2012june Caspro Manual

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CAMEL MANUAL

FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

2 3

CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

Kenya Camel Association

P.O. Box 6067 - 00100

Nairobi Kenya

Tel: +254 20 2731975

Email: kenya.camel@gmail.com

Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI)

Kenya Arid and Semi-Arid Lands Research Programme (KASAL)

KARI Headquarters

P.O. Box 57811 - 00200

Tel: + 254 20 4183302 - 20, + 254 722 206986 - 88

Nairobi Kenya

Website: www.kari.org/kasal

Ministry of Livestock Development

ASAL Based Livestock and Rural Livelihood Support Project

(ALLPRO)

P.O. Box 34188 - 00100

Hill Plaza, Nairobi

Tel: +254 20 6751799

Fax: +254 20 2721001

Email: pc@allpro.go.ke

VSF Suisse

Regional Office - Nairobi

Olekejuado Road

P.O. Box 25656 - 00603 Nairobi - Kenya

Tel: +254 20 4343441

Fax: +254 20 4343442

Editorial Team:

Mario Younan, Ali Zaidi, Patrick Sikuku

Photos: Maurizio Dioli, Simon Kuria, Tura Isako, Chris Field, John Kihumba,

Piers Simpkin, Amos Adongo, Klaus Lorenz

Pastoralists say in the past camels could stay over 21

days without water but today can last no more than

14 days. These problems, among others, are partly a

result of poor management of animal health, breeding

and nutrition.

But, as the Hon Mohamed Kuti, Kenya’s Minister of

Livestock Development, said, the camel can be the

animal of the future. It is uniquely adapted to the

harsh conditions of the arid and semi-arid lands; its

feeding habits mean it does not compete with other

livestock, while it remains productive throughout

the year. This is why camel keeping has spread to

communities like the Maasai, Pokot, Samburu and

others who traditionally kept only cattle and smaller

livestock. Camel keeping is also spreading to countries

like Tanzania, Botswana and recently to Uganda.

In the past, the government, universities, research

centres, development organisations and others

did not pay much attention to camel keeping; so

many pastoralists felt they were being sidelined in

development. When the Structural Adjustment

Programmes began in the late 1980s, the government

stopped employing animal health providers such as

veterinarians and animal health assistants, which

made the situation even worse. To fill the gap, NGOs

and donor agencies began training Community Animal

Health Workers (CAHWs) with a focus on cattle, sheep

and goats; but there was still little interest in camels.

This scenario is now changing fast and development

workers in the arid and semi-arid regions of Kenya

and beyond are beginning to understand the pivotal

Why this manual?

In Kenya’s arid lands, the majority of people are

pastoralists who keep camels for a living. Camels

provide them with milk, transport, meat, hides and, for

some communities, also blood. From selling camel milk

and other products, they get cash for other necessities

of life. But while people who keep other livestock have

been using modern treatment methods and veterinary

drugs for a long time now, camel keeping has lagged

behind and pastoralists are getting poorer. Poverty

levels in the arid lands are said to be up to 70%.

Camel keepers report that their herds are no longer as

healthy and productive as in the past. Somali, Gabbra

and Rendille pastoralists say that in the old days, one

female camel gave enough milk for four people; today,

it only gives enough for two. This is because there is

now less forage and what there is, is of poor quality,

as repeated droughts dry up the rangelands, which are

shrinking as the human population rises.

That means that herds are no longer growing as quickly

as they used to, the calves also grow more slowly, take

longer to reach physical maturity and have fewer calves

in their turn. Due to higher camel population densities

and more frequent contact between different herds,

camels are also increasingly falling ill with poorly

understood diseases like Swollen Glands / Hemorrhagic

Septicaemia. They also no longer adapt as well to the

harsh environment, perhaps because pastoral lifestyles

are changing and becoming more sedentary – that is,

they no longer move around as much as they used to.

A camel freely grazing on prickly pear (Opuntia ficus-indica) an exotic plant infesting large areas in the Horn of Africa.

(Source: Maurizio Dioli)

Chapter Authors: Ernest N. Mbogo, Christopher R. Field, Kisa Juma Ngeiywa, Khalif A. Abey

INTRODUCTION

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CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

It is hoped the manual will be useful at four levels:

Trainers of CASPROs, CAHWs and AHAs.

The CASPROS and CAHWs themselves, who

will be community based and conduct hands-on

training for camel keepers in the village, camp or at

the boma/pen-side.

The camel keepers – many camel owners and in

particular their children are literate and can use the

manual to find solutions to their camel problems.

The manual can also be useful as teaching material

for beginners in camel keeping at primary, secondary

and tertiary institutions of learning. With more

school camel programmes and out of school

learning, it is hoped that this manual will also reach

educated youth in the pastoralist community.

Role and selection

of CASPROs and CAHWs

CASPROs and CAHWs are multipurpose community

workers with prior animal health training. Their main

role is to:

Provide a link between trainers, government line

ministries, NGOs, CBOs, other stakeholders and the

livestock/camel owners, by for example, translating

and interpreting during community meetings.

Deliver extension messages and share basic

knowledge with livestock/camel keepers.

Mobilise livestock/camel keepers in the community

when needed.

Report on livestock/camel diseases and take part in

disease surveillance and control activities.

Be part of the veterinary drug supply chain to

livestock/camel keepers.

They should be:

Preferably trained CAHWs and actively delivering

animal health services before being trained in camel

issues.

Living among camel keepers and used to handling

camels.

Literate in English and/or Kiswahili and speak the

language of the local community.

Responsive to community priorities and aspirations.

Motivated to make an income-generating career as

a private service provider.

Able to provide leadership and have the desire to

serve the community and to train successors.

Willing to share their knowledge with all members

of the community without bias.

Undoubtedly, these qualities will not be easy to find

in one person and in all communities. Such a person

is quite likely to have employment already. However,

it is our hope that this manual will reveal the full

potential of the camel so that not only will its milk be

regarded as the “white gold of the desert” but all its

other qualities as well.

role of the camel. They realise that better management

of their camels will greatly improve the livelihoods of

pastoralists. But there are still many gaps in knowledge

and communication among camel keepers, extension

workers and others interested in camel development.

This manual tries to bridge these gaps by providing

a practical, quick field guide to camel management,

health and products. It does not try to present all

the existing knowledge and skills about camels; it is

instead a simple and easy to read reference manual for

hands-on users that can be carried around in the field.

After all, in the remote and mobile situations where

camels are kept, there are few sources of information

and help on camels to turn to. The language used has

been kept as simple and non-technical as possible

(except when dealing with specific camel diseases,

though local names of the diseases where known are

included) so that even those with limited knowledge of

English will hopefully find it useful. Illustrations and

extension messages are included.

The manual is divided into five chapters. Chapter One

describes the uses of the camel; Chapters Two, Three

and Four look at camel management, camel health and

camel products & marketing respectively. Chapter Five

explores crosscutting issues affecting camel keepers

such as gender, conflict, environment and HIV/AIDS

and reflects on the future of camel keeping in Kenya.

For those who want more in-depth information, the

manual can be used together with other reference

materials, a list of some of which is provided at the

end of the manual.

Who can use this manual?

The information contained in this manual includes the

natural vegetation, traditional management practices,

camel diseases and available treatments that can be

found in arid Kenya. Camels in the lowlands of Ethiopia

and in the whole of Somalia are kept in very similar

environments and under comparable conditions. It is

hoped that this manual will be of practical use to all

those working with dromedary camels in the Greater

Horn of Africa but also outside the region, wherever

camels are kept to provide food and transport.

The manual is designed as both a quick hands-

on reference and as a training tool to be used by

veterinarians, animal health professionals and field

trainers – government extension staff, NGOs, CBOs

and others – to train Animal Health Assistants (AHAs),

Camel Service Providers (CASPROs), Community

Animal Health Workers (CAHWs), and others. It is

also intended for use by literate, especially younger

camel keepers who have limited or no access to camel

specific information.

currently between India and Pakistan. As early as

1800 BC, trade routes from Asia and Africa crossed

the Arabian Peninsula, with camel caravans carrying

spices, incense, gold, ivory, and silk on their way to

Europe and the lands of the Fertile Crescent

In Kenya tour companies and some pastoralists train

camels for trekking safaris. The dromedary has also

been used for racing in Sudan and the Middle East

for many years, and more recently in Kenya. Camels

can run at up to 65 km an hour in short bursts and

for long distances at speeds of up to 40 km/h.

1.2. Made for the desert: Why the

dromedary camel is so suited to arid

conditions

The camel, unlike other domestic animals, has no less

than 20 specific adaptations of its body that help it

survive extreme heat and go without water for long

1.1. Origin and domestication of camels

Camel-like animals are thought to have originated

from North America about 50-60 million years

ago. Over the years, they evolved into two main

types: The Bactrian camel, which has two humps

and mainly lives in the cold deserts of China

and Mongolia, and the dromedary, which is one-

humped and is found in the hot deserts of Africa

and the Middle East. The dromedary is the subject

of this manual. It is thought that the dromedary

was first domesticated in southern Arabia about

5,000 years ago. It is used for transport, as a beast

of burden, and for meat, milk and hides and, in

some communities, for its blood too.

Camels can live for 40 years, but the productive

lifespan is between 20 and 30 years.

Camels have been used for long distance travel,

for trade, exploration, and in the Colonial Police

patrols to keep the peace in northern Kenya and

ORIGIN AND USES OF CAMELS

CHAPTER 1

Adult females carrying water for the household. This is a very important method to increase herd productivity in

marginal areas without destroying the environment. Households that are able to settle in areas far from watering points

have access to better and more abundant fodder sources since these areas, being too far from water sources, cannot be

utilized by other livestock species and are not overgrazed. (from Schwartz, H.,J., Dioli, M., 1992.

CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

periods. This means it can travel to remote pastures

over a huge area – camels can walk up to 60 kilometres

in a day – and go on giving milk during drought when

other animals stop lactating or even die. Camels will

also eat everything, fresh plants, dried plants, very

salty plants, bones, fish, meat, even leather.

The ‘anatomical adaptations’ of the camel – how its

body is constructed to help it survive in the desert –

include:

Long legs that lift it well above the hot ground, and

sternal pads – very hard skin pads at the back of its

front leg joints, and the front of its back leg joints –

that keep its body clear of the ground when seated,

allowing air to circulate around it and keep it cool

(Fig. 1.1).

Nostrils that can close against dust; large padded

feet to support its weight in sand; protruding frontal

orbit and long eyelashes that shadow the eye against

the sun; a membrane also found in other animals,

that moves like a very thin third eyelid across the

eye and brushes away sand from the eye; the ears

are small and covered in hair, including the inside of

the ear, which helps keep out sand and dust.

A unique fore-stomach (rumen) which has only

three chambers (rumen of other ruminants has four

chambers) and contains so-called glandular sacs

that produce a saliva-like liquid; such glandular sacs

are not found in the rumen of any other ruminant.

The ‘physiological adaptations’ – how its body

functions – include:

Fat is stored in the hump during times of plenty to

be used in times of need. Also, the fact that most of

the fat in the camel’s body is found in the hump,

helps it stay cool. If a camel’s fat were distributed

over its body like a human’s, it would insulate the

body and make it harder to cool down. The fat

itself also insulates the camel’s back from the heat

of the sun when it is directly overhead at mid-day.

Camels breathe slowly and so lose less water from

the lungs, while a large amount of water vapour

condenses in the nostrils when breathing out and

is returned to the body. The inside of the nose

contains a unique cooling system to cool down the

blood flowing to the brain, protecting the brain

against overheating. Body heat is lost through blood

vessels near the skin and not from the coat, allowing

more cooling for less sweat. Camels urinate down

their hind legs, when the urine evaporates it cools

them down.

Camels can loose up to 25% of their body weight in

fluids, they can also drink large quantities of water.

(over 100 litres in 10 minutes) at one watering

without any damage, because their red blood cells

can swell several times their normal size after

drinking without rupture – in other words, they

do not suffer what is known as ‘water poisoning’

in other livestock. In the desert, where watering

holes are few and far apart, this allows the camel to

quickly drink up enough water to last through the

long journey to the next watering hole. To save water,

camels reduce sweating, instead they store heat in

their body during the day and release it during the

night. They can allow their body temperature to

super-heat up to 41 degrees centigrade before they

need to sweat and also super-cool down to below 35

degrees centigrade at night – the kind of changes in

body temperature that would kill other mammals.

In Kenya, camels were first kept by the Somali people

of North Eastern Province where their much larger

breed and herds are found. Camel keeping later spread

to the Rendille, Gabbra and afterwards to the Turkana

of Marsabit and Turkana districts. In recent times,

camels have spread farther to the Samburu, Pokot,

Massai and beyond the southern rangelands of Kenya

into northern Tanzania.

Traditionally, camels in Kenya were classified according

to the communities that kept them. However, a study

on the physical, production and genetic characteristics

of Kenya camels by KARI Marsabit, International

Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) and University of

Hohenheim confirmed four breeds, namely:

Somali

Rendille/Gabbra

Turkana

Pakistani

Pakistani camels were imported from Pakistan in the

early 1990s. More details on camel breeds can be

found in Chapter Two.

Camels are very efficient at recycling water inside the

body. Their kidneys and intestines are very good at

retaining water, producing thick concentrated urine

and very dry dung that can be used immediately as

fuel for cooking.

‘Behavioral adaptations’ include:

Sitting and standing facing the sun so as to expose the

minimum surface area to the sun, avoid too much rise

in body heat and water loss through sweating.

1.3. Camel distribution in Kenya

Kenya is normally estimated to have about 900,000

camels supporting a population of over 1,583,000

people. Surveys show a 78% increase in camel numbers

between 1982 and 2010. Based on the 2009 human

population census, the Kenyan government estimates

that the national camel population may have reached

as many as 3 million animals. In these days of global

warming, with all its problems especially in the arid

and semiarid lands of Kenya, the camel is likely to

become more, not less important for pastoralists and

agro-pastoralists in the future.

Fig 1.1. A camel controls its body temperature

by facing the sun and sitting clear of the ground,

allowing free air circulation around the body

Fig 1.2 Camel distribution and

density in Kenya

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CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

1.4. Use of camels for food and transport

Camels produce milk, meat, hides, and bones, which

are used by camel keepers’ families for their own needs

but are also now being more and more sold in the

market on a commercial basis, being professionally

packaged and marketed. Untapped potentials are

also being explored, such as value addition along the

market chain, ecotourism, and draught power – for

example, for pulling farm carts and for ploughing.

A camel can produce 20 litres of milk a day without

drinking any water for up to 10 days! Camels are

kept mainly for milk, which has been called ‘the

white gold of the desert’. However, outside the camel

keeping communities, few Kenyans consume camel

milk despite its nutritional value. Some people

look down on the milk because they know so little

about camels. The fact is that camel milk has a high

vitamin C content, which is very useful to people

living in the arid and semi-arid lands (ASAL) who

do not have much access to fruits and vegetables.

Depending on the season, camel milk also has more

fat, protein, and minerals than cow or goat milk.

The milk is also believed to have medicinal value,

helping in the management of high blood pressure

and diabetes. Due to increased urbanisation and

sedentarisation of pastoralists, an informal camel

milk trade to supply urban consumers has become

an important source of income for camel keepers.

There are many cultural practices around milking

camels. For example, among the Rendille and

Gabbra, females and sexually active men are not

allowed to milk camels whose calves are below one

year of age. This does not apply to Somali and

Turkana camel keepers, but, apart from the herders

and owners, Somalis do not allow strangers to milk

their camels. And enough milk must be left for the

calves so the herd can continue to multiply.

The presence of the calf is very important in milking

as it stimulates the milk let-down. If the calf dies,

the herder can use a dummy with the skin of the

dead calf to encourage milk let-down. A dam can

also develop a liking for a particular herder and will

let down the milk when she sees him or her.

Camel meat is very healthy because it has lower

cholesterol and less fat than beef, since the fat is

mostly stored in the camel’s hump

The Gabbra and Rendille rarely slaughter camels

except during severe drought or during major

traditional ceremonies like weddings, the death of

prominent persons in the family and during peace

talks. But castrated, fractured or deformed camels

are slaughtered at home.

The Turkana people regularly slaughter male camels

for meat. The Somalis slaughter both males and

female camels for meat. Camel meat is preferred

to other meat, so camels are slaughtered in large

numbers in North Eastern Province. Camel meat

consumption is rising with the recent influx of

Somali refugees into Kenya.

Meat from old camels is usually tough and has to be

cooked for a longer time. Camels have softer meat

when they are less than 5 years of age.

Camel fat is traditionally used in the treatment of

fractures and cooking.

Some pastoralist communities such as the Turkana,

Rendille and Samburu drink camel blood, but since

taking blood in any form is forbidden in Islam, the

Somali do not do so.

Camel hides were traditionally used to make ropes

for loading camels, also for making traditional

beds, gourd covers, sleeping and prayer mats,

cushions, sandals etc. During times of famine, some

pastoralists cook camel hides for food.

Tanned camel hides are used to make high quality

leather goods like shoes and bags that are sold in

some shops in Nairobi.

Pastoralists use male camels mainly for drawing

water, carrying their tents and other belongings,

carrying young children, old people and young

water from far distances or provide for his family,

especially during drought.

A family without camels is therefore considered

poor, even if it possesses other livestock. The camel

is a symbol of wealth, status and prestige. For

example, among the Somali pastoralists, families or

clans with large camel herds are regarded as being

wealthy, with a high social status and influence,

and often become opinion leaders within the

community.

The culture of most camel keepers revolves

around the camel; the Rendille and Gabbra, for

example, have regular traditional ceremonies for

blessing camels. Camels are required in important

ceremonies such as marriage, burial and religious

events. Among the Somalis, camels are used to

pay Zakat (tithe or offering). In fact, camels are

now used as dowry even among communities that

have recently adopted camels such as the Samburu

and Borana. There are many cultural dances in

praise of camels. Camels are also used to settle

damages caused by conflicts between individuals,

families or clans. For example, among the Somalis,

compensation for the death of a man is still 100

camels and for the death of a woman 50 camels,

according to the Mogadishu Declaration.

Camels are seen as a store of wealth and security

against drought, disease and other natural calamities.

In some communities, camels are also loaned to the

needy to help them get back on their feet.

stock and for ferrying surplus milk to the market.

A baggage camel easily carries loads of 200

kilogrammes. But due to increasing demand for

slaughter camels, the transport function of camels

is now being taken over by donkeys and the males

are being sold in larger numbers.

Camels are also harnessed and used as draught

animals, for ploughing and pulling carts.

1.5. Use of camels for tourism and mobile

services

Camel racing and trekking safaris are beginning

to earn their owners and trainers a good income

from ecotourism. Parts of northern Kenya and the

Rift Valley are ideally suited to this as they offer

a combination of wildlife and mountain scenery.

Camel racing in Kenya is still in its infancy, though.

Camels can also be used to provide mobile special

outreach services such as carrying CASPROs and

CAHWs and Village Health Assistants to remote

destinations with their equipment; camels are being

used for mobile library services by the Garissa

branch of the Kenya National Library Services.

1.6. Wealth and respect: Social and cultural

uses of the camel

Camels play an important role in the society,

culture and religion of camel keeping communities.

A man without camels is like a cripple because he

cannot travel with the rest of the community, draw

Rendille elders milking (Source: Simon Kuria)

Rendille Camel being milked. Camel milk is the main food

for millions of pastoralists living in arid areas. (Source:

Maurizio Dioli)

Gabbra camels carrying water (Source: Tura Isako)

Camel ploughing on Mt Marsabit (Source: Tura Isako)

Desert ambulance about to take children to hospital

(Source: Tura Isako)

Camel de silting a dam (Source: Chris Field)

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CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

Rendille/Gabbra

Compared with the Somali breed, it is:

Smaller in size (300-550kg).

Lower in milk yield (average 1-3 litres a day).

Does better under poor pasture conditions and on

rough hilly terrain.

Coat colour is mainly creamy or brown.

A very important part of good camel management

is good feeding/grazing and good breeding practices.

These includes management of the dam before birth,

management of parturition, care of the young calves

(timely feeding of colostrum, diarrhoea management,

tick control), timing of weaning and time for presenting

the dam to the bull for mating after calving.

2.1 Breeding

2.1.1 Different camel breeds in Kenya

There are four camel breeds in Kenya namely Somali,

Rendille/Gabbra, Turkana and “Pakistani,” which

have different physical, productive and genetic

characteristics, as shown below.

Somali

Largest body, weighing 450 - 850 kg.

Milk yield of 3-5 litres a day; Hoor type camels

produce 6-8 litres per day.

Heavy feeder, needs good pasture.

Not suited for hilly terrain because of its size and

weight.

Mostly cream coloured coat.

A Camel used for ploughing in Ukambani (Source J. Kihumba)

CAMEL MANAGEMENT

‘There are no problems with camels, only with the camel keeper’- Rendille saying

CHAPTER 2

Mating camels (Source: Maurizio Dioli)

Somali Camel Bull (Source: Maurizio Dioli)

Chapter Authors: Simon G. Kuria, Abdi Y. Guliye, Fredrick O. Aloo, Tura A. Isacko, Christopher R. Field, Mario Younan

12 13

CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

Turkana

Compared with other breeds, this is:

Smallest in size (250-500 kg).

Lowest in milk yield (1-2.5 litres a day).

Does well in very poor pasture conditions and on

rough terrain.

Coat colour is mainly grey.

Pakistani

Very small population in Kenya (currently less than 20

pure bred Pakistani) used for cross-breeding with local

camels. Its characteristics:

Smaller in body size than the Somali camel but

larger than the Gabbra/Rendille at 400-700 kg, with

stocky proportions and shorter legs.

High milk yield, although in Kenya yields do not

exceed 8–9 litres per day.

Very heavy feeder, needs very good pasture, not

suited for arid bush or for running in large herds.

Mainly chocolate in colour and has more fur than

Kenyan camel breeds.

Drooping lower lip

Within each camel breed, pastoralists differentiate

different types of camels, which they breed for

different uses; e.g. within the Somali breed, pastoralists

differentiate between:

Sifdaar – large, good pack camel, medium milk

yield.

Hoor – delicate, high milk yield.

Gelab - small and very hardy, low milk yield,

survives harsh conditions.

Similar differentiation is found within the Rendille/

Gabbra breed.

2.1.2 Recommended bull:female ratio

A camel keeper should have one dominant bull

6 to 12 years of age with one younger bull as his

replacement.

More than one breeding bull may be needed

depending on the herd size. A bull:female ratio of

1:50 is best when sufficient forage is available.

2.1.3. Sexual maturity, breeding season,

courtship and mating

Sexual maturity depends on nutrition and health as

well as the breed of the camel.

Sexual maturity

Females become active at 4 to 5 years of age and

give birth when about 5 to 6 years old.

A male on the other hand becomes sexually mature

at around 5 years of age but begins to serve actively

Mating

Mating among camels can be a violent affair and

may lead to injury to females.

A breeding bull in rut should not be allowed to

run loose with a small herd of females, since it can

injure the females and the calves.

Sometimes the female will not sit on her own; when

this happens, she is often forced to do so by the

male who chases her around, biting her neck, the

back of her hump, and pressing her down. This may

result in severe injuries to the female. So it is a good

idea to make the female sit before bringing the male

to mate with her.

Mating can take a very long time and the herder

sometimes has to intervene. This has given rise to

the belief that male camels need help in mating.

Release of the egg (ovulation) in females only takes

place after mating. To ensure successful conception,

it is good practice to allow for repeat mating.

Rutting males should be herded by strong, mature

people since they can be aggressive and easily hurt

children.

2.1.4. Signs of rut in male and heat in female

camels

Signs of rut in a male camel

Loss of appetite; its coat becomes dull.

Unusually aggressive and difficult to handle (chases

away all the other males and even humans).

Urinates frequently and splashes urine on to its

back by flicking its tail.

at around 6, when his canine teeth are sufficiently

developed for fighting and he shows signs of “rut”

(see next page).

Breeding season

Camels are seasonal breeders; the onset of the

breeding season is triggered by availability of fresh

green feed.

The breeding season coincides with the rainy period

of the year; a clear sign is bulls coming into rut.

Rendille/Gabbra Camel Breed (Source: Simon Kuria)

Mating camels. The one-humped camel, including

bactrian camel and south American camelids, is the

only ungulate that copulates in a couched position.

Young breeding male camels (4-6 years) often require the

assistance of the herdsman for a successful copulation.

(Source: Maurizio Dioli)

Adult females: Turkana(L), crossbred S x T (C), and Somali

(R), (Source: Piers Simpkin)

Table1: Good breeding camels

Good breeding bull Good breeding female

Fast growth rate

Good body conformation (tall, large body frame,

well built), upright in standing, with good ability

to chase and mount females

Adapts well to the environment – available feed,

terrain etc

Mother of the bull is a very good milker

History of producing high milk volumes

Adapts well to the environment

Good body conformation (slender body and large

stomach)

Well developed, pronounced milk veins

Large and well set udder with four normally

shaped and normal size teats

Good fertility record and proven good mothering

ability

Source: Simon Kuria Source: Simon Kuria

Pakistani Camel Breed (Source: Tura Isako)

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A tar-like greasy discharge comes out of glands on

the neck behind the ears, which the bull then rubs

onto plants to mark its territory and warn other

males.

The dulla, a soft flap filled with air, sticks out from

the mouth, looking like a pink balloon (as shown in

the picture).

Makes noises by grinding its teeth, while saliva

flows from its mouth.

Rutting bulls should be separated from each other

as they can fight to the death.

Signs of heat in a female camel

May become restless.

May show swelling of the vulva with a mucous

discharge.

Urinates frequently.

May yield less milk than normal.

May sniff urine from other females.

The heat lasts 3-4 (sometimes up to 6!) days and

is repeated after 20-25 days for females that fail to

conceive

2.1.5 How to tell if a camel is pregnant

If a she-camel is pregnant, it will raise its tail when

a bull approaches it; sometimes it will both raise

its tail and urinate at the same time. The same

behaviour is shown by pregnant female camels

when the camel keeper comes close.

This behaviour in pregnant camels can be observed

as early as 2-4 weeks after the calf has been

conceived.

2.1.6 Bad breeding practices

A study of the traditional breeding practices of camel

keeping communities in Kenya found several bad

practices that can make camels less productive. Table

2 gives details of these practices, their harmful effects

and the good practices to be introduced instead.

Adult male in rut displaying the “dulaa” an expandable

pouch of the soft palate. This balloon-like structure is

expelled from the mouth as part of sexual display and

as a threatening behaviour towards other males (and

humans). The inflation and expulsion of the structure is

accompanied by profuse salivation, grinding of teeth and

loud vocalization. The “dulaa” is fully developed only in

adult males and it is absent in the two-humped camel.

(Source: Maurizio Dioli)

A pregnant camel (Source: Maurizio Dioli)

Using aged males for breeding High return to heat in females

served by old bulls

Low conception rate

Aged bulls have reduced

economic value when sold as

meat animals

Use young bulls below 12 years.

Such bulls have:

Good ability to mate females

Come to rut faster after the dry

season and serve for a longer

period in any given breeding

season

Higher conception rates of

females served

Using aged females for breeding

(females with more than 6 calves)

Females after the 6th calving

have lower fertility resulting in

more frequent return to heat

They also have worn-out teeth

and more udder problems

leading to poor body condition,

low milk yield and increased

calf mortality

Use females who have had no

more than 6 calvings.

Such younger females normally:

Have good body condition

Produce more milk

Their calves show higher

survival and growth rates

Selection along female line to

breed for better production

No substantial improvement in

milk yield and other production

traits in the camel herd

Select bulls who are the offspring

of very productive females and

show superior performance

(weight gain, fertility) to spread

desired features in camel herds

For spreading desired traits

in the herd, bull selection is

faster than selection along

the female line because one

breeding bull can serve 50 dams

every breeding season while

one female gives birth to less

than one calf per year and to

only about 7 calves during her

productive life span

Malpractice Signs Correct Practice

Inbreeding Congenital problems like

deformities (e.g. overshot or

undershot jaws)

Slow calf growth

High calf mortality

Avoid inbreeding by:

Replacing the breeding bull

at 12 years when its first

daughters become sexually

mature

Exchanging bulls with

neighbours (bulls not related to

each other)

Using two or more breeding

bulls who are not related to

each other

Table 2: Bad breeding practices and how to avoid them

2.1.7 Management of pregnant camels,

one month before calving

Pregnancy in the camel on average lasts 387 days – or

one year and three weeks. A month prior to calving,

pregnant camels require special care as described in

Table 3.

Table 3: Care of pregnant camels one month before birth

What to do Why

Reserve good grazing for pregnant camels nearer

to homestead or boma

Graze the camels near settlement or boma during

last month of pregnancy for close monitoring and

to avoid long treks

Avoid grazing in areas with potholes, gullies, rocky

areas, slippery ground

Do not allow the camel to wallow in dust or mud

Do not put camels in badly made, weak or dirty

bomas

This is the most critical stage of pregnancy

Heavily pregnant camels are not fit for long treks

and calving must be closely observed and may

require some assistance

The pregnant camel can fall down and injure itself

The pregnant camel cannot easily stand up on

sloping or muddy ground

Increased risk of infection and predation for the

newborn

CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

2.1.8: Signs of giving birth

The camel’s udder becomes enlarged.

The ligaments at the root of its tail begin sagging.

It becomes restless, lying down and standing up

frequently.

It loses appetite.

It makes an unmistakable noise.

It separates itself from the herd and may wander off

into the bush.

Unlike in cattle, labour in the camel lasts for a short

time and takes only between 10 and 30 minutes on

average.

2.1.9 Calving management

It is important to only assist the camel during calving

if absolutely necessary! Compared with cattle, camels

need far less assistance during calving. If the position

of the calf inside the mother is normal, it is very

important to be patient. In exceptional cases, camels

have been known to give birth to a normal calf after as

long as 300 minutes of labour. Table 4 details what

the herder or helper should do.

Note: In camels, the normal calf presentation during

birth is ‘anterior’ – it comes out with its head and

forelegs first – though occasionally there is ‘posterior’

presentation – it comes out hind legs first. When the

two feet (and the head in the anterior position) are

presented, both positions are considered normal.

Table 4: The camel is giving birth

Table 5: Management of the suckling camel calf

What you should do Why

Before giving birth camels like to separate

themselves from the herd and wander off into the

bush; when that happens, one herder must stay

close to the camel and if possible, keep the camel

near the boma

Let the mother lie down outside the boma, be

very gentle and quiet with the camel; noise makes

the mother nervous, interfering with birth

Camels calve fast; pushing out the calf takes only

15-30 minutes but may take longer in first calving

heifers

In case the camel has difficulties delivering the calf

and you don’t have experience with camels giving

birth, call an experienced herder, community

based animal health worker or veterinarian to

assist; as long as the calf is inside the mother, it

will stay alive for hours

If you cannot get assistance and the calf is already

visible and you can see two front feet and the

head of the calf, attach two new clean ropes, one

to each leg, and pull very gently. If you can see the

two hind feet and the tail, you can also attach a

rope to the hind legs and pull gently

The camel calf is born inside a membrane (like

an envelope). This membrane separates the calf

from the fluids; in case it does not rupture, open it

immediately after birth with your hand and allow

the calf to breathe

If the umbilical cord breaks spontaneously, dip the

navel in iodine if available

Place the calf in front of the mother until the

mother makes a low groaning noise

Help the calf to stand and suckle; if the mother

refuses to let it suckle (common with first calvers),

make her sniff the calf. If she still proves difficult,

isolate her and keep the calf close to her so that

If the camel calves without a human caretaker the

birth progress cannot be observed; besides, the

newborn calf may suffocate or be taken by hyenas.

Also, if the mother calves alone in the bush, she

may abandon the calf after giving birth and then it

is very difficult to find the calf!

Dropping the calf while the mother is standing

can injure the calf, also calving inside the boma

exposes calf and mother to a lot of dirt and may

cause dangerous infections

In cases of difficult calving, allow for plenty of

time and pull the calf very gently and only when

absolutely necessary; this helps avoid very serious

injury which can kill both, the mother and the

calf. The most common mistake is to interfere

with normal birth and try to assist too early -

compared to cattle, camels need far less assistance

in giving birth!

If the membrane/envelope in which the calf is

born does not rupture, the calf can suffocate. This

strong membrane is not found in the newborn of

cattle/sheep/goats

Dipping the navel in iodine prevents navel illness.

Note: Camel calves do not need licking by the

mother or drying after birth

The groaning noise made by the mother means

that she has accepted the calf and will allow it to

suckle

Suckling during the first 3 to 6 hours after birth is

very important for the calf because the dense milk

that the mother produces for the first 2 to 3

Management practice and how it should be done Why

Colostrum feeding

(drinking the first milk after birth)

Allow the calf unlimited access to drink colostrum to ensure it

gets all the antibodies, vitamins and proteins within the first 3 to

6 hours after birth. If the dam does not allow the calf to suckle,

restrain her and try to induce milk let down by palpating the

udder and the abdomen. In the absence of milk from the mother,

feed the calf on milk from other camels that have just given birth

Note: Herders sometimes deny or give very little colostrum

to the calves, claiming that excess colostrum causes diarrhoea,

especially among second calvers. Research has shown this to be a

dangerously wrong practice, based on believe rather than on fact

Colostrum is like a vaccination, it gives

the calf immunity

Colostrum also activates the calf’s

digestion and helps it to pass its first

faeces.

Colostrum is very rich in nutrients

and is only produced by the udder on

the first one or two days after calving;

later, the udder starts producing

normal milk

she only sees the calf around her. You can also tie

the mother’s rear legs together to prevent her from

kicking the calf during suckling.

 Make sure the placenta has dropped; in camels

the placenta normally comes out within 30

minutes after birth

days after birth (called colostrum) protects the calf

against infections in the first months of its’ life

If birth takes place far from the boma in the bush,

transport the newborn calf back to the boma after

it has suckled – the mother will follow its calf, do

not leave mother and calf alone in the bush

If the placenta does not come out, call a vet or

CAHW to provide antibiotic treatment, as a

retained placenta may start a severe infection in

the mother. Suckling of the calf helps the mother

pass the placenta.

2.2 Calf management

Poor management practices are among the reasons

why so many calves die young – different researchers

have reported from 12-60% camel calf mortality in the

country’s pastoral camel herds. Traditionally, camel

keepers believe that whether the calf survives after

birth is “amri ya Mungu” or God’s will. Still, many

causes of calf mortality can be prevented by good

management.

Calves are very important for camel keeping

communities. Female calves are the future milking

camels without which the herd cannot grow or produce

milk. Normally, the presence of the calf is necessary to

stimulate let down of milk by the mother, although

pastoralists have come up with ways of stimulating

milk let-down if the calf dies.

If the mother rejects the calf or dies during the first 8

weeks after birth, the calf rarely survives!

Characteristic of a healthy camel calf:

Birth weight 25 to 35 kg.

Stands up and suckles within the first 3 hours.

Walks within 2 to 3 days.

Passes first faeces within 24 hours.

Follows mother after a week.

Forages actively after 2 to 3 months as the rumen

is developing.

Sleeps, suckles, runs, jumps around and plays with

other calves.

Is weaned from suckling within 12 to 18 months.

The survival of calves is especially affected by

competition for milk between the suckling calf and

humans, who depend on camel milk as an important

part of their diet. Poor veterinary services, predators,

diarrhoea, tick paralysis, internal and external

parasites, feed stress during the dry season, water

stress especially among mobile herds, all contribute to

calf losses. Therefore, special care is needed to improve

survival rates of calves, as explained in Table 5.

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area. This feeding behaviour also makes camel

herding more challenging.

Camels are browsers. Their long legs and neck allow

them to browse up to 3 metres above the ground,

so they can eat foliage that other livestock cannot

reach.

Because of the kind of forage they prefer and the

fact that they feed at higher levels, camels rarely

come into direct competition for grazing with other

animals like cattle and sheep. This means that

keeping a combination of different livestock species

allows the fullest use of the available pasture land.

2.3 Camel nutrition and feeding

Good nutrition is essential for the camel to grow well,

to reproduce and to produce milk, because it affects

health, fertility, growth, birth weight of the calf and

milk yield. As with humans, good nutrition means

the camel must get enough protein, energy, roughage,

vitamins, minerals and water.

2.3.1 Feeding habits

Foraging camels spread over a large area, thus

putting less pressure on the vegetation in any one

Camel grazing while seated (only observed in tall camels)

Fig 2.1 Camel feeding habits

Camels grazing

Camels browsing

Diarrhoea management

Rehydration of the calf using a mixture of water, table

salt and honey (See chapter 3)

Take five tablespoonfuls of honey or sugar and one

tablespoonfuls of table salt. Mix well with two litres of clean

water.

Give 500ml of the solution through the mouth every 4 hours

until the diarrhoea stops. (see fig. 3.4 - page 36)

Treating diarrhoea using eggs from chickens that live

near the camels

Give one egg by mouth daily to a calf with diarrhoea until

diarrhoea stops.

Use of conventional drugs

Give sulphonamide tablets according to manufacturer’s

instructions

Separate sick and healthy calves

Try to put newborn calves in a clean, separate boma

Note:

The most important measure is early rehydration, when

the calf can still stand and suckle; small calves with diarrhoea

lose water rapidly, become dull, stop suckling and can die within

24 hours. To minimise water loss, it is good to keep sick calves in

the shade.

Diarrhoea contributes significantly to

the 12-60% camel calf mortality levels

reported among camel herds in Kenya

When a calf has diarrhoea, it loses

a lot of water and can die from

dehydration. The honey-table salt-

water solution replaces lost water,

energy and minerals, this is called

rehydration

The eggs of chickens that interact with

camels and feed on ticks and other

flies from camels have been found

to have a protective effect against

diarrhoea

These drugs help in managing bacterial

diarrhoea

Older calves are the main source of

diarrhoea infection for newborn calves;

separation prevents spread of diarrhoea

to other calves

Calf management in the first year

Let the calf run with its mother during the day for the first

three months; most pastoralists do not milk the mother

during the first 3-4 weeks

After the third month, when the calf is able to graze actively,

gradually reduce the milk allowance for the calf, depending

on the quantity and quality of forage available and its

growth performance

In case of death of the mother or calf rejection, try to find a

foster mother that has calved around the same time; if this is

not possible, bottle feeding is advised

Ensure that the calf is free of ticks, including nymphs

(small white ticks that attach around the hump); often it is

sufficient to remove ticks by hand (see chapter 3)

Treat abscesses around the joints early (see chapter 3)

This provides enough milk for the

newborn calf. For the calf, heavy

milking for human consumption

delays calf growth and makes calves

weak and prone to catch a disease

Early separation contributes to calf

diarrhoea since the calf stays hungry

the whole day and when the mother

returns home in the evening, it takes

a lot of milk at one suckling. The

milk tends to cramp the undeveloped

stomach, leading to diarrhoea.

Letting the calf accompany its

mother during the day also triggers

early rumination because of early

access to forage and water

Young calves can easily die from

blood loss if they have too many

ticks; ticks can also cause tick

paralysis, which kills calves quickly

(See chapter 3)

Weaning the calf

Gradually wean the calf from suckling at the age of 12 to 18

months, depending on the size and strength of the calf and

availability of good pasture/browsing

Deworm at weaning and treat with Trypanocide

(see chapter 3)

Provide ample salt regularly

Increase watering intervals step wise and slowly

Treat weaners for external parasites (mange and ticks)

Vaccinate weaners against Clostridia and against Tetanus,

especially where camels are kept together with other

livestock (use the same vaccine as for sheep and goats)

Camel keepers in Kenya wean calves

at an age of one to one and a half

years. After weaning, the calves join

the main herd, which is normally

taken for longer distances for foraging

and watering. The abrupt change in

management causes stress and it is

good to ensure that the weaned calf

does not suffer from parasites and has

good immunity during that period

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2.3.2 Suitable camel feeds

Given the opportunity, camels prefer to feed on shrubs

and trees. However, in their absence, they can live

comfortably on herbs and annual grasses.

Camels are highly selective feeders and require 8-10

hours of grazing daily to be satisfied. This depends

on breed, body size and seasonal feed availability.

During drought, camels require a daily grazing time

of up to 12 hours.

Under normal rangeland conditions, camels select

a diverse high-quality diet that provides all the

nutrients required by the body.

Camels are also able to survive on low quality

fibrous roughage. They adapt well to different diets

and dietary conditions.

During the dry season, when other forage is scarce,

camels can browse on the green tips of trees (for

example acacia) that are out of reach for other

livestock, or feed on Euphorbia, which is toxic for

other livestock species, so they are better able to

survive droughts.

However, there are some plants that are poisonous

to camels – for example, the Capparis tomentosa –

so areas where such plants are concentrated should

be avoided (See Chapter 3). Ingestion of toxic

plants is often linked to periods of extreme feed

scarcity and/or to animals being introduced into a

completely new area.

2.3.3 Mineral requirements

Camels like salt and prefer grazing and browsing on

salty plants (i.e Indigofera spinosa). They need much

more salt than other livestock species.

Pastoralists, knowing that camels need extra salt, try

to take their camels to naturally occurring salt sources

(saltlicks, salty springs).

A camel’s salt needs under normal dry land conditions

range between 30 and 60 grammes a day. A camel

working hard in the hot season may need as much as

140 grammes of salt daily. It is good to provide salt to

camels daily in the boma.

Still, research shows that camels suffer deficiencies of

certain minerals that are either not found in natural

sources, or are not present in sufficient quantities. This

means camels need properly formulated and balanced

minerals for good all-round nutrition. One option is

to buy industrial chemicals that supply key deficient

elements and mix them with natural saltlicks or other

low quality livestock salts sold in the market.

2.3.4: Water requirements

Compared with other livestock, the camel’s body is

very good at using water, as it can reabsorb most of

the water in the kidney and intestines and also loses

very little water through sweating.

Weight helps to decide when the animal is ready for

breeding or slaughter and also affects its price if it is

being sold in the market.

If necessary, in times of shortage, its weight will

help decide how much feed to give the animal.

New born calves weigh 25-35kg.

Mature camels weigh 350-800 kg, depending on the

breed.

Camels reach their mature weights between 4 and

6 years of age depending on their management and

breed; camels kept on very good pastures mature

and grow faster than camels kept in very arid areas.

If there is no scale to weigh the animal, you can use a

tape measure to estimate the body weight from three

measurements using the following formula:

Shoulder height x Abdominal girth x Hump girth

x 50 = Body Weight in kg

Example: Camel with Shoulder height = 2.0m;

Abdominal girth = 2.05m; Hump girth = 2.25m .

Therefore the body weight of this camel is 2.0 x 2.05

x 2.25 x 50kg = 461.25kg. This method is not 100%

accurate, it is more accurate in mature than in young

camels and should ideally be done before watering.

2.4.1 Calculating the age of a camel from

its teeth

It is useful to know the age of camels for four reasons:

It helps the camel keeper decide whether to breed

the camel.

Age is important when buying or selling camels.

Age is important when selling camels for slaughter –

the older the camel, the tougher the meat.

Age is important in monitoring how well a camel is

growing.

How much water camels need depends on the water

content of their forage; so, during wet periods,

camels get enough water from their feed and from

shallow puddles and may not need direct watering

for up to eight weeks.

During dry seasons and drought, camels need

regular watering, ideally every 5 to 8 days. Watering

intervals longer than this lead to dehydration, which

interferes with the functioning of their body systems

and reduces productivity. Watering intervals during

drought of more than 14 days have however been

reported, even in lactating camels.

Lactating camels should be watered at least every

six days, and should have plenty of forage.

Camels can drink up to 25% of their body weight

within a few minutes; still, time should be given

to the camel to drink several times with rests in

between to help it meet its body’s needs. It is

also good practice to rest camels for a while after

watering.

Checking skin elasticity is a good test to assess

dehydration in camels. This is done by grabbing

and pulling out the loose skin around the neck or

lower abdomen and then releasing it. If the raised

skin fold disappears quickly, the animal is not in

acute need of water. But if the skin fold remains

standing for a long time, the animal is dehydrated

and should be watered soon. Dehydrated camels

must not be injected with veterinary drugs! (This

skin test is also very useful to assess

severity of dehydration in suckling calves

with diarrhoea.) see chapter 3

2.3.5 Supplementary feeding of camels

Under normal circumstances, camels can get enough

good quality nourishment from natural vegetation.

However, during periods of scarcity, supplementary

feeding is good for them, especially for pregnant

and lactating camels and their calves.

Because of this, it is a good idea to harvest and store

feed material like acacia pods, especially for settled

households.

The nutritional quality of natural vegetation is

highest when it is beginning to dry up, so this would

be a good harvesting time.

Hay, minerals supplements and concentrates like

dairy cubes can also be bought from the market and

fed to camels. However, this can be expensive and

is usually only affordable for high yielding female

camels.

2.4 Camel body weight and age

2.4.1 Weighing your camel

To the camel keeper, knowing the animal’s weight is

important for the following reasons:

How much medicine (dosage) to give to a camel

depends on its weight.

SH = Shoulder height (m)

TG = Thoracic girth (m)

AG = Abdominal girth (m)

All measurements to

be done in metres.

Fig 2.2 Source: J O Evans, S P Simpkin and D J Atkins (1995)

Table 6: Some important range forage species for camels

Scientific name Growth form Somali Rendille Turkana Samburu Gabbra

Acacia tortilis Tree Abuk Abak Dahar Etir Ewoi Ltepes Dadacha

Acacia nilotica Tree Bili Madow Gillorit Ekalapelimet Ilkiloriti Burquqe

Indigofera

spinosa

Dwarf shrub Rufile

Maratel

Khoro Emakwi Lkitagesi Korategala

Kiltipe

Salsola

dendroides

Dwarf shrub Darran-ad Hadum - Aduung Hadum

Boscia coriacea Shrub Ghalangal

Dakkiyah

Yoror Erdung Serichoi Galgacha

Balanites Tree Kullen Kidthi Kulum Eroronyit Sarai Ilbulei Badhan

Baddana

Salvadora

persica

Shrub Adde Athei Hayei Esekon Sokotei Aadhe

Euphorbia

tirucalli

Shrub - - Elila Loile Anno

Cordia sinensis Shrub Mared Maeer Gaer Edome Ilgoita Madeera

Barleria Spp Herb Gamaadiis

Odarol

Geidow

Sucha

- Lkurumbule

Sucha

Maadek

Shiisha

Blepharis

linarifolia

Herb Quarda

Yumarook

Lemaruk

Harja

- Emarak Kutumbule

Baraata

Sueda Monoica Shrub Duurte

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CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

Aging camels using permanent front teeth –

incisors (‘jembe’)

1st pair erupts at 4.5 to 5 years.

2nd pair erupts at around 6 years.

3rd pair erupts at 7-8 years.

The amount of wear of the teeth determines the age

thereafter.

Number of milk teeth in young camels and

permanent teeth in mature camels

Young camels have 22 temporary teeth:

1 incisor, 1 canine and 3 premolars on each side of

the upper jaw.

3 incisors, 1 canine and 2 premolars on each side in

the lower jaw.

The incisors and canines of the upper jaw are

rudimentary and have very little function.

Mature camels have 34 permanent teeth:

1 incisor, 1 canine, 3 premolars and 3 molars on

each side of the upper jaw.

3 incisors, 1 canine, 2 premolars and 3 molars on

each side of the lower jaw.

Teeth wear is in relation to the type of food eaten,

Camel that prevalently browse (coastal Somalia) have

much more pronounced teeth wear than camels who

graze. Adult females upper incisors are often very

small or absent. For aging purposes the lower incisors

are the main teeth used. Also to mention that male

have large canines (tusks) that are fully developed at

around 9 years.

2.5 Record keeping

2.5.1 Why keep records?

By keeping records, a camel keeper can monitor

what is happening in the herd over time. This is

important for planning.

Records can be used to make decisions on future

management of the herd: When to breed, which

camels to keep and which to sell, when to take them

to market and the quantities of milk and income

that they are likely to produce.

Records help the camel keeper to assess the

profitability of the whole camel rearing enterprise.

Extension Messages:

It is important for camel keepers to ensure the

following:

Regularly monitor the physical condition of the

camel.

Ensure that the camel has enough forage for optimal

performance.

Discuss the importance of proper selection of a

good breeding animal in a herd.

Discuss the importance of avoiding teat tying in

order to prevent mastitis and loss of udder quarters.

Discuss the importance of rehydration in camel

calves with diarrhoea using a rehydration solution.

Pregnant camels should be put on good nutrition in

the last three months of pregnancy as this normally

translates into fast foetal growth, high birth weight

and increased milk yield after birth. Further, higher

birth weight of calves enhances survival, growth and

production during later stages of life.

Camels should get mineral supplements that are rich

in essential elements and in the required quantity.

Lactating camels should be watered after every 6

days to avoid dehydration, which reduces milk yield

(a 29% reduction in milk yield after 8 days has been

reported in Kenya).

Failure to observe these guidelines may lead to loss of

production, especially of milk, which is very important

for the pastoralist.

TRAINING TIPS:

Ask the camel keepers to collect good and bad

forage plants and discuss.

Discuss the importance of proper nutrition in

camels.

Demonstrate how to take body measurements and

estimate the weight of a camel. Ask the participants

to guess the weight before and give a small reward

to the one whose guess is nearest to the measured

weight.

Discuss the importance of correct age determination.

Demonstrate the dentition of a live camel and how

it can be used for ageing. This is best done using a

camel of between 5 and 7 years of age to show the

eruption sequence of incisors.

Discuss the advantages of record keeping.

Demonstrate how to measure milk in a plastic jug

and how to record the measurements.

For pastoralists, keeping their camels healthy makes

the difference between poverty and prosperity, between

hunger and full stomachs. But the camel, despite being

a hardy animal, is prone to a variety of disease. So

camel health management has been seen as a major

challenge for decades.

However, in recent years, great strides have been

made in both curative and preventive camel

disease management. But the full benefits of

these achievements are yet to trickle down to the

community-based camel service providers and the

camel keepers, because the available information on

camel diseases and management is often too technical.

Also, since most camel populations are found in very

remote areas, camel extension messages do not always

reach the camel owner through conventional extension

channels. The biggest challenge therefore is to make

the information available to CASPROs, CAHWs and

pastoralists in a practical and easy to understand

format.

It is important to remember that five major livestock

diseases do not affect camels. These are Foot and

Mouth Disease, East Coast Fever, Rinderpest,

Contagious Bovine Pleuro Pneumonia and Lumpy

Skin Disease.

Many camel diseases have been reported in various

parts of the world. In Kenya, pastoralist camel

keepers describe diseases mainly as symptoms and/or

syndromes and name them using varying criteria and

dialect names – a major challenge for the camel service

provider. The tables in this chapter describes the most

CAMEL HEALTH MANAGEMENT

“Healthy camels mean sustainable livelihoods”

CHAPTER 3

A 9-year old male camel with three pairs of fully

developed incisors, and partially developed first

pair of canines. (Source Chris Field)

Chapter Authors: Mario Younan, Ilona V. Gluecks, George C. Gitao, George J. Njoroge-Wamwere,

Njihia G. Kinyanjui, Kisa Juma Ngeiywa, Raymond Mdachi, Maurizio Dioli

24 25

CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

given where possible. But even local names used by the

same community can vary from place to place.

The drug cards in this chapter describes drugs available

in the local markets and how they should be used to

treat camel diseases.

common symptoms, syndromes and diseases as referred

to by the traditionally camel keeping communities

(e.g. Somali, Gabbra, Rendille and Turkana). The

English names are used in all cases, but the names

commonly used in the various local languages are also

An overview of general livestock disease control measures is provided in Table 1.

3.1 General disease control

Type of Control

Measure

Why How When Remarks

Vaccination e.g.

against Rift Valley

Fever (RVF), Camel

Pox, Brucellosis,

Anthrax, Rabies

To help susceptible

animals survive

infectious diseases

and / or to prevent

them from

becoming infected

To prevent losses

through deaths,

abortions and lost

production

To protect humans

against dangerous

infections from

livestock

Injection of killed

or mild form of

the disease-causing

agent into the

animal so it can

develop immunity

to the disease

Sometimes

undertaken on

a large scale to

achieve herd

immunity for

the purposes of

eradicating a

particular disease

Done to protect

healthy but

susceptible animals

either at a specific

age, before seasonal

occurrence of the

disease and in the

face of disease

outbreaks

Vaccination

is particularly

important against

deadly infections

for which there

is no cure or

treatment

CASPROs should

understand the

importance of

vaccination so that

they can encourage

their community

to present their

camels for

vaccination when it

is announced

Quarantine and/or

livestock movement

control, e.g. against

RVF

To minimise losses

through deaths,

abortions, lost

production and

disruption of trade

To contain disease

outbreaks locally

and prevent the

spread of infection

to non affected

clean herds and

areas

Total ban on

movement of

the affected and

susceptible livestock

species by the

district veterinary

authorities

Closure of livestock

markets

In case of disease

outbreak

(Export Quarantine

is a controlled

observation period

used to prepare

animals for export)

Quarantine

is disliked by

producers and

traders, who are

always looking for

ways of dodging it.

CASPROs should

understand that if

quarantine rules

are followed, the

veterinary authority

can contain the

disease outbreak

quickly and hence

lift the quarantine

faster

Table 1: General disease control measures

Safe disposal of the

remains of dead

animals

Proper disposal of

carcasses prevents

environmental

contamination

Done through

burying or burning

as recommended

by public health

or veterinary

authorities

Best done

immediately after

death

For a disease

like anthrax, the

contaminated area

remains a source of

anthrax infection

for many years

Inappropriate

handling of

brucellosis-infected

aborted foetuses

and / or anthrax

carcasses can lead

to infection to

humans and other

animals

Disease surveillance

and sampling

To determine the

prevalence of a

specific disease in a

particular area

Involves regular

collection of

data through

questionnaires and

samples

Usually done in

cases of disease

outbreaks

Also as a disease

status assessment

tool

CASPROs should

understand the

importance of

surveillance so

they can educate

their communities

on the importance

of offering their

animals to be

sampled when

requested

They should also

encourage camel

owners to take part

in participatory

disease search

(PDS) activities

Can also be a

requirement before

export

Public education

and awareness

creation

To enlighten all

stakeholders, thus

assisting in disease

control

Creation of village

disease control

committees

Public fora (barazas,

workshops,

seminars, “under

elders’ trees”

meetings)

Through the media,

e.g. FM radio

stations

Should be a

continuous activity

No one cadre or

institution can

manage a disease

control programme

alone, hence the

importance of

involving all the

stakeholders

CASPROs will be

very important in

public awareness

creation

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CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

Table 3: Abscesses

Names Kharfat (Rendille); maala (Gabbra,); mala, mall, arno (Somali); ngubuthien, abus, adjumei, lobus

(Turkana); ntubui, (Samburu).

Definition Accumulation of pus under the skin or inside the body, surrounded by a hard tissue called

a capsule.

Causative

agent

Bacteria

Mode of

transmission

External (very common): Bacteria invading the body through small and deep skin injuries

from bites, Acacia thorns, skin abrasion, unclean injection, unclean castration, contact with

infectious pus.

Internal (rare): Caused through bacteria that have managed to get inside the organs of the

body.

Affected age

group

All.

Major clinical

signs

Swelling of parts of the body (mainly skin and lymph nodes, but also udder and parts

of internal organs) with pus accumulation. The affected area is first warm, swollen and

painful; later the hard swelling becomes softer and there is no heat or pain; after 3-4 weeks,

abscesses can burst and discharge pus.

Suckling calves quite often develop external abscesses around the joints where the skin is

rubbing on the soil when they are lying down because they have not yet developed hard

skin pads like adult camels. These abscesses around the joints become chronic and affect

the joint, tendons and muscle.

Internal abscesses cause chronic progressive loss of condition. A specific form of hard dry

internal abscesses, mostly located in the lungs, is caused by Tuberculosis.

Diseases with

similar clinical

signs

Haematoma (accumulation of blood due to injury).

Tumours caused by cancer.

Worms or Tryps can also cause chronic loss of condition.

Seasonality None

Treatment External abscess:

When the abscess capsule becomes soft, make a cross-shaped cut with a clean knife at a

low point to allow the pus to drain out.

Flush it with Hydrogen Peroxide (3%), Iodine or Gentian Violet and repeat flushing for

several days.

In severe cases, especially in calves with several abscesses around joints, inject Penicillin –

Streptomycin (PenStrep) daily for 5 days.

Internal abscess:

No effective treatment; antibiotics cannot penetrate the abscess capsule. Internal abscesses

are only seen after death or at slaughter.

Prevention/Control The earlier you treat a wound the less it becomes infected. Don’t wait until it swells

up and develops pus, treat immediately after injury or bite have occurred.

Treat wounds early before they become infected, remove thorns and treat small

wounds (especially in the sole of the foot). Prevent bull fights.

Chronic festering wounds attract flies and lead to blow fly stroke, treating wounds

early avoids such problems.

Can it affect humans Contact with wound secretion and pus is also harmful for humans.

Notifiable disease No

Economic and social

impact

Low quality hides; if wound is severe it may affect the condition and finally the

production of the camel, large infected wounds and wounds infected by fly maggots

(blow fly stroke) can kill even adult camels!

3.1.1 Diseases of the skin and eye

Names Madaa (Gabbra); Ngoldonyot (Samburu); Boog (Somali); Ngajemei (Turkana).

Definition Injuries that cause breaks in the skin that may be shallow or deep.

Causative agent Bites, physical injuries from thorns, fighting between bulls, beatings, predator at-

tacks, castration and branding.

Often get worse through infection with bacteria.

Sometimes fly maggots can infect open wounds.

Mode of transmission Pus and secretions from wounds are full of dangerous bacteria and can cause infec-

tion in animals that come into contact with them; pus and wound liquids contami-

nate Boma and can lead to other infections (e.g. mastitis). Bacteria are also spread

by flies feeding on open wounds; flies can also lay their eggs into wounds – larvae

(“maggots”) grow inside the wound, leading to very serious, sometimes deadly infec-

tions. This is also called ‘blowfly stroke’

Affected age group All.

Major clinical signs Open wounds, broken skin, lameness, pus and other secretion, bad smell, may

develop into abscesses.

Disease with similar

clinical signs

Camel Pox, Orf, Contagious Skin Necrosis

Seasonality Thorns may penetrate the foot more easily during the wet season. Flies are much

more common and active in the wet season. Fighting between bulls is also common

in the wet season/breeding season. Bites by predators are common during prolonged

dry spell and drought periods.

Treatment

Table 2: Wounds

Clean with antiseptic (hydrogen-

peroxide 2%), apply iodine

once daily. For superficial fresh

wounds, aerosol spray (gentian-

violet) is sufficient. Always

make sure that pus and wound

secretion can flow from the

wound and/or are removed from

the wound. NEVER stitch up

or close infected wounds; air

contains oxygen that helps in

wound healing, if air cannot get

into the infected wound bacteria

grow much faster and the animal

can die. An open wound, cleaned

daily and treated with iodine,

heals much faster than a closed

wound that cannot be cleaned.

Injecting antibiotics alone is not

sufficient, every wound needs

Protective boot made of leather to protect

wound on pad (Source: Chris Field)

local treatment.

Large infected wounds need supportive injection of antibiotics (Penecillin-

Streptomycin or Oxytetracycline 20% LA).

For large wounds of the foot, a protective leather boot may be necessary.

(see photograph)

Maggot infested wound can be treated locally with acaricide or insecticide

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CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

Table 4: Camel pox

Names Furuk, (Somali); Chito (Gabbra); Afturo (Rendille); Abturo (Samburu); Ekolimeri

(Turkana)

Definition Highly infectious skin disease causing typical pox lesions.

Causative agent Camel Pox virus (Orthopoxvirus cameli)

Camel Pox only affects camels.

Mode of

transmission

Main factor is contact with affected herds; short distance transmission mainly through

inhaling, but virus also enters body through skin injuries or through insect bites, also

transmitted via contaminated Boma.

Outbreaks occur at intervals of several years, sometimes related to stress and poor

nutrition.

Affected age group Mainly young camels up to 3 years (non-immune animals born after the last pox

outbreak).

If adults are affected, the disease is usually more severe.

Major clinical

signs

Lesions start as small red patches; they swell and become liquid filled pustules with

a depressed centre (= the pox), these then rupture and turn into blisters (it is at this

ruptured stage that most lesions are seen on the skin). If a lot of flies feed on the

blisters, the blisters become infected by bacteria and start producing pus. Healing can

take 4-6 weeks and over that period the camel can become very weak.

Mild form: Pox found only around nose, mouth, eyes and under the tail, recovery

without problems.

Severe form: Fever, the animal is very dull, no appetite, swelling of the head before

pox appears. Pox distributed all over the body. Often the pox get infected with bacteria

and develop pus (camels covered in pus lesions all over the body become very weak

and may die). Pox on the teats make milking difficult which regularly leads to mastitis.

Swollen lymph nodes. Especially in young camels, the same pox lesions which are visible

on the skin also develop inside the nose and the lung and can lead to severe secondary

pneumonia and death if not treated early.

In severe pox outbreaks, 3 out of 10 infected young camels can die, most pregnant

females abort and milk production is disrupted!

Peracute form (only in adults): Severe swelling of the head and throat, leads to rapid

death (shock-like death with foam in the mouth in less than 24 hours) before any skin

lesions occur.

After recovering from Pox, camels are immune for life; normally, they get the disease

when they are young.

Diseases with

similar clinical

signs

Orf; Mange; Contagious Skin Necrosis.

Mild Pox and Orf look exactly the same!

Seasonality Cases are more severe during rainy seasons (lot of flies) and less severe in dry seasons;

outbreaks are separated by several Pox-free years.

Treatment No treatment for virus, but in severe cases especially when young camels start showing

signs of pneumonia(!) or when lesions produce pus and camel becomes very weak,

use Pen-Strep (daily injection for 5 days) or Oxytetracycline 20% LA injection (repeat

injection on day 4).

If available, also inject Vitamin A (often sold as Vitamin ADE combination), which

helps with the recovery.

Prevention/

Control

Early treatment of wounds (see under Wounds).

Use sterile needles when injecting camels and always inject where the skin is clean.

Use clean knives (sterilised in boiling water) for castration.

Prevent pus from contaminating the boma; do not open and drain abscesses inside the

boma.

Can it affect

humans

Tuberculosis is transmitted from animals to humans.

Contact with pus is harmful for humans.

Notifiable

disease

If Tuberculosis is suspected, it should be reported to the meat inspector and veterinary

officer.

Economic and

social impact

Lowers the quality of hides.

Calves do not develop well and some may become crippled.

Abscesses on the udder and on the teats are a source of bacteria that cause chronic mastitis,

which leads to complete loss of the quarter (dead milk gland tissue)

Internal abscesses are incurable and lead to chronic wasting, severe loss of production and

loss of the animal.

Fig 3.2 When and how to flash an abcess

Abcess not yet ripe to cut

Flushing out the abcess

Flushed abcess

Abcess oozing pus

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CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

Names Lpepedo, (Samburu); Emitina, (Turkana); Adho, Chitto, Addha (Somali); Haddo

(Rendille); Simpirion (Pokot). Chitto (Gabbra, Borana)

Definition Parasitic skin disease.

Causative agent Parasite: Mite (Sarcoptes scabei var. cameli).

Mode of transmission Through direct contact with infected animals, with contaminated objects

(including trees stems on which camels like to rub) and via a contaminated Boma;

the mite penetrates and stays under the skin but can also survive for some time in

dead skin scabs shed by affected camels.

Affected age group All, including young calves.

Seasonality More common during rainy seasons.

Major clinical signs Severe itching, especially in the morning, and hair loss, mostly starting on the

head and spreading from there to other parts of body. Hair loss is later followed

by formation of dead skin scabs and thickening of the skin (skin develops folds,

looks like elephant skin). Animals with such chronic mange are very difficult to

treat.

Typical sign is the almost permanent itching, not seen in other skin diseases.

Some animals may show almost normal skin, but there is always severe itching,

much more intensive than grooming behaviour.

Diseases with similar

clinical signs

Ringworm, Contagious Skin Necrosis, Camel Pox, Orf

Treatment Preferred treatment:

Ivermectin 1% injection; 2 doses 8 days apart (note that this treatment interval

is specific for camels and is shorter than the interval recommended by the

manufacturer for cattle); sometimes three treatments at 8 days’ interval may be

necessary (very costly!)

In between the two Ivermectin injections, it is important to first wash animals

with a detergent and in particular rub off all dead skin scabs (with a brush); then

an acaricide must be applied on the skin, best done by spraying manually with

a knapsack. After washing and acaricide treatment, move camels to a clean fresh

boma

In cases where Ivermectin is too costly for the camel owner, the following

treatment protocol is also efficient if carried out correctly: FIRST washing with

detergent (+ brushing of dead skin); SECOND spraying twice (better three times)

with acaricide at eight days’ interval and moving camels to new clean boma after

first spraying. Spraying must be done thoroughly such that the whole skin surface

is reached by the acaricide, including the head and insides of the ears.

Calves born in between two treatments must also be injected twice and treated

with acaricide, the same as the adult camels. CAUTION: One single untreated

calf can act as a source of slow re-infection for the whole herd; despite spending

a lot of money on treatments, mange then comes back spreading throughout the

herd

Caution: A single treatment does not eradicate disease from the herd because this

only kills the adult mites, while mite eggs left behind in the skin hatch within

a week. Hence the need for at least one more treatment, otherwise Mange will

slowly come back in the herd. Also Ivermectin does not penetrate into dead

skin scabs, hence need for washing and removing all dead skin in between the

injections

Note: Because of very long drug withdrawal period, Ivermectin should not be

used in lactating camels! If you have to treat lactating camels for Mange, use

washing + 3x acaricide spraying (observe milk withdrawal period for acaricide).

See drug card 2

Table 6: Mange

Prevention/

Control

Vaccination is possible, but the vaccine is only available in UAE, still too difficult to get

in East Africa.

When camel herd is in a Pox outbreak, ensure good nutrition and avoid stress.

During outbreaks avoid all contact with other camel herds.

Can it affect

humans

Normally not, exceptional cases reported

Notifiable disease No

Economic and

social impact

One of the economically most devastating camel diseases! Camel Pox disrupts the whole

reproduction and production cycle of the camel herd through abortions, loss of young

camels and loss of milk.

Loss of young camels and abortions lead to severely reduced herd growth, which is still

felt one year later. Recovered young animals may grow slower. Milk production is lower

and may even stop in many females. There is also the increased risk of contracting

mastitis.

Because almost all animals in a herd can become infected at the same time and many of

them need treatment, this is a very costly disease.

Table 5: Orf

Names Mburur, Humbururu (Borana & Gabbra); Lopedo, Non-kutukie (Samburu); Ambarrur,

Mburur (Somali); Ngiborwok, Mburuwok (Turkana).

Other names: Pustular Dermatitis, Contagious Ecthyma, Sore Mouth.

Definition Pox-like swellings on the skin around the mouth, lips and nose. May initially

appear in the form of a swollen head.

Causative agent Virus (Parapoxvirus).

Mode of transmission Contact and suckling; virus enters through lesions on lips.

Affected age group Calves and weaners below three years; disease is usually more severe in weaners and

older calves than in young calves

Major clinical signs Nodules or swellings which turn into blisters (that look exactly the same as pox

lesions), then form scabs that can become confluent on the head; the same lesions

that are visible on the skin also appear inside the mouth and nose, in severe

cases they can even spread to the stomach. Other common signs are watery eyes,

dullness, stinking breath and swollen lymph nodes. Calves have serious difficulties

in suckling and feeding.

Swelling of the head can occur before skin lesions become visible.

In mild form, only a few blisters/scabs occur around the mouth and heal quickly.

Diseases with similar

clinical signs

Camel Pox, Contagious Skin Necrosis, Ringworm, Mange

Seasonality Related to calving season i.e. during wet season but may also occur during the

following dry season

Treatment Treat severe cases with Penicillin-Streptomycin daily until recovery and wash

mouth with antiseptic solution (e.g. iodine). Apply Vaseline petroleum jelly on the

affected areas to soften the skin and assist sick calves to suckle if necessary, bottle

feed extreme cases. Injecting Vitamin A D E helps with the recovery.

Prevention/Control There is no vaccine. Calves and weaners in good condition recover faster; good

management of lactating mothers, allowing calves to suckle enough milk and de

worming of calves/weaners are important.

Can it affect humans Yes

Notifiable disease No

Economic and social

impact

Impaired suckling and feeding ability can lead to stunted growth and sometimes

even death of calves

32 33

CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

Names Dulla (Borana); Dula (Gabbra), Kharfat, Garfat, Hilaliit (Rendille); Garfat,

Dalleham, Dhaleeco, Ma’ah, Maha (Somali); Lomgoi, Ngamanyeni (Samburu);

Lelebunai (Turkana).

Definition Skin disease that causes localised drying and breaking up of the skin, multiple

spontaneous skin wounds and sometimes abscesses.

Causative agent Caused by insufficient salt in the diet (mineral deficiency). Bacteria infect the

skin wounds (pus and abscesses).

Mode of transmission Skin disease starts when camels suffer from long-term mineral deficiency and the

skin breaks up.

(“Contagious” means “infectious,” because the disease was thought to be caused

by an infection)

Affected age group Especially in adults, but also in older weaners.

Major clinical signs Lesions can be located anywhere on the body, but more common on neck,

shoulders, flanks and hind quarters. Begins as painful swellings of the skin;

starting from the centre of the swelling, the hair falls out, then the skin becomes

hard and dry scabs appear, which fall off after 1 to 2 weeks causing a wound with

sharp irregular edges (like an ulcer). At the beginning, a clear discharge comes out.

Later, it often gets infected with bacteria, leading to discharge of pus. This can

continue for months. After healing, a star shaped scar remains.

Diseases with similar

signs

Wounds, Abscesses, Ringworm and Mange.

Seasonality None

Treatment Feed plenty of salt/minerals to camels or take camels to salty pastures/salty

springs.

Clean affected area and apply iodine.

In severe cases, inject Penicillin-Streptomycin daily for 5 days.

Prevention/Control Ensure camels have regular access to salt (mineral supplementation, salty pasture,

salty water sources).

Provide quality salt and/or move to new pasture when first cases occur.

Table 7: Contagious Skin Necrosis

Can it affect humans No

Notifiable disease No

Economic and social

impact

Affected camels cannot be used for carrying loads, low quality of hides. In severe

cases, it can affect production and condition of the animal.

Fig 3.7 Cutaneous Skin Necrosis in camels

Source: Maurizio Dioli

Table 8: Tick infestation/paralysis

Names Shilmi, Chilim, Yagar, Yakhal (Gabbra); Shilim, Chillim, Turdach (Rendille); Shilin,

Yakhal (Somali); Ilmangeri, Lmanjeri, Imansher, ltunturi (Samburu), Ngimadang,

Emadang (Turkana), Shini, Shelem (Borana)

Definition Ticks attached to skin causing harm and nuisance to the animal.

Causative agent Different tick species.

Mode of transmission Ticks attach themselves to animals to feed on their blood.

Affected age group All age groups but particularly important among calves and weak camels.

Major clinical signs Specific sites where ticks attach to camels: Nostrils; under the tail; inside of the

thigh and inside of the armpit; on the teats; on the scrotum of the male.

Presence of a large number of ticks causes general weakness, loss of blood

(anaemia), loss of weight, skin wounds and stunted growth in calves.

Hyalomma nymphs (“white ticks” attached mainly in the long hair of the hump) can

inject a toxin into the blood, which causes tick-paralysis and fast death in young

suckling calves (older camels are normally immune against the toxin).

Ticks on the teats cause wounds that can lead to mastitis (see Mastitis).

Sometimes there is difficulty in breathing when large numbers of ticks are attached

inside the nostrils, causing blockage.

Diseases with similar

clinical signs

None.

Seasonality Ticks more active about 2-3 weeks after rains.

Treatment Manual removal followed by burning of the ticks, traditional remedies like

Commiphora africana resin mixed with water and milk applied in the nostrils.

Use commercial pour-on acaricides that are licensed for use in camels.

When signs of paralysis appear in suckling calves, Hyalomma nymphs must be

removed very quickly (manually) to prevent fast death of the calf from rapid

increase of tick toxins in the blood.

Prevention/Control If an area has too many ticks, shift Boma to new location.

Avoid known tick-infested areas, especially during rains.

Keep tick numbers low using commercially available acaricides applied to the

specific sites where ticks attach to camels (save on acaricide costs: there is no need

to spray the whole camel).

Prevention/Control Once in the herd, Mange is very difficult and very costly to eradicate, because the

entire herd has to be treated twice at the same time.

A major problem is sharing of grazing and water points with other Mange-

infected camel herds and also introduction of Mange by clean looking infected

camels from other herds.

When introducing new camels into a clean herd, inject them twice with

Ivermectin at 8 days’ interval, before allowing them to mix with the clean camels

Early treatment is advisable.

Good feed and good mineral supplementation reduces severity.

Can it affect humans Yes, has been observed occasionally.

Notifiable disease Yes, report to veterinary authority.

Economic and social

impact

Severe Mange shortens the time that camels feed each day, reduces their body

condition and productivity, lowers milk yield, causes stunted growth in calves, low

quality hides. This disease does not kill camels but costs the owner a lot of money.

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CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

Traditional shaving of calves along the hump and back has been reported to be

beneficial.

Unlike cattle, camels do not suffer from tick-born diseases like ECF/Babesia/

Anaplasma, so small numbers of ticks are not a problem

Can it affect humans Ticks can transmit diseases to humans.

Notifiable disease No

Economic and social

impact

Loss of production and poor weight gain, loss of calves, low quality of hides, increase

in mastitis.

Table 9: Eye infection

Names Dhaasi (Gabbra); Moyian Yoonkouyek (Samburu); Kolumay (Pokot) Itwaren (Somali);

Edeke Ankonyen (Turkana). Also called Pink Eye

Definition Disease of the eye.

Causative agent Different bacteria (common); Eye worm (Thelazia leesei-Rare).

Mode of

transmission

Bacteria are spread by flies or enter eye via injuries (mainly from thorns).

Sand/dust entering and irritating the eye; dust can also carry bacteria.

Eye worm transmitted by flies from infected eyes to clean eyes.

Irritation due to tick bites in the eye lid.

Affected age group All.

Major clinical signs Swollen red eye, painful, eyelids closed, discharge from eye (either clear or with pus),

temporary blindness

flies clustering around the eye.

Can affect one or both eyes.

(Eye worm is very thin, 1-2cm long, and can sometimes be seen in the eye.)

If untreated for a long time, loss of the eye can occur.

Diseases with

similar clinical signs

None

Seasonality Windy, dry and dusty conditions.

Treatment Wash the eye with salt water and apply antibiotic ointment (e.g. a few drops from

mastitis tubes) at least twice a day for 5 days.

If possible, carefully remove any foreign body or eye worm from the eye. If worm

infection is suspected, instil a few drops of ivermectin into the eye.

Prevention/Control Check eyes of camels that are lacrimating (shedding tears) for foreign bodies and eye

worms. Treat early to avoid eye secretions/pus attracting flies, which can transmit

infection to other camels.

Can it affect

humans

Notifiable disease No

Economic and

social impact

In severe infections involving both eyes, general condition of the camel becomes poor,

leading to reduced production and sometimes blindness. In very severe cases eye ball

can rapture leading to permanent loss of an eye.

Names Halbathi (Gabbra); Ngiriata (Samburu); Adeya, Har, Hardik (Somali); Eremonu, Colera,

Loleo (Turkana); Haar (Rendille).

Definitions Frequent passing of loose faeces in suckling calves.

Causative agent Bacteria (Salmonella sp.); Parasites (Coccidia: especially Isospora orlovi, sometimes also

worms/Helminths); Viruses (Rota- and Coronavirus).

Mode of

transmission

From contaminated environment and through direct contact from one scouring calf to

the next; the more calves have diarrhoea the higher the contamination of the Boma and

the higher the risk of new infections. other sources of infection are contaminated water

and contaminated feed.

Affected age

group

Mainly from birth up to 3 months of age.

Major clinical

signs

Frequent passage of loose (watery, bloody, pasty, with pieces of mucosa, at times also

smelly) faeces at the beginning. Very little if any passage of faeces after some time but

constant pressing; soiled hind legs; sunken eyes (dehydration = no fluid/water in the

body, drying up of the body); dullness, weakness; no appetite; death due to dehydration/

too little fluid left in the body!!!

Dehydration signs are: Eyes sunk deep into the socket; skin fold when raised does not

slide back; calf very dull and feels cold on the nose, calf cannot stand up (diarrhoea

calves that cannot stand are about to die!)

Diseases with

similar signs

None

Seasonality Especially common when a lot of calves are born over a short period. Coincides with

dirty Bomas during wet period.

Treatment The most important treatment measure regardless of the cause of diarrhoea is

replacing the lost fluid (rehydration). Don’t wait until calf is dull and cannot

stand up; start treatment when diarrhoea calf can still stand and suckle!

Instruction how to give oral rehydration fluid:

Mix 5 tablespoons of sugar and 1 tablespoon of salt with 2 litres of clean water (boil

water and let it cool down before mixing). Instead of 5 tablespoons sugar, it is also very

good to use 5 tablespoons of honey. A calf of 30kg needs a minimum of 3 litres per day

(minimum 1 litre for 10 kg of body weight per day). Feed the rehydration fluid in small

portions at the rate of one and a half cups’ full at a time (equal to about 0.5litre).

In addition, finely crushed charcoal (like powder) can be added to the rehydration

fluid (2 handfuls of charcoal powder per litre, then passed through a sieve before

giving it to the calf).

Rehydration fluid should be given for 5 days.

Milk may be withheld for first 24 hours but not for longer than 36 hours. So from

the second day on you can start giving small amounts of milk while still feeding

rehydration fluid. (See illustration on next page)

Antibiotics are not required to treat diarrhoea but Sulphonamides given orally can be

used. Calves that cannot stand up any more need both oral and intravenous rehydration

therapy; for this, the services of a veterinarian will be required.

Prevention/

Control

Give calf colostrum (the dense first milk produced by the mother after birth) during first

3-6 hours after birth. Move Boma frequently and do not put too many animals in one

Boma (don’t overcrowd). Separate sick calves from healthy ones. Start rehydration early

so that calf does not get weak.

Can it affect

humans

Notifiable disease No

Economic and

social impact

Most important disease in suckling camel calves; 3 out of 10 affected camel calves die

from diarrhoea resulting in limited herd growth; most dams stop giving milk without

their calf, resulting in loss of one whole lactation, and reduced availability of milk for

household consumption and sale.

Table 1: Diarrhoea in suckling camel calves (up to 3 months of age)

3.1.2 Diseases affecting stomach and intestines

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Mix 5 tablespoons of sugar and 1 tablespoon of salt in 2 litres

of clean water (ideally boiled)

Shake the mixture

Sugar

honey

Give a quarter of the mixture through

the mouth in the morning A quarter at midday

A quarter in the afternoon

Fig 3.4 How to rehydrate a camel calf

A quarter in the evening. Do this for

five days or until diarrhoea stops

Table 2: Gastro-Intestinal Worm Infections

Names Ntumai (Samburu); Goryan, Bahala (Somali); Ngirtan, Nyiritan (Turkana); Deyah

(Rendille), Mini (Gabbra); Chepturu (Pokot); Mnyoo (Swahili).

Definition Presence of parasitic worms (mainly round worms) in stomach and intestines

that interfere with digestion and lead to chronic inflammation of the stomach

and intestines.

Causative agent Parasite: Many different species of parasitic worms (also called Helminths,

Nematodes or round worms): Worm eggs and larvae found on pasture

(microcopic in size).

There are stomach worms, living in the stomach and intestinal worms, living

in the intestine; stomach worms are mostly minute and difficult to see with

the eyes, but they cause much more damage than the larger intestinal worms.

Occasionally, camels also excrete tapeworms, which are the biggest worms but

only cause harm in camel calves.

Mode of transmission Via pasture.

Worm eggs and larvae are found on pasture.

When it is wet, larvae hatch from the eggs and are swallowed during grazing.

When it is dry, larvae on the pasture are inactive and the risk of infection is

very low.

Affected age group All, except young suckling calves less than two months old that do not graze

yet.

Major clinical signs Different worms have different pathogenicity. Many of the species cause similar

clinical signs in the animal. When in large enough numbers, many cause general

weakness and reduced productivity. Often, when the numbers of the worms

are not very high, the animals are alert and feed well (no fever!) but may lose

condition. Some dangerous worms are almost too small to be seen with the

naked eye. The signs of worm infection are especially severe in young camels

and in animals on poor nutrition. For practical purposes one can look at two

groups of Round Worms:

Non-bloodsucking worms causing mainly diarrhoea, rough hair coat, bloated

stomach, chronic weight loss and stunted growth in young camels because of

poor absorption of nutrients; the ones living in the stomach (Trichstrongylus and

Ostertagia) are very common and cause severe problems.

Bloodsucking worms that attach to the wall of the stomach and suck a lot of

blood and cause mainly anaemia (visible as paleness of mucous membranes of

the eye); often, there is also diarrhoea. Bloodsucking worms like Haemonchus

cause rapid weakening of the camel and can even kill young animals.

Camels can also be infected by tapeworms (Monieza) that live in the intestine

and may cause obstruction and colic in the young.

Diseases with similar

clinical signs

Trypanosomosis (anaemia, oedema); diarrhoea caused by viruses and bacteria

(viruses and bacteria infections normally cause fever); diarrhoea caused by

Coccidia; chronic malnutrition; internal abscesses; tuberculosis.

Seasonality Especially common after onset of rains and under wet conditions.

Treatment Worms cannot be eradicated but should be treated early to avoid a too high

worm burden, which can seriously harm the animal.

Oral de wormers: Drench or bolus (e.g. Albendazole, see drug card 1);

Levamisole is not recommended for camels because it has late and inconsistent

action in camels.

Injectable dewormer (subcutaneous injection) e.g. Ivermectin 1%, dosage

1ml/50kg (See drug card 2)

Note that a 30kg calf actually needs 3 litres of rehydration mixture per 24 hours. So you

need to prepare a second 2 litre bottle of rehydration mixture when the first one is finished

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3.1.3 Diseases affecting internal organs, blood and brain

Table 1: Anthrax

Names Kud, Khut (Somali); Lochum (Samburu); Chilmate (Gabbra); Renwihara (Rendille).

Definition Infectious disease affecting both human and animals. It can kill camels and humans very

quickly! Anthrax spores are very resistant and cannot be destroyed by boiling or by normal

disinfectant.

Causative

agent

Bacteria (Bacillus anthracis)

Mode of

transmission

When an animal dies from Anthrax and the dead body is not buried deep or burnt

completely, the pasture becomes contaminated with Anthrax. Camels can become infected

through grazing on such infected pastures, drinking contaminated water and through

consumption of contaminated soil or bones or inhaling dust with Anthrax spores. Anthrax

contaminated pastures/soils remain dangerous for camels for many years! Such areas are

usually known to the camel owners (often these are flood zones only grazed in dry season).

Affected age

group

All except young calves that are only suckling. (affects all livestock species)

Major clinical

signs

Peracute (very rapid) form: Sudden death without symptoms

Acute form: Fever, bloat, diarrhoea, irregular and fast breathing convulsions, leading to

death within 1-2 days. Unclotted dark tar-like blood coming out of all body openings. The

blood remains liquid. The dead body does not become stiff and decomposes very fast.

Sub-acute form: Painful swelling of head and neck, swelling (edema) of the tongue,

foamy blood coming from the mouth. This form can go on for several days before the

animal dies.

Diseases with

similar clinical

signs

Camel Sudden Death; Swollen Gland / Hemorrhagic septicaemia; Tse-Tse transmitted

Trypanosomiasis (T. vivax and T. congolense)

Seasonality Common during the dry season, when flood plains have to be used for grazing because no

other pasture is available. Flooding can contaminate previously safe pastures with Anthrax.

Can occur throughout the year.

Treatment In early cases use PenStrep (doubled dose) for at least 5 days; in many cases this is not

possible as the disease runs a very short course and death comes extremely fast.

Prevention/

Control

WHEN ANTHRAX IS SUSPECTED, DO NOT OPEN THE CARCASS! Dispose of

carcasses through burning or burying. In cases where this is not possible, guard the carcass

against being opened by scavengers (dogs or hyenas) Unopened carcasses decontaminate

themselves over time (2 days). Never dissect or open the carcass; the moment the dead

body is opened millions of Anthrax spores are released and contaminate the environment!

Avoid affected grazing areas. If you have to graze your camels in an Anthrax area, vaccinate

animals with recommended Anthrax vaccine on a yearly basis. (Same vaccine as in cattle)

Can it affect

humans

Yes!

Caution: Humans can get infected through contact with carcasses and through

consumption of infested meat even if meat is boiled! Inhaling contaminated air can

also lead to infection as when handling hides and skins. If a human gets sick after contact

with an Anthrax infected animal, he has to be treated with high doses of Penicillin within

hours, otherwise he will die!

Notifiable

disease

Yes, report to veterinary authority.

Economic and

social impact

Loss of animals, reduced use of pasture, loss of production.

Danger of human infection!

Timing of de worming is determined by the rainfall, because worm larvae on

the pasture are active when it is wet and that is the time when camels become

infected. High worm burden in camels can occur about 3-4 weeks after the start

of the rains.

Resistance of the worms to the drugs used in de worming is becoming more

common and is caused mainly by underestimation of body weight and

underdosing of the drug. This is a major problem. It is very important to

correctly estimate the weight (see chapter 2) of the animal before giving the

“dawa”!

Prevention/Control Avoid overstocking and your camels staying on the same pasture for very long,

because this leads to high contamination of the pasture with worm eggs and

larva. Camels can also be infected by worms that come from sheep and goats.

When too many animals (camels, sheep, goat) are grazed in the same area, the

contamination of pastures with worm eggs and larvae can reach dangerous levels

and worms become a big problem. Moving away from overcrowded pastures

onto fresh pastures, especially during the rains, avoids such problems.

Shift the Boma regularly, not only in the dry season but also during the rains.

Inspect your camels regularly and deworm when first signs of worms appear in

an animal (diarrhoea without fever, weight loss but good appetite, rough coat,

pale membranes). If you see any roundworms (they look like spaghetti) in the

faeces, is a clear sign that many smaller “invisible” worms are present and that it

is time to deworm the animal.

Can it affect humans No

Notifiable disease No

Economic and social

impact

Worm infection leads to weight loss, loss of milk and meat production, reduced

fertility, stunted growth and late maturity. Experts estimate that the combined

economic damage caused by worms in camels is second only to that caused by

chronic Trypanosoma infection. Many animals are infected with low numbers

of worms and do not show any signs of disease. It is important to treat camels

early when signs show that infection levels are going up and before camels start

really suffering from worms and productivity starts going down.

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Camel drops dead of Anthrax

Report to veterinary officer

Do not open the carcass

Do not eat the meat

Burry or burn the carcass

Guard the carcass for at least 24 hours

Vaccinate your animals

once per year

Fig 3.3 What to do to control and prevent Anthrax

Table 2: Hydatidosis

Names Mbolimboli (Samburu); Labusiyon (Turkana)

Definition Infectious parasitic disease causing round swellings (cysts) mainly in the liver and

lungs.

Causative agent Parasite: Tapeworm (Echinococcus granulosus) of dogs and other carnivores.

Mode of

transmission

Camel grazes in pasture contaminated with eggs shed in the faeces of dogs and other

carnivores (eggs are microscopic = invisible).

Affected age group All

Major clinical signs Cysts in liver, lungs and other organs seen when camel is slaughtered.

Affected camels can show chronic weight loss. If cyst is located in the brain camel

shows central nervous signs (e.g. circling movement).

Diseases with

similar signs

Internal abscesses, tuberculosis

Treatment None

Seasonality None

Prevention/Control Inspect carcass, organs and offal carefully for cysts. Some cysts may be very small and

difficult to detect.

Do not consume organs that have cysts.

Do not consume raw meat!

Do not feed dogs with organs or any slaughter offal, unless the meat inspector has

confirmed that the camel is free of cysts!

At slaughter, bury or burn organs with cysts so that dogs and other carnivores cannot

eat them. When slaughtering, all offal must be buried or burned to prevent dogs and

other carnivores from eating it.

Deworm your own dogs regularly against tapeworms, read instructions to confirm that

the de wormer you use is effective against tapeworms (some de wormers only cover

roundworms).

Can it affect

humans

Yes, through transmission from dog faeces. In humans, this is a serious chronic disease

with cysts growing in the organs and causing death; it is also difficult to treat.

Notifiable disease No

Economic and

social impact

Loss of food and revenue through condemned organs.

Serious human health and public health hazard!

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These faeces contaminate

the pasture that camels

feed on and can be passed

on to humans by dogs.

The cycle starts again with

camels consuming pasture

contaminated with eggs

The tapeworm lay eggs

which are passed with

the faeces of the dogs

and other carnivores

Child with big

cyst in the liver

(Swollen belly)

Liver (or other organ) with

cysts is eaten by dogs,

jackals, hyena where the cysts

transform into tapeworms

Inside the camel, the eggs

hatch and form cysts in liver

or other organs

Camel grazing on pastures

contaminated with eggs

Camel is slaughtered and

liver (or other organ) with

cysts thrown away

Fig 3.5 The vicious cycle of hydatidosis infection

Table 3: Respiratory Infection and Pneumonia

Names Qufa, Kufa’, Furri (Gabbra); Dahassi, Yaharr (Rendille); Laxawgal, Ah, Dhugato,

Dugub, Erghib, Kharid Dugub,Ooof (Somali); Loukoi, Lotai (Turkana); Nkorroget,

Loroget, Lchama, Ibus bus (Samburu).

Definition Infection & inflammation of upper respiratory tract (nose, windpipe).

Pneumonia: Infection & inflammation of the lungs.

Causative agents Bacteria, viruses.

Camel bot fly (Cephalopina titillator), also called nasal bot fly*.

Accidental introduction of fluid into the lungs (incorrect drenching with de

wormer or rehydration fluid) can cause severe inflammation (“Aspiration

Pneumonia”).

[Camels can be infected by lungworms, but only in cold wet climates (Kazakhstan, Russia, Mongolia)]

Mode of transmission Inhalation – close contact with sick camels. Fly lays eggs in the nose of the

camel.

Affected age group All.

Major clinical signs Upper respiratory tract infection: Nasal discharge, light coughing, camels

a bit dull but still feeding (infection has not reached the lungs, if camels are

in good condition the majority will recover), especially in weak animals the

infection can spread to the lungs.

Pneumonia stage: deep and painful coughing, complete loss of appetite, very

dull, fever, fast and difficult breathing; leads to long lasting severe sickness and

even death if not treated

The Camel bot fly is very common in Kenyan camels; the larva live

inside the nose and sometimes cause clinical signs like restlessness, off feed,

sneezing, particularly when mature larvae (maggots) emerge from the nostrils;

occasionally bot fly larvae can reach the brain, causing infection of the brain

and central nervous system; there is one report where bot fly larvae have also

been found inside the lung.

Aspiration Pneumonia:

Sudden onset of acute breathing problems.

Seasonality Common in the rainy season; chilly weather (wet and windy) can trigger

outbreaks.

Treatment Upper respiratory tract infection is caused mostly by viruses and does not

need treatment, but camels must not be stressed or driven over large distances.

Pneumonia stage: Caused by bacteria and must be treated; inject Penicillin

Streptomycin (daily), or Amoxycillin LA (every 48 hours) or Oxytetracycline

20% LA (every 4th day). Pen-Strep usually most effective.

Camel bot fly larvae respond very good to Ivermectin injections; if the brain

is affected by migrating larvae, a combination of Ivermectin plus antibiotic

treatment can be attempted.

Treatment for Aspiration Pneumonia is often unsuccessful because of lung

damage.

Prevention/Control Reduce stress, isolate sick animals, provide shelter; protection from wind is

especially important for calves.

Avoid contact with affected herds.

Inject Ivermectin to avoid camels carrying too many bot fly larvae in their nose.

Can it affect humans

Notifiable disease

Economic and social

impact

Loss of production.

If untreated or treated too late, Pneumonia may cause death; animals recovering

after long lasting Pneumonia remain stunted

* The nasal bot fly is well known to camel pastoralists; mature larvae (maggots) drop from the nostrils and can

be seen on the ground before they pupate in the soil. The fly has the following names in the vernacular: Rhamu

(Gabbra), Senghelel (Rendille), Sangaale (Somali), Marsomwa (Samburu).

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Table 4: Trypanosomiasis

Names Gandi (Gabbra); Dukan (Somali); Omar (Rendille); Saar (Samburu);

Ltorobwo, lokipi (Turkana).

Definition A parasitic disease in the blood caused by different Trypanosoma species.

Causative agent Protozoan parasites called Trypanosomes that live in blood.

Trypanosoma (T.) evansi is very common in all camel keeping regions.

T. congolense and T. vivax occur only in and near tse-tse fly infested areas.

Mode of transmission T. evansi is transmitted mechanically by all bloodsucking flies (Tabanids),

including the camel fly – a large shiny reddish coloured fly that sucks blood

specifically from camels (Hippobosca camelina).

T. congolense and T.vivax are transmitted by tse-tse flies.

Affected age group All, but uncommon in camels below one year of age.

Major clinical signs Abortion and premature birth of weak calves; development of edema on

abdomen, on base of neck, sometimes also on scrotum and on the legs up to

the knees and the hocks, edema very common with T. congolense infections

Very common: The chronic form caused by T. evansi.

Abortion soon after infection before camel appears sick; sudden drop in

milk production; chronic weight loss progressing over a long period; pale

mucous membranes; flow of tears from the eyes; camels appear “sleepy” –

they sit down and rest while other camels are feeding; dull coat; long hair at

the tail coming off easily. Weak camels become susceptible to many other

diseases (e.g, pneumonia). Their urine has a characteristic smell. In majority

of cases, death occurs after many months of illness. At post-mortem, camel

often has a lot of water inside the abdomen. Spontaneous self-cure occurs,

but is very rare.

Less common: The acute central nervous form caused by T. evansi.

Brain affected, leading to dullness, blindness (typical sign!) and abnormal

behaviour like crying and running around like a rabid animal. Death occurs

after few weeks.

The acute haemorrhagic form: Only in and near tse-tse areas, caused by T.

congolense and T.vivax.

Acute form causing rapid death within a few days (esp. T. vivax). Dead

camel shows internal bleeding and blood under the skin.

NOTE: Because camels migrate over long distances, infection with

trypanosomes may take place in one location, but clinical signs may become

visible in a different location.

Diseases with similar clinical

signs

Acute forms: Rift Valley Fever (abortion), Haemorrhagic Septicaemia

(internal bleeding), Rabies (abnormal behaviour).

Chronic form: Heavy worm infestation, internal abscesses, tuberculosis,

malnutrition.

Seasonality Any time of the year, but more common during the wet season when the

fly population is high and transmission occurs more frequently.

Treatment Quinapyramine-salt and pro-salt (Triquin®) preparation is available in

a vial containing 2.5 g pale yellow/whitish powder. The drug is dissolved

in 18ml of sterile water (provided) or boiled water that has cooled. The

preparation is administered through subcutaneous (under the skin)

injection at a dose of 0.03ml per kg live body weight (see Triquin dosage

table). Treat sick camels as early as possible for high success rates. The

drug is highly irritating and should not be used intravenously. It is very

important to observe clean injection practices by using new disposable

needles to avoid contamination that can lead to abscesses. A total dose

of 18ml should not be exceeded for one camel. The drug may be used for

prophylaxis (protection) against T. evansi infections (especially in pregnant

females) and protects camels against T. evansi infections for 6 to 12 weeks.

Isomethamidium chloride (Samorin, Trypamidium)- Make a 1%

solution, ie dissolve the contents of the 1g sachet in 100mls of sterile water

or boiled water that has cooled. Administer the solution intravenous. If you

don’t know how to do this you can also use deep intramuscular injection

at 0.5 mg/kg live body weight (equal to 1ml/20kg - See Isomethamidium

dosage table). The drug is irritating and toxic and should only be used

intravenously under supervision of competent veterinary personnel.

Most camel with Triquin resistant T. evansi infection when treated with

Isomethamidium do not respond to the treatment and may suffer from

toxic effects.

Melarsamine hydrochloride (Cymelarsan) It is prepared as a 0.5%

solution in sterile water and administered at 0.25mg/kg live body weight by

deep intramuscular (im) injection into the neck muscles. The drug cannot

be used for prophylaxis (protection) but only for curative treatment.

Causes for treatment failure: Some of the causes of treatment failure include:

using poor quality (fake) drugs, using a wrong drug (e.g. Oxytetracycline has

no effect against Tryps) , administering a lower dose than recommended

(very common!), using the wrong route of drug administration and

resistance of the disease to the recommended dose of the drug.

Caution:

Never use Products that contain diminazene aceturate (Berenil, Veriben,

Diminasan, Dimaze, Diminatryp etc) because it is very toxic for camels

and kills them!

Don’t inject highly dehydrated camels with trypanocides, they can collapse

and die. Water and rest such animals before injecting the drug. Never mix

trypanocide with any other drug because it loses its effect completely

Prevention/Control Reduce risk of exposure to biting flies by avoiding highly infested areas

where possible. Use pour-on insecticides when flies are troublesome.

In areas known to have high incidence of trypanosomiasis, administer

Quinapyramine (Triquin®) preparations in the whole herd (protective

cover) following the onset of the rainy season.

When watering camels from tse-tse infested rivers move the camels in and

out of the tste-tse infested zone in darkness, when tste-tse flies are not

active.

Can it affect humans No

Notifiable disease No

Economic and social impact In Kenya Trypanosomiasis is the most important disease of camels! It is

very common and suppresses productivity and reproduction of camels at a

large scale. It can affect and kill many animals. Trypanosomiasis leads to

high abortion rates and major loss in milk and meat production.

Triquin Dosage Table

Isomethamidium (1% solution) Dosage Table

Body wt (kg) Volume (ml) Body wt (kg) Volume (ml) Body wt (kg) Volume (ml)

10 0.3 150 4.5 400 12.0

20 0.6 200 6.0 450 13.5

40 1.2 250 7.5 500 15.0

60 1.8 300 9.0 550 16.5

100 3.0 350 10.5 600 18.0

Body wt (kg) Volume (ml) Body wt (kg) Volume (ml) Body wt (kg) Volume (ml)

100 5.0 300 15.0 500 25.0

150 7.5 350 17.5 550 27.5

200 10.0 400 20.0 600 30.0

250 12.5 450 22.5

Carry out correct weight estimate (see Chapter 2) and dose carefully – Trypanocide drugs

are more toxic than other veterinary drugs that are used in camels.

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Table 5: Rabies

Treatment None.

Isolate and/or kill sick animals. Do not slaughter!

All persons and animals that had contact with the rabid camels

must be vaccinated against rabies as soon as possible! Rabies vaccine

can be obtained from government veterinarians.

Prevention/Control In areas where rabies in dogs and predators occurs regularly, vaccinate all camels

every year (the vaccine is cheap).

Vaccinate your dogs against rabies once per year.

Protect camels from stray dogs, hyenas and other predators.

Kill dogs that show abnormal aggressive behaviour.

Isolate sick animals and ensure they do not bite other camels or people!

Can it affect humans The most dangerous disease transmitted from animals to humans, it cannot be

treated, but vaccination immediately after the bite prevents the person that was

bitten from becoming sick.

Notifiable disease Yes, you must report to veterinary officers and insist that they carry out

vaccination immediately.

Economic and social

impact

Infected aggressive animals spread deadly infection to other animals and people.

Name Nyanye (Gabbra, Borana), Sugere Kaar (Rendille), Nkwang (Samburu), Ruqus

(Somali), Ingerep, Arthim (Turkana).

Definition A viral disease characterised by nervous signs and abnormal behaviour.

Causative agent Rabies virus.

Mode of transmission Bites and saliva of sick animals; most rabies cases are caused by dog bites; if a

camel with rabies bites other camels or people they also get infected by rabies.

Affected group All

Major clinical signs Camels become aggressive and attack others. They salivate a lot and are not able

to drink or swallow. Bulls show hypersexual behaviour. After some days, they

become weak and unable to stand. All affected animals die. There is no recovery

from Rabies!

Diseases with similar

clinical signs

Trypanosomiasis, the cerebral form of T. vivax, tapeworm cysts in the brain,

inflammation of the brain by other viruses or bacteria.

Seasonality None

Camel showing classical signs of

rabbies after being bitten by a rabid

animal (mainly dogs and wildlife)

Report cases to Veterinary Officer and have the

whole herd vaccinated

Fig 3.9 Rabies is dangerous!

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3.1.4 Diseases affecting the foetus and the udder

Table 1: Abortion

Name Dhies, d’ess, l’ess (Somali); nkiboroto (Samburu); akiyech, akiyechum, akiecium (Turkana), iralii

(Borana, Gabbra)

Definition Loss of foetus during pregnancy.

Causes The majority of abortions in camels are caused by infections, the most common ones being:

Trypanosoma, Rift Valley Fever (RVF), Camel Pox; Brucella, Salmonella, Q-Fever

Abortion can also be caused by severe malnutrition and by plant poisoning.

Mode of

transmission

Trypanosomes are transmitted by biting flies

Rift Valley Fever is transmitted by mosquitoes

Brucella and other infectious abortions are transmitted directly through contact with

fluids, foetus and placenta expelled by aborting females; Brucella is mostly transmitted

via the contaminated boma and pasture (occasionally it is transmitted by infected

bulls); after the abortion, Brucella infected female camels calve again but remain

infected and continues to transmit infection to clean camels.

Pox is transmitted through contact, flies and through contaminated boma

Q-Fever is transmitted through ticks and through contact

Affected age

group

Pregnant heifers, pregnant adult female camels

Major clinical

signs

Pushing out the foetus before the end of the pregnancy, discharge from vagina, sometimes

retained placenta. Can be overlooked if it happens in early stages of pregnancy. There are no

signs specific to a particular cause of abortion, different kinds of abortion can all look the

same.

Diseases with

similar clinical

signs

None

Seasonality Rift Valley Fever abortions occur in outbreaks which follow heavy rains with a lot of

mosquitoes. (See next table)

Trypanosoma abortions are more common when there are a lot of biting flies.

Brucella abortions can occur throughout the year.

Treatment Treatment of already infected animals is not effective. Pregnant animals at risk can be

protected against Trypanosoma by giving a prophylactic treatment of Quinapyramine to

prevent infection (see Trypanosomiasis).

Prevention/

Control

The most important measure is to separate aborting camels from other female camels to

prevent transmission. If abortions take place inside the Boma immediately remove foetus

and placenta and bury deep or burn. If possible move all clean females to a new Boma.

Vaccinate camel heifers against Brucellosis before breeding age; use same vaccine as in cattle;

vaccine is affordable and available.

Specific vaccines can also protect against Camel Pox and against Q-Fever (but are rarely

available).

Vaccination against Rift Valley Fever (only in non-pregnant animals and only during

outbreaks). Only to be done by veterinarians (See next table)

Can it affect

humans

Abortions are dangerous for humans, especially RVF and Brucellosis!

RVF is deadly for humans and cannot be treated! (see RVF)

Brucellosis is transmitted through contact with the aborting camel and especially by

drinking raw milk from infected camels. It causes very severe chronic disease in humans,

which can look like malaria. Brucellosis kills humans if not treated. The risk is invisible

because Brucella infected camels appear healthy and give normal milk! To prevent Brucella

infection in humans do not handle aborted foetus or placenta with bare hands and boil or

pasteurise raw milk before drinking.

Q-Fever can also infect humans, transmission similar to Brucellosis

Notifiable

disease

Owner should report to veterinary officer, especially when many abortions occur within his

herd over a short time.

Economic and

social impact

With the loss of a calf, there is no milk production until the camel becomes pregnant and

calves again. For a long time there is less food for the camel owner and his family. Also herd

growth is reduced. Infection of humans with RVF, Brucellosis and Q-Fever leads to severe

disease and can even cause death.

A camel keeper reporting a case of

abortion to CASPRO

Fig 3.1 What to do in case of abortion

Burying the foetus in a 6 foot-deep hole

Burning the foetus

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Table 2: Rift Valley Fever

Name Referred to as “Rift Valley Fever” by most people. (RVF)

Definition A viral disease transmitted by mosquitoes, common during excessive rainfall and

flooding. This disease is characterised by simultaneous occurrence of massive rainfall/

floods, plenty of mosquitoes, mass abortions in livestock and a haemorrhagic fever

killing especially young animals.

Causative agent Rift Valley Fever Virus.

Mode of

transmission

Through mosquito bites.

Affected age group All, but particularly deadly in the newborn and in the young.

Camels, sheep and goats usually more affected than cattle.

Major clinical signs Mass abortions in a herd (can reach almost 100%!). Abortion occurs at any stage

of pregnancy, and aborted foetuses can be of different sizes.

Sudden high death rate in newborns (can reach almost 90%!) immediately after

being born and during first weeks of life.

Diseases with similar

clinical signs

All diseases causing mass abortion, especially Trypanosomiasis, Brucellosis.

Seasonality Outbreaks occur every 5 to 15 years after very heavy and prolonged rains associated

with flooding and high mosquito population.

Treatment None

Prevention/Control Stop all livestock trade and especially stop slaughter in affected areas until outbreak

is over and veterinary authorities lift slaughter ban.

Vaccinate in RVF-prone areas as early as possible before outbreaks occur. Vaccine

contains live virus and may cause abortion in pregnant camels; vaccination can only

be done by professional veterinarians.

Can it affect humans Apart from Rabies, this is the most dangerous disease that humans can contract from

livestock in Africa!

Affects and kills humans, especially those in close contact with animals (herders,

butchers, veterinarians). No treatment available for humans!

In humans, transmission is direct through inhalation of the virus during slaughter of

infected animals, while carrying out post mortem or via contact with abortion fluids

and with aborted foetuses.

Do NOT slaughter any livestock during outbreak and avoid aborted

foetuses and abortion fluids!

Notifiable disease Yes, if there is a sudden abortion outbreak report immediately to DVO or VO. Early

warning and early vaccinations can only work if camel owners provide information to

veterinary authorities (DVO, VO) as early as possible.

Economic and social

impact

Severely disrupts pastoralist economy, causing massive losses through abortion,

disrupts reproduction/lactation, and brings complete ban on trade and slaughter.

This disease is of high international and trade importance and very

dangerous for humans!

Mosquito infestation after heavy

rains and flooding can cause an

RVF outbreak among camels,

with typically a high number of

abortions

During RVF outbreaks do not slaughter or eat

meat from sick animals!

Butcheries should be closed dur-

ing RVF outbreaks! Do not handle

aborted foetus!

Fig 3.10 Rift Valley Fever has devastating effects

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Table 3: Mastitis

Names Qanyara (Gabbra); Canda-barar (Somali); Loebeta (Turkana); Nolkina (Samburu);

Ugonjwa wa kiwele (Swahili); Giid (Rendille).

Definition Swelling of one or more quarters of the udder and secretion of abnormal milk.

Causative agent Bacteria (especially Streptococcus agalactiae, Staphylococcus aureus).

Mode of

transmission

Bacteria that cause mastitis are transmitted from infected to clean camels by the

hands of the herder who milks an infected udder first and then a healthy one; in

addition, bacteria can be transmitted when a calf suckles more than one dam. A

dirty Boma is also a source for mastitis bacteria transmitted from the ground to

the teats by flies. Pus from skin abscesses is another source for mastitis bacteria.

Especially wounds on the skin of the teats caused by ticks are a constant source of

mastitis bacteria. Mastitis bacteria can enter the udder only through the teat opening

or through small injuries on the teat. The teat is the barrier between the outside

environment and the milk gland, the inside of the udder. Oversized, damaged or

abnormal teats that cannot close tightly in between milking times are much more

prone to infection than normal shaped teats.

Caution: Teat tying (Somali “Marrak”) damages the teat and predisposes the udder to

infection!

Affected age group Adult lactating females; mastitis is more common in older than in young females.

Major clinical signs Acute (“visible”) mastitis: One or more quarters of the udder are swollen, painful

and hot. Milk production is reduced or stops completely. The milk can look and

smell abnormal (yellow or brownish colour, very thick like pus or thin like water, may

contain clots or blood). There can be difficulties in milking as teat canals are blocked

and no more milk is released from the gland. In severe cases, the camel may stop

feeding, as the quarter remains hardened, does not return to normal and becomes a

“dead quarter,” which no longer contains any gland tissue and cannot produce any

more milk.

Mild (“visible”) mastitis has the same signs as acute mastitis but changes in the milk

and quarter do not last long and are less intensive.

Chronic (“invisible”) mastitis: After recovery from mild mastitis, the quarter looks

normal, but can remain infected forever. Such a constantly infected quarter changes

over 1 to 3 lactations from normal soft gland tissue to hard dead tissue and becomes

a “dead quarter.” This is called chronic mastitis and is much more common than the

“visible” mastitis. Chronic mastitis in some herds affects every second camel and in

almost every camel herd there are camels with one or more “dead quarters.” Chronic

mastitis is the most important source of infection for young female camels (1st

calving heifers) with clean healthy udders!

Diseases with similar

signs

Abscess of the udder skin

Seasonality None

Treatment Swollen quarter should be milked frequently and calf should be allowed to suckle. It

is also useful to cool hot swollen quarters and to massage them.

Penicillin-Streptomycin or Sulphonamide injected at a double dose for minimum 3

days can cure fresh mastitis.

Chronic mastitis cannot be cured.

Caution: Intra-mammary treatment (used sometimes in dairy cattle) is NOT

recommended for camels because the camel teat has 2 to 3 fine openings. Each

opening leads to a separate gland, so one quarter of the camel udder contains two to

three separate glands. It is not possible to apply one intra-mammary tube per gland

(= 2 to 3 tubes per teat!). Also the nozzle size of the intra-mammary tube is designed

for cattle teats, not for the finer openings of the camel teat. Forcing the intra-

mammary tube into the teat damages the teat openings and can cause very dangerous

infections!

Treatment

Prevention/Control

Always milk young camels (especially 1st calving heifers) with clean udders first,

even though they are often more difficult to milk than the older ones. This prevents

transmission of mastitis from old camels with “unclean” udders to young camels with

“clean” udders.

If possible, keep camels with chronic mastitis (less than four healthy quarters)

separate from camels with healthy udders for milking and overnight (two different

Bomas, two different herdsmen milking).

Sell camels with less than four healthy quarters to remove the main source of

infection from the herd.

Treat all skin wounds early with iodine or blue spray to prevent them from becoming

abscesses and producing pus. Remove ticks from the teat skin and treat the tick bite

lesion with iodine or blue spray.

Do not practice teat tying!

Observe hygienic milking and check udders at every milking for early detection and

treatment. The California Mastitis Test (CMT) detects chronic mastitis (see figure 3)

and can be used to identify and separate camels with clean from those with unclean

udders.

Can it affect humans Mastitis causing bacteria can be transmitted through milk to humans.

It is recommended that all milk for human consumption be boiled.

Notifiable disease No

Economic and social

impact

Chronic mastitis reduces milk yield by 20% to 40%, resulting in loss of milk available

for consumption and for sale.

Mixing mastitis milk and clean milk in the same container leads to fast spoilage of all

the milk, which fetches a lower price at the market or cannot be sold.

Reduction of both milk yield and milk value threaten household food security and

lead to loss of income.

Mastitis bacteria in milk also cause diseases in humans, especially in children

Camel keepers sometimes tie the teats of a she-

camel with a piece of cloth or plant material

to prevent calves suckling and finishing all the

milk (Somali: Marrak). The material used is

usually not washed and is often shared among

many dams, transmitting mastitis infections,

leading to teat wounds and damaging the teat.

(Source: Maurizio Dioli)

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California Mastitis Test CMT

Test kit

Squirt milk from teat

into cup (remember:

one cup for one teat)

Fill only bottom

of cup

Add equal or

more amount of

test fluid

Rotate to mix Observe reaction

Healthy

milk

remains

watery

Mastitis

milk

curdles

(becomes

thick)

Mastitis

teat

Don’t mix

mastitis

milk and

healthy

milk

Fig 3.6 CMT test: Source - Somalia Pastoralist Dairy Development Project (VSF Germany)

3.1.5 Poisoning and diseases of unknown cause

Table 1: Poisoning Capparis tomentosa

Names Laturdei (Samburu); Gomborlik, Goryafun, Gumbor (Somali); Ekorokoite (Turkana);

Gorrahgel (Rendille, Gabbra).

Definition Plant poisoning caused by eating fruits, flowers and leaves of the Capparis tomentosa

tree.

Causative agent Poison in leaves, flowers and fruits of Capparis tomentosa.

Mode of transmission Eating leaves, flowers and fruits of the plant

Affected age group All.

Major clinical signs Sideways bending of the neck, difficulty in walking, paralysis and emaciation in

prolonged cases.

Seasonality Common when the fruits are in season and during drought

Treatment No known treatment, although camel keepers have traditionally tried branding.

Prevention/Control If possible, avoid grazing in area where tree is known to occur; if such areas have

to be used for grazing (during dry season/drought) prevent camels from feeding on

this tree.

Can it affect humans Yes, if humans eat the fruits, especially young boys when herding.

Notifiable disease? No.

Economic and social

impact

Affected animals may die; if herdsmen are inexperienced or careless, whole groups

of camels may be lost to poisoning.

Fig 3.7 A camel’s movement become

unco-ordinated after feeding on

poisonous

Capparis tomentosa

fruits

and it can eventually die

Capparis tomentosa

(Source: upload.wikimedia.org)

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Table 2: Wry Neck

Names Chachapsa (Gabbra); Shimpirr (Somali); Dahasi (Rendille).

Definition Twisting of the neck

Causative agent Not known, can be caused by Capparis tomentosa, and maybe also by other plant

poisoning; theory that it is infectious is not proven; can result from fighting or other

physical trauma

Mode of transmission Wry neck occurs very sporadically and is most likely not infectious; no indication

that this is a transmissible disease.

Affected age group All.

Major clinical signs Twisted neck, often double bent (S-shape); in severely affected cases it interferes

with or even prevents feeding. Camel becomes weak and rapidly loses condition.

Some animals recover spontaneously, even overnight.

Disease with similar

clinical signs

See Capparis tomentosa.

Seasonallity Not known

Treatment Give multivitamin injection (especially Vitamin B complex) to stimulate nerve

regeneration (you can also feed the camel baker’s yeast, which is rich in vitamin B).

Branding of the neck is practiced as traditional treatment by camel keepers.

Prevention/Control Avoid Capparis tomentosa infested areas and supplement with adequate minerals to

discourage bone chewing.

Can it affect humans No.

Notifiable disease No.

Economic and social

impact

Loss in production and high possibility of death

Camel with a twisted neck, a typical symptom of wry neck.

Source: Maurizio Dioli

Name Khanid (Rendille); Kandich, Khando, Qando (Gabbra, Borana); Qarir, Kharar, Kurri

(Somali); Nalngarrngarr, Ngarngar, Nolgoso (Samburu); Longarrue, Aengarre, Lorarrurei,

Elukunoit, Lobolio, Lobolibolio (Turkana).

Definition Acute disease associated with enlarged sub-mandibular lymph nodes.

Causative agent The cause of Swollen Glands / Haemorrhagic Septicaemia (HS) in camels is

unknown; camel HS is different from HS in cattle.

Mode of

transmission

Unknown, most likely contact.

Affected age group Swollen Glands common in young animals (weaners and sub-adults).

Acute camel HS outbreaks affect mainly adult camels in good condition.

Major clinical signs Swollen Glands (common in North Kenya)

Swollen lymph nodes, especially those of head and neck. Camels are very dull and

have problems breathing. They may die after 3-5 days or have very slow recovery.

This form occurs regularly in certain herds and affects mainly weaners and young

adults.

Acute Camel HS (less common)

Very acute breathing problem; camels lying down with neck stretched out, unable

to stand up, die after less than 1 day before swelling of glands appears; sometimes

intestine is also affected, resulting in bloody or dark faeces. This form occurs very

suddenly in herds that may not have experienced the disease for many years and

mainly affects adults in good body condition.

On post-mortem, lungs and/or intestines show characteristic bleeding

(haemorrhaging).

Disease with similar

clinical signs

In young camels: Acute Camel Pox, acute Orf, Pneumonia.

In adult camels: Camel Sudden Death, Anthrax, acute Trypanosomiasis.

Seasonality Some outbreaks associated with sudden onset of chilly and wet conditions.

Treatment Antibiotic treatment (Oxytetracyline 20% LA, Sulphonamide, Amoxycillin) only

effective if given very early as a prophylaxis before camels show symptoms. Animals

that have already developed the full symptoms may show adverse reaction to

antibiotic (die faster!)

Do not force affected camels to move and avoid handling them.

Prevention/Control Evidence from herders is that antibiotics given as a prophylaxis to healthy animals in

affected herds cut outbreaks short.

Avoid all contact with affected camel herds and mixing of camels from affected and

non-affected herds in one Boma; outbreaks appear to spread through herd contact

(especially at watering points).

Can it affect humans Not known

Notifiable disease No

Economic and social

impact

Swollen Glands regularly causes disease and death in young camels, affects herd

growth.

Sporadic camel HS outbreaks may result in up to 20% mortality in adult camels and

thus have a great economic impact on affected herds.

Table 3: Swollen Glands / Haemorrhagic Septicaemia (HS) of camels

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Table 23: Camel Sudden Death

Names Risasi (Swahili); Maal oh aar, Habad (Somali, Borana).

Definition Sudden death in camels.

Causative agent Not known.

Mode of transmission Unknown, possibly through close contact.

Affected age group Almost exclusively adults, pregnant and lactating females, breeding and

working bulls, heavy animals and/or animals in good condition.

Major clinical signs Sudden collapse; difficulty in breathing; white froth in the nostrils and

death within 1 hour after collapse. There are no warning symptoms before

the collapse; sporadic deaths occur in one herd over a limited period and

then stop.

Diseases with similar clinical

signs

Anthrax, HS/Swollen Glands, Trypanosomiasis (T. vivax, T. congolense).

Seasonality One outbreak in Kenya (2007) reported so far.

Treatment None.

Prevention/Control During outbreak:

Avoid contact with affected herds.

Avoid stressing pregnant and lactating animals on long treks.

Avoid sudden intake of large amounts of salt and/or water.

Can it affect humans Not known. There were no reports of humans falling sick during 2007

outbreak in Kenya.

Notifiable disease No, but cases should be reported to veterinary authority.

Economic and social impact Only a few animals lost, but big economic impact because losses affect the

most valuable breeding stock. Loss of pregnant/lactating females means

loss of milk production and reduced herd growth; loss of breeding and

working bulls means new ones need to be kept and to be trained (fewer bulls

available for sale and slaughter).

Drug Card 1: Albendazole

Name of ingredient Albendazole

Brand names Valbazen, Alfafas, Tramazole, Hook

Drug Category Anthelmintic for oral application (= to be given through the mouth)

Presentation Bolus (600mg, 2500mg, 3000mg), Drench (10%)

Dosage Recommended dosage: 7.5mg/kg

This means for:

600 mg Bolus – 1 bolus per 120kg

2500mg Bolus – 1 bolus per 500kg

3000mg Bolus – 1 bolus per 600kg

10% Drench - 10ml / 100 kg body weight.

Dosage Examples:

12 ml drench (10%) for a calf of 120 kg body weight,

25 ml drench (10%) for a young adult of 250 kg body weight,

50 ml drench (10%) for an adult camel of 500 kg body weight.

One 600mg Bolus for a calf of 120kg body weight

Half a 2500mg Bolus for a young adult of 250kg body weight

One 2500mg Bolus for an adult camel of 500kg body weight

One 3000mg Bolus for heavy adult camel of 600kg

Withdrawal period

Milk:

Meat:

60 hours = 2.5 days = 5 milking times (if you milk twice per day)

14 days

Storage Cool and dry place. Avoid direct sunlight.

Disease Gastro-intestinal worm infestation

Drug withdrawal period: The time during which milk or meat from treated animals must

not be consumed by humans

Drug Card 2: Ivermectin

Name of ingredient Ivermectin.

Brand name Ivomec, Noromec, Endact.

Category Injectable anthelmintic against endo- and ecto-parasites.

Presentation Injectable 1% solution.

Dosage 1 ml/50 kg. (0.2 mg/kg)

In case of mange, injection to be repeated after 8 days (not after 14 days as

recommended by manufacturer for treatment of cattle).

Mode of application Inject subcutaneously (under the skin).

Drug withdrawal period Meat 21 days. In cattle, the drug withdrawal period for milk is 28

days (= 4 weeks); nobody knows exactly how long it is in camels but it is also

several weeks. NEVER use Ivermectin IN LACTATING camels; this makes

correct timing of herd treatment for mange in camels very difficult!

Storage Cool and dry place, avoid direct sunlight.

Disease Mange, Round Worms, Nasal bot fly, maggots that infect wounds.

(Effect on ticks is weak and inconsistent, better use external acaricides against

ticks).

Drug Cards

Suspected Camel Sudden Death. (Source: Mario Younan)

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Many camel products are of commercial importance

– meaning that they can be sold in large quantities

to the rest of the population. These are milk and

naturally fermented milk, meat, hump fat, hides, and

by-products (like camel feet [trotters] sold for soup

kitchens).

Camel blood, bones, bone marrow and urine are

useful in one way or another to pastoralists, but do

not have much commercial value. The potential exists

for processing milk into various products and also for

processing blood and bones into bone meal and blood

meal. Camel bones are also used for carving. Still, the

profitability of any processing enterprise needs first to

be carefully explored.

4.1. Meat

4.1.1 Meat hygiene and fresh meat

marketing

‘Cleanliness is next to Godliness.’ This saying shows

the importance of hygiene in human life. Meat hygiene

rules must be strictly followed in order to produce safe

and wholesome meat. This requires:

Healthy and clean slaughter-stock.

Hygienic slaughtering.

Proper meat inspection.

Hygienic handling, storage and transportation of

the meat

These principles are explained in Table 1.

CHAPTER 4

CAMEL PRODUCTS AND MARKETING

‘Camel products for improved livelihoods’

Chapter Authors: Kajume, Julius K M, Fredrick O. Aloo, Mario Younan, Amos Adongo

Name of ingredient Gentian Violet

Category Skin tincture

Presentation Blue-violet watery solution

Dosage Sold at working strength, use undiluted.

Mode of application Apply on affected area.

Drug withdrawal period Nil.

Storage Cool dry place.

Disease Treatment of skin infections like open wounds, Infectious Skin Necrosis, Orf

lesions on the mouth.

Name of ingredient Hydrogen peroxide.

Category Disinfectant.

Presentation Sold normally as 20% solution.

Dosage Dilute to 2% working strength; 20% solution diluted 1:10 in clean water (= 1

part Hydrogen Peroxyde 20% plus 9 parts water).

Mode of application Inject into wound with syringe (CAUTION NO NEEDLE) and flush out the

pus and dirt.

Drug withdrawal period Nil.

Storage Always store in tightly shut brown bottle and protect from sunlight, loses

strength rapidly in improperly sealed bottle

Disease Cleaning, flushing and disinfection of infected and dirty wounds, abscess (after

opening by incision), Infectious Skin Necrosis.

Drug Card 5: Iodine

Drug Card 3: Gentian Violet

Drug Card 4: Hydrogen Peroxide

Name of ingredient Iodine or Lugols Iodine.

Brand name Tincture, Glubose, Providon and Wokadine Betaisadonna.

Category Disinfectant.

Presentation Brown watery solution.

Dosage Can be used undiluted, otherwise follow manufacturer’s instructions; many

brands are mixed one-to-one with clean water.

Mode of application Apply on affected area. Note: Iodine does not work well on dirty surfaces,

clean wounds first and remove pus and dead tissue before applying.

Drug withdrawal period Nil.

Storage Cool dry place, always in brown bottle, loses strength in sunlight.

Disease Wounds, abscesses after flushing, Infectious Skin Necrosis, also good for use

on operation wound after castration.

A camel milk hall in North Somalia (Source: Klaus Lorenz)

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What to do How its done

Make sure camel is healthy and

clean

Should be well fed and in good body condition.

Have no signs of disease or serious injury.

Not be mistreated before slaughter.

Presented to and approved by a meat inspector before slaughter.

If treated, not slaughtered before drug withdrawal period is over.

Make sure slaughtering is

hygienic

Choose clean site (slaughterhouse if accessible).

Use clean materials to prepare slaughter site.

Slaughter when and where it’s cool (early morning, in the shade).

Make sure water for washing is available.

Slaughterer should be healthy and observe personal hygiene.

Use clean & sharp tools.

Avoid contact between meat and stomach/gut contents.

Avoid contact between meat and outside surface of the hide.

Avoid contact between meat and soil or bare ground.

Proper separation of meat from offal.

Observe Halal slaughtering and humane killing.

Make sure meat is inspected This is a legal requirement to protect consumers against meat borne

infections.

Ensure meat is inspected by a qualified meat inspector.

Refer to Meat Control act, CAP.356 of the laws of Kenya.

Ensure correct handling,

storage, transportation and

marketing of meat

Do not leave fresh meat in the open – it will spoil quickly.

If not consumed immediately, protect from flies, other pests, dust and

mud (use fly proof netting).

Hang carcasses to allow sufficient drainage before cold storage (where

available).

Use clean and closed containers for transport.

During transport, do not mix meat and offal in the same container.

Meat will get contaminated and spoil rapidly.

Use cold storage where available.

Meat hygiene guarantees you safe and wholesome meat. It is a safeguard against meat-borne infections and

food poisoning; it attracts more customers and improves your business!!

Table 1: Production of safe and wholesome meat

Fig 4.1 With good hygiene there are more customes and money

Open air butchery (Source: Maurizio Dioli)

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Unsafe Meat Why

Do not consume meat from sick

camels or those that die of disease

Dead or sick animals are potential sources of deadly diseases that

can infect humans and cause death.

Many deadly human anthrax cases arise from consumption of

uninspected meat.

Do not consume raw or uninspected

meat or blood

Do not consume meat with an

abnormal smell or colour

Abnormal smell or colour are signs of spoiled meat. Such spoiled

meat is a potential source of poisoning and infections.

Do not slaughter during outbreaks of

Rift Valley Fever or other dangerous

diseases

During outbreaks, many animals are infected and some of them

may not show obvious signs; if slaughtered for meat, they can easily

infect humans.

Slaughtering Rift Valley Fever infected camels and handling their

meat can be deadly for humans!!! For humans there is no treatment

for Rift Valley Fever!

If a camel was treated with drugs

recently, observe the drug withdrawal

period before it is slaughtered for hu-

man consumption

Risk of drug residues that can cause microbial resistance to drugs.

Such drugs may be rendered ineffective when used to treat human

or animal diseases. Additionally, drugs can cause harm to humans if

consumed.

These are real risks!!! Take care!!

Table 2: Safe and unsafe meat Table 3: Processing meat after slaughter

Process Why Product

example

Procedure

Meat cutting For ease of

consumption,

marketing,

storage and

transportation.

Preparation of

prime or retail

cuts.

Value addition.

Sides.

Quarters.

Sirloin.

Topside.

Silver-

side.

Shank

etc.

Observe basic hygiene — use clean knives

and meat cutting saws; observe personal

hygiene; wear clean protective clothing;

make sure there is plenty of water; use

clean working surfaces

When de boning the various cuts, make

sure as little meat as possible is left on the

bones. Detailed procedures will depend

on what is required and are outside the

scope of this manual

Note: Cutting of bones should be done

with a saw to avoid splitting, which could

cause injury during eating.

Preservation

Heat treatment

Air drying

Curing

Salting

Corning

Smoking

Cold storage

Use of chemical

preservatives

Vacuum packing

To prolong shelf

life by killing

or reducing

pathogens, hence

longer storage.

To add value

through improved

flavour, shelf-life

and minimised

risk.

NB: Nyirinyiri

can stay for up to

6 months while

dried meat lasts 2

to 3 months.

Nyirinyiri.

Biltong.

Pickled meat.

‘Corned

camel’.

Detailed procedures for drying, smoking &

roasting, cooking and storing are given in

Table 4.

In all cases, proper hygiene must be observed:

Personal hygiene.

Clean working surfaces.

Clean working tools, equipment and

containers.

Clean premises.

Trim meat free of fat and connective

tissue.

Do not expose fresh meat under

processing to temperatures above 1000 C

for more than 6 hours.

Fig 4.2 Consumption of meat from dead animals, uninspected meat, contaminated or spoiled meat is dangerous Fig 4.3 Best cuts of meat from the camel

Source: Farah, Z. & A. Fischer (2004)

4.1.2 Health risks from meat

People can catch diseases like Anthrax, Tapeworm, Hydatidosis, Rift Valley Fever, Salmonellosis, Brucellosis, and

food poisoning (like Clostridium) from handling or eating diseased meat To avoid such risks, follow the advice

in Table 2.

4.1.3 Meat cutting, and processing

Because fresh meat spoils quickly, it must be sold at once. If it is preserved – for example through drying, smoking,

salting etc – or processed – for example into sausages, biltong etc – it will keep longer, and can be sold over a longer

period and taken to far away markets, where it can fetch better prices. This is known as improving marketability

by adding value. Table 3 gives an overview of meat processing methods.

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But camel milk is also the most expensive milk in

Kenya. The highest prices are paid for fresh clean camel

milk, with sour camel milk fetching less. Because it

stays fresh for longer than cow’s or goat’s milk, it can

be transported to more distant markets in towns and

cities.

The important thing to remember is that only milk

that is produced, handled and transported in a clean

and hygienic way will reach the market as fresh milk,

attracting customers and fetching good prices.

4.2.1 Production of clean and safe milk

Clean, fresh milk fetches the highest price in the

market. How milk is produced determines its quality

and value.

Table 5 shows how to produce clean and fresh milk

4.2 Milk

Camel milk is a very important staple food for Kenya’s

pastoralists. During the dry season, camels will keep

giving milk when milk from all other livestock species

has dried up. So the milk can keep pastoralists and

their children from starving during drought and

periods of scarcity.

Camel milk is also very healthy. It contains three

times more Vitamin C than cow’s milk and so is the

main source of vitamins and high quality protein for

pastoralists, allowing a balanced diet in the arid lands

where vegetables and fruit are hard to get and meat

is only eaten occasionally. Camel milk thus prevents

nutritional deficiencies in pastoralist communities.

It is also thought to have medicinal properties and is

traditionally used to treat illnesses like diabetes and

other chronic infections.

Table 4: How to preserve meat

Method Procedure

Drying

Traditional drying

of meat is known as

“derein,” (Somali),

“Jaji” (Boran)

and “Lesirikan”

(Samburu)

When butchering a camel, lean meat should be used and trimmed of fat.

The carcass should be properly bled and larger pieces of lean meat cut into smaller

pieces.

Strips of meat are cut in the direction of muscular tissue. They may vary from 20

to 70cm in width.

The strips are cut the same size so they take the same time to dry.

The meat is hung on lines in the sun with good air circulation.

Meat dried on racks should be turned every two hours to ensure even drying.

The lines or racks should be protected from insects and other pests by mosquito

netting and by standing the legs in tins of water.

Meat dries in 5 days and even less in very dry, windy areas such as around the

Chalbi desert in Marsabit, but requires protection from dust.

Dried meat is best stored in closed sisal sacks hung from the ceiling of a cool, dry,

well-ventilated store to keep out pests.

Roasting and

smoking

The two activities often occur together: Smoke particles absorbed by the flesh

have a preservative effect and prevent growth of bacteria on the surface of the

meat.

The two activities affect the taste and colour of meat.

If the temperatures of the wood fire is high enough the meat becomes cooked,

which is called ‘roasting’.

If the product is well dried, it can be kept for a long time.

The safest process is to first cook the meat by hot smoking and then dry it by

more prolonged smoking at temperatures between 450 and 850C.

Salting Salting is occasionally used in order to make the drying process more complete.

Among the Orma, meat is salted before roasting. When drying meat, the Boran

add salt to keep away flies.

Cooking and storing

in fat or honey

A major tradition among Kenyan pastoralists involves cooking and storing meat in fat.

The meat is known as

Nyirinyiri

(Somali) or Koche (Boran).

The meat can be beef, goat or camel, but camel is preferred.

Rump steak is cut into thin strips and sun dried for four hours to a day depending

on the weather conditions.

It is then cut into small pieces, about the size of a finger nail.

The cuts are then fried in ghee, Samuli or camel fat.

Spices such as cardamom, cloves, Karafu or garlic provide flavour.

The Nyirinyiri is then stored in the fat in special containers.

If dried and fried well, Nyirinyiri can last for up two years

4.1.4 Adding value to camel meat

Traditionally in Kenya pastoral camel keepers deep fry and store meat in fat (Nyirinyiri).

Table 4 describes how to preserve meat.

Important points Why is this important

Hygienic milking

The camel must be healthy and feeding normally

The udder and the teats must be free of wounds,

abscesses and ticks, no swelling or signs of mastitis

Herdsmen must wash hands with water and soap

before milking; because clean water is often scarce

or not available for washing the teats, dry cleaning

of the teats can be done with tissue paper or with

a fresh clean cloth (cloth has to be washed, boiled

and dried before use)

If a camel was treated recently observe drug

withdrawal period for milk

Sick camels excrete pathogens with their milk.

Bacteria from wounds, ticks and mastitis enter

the milk and spoil it and are also dangerous for

humans.

Milk from camels milked with dirty hands and

from dirty udders is also dirty and gets spoiled

easily, it also can transmit disease to the milk

consumer.

Antibiotics, acaricides, de wormers and

trypanocides are excreted with the milk and are

toxic to humans.

Which camels to milk first?

Milk calving heifers and young camels with four

intact teats first, also milk all camels that do not

react to the California Mastitis Test (CMT)

before milking those that do react (see Chapter 3,

Mastitis and fig 3.6

Although it is easier and faster to milk old camels

before milking first-calving young camels, milk the

young camels first

Leave until last the milking of old camels that

have less than four intact teats, swollen and

sensitive udder, wounds on the teats, show

abnormal milk, or give milk that reacts in the

CMT

The source of mastitis infection is older camels

with chronic mastitis; milkers’ hands transmit

mastitis from infected to non-infected udders

Young camels, with normal udders and camels

not reacting in the CMT are not infected with

mastitis.

Old camels and camels with abnormal milk and

deformed teats that react in the CMT are infected

with mastitis; if they are milked first, all camels

milked later by the same person can easily get

infected with mastitis.

Table 5: How to produce clean and fresh milk

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4.2.2 Risks from drinking raw milk

Fresh milk from a healthy camel kept in clean containers is safe to drink. When bacteria get into the milk, they

multiply rapidly and the milk can become dangerous to drink, especially for children and frail, elderly people.

Table 6 shows different ways in which raw milk can become contaminated and dangerous to drink.

4.2.3 Fresh milk marketing

It is important to protect milk from dirt and heat; this delays souring and keeps the milk fresh until it reaches

the market. And fresh milk can fetch between 20% and 40% higher prices than sour milk. When there is a lot of

milk in the market, sour or spoiled milk is difficult to sell.

Table 7 shows how to handle and transport fresh milk safely in different types of containers (Remember, never

use plastic jerricans!)’ See figure 4.5 and also refer to Handbook on milk collection (1990)

The milker

Milker should be healthy – no coughing or

sneezing, no open wounds, no diarrhoea

He must observe personal cleanliness – clean

clothes, washed and dried hands and trimmed

clean finger nails

If unclean or sick, the milking person can easily

contaminate the milk.

Dirty milkers produces dirty milk that spoils fast

and may cause harm to consumers.

The milking site

Choose a clean place for milking, if possible

outside and upwind from the boma; this is

particularly important if camel milk has to be

taken to faraway markets

Change to new clean boma frequently

The boma contains dirt, faeces and has dust and

flies that can get into the milk container and spoil

the milk, wind keeps dust and flies away.

The boma if occupied for long periods becomes

very dirty and has a lot of flies.

The milking bucket

The best milking equipment is stainless steel

buckets and galvanised metal containers, normally

not readily available in the arid lands and

expensive in the short run

Traditional buckets that are properly sanitised

by heat treatment (‘smoking’*) are hygienic

and should be used when metal buckets are not

available

In between milking times, milk buckets must be

stored upside down away from dust, flies and soil

Plastic buckets are intended only for

single use as food containers and must

not be used for milking!

Milk from the udder is very clean, but if milked

into a dirty bucket it is contaminated immediately

and spoils quickly.

Only buckets that can be cleaned thoroughly

should be used

Correct storage prevents contamination of the

bucket.

The plastic bucket’s surface is soft, so it corrodes

quickly and cannot be properly cleaned and

sanitised; plastic buckets are therefore an

important source of milk contamination.

There is always a risk of contracting diseases when

drinking raw camel milk

Why is it risky?

Dangerous milk comes from:

Camels that have aborted

Sick camels

Camels treated with veterinary drugs

Camels with mastitis

Camels with abscesses and wounds

Milking done by unclean or sick milker

Dirty plastic containers

Addition of dirty water to milk (adulterated milk)

Any disease or infection affecting the camel also

affects its milk and the person drinking the milk.

Some infections are ‘silent’ — the camel shows no

visible signs of disease — but its milk is infected

and dangerous. Especially with Brucellosis, the

camel looks healthy but its milk is very dangerous!

Veterinary drugs, including acaricides, given to

the camel are excreted in the milk for some time;

many of these drugs are poisonous to humans.

When we don’t know anything about the camel

and the milk container, it is safer to pasteurise or

boil the milk before consumption.

Table 6: Is it safe to drink raw milk?

Important points Why is this important?

Do not transport milk in plastic jerricans!

For milk storage and transport use quality metal

or aluminium milk cans with proper lids that can

be closed and locked tightly. Milk cans should be

seamless and easy to clean; metal containers cost

more, but last for many years

Plastic jerricans (old food containers or even

containers for engine oil) have very narrow

openings, so they cannot be cleaned properly;

their surface is very soft and rapidly develops

mini-cracks which contain dirt; old plastic surface

also releases substances into the milk that cause

cancer

Plastic jerricans are the main source of milk

contamination and the reason for rapid milk

spoilage during transport. They only last a few

weeks; if milk cans cannot be tightly closed, clean

milk gets contaminated from outside during

transport. Saving money ONCE on a cheap

container means losing money EVERY

DAY through lower prices due to sour or

spoiled milk

Table 7: Containers for milk storage and transport

Smoke treatment of traditional milking bucket.

(Source: Mario Younan)

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Wet gunny bags for milk cooling during transport

(Source: Amos Adongo)

Fig 4.5 Sell clean milk, attract more customers: Source - Somalia Pastoralist Dairy Development Project (VSF Germany)

Wrap a wet cloth around the container to cool it*

and always try to keep containers in the shade; if

possible put milk in fridge and cool it down before

transporting it over long distances

Traditional containers (gourds or the Somali

Haan) properly sanitised by heat treatment

(‘smoking’) are hygienically OK and good for milk

storage. They are particularly suitable for milk

fermentation

Do not mix fresh morning milk with old milk from

the evening before

Keeping milk cooler slows down souring, milk

stays fresh for longer

Transferring milk from traditional heat treated

(smoked) containers into metal containers is safe.

Old milk spoils the fresh milk when mixed

together.

* This is called evaporative cooling. A good way of doing this is using gunny bags (see picture below) into

which the milk cans fit; they are cheap and easy to make and must always be kept wet during transport.

Experience from North Somalia

In most markets sour camel milk (susa) costs 20% (sometimes up to 40%) less than fresh milk (Dhay geel). When

Fatuma, a milk trader in Garowe, was using plastic jerricans to transport her camel milk to market, she used

to sell most of her milk as susa (“Six

out of ten cups would go sour”). Since she switched to aluminium milk

cans, she sells most of her milk as fresh milk (“Now I sell seven out of ten cups as fresh milk”). Her fresh milk

also attracts more buyers. Her income has increased because of her investing a little extra money in clean milk

containers.

4.2.4 Processing and marketing of camel milk products

Heat treatment of camel milk – for example, pasteurisation and yoghurt making – creates products that need

to be kept cold until they are consumed. Such products also need hygienic packaging to protect them from

contamination. They can spoil easily if not packed in sterile containers. What is more, they are costly to produce

and need a lot of investment in starter cultures, cold chain, processing and packaging equipment. For producers in

Kenya’s arid lands, it can be difficult and risky to market products that need a cold chain. The starter lactobacillus

culture commonly u

sed in making yoghurt needs to be kept in a deep freezer.

People often ask about making cheese from camel milk. Camel milk cheese is much more difficult to produce

than cheese from cow milk or from goat milk. Cheese making also needs special equipment and cooling facilities.

Currently there is no market for camel cheese in Kenya.

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Pros and cons Why is this important?

Pasteurised milk and yoghurt need to be kept cold

(at fridge temperature: +40C to +80C) during

transport and until sold and consumed

Pasteurised milk and yoghurt are more vulnerable

to contaminants than raw milk and must be

packed in sterile containers and kept cold; if not

chilled they must be sold and consumed very

quickly

Do not attempt to process and pack camel milk,

unless you have access to a cold chain or to

a nearby market where products are sold and

consumed on the day of production

Transporters in ASALs do not have cold storage in

their vehicles and most traders and consumers do

not have fridges.

Under warm conditions, pasteurised milk and

yoghurt do not go sour but become watery and

produce a smelly gas and can no longer be sold or

consumed

Milk traders and customers are used to raw camel

milk going sour, which can then still be sold and

consumed (e.g. as susa)

Table 8: To process or not to process camel milk?

Use of plastic containers

and mixing of evening

and morning milk NOT

RECOMMENDED

Use of steel containers and

separation of evening and

morning milk STRONGLY

RECOMMENDED

Fig 4.4

Requirements

2 metal cans (size depends on volume of milk)

Piece of clean sterile (boiled) cotton cloth

Measuring cup

Large sufuria

Source of fire (energy saving jikos preferred)

Thermometer (for literate processors)

Procedure

HOW TO PASTEURISE MILK TO MAKE IT SAFE FOR DRINKING

»Prepare a water bath (sufuria) with the right temperature [65ºC or 75ºC].

»Fill the milk into a clean milk can and stand the can inside the water bath.

»Measure milk temperature with a food grade thermometer.

»When milk temperature reaches 65ºC keep that temperature for 30 minutes.

»[Alternatively, when milk temperature reaches 75ºC, keep that temperature for 2 minutes].

»This procedure kills all dangerous bacteria in the milk.

Sour milk can be produced by natural fermentation and is of excellent quality if traditional containers

(Haan) are used for fermentation and good milk hygiene is observed.

Traditional sour milk can be flavoured with sugar or commercially available food additives (e.g.

strawberry flavour).

Use only metal cans for transport of sour camel milk; plastic jerricans spoil sour milk during transport.

Sour milk keeps longer than fresh milk, can be transported over long distance and is in high demand in

urban markets of Kenya; small urban milk bars offer a niche market for different varieties of flavoured

susa

HOW TO PRODUCE YOGHURT

Yoghurt is produced from camel milk by first heating the milk and then adding commercially available

starter cultures after the milk has cooled down.

Small urban milk bars can process camel milk (e.g. into yoghurt) and market it daily fresh without

packaging or refrigeration.

Starter cultures for yoghurt are expensive and need storage in a deep freeze until used for processing

milk.

Table 8 looks at pros and cons of processing camel milk, especially pasteurising and yoghurt making.

Tables 9A to 9E give an overview of processing options for camel milk, for more

technical details consult

Farah, Z. & A. Fischer 2004 (see references)

9B HOW TO PRODUCE SOUR MILK (

susa

) AND YOGHURT

9A HOW TO PRODUCE PASTEURISED MILK

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Fig 4.6 Making camel milk sweets

Condensed milk can be produced easily using household items. It keeps for a long time - up to 1 year.

A lot of firewood is needed for preparation.

It needs sugar and clean containers that can be shut tightly.

Procedure

HOW TO MAKE CONDENSED MILK

1. 4 Parts Camel Milk + 1 Part Sugar, for example 4cups milk + 1cup sugar = 5 cups

or 4kg milk + 1kg sugar = 5kg

2. Boil gently with frequent stirring until 5cups reduced to 2 cups

5 parts are reduced to 2 parts or 5kg reduced to 2kg

3. Fill boiling hot milk into clean screw cap glass jars

Fill jars up to the brim, such that no air remains inside

(Clean metal tins with press down lids may also be used)

4. Close the jar immediately and allow it to cool in inverted position

Condensed milk keeps for up to 1 year. It is very nice when added to tea or uji.

Need clean hygienic working environment.

Use only basic household type equipment.

Ingredients can be stored at room temperature.

Different varieties and flavours possible.

No need for cold storage or starter culture.

Products popular in local markets and can also be sold to distant urban markets.

Profit needs to be calculated against cost of inputs.

HOW TO MAKE CAMEL MILK SWEETS

Hygienically made susa will separate after some time in storage. When this happens, the watery part

(=whey) can be poured off and the solid part (=curds) strained directly without addition of anything.

Addition of small amounts of boiled cow or goat milk during susa fermentation speeds up the separation.

Drain remaining water from the curds through a clean cloth

Weigh available curds

When the curd is well drained add about an equal amount of sugar

Add 0.1 % citric acid

Optional: add nuts, sesame seeds or spices

In a thick-bottomed pot, cook mixture on slow heat and with constant stirring till colour starts turning light

brown and the mixture is thick enough to harden

Pour onto serving plate or shallow bowl in layer of about 1-2 cm thickness and let cool

Form into small balls and set on another plate to dry for about 24 hours

Pack in suitable containers for sale (e.g. wrap in thin aluminium foil)

Ghee (Somali: Subaq) is storable and can be made from camel milk using special manual processing

equipment.

Making ghee from camel milk is very difficult because the fat particles do not separate easily like those

of cattle and goat milk.

Requirements

Cream separator.

2 small sufurias.

Aluminium milk can.

Colander Sieve.

Clean hygienic milk.

Water (for cooling and cleaning).

Storage containers.

Source of fire for heating milk with less smoke.

Clean sterilised cotton cloth.

1 small sufuria for collecting cream.

Procedure

Sterilise all the utensils/containers to be used in cream processing.

Heat milk to 600C (camel milk) or 450 C (cows, goat’s milk).

Separate cream from skim milk using manual cream separator.

Boil the cream and let it cool to room temperature.

Add culture (mesophillic) available from any dairy product shop.

Let it stay overnight. You can also boil directly from the cream separator till oil separates out. This will

lack the fermented flavour preferred by some consumers.

Cook fermented cream over slow heat till all particles turn brown.

Sieve the ghee using dry sterile (boiled in clean drinking water) cotton cloth.

Before complete cooling, pack ghee in suitable clean containers depending on purpose and targeted

market.

There is no big market demand for camel milk ghee; camel ghee’s taste and consistency are close to that of

camel hump fat, which is cheap.

Making ghee is a good way to store surplus milk that cannot be consumed or marketed.

Firewood may be scarce or expensive.

The extra costs can be justified by the household food security during drought.

9C HOW TO PRODUCE GHEE 9E HOW TO PRODUCE CAMEL MILK SWEETS

9D HOW TO PRODUCE CONDENSED MILK

CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

4.3 Hides

Camel hides are used by pastoral communities to make

all sorts of things, like sleeping mats, sandals, ropes and

whips. The Turkana community also use hides as food

during severe drought. Commercially, camel hides are

used in the making of army boots and other products.

But there are many other commercial possibilities, and

pastoralists can make much more money from selling

hides than they do now if reliable markets are found

and quality standards are met.

For quality production of hides, management practices

like those shown in Table 10 are recommended.

4.3.1 Skinning, handling and preservation

of raw hides

Good slaughtering practices will always bring out best

value and grade for a hide. But bad preservation after

slaughter can cause defects like flaying and rotting

of the hide. Curing is a way of preserving the quality

of hides for longer periods and preparing them for

tanning.

The most common methods of curing are air-drying

and salting. However, salting is much better for

successful curing. Salt-cured skins have a good market

value compared with air-dried hides, which have

no market at all. Salting is done by rubbing white

coarse industrial salt on the green hide. There are two

methods of salting – dry salting and wet salting. For

best results, follow the suggestions in Table 11 when

skinning the camel and preserving the raw hide.

4.3.2 Tanning and value addition

Tanning is a long process with several steps. It is a

method of converting green or cured hides into an

intermediary product called pelt from which the final

product, leather, is made. Different items such as

footwear, belts and bags can be made from the leather.

Where a tannery is situated nearby, the fresh raw hides

can be processed directly without curing. This should

be done within 6 hours after skinning.

Table 10: Production of quality camel hides

Production practices Why it’s important

Physical care Avoid external damage to camels when carrying loads so their hides will

not have defects.

Rutting male camels may bite each other, causing damage to the hides.

Pest and disease control Hides from a sick animal will fetch lower prices.

Sick animals can infect other healthy ones and even cause death or

infections to humans handling the hides (Anthrax!)

When buying or exchanging camels with other herds check thoroughly

and observe quarantine to avoid disease getting into your herd that

directly affect hides, especially mange, camel pox and anthrax.

Treat camels against ticks to avoid tick bite damage to hides.

Branding and marking Should be done on neck or lower parts of the legs so hides are not

marked.

The marks should be put on the same side of each animal for ease of

recognition.

Table 11: Skinning and handling hides

Procedure How it should be done

Skinning When skinning do not cut too deep or incision will show in the hide.

Pull out hides or use proper flaying knives to avoid damaging the hide.

Proper ripping lines should be followed for better hides.

For easier flaying, removal of hides should be done immediately to

avoid cooling of the carcass.

Skinning is a skill, so proper training is a good idea.

Defatting Remove as much fat and meat as possible to avoid putrefaction (decay).

Caution: Camel hides have a lot of fat that can lead to putrefaction,

lowering the quality of the hide.

Dry salting method In dry salting, after one day the salt is shaken off and the hide is dried

in the sun.

Salt is applied on the flesh side. For best results, this should be done 3

to 6 hours after flaying.

This is done by sprinkling the salt on the hide, then rubbing it in by

hand, using gloves if possible.

About 7kg salt is needed per hide; the average weight of a fresh camel

hide is 30kg.

Salt acts as a dehydrating agent and preserves the hide.

Wet salting method Recommended because it produces a better product that commands a

higher price.

Hides are washed and spread with the flesh side up on a dome shaped

stand, in a well ventilated protected shed.

The area should be free of dogs, rats, beetles and ants.

Coarse industrial salt is used, again about 7kg per hide

In hot areas, shuffling of the stacked salted hides is recommended.

The stacked hides will be cured within 21 days; if not taken straight to

market after 21 days, the hides should be reshuffled to allow aeration

and avoid heat burn.

Defects may appear on the hide due to

Uneven and/or poor salting.

Use of dirty or unsuitable salt.

Salting green hides before they have cooled.

Fig 4.7 Use correct tools to get quality hides

The severing knife The ripping knife The flaying knife

How to construct an ideal hides and

skins store (Wet salting method)

Note: With wet salting technology, the curing

house also serves as a store.

1) Size depends on the volume of hides/skins

being handled.

2) Floor must be slightly slanting so as to direct

fluids to one corner, where there is an outlet to a

septic pit.

3)The hides/skins should be stacked for curing

and storage on wooden platforms raised 15cm

above the floor.

The size of the platform should be 2 by 2 metres

but the top should be curved upward in the

middle to allow fluids to drip to the floor.

The maximum stacking height above the ground

should be 5 feet.

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Table 12: Problems of marketing camel products

Table 13: Marketing tips (extension messages)

Problems with:

Camel Production Area Marketing Meat Marketing Milk Marketing Hides

Poor infrastructure.

Poor marketing

information.

Poor policy support.

Diseases.

Negative attitude of

some camel owners.

Lack of approved

camel slaughter

facilities.

Low slaughtering

and hygiene

standards.

Lack of markets.

Lack of cold storage

facilities.

Lack of orientation

towards marketing of

camel meat.

Low hygiene

standards in camel

milk production.

Lack of adequately

equipped collection

points near milk

production areas.

Lack of camel

milk storage and

processing facilities.

Inadequate road

infrastructure.

Risks associated with

milk borne diseases.

Markets are erratic.

Low volumes.

Low standards of

preservation ad

storage.

Hide defects

resulting from

branding, tick

bites, skin diseases,

wounds etc.

Poor flaying and

handling techniques

leading to poor

quality.

Local markets What to do

Camels for slaughter Animals to be sold must be healthy.

Obtain livestock movement permit where applicable.

Obtain up-to-date information on pricing and prices, also from border and

outside Kenya if possible.

Sell camels in good condition in order to fetch prime prices.

Avoid selling under pressure; then prices are bound to be low.

Be ready with information about the weight, breed and history of the animal as

this will help to negotiate a fair price.

Meat Observe sound hygiene practices:

»Personal hygiene and cleanliness.

»Clean retail sites and premises, keeping them protected from flies.

»Use clean knives and other tools for cutting or preparing meat.

»Do not cover meat with dirty or contaminated materials.

»Do not handle contaminated or dirty items (e.g. Money) alongside meat.

»Avoid sneezing or coughing directly on to the meat; a sick person must not

carry out slaughtering!

Sell on the day of slaughter, unless kept in refrigeration.

Transport in a clean container.

If moved over long distances to markets, a meat transport permit and

certificate of transport will be required – Meat Control Act, CAP 356 of the

laws of Kenya.

Buyers should display price boards showing the grades and prices offered

against each grade for that particular day, since prices of hides fluctuate

depending on the demand.

Producers can also get information on current market prices from the

Ministry’s extension staff.

Export What to do

Camels Exported camels need health certification by the veterinary authorities.

Consult the nearest Veterinary Office for more information and advice.

Refer to Disease Control Act CAP 364 of the laws of Kenya.

Check current prices in different locations; at the Kenyan border, export prices

for camel bulls may be far above local prices in Kenya!

Milk and milk

products

Under current poor infrastructure, export of milk is very difficult.

Quality control requirements in Kenya (Raw whole camel milk specification:

Kenya Bureau of Standards KS 2061: 2007, ICS 67.100.10).

Check regulations for milk in the country you want to export to (e.g. UAE

prohibits import of any camel milk!)

Certification.

General considerations Check market demand first

»It is no use attempting to market a product that has no buyers. Compare the

production costs with the price you can hope to get; if the raw material and

ingredients are too expensive, there may be little or no profit.

Check whether equipment and ingredients needed are easily available and can be

used under local conditions, e.g.

»Starter cultures for yoghurt and cheese making are expensive and need deep

freeze storage – otherwise they get spoiled very quickly.

»Food additives and flavours are cheap and don’t need cold storage

»Link your production to existing active markets

4.4 Marketing of Camels and Camel Products

Table 12 summarises problems in the marketing chain of camels and camel products and Table 13 contains

some general marketing tips.

Milk and milk

products

Ensure hygienic production and fast transport in closed metal containers.

Hides The hides can be bought or sold in a green or cured state. In both states, hides

are sold by grade as well as by weight.

Hides contain different percentages of water depending on the curing method

used. It is important to know this to avoid being cheated when buying or

selling hides.

The grading and pricing of hides is controlled by the buyers and this makes it

difficult for the pastoralists to get fair prices; awareness needs to be created to

avoid exploitation by unethical traders.

Training Tips

Meat: Demonstrate processing of Nyirinyiri; participants to bring their own ingredients.

Milk: Demonstrate principles of clean milk production and ensuring clean milk containers and evaporative

cooling (wet cloth) during transport; make condensed milk.

Hides: Visit a hide banda and demonstrate wet salting methods. Participants to bring their own hides, salts

and flaying knives.

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CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

5.1 Introduction

As we reflect on where we have come from and on

the problems facing camel development, we also need

to look ahead, think about what we need, what we

can achieve by working together, and the challenges

that face us on the way. When we think of how many

people derive their livelihoods from camels and camel-

related activities, we realise that the government and

other stakeholders must redouble their efforts to

develop the camel industry, and that the way to do

this is to concentrate on value addition and marketing

of camels and their products in line with Vision 2030.

5.2. Reflections

5.2.1. Research

The camel has come a long way in the past one-third

of a century since serious research began in Kenya.

Initially, the main thrust was applied research to

understand the camel’s special attributes and how they

were being utilised by pastoralists. However, in 1984,

the great drought raised questions over the usefulness

of the research findings, and as a result the research

took a more practical direction.

5.2.2. Camel development

Equipped with new methods for approaching and

training pastoralists, the development worker was

able to reach them with useful messages and practical

advice and solutions to their problems. Pastoralists

began to be empowered to make their own decisions

on camel development. Community-based self-help

groups sprang up and received training in group

dynamics, financial management and other needs. For

the first time, pastoral women acquired a voice and

gender issues became topical.

While this was going on, human population density

in the arid and semi-arid lands was mushrooming,

increasing the pressure on their fragile environment.

Competition for resources became an issue and led

to conflict, especially during drought when resources

were reduced to a bare minimum. This was eventually

brought under some control by Community Based

CHAPTER 5

CROSS-CUTTING ISSUES AND THE WAY FORWARD

Chapter Authors: Christopher R. Field, Khalif A.Abey, Kajume K. Kithinji

Traditional milking technique. Among the Turkana ethnic group of northern Kenya camels are milked by women;

however, in almost all other nomadic societies the milking of camels is carried out by men.

(Source: Maurizio Dioli)

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CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

unless there is a significant increase in total rainfall,

lead to an overall intensification of the aridity of the

ASALs. In relation to other livestock, this is likely to

favour only the camel.

5.4. Cross-cutting issues: Camels and

humans in the wider world

So far in this book, we have talked about camels

and

the humans who keep them. We have also looked

at their contacts with the outside world, and at the

problems of preparing and selling camel products –

meat, milk and hides – to this outside world. But there

are many other things happening in the wider world

they live in. Out there, gender roles are changing, HIV

and AIDS are destroying people’s lives and health,

the environment is being quickly degraded, there is

frequent conflict between communities, there are

problems of good governance, human rights and drug

abuse. Rapid social change also leads to erosion of

the extremely valuable traditional knowledge base of

camel keeping communities, which must be preserved

for future generations. These ‘cross cutting issues’

affect first the humans and through them the camels

they keep. Ignoring these issues is not wise as they can

have large, sometimes sudden and devastating, effects

on the lives, income and even survival of the camel

keeping community.

5.5. Gender roles

The gender roles in pastoralist society – in simple

terms, the different tasks and responsibilities of men,

women and youth – have a big impact on camel

5.3.2. Communications

The extension and eventual completion of tarmac

roads from Isiolo to Moyale on the Ethiopian border

and Garissa to Mandera on the Somali border will

have a major impact on camel pastoralists similar to

what has been seen over the past decade in Garissa.

By enabling rapid transport, it will serve as a stimulus

to trade in live animals and their perishable products

such as milk.

However, it has been noted that the interval between

major disease outbreaks in camels has become shorter,

very likely because of increased contact between camel

herds. Some measures to control movements may be

necessary in the future.

5.3.3. Global warming

Finally, global warming is a serious cross-cutting issue

likely to affect everyone. Camel owners, however, will

be in a good position to exploit this. It is anticipated that

the interval between droughts and floods may shorten.

Since camels seem to have the least overall mortality

in periods of drought, they are likely to replace cattle

in marginal areas where the latter’s numbers have

insufficient time to recover before the next episode

(Ndikumana et al. 2000). Following floods, Rift Valley

Fever outbreaks have had devastating effects on the

camel economy and prophylactic measures need to be

put in place to minimise these recurring looses.

Worsening of droughts, with less moisture penetration

and increased runoff during intervening floods will,

of the camel to be of greater benefit to its owners

and the nation as a whole. To make this possible, the

government should formulate, publish and implement

a camel development policy as part of its overall

livestock development policy.

The following components should be incorporated in

such a document:

A preamble recognising the camel’s unique

position to provide communities with a means of

livelihood in the arid lands, where conditions are

becoming more extreme due to global warming.

The need to mainstream the camel in livestock

development in the ASALs with funding

proportional to its importance in the region.

Incorporation of the camel in the national

curriculum at primary, secondary and tertiary

levels.

Sourcing of funds and appropriate techniques

for regular censuses of camels alongside other

livestock at the national level to aid in allocation

of appropriate resources.

Establishment of an effective and sustainable

camel service delivery system in every camel

concentration area in the country; this would have

to be part of establishing services for all livestock

in the ASAL.

Support for research relevant to the needs of

camel owners such as identification, diagnosis

and treatment of unknown diseases of economic

importance to camel pastoralists; registration and

local and/or regional production of camel specific

vaccines (especially Camel Pox), marketing

value addition to marketable camel products;

development of appropriate safety standards and

quality assurance guidelines for ethno-veterinary

medicines used in camels.

Support for integration of the camel into the

existing market information system and for new

ways of extending credit to camel keepers to drive

local and international trade.

Establishment of a camel breeding centre, either

by state corporations and/or supported by private

ranchers in order to genetically improve the

national camel herd.

Recognition of the development potential in

the camel rangelands and the recognition that

settlement, cultivation, and petroleum exploration

may be detrimental to camel pastoralism and

should first receive the support of the pastoralists.

Incorporation of camel pastoralism in the National

Land Use Policy.

Continued support for the Kenya Camel

Association to achieve its objectives of improving

pastoralist livelihoods and wellbeing using the

camel.

Peace Committees. Government resources, when

divided among more than twice the previous

population, were woefully inadequate for livestock

development. In the spirit of self-help and self-reliance,

pastoralist communities therefore embraced the idea

of Community Animal Health Workers who have for

the past 20 years been providing some essential animal

health services in remote areas.

5.2.3. The Kenya Camel Association

Rising populations and intensified range use have

brought the camel into sharper focus, as it has been

herded strategically in the most distant areas where

its unique attributes enable it to survive, produce

and score over all other alternatives. The Kenya

Camel Association, when launched in 1995, aimed to

respond to the felt needs of its members and others,

but without funding and largely on a voluntary basis.

Gradually, the importance of its work has come to be

recognised by the government and donors, so that its

position has been strengthened and it can be more

effective. Annual Forums have been held at 10 venues

in the pastoral lands to share camel problems and

jointly seek solutions.

5.2.4 The private sector

The need for expert advice at the camel camps has been

rising, and is being met by trained CAHWs. Although

less dramatic than animal health, the services of

animal production experts are equally necessary and

are indeed often needed on a daily basis (for example,

in milk production and marketing). Scaling up the

training of the CAHWs, drawn from camel camps,

to provide additional advice on camel production

seems to be a logical approach. Otherwise, it would

be difficult for the service provider to generate a living

from animal production services alone. It is still not

entirely clear how this will be achieved, or whether

the government will embrace this new approach

wholeheartedly. Certainly, the establishment of the

new Ministry for the Development of Northern Kenya

and other Arid and Semi Arid Lands gives reason for

hope.

5.3. The way forward

The future of the camel seems for the most part to

be assured. But unchecked population growth and

increasing demands on the rangelands can still have

negative consequences for camels.

5.3.1 Policy

Owing to their ability to survive without water for long

periods, camels are kept in remote pastures untouched

by other domestic animals. Being out of sight, they

have suffered from being out of mind too, and have

been neglected by both government and donors.

There is now an urgent need to realise the potential

Fig 5.1 Women play an active role in milk trade while men are key in management

84 85

CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

In what ways can camels be considered

environmentally friendly?

How has tradition contributed to gender roles and

why?

How can camel welfare be better promoted?

Discuss the causes of conflict within your

community and with your neighbours and ways

in which they can be resolved.

Discuss conflict between charcoal burning and

camel rearing.

How do human rights issues affect camel

production?

What is drugs and substance abuse?

Discuss the future of camel rearing in the face of

global warming, climate change and environmental

degradation

production and management. Of course, gender roles

differ in different communities.

Training tips

While discussing the cross-cutting issues, the

following questions can be raised:

How to mainstream gender and other cross cutting

issues into the camel production system?

Gender issues especially in the arid lands are not

fully understood by many stakeholders including

policy makers, and quite often they are not given

due attention – what should be done?

More capacity building on cross-cutting issues – in

which specific area is capacity building required?

The authors of this manual would like to thank the Government of Kenya

(GoK) through the Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI), Kenya Arid

and Semi-Arid Lands (KASAL) Research Programme, the Ministry of Livestock

Development (MoLD), the ASAL - Based Livestock and Rural Livelihoods

Support Project (ALLPRO), Veterinaires sans Frontieres Switzerland (VSF

Suisse) through PSEC and Enhanced Livelihood in the Mandera Triangle

(ELMT) and the Kenya Camel Association (KCA) for supporting the

development of this very important camel service providers’ manual.

Special thanks to the camel keepers, the 63 participants of the camel Training

of Trainers (ToT) course (annex) and 39 Camel Service Providers (CASPROs)

trainees (annex) for validation of the information in the draft manual; Simon

Ndonye, Boniface Adala, Nicholas Muema and Koskei Kirui for the illustrations

as well as Alfred Karanja for the graphic designs.

Lastly the African Development Bank (ADB), the European Union (EU),

United States International Development Agency (USAID) and Wellcome Trust

are acknowledged for funding.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Fig 5.2 Healthy people mean healthy camels Fig 5.3 Effects of HIV AIDS on camel management

Programme

Overview

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CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS CAMEL MANUAL FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS

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Camel Husbandry and Production, best practices from FARM-

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X6172e/X6172e00.pdf

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Kenya Vol III,8, Republic of Kenya, Ministry of Agriculture,

Livestock Development and Marketing, Nairobi, 230 pages

[This is the most relevant reference for camel keepers in

East Africa! REPRINTS ARE AVAILABLE FROM KARI

PLEASE CONTACT KARI HEADQUARTER LIBRARY in

Nairobi-Kangemi, Kaptagat Rd.]

FAO, Basic Biology and Anatomy of the Tsetse Fly. ftp://ftp.

fao.org/docrep/fao/011/i0535e/i0535e01.pdf

Farah, Z. & A. Fischer (editors) (2004), Milk and Meat

from the Camel, Handbook on Products and Processing, vdf

Hochschulverlag AG, ETH Zuerich, Zuerich/Singen,

Switzerland 2004

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FARM-Africa at Nairobi University pp 23

REFERENCES AND

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