cases of difficult calving, allow for plenty of
time and pull the calf very gently and only when
absolutely necessary; this helps avoid very serious
injury which can kill both, the mother and the
calf. The most common mistake is to interfere
with normal birth and try to assist too early compared to cattle, camels need far less assistance
in giving birth!

CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

she only sees the calf around her. You can also tie

days after birth (called colostrum) protects the calf

the mother’s rear legs together to prevent her from
kicking the calf during suckling.

against infections in the first months of its’ life

If birth takes place far from the boma in the bush,
transport the newborn calf back to the boma after
it has suckled – the mother will follow its calf, do
not leave mother and calf alone in the bush
If the placenta does not come out, call a vet or
CAHW to provide antibiotic treatment, as a
retained placenta may start a severe infection in
the mother. Suckling of the calf helps the mother
pass the placenta.

Make sure the placenta has dropped; in camels
the placenta normally comes out within 30
minutes after birth

2.2 Calf management

Characteristic of a healthy camel calf:
Birth weight 25 to 35 kg.
Stands up and suckles within the first 3 hours.
Walks within 2 to 3 days.
Passes first faeces within 24 hours.
Follows mother after a week.
Forages actively after 2 to 3 months as the rumen

Poor management practices are among the reasons
why so many calves die young – different researchers
have reported from 12-60% camel calf mortality in the
country’s pastoral camel herds. Traditionally, camel
keepers believe that whether the calf survives after
birth is “amri ya Mungu” or God’s will. Still, many
causes of calf mortality can be prevented by good
management.

is developing.

Sleeps, suckles, runs, jumps around and plays with
other calves.

Is weaned from suckling within 12 to 18 months.

Calves are very important for camel keeping
communities. Female calves are the future milking
camels without which the herd cannot grow or produce
milk. Normally, the presence of the calf is necessary to
stimulate let down of milk by the mother, although
pastoralists have come up with ways of stimulating
milk let-down if the calf dies.

The survival of calves is especially affected by
competition for milk between the suckling calf and
humans, who depend on camel milk as an important
part of their diet. Poor veterinary services, predators,
diarrhoea, tick paralysis, internal and external
parasites, feed stress during the dry season, water
stress especially among mobile herds, all contribute to
calf losses. Therefore, special care is needed to improve
survival rates of calves, as explained in Table 5.

If the mother rejects the calf or dies during the first 8
weeks after birth, the calf rarely survives!

Table 5: Management of the suckling camel calf
Management practice and how it should be done

If the membrane/envelope in which the calf is

born does not rupture, the calf can suffocate. This
strong membrane is not found in the newborn of
cattle/sheep/goats

Dipping the navel in iodine prevents navel illness.

Note: Camel calves do not need licking by the
mother or drying after birth
The groaning noise made by the mother means
that she has accepted the calf and will allow it to
suckle
Suckling during the first 3 to 6 hours after birth is
very important for the calf because the dense milk
that the mother produces for the first 2 to 3

Place the calf in front of the mother until the
mother makes a low groaning noise

Help the calf to stand and suckle; if the mother

refuses to let it suckle (common with first calvers),
make her sniff the calf. If she still proves difficult,
isolate her and keep the calf close to her so that

Why

Colostrum feeding
(drinking the first milk after birth)

Colostrum is like a vaccination, it gives
the calf immunity
Allow the calf unlimited access to drink colostrum to ensure it
Colostrum also activates the calf ’s
gets all the antibodies, vitamins and proteins within the first 3 to
digestion and helps it to pass its first
6 hours after birth. If the dam does not allow the calf to suckle,
faeces.
restrain her and try to induce milk let down by palpating the
Colostrum is very rich in nutrients
udder and the abdomen. In the absence of milk from the mother,
and is only produced by the udder on
feed the calf on milk from other camels that have just given birth
the first one or two days after calving;
later, the udder starts producing
Note: Herders sometimes deny or give very little colostrum
normal milk
to the calves, claiming that excess colostrum causes diarrhoea,
especially among second calvers. Research has shown this to be a
dangerously wrong practice, based on believe rather than on fact

CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

Diarrhoea management

Diarrhoea contributes significantly to
the 12-60% camel calf mortality levels
reported among camel herds in Kenya
When a calf has diarrhoea, it loses
Take five tablespoonfuls of honey or sugar and one
a lot of water and can die from
tablespoonfuls of table salt. Mix well with two litres of clean
dehydration. The honey-table saltwater.
water solution replaces lost water,
Give 500ml of the solution through the mouth every 4 hours
energy and minerals, this is called
until the diarrhoea stops. (see fig. 3.4 - page 36)
rehydration
Treating diarrhoea using eggs from chickens that live
The eggs of chickens that interact with
near the camels
camels and feed on ticks and other
Give one egg by mouth daily to a calf with diarrhoea until
flies from camels have been found
diarrhoea stops.
to have a protective effect against
Use of conventional drugs
diarrhoea
Give sulphonamide tablets according to manufacturer’s
These drugs help in managing bacterial
instructions
diarrhoea
Separate sick and healthy calves
Older calves are the main source of
Try to put newborn calves in a clean, separate boma
diarrhoea infection for newborn calves;
separation prevents spread of diarrhoea
Note: The most important measure is early rehydration, when
to other calves
the calf can still stand and suckle; small calves with diarrhoea
lose water rapidly, become dull, stop suckling and can die within
24 hours. To minimise water loss, it is good to keep sick calves in
the shade.
Rehydration of the calf using a mixture of water, table
salt and honey (See chapter 3)

Calf management in the first year
Let the calf run with its mother during the day for the first
three months; most pastoralists do not milk the mother
during the first 3-4 weeks
After the third month, when the calf is able to graze actively,
gradually reduce the milk allowance for the calf, depending
on the quantity and quality of forage available and its
growth performance
In case of death of the mother or calf rejection, try to find a
foster mother that has calved around the same time; if this is
not possible, bottle feeding is advised
Ensure that the calf is free of ticks, including nymphs
(small white ticks that attach around the hump); often it is
sufficient to remove ticks by hand (see chapter 3)
Treat abscesses around the joints early (see chapter 3)

Weaning the calf

Gradually wean the calf from suckling at the age of 12 to 18
months, depending on the size and strength of the calf and
availability of good pasture/browsing
Deworm at weaning and treat with Trypanocide
(see chapter 3)
Provide ample salt regularly
Increase watering intervals step wise and slowly
Treat weaners for external parasites (mange and ticks)
Vaccinate weaners against Clostridia and against Tetanus,
especially where camels are kept together with other
livestock (use the same vaccine as for sheep and goats)

This provides enough milk for the
newborn calf. For the calf, heavy
milking for human consumption
delays calf growth and makes calves
weak and prone to catch a disease
Early separation contributes to calf
diarrhoea since the calf stays hungry
the whole day and when the mother
returns home in the evening, it takes
a lot of milk at one suckling. The
milk tends to cramp the undeveloped
stomach, leading to diarrhoea.
Letting the calf accompany its
mother during the day also triggers
early rumination because of early
access to forage and water
Young calves can easily die from
blood loss if they have too many
ticks; ticks can also cause tick
paralysis, which kills calves quickly
(See chapter 3)

Camel keepers in Kenya wean calves

at an age of one to one and a half
years. After weaning, the calves join
the main herd, which is normally
taken for longer distances for foraging
and watering. The abrupt change in
management causes stress and it is
good to ensure that the weaned calf
does not suffer from parasites and has
good immunity during that period

Camels browsing

Camels grazing

Camel grazing while seated (only observed in tall camels)
Fig 2.1 Camel feeding habits

2.3 Camel nutrition and feeding

area. This feeding behaviour also makes camel
herding more challenging.
Camels are browsers. Their long legs and neck allow
them to browse up to 3 metres above the ground,
so they can eat foliage that other livestock cannot
reach.
Because of the kind of forage they prefer and the
fact that they feed at higher levels, camels rarely
come into direct competition for grazing with other
animals like cattle and sheep. This means that
keeping a combination of different livestock species
allows the fullest use of the available pasture land.

Good nutrition is essential for the camel to grow well,
to reproduce and to produce milk, because it affects
health, fertility, growth, birth weight of the calf and
milk yield. As with humans, good nutrition means
the camel must get enough protein, energy, roughage,
vitamins, minerals and water.

2.3.1 Feeding habits

Foraging camels spread over a large area, thus

putting less pressure on the vegetation in any one

CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

How much water camels need depends on the water

Table 6: Some important range forage species for camels
Scientific name

Growth form

Somali

Rendille

Turkana

Samburu

Gabbra

Acacia tortilis

Tree

Abuk Abak

Dahar

Etir Ewoi

Ltepes

Dadacha

Acacia nilotica

Tree

Bili Madow

Gillorit

Ekalapelimet

Ilkiloriti

Burquqe

Indigofera
spinosa

Dwarf shrub

Rufile
Maratel

Khoro

Emakwi

Lkitagesi

Korategala
Kiltipe

Salsola
dendroides

Dwarf shrub

Darran-ad

Hadum

Aduung

Hadum

Boscia coriacea

Shrub

Ghalangal
Dakkiyah

Yoror

Erdung

Serichoi

Galgacha

Balanites

Tree

Kullen Kidthi

Kulum

Eroronyit

Sarai Ilbulei

Badhan
Baddana

Salvadora
persica

Shrub

Adde Athei

Hayei

Esekon

Sokotei

Aadhe

Euphorbia
tirucalli

Shrub

Elila

Loile

Anno

Cordia sinensis

Shrub

Mared Maeer

Gaer

Edome

Ilgoita

Madeera

Barleria Spp

Herb

Gamaadiis
Odarol

Geidow
Sucha

Lkurumbule
Sucha

Maadek
Shiisha

Blepharis
linarifolia

Herb

Quarda
Yumarook

Lemaruk
Harja

Emarak

Kutumbule
Baraata

Sueda Monoica Shrub

Duurte

2.3.2 Suitable camel feeds

2.3.3 Mineral requirements

Given the opportunity, camels prefer to feed on shrubs
and trees. However, in their absence, they can live
comfortably on herbs and annual grasses.
Camels are highly selective feeders and require 8-10
hours of grazing daily to be satisfied. This depends
on breed, body size and seasonal feed availability.
During drought, camels require a daily grazing time
of up to 12 hours.
Under normal rangeland conditions, camels select
a diverse high-quality diet that provides all the
nutrients required by the body.
Camels are also able to survive on low quality
fibrous roughage. They adapt well to different diets
and dietary conditions.
During the dry season, when other forage is scarce,
camels can browse on the green tips of trees (for
example acacia) that are out of reach for other
livestock, or feed on Euphorbia, which is toxic for
other livestock species, so they are better able to
survive droughts.
However, there are some plants that are poisonous
to camels – for example, the Capparis tomentosa –
so areas where such plants are concentrated should
be avoided (See Chapter 3). Ingestion of toxic
plants is often linked to periods of extreme feed
scarcity and/or to animals being introduced into a
completely new area.

Camels like salt and prefer grazing and browsing on
salty plants (i.e Indigofera spinosa). They need much
more salt than other livestock species.
Pastoralists, knowing that camels need extra salt, try
to take their camels to naturally occurring salt sources
(saltlicks, salty springs).
A camel’s salt needs under normal dry land conditions
range between 30 and 60 grammes a day. A camel
working hard in the hot season may need as much as
140 grammes of salt daily. It is good to provide salt to
camels daily in the boma.
Still, research shows that camels suffer deficiencies of
certain minerals that are either not found in natural
sources, or are not present in sufficient quantities. This
means camels need properly formulated and balanced
minerals for good all-round nutrition. One option is
to buy industrial chemicals that supply key deficient
elements and mix them with natural saltlicks or other
low quality livestock salts sold in the market.

2.3.4: Water requirements

Compared with other livestock, the camel’s body is

very good at using water, as it can reabsorb most of
the water in the kidney and intestines and also loses
very little water through sweating.

Weight helps to decide when the animal is ready for

content of their forage; so, during wet periods,
camels get enough water from their feed and from
shallow puddles and may not need direct watering
for up to eight weeks.
During dry seasons and drought, camels need
regular watering, ideally every 5 to 8 days. Watering
intervals longer than this lead to dehydration, which
interferes with the functioning of their body systems
and reduces productivity. Watering intervals during
drought of more than 14 days have however been
reported, even in lactating camels.
Lactating camels should be watered at least every
six days, and should have plenty of forage.
Camels can drink up to 25% of their body weight
within a few minutes; still, time should be given
to the camel to drink several times with rests in
between to help it meet its body’s needs. It is
also good practice to rest camels for a while after
watering.
Checking skin elasticity is a good test to assess
dehydration in camels. This is done by grabbing
and pulling out the loose skin around the neck or
lower abdomen and then releasing it. If the raised
skin fold disappears quickly, the animal is not in
acute need of water. But if the skin fold remains
standing for a long time, the animal is dehydrated
and should be watered soon. Dehydrated camels
must not be injected with veterinary drugs! (This
skin test is also very useful to assess
severity of dehydration in suckling calves
with diarrhoea.) see chapter 3

breeding or slaughter and also affects its price if it is
being sold in the market.
If necessary, in times of shortage, its weight will
help decide how much feed to give the animal.
New born calves weigh 25-35kg.
Mature camels weigh 350-800 kg, depending on the
breed.
Camels reach their mature weights between 4 and
6 years of age depending on their management and
breed; camels kept on very good pastures mature
and grow faster than camels kept in very arid areas.
If there is no scale to weigh the animal, you can use a
tape measure to estimate the body weight from three
measurements using the following formula:

Shoulder height x Abdominal girth x Hump girth
x 50 = Body Weight in kg

SH = Shoulder height (m)
TG = Thoracic girth (m)
AG = Abdominal girth (m)
All measurements to
be done in metres.

2.3.5 Supplementary feeding of camels

Under normal circumstances, camels can get enough

good quality nourishment from natural vegetation.
However, during periods of scarcity, supplementary
feeding is good for them, especially for pregnant
and lactating camels and their calves.
Because of this, it is a good idea to harvest and store
feed material like acacia pods, especially for settled
households.
The nutritional quality of natural vegetation is
highest when it is beginning to dry up, so this would
be a good harvesting time.
Hay, minerals supplements and concentrates like
dairy cubes can also be bought from the market and
fed to camels. However, this can be expensive and
is usually only affordable for high yielding female
camels.

Fig 2.2 Source: J O Evans, S P Simpkin and D J Atkins (1995)

Example: Camel with Shoulder height = 2.0m;
Abdominal girth = 2.05m; Hump girth = 2.25m .
Therefore the body weight of this camel is 2.0 x 2.05
x 2.25 x 50kg = 461.25kg. This method is not 100%
accurate, it is more accurate in mature than in young
camels and should ideally be done before watering.

2.4.1 Calculating the age of a camel from
its teeth
It is useful to know the age of camels for four reasons:
It helps the camel keeper decide whether to breed
the camel.
Age is important when buying or selling camels.
Age is important when selling camels for slaughter –
the older the camel, the tougher the meat.
Age is important in monitoring how well a camel is
growing.

2.4 Camel body weight and age
2.4.1 Weighing your camel
To the camel keeper, knowing the animal’s weight is
important for the following reasons:
How much medicine (dosage) to give to a camel
depends on its weight.

CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

2.5 Record keeping
2.5.1 Why keep records?

Aging camels using permanent front teeth –
incisors (‘jembe’)
1st pair erupts at 4.5 to 5 years.
2nd pair erupts at around 6 years.
3rd pair erupts at 7-8 years.
The amount of wear of the teeth determines the age
thereafter.

By keeping records, a camel keeper can monitor

what is happening in the herd over time. This is
important for planning.
Records can be used to make decisions on future
management of the herd: When to breed, which
camels to keep and which to sell, when to take them
to market and the quantities of milk and income
that they are likely to produce.
Records help the camel keeper to assess the
profitability of the whole camel rearing enterprise.

Number of milk teeth in young camels and
permanent teeth in mature camels
Young camels have 22 temporary teeth:
1 incisor, 1 canine and 3 premolars on each side of
the upper jaw.
3 incisors, 1 canine and 2 premolars on each side in
the lower jaw.
The incisors and canines of the upper jaw are
rudimentary and have very little function.
Mature camels have 34 permanent teeth:
1 incisor, 1 canine, 3 premolars and 3 molars on
each side of the upper jaw.
3 incisors, 1 canine, 2 premolars and 3 molars on
each side of the lower jaw.

CHAPTER 3
CAMEL HEALTH MANAGEMENT
“Healthy camels mean sustainable livelihoods”
Chapter Authors: Mario Younan, Ilona V. Gluecks, George C. Gitao, George J. Njoroge-Wamwere,
Njihia G. Kinyanjui, Kisa Juma Ngeiywa, Raymond Mdachi, Maurizio Dioli

Extension Messages:

It is important for camel keepers to ensure the
following:
Regularly monitor the physical condition of the
camel.
Ensure that the camel has enough forage for optimal
performance.
Discuss the importance of proper selection of a
good breeding animal in a herd.
Discuss the importance of avoiding teat tying in
order to prevent mastitis and loss of udder quarters.
Discuss the importance of rehydration in camel
calves with diarrhoea using a rehydration solution.
Pregnant camels should be put on good nutrition in
the last three months of pregnancy as this normally
translates into fast foetal growth, high birth weight
and increased milk yield after birth. Further, higher
birth weight of calves enhances survival, growth and
production during later stages of life.
Camels should get mineral supplements that are rich
in essential elements and in the required quantity.
Lactating camels should be watered after every 6
days to avoid dehydration, which reduces milk yield
(a 29% reduction in milk yield after 8 days has been
reported in Kenya).
Failure to observe these guidelines may lead to loss of
production, especially of milk, which is very important
for the pastoralist.

Teeth wear is in relation to the type of food eaten,
Camel that prevalently browse (coastal Somalia) have
much more pronounced teeth wear than camels who
graze. Adult females upper incisors are often very
small or absent. For aging purposes the lower incisors
are the main teeth used. Also to mention that male
have large canines (tusks) that are fully developed at
around 9 years.

TRAINING TIPS:
Ask the camel keepers to collect good and bad
forage plants and discuss.

Discuss the importance of proper nutrition in
camels.

Demonstrate how to take body measurements and
estimate the weight of a camel. Ask the participants
to guess the weight before and give a small reward
to the one whose guess is nearest to the measured
weight.
Discuss the importance of correct age determination.
Demonstrate the dentition of a live camel and how
it can be used for ageing. This is best done using a
camel of between 5 and 7 years of age to show the
eruption sequence of incisors.
Discuss the advantages of record keeping.
Demonstrate how to measure milk in a plastic jug
and how to record the measurements.

A 9-year old male camel with three pairs of fully
developed incisors, and partially developed first
pair of canines. (Source Chris Field)

channels. The biggest challenge therefore is to make
the information available to CASPROs, CAHWs and
pastoralists in a practical and easy to understand
format.

For pastoralists, keeping their camels healthy makes
the difference between poverty and prosperity, between
hunger and full stomachs. But the camel, despite being
a hardy animal, is prone to a variety of disease. So
camel health management has been seen as a major
challenge for decades.

It is important to remember that five major livestock
diseases do not affect camels. These are Foot and
Mouth Disease, East Coast Fever, Rinderpest,
Contagious Bovine Pleuro Pneumonia and Lumpy
Skin Disease.

However, in recent years, great strides have been
made in both curative and preventive camel
disease management. But the full benefits of
these achievements are yet to trickle down to the
community-based camel service providers and the
camel keepers, because the available information on
camel diseases and management is often too technical.
Also, since most camel populations are found in very
remote areas, camel extension messages do not always
reach the camel owner through conventional extension

Many camel diseases have been reported in various
parts of the world. In Kenya, pastoralist camel
keepers describe diseases mainly as symptoms and/or
syndromes and name them using varying criteria and
dialect names – a major challenge for the camel service
provider. The tables in this chapter describes the most

CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

common symptoms, syndromes and diseases as referred
to by the traditionally camel keeping communities
(e.g. Somali, Gabbra, Rendille and Turkana). The
English names are used in all cases, but the names
commonly used in the various local languages are also

CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

given where possible. But even local names used by the
same community can vary from place to place.
The drug cards in this chapter describes drugs available
in the local markets and how they should be used to
treat camel diseases.

Safe disposal of the
remains of dead
animals

Proper disposal of
carcasses prevents
environmental
contamination

Done through
burying or burning
as recommended
by public health
or veterinary
authorities

Best done
immediately after
death

3.1 General disease control

Inappropriate
handling of
brucellosis-infected
aborted foetuses
and / or anthrax
carcasses can lead
to infection to
humans and other

An overview of general livestock disease control measures is provided in Table 1.

Table 1: General disease control measures
Type of Control
Measure

Why

Vaccination e.g.
against Rift Valley
Fever (RVF), Camel
Pox, Brucellosis,
Anthrax, Rabies

To help susceptible
animals survive
infectious diseases
and / or to prevent
them from
becoming infected
To prevent losses
through deaths,
abortions and lost
production
To protect humans
against dangerous
infections from

When

Remarks

animals

livestock

Quarantine and/or
livestock movement
control, e.g. against
RVF

How

For a disease
like anthrax, the
contaminated area
remains a source of
anthrax infection
for many years

To minimise losses
through deaths,
abortions, lost
production and
disruption of trade
To contain disease
outbreaks locally
and prevent the
spread of infection
to non affected
clean herds and

Injection of killed
or mild form of
the disease-causing
agent into the
animal so it can
develop immunity
to the disease
Sometimes
undertaken on
a large scale to
achieve herd
immunity for
the purposes of
eradicating a

Done to protect
healthy but
susceptible animals
either at a specific
age, before seasonal
occurrence of the
disease and in the
face of disease
outbreaks

particular disease

Total ban on
movement of
the affected and
susceptible livestock
species by the
district veterinary
authorities
Closure of livestock
markets

areas

In case of disease
outbreak
(Export Quarantine
is a controlled
observation period
used to prepare
animals for export)

Vaccination
is particularly
important against
deadly infections
for which there
is no cure or
treatment
CASPROs should
understand the
importance of
vaccination so that
they can encourage
their community
to present their
camels for
vaccination when it
is announced
Quarantine
is disliked by
producers and
traders, who are
always looking for
ways of dodging it.
CASPROs should
understand that if
quarantine rules
are followed, the
veterinary authority
can contain the
disease outbreak
quickly and hence
lift the quarantine
faster

Disease surveillance
and sampling

To determine the
prevalence of a
specific disease in a
particular area

Involves regular
collection of
data through
questionnaires and
samples

Usually done in
cases of disease
outbreaks
Also as a disease
status assessment
tool

CASPROs should
understand the
importance of
surveillance so
they can educate
their communities
on the importance
of offering their
animals to be
sampled when
requested
They should also
encourage camel
owners to take part
in participatory
disease search
(PDS) activities
Can also be a
requirement before
export

Public education
and awareness
creation

To enlighten all
stakeholders, thus
assisting in disease
control

Creation of village
disease control
committees
Public fora (barazas,
workshops,
seminars, “under
elders’ trees”
meetings)

Should be a
continuous activity

No one cadre or
institution can
manage a disease
control programme
alone, hence the
importance of
involving all the
stakeholders

Through the media,
e.g. FM radio

CASPROs will be
very important in
public awareness

stations

creation

CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

3.1.1 Diseases of the skin and eye

CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

Prevention/Control

The earlier you treat a wound the less it becomes infected. Don’t wait until it swells
up and develops pus, treat immediately after injury or bite have occurred.
Treat wounds early before they become infected, remove thorns and treat small
wounds (especially in the sole of the foot). Prevent bull fights.
Chronic festering wounds attract flies and lead to blow fly stroke, treating wounds
early avoids such problems.

Can it affect humans

Contact with wound secretion and pus is also harmful for humans.

Notifiable disease

Economic and social
impact

Low quality hides; if wound is severe it may affect the condition and finally the
production of the camel, large infected wounds and wounds infected by fly maggots
(blow fly stroke) can kill even adult camels!

Table 2: Wounds
Names

Madaa (Gabbra); Ngoldonyot (Samburu); Boog (Somali); Ngajemei (Turkana).

Definition

Injuries that cause breaks in the skin that may be shallow or deep.

Causative agent

Bites, physical injuries from thorns, fighting between bulls, beatings, predator attacks, castration and branding.
Often get worse through infection with bacteria.
Sometimes fly maggots can infect open wounds.

Mode of transmission

Pus and secretions from wounds are full of dangerous bacteria and can cause infection in animals that come into contact with them; pus and wound liquids contaminate Boma and can lead to other infections (e.g. mastitis). Bacteria are also spread
by flies feeding on open wounds; flies can also lay their eggs into wounds – larvae
(“maggots”) grow inside the wound, leading to very serious, sometimes deadly infections. This is also called ‘blowfly stroke’

Table 3: Abscesses
Names

Kharfat (Rendille); maala (Gabbra,); mala, mall, arno (Somali); ngubuthien, abus, adjumei, lobus
(Turkana); ntubui, (Samburu).

Definition

Accumulation of pus under the skin or inside the body, surrounded by a hard tissue called
a capsule.

Affected age group

All.

Major clinical signs

Open wounds, broken skin, lameness, pus and other secretion, bad smell, may
develop into abscesses.

Causative
agent

Bacteria

Disease with similar
clinical signs

Camel Pox, Orf, Contagious Skin Necrosis

Mode of
transmission

Seasonality

Thorns may penetrate the foot more easily during the wet season. Flies are much
more common and active in the wet season. Fighting between bulls is also common
in the wet season/breeding season. Bites by predators are common during prolonged
dry spell and drought periods.

External (very common): Bacteria invading the body through small and deep skin injuries
from bites, Acacia thorns, skin abrasion, unclean injection, unclean castration, contact with
infectious pus.
Internal (rare): Caused through bacteria that have managed to get inside the organs of the
body.

Affected age
group

All.

Major clinical
signs

Swelling of parts of the body (mainly skin and lymph nodes, but also udder and parts
of internal organs) with pus accumulation. The affected area is first warm, swollen and
painful; later the hard swelling becomes softer and there is no heat or pain; after 3-4 weeks,
abscesses can burst and discharge pus.
Suckling calves quite often develop external abscesses around the joints where the skin is
rubbing on the soil when they are lying down because they have not yet developed hard
skin pads like adult camels. These abscesses around the joints become chronic and affect
the joint, tendons and muscle.

Treatment

Clean with antiseptic (hydrogenperoxide 2%), apply iodine
once daily. For superficial fresh
wounds, aerosol spray (gentianviolet) is sufficient. Always
make sure that pus and wound
secretion can flow from the
wound and/or are removed from
the wound. NEVER stitch up
or close infected wounds; air
contains oxygen that helps in
wound healing, if air cannot get
into the infected wound bacteria
grow much faster and the animal
can die. An open wound, cleaned
daily and treated with iodine,
heals much faster than a closed
wound that cannot be cleaned.
Injecting antibiotics alone is not
Protective boot made of leather to protect
wound on pad (Source: Chris Field)
sufficient, every wound needs
local treatment.
Large infected wounds need supportive injection of antibiotics (PenecillinStreptomycin or Oxytetracycline 20% LA).
For large wounds of the foot, a protective leather boot may be necessary.
(see photograph)
Maggot infested wound can be treated locally with acaricide or insecticide

Internal abscesses cause chronic progressive loss of condition. A specific form of hard dry
internal abscesses, mostly located in the lungs, is caused by Tuberculosis.
Diseases with
similar clinical
signs

Haematoma (accumulation of blood due to injury).
Tumours caused by cancer.
Worms or Tryps can also cause chronic loss of condition.

Seasonality

None

Treatment

External abscess:
When the abscess capsule becomes soft, make a cross-shaped cut with a clean knife at a
low point to allow the pus to drain out.
Flush it with Hydrogen Peroxide (3%), Iodine or Gentian Violet and repeat flushing for
several days.
In severe cases, especially in calves with several abscesses around joints, inject Penicillin –
Streptomycin (PenStrep) daily for 5 days.
Internal abscess:
No effective treatment; antibiotics cannot penetrate the abscess capsule. Internal abscesses
are only seen after death or at slaughter.

CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

Prevention/
Control

CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

Early treatment of wounds (see under Wounds).
Use sterile needles when injecting camels and always inject where the skin is clean.
Use clean knives (sterilised in boiling water) for castration.
Prevent pus from contaminating the boma; do not open and drain abscesses inside the
boma.

Can it affect
humans

Tuberculosis is transmitted from animals to humans.
Contact with pus is harmful for humans.

Notifiable
disease

If Tuberculosis is suspected, it should be reported to the meat inspector and veterinary
officer.

Economic and
social impact

Lowers the quality of hides.
Calves do not develop well and some may become crippled.
Abscesses on the udder and on the teats are a source of bacteria that cause chronic mastitis,
which leads to complete loss of the quarter (dead milk gland tissue)
Internal abscesses are incurable and lead to chronic wasting, severe loss of production and
loss of the animal.

Table 4: Camel pox
Names

Furuk, (Somali); Chito (Gabbra); Afturo (Rendille); Abturo (Samburu); Ekolimeri
(Turkana)

Definition

Highly infectious skin disease causing typical pox lesions.

Causative agent

Camel Pox virus (Orthopoxvirus cameli)
Camel Pox only affects camels.

Mode of
transmission

Main factor is contact with affected herds; short distance transmission mainly through
inhaling, but virus also enters body through skin injuries or through insect bites, also
transmitted via contaminated Boma.
Outbreaks occur at intervals of several years, sometimes related to stress and poor
nutrition.

Affected age group

Mainly young camels up to 3 years (non-immune animals born after the last pox
outbreak).
If adults are affected, the disease is usually more severe.

Major clinical
signs

Lesions start as small red patches; they swell and become liquid filled pustules with
a depressed centre (= the pox), these then rupture and turn into blisters (it is at this
ruptured stage that most lesions are seen on the skin). If a lot of flies feed on the
blisters, the blisters become infected by bacteria and start producing pus. Healing can
take 4-6 weeks and over that period the camel can become very weak.

Fig 3.2 When and how to flash an abcess

Mild form: Pox found only around nose, mouth, eyes and under the tail, recovery
without problems.
Severe form: Fever, the animal is very dull, no appetite, swelling of the head before
pox appears. Pox distributed all over the body. Often the pox get infected with bacteria
and develop pus (camels covered in pus lesions all over the body become very weak
and may die). Pox on the teats make milking difficult which regularly leads to mastitis.
Swollen lymph nodes. Especially in young camels, the same pox lesions which are visible
on the skin also develop inside the nose and the lung and can lead to severe secondary
pneumonia and death if not treated early.

Abcess oozing pus

Abcess not yet ripe to cut

In severe pox outbreaks, 3 out of 10 infected young camels can die, most pregnant
females abort and milk production is disrupted!
Peracute form (only in adults): Severe swelling of the head and throat, leads to rapid
death (shock-like death with foam in the mouth in less than 24 hours) before any skin
lesions occur.
After recovering from Pox, camels are immune for life; normally, they get the disease
when they are young.

Flushed abcess

Flushing out the abcess

Diseases with
similar clinical
signs

Orf; Mange; Contagious Skin Necrosis.
Mild Pox and Orf look exactly the same!

Seasonality

Cases are more severe during rainy seasons (lot of flies) and less severe in dry seasons;
outbreaks are separated by several Pox-free years.

Treatment

No treatment for virus, but in severe cases especially when young camels start showing
signs of pneumonia(!) or when lesions produce pus and camel becomes very weak,
use Pen-Strep (daily injection for 5 days) or Oxytetracycline 20% LA injection (repeat
injection on day 4).
If available, also inject Vitamin A (often sold as Vitamin ADE combination), which
helps with the recovery.

CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

Prevention/
Control

Vaccination is possible, but the vaccine is only available in UAE, still too difficult to get
in East Africa.
When camel herd is in a Pox outbreak, ensure good nutrition and avoid stress.
During outbreaks avoid all contact with other camel herds.

Can it affect
humans

Normally not, exceptional cases reported

Notifiable disease

Economic and
social impact

One of the economically most devastating camel diseases! Camel Pox disrupts the whole
reproduction and production cycle of the camel herd through abortions, loss of young
camels and loss of milk.
Loss of young camels and abortions lead to severely reduced herd growth, which is still
felt one year later. Recovered young animals may grow slower. Milk production is lower
and may even stop in many females. There is also the increased risk of contracting
mastitis.
Because almost all animals in a herd can become infected at the same time and many of
them need treatment, this is a very costly disease.

CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

Table 6: Mange
Names

Lpepedo, (Samburu); Emitina, (Turkana); Adho, Chitto, Addha (Somali); Haddo
(Rendille); Simpirion (Pokot). Chitto (Gabbra, Borana)

Definition

Parasitic skin disease.

Causative agent

Parasite: Mite (Sarcoptes scabei var. cameli).

Mode of transmission

Through direct contact with infected animals, with contaminated objects
(including trees stems on which camels like to rub) and via a contaminated Boma;
the mite penetrates and stays under the skin but can also survive for some time in
dead skin scabs shed by affected camels.

Affected age group

All, including young calves.

Seasonality

More common during rainy seasons.

Major clinical signs

Severe itching, especially in the morning, and hair loss, mostly starting on the
head and spreading from there to other parts of body. Hair loss is later followed
by formation of dead skin scabs and thickening of the skin (skin develops folds,
looks like elephant skin). Animals with such chronic mange are very difficult to
treat.
Typical sign is the almost permanent itching, not seen in other skin diseases.
Some animals may show almost normal skin, but there is always severe itching,
much more intensive than grooming behaviour.

Diseases with similar
clinical signs

Ringworm, Contagious Skin Necrosis, Camel Pox, Orf

Treatment

Preferred treatment:
Ivermectin 1% injection; 2 doses 8 days apart (note that this treatment interval
is specific for camels and is shorter than the interval recommended by the
manufacturer for cattle); sometimes three treatments at 8 days’ interval may be
necessary (very costly!)

Table 5: Orf
Names

Mburur, Humbururu (Borana & Gabbra); Lopedo, Non-kutukie (Samburu); Ambarrur,
Mburur (Somali); Ngiborwok, Mburuwok (Turkana).
Other names: Pustular Dermatitis, Contagious Ecthyma, Sore Mouth.

Definition

Pox-like swellings on the skin around the mouth, lips and nose. May initially
appear in the form of a swollen head.

Causative agent

Virus (Parapoxvirus).

Mode of transmission

Contact and suckling; virus enters through lesions on lips.

Affected age group

Calves and weaners below three years; disease is usually more severe in weaners and
older calves than in young calves

Major clinical signs

Nodules or swellings which turn into blisters (that look exactly the same as pox
lesions), then form scabs that can become confluent on the head; the same lesions
that are visible on the skin also appear inside the mouth and nose, in severe
cases they can even spread to the stomach. Other common signs are watery eyes,
dullness, stinking breath and swollen lymph nodes. Calves have serious difficulties
in suckling and feeding.
Swelling of the head can occur before skin lesions become visible.
In mild form, only a few blisters/scabs occur around the mouth and heal quickly.

Diseases with similar
clinical signs

Camel Pox, Contagious Skin Necrosis, Ringworm, Mange

Seasonality

Related to calving season i.e. during wet season but may also occur during the
following dry season

Treatment

Treat severe cases with Penicillin-Streptomycin daily until recovery and wash
mouth with antiseptic solution (e.g. iodine). Apply Vaseline petroleum jelly on the
affected areas to soften the skin and assist sick calves to suckle if necessary, bottle
feed extreme cases. Injecting Vitamin A D E helps with the recovery.

Prevention/Control

There is no vaccine. Calves and weaners in good condition recover faster; good
management of lactating mothers, allowing calves to suckle enough milk and de
worming of calves/weaners are important.

Can it affect humans

Yes

Notifiable disease

Economic and social
impact

Impaired suckling and feeding ability can lead to stunted growth and sometimes
even death of calves

In between the two Ivermectin injections, it is important to first wash animals
with a detergent and in particular rub off all dead skin scabs (with a brush); then
an acaricide must be applied on the skin, best done by spraying manually with
a knapsack. After washing and acaricide treatment, move camels to a clean fresh
boma
In cases where Ivermectin is too costly for the camel owner, the following
treatment protocol is also efficient if carried out correctly: FIRST washing with
detergent (+ brushing of dead skin); SECOND spraying twice (better three times)
with acaricide at eight days’ interval and moving camels to new clean boma after
first spraying. Spraying must be done thoroughly such that the whole skin surface
is reached by the acaricide, including the head and insides of the ears.
Calves born in between two treatments must also be injected twice and treated
with acaricide, the same as the adult camels. CAUTION: One single untreated
calf can act as a source of slow re-infection for the whole herd; despite spending
a lot of money on treatments, mange then comes back spreading throughout the
herd
Caution: A single treatment does not eradicate disease from the herd because this
only kills the adult mites, while mite eggs left behind in the skin hatch within
a week. Hence the need for at least one more treatment, otherwise Mange will
slowly come back in the herd. Also Ivermectin does not penetrate into dead
skin scabs, hence need for washing and removing all dead skin in between the
injections
Note: Because of very long drug withdrawal period, Ivermectin should not be
used in lactating camels! If you have to treat lactating camels for Mange, use
washing + 3x acaricide spraying (observe milk withdrawal period for acaricide).
See drug card 2

CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

Prevention/Control

Once in the herd, Mange is very difficult and very costly to eradicate, because the
entire herd has to be treated twice at the same time.
A major problem is sharing of grazing and water points with other Mangeinfected camel herds and also introduction of Mange by clean looking infected
camels from other herds.
When introducing new camels into a clean herd, inject them twice with
Ivermectin at 8 days’ interval, before allowing them to mix with the clean camels
Early treatment is advisable.
Good feed and good mineral supplementation reduces severity.

Can it affect humans

Yes, has been observed occasionally.

Notifiable disease

Yes, report to veterinary authority.

Economic and social
impact

Severe Mange shortens the time that camels feed each day, reduces their body
condition and productivity, lowers milk yield, causes stunted growth in calves, low
quality hides. This disease does not kill camels but costs the owner a lot of money.

CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

Can it affect humans

Notifiable disease

Economic and social
impact

Affected camels cannot be used for carrying loads, low quality of hides. In severe
cases, it can affect production and condition of the animal.

Fig 3.7 Cutaneous Skin Necrosis in camels
Source: Maurizio Dioli

Table 8: Tick infestation/paralysis

Table 7: Contagious Skin Necrosis

Names

Shilmi, Chilim, Yagar, Yakhal (Gabbra); Shilim, Chillim, Turdach (Rendille); Shilin,
Yakhal (Somali); Ilmangeri, Lmanjeri, Imansher, ltunturi (Samburu), Ngimadang,
Emadang (Turkana), Shini, Shelem (Borana)

Definition

Ticks attached to skin causing harm and nuisance to the animal.

Causative agent

Different tick species.

Caused by insufficient salt in the diet (mineral deficiency). Bacteria infect the
skin wounds (pus and abscesses).

Mode of transmission

Ticks attach themselves to animals to feed on their blood.

Affected age group

All age groups but particularly important among calves and weak camels.

Mode of transmission

Skin disease starts when camels suffer from long-term mineral deficiency and the
skin breaks up.
(“Contagious” means “infectious,” because the disease was thought to be caused
by an infection)

Major clinical signs

Affected age group

Especially in adults, but also in older weaners.

Major clinical signs

Lesions can be located anywhere on the body, but more common on neck,
shoulders, flanks and hind quarters. Begins as painful swellings of the skin;
starting from the centre of the swelling, the hair falls out, then the skin becomes
hard and dry scabs appear, which fall off after 1 to 2 weeks causing a wound with
sharp irregular edges (like an ulcer). At the beginning, a clear discharge comes out.
Later, it often gets infected with bacteria, leading to discharge of pus. This can
continue for months. After healing, a star shaped scar remains.

Specific sites where ticks attach to camels: Nostrils; under the tail; inside of the
thigh and inside of the armpit; on the teats; on the scrotum of the male.
Presence of a large number of ticks causes general weakness, loss of blood
(anaemia), loss of weight, skin wounds and stunted growth in calves.
Hyalomma nymphs (“white ticks” attached mainly in the long hair of the hump) can
inject a toxin into the blood, which causes tick-paralysis and fast death in young
suckling calves (older camels are normally immune against the toxin).
Ticks on the teats cause wounds that can lead to mastitis (see Mastitis).
Sometimes there is difficulty in breathing when large numbers of ticks are attached
inside the nostrils, causing blockage.

Diseases with similar
clinical signs

None.

Seasonality

Ticks more active about 2-3 weeks after rains.

Treatment

Manual removal followed by burning of the ticks, traditional remedies like
Commiphora africana resin mixed with water and milk applied in the nostrils.
Use commercial pour-on acaricides that are licensed for use in camels.
When signs of paralysis appear in suckling calves, Hyalomma nymphs must be
removed very quickly (manually) to prevent fast death of the calf from rapid
increase of tick toxins in the blood.

Prevention/Control

If an area has too many ticks, shift Boma to new location.
Avoid known tick-infested areas, especially during rains.
Keep tick numbers low using commercially available acaricides applied to the
specific sites where ticks attach to camels (save on acaricide costs: there is no need
to spray the whole camel).

Names

Dulla (Borana); Dula (Gabbra), Kharfat, Garfat, Hilaliit (Rendille); Garfat,
Dalleham, Dhaleeco, Ma’ah, Maha (Somali); Lomgoi, Ngamanyeni (Samburu);
Lelebunai (Turkana).

Definition

Skin disease that causes localised drying and breaking up of the skin, multiple
spontaneous skin wounds and sometimes abscesses.

Causative agent

Diseases with similar
signs

Wounds, Abscesses, Ringworm and Mange.

Seasonality

None

Treatment

Feed plenty of salt/minerals to camels or take camels to salty pastures/salty
springs.
Clean affected area and apply iodine.
In severe cases, inject Penicillin-Streptomycin daily for 5 days.

Prevention/Control

Ensure camels have regular access to salt (mineral supplementation, salty pasture,
salty water sources).
Provide quality salt and/or move to new pasture when first cases occur.

CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

Traditional shaving of calves along the hump and back has been reported to be
beneficial.
Unlike cattle, camels do not suffer from tick-born diseases like ECF/Babesia/
Anaplasma, so small numbers of ticks are not a problem
Can it affect humans

Ticks can transmit diseases to humans.

Notifiable disease

Economic and social
impact

Loss of production and poor weight gain, loss of calves, low quality of hides, increase
in mastitis.

Table 9: Eye infection
Names

Dhaasi (Gabbra); Moyian Yoonkouyek (Samburu); Kolumay (Pokot) Itwaren (Somali);
Edeke Ankonyen (Turkana). Also called Pink Eye

Definition

Disease of the eye.

Causative agent

Different bacteria (common); Eye worm (Thelazia leesei-Rare).

Mode of
transmission

Bacteria are spread by flies or enter eye via injuries (mainly from thorns).
Sand/dust entering and irritating the eye; dust can also carry bacteria.
Eye worm transmitted by flies from infected eyes to clean eyes.
Irritation due to tick bites in the eye lid.

Affected age group

All.

Major clinical signs

Swollen red eye, painful, eyelids closed, discharge from eye (either clear or with pus),
temporary blindness
flies clustering around the eye.
Can affect one or both eyes.
(Eye worm is very thin, 1-2cm long, and can sometimes be seen in the eye.)
If untreated for a long time, loss of the eye can occur.

Diseases with
similar clinical signs

None

Seasonality

Windy, dry and dusty conditions.

Treatment

Wash the eye with salt water and apply antibiotic ointment (e.g. a few drops from
mastitis tubes) at least twice a day for 5 days.
If possible, carefully remove any foreign body or eye worm from the eye. If worm
infection is suspected, instil a few drops of ivermectin into the eye.

Prevention/Control

Check eyes of camels that are lacrimating (shedding tears) for foreign bodies and eye
worms. Treat early to avoid eye secretions/pus attracting flies, which can transmit
infection to other camels.

Can it affect
humans

Notifiable disease

Economic and
social impact

In severe infections involving both eyes, general condition of the camel becomes poor,
leading to reduced production and sometimes blindness. In very severe cases eye ball
can rapture leading to permanent loss of an eye.

CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

3.1.2 Diseases affecting stomach and intestines
Table 1: Diarrhoea in suckling camel calves (up to 3 months of age)
Names

Halbathi (Gabbra); Ngiriata (Samburu); Adeya, Har, Hardik (Somali); Eremonu, Colera,
Loleo (Turkana); Haar (Rendille).

Definitions

Frequent passing of loose faeces in suckling calves.

Causative agent

Bacteria (Salmonella sp.); Parasites (Coccidia: especially Isospora orlovi, sometimes also
worms/Helminths); Viruses (Rota- and Coronavirus).

Mode of
transmission

From contaminated environment and through direct contact from one scouring calf to
the next; the more calves have diarrhoea the higher the contamination of the Boma and
the higher the risk of new infections. other sources of infection are contaminated water
and contaminated feed.

Affected age
group

Mainly from birth up to 3 months of age.

Major clinical
signs

Frequent passage of loose (watery, bloody, pasty, with pieces of mucosa, at times also
smelly) faeces at the beginning. Very little if any passage of faeces after some time but
constant pressing; soiled hind legs; sunken eyes (dehydration = no fluid/water in the
body, drying up of the body); dullness, weakness; no appetite; death due to dehydration/
too little fluid left in the body!!!
Dehydration signs are: Eyes sunk deep into the socket; skin fold when raised does not
slide back; calf very dull and feels cold on the nose, calf cannot stand up (diarrhoea
calves that cannot stand are about to die!)

Diseases with
similar signs

None

Seasonality

Especially common when a lot of calves are born over a short period. Coincides with
dirty Bomas during wet period.

Treatment

The most important treatment measure regardless of the cause of diarrhoea is
replacing the lost fluid (rehydration). Don’t wait until calf is dull and cannot
stand up; start treatment when diarrhoea calf can still stand and suckle!
Instruction how to give oral rehydration fluid:
Mix 5 tablespoons of sugar and 1 tablespoon of salt with 2 litres of clean water (boil
water and let it cool down before mixing). Instead of 5 tablespoons sugar, it is also very
good to use 5 tablespoons of honey. A calf of 30kg needs a minimum of 3 litres per day
(minimum 1 litre for 10 kg of body weight per day). Feed the rehydration fluid in small
portions at the rate of one and a half cups’ full at a time (equal to about 0.5litre).
In addition, finely crushed charcoal (like powder) can be added to the rehydration
fluid (2 handfuls of charcoal powder per litre, then passed through a sieve before
giving it to the calf).
Rehydration fluid should be given for 5 days.
Milk may be withheld for first 24 hours but not for longer than 36 hours. So from
the second day on you can start giving small amounts of milk while still feeding
rehydration fluid. (See illustration on next page)
Antibiotics are not required to treat diarrhoea but Sulphonamides given orally can be
used. Calves that cannot stand up any more need both oral and intravenous rehydration
therapy; for this, the services of a veterinarian will be required.

Prevention/
Control

Give calf colostrum (the dense first milk produced by the mother after birth) during first
3-6 hours after birth. Move Boma frequently and do not put too many animals in one
Boma (don’t overcrowd). Separate sick calves from healthy ones. Start rehydration early
so that calf does not get weak.

Can it affect
humans

Notifiable disease

Economic and
social impact

Most important disease in suckling camel calves; 3 out of 10 affected camel calves die
from diarrhoea resulting in limited herd growth; most dams stop giving milk without
their calf, resulting in loss of one whole lactation, and reduced availability of milk for
household consumption and sale.

CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

Mix 5 tablespoons of sugar and 1 tablespoon of salt in 2 litres
of clean water (ideally boiled)

Table 2: Gastro-Intestinal Worm Infections

Sugar
or
honey

Names

Ntumai (Samburu); Goryan, Bahala (Somali); Ngirtan, Nyiritan (Turkana); Deyah
(Rendille), Mini (Gabbra); Chepturu (Pokot); Mnyoo (Swahili).

Definition

Presence of parasitic worms (mainly round worms) in stomach and intestines
that interfere with digestion and lead to chronic inflammation of the stomach
and intestines.

Causative agent

Parasite: Many different species of parasitic worms (also called Helminths,
Nematodes or round worms): Worm eggs and larvae found on pasture
(microcopic in size).
There are stomach worms, living in the stomach and intestinal worms, living
in the intestine; stomach worms are mostly minute and difficult to see with
the eyes, but they cause much more damage than the larger intestinal worms.
Occasionally, camels also excrete tapeworms, which are the biggest worms but
only cause harm in camel calves.

Mode of transmission

Via pasture.
Worm eggs and larvae are found on pasture.
When it is wet, larvae hatch from the eggs and are swallowed during grazing.
When it is dry, larvae on the pasture are inactive and the risk of infection is
very low.

Affected age group

All, except young suckling calves less than two months old that do not graze
yet.

Major clinical signs

Different worms have different pathogenicity. Many of the species cause similar
clinical signs in the animal. When in large enough numbers, many cause general
weakness and reduced productivity. Often, when the numbers of the worms
are not very high, the animals are alert and feed well (no fever!) but may lose
condition. Some dangerous worms are almost too small to be seen with the
naked eye. The signs of worm infection are especially severe in young camels
and in animals on poor nutrition. For practical purposes one can look at two
groups of Round Worms:

Shake the mixture

Give a quarter of the mixture through
the mouth in the morning

A quarter at midday

Non-bloodsucking worms causing mainly diarrhoea, rough hair coat, bloated
stomach, chronic weight loss and stunted growth in young camels because of
poor absorption of nutrients; the ones living in the stomach (Trichstrongylus and
Ostertagia) are very common and cause severe problems.
Bloodsucking worms that attach to the wall of the stomach and suck a lot of
blood and cause mainly anaemia (visible as paleness of mucous membranes of
the eye); often, there is also diarrhoea. Bloodsucking worms like Haemonchus
cause rapid weakening of the camel and can even kill young animals.
Camels can also be infected by tapeworms (Monieza) that live in the intestine
and may cause obstruction and colic in the young.
Diseases with similar
clinical signs

Trypanosomosis (anaemia, oedema); diarrhoea caused by viruses and bacteria
(viruses and bacteria infections normally cause fever); diarrhoea caused by
Coccidia; chronic malnutrition; internal abscesses; tuberculosis.

Seasonality

Especially common after onset of rains and under wet conditions.

Treatment

Worms cannot be eradicated but should be treated early to avoid a too high
worm burden, which can seriously harm the animal.
Oral de wormers: Drench or bolus (e.g. Albendazole, see drug card 1);
Levamisole is not recommended for camels because it has late and inconsistent
action in camels.

A quarter in the afternoon

A quarter in the evening. Do this for
five days or until diarrhoea stops

Fig 3.4 How to rehydrate a camel calf
Note that a 30kg calf actually needs 3 litres of rehydration mixture per 24 hours. So you
need to prepare a second 2 litre bottle of rehydration mixture when the first one is finished

Injectable dewormer (subcutaneous injection) e.g. Ivermectin 1%, dosage
1ml/50kg (See drug card 2)

CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

Timing of de worming is determined by the rainfall, because worm larvae on
the pasture are active when it is wet and that is the time when camels become
infected. High worm burden in camels can occur about 3-4 weeks after the start
of the rains.
Resistance of the worms to the drugs used in de worming is becoming more
common and is caused mainly by underestimation of body weight and
underdosing of the drug. This is a major problem. It is very important to
correctly estimate the weight (see chapter 2) of the animal before giving the
“dawa”!
Prevention/Control

Avoid overstocking and your camels staying on the same pasture for very long,
because this leads to high contamination of the pasture with worm eggs and
larva. Camels can also be infected by worms that come from sheep and goats.
When too many animals (camels, sheep, goat) are grazed in the same area, the
contamination of pastures with worm eggs and larvae can reach dangerous levels
and worms become a big problem. Moving away from overcrowded pastures
onto fresh pastures, especially during the rains, avoids such problems.
Shift the Boma regularly, not only in the dry season but also during the rains.
Inspect your camels regularly and deworm when first signs of worms appear in
an animal (diarrhoea without fever, weight loss but good appetite, rough coat,
pale membranes). If you see any roundworms (they look like spaghetti) in the
faeces, is a clear sign that many smaller “invisible” worms are present and that it
is time to deworm the animal.

Can it affect humans

Notifiable disease

Economic and social
impact

Worm infection leads to weight loss, loss of milk and meat production, reduced
fertility, stunted growth and late maturity. Experts estimate that the combined
economic damage caused by worms in camels is second only to that caused by
chronic Trypanosoma infection. Many animals are infected with low numbers
of worms and do not show any signs of disease. It is important to treat camels
early when signs show that infection levels are going up and before camels start
really suffering from worms and productivity starts going down.

CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

3.1.3 Diseases affecting internal organs, blood and brain
Table 1: Anthrax
Names

Kud, Khut (Somali); Lochum (Samburu); Chilmate (Gabbra); Renwihara (Rendille).

Definition

Infectious disease affecting both human and animals. It can kill camels and humans very
quickly! Anthrax spores are very resistant and cannot be destroyed by boiling or by normal
disinfectant.

Causative
agent

Bacteria (Bacillus anthracis)

Mode of
transmission

When an animal dies from Anthrax and the dead body is not buried deep or burnt
completely, the pasture becomes contaminated with Anthrax. Camels can become infected
through grazing on such infected pastures, drinking contaminated water and through
consumption of contaminated soil or bones or inhaling dust with Anthrax spores. Anthrax
contaminated pastures/soils remain dangerous for camels for many years! Such areas are
usually known to the camel owners (often these are flood zones only grazed in dry season).

Affected age
group

All except young calves that are only suckling. (affects all livestock species)

Major clinical
signs

Peracute (very rapid) form: Sudden death without symptoms
Acute form: Fever, bloat, diarrhoea, irregular and fast breathing convulsions, leading to
death within 1-2 days. Unclotted dark tar-like blood coming out of all body openings. The
blood remains liquid. The dead body does not become stiff and decomposes very fast.
Sub-acute form: Painful swelling of head and neck, swelling (edema) of the tongue,
foamy blood coming from the mouth. This form can go on for several days before the
animal dies.

Diseases with
similar clinical
signs

Camel Sudden Death; Swollen Gland / Hemorrhagic septicaemia; Tse-Tse transmitted
Trypanosomiasis (T. vivax and T. congolense)

Seasonality

Common during the dry season, when flood plains have to be used for grazing because no
other pasture is available. Flooding can contaminate previously safe pastures with Anthrax.
Can occur throughout the year.

Treatment

In early cases use PenStrep (doubled dose) for at least 5 days; in many cases this is not
possible as the disease runs a very short course and death comes extremely fast.

Prevention/
Control

WHEN ANTHRAX IS SUSPECTED, DO NOT OPEN THE CARCASS! Dispose of
carcasses through burning or burying. In cases where this is not possible, guard the carcass
against being opened by scavengers (dogs or hyenas) Unopened carcasses decontaminate
themselves over time (2 days). Never dissect or open the carcass; the moment the dead
body is opened millions of Anthrax spores are released and contaminate the environment!
Avoid affected grazing areas. If you have to graze your camels in an Anthrax area, vaccinate
animals with recommended Anthrax vaccine on a yearly basis. (Same vaccine as in cattle)

Can it affect
humans

Yes!
Caution: Humans can get infected through contact with carcasses and through
consumption of infested meat even if meat is boiled! Inhaling contaminated air can
also lead to infection as when handling hides and skins. If a human gets sick after contact
with an Anthrax infected animal, he has to be treated with high doses of Penicillin within
hours, otherwise he will die!

Notifiable
disease

Yes, report to veterinary authority.

Economic and
social impact

Loss of animals, reduced use of pasture, loss of production.
Danger of human infection!

CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

Table 2: Hydatidosis

Camel drops dead of Anthrax

Report to veterinary officer

Names

Mbolimboli (Samburu); Labusiyon (Turkana)

Definition

Infectious parasitic disease causing round swellings (cysts) mainly in the liver and
lungs.

Causative agent

Parasite: Tapeworm (Echinococcus granulosus) of dogs and other carnivores.

Mode of
transmission

Camel grazes in pasture contaminated with eggs shed in the faeces of dogs and other
carnivores (eggs are microscopic = invisible).

Affected age group

All

Major clinical signs

Cysts in liver, lungs and other organs seen when camel is slaughtered.
Affected camels can show chronic weight loss. If cyst is located in the brain camel
shows central nervous signs (e.g. circling movement).

Diseases with
similar signs

Internal abscesses, tuberculosis

Treatment

None

Seasonality

None

Prevention/Control

Inspect carcass, organs and offal carefully for cysts. Some cysts may be very small and
difficult to detect.
Do not consume organs that have cysts.
Do not consume raw meat!
Do not feed dogs with organs or any slaughter offal, unless the meat inspector has
confirmed that the camel is free of cysts!
At slaughter, bury or burn organs with cysts so that dogs and other carnivores cannot
eat them. When slaughtering, all offal must be buried or burned to prevent dogs and
other carnivores from eating it.
Deworm your own dogs regularly against tapeworms, read instructions to confirm that
the de wormer you use is effective against tapeworms (some de wormers only cover
roundworms).

Can it affect
humans

Yes, through transmission from dog faeces. In humans, this is a serious chronic disease
with cysts growing in the organs and causing death; it is also difficult to treat.

Notifiable disease

Economic and
social impact

Loss of food and revenue through condemned organs.
Serious human health and public health hazard!

Do not eat the meat

Do not open the carcass

Burry or burn the carcass

Guard the carcass for at least 24 hours

Vaccinate your animals
once per year

Fig 3.3 What to do to control and prevent Anthrax

CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

Table 3: Respiratory Infection and Pneumonia
Camel grazing on pastures
contaminated with eggs

Inside the camel, the eggs
hatch and form cysts in liver
or other organs
Camel is slaughtered and
liver (or other organ) with
cysts thrown away

Names

Qufa, Kufa’, Furri (Gabbra); Dahassi, Yaharr (Rendille); Laxawgal, Ah, Dhugato,
Dugub, Erghib, Kharid Dugub,Ooof (Somali); Loukoi, Lotai (Turkana); Nkorroget,
Loroget, Lchama, Ibus bus (Samburu).

Definition

Infection & inflammation of upper respiratory tract (nose, windpipe).
Pneumonia: Infection & inflammation of the lungs.

Causative agents

Bacteria, viruses.
Camel bot fly (Cephalopina titillator), also called nasal bot fly*.
Accidental introduction of fluid into the lungs (incorrect drenching with de
wormer or rehydration fluid) can cause severe inflammation (“Aspiration
Pneumonia”).

Mode of transmission

Inhalation – close contact with sick camels. Fly lays eggs in the nose of the
camel.

Affected age group

All.

Major clinical signs

Upper respiratory tract infection: Nasal discharge, light coughing, camels
a bit dull but still feeding (infection has not reached the lungs, if camels are
in good condition the majority will recover), especially in weak animals the
infection can spread to the lungs.
Pneumonia stage: deep and painful coughing, complete loss of appetite, very
dull, fever, fast and difficult breathing; leads to long lasting severe sickness and
even death if not treated
The Camel bot fly is very common in Kenyan camels; the larva live
inside the nose and sometimes cause clinical signs like restlessness, off feed,
sneezing, particularly when mature larvae (maggots) emerge from the nostrils;
occasionally bot fly larvae can reach the brain, causing infection of the brain
and central nervous system; there is one report where bot fly larvae have also
been found inside the lung.
Aspiration Pneumonia: Sudden onset of acute breathing problems.

Seasonality

Common in the rainy season; chilly weather (wet and windy) can trigger
outbreaks.

Treatment

Upper respiratory tract infection is caused mostly by viruses and does not
need treatment, but camels must not be stressed or driven over large distances.
Pneumonia stage: Caused by bacteria and must be treated; inject Penicillin
Streptomycin (daily), or Amoxycillin LA (every 48 hours) or Oxytetracycline
20% LA (every 4th day). Pen-Strep usually most effective.
Camel bot fly larvae respond very good to Ivermectin injections; if the brain
is affected by migrating larvae, a combination of Ivermectin plus antibiotic
treatment can be attempted.

[Camels can be infected by lungworms, but only in cold wet climates (Kazakhstan, Russia, Mongolia)]

These faeces contaminate
the pasture that camels
feed on and can be passed
on to humans by dogs.
The cycle starts again with
camels consuming pasture
contaminated with eggs

Child with big
cyst in the liver
(Swollen belly)

The tapeworm lay eggs
which are passed with
the faeces of the dogs
and other carnivores

Liver (or other organ) with
cysts is eaten by dogs,
jackals, hyena where the cysts
transform into tapeworms

Fig 3.5 The vicious cycle of hydatidosis infection

Treatment for Aspiration Pneumonia is often unsuccessful because of lung
damage.
Prevention/Control

Reduce stress, isolate sick animals, provide shelter; protection from wind is
especially important for calves.
Avoid contact with affected herds.
Inject Ivermectin to avoid camels carrying too many bot fly larvae in their nose.

Can it affect humans

Notifiable disease

Economic and social
impact

Loss of production.
If untreated or treated too late, Pneumonia may cause death; animals recovering
after long lasting Pneumonia remain stunted

* The nasal bot fly is well known to camel pastoralists; mature larvae (maggots) drop from the nostrils and can
be seen on the ground before they pupate in the soil. The fly has the following names in the vernacular: Rhamu
(Gabbra), Senghelel (Rendille), Sangaale (Somali), Marsomwa (Samburu).

CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

Table 4: Trypanosomiasis
Names

Gandi (Gabbra); Dukan (Somali); Omar (Rendille); Saar (Samburu);
Ltorobwo, lokipi (Turkana).

Definition

A parasitic disease in the blood caused by different Trypanosoma species.

Causative agent

Protozoan parasites called Trypanosomes that live in blood.
Trypanosoma (T.) evansi is very common in all camel keeping regions.
T. congolense and T. vivax occur only in and near tse-tse fly infested areas.

Mode of transmission

T. evansi is transmitted mechanically by all bloodsucking flies (Tabanids),
including the camel fly – a large shiny reddish coloured fly that sucks blood
specifically from camels (Hippobosca camelina).
T. congolense and T.vivax are transmitted by tse-tse flies.

Affected age group

All, but uncommon in camels below one year of age.

Major clinical signs

Abortion and premature birth of weak calves; development of edema on
abdomen, on base of neck, sometimes also on scrotum and on the legs up to
the knees and the hocks, edema very common with T. congolense infections
Very common: The chronic form caused by T. evansi.
Abortion soon after infection before camel appears sick; sudden drop in
milk production; chronic weight loss progressing over a long period; pale
mucous membranes; flow of tears from the eyes; camels appear “sleepy” –
they sit down and rest while other camels are feeding; dull coat; long hair at
the tail coming off easily. Weak camels become susceptible to many other
diseases (e.g, pneumonia). Their urine has a characteristic smell. In majority
of cases, death occurs after many months of illness. At post-mortem, camel
often has a lot of water inside the abdomen. Spontaneous self-cure occurs,
but is very rare.
Less common: The acute central nervous form caused by T. evansi.
Brain affected, leading to dullness, blindness (typical sign!) and abnormal
behaviour like crying and running around like a rabid animal. Death occurs
after few weeks.
The acute haemorrhagic form: Only in and near tse-tse areas, caused by T.
congolense and T.vivax.
Acute form causing rapid death within a few days (esp. T. vivax). Dead
camel shows internal bleeding and blood under the skin.
NOTE: Because camels migrate over long distances, infection with
trypanosomes may take place in one location, but clinical signs may become
visible in a different location.

Diseases with similar clinical
signs

Acute forms: Rift Valley Fever (abortion), Haemorrhagic Septicaemia
(internal bleeding), Rabies (abnormal behaviour).
Chronic form: Heavy worm infestation, internal abscesses, tuberculosis,
malnutrition.

Seasonality

Any time of the year, but more common during the wet season when the
fly population is high and transmission occurs more frequently.

Treatment

Quinapyramine-salt and pro-salt (Triquin®) preparation is available in
a vial containing 2.5 g pale yellow/whitish powder. The drug is dissolved
in 18ml of sterile water (provided) or boiled water that has cooled. The
preparation is administered through subcutaneous (under the skin)
injection at a dose of 0.03ml per kg live body weight (see Triquin dosage
table). Treat sick camels as early as possible for high success rates. The
drug is highly irritating and should not be used intravenously. It is very
important to observe clean injection practices by using new disposable
needles to avoid contamination that can lead to abscesses. A total dose
of 18ml should not be exceeded for one camel. The drug may be used for
prophylaxis (protection) against T. evansi infections (especially in pregnant
females) and protects camels against T. evansi infections for 6 to 12 weeks.
Isomethamidium chloride (Samorin, Trypamidium)- Make a 1%
solution, ie dissolve the contents of the 1g sachet in 100mls of sterile water
or boiled water that has cooled. Administer the solution intravenous. If you
don’t know how to do this you can also use deep intramuscular injection
at 0.5 mg/kg live body weight (equal to 1ml/20kg - See Isomethamidium
dosage table). The drug is irritating and toxic and should only be used
intravenously under supervision of competent veterinary personnel.
Most camel with Triquin resistant T. evansi infection when treated with
Isomethamidium do not respond to the treatment and may suffer from
toxic effects.

Melarsamine hydrochloride (Cymelarsan) It is prepared as a 0.5%
solution in sterile water and administered at 0.25mg/kg live body weight by
deep intramuscular (im) injection into the neck muscles. The drug cannot
be used for prophylaxis (protection) but only for curative treatment.
Causes for treatment failure: Some of the causes of treatment failure include:
using poor quality (fake) drugs, using a wrong drug (e.g. Oxytetracycline has
no effect against Tryps) , administering a lower dose than recommended
(very common!), using the wrong route of drug administration and
resistance of the disease to the recommended dose of the drug.
Caution:
Never use Products that contain diminazene aceturate (Berenil, Veriben,
Diminasan, Dimaze, Diminatryp etc) because it is very toxic for camels
and kills them!
Don’t inject highly dehydrated camels with trypanocides, they can collapse
and die. Water and rest such animals before injecting the drug. Never mix
trypanocide with any other drug because it loses its effect completely

Prevention/Control

Reduce risk of exposure to biting flies by avoiding highly infested areas
where possible. Use pour-on insecticides when flies are troublesome.
In areas known to have high incidence of trypanosomiasis, administer
Quinapyramine (Triquin®) preparations in the whole herd (protective
cover) following the onset of the rainy season.
When watering camels from tse-tse infested rivers move the camels in and
out of the tste-tse infested zone in darkness, when tste-tse flies are not
active.

Can it affect humans

Notifiable disease

Economic and social impact

In Kenya Trypanosomiasis is the most important disease of camels! It is
very common and suppresses productivity and reproduction of camels at a
large scale. It can affect and kill many animals. Trypanosomiasis leads to
high abortion rates and major loss in milk and meat production.

Triquin Dosage Table
Body wt (kg)

Volume (ml)

Body wt (kg)

Volume (ml)

Body wt (kg)

Volume (ml)

0.3

150

4.5

400

12.0

0.6

200

6.0

450

13.5

1.2

250

7.5

500

15.0

1.8

300

9.0

550

16.5

100

3.0

350

10.5

600

18.0

Isomethamidium (1% solution) Dosage Table
Body wt (kg)

Volume (ml)

Body wt (kg)

Volume (ml)

Body wt (kg)

Volume (ml)

100

5.0

300

15.0

500

25.0

150

7.5

350

17.5

550

27.5

200

10.0

400

20.0

600

30.0

250

12.5

450

22.5

Carry out correct weight estimate (see Chapter 2) and dose carefully – Trypanocide drugs
are more toxic than other veterinary drugs that are used in camels.

CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

Table 5: Rabies
Name

Nyanye (Gabbra, Borana), Sugere Kaar (Rendille), Nkwang (Samburu), Ruqus
(Somali), Ingerep, Arthim (Turkana).

Definition

A viral disease characterised by nervous signs and abnormal behaviour.

Causative agent

Rabies virus.

Mode of transmission

Bites and saliva of sick animals; most rabies cases are caused by dog bites; if a
camel with rabies bites other camels or people they also get infected by rabies.

Affected group

All

Major clinical signs

Camels become aggressive and attack others. They salivate a lot and are not able
to drink or swallow. Bulls show hypersexual behaviour. After some days, they
become weak and unable to stand. All affected animals die. There is no recovery
from Rabies!

Diseases with similar
clinical signs

Trypanosomiasis, the cerebral form of T. vivax, tapeworm cysts in the brain,
inflammation of the brain by other viruses or bacteria.

Seasonality

None

Treatment

None.
Isolate and/or kill sick animals. Do not slaughter!
All persons and animals that had contact with the rabid camels
must be vaccinated against rabies as soon as possible! Rabies vaccine
can be obtained from government veterinarians.

Prevention/Control

In areas where rabies in dogs and predators occurs regularly, vaccinate all camels
every year (the vaccine is cheap).
Vaccinate your dogs against rabies once per year.
Protect camels from stray dogs, hyenas and other predators.
Kill dogs that show abnormal aggressive behaviour.
Isolate sick animals and ensure they do not bite other camels or people!

Can it affect humans

The most dangerous disease transmitted from animals to humans, it cannot be
treated, but vaccination immediately after the bite prevents the person that was
bitten from becoming sick.

Notifiable disease

Yes, you must report to veterinary officers and insist that they carry out
vaccination immediately.

Economic and social
impact

Infected aggressive animals spread deadly infection to other animals and people.

Camel showing classical signs of
rabbies after being bitten by a rabid
animal (mainly dogs and wildlife)

Report cases to Veterinary Officer and have the
whole herd vaccinated

Fig 3.9 Rabies is dangerous!

CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

3.1.4 Diseases affecting the foetus and the udder
Table 1: Abortion
Name

Dhies, d’ess, l’ess (Somali); nkiboroto (Samburu); akiyech, akiyechum, akiecium (Turkana), iralii
(Borana, Gabbra)

Definition

Loss of foetus during pregnancy.

Causes

The majority of abortions in camels are caused by infections, the most common ones being:
Trypanosoma, Rift Valley Fever (RVF), Camel Pox; Brucella, Salmonella, Q-Fever
Abortion can also be caused by severe malnutrition and by plant poisoning.

Mode of
transmission

CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

Notifiable
disease

Owner should report to veterinary officer, especially when many abortions occur within his
herd over a short time.

Economic and
social impact

With the loss of a calf, there is no milk production until the camel becomes pregnant and
calves again. For a long time there is less food for the camel owner and his family. Also herd
growth is reduced. Infection of humans with RVF, Brucellosis and Q-Fever leads to severe
disease and can even cause death.

Trypanosomes are transmitted by biting flies
Rift Valley Fever is transmitted by mosquitoes
Brucella and other infectious abortions are transmitted directly through contact with
fluids, foetus and placenta expelled by aborting females; Brucella is mostly transmitted
via the contaminated boma and pasture (occasionally it is transmitted by infected
bulls); after the abortion, Brucella infected female camels calve again but remain
infected and continues to transmit infection to clean camels.
Pox is transmitted through contact, flies and through contaminated boma
Q-Fever is transmitted through ticks and through contact

Affected age
group

Pregnant heifers, pregnant adult female camels

Major clinical
signs

Pushing out the foetus before the end of the pregnancy, discharge from vagina, sometimes
retained placenta. Can be overlooked if it happens in early stages of pregnancy. There are no
signs specific to a particular cause of abortion, different kinds of abortion can all look the
same.

A camel keeper reporting a case of
abortion to CASPRO

Burying the foetus in a 6 foot-deep hole

Diseases with None
similar clinical
signs
Seasonality

Treatment

Rift Valley Fever abortions occur in outbreaks which follow heavy rains with a lot of
mosquitoes. (See next table)
Trypanosoma abortions are more common when there are a lot of biting flies.
Brucella abortions can occur throughout the year.
Treatment of already infected animals is not effective. Pregnant animals at risk can be
protected against Trypanosoma by giving a prophylactic treatment of Quinapyramine to
prevent infection (see Trypanosomiasis).

Prevention/
Control

The most important measure is to separate aborting camels from other female camels to
prevent transmission. If abortions take place inside the Boma immediately remove foetus
and placenta and bury deep or burn. If possible move all clean females to a new Boma.
Vaccinate camel heifers against Brucellosis before breeding age; use same vaccine as in cattle;
vaccine is affordable and available.
Specific vaccines can also protect against Camel Pox and against Q-Fever (but are rarely
available).
Vaccination against Rift Valley Fever (only in non-pregnant animals and only during
outbreaks). Only to be done by veterinarians (See next table)

Can it affect
humans

Abortions are dangerous for humans, especially RVF and Brucellosis!
RVF is deadly for humans and cannot be treated! (see RVF)
Brucellosis is transmitted through contact with the aborting camel and especially by
drinking raw milk from infected camels. It causes very severe chronic disease in humans,
which can look like malaria. Brucellosis kills humans if not treated. The risk is invisible
because Brucella infected camels appear healthy and give normal milk! To prevent Brucella
infection in humans do not handle aborted foetus or placenta with bare hands and boil or
pasteurise raw milk before drinking.
Q-Fever can also infect humans, transmission similar to Brucellosis

Burning the foetus
Fig 3.1 What to do in case of abortion

CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

Table 2: Rift Valley Fever
Name

Referred to as “Rift Valley Fever” by most people. (RVF)

Definition

A viral disease transmitted by mosquitoes, common during excessive rainfall and
flooding. This disease is characterised by simultaneous occurrence of massive rainfall/
floods, plenty of mosquitoes, mass abortions in livestock and a haemorrhagic fever
killing especially young animals.

Causative agent

Rift Valley Fever Virus.

Mode of
transmission

Through mosquito bites.

Affected age group

All, but particularly deadly in the newborn and in the young.
Camels, sheep and goats usually more affected than cattle.

Major clinical signs

CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

Mosquito infestation after heavy
rains and flooding can cause an
RVF outbreak among camels,
with typically a high number of
abortions

Mass abortions in a herd (can reach almost 100%!). Abortion occurs at any stage
of pregnancy, and aborted foetuses can be of different sizes.
Sudden high death rate in newborns (can reach almost 90%!) immediately after
being born and during first weeks of life.

Diseases with similar
clinical signs

All diseases causing mass abortion, especially Trypanosomiasis, Brucellosis.

Seasonality

Outbreaks occur every 5 to 15 years after very heavy and prolonged rains associated
with flooding and high mosquito population.

Treatment

None

Prevention/Control

Stop all livestock trade and especially stop slaughter in affected areas until outbreak
is over and veterinary authorities lift slaughter ban.
During RVF outbreaks do not slaughter or eat
meat from sick animals!

Vaccinate in RVF-prone areas as early as possible before outbreaks occur. Vaccine
contains live virus and may cause abortion in pregnant camels; vaccination can only
be done by professional veterinarians.
Can it affect humans

Apart from Rabies, this is the most dangerous disease that humans can contract from
livestock in Africa!
Affects and kills humans, especially those in close contact with animals (herders,
butchers, veterinarians). No treatment available for humans!
In humans, transmission is direct through inhalation of the virus during slaughter of
infected animals, while carrying out post mortem or via contact with abortion fluids
and with aborted foetuses.

Butcheries should be closed during RVF outbreaks! Do not handle
aborted foetus!

Do NOT slaughter any livestock during outbreak and avoid aborted
foetuses and abortion fluids!
Notifiable disease

Yes, if there is a sudden abortion outbreak report immediately to DVO or VO. Early
warning and early vaccinations can only work if camel owners provide information to
veterinary authorities (DVO, VO) as early as possible.

Economic and social
impact

Severely disrupts pastoralist economy, causing massive losses through abortion,
disrupts reproduction/lactation, and brings complete ban on trade and slaughter.
This disease is of high international and trade importance and very
dangerous for humans!

Fig 3.10 Rift Valley Fever has devastating effects

CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

Table 3: Mastitis
Names

Qanyara (Gabbra); Canda-barar (Somali); Loebeta (Turkana); Nolkina (Samburu);
Ugonjwa wa kiwele (Swahili); Giid (Rendille).

Definition

Swelling of one or more quarters of the udder and secretion of abnormal milk.

Causative agent

Bacteria (especially Streptococcus agalactiae, Staphylococcus aureus).

Mode of
transmission

Bacteria that cause mastitis are transmitted from infected to clean camels by the
hands of the herder who milks an infected udder first and then a healthy one; in
addition, bacteria can be transmitted when a calf suckles more than one dam. A
dirty Boma is also a source for mastitis bacteria transmitted from the ground to
the teats by flies. Pus from skin abscesses is another source for mastitis bacteria.
Especially wounds on the skin of the teats caused by ticks are a constant source of
mastitis bacteria. Mastitis bacteria can enter the udder only through the teat opening
or through small injuries on the teat. The teat is the barrier between the outside
environment and the milk gland, the inside of the udder. Oversized, damaged or
abnormal teats that cannot close tightly in between milking times are much more
prone to infection than normal shaped teats.

three separate glands. It is not possible to apply one intra-mammary tube per gland
(= 2 to 3 tubes per teat!). Also the nozzle size of the intra-mammary tube is designed
for cattle teats, not for the finer openings of the camel teat. Forcing the intramammary tube into the teat damages the teat openings and can cause very dangerous
infections!
Treatment
Prevention/Control

If possible, keep camels with chronic mastitis (less than four healthy quarters)
separate from camels with healthy udders for milking and overnight (two different
Bomas, two different herdsmen milking).
Sell camels with less than four healthy quarters to remove the main source of
infection from the herd.
Treat all skin wounds early with iodine or blue spray to prevent them from becoming
abscesses and producing pus. Remove ticks from the teat skin and treat the tick bite
lesion with iodine or blue spray.

Caution: Teat tying (Somali “Marrak”) damages the teat and predisposes the udder to
infection!
Affected age group

Adult lactating females; mastitis is more common in older than in young females.

Major clinical signs

Acute (“visible”) mastitis: One or more quarters of the udder are swollen, painful
and hot. Milk production is reduced or stops completely. The milk can look and
smell abnormal (yellow or brownish colour, very thick like pus or thin like water, may
contain clots or blood). There can be difficulties in milking as teat canals are blocked
and no more milk is released from the gland. In severe cases, the camel may stop
feeding, as the quarter remains hardened, does not return to normal and becomes a
“dead quarter,” which no longer contains any gland tissue and cannot produce any
more milk.
Mild (“visible”) mastitis has the same signs as acute mastitis but changes in the milk
and quarter do not last long and are less intensive.
Chronic (“invisible”) mastitis: After recovery from mild mastitis, the quarter looks
normal, but can remain infected forever. Such a constantly infected quarter changes
over 1 to 3 lactations from normal soft gland tissue to hard dead tissue and becomes
a “dead quarter.” This is called chronic mastitis and is much more common than the
“visible” mastitis. Chronic mastitis in some herds affects every second camel and in
almost every camel herd there are camels with one or more “dead quarters.” Chronic
mastitis is the most important source of infection for young female camels (1st
calving heifers) with clean healthy udders!

Diseases with similar Abscess of the udder skin
signs
Seasonality

None

Treatment

Swollen quarter should be milked frequently and calf should be allowed to suckle. It
is also useful to cool hot swollen quarters and to massage them.

Always milk young camels (especially 1st calving heifers) with clean udders first,
even though they are often more difficult to milk than the older ones. This prevents
transmission of mastitis from old camels with “unclean” udders to young camels with
“clean” udders.

Do not practice teat tying!
Observe hygienic milking and check udders at every milking for early detection and
treatment. The California Mastitis Test (CMT) detects chronic mastitis (see figure 3)
and can be used to identify and separate camels with clean from those with unclean
udders.
Can it affect humans Mastitis causing bacteria can be transmitted through milk to humans.
It is recommended that all milk for human consumption be boiled.
Notifiable disease

Economic and social
impact

Chronic mastitis reduces milk yield by 20% to 40%, resulting in loss of milk available
for consumption and for sale.
Mixing mastitis milk and clean milk in the same container leads to fast spoilage of all
the milk, which fetches a lower price at the market or cannot be sold.
Reduction of both milk yield and milk value threaten household food security and
lead to loss of income.
Mastitis bacteria in milk also cause diseases in humans, especially in children

Camel keepers sometimes tie the teats of a shecamel with a piece of cloth or plant material
to prevent calves suckling and finishing all the
milk (Somali: Marrak). The material used is
usually not washed and is often shared among
many dams, transmitting mastitis infections,
leading to teat wounds and damaging the teat.

Penicillin-Streptomycin or Sulphonamide injected at a double dose for minimum 3
days can cure fresh mastitis.
Chronic mastitis cannot be cured.
Caution: Intra-mammary treatment (used sometimes in dairy cattle) is NOT
recommended for camels because the camel teat has 2 to 3 fine openings. Each
opening leads to a separate gland, so one quarter of the camel udder contains two to

(Source: Maurizio Dioli)

CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

3.1.5 Poisoning and diseases of unknown cause
Table 1: Poisoning Capparis tomentosa

California Mastitis Test CMT
Squirt milk from teat
into cup (remember:
one cup for one teat)

Test kit

Add equal or
more amount of
test fluid

Fill only bottom
of cup

Rotate to mix

Names

Laturdei (Samburu); Gomborlik, Goryafun, Gumbor (Somali); Ekorokoite (Turkana);
Gorrahgel (Rendille, Gabbra).

Definition

Plant poisoning caused by eating fruits, flowers and leaves of the Capparis tomentosa
tree.

Causative agent

Poison in leaves, flowers and fruits of Capparis tomentosa.

Mode of transmission

Eating leaves, flowers and fruits of the plant

Affected age group

All.

Major clinical signs

Sideways bending of the neck, difficulty in walking, paralysis and emaciation in
prolonged cases.

Seasonality

Common when the fruits are in season and during drought

Treatment

No known treatment, although camel keepers have traditionally tried branding.

Prevention/Control

If possible, avoid grazing in area where tree is known to occur; if such areas have
to be used for grazing (during dry season/drought) prevent camels from feeding on
this tree.

Can it affect humans

Yes, if humans eat the fruits, especially young boys when herding.

Notifiable disease?

No.

Economic and social
impact

Affected animals may die; if herdsmen are inexperienced or careless, whole groups
of camels may be lost to poisoning.

Observe reaction

Healthy
milk
remains
watery

Mastitis
milk
curdles
(becomes
thick)

Don’t mix
mastitis
milk and
healthy
milk

Mastitis
teat

Fig 3.7 A camel’s movement become
unco-ordinated after feeding on
poisonous Capparis tomentosa fruits
and it can eventually die

Fig 3.6 CMT test: Source - Somalia Pastoralist Dairy Development Project (VSF Germany)

Capparis tomentosa (Source: upload.wikimedia.org)

CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

Table 2: Wry Neck

CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

Table 3: Swollen Glands / Haemorrhagic Septicaemia (HS) of camels

Names

Chachapsa (Gabbra); Shimpirr (Somali); Dahasi (Rendille).

Definition

Twisting of the neck

Causative agent

Not known, can be caused by Capparis tomentosa, and maybe also by other plant
poisoning; theory that it is infectious is not proven; can result from fighting or other
physical trauma

Mode of transmission

Wry neck occurs very sporadically and is most likely not infectious; no indication
that this is a transmissible disease.

Affected age group

All.

Major clinical signs

Name

Khanid (Rendille); Kandich, Khando, Qando (Gabbra, Borana); Qarir, Kharar, Kurri
(Somali); Nalngarrngarr, Ngarngar, Nolgoso (Samburu); Longarrue, Aengarre, Lorarrurei,
Elukunoit, Lobolio, Lobolibolio (Turkana).

Definition

Acute disease associated with enlarged sub-mandibular lymph nodes.

Causative agent

The cause of Swollen Glands / Haemorrhagic Septicaemia (HS) in camels is
unknown; camel HS is different from HS in cattle.

Mode of
transmission

Unknown, most likely contact.

Twisted neck, often double bent (S-shape); in severely affected cases it interferes
with or even prevents feeding. Camel becomes weak and rapidly loses condition.
Some animals recover spontaneously, even overnight.

Affected age group

Swollen Glands common in young animals (weaners and sub-adults).

Disease with similar
clinical signs

See Capparis tomentosa.

Major clinical signs

Seasonallity

Not known

Treatment

Give multivitamin injection (especially Vitamin B complex) to stimulate nerve
regeneration (you can also feed the camel baker’s yeast, which is rich in vitamin B).
Branding of the neck is practiced as traditional treatment by camel keepers.

Prevention/Control

Avoid Capparis tomentosa infested areas and supplement with adequate minerals to
discourage bone chewing.

Can it affect humans

No.

Notifiable disease

No.

Economic and social
impact

Loss in production and high possibility of death

Acute camel HS outbreaks affect mainly adult camels in good condition.
Swollen Glands (common in North Kenya)
Swollen lymph nodes, especially those of head and neck. Camels are very dull and
have problems breathing. They may die after 3-5 days or have very slow recovery.
This form occurs regularly in certain herds and affects mainly weaners and young
adults.
Acute Camel HS (less common)
Very acute breathing problem; camels lying down with neck stretched out, unable
to stand up, die after less than 1 day before swelling of glands appears; sometimes
intestine is also affected, resulting in bloody or dark faeces. This form occurs very
suddenly in herds that may not have experienced the disease for many years and
mainly affects adults in good body condition.
On post-mortem, lungs and/or intestines show characteristic bleeding
(haemorrhaging).
Disease with similar
clinical signs

In young camels: Acute Camel Pox, acute Orf, Pneumonia.
In adult camels: Camel Sudden Death, Anthrax, acute Trypanosomiasis.

Seasonality

Some outbreaks associated with sudden onset of chilly and wet conditions.

Treatment

Antibiotic treatment (Oxytetracyline 20% LA, Sulphonamide, Amoxycillin) only
effective if given very early as a prophylaxis before camels show symptoms. Animals
that have already developed the full symptoms may show adverse reaction to
antibiotic (die faster!)
Do not force affected camels to move and avoid handling them.

Prevention/Control

Evidence from herders is that antibiotics given as a prophylaxis to healthy animals in
affected herds cut outbreaks short.
Avoid all contact with affected camel herds and mixing of camels from affected and
non-affected herds in one Boma; outbreaks appear to spread through herd contact
(especially at watering points).

Can it affect humans

Not known

Notifiable disease

Economic and social
impact

Swollen Glands regularly causes disease and death in young camels, affects herd
growth.
Sporadic camel HS outbreaks may result in up to 20% mortality in adult camels and
thus have a great economic impact on affected herds.

Camel with a twisted neck, a typical symptom of wry neck.
Source: Maurizio Dioli

CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

Drug Cards

Table 23: Camel Sudden Death
Names

Risasi (Swahili); Maal oh aar, Habad (Somali, Borana).

Definition

Sudden death in camels.

Causative agent

Not known.

Mode of transmission

Unknown, possibly through close contact.

Affected age group

Almost exclusively adults, pregnant and lactating females, breeding and
working bulls, heavy animals and/or animals in good condition.

Major clinical signs

Sudden collapse; difficulty in breathing; white froth in the nostrils and
death within 1 hour after collapse. There are no warning symptoms before
the collapse; sporadic deaths occur in one herd over a limited period and
then stop.

Diseases with similar clinical
signs

Anthrax, HS/Swollen Glands, Trypanosomiasis (T. vivax, T. congolense).

Seasonality

One outbreak in Kenya (2007) reported so far.

Treatment

None.

Prevention/Control

During outbreak:
Avoid contact with affected herds.
Avoid stressing pregnant and lactating animals on long treks.
Avoid sudden intake of large amounts of salt and/or water.

Can it affect humans

Not known. There were no reports of humans falling sick during 2007
outbreak in Kenya.

Notifiable disease

No, but cases should be reported to veterinary authority.

Economic and social impact

Only a few animals lost, but big economic impact because losses affect the
most valuable breeding stock. Loss of pregnant/lactating females means
loss of milk production and reduced herd growth; loss of breeding and
working bulls means new ones need to be kept and to be trained (fewer bulls
available for sale and slaughter).

Drug withdrawal period: The time during which milk or meat from treated animals must
not be consumed by humans

Drug Card 1: Albendazole
Name of ingredient

Albendazole

Brand names

Valbazen, Alfafas, Tramazole, Hook

Drug Category

Anthelmintic for oral application (= to be given through the mouth)

Presentation

Bolus (600mg, 2500mg, 3000mg), Drench (10%)

Dosage

Recommended dosage: 7.5mg/kg
This means for:
600 mg Bolus – 1 bolus per 120kg
2500mg Bolus – 1 bolus per 500kg
3000mg Bolus – 1 bolus per 600kg
10% Drench - 10ml / 100 kg body weight.
Dosage Examples:
12 ml drench (10%) for a calf of 120 kg body weight,
25 ml drench (10%) for a young adult of 250 kg body weight,
50 ml drench (10%) for an adult camel of 500 kg body weight.
One 600mg Bolus for a calf of 120kg body weight
Half a 2500mg Bolus for a young adult of 250kg body weight
One 2500mg Bolus for an adult camel of 500kg body weight
One 3000mg Bolus for heavy adult camel of 600kg

Withdrawal period
Milk:

60 hours = 2.5 days = 5 milking times (if you milk twice per day)

Meat:

14 days

Storage

Cool and dry place. Avoid direct sunlight.

Disease

Gastro-intestinal worm infestation

Drug Card 2: Ivermectin

Suspected Camel Sudden Death. (Source: Mario Younan)

Name of ingredient

Ivermectin.

Brand name

Ivomec, Noromec, Endact.

Category

Injectable anthelmintic against endo- and ecto-parasites.

Presentation

Injectable 1% solution.

Dosage

1 ml/50 kg. (0.2 mg/kg)
In case of mange, injection to be repeated after 8 days (not after 14 days as
recommended by manufacturer for treatment of cattle).

Mode of application

Inject subcutaneously (under the skin).

Drug withdrawal period

Meat 21 days. In cattle, the drug withdrawal period for milk is 28
days (= 4 weeks); nobody knows exactly how long it is in camels but it is also
several weeks. NEVER use Ivermectin IN LACTATING camels; this makes
correct timing of herd treatment for mange in camels very difficult!

Storage

Cool and dry place, avoid direct sunlight.

Disease

Mange, Round Worms, Nasal bot fly, maggots that infect wounds.
(Effect on ticks is weak and inconsistent, better use external acaricides against
ticks).

CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

CHAPTER 4
CAMEL PRODUCTS AND MARKETING

Drug Card 3: Gentian Violet

‘Camel products for improved livelihoods’

Name of ingredient

Gentian Violet

Category

Skin tincture

Presentation

Blue-violet watery solution

Dosage

Sold at working strength, use undiluted.

Mode of application

Apply on affected area.

Drug withdrawal period

Nil.

Storage

Cool dry place.

Disease

Treatment of skin infections like open wounds, Infectious Skin Necrosis, Orf
lesions on the mouth.

Chapter Authors: Kajume, Julius K M, Fredrick O. Aloo, Mario Younan, Amos Adongo

Drug Card 4: Hydrogen Peroxide
Name of ingredient

Hydrogen peroxide.

Category

Disinfectant.

Presentation

Sold normally as 20% solution.

Dosage

Dilute to 2% working strength; 20% solution diluted 1:10 in clean water (= 1
part Hydrogen Peroxyde 20% plus 9 parts water).

Mode of application

Inject into wound with syringe (CAUTION NO NEEDLE) and flush out the
pus and dirt.

Drug withdrawal period

Nil.

Storage

Always store in tightly shut brown bottle and protect from sunlight, loses
strength rapidly in improperly sealed bottle

Disease

Cleaning, flushing and disinfection of infected and dirty wounds, abscess (after
opening by incision), Infectious Skin Necrosis.

Drug Card 5: Iodine
Name of ingredient

Iodine or Lugols Iodine.

Brand name

Tincture, Glubose, Providon and Wokadine Betaisadonna.

Category

Disinfectant.

Presentation

Brown watery solution.

A camel milk hall in North Somalia (Source: Klaus Lorenz)

Dosage

Can be used undiluted, otherwise follow manufacturer’s instructions; many
brands are mixed one-to-one with clean water.

Mode of application

Apply on affected area. Note: Iodine does not work well on dirty surfaces,
clean wounds first and remove pus and dead tissue before applying.

Drug withdrawal period

Nil.

Many camel products are of commercial importance
– meaning that they can be sold in large quantities
to the rest of the population. These are milk and
naturally fermented milk, meat, hump fat, hides, and
by-products (like camel feet [trotters] sold for soup
kitchens).

Storage

Cool dry place, always in brown bottle, loses strength in sunlight.

Disease

Wounds, abscesses after flushing, Infectious Skin Necrosis, also good for use
on operation wound after castration.

4.1. Meat
4.1.1 Meat hygiene and fresh meat
marketing
‘Cleanliness is next to Godliness.’ This saying shows
the importance of hygiene in human life. Meat hygiene
rules must be strictly followed in order to produce safe
and wholesome meat. This requires:
Healthy and clean slaughter-stock.
Hygienic slaughtering.
Proper meat inspection.
Hygienic handling, storage and transportation of
the meat
These principles are explained in Table 1.

Camel blood, bones, bone marrow and urine are
useful in one way or another to pastoralists, but do
not have much commercial value. The potential exists
for processing milk into various products and also for
processing blood and bones into bone meal and blood
meal. Camel bones are also used for carving. Still, the
profitability of any processing enterprise needs first to
be carefully explored.

CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

Table 1: Production of safe and wholesome meat
What to do
Make sure camel is healthy and
clean

How its done
Should be well fed and in good body condition.
Have no signs of disease or serious injury.
Not be mistreated before slaughter.
Presented to and approved by a meat inspector before slaughter.
If treated, not slaughtered before drug withdrawal period is over.

Make sure slaughtering is
hygienic

Choose clean site (slaughterhouse if accessible).
Use clean materials to prepare slaughter site.
Slaughter when and where it’s cool (early morning, in the shade).
Make sure water for washing is available.
Slaughterer should be healthy and observe personal hygiene.
Use clean & sharp tools.
Avoid contact between meat and stomach/gut contents.
Avoid contact between meat and outside surface of the hide.
Avoid contact between meat and soil or bare ground.
Proper separation of meat from offal.
Observe Halal slaughtering and humane killing.

Make sure meat is inspected

This is a legal requirement to protect consumers against meat borne
infections.
Ensure meat is inspected by a qualified meat inspector.
Refer to Meat Control act, CAP.356 of the laws of Kenya.

Ensure correct handling,
storage, transportation and
marketing of meat

Do not leave fresh meat in the open – it will spoil quickly.
If not consumed immediately, protect from flies, other pests, dust and
mud (use fly proof netting).
Hang carcasses to allow sufficient drainage before cold storage (where
available).
Use clean and closed containers for transport.
During transport, do not mix meat and offal in the same container.
Meat will get contaminated and spoil rapidly.
Use cold storage where available.

Meat hygiene guarantees you safe and wholesome meat. It is a safeguard against meat-borne infections and
food poisoning; it attracts more customers and improves your business!!

Fig 4.1 With good hygiene there are more customes and money

Open air butchery (Source: Maurizio Dioli)

CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

4.1.2 Health risks from meat

4.1.3 Meat cutting, and processing

People can catch diseases like Anthrax, Tapeworm, Hydatidosis, Rift Valley Fever, Salmonellosis, Brucellosis, and
food poisoning (like Clostridium) from handling or eating diseased meat To avoid such risks, follow the advice
in Table 2.

Because fresh meat spoils quickly, it must be sold at once. If it is preserved – for example through drying, smoking,
salting etc – or processed – for example into sausages, biltong etc – it will keep longer, and can be sold over a longer
period and taken to far away markets, where it can fetch better prices. This is known as improving marketability
by adding value. Table 3 gives an overview of meat processing methods.

Table 2: Safe and unsafe meat

Table 3: Processing meat after slaughter

Unsafe Meat

Why

Do not consume meat from sick
camels or those that die of disease

Dead or sick animals are potential sources of deadly diseases that
can infect humans and cause death.

Do not consume raw or uninspected
meat or blood

Many deadly human anthrax cases arise from consumption of
uninspected meat.

Do not consume meat with an
abnormal smell or colour

Abnormal smell or colour are signs of spoiled meat. Such spoiled
meat is a potential source of poisoning and infections.

Do not slaughter during outbreaks of
Rift Valley Fever or other dangerous
diseases

During outbreaks, many animals are infected and some of them
may not show obvious signs; if slaughtered for meat, they can easily
infect humans.
Slaughtering Rift Valley Fever infected camels and handling their
meat can be deadly for humans!!! For humans there is no treatment
for Rift Valley Fever!

If a camel was treated with drugs
recently, observe the drug withdrawal
period before it is slaughtered for human consumption

Risk of drug residues that can cause microbial resistance to drugs.
Such drugs may be rendered ineffective when used to treat human
or animal diseases. Additionally, drugs can cause harm to humans if
consumed.

These are real risks!!! Take care!!

Fig 4.2 Consumption of meat from dead animals, uninspected meat, contaminated or spoiled meat is dangerous

Process

Why

Meat cutting

For ease of
consumption,
marketing,
storage and
transportation.
Preparation of
prime or retail
cuts.
Value addition.

Product
Procedure
example
Sides.
Observe basic hygiene — use clean knives
Quarters.
and meat cutting saws; observe personal
Sirloin.
hygiene; wear clean protective clothing;
make sure there is plenty of water; use
Topside.
Silverclean working surfaces
side.
When de boning the various cuts, make
Shank
sure as little meat as possible is left on the
etc.

Preservation
Heat treatment
Air drying
Curing
Salting
Corning
Smoking
Cold storage
Use of chemical
preservatives
Vacuum packing

To prolong shelf
life by killing
or reducing
pathogens, hence
longer storage.
To add value
through improved
flavour, shelf-life
and minimised
risk.
NB: Nyirinyiri
can stay for up to
6 months while
dried meat lasts 2
to 3 months.

Nyirinyiri.
Biltong.
Pickled meat.
‘Corned
camel’.

Fig 4.3 Best cuts of meat from the camel
Source: Farah, Z. & A. Fischer (2004)

bones. Detailed procedures will depend
on what is required and are outside the
scope of this manual
Note: Cutting of bones should be done
with a saw to avoid splitting, which could
cause injury during eating.

Detailed procedures for drying, smoking &
roasting, cooking and storing are given in
Table 4.
In all cases, proper hygiene must be observed:
Personal hygiene.
Clean working surfaces.
Clean working tools, equipment and
containers.
Clean premises.
Trim meat free of fat and connective
tissue.
Do not expose fresh meat under
processing to temperatures above 1000 C
for more than 6 hours.

CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

4.1.4 Adding value to camel meat

4.2 Milk

Traditionally in Kenya pastoral camel keepers deep fry and store meat in fat (Nyirinyiri).
Table 4 describes how to preserve meat.

Camel milk is a very important staple food for Kenya’s
pastoralists. During the dry season, camels will keep
giving milk when milk from all other livestock species
has dried up. So the milk can keep pastoralists and
their children from starving during drought and
periods of scarcity.

Table 4: How to preserve meat
Method
Drying
Traditional drying
of meat is known as
“derein,” (Somali),
“Jaji” (Boran)
and “Lesirikan”
(Samburu)

Procedure
When butchering a camel, lean meat should be used and trimmed of fat.
The carcass should be properly bled and larger pieces of lean meat cut into smaller

Roasting and
smoking

Salting

pieces.
Strips of meat are cut in the direction of muscular tissue. They may vary from 20
to 70cm in width.
The strips are cut the same size so they take the same time to dry.
The meat is hung on lines in the sun with good air circulation.
Meat dried on racks should be turned every two hours to ensure even drying.
The lines or racks should be protected from insects and other pests by mosquito
netting and by standing the legs in tins of water.
Meat dries in 5 days and even less in very dry, windy areas such as around the
Chalbi desert in Marsabit, but requires protection from dust.
Dried meat is best stored in closed sisal sacks hung from the ceiling of a cool, dry,
well-ventilated store to keep out pests.
The two activities often occur together: Smoke particles absorbed by the flesh
have a preservative effect and prevent growth of bacteria on the surface of the
meat.
The two activities affect the taste and colour of meat.
If the temperatures of the wood fire is high enough the meat becomes cooked,
which is called ‘roasting’.
If the product is well dried, it can be kept for a long time.
The safest process is to first cook the meat by hot smoking and then dry it by
more prolonged smoking at temperatures between 450 and 850C.
Salting is occasionally used in order to make the drying process more complete.
Among the Orma, meat is salted before roasting. When drying meat, the Boran
add salt to keep away flies.

Cooking and storing A major tradition among Kenyan pastoralists involves cooking and storing meat in fat.
in fat or honey
The meat is known as Nyirinyiri (Somali) or Koche (Boran).
The meat can be beef, goat or camel, but camel is preferred.
Rump steak is cut into thin strips and sun dried for four hours to a day depending
on the weather conditions.
It is then cut into small pieces, about the size of a finger nail.
The cuts are then fried in ghee, Samuli or camel fat.
Spices such as cardamom, cloves, Karafu or garlic provide flavour.
The Nyirinyiri is then stored in the fat in special containers.
If dried and fried well, Nyirinyiri can last for up two years

But camel milk is also the most expensive milk in
Kenya. The highest prices are paid for fresh clean camel
milk, with sour camel milk fetching less. Because it
stays fresh for longer than cow’s or goat’s milk, it can
be transported to more distant markets in towns and
cities.
The important thing to remember is that only milk
that is produced, handled and transported in a clean
and hygienic way will reach the market as fresh milk,
attracting customers and fetching good prices.

Camel milk is also very healthy. It contains three
times more Vitamin C than cow’s milk and so is the
main source of vitamins and high quality protein for
pastoralists, allowing a balanced diet in the arid lands
where vegetables and fruit are hard to get and meat
is only eaten occasionally. Camel milk thus prevents
nutritional deficiencies in pastoralist communities.
It is also thought to have medicinal properties and is
traditionally used to treat illnesses like diabetes and
other chronic infections.

4.2.1 Production of clean and safe milk
Clean, fresh milk fetches the highest price in the
market. How milk is produced determines its quality
and value.
Table 5 shows how to produce clean and fresh milk

Table 5: How to produce clean and fresh milk
Important points
Hygienic milking
The camel must be healthy and feeding normally
The udder and the teats must be free of wounds,

abscesses and ticks, no swelling or signs of mastitis

Why is this important
Sick camels excrete pathogens with their milk.
Bacteria from wounds, ticks and mastitis enter

the milk and spoil it and are also dangerous for
humans.
before milking; because clean water is often scarce Milk from camels milked with dirty hands and
or not available for washing the teats, dry cleaning
from dirty udders is also dirty and gets spoiled
of the teats can be done with tissue paper or with
easily, it also can transmit disease to the milk
a fresh clean cloth (cloth has to be washed, boiled
consumer.
and dried before use)
Antibiotics, acaricides, de wormers and
If a camel was treated recently observe drug
trypanocides are excreted with the milk and are
withdrawal period for milk
toxic to humans.

Herdsmen must wash hands with water and soap

Which camels to milk first?
Milk calving heifers and young camels with four

intact teats first, also milk all camels that do not
react to the California Mastitis Test (CMT)
before milking those that do react (see Chapter 3,
Mastitis and fig 3.6
Although it is easier and faster to milk old camels
before milking first-calving young camels, milk the
young camels first
Leave until last the milking of old camels that
have less than four intact teats, swollen and
sensitive udder, wounds on the teats, show
abnormal milk, or give milk that reacts in the
CMT

The source of mastitis infection is older camels

with chronic mastitis; milkers’ hands transmit
mastitis from infected to non-infected udders
Young camels, with normal udders and camels
not reacting in the CMT are not infected with
mastitis.
Old camels and camels with abnormal milk and
deformed teats that react in the CMT are infected
with mastitis; if they are milked first, all camels
milked later by the same person can easily get
infected with mastitis.

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4.2.2 Risks from drinking raw milk

The milker
Milker should be healthy – no coughing or

If unclean or sick, the milking person can easily

He must observe personal cleanliness – clean

Dirty milkers produces dirty milk that spoils fast

sneezing, no open wounds, no diarrhoea

clothes, washed and dried hands and trimmed
clean finger nails

The milking site
Choose a clean place for milking, if possible

outside and upwind from the boma; this is
particularly important if camel milk has to be
taken to faraway markets
Change to new clean boma frequently

The milking bucket
The best milking equipment is stainless steel

buckets and galvanised metal containers, normally
not readily available in the arid lands and
expensive in the short run
Traditional buckets that are properly sanitised
by heat treatment (‘smoking’*) are hygienic
and should be used when metal buckets are not
available
In between milking times, milk buckets must be
stored upside down away from dust, flies and soil
Plastic buckets are intended only for
single use as food containers and must
not be used for milking!

CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

contaminate the milk.

and may cause harm to consumers.

Fresh milk from a healthy camel kept in clean containers is safe to drink. When bacteria get into the milk, they
multiply rapidly and the milk can become dangerous to drink, especially for children and frail, elderly people.
Table 6 shows different ways in which raw milk can become contaminated and dangerous to drink.

Table 6: Is it safe to drink raw milk?
The boma contains dirt, faeces and has dust and

flies that can get into the milk container and spoil
the milk, wind keeps dust and flies away.

The boma if occupied for long periods becomes
very dirty and has a lot of flies.

Milk from the udder is very clean, but if milked

into a dirty bucket it is contaminated immediately
and spoils quickly.
Only buckets that can be cleaned thoroughly
should be used

There is always a risk of contracting diseases when
drinking raw camel milk

Why is it risky?

Dangerous milk comes from:
Camels that have aborted
Sick camels
Camels treated with veterinary drugs
Camels with mastitis
Camels with abscesses and wounds
Milking done by unclean or sick milker
Dirty plastic containers
Addition of dirty water to milk (adulterated milk)

Any disease or infection affecting the camel also

affects its milk and the person drinking the milk.

Some infections are ‘silent’ — the camel shows no

visible signs of disease — but its milk is infected
and dangerous. Especially with Brucellosis, the
camel looks healthy but its milk is very dangerous!

Veterinary drugs, including acaricides,

given to
the camel are excreted in the milk for some time;
many of these drugs are poisonous to humans.

When we don’t know anything about the camel

and the milk container, it is safer to pasteurise or
boil the milk before consumption.

Correct storage prevents contamination of the
bucket.

The plastic bucket’s surface is soft, so it corrodes
quickly and cannot be properly cleaned and
sanitised; plastic buckets are therefore an
important source of milk contamination.

4.2.3 Fresh milk marketing
It is important to protect milk from dirt and heat; this delays souring and keeps the milk fresh until it reaches
the market. And fresh milk can fetch between 20% and 40% higher prices than sour milk. When there is a lot of
milk in the market, sour or spoiled milk is difficult to sell.
Table 7 shows how to handle and transport fresh milk safely in different types of containers (Remember, never
use plastic jerricans!)’ See figure 4.5 and also refer to Handbook on milk collection (1990)

Table 7: Containers for milk storage and transport
Important points
Do not transport milk in plastic jerricans!

For milk storage and transport use quality metal

Smoke treatment of traditional milking bucket.
(Source: Mario Younan)

or aluminium milk cans with proper lids that can
be closed and locked tightly. Milk cans should be
seamless and easy to clean; metal containers cost
more, but last for many years

Why is this important?
Plastic jerricans (old food containers or even

containers for engine oil) have very narrow
openings, so they cannot be cleaned properly;
their surface is very soft and rapidly develops
mini-cracks which contain dirt; old plastic surface
also releases substances into the milk that cause
cancer
Plastic jerricans are the main source of milk
contamination and the reason for rapid milk
spoilage during transport. They only last a few
weeks; if milk cans cannot be tightly closed, clean
milk gets contaminated from outside during
transport. Saving money ONCE on a cheap
container means losing money EVERY
DAY through lower prices due to sour or
spoiled milk

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Wrap a wet cloth around the container to cool it*

and always try to keep containers in the shade; if
possible put milk in fridge and cool it down before
transporting it over long distances
Traditional containers (gourds or the Somali
Haan) properly sanitised by heat treatment
(‘smoking’) are hygienically OK and good for milk
storage. They are particularly suitable for milk
fermentation
Do not mix fresh morning milk with old milk from
the evening before

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Keeping milk cooler slows down souring, milk
stays fresh for longer

Transferring milk from traditional heat treated

(smoked) containers into metal containers is safe.

Old milk spoils the fresh milk when mixed
together.

* This is called evaporative cooling. A good way of doing this is using gunny bags (see picture below) into
which the milk cans fit; they are cheap and easy to make and must always be kept wet during transport.

Wet gunny bags for milk cooling during transport
(Source: Amos Adongo)

Experience from North Somalia
In most markets sour camel milk (susa) costs 20% (sometimes up to 40%) less than fresh milk (Dhay geel). When
Fatuma, a milk trader in Garowe, was using plastic jerricans to transport her camel milk to market, she used
to sell most of her milk as susa (“Six out of ten cups would go sour”). Since she switched to aluminium milk
cans, she sells most of her milk as fresh milk (“Now I sell seven out of ten cups as fresh milk”). Her fresh milk
also attracts more buyers. Her income has increased because of her investing a little extra money in clean milk
containers.

4.2.4 Processing and marketing of camel milk products

Heat treatment of camel milk – for example, pasteurisation and yoghurt making – creates products that need
to be kept cold until they are consumed. Such products also need hygienic packaging to protect them from
contamination. They can spoil easily if not packed in sterile containers. What is more, they are costly to produce
and need a lot of investment in starter cultures, cold chain, processing and packaging equipment. For producers in
Kenya’s arid lands, it can be difficult and risky to market products that need a cold chain. The starter lactobacillus
culture commonly used in making yoghurt needs to be kept in a deep freezer.

People often ask about making cheese from camel milk. Camel milk cheese is much more difficult to produce
than cheese from cow milk or from goat milk. Cheese making also needs special equipment and cooling facilities.
Currently there is no market for camel cheese in Kenya.
Fig 4.5 Sell clean milk, attract more customers: Source - Somalia Pastoralist Dairy Development Project (VSF Germany)

CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

Tables 9A to 9E give an overview of processing options for camel milk, for more
technical details consult Farah, Z. & A. Fischer 2004 (see references)
9A HOW TO PRODUCE PASTEURISED MILK

Use of plastic containers
and mixing of evening
and morning milk NOT
RECOMMENDED

Requirements

2 metal cans (size depends on volume of milk)
Piece of clean sterile (boiled) cotton cloth
Measuring cup
Large sufuria
Source of fire (energy saving jikos preferred)
Thermometer (for literate processors)

Procedure
HOW TO PASTEURISE MILK TO MAKE IT SAFE FOR DRINKING
»» Prepare a water bath (sufuria) with the right temperature [65ºC or 75ºC].
»» Fill the milk into a clean milk can and stand the can inside the water bath.
»» Measure milk temperature with a food grade thermometer.
»» When milk temperature reaches 65ºC keep that temperature for 30 minutes.
»» [Alternatively, when milk temperature reaches 75ºC, keep that temperature for 2 minutes].
»» This procedure kills all dangerous bacteria in the milk.

Use of steel containers and
separation of evening and
morning milk STRONGLY
RECOMMENDED

9B HOW TO PRODUCE SOUR MILK (susa) AND YOGHURT

Sour milk can be produced by natural fermentation and is of excellent quality if traditional containers
(Haan) are used for fermentation and good milk hygiene is observed.

Traditional sour milk can be flavoured with sugar or commercially available food additives (e.g.
strawberry flavour).

Use only metal cans for transport of sour camel milk; plastic jerricans spoil sour milk during transport.
Sour milk keeps longer than fresh milk, can be transported over long distance and is in high demand in

Fig 4.4

urban markets of Kenya; small urban milk bars offer a niche market for different varieties of flavoured
susa

Table 8 looks at pros and cons of processing camel milk, especially pasteurising and yoghurt making.

Table 8: To process or not to process camel milk?
Pros and cons
Why is this important?
Pasteurised milk and yoghurt need to be kept cold Transporters in ASALs do not have cold storage in
(at fridge temperature: +4 C to +8 C) during
transport and until sold and consumed
Pasteurised milk and yoghurt are more vulnerable
to contaminants than raw milk and must be
packed in sterile containers and kept cold; if not
chilled they must be sold and consumed very
quickly
Do not attempt to process and pack camel milk,
unless you have access to a cold chain or to
a nearby market where products are sold and
consumed on the day of production
0

their vehicles and most traders and consumers do
not have fridges.
Under warm conditions, pasteurised milk and
yoghurt do not go sour but become watery and
produce a smelly gas and can no longer be sold or
consumed
Milk traders and customers are used to raw camel
milk going sour, which can then still be sold and
consumed (e.g. as susa)

HOW TO PRODUCE YOGHURT

Yoghurt is produced from camel milk by first heating the milk and then adding commercially available
starter cultures after the milk has cooled down.

Small urban milk bars can process camel milk (e.g. into yoghurt) and market it daily fresh without
packaging or refrigeration.

Starter cultures for yoghurt are expensive and need storage in a deep freeze until used for processing
milk.

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9C HOW TO PRODUCE GHEE

CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS
9E HOW TO PRODUCE CAMEL MILK SWEETS

Ghee (Somali: Subaq) is storable and can be made from camel milk using special manual processing

equipment.
Making ghee from camel milk is very difficult because the fat particles do not separate easily like those
of cattle and goat milk.
Requirements

Cream separator.
2 small sufurias.
Aluminium milk can.
Colander Sieve.
Clean hygienic milk.
Water (for cooling and cleaning).
Storage containers.
Source of fire for heating milk with less smoke.
Clean sterilised cotton cloth.
1 small sufuria for collecting cream.

Need clean hygienic working environment.
Use only basic household type equipment.
Ingredients can be stored at room temperature.
Different varieties and flavours possible.
No need for cold storage or starter culture.
Products popular in local markets and can also be sold to distant urban markets.
Profit needs to be calculated against cost of inputs.
HOW TO MAKE CAMEL MILK SWEETS

Hygienically made susa will separate after some time in storage. When this happens, the watery part

(=whey) can be poured off and the solid part (=curds) strained directly without addition of anything.
Addition of small amounts of boiled cow or goat milk during susa fermentation speeds up the separation.
Drain remaining water from the curds through a clean cloth
Weigh available curds

Procedure

Sterilise all the utensils/containers to be used in cream processing.
Heat milk to 600C (camel milk) or 450 C (cows, goat’s milk).
Separate cream from skim milk using manual cream separator.
Boil the cream and let it cool to room temperature.
Add culture (mesophillic) available from any dairy product shop.
Let it stay overnight. You can also boil directly from the cream separator till oil separates out. This will
lack the fermented flavour preferred by some consumers.
Cook fermented cream over slow heat till all particles turn brown.
Sieve the ghee using dry sterile (boiled in clean drinking water) cotton cloth.
Before complete cooling, pack ghee in suitable clean containers depending on purpose and targeted
market.

There is no big market demand for camel milk ghee; camel ghee’s taste and consistency are close to that of
camel hump fat, which is cheap.
Making ghee is a good way to store surplus milk that cannot be consumed or marketed.
Firewood may be scarce or expensive.
The extra costs can be justified by the household food security during drought.

When the curd is well drained add about an equal amount of sugar
Add 0.1 % citric acid
Optional: add nuts, sesame seeds or spices
In a thick-bottomed pot, cook mixture on slow heat and with constant stirring till colour starts turning light
brown and the mixture is thick enough to harden
Pour onto serving plate or shallow bowl in layer of about 1-2 cm thickness and let cool
Form into small balls and set on another plate to dry for about 24 hours
Pack in suitable containers for sale (e.g. wrap in thin aluminium foil)

9D HOW TO PRODUCE CONDENSED MILK

Condensed milk can be produced easily using household items. It keeps for a long time - up to 1 year.
A lot of firewood is needed for preparation.
It needs sugar and clean containers that can be shut tightly.
Procedure
HOW TO MAKE CONDENSED MILK
1. 4 Parts Camel Milk + 1 Part Sugar, for example 4cups milk + 1cup sugar = 5 cups

or 4kg milk + 1kg sugar = 5kg
2. Boil gently with frequent stirring until
5 parts are reduced to 2 parts

5cups reduced to 2 cups
or 5kg reduced to 2kg

3. Fill boiling hot milk into clean screw cap glass jars
Fill jars up to the brim, such that no air remains inside
(Clean metal tins with press down lids may also be used)
4. Close the jar immediately and allow it to cool in inverted position
Condensed milk keeps for up to 1 year. It is very nice when added to tea or uji.
Fig 4.6 Making camel milk sweets

CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

4.3 Hides

4.3.2 Tanning and value addition

Camel hides are used by pastoral communities to make
all sorts of things, like sleeping mats, sandals, ropes and
whips. The Turkana community also use hides as food
during severe drought. Commercially, camel hides are
used in the making of army boots and other products.
But there are many other commercial possibilities, and
pastoralists can make much more money from selling
hides than they do now if reliable markets are found
and quality standards are met.

Tanning is a long process with several steps. It is a
method of converting green or cured hides into an
intermediary product called pelt from which the final
product, leather, is made. Different items such as
footwear, belts and bags can be made from the leather.
Where a tannery is situated nearby, the fresh raw hides
can be processed directly without curing. This should
be done within 6 hours after skinning.

For quality production of hides, management practices
like those shown in Table 10 are recommended.

How to construct an ideal hides and
skins store (Wet salting method)

4.3.1 Skinning, handling and preservation
of raw hides

Note: With wet salting technology, the curing
house also serves as a store.

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Table 11: Skinning and handling hides
Procedure
Skinning

Defatting

Dry salting method

1) Size depends on the volume of hides/skins
being handled.

Good slaughtering practices will always bring out best
value and grade for a hide. But bad preservation after
slaughter can cause defects like flaying and rotting
of the hide. Curing is a way of preserving the quality
of hides for longer periods and preparing them for
tanning.

2) Floor must be slightly slanting so as to direct
fluids to one corner, where there is an outlet to a
septic pit.
3)The hides/skins should be stacked for curing
and storage on wooden platforms raised 15cm
above the floor.

The most common methods of curing are air-drying
and salting. However, salting is much better for
successful curing. Salt-cured skins have a good market
value compared with air-dried hides, which have
no market at all. Salting is done by rubbing white
coarse industrial salt on the green hide. There are two
methods of salting – dry salting and wet salting. For
best results, follow the suggestions in Table 11 when
skinning the camel and preserving the raw hide.

How it should be done
When skinning do not cut too deep or incision will show in the hide.
Pull out hides or use proper flaying knives to avoid damaging the hide.
Proper ripping lines should be followed for better hides.
For easier flaying, removal of hides should be done immediately to

Wet salting method

The size of the platform should be 2 by 2 metres
but the top should be curved upward in the
middle to allow fluids to drip to the floor.

The maximum stacking height above the ground
should be 5 feet.

avoid cooling of the carcass.
Skinning is a skill, so proper training is a good idea.

Remove as much fat and meat as possible to avoid putrefaction (decay).
Caution: Camel hides have a lot of fat that can lead to putrefaction,
lowering the quality of the hide.
In dry salting, after one day the salt is shaken off and the hide is dried
in the sun.
Salt is applied on the flesh side. For best results, this should be done 3
to 6 hours after flaying.
This is done by sprinkling the salt on the hide, then rubbing it in by
hand, using gloves if possible.
About 7kg salt is needed per hide; the average weight of a fresh camel
hide is 30kg.
Salt acts as a dehydrating agent and preserves the hide.
Recommended because it produces a better product that commands a
higher price.
Hides are washed and spread with the flesh side up on a dome shaped
stand, in a well ventilated protected shed.
The area should be free of dogs, rats, beetles and ants.
Coarse industrial salt is used, again about 7kg per hide
In hot areas, shuffling of the stacked salted hides is recommended.
The stacked hides will be cured within 21 days; if not taken straight to
market after 21 days, the hides should be reshuffled to allow aeration
and avoid heat burn.

Table 10: Production of quality camel hides
Production practices
Physical care

Why it’s important
Avoid external damage to camels when carrying loads so their hides will

Pest and disease control

Branding and marking

not have defects.
Rutting male camels may bite each other, causing damage to the hides.

Defects may appear on the hide due to
Uneven and/or poor salting.
Use of dirty or unsuitable salt.
Salting green hides before they have cooled.

Hides from a sick animal will fetch lower prices.
Sick animals can infect other healthy ones and even cause death or
infections to humans handling the hides (Anthrax!)
When buying or exchanging camels with other herds check thoroughly
and observe quarantine to avoid disease getting into your herd that
directly affect hides, especially mange, camel pox and anthrax.
Treat camels against ticks to avoid tick bite damage to hides.
Should be done on neck or lower parts of the legs so hides are not
marked.
The marks should be put on the same side of each animal for ease of
recognition.

The severing knife

The ripping knife

Fig 4.7 Use correct tools to get quality hides

The flaying knife

CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

4.4 Marketing of Camels and Camel Products

Table 12 summarises problems in the marketing chain of camels and camel products and Table 13 contains
some general marketing tips.

Milk and milk
products

Ensure hygienic production and fast transport in closed metal containers.

Hides

The hides can be bought or sold in a green or cured state. In both states, hides
are sold by grade as well as by weight.
Hides contain different percentages of water depending on the curing method
used. It is important to know this to avoid being cheated when buying or
selling hides.
The grading and pricing of hides is controlled by the buyers and this makes it
difficult for the pastoralists to get fair prices; awareness needs to be created to
avoid exploitation by unethical traders.

Table 12: Problems of marketing camel products
Problems with:
Camel Production Area
Poor infrastructure.
Poor marketing

Marketing Meat
Lack of approved

information.
Poor policy support.
Diseases.
Negative attitude of
some camel owners.

camel slaughter
facilities.
Low slaughtering
and hygiene
standards.
Lack of markets.
Lack of cold storage
facilities.
Lack of orientation
towards marketing of
camel meat.

Marketing Milk
Low hygiene

standards in camel
milk production.
Lack of adequately
equipped collection
points near milk
production areas.
Lack of camel
milk storage and
processing facilities.
Inadequate road
infrastructure.
Risks associated with
milk borne diseases.

preservation ad
storage.
Hide defects
resulting from
branding, tick
bites, skin diseases,
wounds etc.
Poor flaying and
handling techniques
leading to poor
quality.

Table 13: Marketing tips (extension messages)
Local markets
Camels for slaughter

What to do
Animals to be sold must be healthy.
Obtain livestock movement permit where applicable.
Obtain up-to-date information on pricing and prices, also from border and

Meat

Marketing Hides
Markets are erratic.
Low volumes.
Low standards of

Export
Camels

Milk and milk
products

General considerations

Under current poor infrastructure, export of milk is very difficult.
Quality control requirements in Kenya (Raw whole camel milk specification:
Kenya Bureau of Standards KS 2061: 2007, ICS 67.100.10).
Check regulations for milk in the country you want to export to (e.g. UAE
prohibits import of any camel milk!)
Certification.

Check market demand first
»» It is no use attempting to market a product that has no buyers. Compare the

production costs with the price you can hope to get; if the raw material and
ingredients are too expensive, there may be little or no profit.
Check whether equipment and ingredients needed are easily available and can be
used under local conditions, e.g.
»» Starter cultures for yoghurt and cheese making are expensive and need deep
freeze storage – otherwise they get spoiled very quickly.
»» Food additives and flavours are cheap and don’t need cold storage
»» Link your production to existing active markets

Observe sound hygiene practices:

carry out slaughtering!
Sell on the day of slaughter, unless kept in refrigeration.
Transport in a clean container.
If moved over long distances to markets, a meat transport permit and
certificate of transport will be required – Meat Control Act, CAP 356 of the
laws of Kenya.

What to do
Exported camels need health certification by the veterinary authorities.
Consult the nearest Veterinary Office for more information and advice.
Refer to Disease Control Act CAP 364 of the laws of Kenya.
Check current prices in different locations; at the Kenyan border, export prices
for camel bulls may be far above local prices in Kenya!

outside Kenya if possible.
Sell camels in good condition in order to fetch prime prices.
Avoid selling under pressure; then prices are bound to be low.
Be ready with information about the weight, breed and history of the animal as
this will help to negotiate a fair price.

»» Personal hygiene and cleanliness.
»» Clean retail sites and premises, keeping them protected from flies.
»» Use clean knives and other tools for cutting or preparing meat.
»» Do not cover meat with dirty or contaminated materials.
»» Do not handle contaminated or dirty items (e.g. Money) alongside meat.
»» Avoid sneezing or coughing directly on to the meat; a sick person must not

Buyers should display price boards showing the grades and prices offered
against each grade for that particular day, since prices of hides fluctuate
depending on the demand.
Producers can also get information on current market prices from the
Ministry’s extension staff.

Training Tips

Meat: Demonstrate processing of Nyirinyiri; participants to bring their own ingredients.
Milk: Demonstrate principles of clean milk production and ensuring clean milk containers and evaporative
cooling (wet cloth) during transport; make condensed milk.
Hides: Visit a hide banda and demonstrate wet salting methods. Participants to bring their own hides, salts
and flaying knives.

CHAPTER 5

CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

CROSS-CUTTING ISSUES AND THE WAY FORWARD
Chapter Authors: Christopher R. Field, Khalif A.Abey, Kajume K. Kithinji

Traditional milking technique. Among the Turkana ethnic group of northern Kenya camels are milked by women;
however, in almost all other nomadic societies the milking of camels is carried out by men.
(Source: Maurizio Dioli)

5.1 Introduction

of the research findings, and as a result the research
took a more practical direction.

As we reflect on where we have come from and on
the problems facing camel development, we also need
to look ahead, think about what we need, what we
can achieve by working together, and the challenges
that face us on the way. When we think of how many
people derive their livelihoods from camels and camelrelated activities, we realise that the government and
other stakeholders must redouble their efforts to
develop the camel industry, and that the way to do
this is to concentrate on value addition and marketing
of camels and their products in line with Vision 2030.

5.2.2. Camel development
Equipped with new methods for approaching and
training pastoralists, the development worker was
able to reach them with useful messages and practical
advice and solutions to their problems. Pastoralists
began to be empowered to make their own decisions
on camel development. Community-based self-help
groups sprang up and received training in group
dynamics, financial management and other needs. For
the first time, pastoral women acquired a voice and
gender issues became topical.

5.2. Reflections
5.2.1. Research

While this was going on, human population density
in the arid and semi-arid lands was mushrooming,
increasing the pressure on their fragile environment.
Competition for resources became an issue and led
to conflict, especially during drought when resources
were reduced to a bare minimum. This was eventually
brought under some control by Community Based

The camel has come a long way in the past one-third
of a century since serious research began in Kenya.
Initially, the main thrust was applied research to
understand the camel’s special attributes and how they
were being utilised by pastoralists. However, in 1984,
the great drought raised questions over the usefulness

CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

Peace Committees. Government resources, when
divided among more than twice the previous
population, were woefully inadequate for livestock
development. In the spirit of self-help and self-reliance,
pastoralist communities therefore embraced the idea
of Community Animal Health Workers who have for
the past 20 years been providing some essential animal
health services in remote areas.

of the camel to be of greater benefit to its owners
and the nation as a whole. To make this possible, the
government should formulate, publish and implement
a camel development policy as part of its overall
livestock development policy.
The following components should be incorporated in
such a document:
A preamble recognising the camel’s unique
position to provide communities with a means of
livelihood in the arid lands, where conditions are
becoming more extreme due to global warming.

5.2.3. The Kenya Camel Association
Rising populations and intensified range use have
brought the camel into sharper focus, as it has been
herded strategically in the most distant areas where
its unique attributes enable it to survive, produce
and score over all other alternatives. The Kenya
Camel Association, when launched in 1995, aimed to
respond to the felt needs of its members and others,
but without funding and largely on a voluntary basis.
Gradually, the importance of its work has come to be
recognised by the government and donors, so that its
position has been strengthened and it can be more
effective. Annual Forums have been held at 10 venues
in the pastoral lands to share camel problems and
jointly seek solutions.

The need to mainstream the camel in livestock
development in the ASALs with funding
proportional to its importance in the region.

Incorporation of the camel in the national
curriculum at primary, secondary and tertiary
levels.

Sourcing of funds and appropriate techniques
for regular censuses of camels alongside other
livestock at the national level to aid in allocation
of appropriate resources.

Establishment of an effective and sustainable
camel service delivery system in every camel
concentration area in the country; this would have
to be part of establishing services for all livestock
in the ASAL.

Support for research relevant to the needs of
camel owners such as identification, diagnosis
and treatment of unknown diseases of economic
importance to camel pastoralists; registration and
local and/or regional production of camel specific
vaccines (especially Camel Pox), marketing
value addition to marketable camel products;
development of appropriate safety standards and
quality assurance guidelines for ethno-veterinary
medicines used in camels.

5.2.4 The private sector
The need for expert advice at the camel camps has been
rising, and is being met by trained CAHWs. Although
less dramatic than animal health, the services of
animal production experts are equally necessary and
are indeed often needed on a daily basis (for example,
in milk production and marketing). Scaling up the
training of the CAHWs, drawn from camel camps,
to provide additional advice on camel production
seems to be a logical approach. Otherwise, it would
be difficult for the service provider to generate a living
from animal production services alone. It is still not
entirely clear how this will be achieved, or whether
the government will embrace this new approach
wholeheartedly. Certainly, the establishment of the
new Ministry for the Development of Northern Kenya
and other Arid and Semi Arid Lands gives reason for
hope.

Support for integration of the camel into the
existing market information system and for new
ways of extending credit to camel keepers to drive
local and international trade.

Establishment of a camel breeding centre, either
by state corporations and/or supported by private
ranchers in order to genetically improve the
national camel herd.

Recognition of the development potential in
the camel rangelands and the recognition that
settlement, cultivation, and petroleum exploration
may be detrimental to camel pastoralism and
should first receive the support of the pastoralists.

Incorporation of camel pastoralism in the National
Land Use Policy.

Continued support for the Kenya Camel
Association to achieve its objectives of improving
pastoralist livelihoods and wellbeing using the
camel.

5.3. The way forward
The future of the camel seems for the most part to
be assured. But unchecked population growth and
increasing demands on the rangelands can still have
negative consequences for camels.

5.3.1 Policy
Owing to their ability to survive without water for long
periods, camels are kept in remote pastures untouched
by other domestic animals. Being out of sight, they
have suffered from being out of mind too, and have
been neglected by both government and donors.
There is now an urgent need to realise the potential

CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

5.3.2. Communications

unless there is a significant increase in total rainfall,
lead to an overall intensification of the aridity of the
ASALs. In relation to other livestock, this is likely to
favour only the camel.

The extension and eventual completion of tarmac
roads from Isiolo to Moyale on the Ethiopian border
and Garissa to Mandera on the Somali border will
have a major impact on camel pastoralists similar to
what has been seen over the past decade in Garissa.
By enabling rapid transport, it will serve as a stimulus
to trade in live animals and their perishable products
such as milk.

5.4. Cross-cutting issues: Camels and
humans in the wider world
So far in this book, we have talked about camels and
the humans who keep them. We have also looked
at their contacts with the outside world, and at the
problems of preparing and selling camel products –
meat, milk and hides – to this outside world. But there
are many other things happening in the wider world
they live in. Out there, gender roles are changing, HIV
and AIDS are destroying people’s lives and health,
the environment is being quickly degraded, there is
frequent conflict between communities, there are
problems of good governance, human rights and drug
abuse. Rapid social change also leads to erosion of
the extremely valuable traditional knowledge base of
camel keeping communities, which must be preserved
for future generations. These ‘cross cutting issues’
affect first the humans and through them the camels
they keep. Ignoring these issues is not wise as they can
have large, sometimes sudden and devastating, effects
on the lives, income and even survival of the camel
keeping community.

However, it has been noted that the interval between
major disease outbreaks in camels has become shorter,
very likely because of increased contact between camel
herds. Some measures to control movements may be
necessary in the future.

5.3.3. Global warming
Finally, global warming is a serious cross-cutting issue
likely to affect everyone. Camel owners, however, will
be in a good position to exploit this. It is anticipated that
the interval between droughts and floods may shorten.
Since camels seem to have the least overall mortality
in periods of drought, they are likely to replace cattle
in marginal areas where the latter’s numbers have
insufficient time to recover before the next episode
(Ndikumana et al. 2000). Following floods, Rift Valley
Fever outbreaks have had devastating effects on the
camel economy and prophylactic measures need to be
put in place to minimise these recurring looses.

5.5. Gender roles
The gender roles in pastoralist society – in simple
terms, the different tasks and responsibilities of men,
women and youth – have a big impact on camel

Worsening of droughts, with less moisture penetration
and increased runoff during intervening floods will,

Fig 5.1 Women play an active role in milk trade while men are key in management

CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

production and management. Of course, gender roles
differ in different communities.

Training tips

While discussing the cross-cutting issues, the
following questions can be raised:

How to mainstream gender and other cross cutting
issues into the camel production system?

fully understood by many stakeholders including
policy makers, and quite often they are not given
due attention – what should be done?
More capacity building on cross-cutting issues – in
which specific area is capacity building required?

Gender issues especially in the arid lands are not

In what ways can camels be considered
environmentally friendly?
How has tradition contributed to gender roles and
why?
How can camel welfare be better promoted?
Discuss the causes of conflict within your
community and with your neighbours and ways
in which they can be resolved.
Discuss conflict between charcoal burning and
camel rearing.
How do human rights issues affect camel
production?
What is drugs and substance abuse?
Discuss the future of camel rearing in the face of
global warming, climate change and environmental
degradation

CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors of this manual would like to thank the Government of Kenya
(GoK) through the Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI), Kenya Arid
and Semi-Arid Lands (KASAL) Research Programme, the Ministry of Livestock
Development (MoLD), the ASAL - Based Livestock and Rural Livelihoods
Support Project (ALLPRO), Veterinaires sans Frontieres Switzerland (VSF
Suisse) through PSEC and Enhanced Livelihood in the Mandera Triangle
(ELMT) and the Kenya Camel Association (KCA) for supporting the
development of this very important camel service providers’ manual.
Special thanks to the camel keepers, the 63 participants of the camel Training
of Trainers (ToT) course (annex) and 39 Camel Service Providers (CASPROs)
trainees (annex) for validation of the information in the draft manual; Simon
Ndonye, Boniface Adala, Nicholas Muema and Koskei Kirui for the illustrations
as well as Alfred Karanja for the graphic designs.
Lastly the African Development Bank (ADB), the European Union (EU),
United States International Development Agency (USAID) and Wellcome Trust
are acknowledged for funding.

Fig 5.2 Healthy people mean healthy camels

Fig 5.3 Effects of HIV AIDS on camel management

Progra
Overvi
84

CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

REFERENCES AND
FURTHER READING:

Field, C.R. and Simpkin, S. P. (1985) The importance of
camels to subsistence pastoralists in Kenya. IPAL Technical
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Alquarawi and Ali (2000). A survey of the literature
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dromedarius). Vet. Res. Comm. 24; 245-260

Gitao G C. (2006). Camel Husbandry: A Practical Guide
to Camel Husbandry. Intermediate Communications Ltd.,
Nairobi (Kenya).

Anon (1993) Camel Production. In: S. P. Simpkin Camel
Production, A series of lectures by FARM-Africa at Nairobi
University. FARM-Africa, London. 84 pages

Glücks I V. (2007). The prevalence of bacterial and protozoal
intestinal pathogens in suckling camel calves in Northern
Kenya. Freie Universität Berlin, Mensch und Buch Verlag,
Germany

Bornstein,S, I.V. Gluecks, M. Younan, P. Thebo and J.G.
Mattsson (2008), Isospora orlovi infection in suckling
dromedary camel calves (Camelus dromedarius) in Kenya.
Veterinary Parasitology, Vol. 152, 194-201

Guliye A Y, Noor I M, Bebe B O and Kosgey I S. (2007).
The role of camels (Camelus dromedarius) in the traditional
lifestyle of the Somali pastoralists in the arid and semi-arid areas
of northern Kenya. Outlook on Agriculture, 36(1):29-34.

CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

Lechner-Doll M, Rutagwenda T, Schwartz H J, Schultka W,
Von Engelhardt W. (1990). Seasonal changes of ingesta mean
retention time and forestomach fluid volume in indigenous camels,
cattle, sheep and goats grazing a thornbush savannah pasture in
Kenya. Journal of Agricultural Science, 115:409–420.

Handbook on Milk Collection in Warm Developing
Countries (1990). Published by: International Dairy
Federation Special Issue No 9002, Brussels Belgium
ISBN 92 9098 004 0

Dahlborn K, Benlamlih S, Zine F R, Guerouali A,
Hossaini H J and Oukessou M. (1992). Food deprivation
and refeeding in the camel. The American Physiological
Society. 262 (Regulatory Integrative Comp. Physiol. 31
:1000- 1005.

Heller R, Lechner M, Weyreter H, Von Engelhardt W.
(1986). Forestomach fluid volume and retention of fluid and
particles in the gastrointestinal tract of the camel (Camelus
dromedarius). Journal of Veterinary Medicine, Series A 33,
396–399.

Ndung’u J N, Nyamori B O, Kuria S G and Njanja J
C. (1999). Pastoral livestock management practices: A
participatory rural appraisal of the Rendille community of
Marsabit at Korr. Kenya Agricultural Research Institute,
Marsabit - Kenya

Engelhardt W, Haarmeyer P and Lechner-Doll M. (2006).
Feed intake, forestomach fluid volume, dilution rate and mean
retention of fluid in the forestomach during water deprivation
and rehydration in camels (Camelus sp.). Comparative
Biochemistry and Physiology, Part A, 143:504–507.

Higgins A. (1986). The camel in health and disease. Bailliere
Tindal, London, Philadelphia, Toronto, Mexico City, Rio
de Janeiro, Sydney, Tokyo, Hong Kong, ISBN 070201167-3

Ngeiywa, K J Z J; (1993). “Clinical and pathological
investigations on camel skin diseases in some camel rich
districts of northern Kenya”. MSc Thesis, 1993, University
of Nairobi

Hülsebusch C G and Kaufmann B.A. (2002). Camel breeds
and breeding in northern Kenya: An account of local camel breeds
of northern Kenya and camel breeding management of Turkana,
Rendille, Gabbra and Somali pastoralists. Kenya Agricultural
Research Institute (KARI) , Nairobi.150 pages.

Njanja J C, Gathuma J M, Gitau G K, Njeru F M and
Kinuthia R N. (2003). Pastoralists’ perception of livestock
production systems and opportunities and for improvement
in southwestern Marsabit, Kenya. Livestock Research for
Rural Development 15(7)

Kaufmann J. (1996). Parasitic Infections of Domestic Animals
– A Diagnostic Manual. Birkhäuser Verlag, Basel, Bosten,
Berlin

Rutagwenga T, Lechner-Doll M, Scwartz H Z, Schultka
W, Von Engelhardt W. 1990. Dietary preference and
degradability of forage on a semi-arid thornbush savannah
by indigenous ruminants, camels and donkeys. Animal Feed
Science and Technology. 31, 179–192.

Evans, J.O., Simpkin, S.P. and Atkins, Debbie, J. (1995)
Camel Keeping in Kenya. Range Management Handbook of
Kenya Vol III,8, Republic of Kenya, Ministry of Agriculture,
Livestock Development and Marketing, Nairobi, 230 pages

Wilson R T. (1989). The nutritional requirements of camels.
Options Méditerranéennes -Série Séminaires- n.O 2
-1989: 171-179.
Wilson R T. (1998). Camels. The Tropical Agriculturist
Series, Macmillan Education Ltd (London) and
CTA(Wageningen).

Manefield G W and Tinson A H. (1996). Camels, A
Compendium, in The TG Hungerford Vade Mecum Series for
Domestic Animals, Series C, No 22, University of Sydney
Post Graduate Foundation in Veterinary Science
Ndikumana,J., Stuth. J., Kamidi,R., Ossiya,S., Marambi,R.
and Hamlett,P. (2000) Coping mechanisms and their efficacy
in disaster-prone pastoral systems of the Greater Horn of Africa.
Effects of the 1995-1997 drought and 1997-1998 El Nino
rains and the responses of pastoralists and livestock. ILRI Project
Report, Nairobi, Kenya, 124 pages.

Camel Husbandry and Production, best practices from FARMAfrica’s Pastoralist Development Project in Kenya. The complete
version of this document is available in PDF format (27
pp; 511Kb) at this link: ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/nonfao/LEAD/
X6172e/X6172e00.pdf

Wernery, U. and Kaaden O.-R. (2002) Infectious Diseases
of Camelids, Blackwell Science Berlin Vienna, Boston,
Copenhagen, Edinburgh, London, Melbourne, Oxford,
nd
Tokyo, Georg Thieme Verlag, 2
Edition, ISBN
3826333047 [Best handbook on camel diseases at present]

Kurtu M Y. (2004). An assessment of the productivity for meat
and the carcass yields of camels (Camelus dromedaries) and of the
consumption of camel in the eastern regions of Ethiopia. Tropical
Animal Health and Production, 36:65-76.

Wanyama J B. (1997). Ethno veterinary knowledge among the
pastoralists of Samburu of Kenya. Intermediate Technology
Development Initiative, Maralal Samburu-Kenya
Yagil R. (1985). The Desert Camel: Comparative
Physiological Adaptation. Comparative Animal Nutrition,
Vol. 5, Basel (Switzerland).
Younan, M., Ali, Z., Bornstein, S., Mueller, W., (2001),
Application of the California Mastitis Test in intramammary
Streptococcus agalactiae and Staphylococcus aureus infections of
camels (Camelus dromedarius) in Kenya. Prev. Vet. Med., 51,
307-316
Younan, M., (2002), Parenteral treatment of Streptococcus
agalactiae mastitis in Kenyan camels (Camelus dromedarius).
Rev. Elev. Méd. Vét. Pays trop., 55 (3), 177-181
Younan, M., Kenyanjui, M., (2003), Camel milk hygiene and
camel mastitis in Kenya and Somalia.
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Chamelle en Afrique”, published by FAO & CIRAD, Niamey,
Niger 5.11.-8.11.2003, http://www.fao.org/ag/againfo/
resources/en/publications/agapubs/ChamelleBook.pdf
Younan, M., Bornstein, S. (2007), Lancefield Group B
and C streptococci, important opportunistic pathogens in East
African camels (Camelus dromedarius). Vet Rec. 2007, 160:
330-335.

[This is the most relevant reference for camel keepers in
East Africa! REPRINTS ARE AVAILABLE FROM KARI
PLEASE CONTACT KARI HEADQUARTER LIBRARY in
Nairobi-Kangemi, Kaptagat Rd.]

FAO, Basic Biology and Anatomy of the Tsetse Fly. ftp://ftp.
fao.org/docrep/fao/011/i0535e/i0535e01.pdf

Kay R N B and Maloiy G M O.(1989). Digestive secretions
in camels. Options Méditerranéennes -Série Séminaires –
No. 2 -1989: 83-87.

Farah, Z. & A. Fischer (editors) (2004), Milk and Meat
from the Camel, Handbook on Products and Processing, vdf
Hochschulverlag AG, ETH Zuerich, Zuerich/Singen,
Switzerland 2004

Koehler-Rollefson, I., Mundy, P., Mathias, E., (2001), A field
manual of camel diseases: Traditional and Modern Veterinary
Care for the Dromedary. ITDG Publishing, London, UK,
ISBN-10: 185339503X

Farah Z, Rettenmaier R and Atkins D. (1992). Vitamin
Content of Camel Milk. International Journal of Vitamin
Nutrition Research, 62: 30-33.

Younan, M., Gluecks, I.V. (2007), Clostridium perfringens
type B enterotoxaemia in a Kenyan camel. Journ. of
Camel Practice and Research, Vol. 14, 1, 65-67

Schwartz, H.J. and Dioli, M. (Eds) (1992), The onehumped camel in Eastern Africa - A pictorial guide to disease,
health care and management. Verlag Josef Margraf, Berlin,
Germany, ISBN-10: 3823612182, [This book presents

Younan, M., Bornstein, S., Gluecks, I.V. (2007), PeriArticular Abscesses in Camel Calves in North Kenya. Journal
of Camel Practice and Research, Vol. 14, 2, 161¬164

information on the camel in Eastern Africa. Distribution,
adaptation to arid environments, feeding behaviour and

Zakaria Farah, Matthias Mollet, Mario Younan
and Ragge Dahir (2007), Camel dairy in Somalia:
Limiting factors and development potential.
Livestock Science, available online at www.
siencediredct.com

nutritional physiology, products, performances, economic

Kuria S G. (2005). Mineral nutrition on settlement
(manyatta) based milk camel herds among Rendille
community of northern Kenya . PhD Thesis, University of
Nairobi – Kenya

Field C R (1988). Characteristics and physiology of camels. In:
S. P. Simpkin Camel Production, A series of lectures given by
FARM-Africa at Nairobi University pp 23

importance,

productivity,

traditional

and

modern

management practices, diseases, health care and postmortem procedures, are treated with special reference to
Eastern Africa. The book is famous for its photo collection,
especially of camel diseases, and serves as a good reference
book.]

CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

CASPRO MANUAL AUTHORS
Simon G. Kuria (PhD)
Centre Director
Kenya Agricultural Research Institute - Marsabit
P.O. Box 147 - 60500 Marsabit
e-mail: simongkuria@yahoo.com

Christopher R. Field (PhD)
Vice Chairman, Kenya Camel Association
Camellot, P.O. Box 485, Nanyuki, Kenya
e-mail: camellot@wananchi.com

Dr. George Wamwere Josiah Njoroge
Community Development Officer
GoK/ADB ASAL-Based Livestock and Rural Livelihoods
Support Project (ALLPRO)
Ministry of Livestock Development, Ngong Road
Hill Plaza Building,10TH Floor Room 10-03
P.O Box 34188-00100 Nairobi, Kenya.
Tel: +254 (728)546069 e-mail: gwjnjoroge@yahoo.com

Younan Mario (PhD)
Technical Assistant
Kenya Agricultural Research Institute
Kenya Arid and Semi Arid Research Programme
P.O. Box 57811 00200 Nairobi
e-mail: marioyounan@gmail.com

Ernest Mbogo
Provincial Director of Livestock Production
North Eastern Province
Ministry of Livestock Development
P.O. Box 34188 - 00100 Nairobi
e-mail: ernest_mbogo@yahoo.com

Tura A. Isacko
Officer In Charge
Kenya Agricultural Research Institute, Garissa
e-mail: iturah@yahoo.com

Gluecks V. Ilona (PhD)
Programme Manager VSF Suisse - Kenya
P.O. Box 25656 - 00603 Nairobi - Kenya
e-mail: igluecks@vsfsuisse.org

Abdi Yakub Guliye, PhD
Senior Lecturer, Animal Production/Nutrition
Dept. of Animal Sciences, Egerton University
P. O. Box 536 - 20115, Egerton NJORO, KENYA
Tel.: +254(0)51-2217979 Mobile: +254(0)723800242
e-mail: guliye@egerton.ac.ke, guliye@gmail.com

George G. Chege (PhD)
Dept. Vet. Pathology & Microbiology
P.O. Box 29053 Nairobi
e-mail: cggitao@gmail.com; gitao@uonbi.ac.ke

Mr. Fredrick O. Aloo
Chief Livestock Production Officer
Ministry of Livestock Development
P.O. Box 31188 00100 Nairobi
e-mail: fredricka.loo@gmail.com

CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

Dr Kisa Juma Ngeiywa
LIVESTOCK EXPERT (DDVS )
ASAL Based Livestock and Rural Livelihoods Support Project (ALLPRO)
Tel: + 254 20 2396433 (office); +254-722-376237 (mobile)
e-mail: kisajuma@yahoo.com

Amos Otieno Adongo,
Kenya Agricultural Research Institute,
National Arid Lands Research Centre
P.O. Box 147 (60500), Marsabit. KENYA
Tel: +254692102040. Fax +254692102220.
Mobile Phone: +254727348140
e-mail:adongoam@yahoo.co.uk.

Dr. Kajume J. Kithinji
Private Consultant
e-mail: jkajume@yahoo.co.uk

Dr. Njihia G. Kinyanjui
Senior Assistant Director of Veterinary Service
Ministry of Livestock Development
P.O. Box 34188 - 00100 Nairobi
e-mail: georgenjehia@yahoo.com

Mr. Khaf A. Abey
National Representative
Kenya Camel Association
P.O. Box 6067 - 00100 Nairobi
e-mail: Khalifabbey@yahoo.com

Maurizio Dioli (PhD)
camel4ever@fastemail.us

Raymond E. Mdachi, MSc, PhD
Head of Chemotherapy Division
KARI-TRC

Programme
Overview

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History When                    : 2011:07:21 14:27:19+03:00, 2011:07:21 14:27:41+03:00, 2011:07:21 14:27:41+03:00, 2011:07:21 14:55:13+03:00, 2011:07:21 15:41:51+03:00, 2011:07:21 19:45:38+03:00, 2011:07:22 13:47:33+03:00, 2011:07:22 14:04:07+03:00, 2011:07:22 14:06:25+03:00, 2011:07:22 14:18:49+03:00, 2011:07:22 14:22:05+03:00, 2011:07:22 15:24:02+03:00, 2011:07:22 15:35:49+03:00, 2011:07:22 15:37:27+03:00, 2011:07:22 15:43:19+03:00, 2011:07:22 16:14:46+03:00, 2011:07:22 16:45:11+03:00, 2011:07:22 16:49:55+03:00, 2011:07:22 17:04:49+03:00, 2011:07:22 17:07:06+03:00, 2011:07:22 17:07:50+03:00, 2011:07:22 17:14:26+03:00, 2011:07:22 17:20:52+03:00, 2011:07:22 17:29:44+03:00, 2011:07:22 17:31:39+03:00, 2011:07:22 17:32:59+03:00, 2011:07:22 17:40:13+03:00, 2011:07:22 17:41:16+03:00, 2011:07:22 17:43:57+03:00, 2011:07:22 17:44:48+03:00, 2011:07:22 17:45:08+03:00, 2011:07:22 17:55:42+03:00, 2011:07:22 18:03:44+03:00, 2011:07:22 18:03:51+03:00, 2011:07:22 18:03:57+03:00, 2011:07:22 18:07:33+03:00, 2011:07:22 18:10:38+03:00, 2011:07:22 18:15:29+03:00, 2011:07:22 18:19:18+03:00, 2011:07:22 22:04:41+03:00, 2011:07:22 22:05:03+03:00, 2011:07:22 22:14:10+03:00, 2011:07:22 22:17:52+03:00, 2011:07:22 22:20+03:00, 2011:07:26 11:42:01+03:00, 2011:07:26 11:42:49+03:00, 2011:07:26 11:43:19+03:00, 2011:07:26 12:09:49+03:00, 2011:07:26 12:22:08+03:00, 2011:07:27 05:11:59+03:00, 2011:07:27 05:14:03+03:00, 2011:07:27 05:18:48+03:00, 2011:07:27 05:20:43+03:00, 2011:07:27 05:21:55+03:00, 2011:07:27 05:23:06+03:00, 2011:07:27 05:43:21+03:00, 2011:07:27 05:50:30+03:00, 2011:07:27 05:54:49+03:00, 2011:07:27 05:56:16+03:00, 2011:07:27 05:57:55+03:00, 2011:07:27 06:01:42+03:00, 2011:07:27 06:03:41+03:00, 2011:07:27 06:06:38+03:00, 2011:07:27 06:08:13+03:00, 2011:07:27 06:13:17+03:00, 2011:07:27 06:17:49+03:00, 2011:07:27 06:23:11+03:00, 2011:07:27 06:30:26+03:00, 2011:07:27 06:35:31+03:00, 2011:07:27 06:35:56+03:00, 2011:07:27 06:38:16+03:00, 2011:07:27 06:38:30+03:00, 2011:07:27 06:39:44+03:00, 2011:07:27 06:40:01+03:00, 2011:07:27 06:40:40+03:00, 2011:07:27 06:47:49+03:00, 2011:07:27 06:51:15+03:00, 2011:07:27 06:53:14+03:00, 2011:07:27 06:57:37+03:00, 2011:07:27 07:06:46+03:00, 2011:07:27 07:07:46+03:00, 2011:07:27 07:08:48+03:00, 2011:07:27 07:09:01+03:00, 2011:07:27 07:13:17+03:00, 2011:07:27 07:13:48+03:00, 2011:07:27 07:16:33+03:00, 2011:07:27 07:16:49+03:00, 2011:07:27 07:22:04+03:00, 2011:07:27 07:24:17+03:00, 2011:07:27 07:27:37+03:00, 2011:07:27 07:28:04+03:00, 2011:07:27 07:35:17+03:00, 2011:07:27 07:35:53+03:00, 2011:07:27 07:36:10+03:00, 2011:07:27 07:37:57+03:00, 2011:07:27 07:39:12+03:00, 2011:07:27 07:40:37+03:00, 2011:07:27 07:41:21+03:00, 2011:07:27 07:42:01+03:00, 2011:07:27 07:42:53+03:00, 2011:07:27 07:44:11+03:00, 2011:07:27 07:48:03+03:00, 2011:07:27 07:50:33+03:00, 2011:07:27 07:53:46+03:00, 2011:07:27 07:54:25+03:00, 2011:07:27 07:54:35+03:00, 2011:07:27 07:59:12+03:00, 2011:07:27 08:08:14+03:00, 2011:07:27 08:09:38+03:00, 2011:07:27 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13:45:52+03:00, 2011:07:27 13:50:31+03:00, 2011:07:27 13:58:27+03:00, 2011:07:27 13:59:17+03:00, 2011:07:27 13:59:52+03:00, 2011:07:27 14:00:33+03:00, 2011:07:27 14:08:31+03:00, 2011:07:27 14:11:17+03:00, 2011:07:27 14:20:09+03:00, 2011:07:27 14:20:32+03:00, 2011:07:27 14:21:50+03:00, 2011:07:27 14:22:14+03:00, 2011:07:27 14:43:19+03:00, 2011:07:27 14:54:55+03:00, 2011:07:27 14:56:48+03:00, 2011:07:27 14:57:05+03:00, 2011:07:27 14:57:20+03:00, 2011:07:27 14:58:03+03:00, 2011:07:27 14:59:33+03:00, 2011:07:27 15:00:36+03:00, 2011:07:27 15:02:28+03:00, 2011:07:27 15:04:21+03:00, 2011:07:27 15:06:22+03:00, 2011:07:27 15:12:41+03:00, 2011:07:27 15:16:08+03:00, 2011:07:27 15:22:48+03:00, 2011:07:27 15:29:42+03:00, 2011:07:27 15:30:26+03:00, 2011:07:27 15:30:33+03:00, 2011:07:27 15:32:50+03:00, 2011:07:27 15:33:48+03:00, 2011:07:27 15:35:35+03:00, 2011:07:27 15:38:07+03:00, 2011:07:27 15:43:14+03:00, 2011:07:27 15:50:59+03:00, 2011:07:27 15:52:21+03:00, 2011:07:27 15:52:52+03:00, 2011:07:27 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2012june Caspro Manual

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