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DIGITAL COMPUTER
NEWSLETTER
OFFICE OF NAVAL RESEARCH
Vol. 16, No.1
(Includes Vol. 14
No.4 and Vol. 15
Nos. 1-4)
MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES DIVISION
Gordon D. Goldstein, Editor
January 1964
(Period of October
1962 thru January
1964)
CONTENTS
Page No.
EDITORIAL POLICY NOTICES
1. Current Publication Plan
2. Editorial
3. Contributions
4. Circulation
1
1
1
1
COMPUTING CENTERS
1. National Bureau of Standards, National Standard Reference Data
SysteIl1, Washington 25, D. C.
2. National Bureau of Standards, OIl1nitab, Washington 25, D. C.
3. U.S. Navy Aviation Supply Office, Inventory Control Advances,
Philadelphia II, Penl"!-sylvania
4. U.S. Navy Finance Center, IBM 1401/1404/7070 SysteIl1s Application,
Cleveland 14, Ohio
5. U.S. Navy Finance Center, IBM 1401/1404 Satellite COIl1puter SysteIl1
Uses Modified IBM Multiple Duty PrograIl1, Cleveland 14,- Ohio
6. U.S. Weather Bureau, General Circulation Research Laboratory,
Washington 25, D. C.
COMPUTERS AND CENTERS, OVERSEAS
1. The English Electric COIl1pany Ltd., Process Control COIl1puter
SysteIl1, London, W.C.2., England
2. Ferranti Ltd., Atlas 2 COIl1puter, London WI, England
3. General Post Office, LEO 326 and LEO III COIl1puters, London E.C.1,
England
4. Institute of Technology, COIl1puting Center, Karlsruhe, GerIl1any
5. LEO COIl1puters Ltd., LEO IlIF, London W2, England
6. Instytut Maszyn MateIl1atycznych, ZAM 2, Warsaw, Poland
7. Shape Air Defence Technical Centre, COIl1puting Center, The Hague,
Netherlands
8. Standard Elektrik Lorenz A.G., DT 12 Data TransIl1ission SysteIl1,
Stuttgart, GerIl1any
MISCELLANEOUS
1. COIl1puting Devices of Canada
Ottawa 4, Canada
2. National Bureau of Standards,
Washington 25, D. C.
3. National Bureau of Standards,
Washington 25, D. C.
4. National Bureau of Standards,
Ltd.,
Tact~cal
2
4
6
7
9
10
13
13
16
17
17
21
23
23
Moving Map Display,
27
Projects FIST and SAFARI,
29
Foreign-Currency Scientific PrograIl1,
Real Printing, Washington 25, D. C.
Approved by
The Under Secretary of the Navy
25 September 1961
31
31
NAVEXOS· P - 645
Editorial Policy Notices
Your contributions will provide assistance in
improving the contents of the publication, thereby making it an even better medium for the exchange of information between government
laboratories, academic institutions, and industry. It is hoped that the readers will participate to an even greater extent than in the
past in transmitting technical material and
suggestions to the editor for future issues. Material for specific issues must be received by
the editor at least three months in advance. It
is often impossible for the editor, because of
limited time and personnel, to acknowledge
individually all material received.
CURRENT PUBLICATION PLAN
Because of staffing problems the Digital
Computer Newsletter was not published in October 1962 and during 1963. Commencing with
this issue, however, the normal quarterly schedule is being resumed.
To assist our readers in maintaining continuity in the state of the art, this issue is devoted entirely to material scheduled for previous issues. The April 1964 issue will be largely
current contributions, but there will still be
some earlier submissions which could not be
included in this issue.
CmCULATION
EDITORIAL
The Newsletter is distributed, without
charge, to interested military and government
agencies, to contractors for the Federal Government, and to contributors of material for
publication.
The Digital Computer Newsletter, although
a Department of the Navy publication, is not
restricted to the publication of Navy -originated
material. The Office of Naval Research welcomes contributions to the Newsletter from
any source. The Newsletter is subjected to
certain limitations in size which prevent publishing all the material received. However,
items which are not printed are kept on file
and are made available to interested personnel
within the Government.
For many years, in addition to the ONR
initial distribution, the Newsletter was reprinted by the Association for Computing Machinery as a supplement to their Journal and,
more recently, as a supplement to their
Communications. The Association decided
that their Communications could better
serve its members by concentrating on ACM
editorial material. Accordingly, effective
with the combined January-April 1961 issue,
the Newsletter became available only by
direct distribution from the Office of Naval
Research.
DCN is published quarterly (January, April;
July, and October). Material for specific issues
must be received by the editor at least three
months in advance.
It is to be noted that the publication of information pertaining to commercial products
does not, in any way, imply Navy approval of
those products, nor does it mean that Navy
vouches for the accuracy of the statements
made by the various contributors. The information contained herein is to be considered
only as being representative of the state-ofthe-art and not as the sole product or technique
available.
Requests to receive the Newsletter regularly should be submitted to the editor. Contractors of the Federal Government should reference applicable contracts in their requests.
All communications pertaining to the Newsletter should be addressed to:
GORDON D. GOLDSTEIN, Editor
Digital Computer Newsletter
Informations Systems Branch
Office of Naval Research
Washington, D. C. 20360
CONTRIBUTIONS
The Office of Naval Research welcomes
contributions to the Newsletter from any source.
1
Computing Centers
National' Standard Reference Data System
National Bureau of Standards
Washington, D. C. 20234
The National Bureau of Standards has been
given responsibility for administering the National Standard Reference Data System recently
established by the Federal Council for Science
and Technology. The System will provide critically evaluated data in the physical sciences on
a national basis, centralizing a large part of the
present data;.compiling activities of a number
of Government agencies.
data on 16 important properties (such as specific heat, viscosity, thermal conductivity, and
vapor pressure) for 13,150 compounds. The
average percentage of compounds for which
data were available covering any property was
5 percent,. and for only one property were as
many as 11 percent of the compounds covered.
Undoubtedly many additional data on these compounds exist in the literature, but until they have
been evaluated and compiled they· are of little
value to scientists and engineers as a whole.
The National Standard Reference Data System represents an attempt to solve an important part of the general problem of communicating scientific information to users. Its aim
is to develop a storehouse of standard reference data to assist in the advancement of science, technology, and the national economy.
This result is to be achieved through a broadbased, comprehensive effort by scientists both
in and outside government.
.
The National Bureau of Standards, as well
as other organizations in this country and
abroad, has been active in the compilation of
standard reference data for many years. However, in view of the great accumulation of unevaluated data over the past few years, the
present accelerated production of new data, and
the urgent needs of American science and industry, it has become apparent that a substan-:
tially greater effort, planned and coordinated
on a national basis, is· needed.
"Standard reference data" is defined to
mean critically evaluated data on the physical
and chemical properties of materials, authoritatively documented as to reliability, accuracy,
and source. Tabulations of such data are of
great value to the scientist or engineer who is
designing an experiment or equipment, for the
individual worker is thus relieved, in part, of
the necessity of searching the literature and attempting to evaluate data in fields in which he .
is not expert. Also, through study and analysis
of standard reference data, areas of science in
which additional work is needed become more
clearly defined, and relationships not previously apparent are recognized.
The National Standard Reference Data System (NSRDS) will consist of a National Standard
Reference Data Center at NBS, and various other
Standard Reference Data Centers in other Government agencies and at universities, research
institutes, and other non-Goverriment organizations. In order for such centers to be a part of
the NSRDS, they will be required to meet quality
standards established by NBS. However, the independent and operational status of existing
critical data projects will be encouraged.
Umortunately it is often difficult or impossible to locate the data that are needed for a
specific use. In a recent study by the American
Institute of Chemical Engineers,l three commonly used sources 2 of standard reference data
were analyzed in terms of the ava.ilability of
The initial emphasis for establishing new
standard data compilation projects will be in
subject-matter areas where no effort -is now
being applied or where the existing effort falls
far short of meeting important needs of government, science, or industry.
lR. A. Peterson, W. M. Carlson, N. E. Dahl,
and R. H. McBride, "Roadmap.to Physical
Property Correlations," Am. lnst. of Chemical Eng. National Meeting, Cleveland, Ohio,
May 7, 1961.
2Chemical Engineering Handbook, ,edited by J.
Perry (McGraw-Hill, 1950); Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 41st ed. (Chemical Rubber
Publishing Co., 1959-60); and International
Critical Tables (McGraw-Hill, 1927-29).
2
An Advisory Board will review and recommend policy relative to the operation of the
NSRDS. It will include, among others, representation from the National Academy of Sciences, National Science Foundation, and Federal agencies engaged in research and
development.
the output services will be provided by the SRD
Center and will eventually include:
1. Periodical Service designed to keep the
user up to date on new data acquisitions in the
SRD Center. It will provide information on the
data available in the Center (but will not provide
the data themselves) by means of a monthly
newsletter and by annual and semiannual reviews of data acquisitions.
The NSRDS will be conducted as a decentralized operation across the country, with central coordination by the National Bureau of
Standards. As presently planned, the program
will consist of three parts: an input from scientists in many different locations, a central
source of the evaluated data at NBS, and an output sy stem geared to the needs of the nation's
scientists and engineers.
2. Subscription Service in which the user
pays to receive all available data on a speCific
subject on a continuing basis. These data packages will be designed to meet the needs of specific industries, industry groups, or Government research and development programs.
3. Referral Service which will handle narrow, one-time requests for data by referral to
the files of the SRD Center. In general, this
service will take care of needs that are not met
by the other output services.
Input
The input will come from scientists who
are comprehensively reviewing the literature in
their fields of specialization and critically
evaluating the data for ultimate inclusion in the
storehouse of standard reference data. These
scientists may be in universities or in industrial or Government laboratories; some will be
at NBS. They will work singly or in small
groups oriented to the traditional scientific disciplines. At the same time other scientists,
Similarly located, will be engaged in experimentally determining the standard reference
data that do not exist in the literature. Clearly,
the interplay between the two groups must be
close and continuous.
4. Correlation and Prediction Service for
computing values wherever possible in areas
where some data exist, but where requests
come in for specific information not contain~d
in the SRD Center. Values will be computed by
making use of correlations based on molecular
structure and the properties of related compounds.
5. Mathematical and Statistical Service
which will offer mathematical and computer
techniques to customers for evaluating new data
for subsequent inclusion in the files of the SRD
Center or for individual use. This service will
also provide techniques to assist in the Prediction and Correlation service.
'
Central Core
The central core will consist of the Standard Reference Data Center at NBS, where the
evaluated data will be located, in punched cards,
on magnetic tape, in notebooks, in many other
forms, all mechanized for storage and retrieval.
A review and control office will label the incoming data as to relative quality and reliability. The SRD Center will classify the data into
as many major and minor categories as are required by the needs of the data users.
6. Aperiodical Products including tabulations, review monographs, review papers, computer card decks, and computer tapes. These
will constitute the formal end products of the
SRD Center.
Output
7. Summary Reviews to provide a rapid
assessment of the state-of-the-art in fields
where there are few data but which must suddenly be explored because of scientific breakthroughs or crash programs.
The output will take the form of a series of
services aimed at different technical levels and
tailored to the needs of various segments of industry. In general, it, will be oriented toward
the application of the data, rather than toward a
field of science. According to present plans,
In planning the details of the program, the
needs of American industry, academic scientists, and Government laboratories must all be
ascertained and taken into account. Undoubtedly
limitations in funds and manpower will require
3
establishment of a priority system of some kind.
In choosing work to be undertaken from such a
vast field, the Bureau will be assisted by the
Advisory Board, interagency panels, expert
consultants in the subject-matter areas, and
working committees of the scientific and engineering societies, and industry associations
that are active in the field of critical data.
It is expected that ultimately a large fraction of the senior scientists at the Bureau will
participate in the work. In addition, the Bureau
plans to invite distinguished scientists to spend
some months at the Bureau, using its technical,
administrative, and information retrieval services for the purpose of producing critical reviews and compilations.
OMNITAB
National Bureau of Standards
Washington, D. C. 20234
OMNITAB, a computer prpgram that permits scientists and others unfamiliar with programming to communicate with a 7090 computer
using simply written sentence commands, has
been developed by the National Bureau of Standards' U.S. Department of Commerce. OMNITAB,
the work of Joseph Hilsenrath, Philip J. Walsh,
and Guy G. Ziegler of the Bureau staff, is used
for the calculation of tables of functions, for
solutions of non-linear equations, for curve fitting, and for statistical and numerical analysis
of tabular data. The ease with which OMNITAB
provides access to the computer makes it a tool
that will pave the way to more rapid computation of routine laboratory problems.
checked for validity, and one-shot jobs can be
done with a working program.
OMNITAB, by allowing the user to prepare
his own data for processing, has accomplished
several useful ends:
1. The computer is now as readily available as a desk calculator, because of the .ease
with which problems can be formulated for solution.
2. Problems that, in the past, may have
been withheld from the computer because of the
need for programming, can now be solved in
greater detail and in less time than formerly.
Most computers require that a program (or
code) be prepared before even a relatively simple problem can be run. These are usually formulated by a speCialist. The necessity to learn
a programming language forms a bottleneck in
the man-machine system. This is especially
true for university students and for the average
experimental or theoretical scientist or engineer. OMNITAB removes this bottleneck by allowing the user to communicate with the machine directly through simple sentences made
up of numbers and familiar English words.
3. The responsibility for the data, both its
accuracy before going into the computer and the
types of operations to be performed on it, now
rests solely with the person who is most familiar with the problem-the scientist.
4. Programmers who formerly spent considerable time devising routines for relatively
straight-forward problems will now be free to
handle more important tasks.
A wide variety of mathematical and manipulative procedures are available in the OMNITAB
routine. In addition to the basic arithmetical
operations, there are provisions for raiSing to
powers, use of logarithms to base 10 and base
~, elementary and special functions, curve fitting, integration, differentiation, interpolation,
and many others. The program has a capaCity
of 7200 results, arranged in 36 columns of 200
rows each.
OMNITAB was designed and written primarily for those persons whose problems are
normally performed on desk calculators. An
underlying motive for its creation was to relieve these people from routine day-to-day hand
computing. OMNITAB gives them,a means of
direct man-to-computer communication in a
language they best understand. OMNITAB, however, is by no means restricted to this special
group of personnel-it can also be a valuable aid
to professional programmers. With OMNITAB,
various sec·tions of problem analysis can be
checked independently in order to determine
proper programming procedures, data can be
A "statistical analysis" package, which
computes the average of a set of numbers (200
maximum) and 30 statistical measures related
to the average, disperSion, randomness, and
4
other properties of the distributions, has been
incorporated in the program. This analysis,
which takes only a fraction ,of a minute on the
machine, should have a beneficial standardizing
influence on the statistical analysis of laboratory data.
instructs the computer to add the product to
data already in column 4.
Function generation is achieved by such
sentences as:
LOGE OF COL 4, MULT COL 2, ADD TO
COL 7;
The instructions to the computer, as well
as the data to be manipulated, are prepared for
entry to the machine on punched cards. Simple
sentences are used to indicate the allowed operations. For example, one instruction in a
series might read
ERROR FUNCTION OF COL 1, MULT BY
1.8735, STORE IN COL 5; and .
TAN OF 1.8 RADIANS, MULT BY COL 3,
ADD TO COL 7.
MULTIPLY COLUMN 3 BY COLUMN 4,
STORE IN COLUMN 5,
Other mathematical operations are obtained
by such sentences as:
or, in abbreviated form
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF COL 3,
WEIGHTS IN COL 2;
MULTIPLY 3 BY 4, STORE IN 5,
or even shorter still as
DERIVATIVES OF COL 2, USE 5 POINTS,
H = 1., STORE IN COLS 3, 4, 5;
MULTIPLY 3, 4, 5.
FIT COL 2, WEIGHTS IN COL 3, VECTORS
IN COLS 1, 4, 5, 6;
The figures in a column can be operated on
by those in another column or by constants.
The presence of a period after a number indicates that the number is to be read as itself,
whereas the absence of a period indicates a
column of numbers. Thus the two sentences
POL YFIT COL 2 WEIGHTS IN COL 3, USE
5TH DEGREE POLYNOMIAL;
PLOT COLS 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, AGAINST COL 1;
and
ADD 2. TO 3, STORE IN 4; and, ADD 2 TO
3, STORE IN 4
DIFFERENCE COL 3.
have different meanings. In each instruction,
the last figure indicates a column in which the
results are stored. Each sentence gives a
unique command for a specific type of operation,
a series of commands being necessary for the
computation of a problem (see attached example).
Additional features of the program include
a variety of manipulative operations, flexible
input and output formats, and options to punch
cards, plot graphs, abridge tables, and the like.
Finally, a built-in dictionary permits OMNITAB
to accept instructions not only in English but in
French, German, and Japanese as well.
The result of an operation can be stored in
a column or added to the data already in a
column. Differentiation of these two procedures
is accomplished by the inclusion of an extra
"MULTIPLY" term to provide cumulative multiplication. For example,
A typical problem and the OMNITAB instructions for its solution are presented in
Table I.
Table I. Typical Problem and
OMNITAB Instructions
MULTIPLY COL 2 BY COL 3, STORE IN
COL 4
Compute the Einstein functions:
-G = -In(l - e- X )
H
= xe -x (1
S
= -G + H
- e - x )-1
X
2
C = x e- (1 _ e- x )-2
will result in the product of this operation being
cut in column 4 by clearing that location prior
to storage.
MULTIPLY COL 2 BY COL 3, MULTIPLY
BY 1., ADD TO COL 4
for x = .01(.01)2.
5
List of OMNITAB Commands
RAISE COL 3 TO -1., MULT BY COL 2, ADD 5
MULTIPLY COL 5 BY COL 1, STORE IN 5
ADD COL 4 TO COL 5 STORE IN COL 6
DIVIDE COL 5 BY COL 2, MULT BY 5, ADD 7
X
HEAD COL 1/
G
HEAD COL 4/
H
HEAD COL 5/
S
HEAD COL 6/
HEAD COL 7/ CSUBP
FIXED POINT
5 DECIMALS
PRINT 1,4,5,6,7
LIB 7,10000
IDENTIFICATION IDLSENRATH 4-19-62
TITLE 1 EINSTEIN FUNCTIONS
GENERATE .01(.01)2.00 IN COL 1
NEGEXP OF COL 1, STORE IN COL 2
MULTIPLY· COL 2 BY -1. STORE IN 3
ADD 1. TO COL 3 STORE IN 3
LOGE OF COL 3, MULT BY -1., ADD INTO 4
Inventory Control Advances
u.s. Navy Aviation Supply Office
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19100
Some of the most advanced techniques in
electronic accounting systems are being developed by the U.S. Navy Aviation Supply Office
(ASO), in Philadelphia. This inventory control
point has, as its primary mission, the supplying
of hundreds of thousands of spare parts to Navy
and Marine aircraft throughout the world. In
order to refine procedures and techniques to
perform its mission effectively, ASW has devised
an impressive data processing system~ This
system has resulted from the imagination and
hard-won experience of a battery of management and automatic data processing specialists.
They have permeated the thinking of ASO administrators, and have been tremendously effective in the support of the Fleet. The considerable effectiveness of the new techniques is
illustrated in the automation of three maj or
areas of the Supply function: Purchasing, Inventory, and Requisitioning.
percentage of the dollars spent on the repair
part support of Naval Aviation, they have resulted in a maze of paperwork and many manhours of effort.
Purchasing
As a result of the new procedure, the 10 to
15 pieces of paper which usually found their way
into a contract folder for a small purchase have
been reduced to only 2. The annual workload on
the printing presses will be reduced by at least
2,500,000 sheets. The manual review and documentpreparation actions which will be eliminated number in the hundreds of thousands
annually.
The new system electronically collates replenishment requirements with available suppliers. This dovetailing of information produces Request for Quote EAM cards for each
item and destination. The cards are sent to the
pertinent suppliers, who affix prices, delivery
dates, and discount terms, and return them to
ASO. They are then reviewed by procurement
agents located in the electronic computer area
to determine acceptability of the quotations (the
only human decision in the process). Acceptable quotes are batched weekly and fed back into
the computer to produce an eight-part, continuousfeed purchase order. A facsimile signature is
mechanically affixed to the purchase order in
this latter operation.
In March 1963, ASO became the first Federal agency to automate the processing of small
purchase orders required for stock replenishment. Automated procedures on a combination
IBM 1401/1410 computer system were implemented which have routinized, simplified, and
expedited the processing of thousands of smalldolla~ procurements, and have eliminated
countless manual processing steps.
Automation has produced the most expedient
and efficient small purchase system to date, and
has allowed valuable purchase talent to be applied to the large-dollar buys.
Almost 80 percent of the item buys ASO
makes each year are under $2,500 per item.
The number of individual item buys is steadily
increasing, as a result of stringent fund restrictions, and the increase in the number of
parts used in complex modern weapon'systems.
While these item buys constitute only a small
.Information Storage and Retrieval System
For computer inventory control. operations,
the trend is turning away from the magnetic tape
6
as the principal data storage medium and towards the magnetic disc or drum, because of
the almost instantaneous accessibility of the
latter, provided the number location or address
is known. The random access capability is essential in the processing of daily transactions,
which arrive in no ordered sequence, or in the
rapid compilation of a list of associated items
which are scattered throughout the files.
Automatic Interim Requisitioning
The success of the random retrieval experiment has started an accelerated program of
advanced automated techniques to harness the
speed of the new system to other supply procedures. Using a much larger IBM 1301 Disc
Storage Unit attached to an IBM large scale
1410 computer, it has provided automatic processing in a certain range of the interim consumable parts requirements (approximately 350,000
items in number) without manual intervention.
As each field requisition is fed into the computer
system from the transceiver network, it searches
out activities which are storing supply material
not required for local needs, and based on a
geographical proximity table, it automatically
prepares the shipping directive to have the material sent to the requiring activity. This directive is transmitted by way of transceiver network
to both the shipping and receiving activities.
Some 30 to 40 percent of current interim
requests are now being automatically processed,
but proposed alterations to the system will widen
the range and increase the rate to 60 percent,
allowing supply managers to concentrate more
effectively on the more troublesome items.
Even when these are passed along by the computer for personal attention, automation helps
by supplying price and other information,
thereby reducing the quantity of manual screening required. Moreover, in the near future
supply managers will have remote inquiry stations to tap the computer storage for up-to-theminute inventory and file information. The
answers to their requests for specific data will
be displayed instantaneously on the screens, or
printed on hard copy printers.
These automatic procedures are also used
on the periodic Consolidated Stock Status Reporting (CSSR) redistribution. Each week a segment of the consumable parts- inventory is analyzed for redistribution purposes by item and
by activity • This results in a report that shows
for each stock item which activities have excesses and which have net requirements. When
this information is fed into the automatic processing procedures, shipment requests are produced that will supply 50 to 60 percent of the
activities in short supply, and this is done within
a matter of hours instead of the 20 days allowed
under manual processing schedules.
ASO has pioneered the latest techniques by
participating in the pilot operation of a realtime data storage and retrieval system developed at the University of Pennsylvania's Moore
School of Electrical Engineering, under contract to the Navy's Bureau of Supplies and Accounts and the Office of Naval Research. This
system, known as the Multi-List, solves the
problem of addressing individual stock items.
It also provides, through address linkage, lists
of stock items associated by a common characteristic but physically scattered through the
file.
Applying this theory to the capabilities of
the IBM 1405 Disc Storage Unit attached to a
medium scale 1401 computer, ASO programmed
a data retrieval system, during the latter part
of 1962 which provides instant access to any
stock item in the file through the Federal Item
Identification Number, the Manufacturer's Part
Number, or other keys. It gives immediate response to a request for inventory stock status
or a request for technical information on such
matters as engineering, units per application,
production lead time, and similar areas of supply and technical data. It produces the answer
on the console typewriter, or it can display it
on one of many small television-type screens
located at various distances from the computer.
It responds to a request for any desired weapons list breakdown with a listing on the printer,
containing the stock numbers of all component
assemblies with pertinent technical data, along
with up-to-date stock status information. An
almost human quality of the system is its ability
/ to make decisions as to the relative importance
of a group of queries, and its capacity to deflect
less important items in favor· of those with
higher priority. The system can receive, and
store for future action, up to 34 requests, while
answering higher priority queries.
IBM 1401/1404/7070 Systems Application
u:s. -Navy
Fznance- Center
Cleveland, Ohio 44100
nance Center's IBM 7070 system is unique in
that for $2,000 less total monthly computer
rental, the new system will perform all the old
functions with greater flexibility and in less
Systems Application
The addition of an IBM 1401/1404 computer
configuration as a satellite to the U.S. Navy Fi7
elapsed time, freeing computer hours for other
applications.
well as other input-output operations could be
performed on a 1401/1404 configuration at a
reduced production cost. The study also revealed that a savings of. about $2,000 per month
could be realized through reduced rental of
equipment and number of operating personnel
required. A recommendation was made to replace the 7070 peripheral unit-record equipment with an IBM 1401 computer system having
a 1402 card reader/punch and a 1404 printer,
capable of printing either on EAM cards or continuous form paper.
Within 6 months after it installed its IBM
7070 computer (in September 1960), the
Cleveland-based Finance Center had two of its
major applications, military allotments of pay
and military pay record processing, on the machine. And in less than 1 year the third application, monthly payments to all U.S. Navy Retired and Fleet Reserve personnel, was added
to make the system 100-percent operational.
The allotment master tape file has one million
accounts and disbursements of $116 million are
made monthly. The retired pay master file has
128,000 accounts and disbursements of $23
million a month. Each year 1,600,000 military
pay records are reviewed by the computer. The
Finance Center's conversion from a combination Addressograph plate, IBM stencil, and EAM
system to the 7070 was highly successful and
for the past year the Center has been processing
100,000 input documents a month and issuing
600,000 card checks and bonds a month at an
annual savings of more than $150,000-and with
greater efficiency and accuracy.
The Department of Defense approved the
recommendation for the 1401 satellite computer on February 21, 1962 and appointed the
Navy Management Office to conduct a Readiness Review, which was held at the Navy Finance Center on May 1 and 2, 1962. In September 1962 the computer was installed and placed
into operation immediately following a system
test to assure that programs previously tested
functioned satisfactorily on the new configuration.
The initial 7070 system, with two inputoutput channels and a 5000-word memory capacity: had peripheral equipment on-line consisting of eight tape drives, a card reader, two
card punch machines, and three IBM 408
printers with bill-feed attachments. This configuration was unique in that relatively slowspeed printers (IBM 408's - 150 lpm) were connected directly to the computer. This, however,
was necessary since high-speed printers for
printing card checks were not then available.
The immediate solution was to use three 408
printers on line, printing two checks per printer
and using the priority features of the 7070 equipment to achieve a rated print speed of 900 lines
per minute.
In addition of a 1401 computer results in a
tape-oriented 7070 system with a console card
reader and eight tape drives on line. Initially,
the 1401 will be used primarily as a "slave" to
prepare tapes for use on the 7070, and to punch
or print output requirements. Except for writing programs for punching and printing checks,
the Navy Finance Center plans on using a multiple duty program, furnished by IBM for most of
its requirements. The. multiple duty program
has the facility to perform card-to-tape, tapeto-punch or tape-to-printer operations, individually, in any combination desired, or all three
operations simultaneously. With this program,
the card read time or print time can be overlapped with punch time, resulting in completion
of two or more operations in less time than it
would take to do them separately.
In July 1961, a study was made to determine the benefits which could be realized with
a satellite computer to perform the input-output
operations (card-to-tape and tape-to-printer or
punch). At about the same time, information
was received that the IBM 1403 printer (600
lines per min) was being modified to print card
checks for the Treasury Department. Investigation of this new equipment for handling card
checks at the Finance Center revealed that the
voluminous check print and print operations as
In addition to the $2,000 per month savings,
the addition of the 1401/1404 has greatly increased the flexibility of the NFC data processing system and released considerable prime
shift time on the 7070 for processing new approved applications generated within the Center
or by other Government agencies. The first of
the outside jobs was put on the computer during
August 1962. It consists of a management reporting systemfor the Office of Naval Material
in Washington.
8
IBM 1401/1404 Satellite Computer System Uses
Modified IBM Multiple Duty Program
u.s.
Navy Finance Center
Cleveland, Ohio 44lO0
Multiple Duty Program
Basic program material consists of a condensed program card deck, system listing, operating instructions, and flow charts. A source
symbolic program deck is available from IBM,
as optional program material, upon request.
When the U.S. Navy Finance Center, Cleveland, Ohio, installed an IBM 1401/1404 computer
system as a satellite to its present IBM 7070
system, it employed a modified IBM 1401 multiple duty program to achieve maximum usage and
optimum operating speeds.
Operating speeds, involving both high and
low density tapes, experienced during testing
and debugging the modifications made to the
program verified the speeds reported by IBM.
Possible speeds for various configurations are
as follows:
The program, #1401-UT-039, permits cardto-tape, tape-to-card, and tape-to-printer operations to run simultaneously in any combination
and to start or conclude any operation while
others continue. The program is made up of
six independent, but inter-connected routines of
binary coded decimal (BCD) card-to-tape, BCD
tape-to-card, tape-to-printer, pure binary
card-to-tape, pure binary tape-to-card, and a
rapid card-to-tape or tape-to-printer routine.
1. Card-to-Tape Blocked One, 800 Cards/min
BCD &
Binary
2. Tape-to-Card Blocked One,
BCD &
Binary
250 Cards/min
Blocked One,
Single
Spaced
600 Lines/min
3. Tape-toPrinter
The Navy Finance Center has modified the
program to provide for tape labels and permit
modifications for speCialized routines while retaining the option to perform more than one operation. The program was modified as follows:
4. Concurrent
Card-to-Tape Blocked One
1. Card-to-Tape
500 Lines/min
Tape-toPrinter
a. Increase blocking factor from one
to five
5. Concurrent
Card-to-Tape Blocked Two
or More
b. Provide operator option to write or
not write tape header and trailer records
(labels)
530 Lines/min
Tape-toPrinter
2. Tape-to-Card
6. Concurrent
Card-to-Tape Blocked One
a. Accept labeled or unlabeled tape
275 Lines/min
3. Tape-to-Printer
Tape-toPrinter
a. Accept labeled or unlabeled tape
b. Allow printer skip and space codes
for both before and after print rather than just
before print.
Blocked One
275 Lines/min
Tape-to-Card Blocked One
145 Cards/min
7. Concurrent
Card-to-Tape Blocked One, 325 Cards/min
BCD
Tape-to-Card Blocked One, 160 Cards/min
BCD
c. Read pre-punched savings bond card
stock from the 1404 bill feed printer and compare with tape record data.
8. Concurrent
Blocked One 325 Lines/min
Tape-toPrinter
Tape-to-Card Blocked One, 160 Cards/min
BCD
4. Provide typewriter input and output
5. Binary routines
a. Remove both card-to-tape and tapeto-card binary routines.
9
The program may be interrupted at any
time to introduce another operation by pushing
the interrupt button on the'1401. At that point,
the effective speeds for the applicable configuration listed in 4 through 8 above would prevail.
As soon as one of these operations is completed, speeds will automatically increase to
that of the configuration remaining.
The versatility of IBM multiple duty program #1401-UT-039 is such that NFC is able
to load this basic program in their satellite
computer at the start of a day and perform a
variety of operations throughout the day without
having to change programs.
General Circulation Research Laboratory
u.s. Weather Bureau
Washington, D. C. 20235
The goal of the General Circulation Research Laboratory is to expand man's basic
knowledge of the atmosphere. Specifically, its
purpose is to express accurately the physical
laws that govern atmospheric behavior.
Developing Techniques For
Studying the Atmosphere
Since the meteorologist obviously cannot
study and observe the entire atmosphere, he
brings into his laboratory a hypothetical atmosphere in the form of differential equations
expressing the basic physical laws. The methods used by the General Circulation Research
Laboratory trace their origin back to Isaac
Newton who formulated the fundamental laws of
particle dynamics. Later theorists extended
these laws to cover fluid motion and applied
them to studies of the atmosphere.
In the Laboratory, Weather Bureau scientists are seeking the answers to many questions.
Why does the atmosphere respond in the way it
does to energy from the sun? How and why does
the atmosphere transform this energy from the
sun through various stages before it is ultimately dissipated? Of all the possible motions
that one can imagine in a fluid such as the atmosphere, why do we observe only a few? What
is the relationship between the circulation in
the Northern and Southern Hemispheres? How
are the stratosphere and lower atmosphere
coupled? To what extent do variations of the
earth's surface determine our climate? Are
variations of the sun's radiation a significant
factor in the weather we experience? If man
is to modify the weather or even to forecast it
for long periods in advance, these questions and
many others must be answered.
At the beginning of this century, V. Bjerknes
of Norway foresaw the possibility of using laws
of fluid motion for weather forecasting. In 1922,
Lewis Fry Richardson, an English mathematiCian, suggested speCific means for accomplishing this, but he estimated that 64,000 people
would be needed to analyze weather observations
and prepare forecasts by this method, which is
now called numerical weather prediction. In
Richardson'S day there were no electronic computers and, in any case, the structure of the atmosphere was not yet known well enough to use
his method successfully.
The atmosphere is a fluid so vast that there
are two million tons of it for each person on
earth. Yet 99 percent of the atmosphere -or
five billion million tons-lies within 19 miles
of the earth's surface, encasing the globe like
a thin skin. This ocean of air is always in motion, driven by energy from the sun. Heated
more at the equator and less at the poles, the
atmosphere constantly tries to equalize its
temperature and in the effort creates wind and
weather. The winds and the weather are steered
by the earth's rotation and, as they move around
the earth, they are also affected by the
topography-mountains, plains, and oceans. The
result is an amazing complexity of weather
events-events that never repeat themselves
exactly.
In the late 1930's and early 1940's, more
sophisticated theories applicable to numerical
forecasting were formulated by a number of
outstanding scientists. Carl-Gustaf Rossby, a
noted Swedish-American meteorologist, developed a formula for predicting the speed of
westerly waves high in the atmosphere. Simply
stated, the speed of a wave depends on the wind
speed, the size of the wave, and its latitude.
During the same period, other scientists
were constructing the first high-speed digital
computers. With the development of the computer and the theory of westerly waves, numerical weather forecasting became a practical
10
possibility. The actual teclmiques were developed at the Institute for Advanced Study in
Princeton, New Jersey, under the direction of
Dr. J. von Neumann and Dr. Jule Charney.
impossible results-weather that has never
been observed-the scientists must painstakingly
search for the errors in their calculations or in
their theory.
These techniques, developed for the purpose
of short-range weather prediction, sooJl showed
their potential for the study of longer period
evolutions of the earth's atmosphere. At the
Institute for Advanced Study, Dr. Norman A.
Phillips undertook the first "numerical" study
of the atmosphere's general circulation, using
hydrodynamical equations to represent atmospheric motion and employing an electronic.
computer to carry out the calculations.
The Laboratory's Models
The models of the atmosphere devised by
the General Circulation Research Laboratory
have been designed to simulate the characteristics of an atmosphere in increasing degrees of
reality. The six models have been designated
Mark I through VI.
The first model, Mark I, was limited to the
motions of the atmosphere between the equator
and 64° N. latitude, using only two atmospheric
levels and only 1300 grid points in each level.
The vertical structure of this model atmosphere
was described as simply as possible while still
permitting the development of storms. The
model ignored the effects of cloud formations
and preCipitation on the evolutions of the atmosphere' and highly simplified the way that solar
energy is made available to the atmosphere.
Mark I has successfully accounted for some of
the most important gross properties of the atmosphere's wind systems, the large-scale
characteristics of middle latitude storms, and \
the role that they play in maintaining the heat
balance of the atmosphere against the sun's
radiant energy.
In 1954, Dr. von Neumann urged the
Weather Bureau to begin theoretical studies of
the general Circulation, and the General Circulation Research Section was established by the
Bureau in October 1955. (The name was later
changed to General Circulation Research Laboratory.) Its aim was to develop a theoretical
framework capable of reproducing and explaining the response of the atmosphere to the
energy received from the sun.
Creating a Model Atmosphere
In constructing a hypothetical atmosphere
or mathematical model, scientists must first
select a system of physical laws that are assumed to be most important in determining atmospheric movements and evolutions. The
physical laws are next expressed in differential
equations, which are analyzed numerically and
programed as instructions for the computer.
The complexity of the model is limited by the
capacity of the computer to be used. The early
models described the motions of the atmosphere
as simply as possible and still stretched to the
limit the capacity of the computers then in use.
All of the Laboratory's later models, the
ones being worked on currently, are global in
scope. Mark VI, with 10,000 grid points in each
of 10 levels including the earth's surface, permits more detailed descriptions of what is happening in the atmosphere than earlier models.
It allows a close approximation of the solar
energy absorbed and reemitted by the earth and
the atmosphere. Also, it takes into account the
surface features, evaporation, snow cover,
cloud formation, and precipitation, so that the
atmospheric evolutions should be calculated
more precisely than with earlier models.
The computer solves the mathematical
formulas and calculates the movements of the
atmosphere over a series of time intervals or
"time steps." That is, upon obtaining the forecast over the first time interval, this result
then is used to proceed to the next, and so on.
For purposes of calculation, the earth is divided
into rectangular grids, and the equations must
be solved at every point on the grid for every
time step.
Additional Research
The Laboratory's scientists sometimes
find that in order to add the correct elements
to their mathematical models they must have a
better understanding of certain atmospheric
processes. They have therefore undertaken
additional research to learn how the atmosphere
absorbs and transmits radiant energy, how the
clouds and precipitation of large storms are
formed, why and how the cumulus clouds of
thunderstorms are formed, the effects of large
The hypothetical model of the atmosphere
is not considered to be correct unless it realistically simulates possible atmospheric behavior
over extended periods of time.
The testing of a model can take several
years, depending on its complexity. If it produces
11
Could its behavior be altered with the relatively
small sources of energy available to man?
Through simulation in the theoretical models,
the scientists will learn what would happen to
world weather and climate if, for 'example,
artificial clouds could be created to reflect
more sunlight away from the earth; if more
carbon dioxide were released to the atmosphere; if more forests were converted to agricultural land or cities; or if artificial black
ground cover could be introduced over large
areas such as the Arctic ice pack.
mountain masses and of the irregular distribution of land and water over the globe, and how
the oceans exchange energy with the atmosphere.
Studies Benefit Forecasting
The research of the General Circulation
Research Laboratory has produced by-products
that are useful in solving forecasting problems.
The first numerical method of forecasting precipitation amounts was developed in the Laboratory. The Laboratory was the first to solve a
system of weather forecasting equations that
more exactly fit actual weather conditions than
earlier methods.
Laboratory Staff and Facilities
Organizationally, the General Circulation
Research Laboratory is part of the Weather
Bureau's Office of Meteorological Research.
Potential Results of the
Laboratory's Work
Dr. Joseph Smagorinsky has directed the
Bureau's general circulation research since the
establishment of the Laboratory in October
1955. Since 1955, the Laboratory's staff has
grown from 2 to 36 and now includes meteorologists, physicists, oceanographers, mathematicians, programers, and computer operators.
For nearly 7 years, the Laboratory was
located in the Weather Bureau's facilities at
Suitland, Maryland. From 1955 to 1957, an
IBM-701 computer was used for studies of the
general circulation. This computer was replaced by an IBM-704 in 1957, and then by an
IBM-7090 in 1960. During the summer of 1962,
the Laboratory moved to the building at 615
Pennsylvania Avenue, N.W., Washington, D. C.,
that houses the IBM STRETCH computer.
In the future, more refined and realistic
mathematical models will demonstrate how accurately the behavior of the atmosphere can be
predicted over various long periods of time.
With better models, scientists hope to solve the
mysteries of climatic change. These models
may one day be used to make the actual longrange weather predictions.
When theoretical models are able to reproduce natural phenomena faithfully enough to be
useful in prediction, the next logical step is to
investigate weather modification, inadvertent as
well as intentional. Where, and how is the atmosphere sensitive to external influences?
12
Computers and Centers, Overseas
Process Control Computer System
The English Electric Company Ltd.
London W.C.2., England
is therefore not possible to schedule the cutting
process in advance. Under manual control the
sawman only has time to carry out an approximate calculation, which often results in short
unsaleable lengths being left at the tail of some
beams.
An on-line process control computer system has been ordered from the Metal Industries
Division of English Electric, Stafford, by the
Shelton Iron and Steel Company as part of the
new universal beam and section mill project at
their Etruria works, Stoke-on-Trent. The system will be based upon the KDN2 computer and
will be manufactured by English Electric-Leo
Computers Limited at their Kidsgrove works
not far from Etruria. It will minimise the
waste from cutting beams and sections into the
lengths ordered by customers by optimising
control of the two hot saws.
The high operating speed of the KDN2 system makes possible the investigation of many
different combinations of order lengths in a
matter of seconds. The computer then selects
the solution giving the best yield, displays the
lengths to be cut in sequence to the operator
and automatically sets the hot saw bench and
stops for each cut.
This is the first digital computer system in
the United Kingdom to be used on-line for direct
control of cut length at a hot saw. As a small
percentage increase in yield from this type of
mill will give substantial returns; it is estimated that the system will regain the capital
outlay in about 12 months.
In addition to the control of the two saws,
the computer tracks each bloom that is loaded
into the reheat furances through the mill and on
to the cooling beds, so that each cut length can
be identified. At the cooling beds a digital display provides the cast number, and two teleprinters the order details.
With a beam and section mill several different lengths are usually cut from each finished
beam, but the length of beam rolled is not accurately known until it reaches the hot saw. It
Six other systems using English ElectricLeo KDN2 computers are installed or on order
for the U.K. steel industry.
Atlas 2 Computer
Ferranti Ltd.
London TV 1, England
Atlas 2 is a new, smaller version of Atlas
(see DCN October 1960 and October 1961), averaging half its size but with a wide choice of
both size and speed. The computer offers up to
131,072 words of core store and can complete
nearly half a million instructions per second.
It provides comprehensive time sharing with
complete program protection. The system can
handle a large number and variety of peripheral
equipments, with multiple operating consoles.
Special purpose on-line devices present no
problem. The machine is fully asynchronous.
Thus future improvements in machine performance are not blockp.d by a fixed cycle time.
Atlas 2 and Atlas 1 (hitherto called Atlas) have
an identical instruction code; programs may be
written to run on either machine. Atlas 2 benefits extensively from both hardware and software
designed for Atlas, and therefore represents
the cumulative experience of Manchester University, Cambridge University, and Ferranti in
computer design.
Storage Systems
B-Store (Access 0-35 microseconds, 128
halfwords)-This store holds indices (modifiers)
13
and has it's own accumulator which can operate
concurrently with the Main Accumulator.
V -store, and so on). In addition three further
bits address a character within a word. A programmer may only use relative addresses, the
base address being determined by the Supervisor
Program. The index register numbers Ba and
Bm are referred to in an instruction. This permits double modification of arithmetic instructions and two-address indexing instructions.
The instruction format is as follows:
V -Store-Data signals and control signals
for peripherals. Lock-out control.
Main Core Store (Cycle 2-1/2 or 5 microseconds, through 4 independent access systems,
32K, 64K, or 128K words).-The core store
cycle time is either 2-1/2 or 5 microseconds
throughout. The independent access systems
permit the overlapping of instructions, successive commands being routed through separate
systems. The Main Store is only sub-divided
for program requirements. Each program is
allocated a multiple of 512 words by the "Supervisor" (see below); at any moment there may be
several programs present in the main store.
There are provisions for lock-out regions
within a program, for peripheral transfers or
other purposes.
Function
10 bits
Ba
Bm
Address Character
7 bits 7 bits
21 bits
3 bits
A typical arithmetic operation is:
0820, 51, 52, 1234
add the floating point number in register 1234 + i + j to the accumulator and
round off, where i and j are the contents of index registers 51, 52'.
Slave Store-There are 40 extremely fast
access registers constructed of tunnel diodes.
Speeds-The time taken by instructions
depends very much on the context because of
instruction overlap, multiple access to the
store, and the use of the slave store. An approximate guide is given below (time in microseconds):
Fast Operand Registers-In 32 of these,
small loops of instructions are automatically
stored while they are obeyed; any loop of less
than 64 instructions benefits from this facility.
The remaining eight registers are provided for
use as fast working space by programs. The
double merit of these 40 registers is that they
reduce store access time effectively to zero,
and also relieve the core store access systems.
2 ~ micro sec.
store
Magnetic Tape System-Although strictly a
peripheral, the magnetic tape system contributes
to the internal store of the machine in that the
Supervisor assembles programs onto magnetic
tape, where they wait to be executed. All magnetic tape transfers, whether of programs or
data, occur in units of 512 words (one block).
The block may start at any core store address,
and may even be scattered over the store in a
number of sub-blocks. A channel facility is
provided which gives automatic buffering and
lock-out during a transfer. Magnetic tapes on
Atlas 1 and Atlas 2 are compatible.
Instruction
Words and Instructions -Words are 48 bits
long. Each instruction occupies one word.
Floating-point numbers of the form x.8 Y have an
8-bit signed exponent, and a 40-bit signed mantissa, equivalent to about 12 decimal digits.
The octal exponent speeds shifting. Words may
be used to hold eight 6-bit characters, numbered 0 to 7.
In
slave
store
5 microsec.
store
Not in In
slave slave
store store
Notin
slave
store
Floating-point
addition
2.0
2.8
2.0
4.6
Floating-point
multiplication
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.5
Product of two
n-vectors
11.9n
15.0n
14.3n
25.9n
Sum power series, n terms
7.4n
9.2n
8.3n
13.7n
Sequence of Operation-Normally the machine is obeying instructions taken from the
mainstore. The address of the instruction being obeyed is held in the Main Control in the
special purpose index register B127 in the
B-store.
Addresses are 21 bits long; of these, 3 determine the type of address (relative, absolute,
14
these activities is to ensure maximum usage of
the system as a whole. The Supervisor also
provides monitoring information; it has two-way
communication with the operator.
If, however, a complicated instruction requiring, for example, the formation of the
logarithm of the number in the accumulator is
required, the function digits corresponding to
the function logarithm are copied into the Extracode Control Register (B126 in the B-store),
and the logarithm is computed by the extracode
routine, which starts at an address within the
Supervisor corresponding to the address in
B126. When the extracode routine is completed, control reverts to the Main Control in
B127.
Automatic Programming-It is planned to
provide compilers for Algol, Fortran, and
Cobol.
The Peripheral System-The minimum
peripheral and magnetic tape coordinators allow for equipment as shown in the following
list. Double the number may be attached with
extra hardware.
Minimum
Equipment
Provision
The extracode facility allows the basic instruction code of the machine to be augmented
to include about 250 additional codes for elementary functions, input and output conversion
and mixed radix conversion. In short, all the
facilities normally thought of as part of a subroutine library are available in Atlas 2 as
extracode functions. If a peripheral transfer
terminates or if any peripheral device requires
access to the computer while either main or
extracode instructions are being obeyed, control is transferred to a third control register
stored in index register B125, known as Interrupt Control. All peripheral transfers are initiated by extracode functions. Interrupt control
is called in automatically whenever an information transfer (usually of one character, column
or line) is required to enable the device to continue at full speed. The transfer is organised
by a part of the Supervisor, whichpasses control back to the interrupted program when the
unit of information concerned has been transferred. In the case of magnetic· tape transfers
the initiation of the transfer is handled by an
interrupt routine, but thereafter the transfer
and a program proceed concurrently, the transfer causing the program to hesitate when access to a word in the core store is required by
the transfer.
Character Input Devices (tape
readers, keyboard inputs) .••..
6
Character Output Devices (tape
punches, teleprinters,
flexowriters) . . • • • . • • • • . • . .
6
Card Readers • . • . . . • • • • • • . • .
Card Punches • • • . • . • . • . • . . • .
2
1
Line Printers . . . . . . . . . . • • . • .
Spare 24-bit channels and 12-bit
channels (for special purpose online devices) . • • . . • . . • . . • ••
2
8 each
Magnetic Tape Units
The basic installation will comprise:
1 Operators' input-output device
3 Paper Tape Readers
3 Paper Tape Punches
3 Off-line Flexowriters
2 ICT Card Readers (600 cards/minute)
1 ICT Card Punch (100 cards/minute)
The Supervisor Program-Permanently
present in the machine is the Supervisor,
whose function is the control of autonomous input and output on paper tape, cards and line
printers, control of autonomous magnetic tape
transfers, execution of extracodes, program
scheduling and the Time-Sharing of the various
parts of the machine between any number of
programs currently held in the core store. The
hardware and Supervisor together ensure that
an error in one program cannot interfere with
any other. The Supervisor reviews the priorities accorded to programs from time to time in
the light of the current situation and the operator's instructions, and will occasionally move a
program from one part of the store to another
to allow space for a large program which has
been assembled on magnetic tape. The effect of
1 AnelexLine Printer (1000 lines/minute}
8 Ampex TM2 Magnetic Tape Units
(90,000 chars/second)
1 Creed 75 Teleprinter on-line for Magnetic Tape System
1 Engineers Console, consisting of
1 Paper Tape Reader
1 Creed 75 Teleprinter for output
Displays and operators keys/switches.
Further peripheral devices may be attached
to Atlas 2; for example, IBM compatible magnetic tape units, mass stores, graphical display
units, and the like.
15
-LEO 326 and LEO III Computers
General Post Office
London E.C.1., England
The Order
The Buildup
The G.P .0. have announced that they have
placed an order with English Electric - LEO
Computers Ltd. for two LEO 326 computers.
The value of the order is over £ 1 million. It is
the largest single order for commercial computing equipment ever placed in the United
Kingdom. The LEO 326 computers will be delivered in 1965.
As indicated by theG.P .0. the two LEO 326
computers will be preceded by two LEO Ill's
(see DCN, July 1962) which they will replace.
The LEO Ill's which are fully compatible with
the LEO 326 will be used for building up the
load of work prior to the arrival of the more
powerful computers. Before even the LEO Ill's
are delivered, work to prove programmes and
to prepare for full scale running will be carried
out on LEO Service Bureau Computers.
The Choice of Equipment
The G.P .0. chose LEO 326 after a stringently planned comparative survey designed to
insure that the equipment chosen had the best
performance in terms of data processed per
unit of cost, both as regards capital cost and
running costs. In arriving at their decision the
G.P.O. considered proposals made by manufacturers of all large scale data processing equipment both in the United Kingdom and also in the
United States and Europe. In all, nearly 20
large scale computers were studied by a team
including G.P .0. mechanisation experts and
Post Office engineers.
The LEO
m
The LEO Ills that will· be initially used are
fast transistorised computers that have been
well received by industrial organisations, local
government authorities, and government departments. Over 20 LEO III computers have
been ordered, 7 of which have been delivered
and are in operation. A large LEO m will be
installed at Southend at the beginning of July for
H.M. Customs and Excise. It will carry out a
variety of work on import-export statistics. A
major factor in the choice of LEO III for this
application was the proven ability to work on
several quite different jobs at the same time.
Later this summer the Board of Trade will install a LEO III in the Census Office at Eastocote, Middlesex, where the main job is related
to the Census of Production. other work includes the census of retail distribution and the
calculation of retail and wholesale price .
indices.
Application
Plans are being made for the computers to
take in work from a number of different Post
Office sources including initially work connected
with repayment of National Savings Certificates,
dividend payments in respect of Government
stock and bonds on the Post Office Register, the
operations of the Post Office Supplies Department, and Premium Savings Bonds. It is not
intended to alter the present arrangements for
the generation of numbers for the monthly Premium Savings Bond draws, which will continue
to be done by "Ernie."
The LEO 326
The LEO 326 is an advanced version of
LEO III, and in the form ordered by the G.P .0.
will be nearly 10 times faster. It will be able
to have access to its fast memory of up to
320,000 characters in approximately one millionth of a second. It can multiply two 10-digit
numbers together in 53 microseconds. It can
take logical decisions as to which alternative
paths to follow in three millionths of a second.
Among the features of LEO 326, as of LEO III,
is its ability to work directly in £ .s.d. as well
as decimal or any other notation.
Support Services
As well as subjecting the computer system
speCification to close study the G.P .0. assured
themselves that support of the highest quality in
regard to systems planI?1ng, programming, operational assistance and maintenance could be
provided by the chosen manufacturer.
16
Magnetic Tapes
A high density magnetic tape system, in the
development of which LEO designers have
played a leading part, will be used. In the system, information will be recorded on 1/2-inch
magnetic tape at a density of 750 characters to
the inch.
Each LEO III and LEO 326 will be equipped
with a bank of magnetic tape decks which will
hold the millions of records with which the
G.P.O. has to deal. The G.P.O. LEO 326 will
be equipped to take information from magnetic
tape at the effective rate of nearly 250,000 alphanumerical characters per second. A special
facility is being added to the G.P.O. computer
by means of the LEO microprogramme facilities to enable the magnetic tape records to be
inspected in the minimum of time to see
whether information refers to a particular rec0rd. It will take 20 microseconds to know
whether a particular transaction refers to the
next record on the magnetic tape file.
Printers
The G.P .0. work will call for a heavy load
of printing. The printers employed will be able
to print lines of 160 characters at the rate of
1000 lines per minute. The LEO Computers
supplied to the G.P.O. will be able to operate
two of these printers simultaneously and on
quite different tasks if required.
Computing Center
Institute of Technology
Karlsruhe, Germany
In 1962 a Standard Elektrik ER 56 computer
was installed at the Institute of Technology in
Karlsruhe, Germany. The purchase was sponsored by the German Federal Research Association. The machine will be devoted mainly to the
training of students and to the needs of all departments of the Institute.
The Karlsruhe installation consists of 6000
words of core memory, 12000 words of drum
memory (excess time 10 ms), 400 characters
per second paper tape reader, and 50 characters per second paper tape punch. Additional
equipment may be added in the future.
A computer word has a length of 7 decimal
digits, which constitute an instruction, a six-digit
fixed-point number plus sign, or a string of
three alphabetic characters plus special mark.
Two successive locations can be processed together and are considered a floating point number or a fixed-point number of double length.
Fixed-point arithmetic assumes the decimal
point to the left of the most significant digit.
The ER 56 (see DCN, April 1960) is a serial, decimal, medium Size, and medium speed
computer. Fixed point addition time ranges
from 0.3 to 0.9 milliseconds and floating point
multiplication from 1.1 to 2.6 milliseconds.
The structural center of the computer is an
electronic cross bar switch, the rows of which
are attached to subblocks (200 or 1000 words
each) of the mainstore, whilst the columns are
connected with the arithmetic unit, the control
unit, auxiliary storage units, and the inputoutput devices. Simultaneous information flow
from all sub-blocks of the mainstore to anyone
of the "Column-units" is possible.
The instruction set comprises some 160
different instructions which give a very powerful and flexible tool for programming. The
flexibility is enhanced by the possibility of using nine index registers and various one-bit and
two-bit sense registers.
LEO IIIF
Leo Computers Ltd.
London W2, England
principle which enables installations to be
tailored to the requirements of the individual
user. Additional storage or peripheral equipments can be added subsequently, should the
work load expand.
The Place of LEO IDF in
the LEO III Range
LEO TIl (see DCN, July 1962) is a general
purpose computer, designed on the modular
17
IIIF, which has eight input-output channels, to
each of which several peripheral units can be
connected via the same assemblers used on
LEO III.
The standard features of LEO III are
buffered input and output and the running of
several programs concurrently to make the best
useof calculating power and peripheral speed.
The name LEO IIIF designates a system with
faster storage and arithmetic than LEO III. It
is compatible in all ways with LEO III particularly in instruction code and peripheral equipment. As in LEO III it can perform arithmetical
calculations in binary, decimal, sterling, or any
other radix. Floating point arithmetic which is
optional on LEO III is standard on LEO IIIF. It
extends the already considerable range of LEO
III to include the most demanding commercial,
scientific, and industrial applications.
In consequence programs can be tested on
LEO III and fully proved, before being run on
LEO IIIF.
The LEO IIIF Storage
Two speeds of store are available with
cycle times of 6 and 2 microseconds. Storage
is supplied in multiples of 4096 words (one division).' A Block of storage on LEO IIIF is a combination of one or more divisions of the same
speed operating as a single unit. Blocks are expandable on site. A Block can be either one to
four divisions of 6- Jlsec storage (4096 to 16,384
words), or one to four divisions of 2- Jlsec storage (4096 or 16,384 words).
Special Facilities
The essential features of LEO IIIF are the
ability to carry out more calculation work in a
given time, and to handle data at a greater rate
than LEO III. This calculating power can be
needed when large files have to be processed at
--high sp~d and many calculations performed on
each item.
LEO IIIF can have one or two blocks of
storage. Both blocks of store are directly ad':'
dressable and may be used for holding data and
program. The programmer treats the two
blocks as comprising a single homogeneous
store in every respect but speed of operation.
Alternatively a LEO IIIF may be specified
in order to obtain the maximum efficiency from
a time-sharing installation where a heavy loading is expected, or to give a considerably enhanced performance on a mathematical calculation involving floating point working.
Where there are two blocks they need not
be of the same cycle time or size. By using a
single division of 2-microsecond store in combination with a block of 6-microsecond store a
substantial part of the arithmetic advantages of
the faster access time may be gained for the
installation as a whole (see Fig. 1).
Compatibility
In general, jobs can be exchanged quite
freely between LEO III and IIIF installations,
provided they are equipped with similar peripheral equipment. No re-programming is required unless the user has added a custombuilt microprogram (computer code action) in
order to meet some special requirement.
This results from the arrangement
whereby the two storage blocks operate independently and may be accessed concurrently.
Thus, when one block is handling transfers of
data, access to the other block is not delayed at
all.
Various features which are optional on
LEO III are standard on LEO IIIF. These include floating point, merge and condense instructions, and lockouts and reservations to
guard time-shared programs from interference
with each other.
There need not, of course, be two blocks of
storage. A LEO IIIF installation is functionally
complete with a single division of store.
High Speed Channels-Provision is made
for fitting up to three 90K magnetic tape channels on a LEO IIIF with 6-microsecond store
(or four channels by special arrangement).
Five 90K channels are allowed with 2-microsecond store.
The 90K Magnetic Tape System (90,000
characters per second) which is available both
on LEO III and IIIF systems can read tapes
written by the less powerful systems and can be
set to write at the lower density required by the
28K and 45K decks, thus giving two-way compatibility.
Provision is made for the conversion of a
number of channels to work at ultra high speed
where more powerful peripheral equipments
such as disc files may require this feature.
All standard peripheral devices with their
standard assemblers can be connected to LEO
18
STORE ACCESS ARRANGEMENT
BLOCK A
1 TO 4 DIVISIONS
OF2-0R6MICROSECOND
STORE
ARITHMETIC
UNIT
COORDINATOR
PERIPHERAL
PRIORITY
CONTROL
BLOCK B
8
1 TO 4 DIVISIONS
OF 2-0R 6MICROSECOND
STORE
CHANNELS
ULTRA HIGH
CAPACITY
CHANNEL
Figure 1. - The Calculator Priority Cont rol allows the
two Blocks of store to be used simultaneously and independently by the Arithmetic Unit, Peripheral Priority Control, and Ultra High Capacity Channel. Competing demands are dealt with on a priority basis.
Arithmetic Speed-The increased processing
power of LEO IIIF depends on the greatly enhanced speed of the coordinator and arithmetic
unit. Computer code actions in LEO III are
carried out by microprograms. This system
now has added facilities which ease the work of
implementing the microprograms and increase
their speed.
The same LEO IIIF arithmetic circuits are
used for any store configuration. As the system
is asynchronous, data and instructions can be
processed as soon as they are available from
store.
Effective Arithmetic Speeds-Action times
are given in Table I for LEO IIIF-2 (IIIF with
2-llsec store) and LEO IIIF-6. The effective
speed with mixed store depends on where the
program and data are held and varies between
the speeds quoted for LEO IIIF-2 and IIIF-6.
Depending on store configuration and the
application, LEO IIIF will be 3 to 9 times as
fast as LEO III. In assessing calculating speed,
allowance has always to be made for store engagement caused by input and output of data.
Size-The electronic circuits used in LEO
IIIF are more compact as well as faster than
those in LEO III. The cabinets required are as
follows; the figures in brackets are the comparable number of cabinets for LEO III, and
show the reduction in size:
Arithmetic Unit
Coordinator
Peripheral Priority Control
Calculator Priority Control
6 cabinets (9)
Engineers Control
1 cabinet
Store (6 Ilsec)
1 to 4 divisions .•
0
•
(2)
1 cabinet (1
(oversize) to 4)
Store (2 Ilsec). . • • • • • • • •. 1 cabinet
per division
Table I. LEO IDF SPEEDS
Refinemen:ts in detailed design may affect certain of these timings. A"erages are used in complex
cases, and only the more significant actions are shown. For comparison the corresponding LEO III
times are included. A line of 120 significant characters is assumed.
Actions
Literal add/subtract
Add
Subtract
Select
Augment
Transfer
Copy
Multiply (e.g., 10x5 digits)
Multiply & add (1 Ox5 digits)
Multiply & subtract (10x5 digits)
Divide (5 digit quotient
Shift single length
Shift double length
Convert (5 digits)
Replace
Collate
Merge
Table look up
Copy Registers
Change sequence
Conditional Sequence Change
Enter Sub Routine
Step & Test Modifier
Indirect Modify
Input-output
Bulk copy
Bulk clear
Double length Arithmetic
Modification Times (average)
Unpack Fixed Field
Unpack Variable Field
Edit
Condense
Edit for G.P. Output
LEO IIIF-2
(2-microsecond store)
( j1.sec)
LEO IIIF-6
(6-microsecond store)
( j1.sec)
3-1/2
4-1/2
4-1/2
4
7-1/2
4-1/2
4-1/2
52
75
75
83
5 + 1 per shift
5 + 1-1/2 per shift
42
7
5-1/2
20 per item
plus 4-1/2
per word
2 per item
9
2
4 or 3-1/2
4
10
6 + 4-1/2 per search
6
12
12
12
18
12
12
126
82
82
90
7 + 1 per shift
7 + 1-1/2 per shift
65
14
12
67 per item
plus 12
per word
6 per item
24
6
6
12
24
14 + 6 per search
14
4-1/2 per word
2 -1/2 per word
8 or 9
2
250,000 characters
per second
300,000 characters
per second
160,000 characters
per second
250,000 characters
per second
1.45 milliseconds
per line
18
12 per word
6 per word
18
6
180,000 characters
per second
190,000 characters
per second
130,000 characters
per second
160,000 characters
per second
3.6 milliseconds
per line
20
LEO III
( j1.sec)
50
34
31
27
50
28
28
480
1000
1000
750
29 + 6 per shift
29 + 6 per shift
300
72
52
175 per item
plus 27
per word'
26 per item
85
18
20 to 66
33
54
23 + 34 per
search
80
36 per word
26 per word
80
15
33,000 characters
per second
26,000 characters
per second
20,000 characters
per second
35,000 characters
per second
10.2 milliseconds
per line
ZAM 2
Instytut Maszyn A1atematycznych
Warsaw, Poland
Working Storage
The ZAM-2 Computer is a small-size electronic digital computer designed for solving
numerical, statistical, and some data processing
computation problems in science, industry,
business, and commerce.
Magnetostrictive nickel delay lines 1024
short words
Average access time: 0.36 milliseconds
maximum
Maximum access time: 0.72 milliseconds
When designing this computer, high reliability as well as flexibility of applications and
extremely simple programming (SAKPautocode) were taken into account. Due to these
advantages, the ZAM-2 Computer is able to
save time and money solving the wide range of
problems in different fields such as Structural
Analysis, Linear Programming, Transportation
Problems, Aircraft Construction, Ship Construction, Geodesic Calculations, Chemical Engineering, Electrical Engineering, Aero and Hydrodynamics' Nuclear Physics, Optics, and the
like.
Auxiliary Storage
Magnetic drum
16,384 long words
1500 rpm
Maximum of two drums may be connected
Clock Rate
The ZAM-2 Computer is constructed of
exchangeable plug-in-units. It contains about
850 electronic valves, 6000 germanium diodes,
and 500 transistors. Only long-life electronic
valves (10,000 hours guaranteed) are used.
405 kc
Basic Computer Cycle
90 /lsec
Internal Structure
Serial computer
Fixed-Point Operations
Synchronous operation
Binary fixed-point arithmetic
Addition: 90 /lsec
Subtraction: 90 /lsec
Single-address instruction modification by
means of one 18-bit B-register
Multiplication: 3240 /lsec
Division: 3240 /lsec
Programming
Average Operating Speed
(Fixed-Point)
Symbolic Address System (SAS)
SAKO-autocode
Addition and subtraction: 100 op/ sec
Library of subroutines (including linear
programming algorithms and floatingsubroutines)
Multiplication and division: 260 op/ sec
Data Input
Word Length
High-speed tape reader, using five channels
36 bits (so called "long word") or 18 bits
("short word"); each long word may comprise two instructions
300 characters per second maximum
Maximum of two readers may be connected
21
Data Output
3. Able to express any problem of numerical and statistical computation as well as some
data processing problems.
High-speed tape punch, using five channels
30 characters per second maximum
Maximum of two tape punches may be
connected
4. Shortens the programming time about
10 times.
5. Eliminates programming errors.
Supply
6. Saves computer idle-work-time needed
to develop programs written in the ZAM-2
Computer Code.
Three-phase, 380/220 v, 50 cps
7. SAKO programs easily read.
Power Consumption
8. Programs produced by the SAKO compiler are almost as efficient as those written by
good programmers.
11 kva (approx.)
Outside Dimensions
Component
Length Width
Height
(mm)
Main Cabinet
510
2485
1845
Main Cabinet II
510
2485
1845
Magnetic Drum Storage
770
660
1230
Control Desk
1150
945
1340
Input Device Desk
1090
560
720
Output Device Desk
1090
560
720
510
1730
1845
Supply Cabinet
9. All subroutines of the ZAM-2 Program
Library are adapted to operate in the SAKO
system.
10. All elementary functions are included
in SAKO.
Example of SAKO Application. Tabulating
the function
for x from 0 to 1 with the step 0.1. Results
should be given with accuracy up to eight decimals after point.
The SAKO program appropriate to solve the
problem is the following:
Space Requirements
Approx. 60 m 2
SET DECIMAL SCALE: 1
PARAMETER DECIMAL SCALE: 1
Total Weight
*1) Y=X*2+6xYxSIN(CBR(EXP(X*3+SIN(X))
+LN(SQR(8xXx3+1))))
Approx. 2 "tons
LINE
Automatic Coding System
PRINT (1.1) : X
The ZAM-2 Automating Coding System was
developed in order to lessen the effort and the
time needed to prepare programs. The SAKO
compiler acts as a translator between the user
and the ZAM-2 Computer. The SAKO features
are:
SPACE 10
PRINT (1.8) : Y
REPEAT FROM 1 : X = 0 (0.1)1.0
1. Similar to normal human language.
STOP 1
2. Easy in use.
END
22
ZAM-2 Computer. The SAKO compiler interprets it and PRODUCES A PROGRAM IN ZAM-2
COMPUTER CODE READY TO BE RUN IN ANY
ZAM-2. The program may be taken from the
Computer either in the ZAM-2 Symbolic Code
or in the Internal Binary Form. Details are
available in refs. 1 and 2.
Some details of the ari~hmetic formula
must be explained, namely
x * 2 denotes X 2 ,
CBR denotes cubic root operation, and
SQR denotes square root operation.
The same program written in the ZAM-2 Computer Code consists of two or three hundred instructions. An experienced programmer would
need at least 4 hours to prepare it.
1
L. LU ZASZEWICZ, "SAKO - An Automatic
Coding System," Ann. Rev. in Autom. Progr.
22, 1961.
A. MAZURKIEWICZ, "Arithmetic Formulae
and the Use of Subroutines in SAKO," Ann.
Rev. in Autom. Progr. 2, 1961.
After the SAKO program is recorded on
five-level paper tape, the tape is read into the
Computing Center
Shape Air Defence Technical Centre
The Hague, Netherlands
ground environment systems, and air defense
weapons coordination;
The SHAPE Air Defense Technical Centre
in The Hague installed a 32 K IBM 704 (with
seven tapes) and a 4 K tape 1401 in February
1962. The Royal McBee LGP-30 has been retained. A Chronolog Digital Clock was attached
to the 704 in August 1962 and the Floating Point
Trap Feature in September.
2. Information requirement and decision
models for study of electronic data processing
in integrated command and control;
Current areas of application of the system
include:
3. Reduction of radar flight test data.
1. Systems simulation, such as tracking
studies, technical and operational studies of
Available software includes FORTRAN,
IPL 5, and NELIAC.
DT 12 Data Transmission System
Standard Elektrik Lorenz A.G.
Stuttgart, Germany
Data Transmission over Long Distances
with DT 12-Smooth operation of present-day
industry and public administration is to a large
extent dependent on the speeds at which urgent
information can be transmitted and processed.
This information may consist of data, for example the accounting records collected during
a business day by distant branch offices of an
enterprise, which have to be transmitted to the
central office for processing as soon as possible. These data are in most cases obtained
by machine methods and are evaluated by
computers.
and economical transmission of such data over
existing communication lines, e.g., telephone
circuits. The data transmission system DT 12
solves this problem because it features:
High Speed Operation-The transmission
speed is 600 or 1200 bauds, in compliance with
recommendations of the German Post Office
and CCITT; therewith it meets requirements
for international communications. For comparison: Telex messages are transmitted at a
speed of 50 to 75 bauds.
Error Free Operation-Transmission errors
due to noisy lines are automatically detected,
and automatically corrected by reiterative
The problem faced was to develop a transmission system providing high-speed, error-free,
23
but also for purposes of automatic stock accounting, bookkeeping, and invoicing. The advantages are obvious: Rational and quick processing of orders and minimum volume of
stock -on - hand.
transmission. At worst conditions, one undetected error only will be encountered in 14
8-hour days of operation. With telephone lines
operating under normal noise conditions, this
period will extend to 5 months. Another advantage is that the receiving end obtains punched
tape copies without correction marks (clean
tape).
Traffic-In traffic, e.g., aviation, the DT 12
may be used for the recording of all flight reservations at one centralized office. Booking
data are immediately passed by the individual
agencies to a central booking computer which
is able to report within seconds whether or not
the seats requested are available. This permits immediate customer service, eliminates
the danger of accepting too many bookings, and
renders provision of reserve seats unnecessary.
Independence of the Code Used-Transmission is on an alphanumeric basis; differing systems (input and output equipment) may be
combined.
Universal Application-Any transmission
path suitable for speech transmission may be
used: carrier channels, power lines, or radio
channels. Similar to the telephone toll dialling
service, selection by card diallers is possible.
Operation is extremely simple.
Other applications are weight and balance
dispositions and centralized stock-keeping.
Administration-Tax offices, statistical
bureaus, social security institutions, and the
like, utilize the DT 12 to transmit information
to their headquarters for processing and
evaluation.
Economical Operation-The DT 12 permits
utilization not only of existing communication
networks but also of reduced tariffs, e.g., the
night tariff for a large volume of data. Automatic facilities permit unattended operation of
the receiver or the transmitter.
Universities and Institutes-The DT 12 is
used to exchange information and data as well
as to contact data processing and documentation
centers. Meteorological centers employ the
DT 12 for constant communication with the
weather stations.
Planning With a View to Future Requirements-Input and output speeds of up to 10,000
bauds are admissible. DT 12 transmits data
with any desired coding over telephone lines at
high speed, error free, and rationally.
Industry-Branch plants, for example, may
use the DT 12 to transmit wage accounting records (per piece pay, personnel action notices)
to the central payroll office shortly before wage
accounting date. The information is processed
there (by electronic or electromechanical facilities, or manually) and the completed pay roll
lists are transmitted by means of DT 12 to the
branch plants in extremely short times.
Input-Every information source that can
be stopped and started exactly at any point, may
be connected to the transmitter when suitably
adapted. Punched tape equipment and ferrite
core memories may be adapted to the transmitter at a minimum of expenditure.
Transmitter-Regardless of the code used,
the data to be transmitted are written into block
memories in the form of blocks of uniform
length, and then transmitted blockwise. A disturbed block is repeated until its error-free
reception. In the case of undisturbed transmisSion, block follows block. The transmission
path also serves for speech communication between terminals.
Other applications are production control,
handling of orders, central stock-keeping and
material disposition, and error-free digital
transmission of metering values.
Banks and Insurance Companies-The DT 12
is used to keep central accounting and customer
files up-to-date, to supplement statistical records, and to provide within seconds information
required.
Receiver-The blocks received are written,
synchronously with the transmitter, into block
memories and checked for errors by electronic
facilities. A disturbed block is automatically
repeated. Thus only error-free blocks are
passed to the output equipment via the adapting
unit. The transmission path also serves for
speech communication between terminals.
Trade and Storing-Chain stores, branch
offices, and customers convey their orders to
a centralized stock room with the aid of the
DT 12. The information, or information
carriers; serve not only as ordering records
24
Output-Every output unit that can be
stopped and started exactly at any point, may
be connected to the receiver, when suitably
adapted. Punched tape equipment and ferrite
core memories may be adapted to the receiver
at a minimum of expenditure. A combination of
different input and output units is possible, e.g.,
a tape reader may be used at the transmit end
and a core memory at the receive end.
necessary, the stop may be initiated at an
earlier time with consideration of delays encountered with mechanical input equipment.
Simultaneously with the read-in process, a
counting circuit extracts the check bits, so that
the block may be transmitted without loss of
time. In case of undisturbed transmission,
block follows block.
In case an error occurs in the transmission of a block, a repeat signal instead of a confirmation signal is sent to the transmitter over
the return channel. This signal effects transmission of a blockiength signal sequence (0 signal) instead of the next block. The disturbed
block is then repeated, if required several
times, before resuming normal transmission
cycle.
r:~ 1#n_~
MEMORY
ME;ORY
The transmission system DT 1~ is flexible.
The terminals are made up of plug-in units and
subdivided into the adapting unit, error correction unit, and modulation unit.
I
I
~
I
I
I
I
I
L - - - - - - , r- - - - - -
I
_
RE~E~T
I
..J
04---
SIGNAL
Figure l.---Transrnis sion Logic.
At the transmit end the data to be transmitted are passed, via the adapting unit, one of
the three block memories (1, 2, or 3) which are
cyclically connected to the information source.
As shown in figure 1, the input device works
into memory 3; memory 2 is transmitting to the
receiver while memory 1 (which had transmitted
a block before memory 2) holds the information
until a confirmation signal acknowledges correct reception of the data. Upon arrival of this
signal, memory 1 is erased and made available
for accepting the next block. The error correction unit sends a start signal to the information
source which thereupon commences reading and
supplies to the central control the clock pulse
for reading-in. A clock generator in the modulation equipment produces the clock pulse for
the transmission of the block.
I
'f
~- - Q - - - i
Figure 2.--Receiver Logic.
At the receive end the blocks transmitted
(42 information and 21 check bits) are written
cyclically into the block memories A and B.
Figure 2 shows a block just being entered into
memory A while the contents of memory B
(after a code check had proved correctness)
passed on, via the adapting unit, to the output
equipment. Analagously to the operation at the
transmit end, a counting circuit again derives
21 check bits and compares them with the check
bits transmitted. In case of coincidence, the
Each of the block memories has a capacity
of 63 bits, comprising 42 information bits and
21 check bits. During read-in, the incoming
information bits are counted and the information source is stopped upon arrival of the 42d bit
(information quantity of the block memory). If
25
transmits a repeat signal instead of the confirmation signal over the return channel. The
o block, the transmission of which is initiated
thereby, announces a repetition of the disturbed
block. Only upon error-free reception of this
block is the normal reception cycle reestablished. Synchronism of transmission is
achieved again even after disturbances of any
length.
error correction unit delivers a start signal to
the information output, the information output
equipment commences receiving and supplies
the clock pulse for the read-out of the errorfree block.
During read -out, the information bits are
counted and the output equipment is stopped at
the 42d bit. With consideration of the delays encountered with mechanical equipment, the stop
may be initiated at an earlier time. In case the
code check revealed an error, the output equipment does not receive a start signal. The disturbed information block as well as the following block are erased, instead. The receiver
The transmission system DT 12 does not
require any specific signal code. Counting of
bits during input and output permits reading of
various codes into the block memories. Positions unused can be filled in with zeros.
26
Miscellaneous
Tactical Moving Map Display
Computing Devices of Canada Ltd.
Ottawa 4, Canada
The inadequacy of the counter-type display
for the indication of present position to the pilots
of low-level, high-speed, tactical aircraft has
long been recognized. In order for a pilot to be
effective on a low-level mission, he must be
continuously aware of the relation between his
current flight path and the surrounding and approaching terrain. To meet this need the Tactical Moving Map Display, recently introduced by
Computing Devices, provides for the pilot a display of a brightly lit topographic map, the centre
of which will at all times represent his position
and with a radial vector marking his track. In
addition, to overcome cockpit space limitations,
the versatility of the instrument can be increased
by including optional features which display
track error, desired course, and range to
destination.
for effective aircraft navigation. Track,
course, and range-to-destination are presented
on counters. Track error is indicated by a
triangular shaped pointer which moves around
the circumference of the map display area. To
make good a track to a destination requires
only that the aircraft be steered so that the
track error indicator and the aircraft track line
are made coincident. The pilot is continuously
free to deviate from his flight plan anywhere
within the map coverage area of 1800 x 1800
nautical miles.
Map Display
The maps used for the display are standard
1:500,000 air navigation charts reproduced on
a single strip of 35-mm colour film. This strip
provides continuous coverage of an area 1800 x
1800 nautical miles. A map drive unit within·
the instrument orients the film strip and moves
it automatically and continuously in accordance
with the path of the aircraft. The pilot is not
required to make any adjustments to the display
other than correcting the position when necessary. The map image is presented in full colour
and is clearly visible over a wide range of ambient light conditions. The high image resolution of the system permits easy recognition of
symbols and lettering as small as 1/32 inch.
Map filmstrips of operational areas can be
prepared by Computing Devices of Canada or
by any other suitably equipped facility.
These features can be added without increasing the size of the basic instrument. The
design of the instrument has been strongly influenced by considerations of the operational
stresses imposed on the tactical pilot. The result is a semi-automatic navigation instrument
which requires a minimum of manipulative actions on the part of the pilot. Anyone of a wide
range of sensors and navigation computers including Computing Devices Position & Homing
Indicator (PHI) or Global Lightweight Airborne
Navigation computer Equipment (GLANCE) can
furnish the necessary inputs.
Present Position Indication
The display consists of a 5-inch diameter
screen upon which a correctly oriented colour
image of the map is projected. Present position is indicated by a small fixed circle in the
middle of the screen. As the aircraft moves
over the terrain the map image moves correspondingly along the track line and past the
present position circle.
Look-Ahead, Destination Insertion
and Position Up-Dating Facilities
In the AHEAD mode, the pilot may select
any direction and manually slew the map to display any area. In this mode the range and
course counters will display the range and bearing of the ground feature located in the· present
position indicator relative to the aircraft's actual position. Manually controlled map movement is achieved by the use of the course and
range control knobs on the unit face. The map
display, at command, automatically returns to
Steering Indications
The unit also presents an integrated display of other information required by the pilot
27
Input Information Sources
present position after the look-ahead operation.
When the mode switch is in the LEG position
the pilot may insert the range and course of his
next destination. When the display is returned
to the TRAC K mode the range counter will count
down the distance to go and the course .counter
will show the bearing to fly. An alternate method
of destination insertion is by means of the PHItype station selector. If an "on-top" position
fix indicates the displayed position to be incorrect, it is possible to up-date the display by
setting the mode switch to the FIX position and
adjusting the range and course controls. When
the display is not in the TRAC K mode a limited
memory storage facility ensures that no position information is lost.
The map display unit is operated in conjunction with a coupler unit which transforms information from different types of sensors and navigation computers into a form suitable for the
map display unit. An optional feature for the
computation and display of range and bearing to
destination can be furnished if the navigation
computer does not provide these as outputs.
Specifications
Operational Limits:
Range Counter
1000 nautical miles
Course Counter
Display Controls
Track Counter
On the pilot's instrument, map orientation
is slaved to the aircraft track. It is possible
however, to orient the map to North at 12 o'clock
by depressing the spring-loaded course knob.
Heading orientation can be provided in lieu of
track orientation if desired. In both operating
modes the current track of the aircraft is shown
by a radial line from the centre of the display.
A map' scale control enables two map scale
factors, 1:500,000 and 1:1,000,000 to be selected. The 1:500,000 scale is provided to enable the pilot to distinguish detail of topographic
features for low altitude work and provides a
viewing radius of 17 nautical miles from present position. The 1:1,000,000 scale provides a
viewing radius of 34 nautical miles. The
AHEAD feature extends this viewing radius to
any range the pilot may desire, within the limits
of the equipment. Additional controls on the instrument enable the pilot to set the brightness
level of the map image. An optional automatic
brightness level of the map image. An optional
automatic brightness feature can be provided to
maintain the brightness level, relative to ambient light, at any desired setting.
Area of Coverage
1800 X 1800 nautical
miles (approx)
Maximum Speed
2000 knots
Power Requirements:
114 v, 400 cps, 55 VI
26 v, 400 cps, 35 w
28 v dc, 185 w
Weight:
Display Unit
10 lb (approx)
Computer Coupler 12 lb (approx)
Dimensions:
Display Unit
6 x 6 x 11-1/4 inches
Computer Coupler 3-9/16 x 19 x 7 -5/8
inches (3/8 ATR long)
Accuracy Limits:
1 mile + 1/2% distance flown
Alternate Display Capability
Environmental
Performance:
Supplementary flight information other than
topographic map detail can be incorporated on
the film strip for display at will. Typical of
these alternate displays are target or airport
approach data, emergency operating procedures
and air traffic control procedures.
'
Display Unit
MIL-E-5400E Class 1
Computer Coupler MIL-E-5400E Class 2
28
Projects FIST and SAFARI
National Bureau of Standards
Washington, D. C. 20234
creating a need for many more skilled technicians. This, in turn, has led to continuing
recruitment and training problems in the services. The resulting high cost of maintenance
has increased the importance of reliability and
maintainability as criteria in planning and accepting new electronic equipment.
Project FIST
Engineers at the National Bureau of Standards (U.S. Department of Commerce) have devised FIST (Fault Isolation by Semi-Automatic
Techniques),-a troubleshooting-system that approaches the ultimate in simplicity. Intended
for use on modularized electronic equipment,
this system is being developed for the Navy
Bureau of Ships by Gustave Shapiro, George
Rogers, and Owen Laug of the NBS staff. It was
described to key personnel concerned with
equipment maintainability in government and
industry at a one-day seminar held at NBS
September 12, 1963. Now being applied to a
naval radar equipment, the system promises,
when more widely adopted, to have far-reaching
consequences in training and procedures used
for maintaining electronic equipment.
Now being applied experimentally to a first
equipment, the new trouble-shooting system is
expected eventually to have an impact on the
maintenance of military and other high-reliability
electronic equipment comparable to that resulting from modularization. The system, figure 1,
consists of a small, hand-carried general purpose test instrument together with the special
circuits and receptacles built in as part of the
prime equipment being tested. The test instrument has a red light, a green light, a test plug
on a cord, and a self-test receptacle; it includes
four voltage comparators and logic circuitry.
The operator can check tester operation at any
time by plugging it into its self-test receptacle.
The amount and complexity of electronic
equipment used in the military services has
multiplied greatly in the past two decades,
SIGNAL INPUT
MODULE
UNDER
MODULE OUTPUT
TEST
TRANSFORMATION
NETWORK
_ ~!!!M.f EQ~MENT-..!.E~T ~E.!. ~NTERFACE"_
CONNECTOR
TEST
TEST CELL
GOOD
BAD
INDICATORS
Figure 1.
29
CONNECTORS
circuitry and the indication. The comparator
drives a zero-crossing detector circuit which
operates the green (good) indicator light if the
comparator output changes polarity and crosses
zero. Failure of the comparator output to reverse polarity (indicating a module characteristic exceeding either limit) causes the detector
to energize the red (bad) indicator.
In use, the test set, which occupies only a
fifth of a cubic foot, gives a green (good) or a
red (bad) indication when plugged into each test
receptacle at which a test is possible. The
module is within tolerance if a good indication
is obtained. If neither indicator lights-the notest response-this indicates that all needed inputs are not present at the module. The operator can test the modules in any order with a
uniform simple procedure for all types of tests.
He can save time, however, by first plugging
into each group test receptacle to localize the
area of failure, and then into the constituent
module receptacles to find the defective module.
A simple one cell test set would consist of
two input amplifiers, identical except for one
having a switch selecting its input from either
end of the tolerance resistor; two peak-to-peak
detectors to rectify the signals; a differential
dc amplifier to compare them; a zero-crossing
detector; and logic circuits. Four such cells in
each test set permit the simultaneous measurement of interacting module parameters. The
test set operator needs no skill or training to
identify and replace the failed module; he need
know no more about electronics or the equipment being tested than the maintenance man
who replaced the electric light bulbs. The
technicians are called in only if the "bulb
charger" is unable to find the malfunction, as
in the case of faults in cabling or connector
wiring.
Circuits needed by the system to adapt
module operational parameters for good-bad
indication by the test instrument are in the
prime equipment. They are being designed
with subminiature components on printed circuit boards, so they can be mounted on the backs
of the module test receptacles. All of these
transformation networks are passive, permitting
the measurement of properties such as ac and
dc voltages, frequency, amplification, voltage
waveforms, impedance, frequency response, and
a variety of other electronic and physical measurements. Each transformation network operates to permit each desired operational and circuit parameter to be sensed as small voltages.
Project SAFARI
The test set operates by comparing two
voltages for each test, such as the input to an
amplifier module and its output. The design of
the transformation network is such that it converts the amplifier input and output signals into
voltages of comparable magnitude provided that
the amplification is within design tolerances.
The test set comparator determines whether or
not these voltages have comparable magnitudes.
FIST design techniques not only carryon
the maintenance revolution already started by
modularization, but have already sired a project
promising an even mo re radical change in
maintenance. This is Project SAFARI (SemiAutomatic Failure Anticipation Recording
Instrumentation), a-system of measuring and
recording equipment performance. SAFARI
consists of a tester, much like the FIST tester
except that it presents performance figures in
a graphical form using a device for recording
and viewing module performance as a function
of time.
The output signal is actually obtained alternately at opposite ends of one of the resistors in
the attenuation network, the components of which
have such values that the normal attenuated
voltage is obtained at the high end of the tolerance resistor for a module of the lowest acceptable gain and at the low end for the highest-gain
module acceptable. Any module of this type
having a gain between the acceptable limits
must produce an output signal that is greater
than the ideal level when sampled at one end of
the tolerance resistor and less than the ideal
at the other end.
Project SAFARI uses equipment performance measurements obtained from a test device
similar to that of FIST, but which in addition
graphically plots successive measurements for
comparison with an established rejection level.
The rate at which the performance approaches
this level can be easily monitored and the
module replaced before the rejection level is
reached. This procedure could add a new order
of reliability to electronic equipment that is
used where reliability is the greatest
consideration.
The comparator input is switched alternately between the ends of the tolerance register, so that its output changes polarity in testing
a module characteristic within the specified
limits. This makes for simplification of the
The greatest impact of the FIST troubleshooting system is expected to be in alleviating
30
equipment failures can be troubleshot by means
of FIST, repaired by module replacement, or
anticipated by SAFARI, the number of failures
that respond to these techniques is expected to
be sufficient to greatly reduce the burden of
troubleshooting and repair now performed by
technicians.
the shortage of capable electronic technicians,
by enabling unskilled personnel to do many of
the required tasks. Secondary effects will be a
higher level of dependable operation due to
better maintenance, reduced numbers of technicians to be trained and the accompanying possibility of creating a small elite corps of technicians, trained in greater depth. While not all
Foreign-Currency Scientific Program
National Bureau of Standards
Washington, D. C. 20234
Scientific groups iIi underdeveloped countries working under NBS contracts have shown
that they can extend the research capabilities
of the National Bureau of Standards (U .S. Department of Commerce) and American industrial and scientific interests in addition to
raising technological levels abroad.
program-a total of $1,500,000 thus far-were
appropriated under a special section of the
Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance
Act of 1954. It is expected that grants and contracts will continue to be awarded as relevant
proposals are received.
The opportunity to participate in this program arises from the Agriculture Trade and
Development Act of 1954, which enabled many
foreign countries to buy surplus U.S. agricultural products and pay for them in local currency rather than in dollars.
This fact is one of the first conclusions to
emerge from the Bureau's new Foreign Currency
Program. In the year and one-half since the
program was instituted, NBS has awarded 27
grants and contracts to support technical projects in India, Israel, and Pakistan. According
to Dr. Franz L. Alt, coordinator of the program, each grant or contract promises to contribute to one or more of the Bureau's basic
needs, such as more accurate standards of
measurement; compilation and measurement of
critical data or standard reference data on
physical constants and properties of materials;
or improved methods for high precision
measurement.
As these foreign currencies accumulate,
the United States can use them for a variety of
purposes, but only in the country in which they
originated. When these funds exceed the normal
needs of the U.S. Government, as has happened
in a few countries, the Congress may authorize
the use of some of the surplus for scientific
purposes. This is why NBS has been limited to
three countries, although the program may, in
the future, be extended to a few others.
Most of the projects were developed by
scientists in the three foreign countries with
the cooperation of their Bureau counterparts.
Each proposal was accepted on the basis of its
contribution to the Bureau's mission, its general scientific merit, and its cost in relation to
the funds presently available.
This program complements the work normally conducted by the Bureau although most of
the projects would not have top priority at this
time. All of the studies, however, represent
work that NBS should be doing and would ultimately have to do and pay for in dollars if
foreign currencies were not available. Since
this research can be conducted now, the Bureau
gets the advantage of top level scientific re.;..
search which meets timely and definite needs.
Salaries for scientists and assistants,
equipment, travel, and other costs of research
can be provided by the grants. Funds for the
Real Printing
National Bureau of Standards
Washington, D. C. 20234
"Experimental Transition Probabilities for
Spectral Lines of Seventy Elements," using an
IBM 7090 computer and the ¥ergenthaler
With the cooperation of the Mergenthaler
Linotype Company, the National Bureau of
Standards has prepared a volume, entitled
31
Linofilm System of photographic type setting
equipment.
were used to produce direct offset printing
plates from which the book was prepared.
In the future the output magnetic tape will
be run through a converter which will produce
15-channel paper tape which in turn will become the input to the commercially available
photo composition machine.
The tables in this book were composed by a
photographic composition machine controlled by
the output of the digital computer. The computer
generated a magnetic tape containing all of the
printed material, including column headings,
decimal tabular material and page numbers. In
addition the tape contained the necessary printing instructions for font selection and page layout. This output magnetic tape then became the
input to the photo-composition machine which
produced auto-positive films. These in turn
The fact that it is possible to use many
different fonts, to adjust point size, to use superscripts and subscripts, and so on, in fact to
do anything that is done by the present hot lead
techniques, suggests that this technique will
have wide application.
32
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