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ED 220 916 -EA 014 833

TITLE Technology and Education: Policy, Implementation,

Evaluation. Proceedings of the National Conference on

Technology and Education (January 26-28, 1981).

INSTITUTION Institute for Educational Leadership, Washington,

D.C.

PUB DATE 81

NOTE 328p.; For individual papers, see EA.014 834-843, EA

014 845, EA 014 848, EA 014 850-855, EA 014 857-864,

EA 014 866-872, ED 201 312, ED 205 197, ED 205 212,

ED 206 270-271, and ED 208 871.

AVAILABLE FROM Institute for Educational Leadership, Inc., 1001

Connecticut Avenue, N.W., Washington, DC 20036

($20.00, hardcover).

EDRS PRICE MF01 Plus Postage. PC Not Available from EDRS.

DESCRIPTORS Change Strategies; Computer Assisted Instruction;

*Computer Oriented Programs; Consortia; *Educational

Change; Educational Cooperation; Educational Radio;

*Educational Technology; *Educational Television;

Elementary Secondary Education; Government Role;

Instructional. Materials; *Material/DeVelopment;

Nontraditional Education; Postsecondary Education;

Teacher Attitudes; *Technological AdVancement;

Telecourses 1)-

ABSTRACT .

.Thirty-nine papers on the place of technology in

education are'collected in this volume of conference proceedings.

Several themes run through the collection, appearing in different

combinations in different papers. Among the major topics discussed

are the applications of computer technology to different aspects of

instruction and school administration; the uses of broadcast and

cable television and radio and of videostechnology in on-campus and

off-campus instruction; And the formation of,consortia of educational

institutions to share the costs and benefits4ssociated with-

courseware development and disseminAtion. Other major issues

considered include the nature of the changes that technology will

bring about in,traditional and nontraditional education; the role of

the government-in developing educational technology; the concepts

Affecting the develoOment of effective courseware) and the effects of

educators' attitudes on the adoption of new equipment and methods.

The .1% ajority of the papers consist of informed opinions or

gaper' ized analyses of the status of educational technology, while

others Iscribe specific programs or suggest techniques for

implementing and applying technology. (PGD)

************** ********************************************************

Reproducta s supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made *.

from the original document.

** ************** ***************************************************

-kit:awartsour OF IDUCATION

NATIONAL INSTRUTE OF EDUCATION

EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION

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A1113

mnisism

(Proceedings olthe National Conference -on

Technology and Education'

January, 26.28, 1981)

$ponsored by:Institute for Educational Leadership, Inc.

In cooperation ISitk American Associatice of-Junior and

Community Coiloges; American Aiiciciation kr Higher

Education; Association for Educational-Communications

and Teclmoloey; American Association of State Colleges

and Universities; American Association of School Admini-

strators; Corporation kr Public Broadcasthw Emerson

College; Joint Council on EducationaaelecoMmuricitions;

National AssocifitiOnof State Universities and Land Grant

Colleges; National School Boards Association; National

Science Foundatiom-National Public Radio; PUblic Broad-

casting Service; and National TelecomMunicatiorm aed

Information AdministratiOn.

Library of Congress-Catalog Card No. 81-81832

CopyrigM ° 1981 by. Inttittite for- EdUcational Leadership, Inc.

For Information:

Institute for Educational Leadership, Ine

1001 Connecticut Avenue, N.W.

Washington, D.C. 20036

Manufacturedin the United Slates of America

'Edited desiMed, and produiced by Information Dynamic:a, Ine.

Contents

Congressional Perspectives on Information Technology

George.g. Brown, Jr. vii

Developing Technology to Enhance the

Educational Process

,Allan E. Hershfield 1

Educational TechnologyThe Congressional Perspective

Fred-W. Weingarten . 16

Technology and the Changing Ec8nomics of Education

Robert H. McCabe 22

Changing Organizational Structures to

Capitalize on Technology

Joseph I. Lipson 29

Public Telecommunications Policies and

Education's Options

Frank W. Norwood 35

Investing in Computer Technology:

Criteria and Procedures fa System Selection

Fred T. Hofstetter 45

New Public Broadcasting Programs and Services

Dee Brock 54

Computers/SoftwareMore for Less

Dorothy K. Deringer 63

Matching Educatibnal Neale with Available Technology:

,What is HapPening in the Rest of the World

Clifford H. Block 71

Securing Teacher Acceptance of Technology

Doris K. Lidtke 80

Effeetiveness of Technology in the Schools

Public and Taxpayers Response

Catherine E. Morgan 90

The South Carolina Telecommunications System

Thomas L Stepp 97

Higher Education Uses of TV and Ridio

Peter J. Dirr 103

Making the Cue for Changing Public Policy

Norman E. Watson 108

Faculty, Response to the Use of Technology

Dello K. Beal 115

Evaluating the Use of' TeChnology in Education

Kuala Anandam 126

Managing Technological Change in the

Dallas Public Schools

Nolan Estes 139

Managing Technological Change fit

Montgomery County, Maryland

Homer Elseroad 145

Managing Technology Change "MECO

A Management History"

John E. Haugo

Managing the Development of the Public Telecommunications

Center, Spokane, Washington

Walter Schiar 15 9

The Consortium Approach. Preserving College

Decision-Making

Philip C. Dolce j171

Accreditation and Technology Issues

Jerry W..Miller-4 179

Deploying Educational Technology at an Independent,

Urban Institution .

S. A. Guralnick 184

The Central Educational Network's Postsecondary Service

Carol A. Koffarnus 196

Evaluating an Instructional System in Mathematics

Steven M. F*ankel 203

A Description of the DAVID Interactive Instructional

Television System and Its Application to

Post High School Education of Deaf

James R. vonFeldt 210

Saninole Community College Working.with

Twenty-Seven Other Institutions

Thomas W. Hobbs 225

Bridging the ChasM Between Telecommunications

and Higher Education

C. Gregory Van Camp 233

Cuniculum's Technology Lag (Curricula and

Television Literacy)

Robert L. -Hilliard 241

"The American Open UniversityOne Answer

to the Technology and Curriculum Lae'

Don McNeil 248

Using TV to Teach High Order Thinking Sldlls

M. Virginia Riggy 251

Computers and CurriculumPromises and Problems

Robert-M. Caldwell 257

How Can We Best Produce Courseware?

Howard Hitchent 271

How Can We_ Best-Produce Courseware?

(The Process of Courseware Development)

Pete!' J. Rizza, Jr. 275

TechnolOgy and'HumanismAre they ompatible?

Edward A. Fdedman- 290

New Directidns for Training Technology

J. D. Fletcher 297

The Influence of Instructional Technology on

Education: Certainties and Possibilities

Christopher.Dede 306

Looking to the Future: What Business Are We In?

Elizabeth L. Young 313

r-17-1 Congressional Perspectives on

cIN Information Technology

cp(N1 Congressman George E. Drown, Jr.

r\J Committee on Science and Technology

Washington, D.C.

L.L.1

I am pleased to discuss a subject of considerable interest to me, both

personally and as a seniof member of the Committee on Science and

Technology of The House of Representatives.

There has been a long-standing involvement of the' Science _and

Technology Committee in efforts to improve the flow of scientific and

technical information and in the application of information technology to

education. I will spare you the ancient history and only summarize the

more recent activity for you.

In 1977 we held extensive hearings on Computers and the Learning

Society. These hearings served an iMportant educational function fOr

both the Congress and the public, raising in a liigh -visibility forum some

fundaniental question about the deVelopment anduse of computer-aided

instmction. Partly as a result of these hearings, Congressmen Scheuer, a

senior member of the Committee, intzoduced a bill, H.R. 4326, calling

for the creation of a National Comthission to study the scientific and

technical implications of information technology in education. The

Science, Research, Technology Subcommittee held hearings in October

of 1979, to gather testimony on H.R. 4326 and more generally on the

Z,.. educational implications of such "new" information 'technologies as

An videodiscs, teletext, and cable and satellite broadcast television, as well

00 as computers.

These hearings made it clear to us that much had changed in the two

Min years Mowing our 1977 hearings. Not only had technology development

S: And application progressed rapidly, but there had also been an important

institutional changethe establishment ofa cabinet-level Department of

Education and the resulting reorganization of much of the federal

educational bureaucrady. (Of course, it now appears at this new

3department may succumb to infant mortalitybut that's another story.)

As a result of our October 1979 hearings, we saw a need to bring

vii

viii Congressional Perspectives

together educators, developers of infonnition technology and the

associated courseware, and policymakers, in a forum to share ideas and

to begin charting a course for what seems certain to be an increasing use

of information technology in the educational tuture. In April of 1980, the

SRT Subcommittee joined with the Subcommittee on Select Education

in two days of hearings, a workshop for 150 participants, aixf atechnology

demonstration. The testimony of those two days left little doubt that

rapid technological advance will continue, creating exciting possibilities

in education and elsewhere. The witnesses and participants also made it

clear that public planning in this area will need to take a broad view of

what constitutes "information technology," and that this technology will

have educational impacts going well beyond our traditional educational

settings.

The April hearings helped to catalyze a number of activities. The

Subcommittees forwatded a copy of the recommendations of the

discussion groups to the Secretary of Education, with the request that the

Department identify initiatives falling within its preview and indicate

proposed actions in these areas. Partly in response to this request, the

Secretary appointed a task force on educational technology charged with

analyzing the Department's current efforts in support of educational

technology and identifying promising areas for future efforts, including

any additional legislative authority that might be needeil. I prefer not to

venture any predictions of the uses the incoming Administration may

make of the task force report.

On another front, the Subcommittees requested that the Office of

Technology Assessment undertake a study of information technology in

education, including an assessment of current levels of activity and

projections of future use and its impacts on educational and social

institutions. This study, an 18-month effort, was approved by the

Technology Assessment Board and is now under way.

The Subcommittees responsible for the April program are in the fm

stages of preparing conclusions and recommendations to the ConeI s

and the Executive Branch. I cannot yet share these w!th you, but I ould

like to share some of my personal views and concerns regr6ing the

future of information technology, in education and elsew re.

I don't think anyone needs convincing that the Inform tion Revolution

is upon us. By one estimate, approximately. half of otVwork force is now

engaged in information-related occupations, r6adIy defmed. It is

already clear that the productivity and innova e capacity of American

industry, which is an important concern of e SRT Subcommittee and a

focus of much of our activity, depends ip 4 critical way on the generation,

processing, and transmission of intr.) ation. In the home or workplace of

1990 and 2000, information te,hnologies will have uses ranging from

routine services such as eleytronic mail and banking to sophisticated

industrial applications ofAmputer-aided design and robotics.

Congressipnal Peispectives

We cannot allow developments of this importance to take place willy-

filly, without addressing some careful thought to what kind of society we

seek to build and what tools are appropriate in building it. Information is

an important national resource, and its impact on our lives has become so

great that we need to begin some serious planning of how best to use this

resource to advance our national goals.

Some of you are aware that I introduced a bill in the last Congress,

H.R. 8395, -aimed at stimulating this kind of planning. The bill

establishes an independent Institute for Information Policy and Reseal&

in the Executive Branch. I believe that the independence of the Institute

would allow it a broads and integrated perspective on such issues as

institutional structure and regulatory policy, a perspective rarely attain-

able within the btireaucratic constraints of the dispersed agencies, now

dealing with information issues. I view the Institute as a transitional

mechanism to facilitate our nation's evolution into an Information

Society. It would serve as a focal point for informationpolicy research

and analysis and would provide a forum for consideration of the

information interests of government, business, and education.

The ways in which information technology is usedor not usedin

our educational processes will have a great deal to do with how well we as

a society are able to cope with the Information Explosion. 'I" , issue of

compatibility of technology and humanism, and I -use the term to

encompass all systems of moral values, is significant. That issue should

be of concern to all of us, since inforznation technology raises some

particularly disturbing questions about these values.

When technological innovations are widely addpted, it is usually

because.they offer a demonstrated, or at least anticipated, enhancement

of productivity. InfOrmation technology is 'no exception to this rule. By

offering students both conceptual ind practical preparation in information

technology, we can help them to function more effectively in the

technology-rich environment of ten or twenty years hence. But in so

preparing them, we need to keep in mind the end goal of increasing

productivitya more humane, just, and equitable society for all. We

need to make a special effort to see that the benefits of these new

technologies are shared by all in our society, and that we do not end up

reinforcing current patterns of inequality. We need to develop in our

citizens the cognitive and social abilities that will enable them to adjust to

and thrive in an environment characterized by rapid change. And, not

least, we need to enhance the intrinsic value and sheer creative pleasure

of learning.

I doubt that any two would agree on the precise characteristics of

an educational- system that could accomplish all that I have just

described, let alone how to create it. It is very likely, however, that most

or even all of you will accord an important role to information technology

in your respective educational utopias.

xCongressional Perspective^

Butit is an inescapable fact that, as of today, information technology

is less pervasive in formal education than in virteally any other social

arena. To get to Utopia from here, we need to understand why this is true.

In my view the main reason is that teachers, administrators, and

parents have not been convinced that information technology can

increase learner productivity or enhance educational quality at an

acceptable cost. In our April hearings, this failure was consistently

attributed mainly to the lack of good courseware. It is true that the

application of information technology to education has largely been a

technology-driven process, in the sense that educational needs have not

been a major impetus in hardware or software development. I think there

is reason to believe that equipment vendors and publishers are starting to

take edncational needs seriously and are on the verge of major initiatives

in courseware development and promotion. The hature and quality of

these initiatives will have considerable bearing on the future of information

technology in education, and it is of the greatest importance that

educators have early and continued involvement in these efforts. The

development of technology must be guided, and its applications shaped,

to make it work toward that end goal of a more humane and equitable

soc iety.

If education is ever to take full advantage of informatkin technology, I

think it's important to understand that fundamental technological

advances, almost by definition, have the capability to change the way we

think about the world. Taking advantage of the magic of information

technology forces us to think about new ways to organize and transmit

knowledge.-Real improvements in educational quality are not likely to

result from using shiny new technology to do the same old things just a

little better. The power of videodiscs, fer example, will be wasted ifwe

simply use them as surrogates for printed textbooks. I see great

educational potential in imaginative uses of telecommunications networks

to "wire" together schools, libraries, and governmental and industrial

centers and to make distant data bases, as well as distant new and

important environments, accessible to home users. With the construction

of sophisticated "knowledge bases," computers will be able to query a

studentperhaps in natural languageto ascertain his level of knowledge

and to guide his explorations, complete with advanced graphics, at an

appropriate level.

There are challenges aplenty in this vision of the futurefor

researchers in cognitive sciences, for courseware developers and educa-

tional administrators, and for policymakers in local, state, and national

government. I applaud your dedication to this important task and urge

you to keep up the fight. As for the federal government, one of the

witnesses at our April hearings suggested that the federal government

should either help in the appli'ation of information technology to

education, or else get out of the way. It is not yet clear to me whether the

Lcj

Congressional Perspectives xi

new Ad Ministration makes a distinction between thise alternatives '

but, as for the Contress, I continue to believe that we.can help.

nt.'s

Developing Technology to Enhance

the Educational Process

'Allan E. Hershfield

Notional University Consortium

College Parit, Maryland

Several thousand years ago, there was an island in the Mediterranean

on whiCh the people hactresched a very high !evel of civilization. One

of the unusual characeiristics of this society was that it had no formal

system of education. Parents "educated' their childreis;in an informal

way, passing ilong the wisdom and history of their society in the course

of day-to-day activitiei.

Lace many other city states of that time, this island state had a large

central market that was both a commercial and social gathering place.

One day, a number of the adults who came to the market. regularly

noticed a fairly large iroup of children had assembled around a young

man named "Thok," and Were listening Avidly to everything Thok had

to say. They witnessed the children ask Thok questions and were most

impressed by the wisdom of Thok's answers to these questions, and by

the question he, in turn, posed to the-Children.

Attic talking among themselves, these adults agreed Thok was so

smart, and Potsessed so much wisdom, all the childfen in their country

should be eiposed to his brilliance. They approached Tholc,_and told

him they would all chip in to pay him a daily fee if he would share his

wisdom with all the children in the societythe children to be

assembled in the market place Monday through Friday from 9 Lm. to

5 p.m. Thok agreed and began to meet with the children daily. As the

adults continued to ao about their business in pie market place, some of

them listened with some enre to Tholes discussion with the yoanpiers,

and they diacovered- that Thok lied a great many thins; to say that

would benefit adults. So, they went to him and asked him if he would

meet with the adults in tha same way he was meeting with the children.

Thok agreed, ind the adults began to meet with Thok in the_ market

place froin 7 p.m. to 9:30 p m._ fives nights a week. (The market was,

afterall, of children t tie the daytime hours.)

This arrangement was successful; and went on undisturbed for

many years. As Thok got older, his voice began to weaken, and one

night, as he was speaking to the adults, a voice from the rear of the

2Enhance the EducationalProcess

market place shouted, "Speak louder, we can'thear you back here."

Thok's voice was weak and he couldn't sPeak louder, but he was quitk

witted. He walked over to a nearby palm tree, took off a long flat leaf,

rolled it up to form a mejaphone-Iike amplifir, and continued his

Presentation using the leaf. This -innovation worked very well. The

rolled leaf amplified Thok's voice and he was able to continue has

teaahing.

This-innovation, the use of the rolled leaf as an amplifier,hecame

routine and no one thought anything about it until one day, the island

received a visitora teacher from a neighboring city State. This visiting

scholar watched Thok speaking with the children in the daytime and

the adults at night, and noted the leaf: In his society, no one used a leaf

to teach, and so he began to ask the question, "Can tbe leaf teach."

Being an inqnisitive soul, and:after gaining the full cooperation of the

\, adults and the children of-the society, he submitted a grant propaal

to one ,of the country's largest, and wealthiest olive merchants. The

proposal laid out an ambitious research project intended to answer the

question, "Can the leaf teach?" The merchant was taken with the

question and funded the research project.

the visiting scholar theh divided the children, who assembled in the

market dyring the day, into two groups. He did the same thing with the

adults who, assembled in the market place at night to hear Thok. Then,

Thok Addressd each group separately. During the day, andone group

hear him through the leaf and the other listened to him without the leaf,

and the experiment was repeated at night. After using an abacus, and

conducting a lengthr- inulti-factoraj analysia, the visiting scholar

- _conchsded_there_ were no significant diflferences betweeh Thók and the

leaf:

The moral of this story is that most. of the- people interested in

instructional technology have focused their attentionon the leaf; and not

4., on Tbok and the students. If we are going to make effective-use of

teZhablogY for educational purposesAT must move away with this

simPlistic faith in technology, and understand how to help Thok learn to

'use technology to imprOve tfie education delivered to studenti. To do

this, we must dome to understand the past and make iealistic plans for the

future. ,,

Vnderstanding Past-.Realistic Future Plans

Breathless 'technologists andfutUrists have been predicting a techno-

logical revolution in education, at, all levels, ever since Motion pictures

appearea more than eighty years. ago. When radio broadcasting

developed in thel 920s, it too was supposed to bring about basic changes

in our educational systems. Then,leaching machines, television and

computers were seen by many as technological innovations that would

bting aboUt fundamental changes in the teaching-learning process.

Having received Ty own formal elementary, secondary and college

education from the 1930s through the 1960sr in a number of different

Is And, systems, ,l_can_state categolically. ihat,..apart_fronLan

Enhance-the Educational Process 3

occasional Encyclopaedia Brittanica film, my contemporaries and I saw

no evidence of this so-called revolution. The educational process through

which we went was very much like the process most young people

experience, today. Although, I daresay, it may have been somewhat

more rigorous.

Undaunted by the gross inaccuracy of previous predictions of

technologically diiven change in elementary, secondary, and higher

education, contemporary oracles are now forecasting video cassettes,

video-discs, lasers, communications satellites and two-way cable systems

will, at last, bring us to the educational millenium.

In spite of the extraordinary impact all of these technological

innovations have had (and are likely to have in the future) on American

societY in general, they have had little influence on what happens in the

average American classroombe it in an elementary or secondary

school or on a university campus. If we looked in on the average

American classroom, today, we would find one teacher of professor

standing in front of a group of students, presenting materials. At the

elementary and secondary school levelS, we might also find the teacher

'posing questions, and accepting responses from students with up-raised

hands. Thus, the educational process in the average classroom has

changed little since before the invention of m6vable type in 1448. Until

books could be reproduced speedily and inexpensively, the only way a

teacher could cojrnunicate knowledge to large numbers of students

rather quickly was to sttnd in front of them and read his or her own hand-

written notes. The students could then make their own notes foi later

study. When Johann Gutenberg began printing books, more than 400

years ago, he made this type of instniction obsolete. ?et, this approach to

education is Still the dominant mode of,classroom instruction, and the

classroom is the place in which most formal education takes place in the

United States'.

Thus, we have a single model of the way formal education takes place,

and the administration of cur schools and universities, with. a few minor

exceptions, is based on this model, as are state and federal policies

related to education. Educational approaches that depart from this model

have little chance of success because they don't fit the preconceived

notions of faculty, administrators, students, legislators, and staff personnel in

departments of education, statewide educational coordinating bodies,

and the-federallovernrnent.

Current Model

Before describing some of the impediments, systemic and otherwise,

that block of effective use, of instnictional technology in American

eduCation, it might be useful to sketch 'out some of the assumptions

implicit in our current model of education about what a professor or

teacher does in preparing to teach a class and in actually teaching it.

4Enhance the Educational Pmcess

Generally, educators do essentially the same thing no matter the level at

which they teach: They plan the course; present the material and make

outside work assignments; stimulate and motivate the students; assess

bow much the students have learned, report the information on how

much the students have learned to a central record keeper and to the

students, and most important, they provide an example to the students of

the way authority figures behave towards .stndents and towards one

another. Most of the_ teacher's time for a given course is deVoted to

planning and preparing the course and presentingmaterial to students. It

is, therefore, imponant to think about whitwe really expect of a good

teacher who performs these tasks extremely well.

Firct of all, the teacher should have mastery ofthe subject matter he or

she is supposed to teach. While the levelsef required mastery will vary

according to the level Of instruction, there is no doubt ourmodel teacher

should be able to select from all the information he or she knows, that

material which is most appropriate for the type of students he or she will

be teaching. Since knowledge changes rapidly in so many fields, this

means the teacher must keep up witk the latest discoveries in his or her

subject area, and must revise his or her course to take into account these

changes, every time the course is taught. 4

Secant-the superb teacher must- determine now bestto structure and

deliver the course so Ihe students will learn not only the material, but alsna.,

learn -how to solve: pmblems and how to be creative and use thee,

iMaiinatic td.

Effective teaching, then is a coinplex series of activities involving

many very different skills. Our traditional model ot education assumes

all teachers have all these sldlls and use them to near perfection. Yet, if

each of us were to reflect backon our own experiences in elementary and

secondary school and in colleges and universities, I suspect most of us

would be hard put to remembermore than one teacher who stimulated

and motivated us, as well as helpingus learn the latest knowledge in his or

her subject area.

From personal experience, r can say when a student has the great good

foMme to come in contact with one such teacher during the course of his

or her education, that teacher usually mikes a permanent, positive

impact on a studenes life. In twentyyears of schooling, I have been lucky

enough to have two such teachersboth of whom taught at the university

level. While I am extraordinarily grateful for having had the opportunity

to sit at the feet, so to speak, of two such great teachers,I ask myself what

about the other approximately 113 teachers who instructed me from

grammar school through two master's degrees and a Ph.D." Very few of

them possessed all the skills our traditional model of education assumes

each teacher to have.

Enhance the Educational Process 5

The Promise of Instructional Technology

The great promise of instructional technology is that it, at last, offers an

opportunity to develop models of education far different from the current

dominant one, and in so doing, make majorimprovements in the quality

and effectiveness of education. We may also be able to use technology to

improve educational efficiency. There is, however, nothing inherent in

thenature ofinstructional technology that guarantees these outcomes.

Instructional television, for example, is used frequently to do nothing

more than transmit What happens in the classroom. When that is done,

the televised lesson usually combines the worst 'aspects of the classroom

experience with the worst aspects oftelevision, without the benefits of

either form of instruction.

The perplexing issue with which all of us interested in improving

education must deal is, given the existence of new communication and

instructional technology, why haven't we been able to use these

technologies to make major improvements in our traditional educational

processes?

Why hasn't the mere existence of innovations in communication and

instructional technology brought about the same kinds , of sweeping

changes in the educational process that the invention of the steam engine

and its precursor inventions wrought when the Industrial Revolution

swept across England and then, much of the rest of the world? Critics,

searching for the answer to this question, frequently point their fingers at

teachers and faculty members, charging them with unwarranted con-

servatism, doworight recalcitrance, and being the major obstacle to

technolOgical innovation in education.

While no description ofimpediments to the use of technology would be

complete without an explanation of the fundamental basis for general

faculty conservatism, let me sketchout some of the systemic characteris,

tics and other types of barriers that make it most impossible for even

those few faculty members who might wish to use instructional

technology to do so effectively.

Comparing the Course Developmeit Processes

A good way to begin is to compare the course development process in

the traditionalinstitution of higher education with the procedures used to

create courses (instructional software) that make full use of instructional

technology.

The course development prdCess in a traditional college or university

is basically labor intensive, involving a single faculty member in the

development of a particular course. Usually,no major capital investment

is requiredexcept that originally needed for buildings, laboratories,

libraries, etc. Apart from an occasional sumnier grant to support a faculty

member while he or she develops a new course, there are no major costs

Enhance the EducatiOnal Process

associated with such-an activity. Most new courses are developed as

they are taughtwhile the faculty member is teaching other courses,

engaged in research, advising students, participating in committee work

and carrying on whatever public service activities can be fitted into a

busy schedule. Faculty are, in effect, being paid a single sum of money to

develop and to deliver a course.

Unlike the traditional course creation process just described, courses

developed to use technology effectively often involve recording an entire

course of much of the material in advance, in one or more formsfilms,

videOs pes, computer programs, programmed texts, audio-taPes, slides,

carefiilly-structured printed materials; etc. The development process for

thisAype of course is different from the one just described, and is not

corsistent with common institutional practice, state policy, faculty and

administrative values and behavior, and the traditional model of

education.

Imagine the reception a group of foreign language faculty members

from three different universities in one state would receive from their

department chairpersons, their deans, or vice chancellors, or the head of

the state's postsecondary commission or chair of the legislature's finance

cpmmittee, if they mtde the following request

Atter careful study and thought, we believe we can make a major

improvernent in the teaching of French by developing a technologically-

based pagan% to be used at our universities, and other universities in,

the state which might wish to buy or rent our materials for on-campus

use, or for off-campus, adult education. We plan to begin by developing

an introductory French course for first-year students. Here L what we

need to create this course.

We (ill three of us) need afull year of released time at- learning

theorist; and instnwtional technologist, two graduate assistants and a

full-time secretary, all at a total coit of $124,000. OW group,

functioning as a course developnieht team, will develop and test an

introductory French course. When we have completed this develop-

ment work, we will need another $150,000 to produce color video

cassettes, audio_ cassettes, computer-based programmed texts and

examinations, controlled vocabulary reading materials and adiagnostic

entry examination to be administered to all entering students. We will

also need $10,000 to hire as consultants the three senior experts in this

field in the United States, as well as several of our colleagues from

other universities in this state. When the course had been completed

and is ready for delivery, our three universities will each have to spend

$50,000 to deliver this course. Moreover, because the students will be

spending a great deal of time working independently with the materialS

produced for this course, and less tithe listening M us live in the

classrootn, our nwnber of student contact hours will be reduced

substantially, but because this course will be used to teach many more

students than we could have taught in the traditional mode, we should

havemduced course loads. If these materials are sold or used outiide of

Enhance the Educational Process 7

our universities, we should receive residual payments similar to those

paid to film and television performers. Finally, we'll need to provide

$15,000 per year for possible annual rvision of a portion of the

materials.

Although this approach to course development may seem over blown,

it is very similar (although not identical) to the development process

used by the British Open University to develop superb, internationally

acclaimed courses that are used by adults who cannot attend a college or

univeriity, on campus as full-time students. The development of one of

these British Open University courses costs more than $500,000.

The example just presented demonstrates only one of many ways of

creating course materials to Make effective use of instmctional technology.

Other somewhat less complex and expensive approaches can be used

with good results. This example is pirticularly useful, however, because

it provides such a stark contrast to the traditional model of course

development.

Nrriers

Now, let me describe some of the barriers that make it ll but

impossible to use a sophisticated course development process similar to

the one just described to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of

higher education.

Current administrative practice makes it impossible to consider

fiffiding eourse development in the high technology mode. Funds are

allocated to departments, and the largest proportion of the budget, 70 to

86 percent, is used to pay salaries. Ideas which do not fit this "bits and

pieces" resource allocation system areexcluded from consideration.

The full-scale, technologically-based course development process is

heavily capital intensivewith very large amSunts of resources being

required to develop a single course or unit. Capital is needed to produce

Ind.test the software: to set up and operate* system to deliver the course,

and to provide funds to update the twenty-percent of the soffirare °Ivan

annual basis.

Few, if 'any, American states, C011eges or universities have any regular

mechanism for funding course development activities of this nature on a

large scale. Development of this type, to the .extent that it does occur,

almost always takes place Is anunusualuception to existing practice.

The only way such heavy capital investments can be justified is for the

course or its various components to be used by very large numbers of

studentsmany more than a single faculty member would normally

teach during one academic term. Let us pursue this point further by

analyzing the situation of one of the three faculty members mentioned in

our earlier example.

Assume a faculty member normally teaches three different three-

credit courses per term, and the average enrollment in each course is 30

students. Using current adminlitrative terminology, the faculty member

would have "generated 270 student credit-hi:Airsninety for each course

(3 credit hours X 30 students @ 90 student credft hours 3 courses @

270)." If the faculty member's salary were S26,000 per year, for a nine-

month contract, and the academic year had two semesters, the direct cost

8Enhance the Educational Process

of instruction in the traditionatmode is almost $39 per student credit

hour ($26,000 V 2.semesters$13,000 per semester V 270 student

credit hours$48.15).

Looking at the high technology model, the costs mentioned above

come tq:

Capital $344,000 for software development

and equipment

Recurring annual costs $ 15,000 updating and deliVery, of

software

,This does not include the -facultY member's salary that is-treated

below. Since the average faculty member would seldom teach three

sections of the same con:* driringone sernester, let us assume two of the

three sections he or she teachesare of the same course, and this is theone

which will be produced using the technological approach to development

In two sections of this course, Lwith 30 students each, the faculty member

will generate 180 student credit hours. The cost for his or her salary,

. apportioned by student credit hours, is still $48.15.1f thetechnoloecally-

based course were to be used only once to teach two sections ofthe class,

the additional costs per student credit hour generated would be

$1,855.55. The faculty member's salary added to that would bring

overall cost to $1,903.70per student credit hour generated. Uweassume

the course will be used five years, without major modifications, (the

$15,000 budget for recurring costs is for minor modifications) to teach

two sections per semester,or foursections per academic year, the faculty

member would generate 1,800 student credit hours, and the annual

capital cost would be $78,800 derived as follows:

Total Annual

One Time Four-Year*AevisiOn .Capital Cost

Capital Cost Cost at $15,000 peryr. 5 yr.

$334,000 + $60,000 = 394,000 5 yrs. @ $78,800

* No reyision required during the first year:

The cost of course development would be $218.88 per student credit

hour. Adding the cost of the faculty member's salary, we arrive at a cost

of ahnost $267.03 per student credit-hour generated, if the course

developed is used only to teach those students the individual faculty

member would have taught anyway. The cost for this form of delivery

would be mcire than 5.5 times thatof instruction in the traditional mode.

The course would have to be usedto teach 3,416 students over a five-

year period, rather than the 600 who wouldnormally be taught, to get the

cost per student credit hour downto $38.44, not counting the added cost

of the faculty member's salary. This analysis makes it clear that the full

scale use of technology cannot result in the more efficient delivery of

educational services within a few univeisities and colleges unless

technology unless technology is usedto displacefacully membvs. This

paes 4.M.ciaTental dilemma.

Enhance the Educational Process 9

The Dilemma of Development

If One were the president of a large manufacturing firm, interested in

increasing .the Productivity of the manufacturing operation, he or she

could- call upOn the research and development section to develop or

aiquire new, and More efficient machines or processes. Once these were

available, management would make the decision to install them in the

factory (assuming there westno legal obstacles such as union contracts);

the workers would be instrult.W on how to operate the new machines;

they wbuld begin- tci operate IfferN and the coinpany *mid benefit from

increased produCtivity, and in most instances, so would the workers.

Unlike the fact*, it is the University's "workers," the faculty, who

mtist develop the software to be used on the computer, the television set,

the teaching- machine, etc. Thus, even those -few -individual faculty

members who might be willing to tryto develop new, More _effective and

efficient-approaches to delivering educational services, would stop very

quickly once they perceived they were being asked to invent the means

by which to put themselves and many of their colleagues out of a job.

Many individuals who push for the wider use of inatructional

technology seldom-Aake into account student attitudes .toward auch

developments. In an Urban-industrial society, increasingly depersonalized

by the use of technology in alrnott every -phase of life, university

students are not.likely to be pleased with an approach to instn4ction

they perceive will qlford -them less face-to-face contact with their

professors. Indeed, there is some anecdotal evidence ,to suggest

substantial numbers of older adults may enroll in exterision courses

primarily to be with other peopleand to have an opportunity to interact

with the professor.

Faculty, too, generally react negatively to what they perceive to be the

depersonalization of the educational process that may result from- the

increased use of instructional technology.

There- are those both within and outside of our institutions of higher

-education who appear to be.breathless_enthusiasts for mediated instruc-

tion as an end in itself. Such individuals take on a variety of formsallof

which with good reason, tend to alienate the faculty.

Absence oj Technology Objectivity

Itiadifficult to find, within most Amerkan universities and colleges,

trained instructional technologigis whOein deal with a -wide- variety -of

technological and non-technological approaches to education with equal

competence, -professionalism and ease. One tends to fmd exPetts in

instructional television, computer-basedinstruction, And audio-visual

equipment such as film and overhead projectors, etc. Each of these

individuag is a devotee of his or her particular form of technology,

"Experts" such as these often lose sight of studenta as the beneficiaries of

andrectimmends -it- vigorously to resolve every pedagogical problem.

the educational process. -

Moreover, faculty, administrators and students have all-t000ften been

frustrated by the failure or inadequacy of both the equipment and the

10 Enhance the Educational Process

software provided by these "experts," and this too eontributes to the

reinforcement of negative attitudes towards the use of technology.

A second, but no less vexing, aspect of the instructional technology.

panacea is frequently demonstrated by a politician, state agency official,

or self-styled-expert who sometimes exhibits a bid case of "mediaitis."

This illness takes at least two forms. A symptom of Type A Mediaitis is a

suggestion that gobs of money could be saved if only "we would putone

faculty member on television, somewhere in the state, and broadcast that

faculty member's sterling lectures to thousands of exPectant and eager

--students." Typt-BsMediaitis is-someWhat-different InthisfOrth of the

illness, an expert spends a great deal of time expoimding upon the need

for a particular type of technologically-based delivery system, e.g.,

broadcast, closed circuit TV, satellite, videodisc, etc.

Faculty Conservatism

-Having described many of the systemic barriers to the use of

technology to improve educational effectiveness and efficieridY, if nav

seems wise to attempt to understand the basis for the university and

college facultY's general conservatism towards new approaches to

instructionboth-technological Mid non-technological.

Because the selection of instructional techniques iS almost always a

matter of free choice by each individual faculty menilier, new approachei

to instruction will onlY be adopted widely if each faculty member is made

aware of a particular innovation, becomes interested in it, tries it,

evaluates the results of this trial, and if pleased with the results, adopts the

approach 'More or less permanently. Very few university and college

faculty Members go through this proceSs of adopting newapproaches to

instruction because their training and experience do not move them in

this direetion.

This is the case because there is a single more or less pervasive model

of excellence in higher educationthe prestigious research university:

Faculty members. who are successfid in such institutior..; emphasize

certain activities and patterns of behavior which are antithetical to

seeking out and using-Information on new approaches to instruction.

These Patterni of ficUltY behavior are also not- consistent-with- the

requirement that the development of high technology education software

is, of necessity, a team effort requiring the close, collegial cooperation of

a variety of professionals.

As graduate students, most doctoral candidates focus their attention

on becoming competent in one or more sub-fields of an academic

discipline and on acquiring the skills needed to do research within that

sub-field. They, also learn, from their faculty mentors, that the primazy

function of university faculty members is to push forward the boundarita

of knowledge in their choSen speciality by doing original researchthe

results of which will contribute to the development of a body of theory

and will be publishable in the most respected scholarly journals in

their discipline. A closely related function is that of communicating the

knowledge they acquire to graduate and undergraduate students.

The emphasis, then, is on highly individualistic, creative, intellectual

Enhance the Educational Process I I

work focused on problems defined by an academic discipline. Judgments

of the quality and quantity of a faculty member's published work are

made largely on the basis of evaluations made by specialists in his or her

disciplinary sub-fields, many of whom are at other institutions of higher

educatipli. These judgments and those of his or her departmental

colleagues are of primary importance in decisions on promotion and

tenure, and to a lesser extent, annual salary increases based on merit. A

faculty member's performance will bejudged by the extent to which heor

she conforms successfully to the behavior pattern described above.

Departures form that, pattern will be punished by negative evaluations.

The reward structure in prestigious,research universities reinforca the

highly individualistic, creative intellectual behavior patterns learned in

graduate school.

The pattern of faculty behavior just described is dominant in most

research universities. It is, indeed, one of the primary reasons for the

preeminent status of our mt5st prestigious universities. Faculty at these

institutions have made extraordinary contributions, to the gowth and

development of human knowledge, and these contributions have been

stimulated by the system just described.

Another major aspect of individualistic faculty behavior and institu-

tional practice is that a single faculty member usually teaches a single

course. This is neither the most efficient nor most effective way to

develop packages of mediated materials which will be used widely. With

respect to the use of mediated materials, it usually leads to "the not-

invented-here syndrome" often expressed by an individual faculty

member not involved in the development of the mediated materials as

"those materials are not of sufficiently high 'quality to meet the

educational needs of my students." (Translation: 'That isn't the way I

would do-it, therefore, it doesn't meet my quality standards.")

Hone cannot expect a technological revolution in higher education to

begin at prestigious universities, is it then possible that other, different

types of American institutions of higher education will make the changes

necessary to move in new directionST-With the possible exception of

some community colleges, the prospects for this sort of change are not

good. The reason for this is that even though there are relatively few

prestigious research universities, *there is a single model of excellence,

in the minds of most faculty members and administrators, and many of

them exhibit all the patterns offaculty behavior found-in die research

institutionswithout producing the quantity, or quality ofpublications

produced by their counterparts at Harvar4 YaleStanfor4 Berkeley,

Wisconsin, Michigan, etc.

These less prestigious American institutions are, the ones which might

be expected to adopt more effective and efficient approaches to

instruction and learning. Most of them have not done so, however, and

All facuk9 members, regardless of the type of institution in which they teach, must be

actively engaged in the pursuit of knowledge. This is the only way they can be sure they are

providing current, accurate information to their students. This does not, however, mean

they must be involved in "state of the art" research in their discipline.

12 Enhance the Educational Process

will not do so Until alternative models of excellence emerge and are

awarded sOcietal recognition. Unless and until that happens Most of

these colleges and universities will continde to emulate the research

institutions in behavior and values. if not in high quality scholarly output.

The suggestions which folio* are intended to help these colleges and

uniYersities wishing to use the high technology mode of instruction-

overcome many of the foregeing barriers.

Policies and Practices Intended to Facilitate

the Use of Instructional Technology

A number of changes -in institutional policies and procedures can

activate faculty to become= involved in the development and use of

instructional technology_ and at the same time, protect their jobs, and

reward them for their efforts. Here are some general stateMents which

might be included in a policy designed to attain the goal:

1. The faculty, students and administration of University

commit themselves to develop and use instructional technology

whenever there is sound reason to believe such technology can

improve the effectiveness and the efficiency of education. Since the

-centetif and-the pedagogical_objectives of all courses do not

necessarily lend, thems&es- to a technOfogicalSteatment-major--

development efforts will:be undertaken only after.discussion by the

-parties involved and general agreement that such efforis-should be

2. No faculty member currently employed will be displaced by

instructional technology.

-3. Within the frameWork of #2 above, technological approaches to

education will be used to:

a. Extend- the capaeity of faculty to ser7 larger numbers of

students More effectively; and

13: Where jiossible and appropriate, to substitute for faculty-

members who are planning on leaving the instinition volun-

tarily; to fill-vacancies created by death; and to begin new

programs or courses for which new faculty would normally be

employed.

4. Productivity gains derived ftom the development and use of

-instnictional_technology, if any, will be shared with:

fa. The faculty members who jiittieipate-in-coursadevelopment

and delivery;

b. The-academic departMent of schools to Which the faculty

mentioned in "a" are assigned; tInd

c. The main funding source for'the instituton (e.g., the state, for

public colleges or universities, and the trustees of independent

institutions). 6

5. The faculty and the administration will, together, develop an

2 a

Enhance the Educational Process 13

institutional policy on ownership and use of mediated materials,

the development of which have been completed .With substantial

institutional resources. This policy will define and protect both

the institutioni's and the faculty member's rights and obligations.

Among these are:

a. The institution's right to recoup funds committed to develop-

ment, in the event there is a substantial external market for the

material produced;

b. The faculty member's right to additional remuneration from

external distribution, after the institution's capital investment

is recouped;

c. The conditions under which the materials may be used bY the

institution in the event the faculty member terminates his or

her employMent;

d. The faculty thember's right to ensure the continued accuracy

and utility of the materials by the regular provision of

institutional resources for annual revision of a specified

percentage of the material (ten to twenty percent);

6. The extent, character and quality of a faculty member's contribu-

tions to- the development of mediated materials will be given

substantial weight in the tenure, promotion and merit review

process; and

7. New means will be developed for assessing the efficiency of

instructional techniques making heavy use of instructional

technology.

While any one who has ever taught in a classrciOm-w6uld have grave

doubts about the utility of the number of student contact hours* as a valid

measure of anything, it is clear such commonly-used measures can be

major impediments to faculty members who might wish to develop and

use high quality instructional software. To do so could reduce markedly

their number of student contact hours.

Obtaining Development Capital and Measuring Efficiency

State and nitional goveinment officials and individuals in the private

sector, interested in stimulating the use of instructional technology, must

create some regular funding mechanism to provide the capital necessary

to develop and deliver instructional software, and they must be willing to

re-examine and discard those measures of efficiency that prevent faculty-

and administrators from developing and using technologically-based

approaches to instruction.

Many American public universities are reouired to reoort the number of student contact

1%ours (the measure of students X the number of credits for each course) to state

\ governments. This statistic is used as a measure of efficiency.

Enhance the-Educational Process

Encouraging =Wider Use of Instructional technology and Avoiding

"The Not-Invented-Here Syndrome"

.Individual faculty members generally have different areas of expertise

within the same discipline, and one is likely to get a mediated course or

unitin which the content is accurate and current if different faculty

members handle that part of a codrse in whiCh they five the greatest

expertise. _A second reason for actively- involving as many faculty as

possible in the development of-a single course is that by doing so, one

greatly increases the probabilitY each of the facultY members will

approve the use of the course: This should increase markedly thenumber

of students who will use the course. Another way to expand even further

the numbers of students and institutions using a course, is to leave out

certain segments or sections of the course, but to suggest some ways that

faculty in other institutions and departments might prepare materials for

a these segmentstluis personaliiing the course and, increasing the

probability these faculty and dePartments will use it Using this "blank

spam" technique is one way of mitigating "the not-invented-here

syndrome," and encouraging creative and individualistic faculty to give

their own personal touch to software developed elsewhere.

To get ab individualistic faculty member to become a full participant in

a group of professionals Working on a common Project, one probably has

to make it possible for that faculty member to work with the group on a

full-time basis, long enough to complete workon the group project Poing

this shout& remove the faculty member from his or her workday

university world and the system which reinforces individualistic behavior.

An explicit orientation may also help the facultymember understand the

difference& between the normal pattern of faculty behavior and-that

required to develop packages of mediated -materials successfully.

Such an orientation might explain that the effective development and

useof instructional-technology is basically a_ team effort which requires

careful planning and the close cooperatian ofhighly skilled professionals

in several fields. First and foremost among these is, of course;the faculty

member. The faculty member is, the content expert responsible for

ensuring that the course goals are realistic in terms of the entry level

=knowledge of the Students; that the content is appropriate to both die

students' entry knowledge level and the goals of the course, and that the

content is both current and aecurate.

While the faculty member mustbe treated as the first among equals,

someone must be put in charge who hit a firm understandingofthe entire

process, and can activate Cboperative effort and who can resolve disputes

in a creative abd non-destructive manner. Whichever member of the

'team can bestcarry out this sophisticated leadership function, stiould be

put in charge of the project In any event, the faculty member must have

the find word on content

Enhance the Educational Process 15

An orientation program during which the points just stated lire made

would help the faculty member adjust quickly to the new circumstances.

This adjustment would be facilitated further if sooperative efforts were

reinforced by group processes and financial rewards.

Both students and faculty must come to understand the advantages

they can derive froni the effective use of instructional technology; what

the limits uf this technology are; and when it should not be used.

The high technology4 capital intensive, mode of couise development

described earlier can best be used for those courses and parts of courses

in which the content is relatively stable, and the teaching-learning

objectives -are fairly clew'. Basic, introductory courses in almost any

discipline other than performance courses in theater arts, music and art

are genirally appropriate for this type of development work.

In these types of courses, the professor's role should be changed, by

use of the high technology mode, to that of a tutor in comparatively small

group, face-to-face interaction, rather than a presenter of material to

hundreds of students assembled .in Massive lecture sections.. The

advantages of this type of faculty and graduate assistant role change

should be obvious tO both students and faculty.

The high 4echnology mode probaply should not be used for.those

courses or parts of courses in which the content is changing rapidly, or in

which students and faculty are studying-or doing research on problems

for which there are no known answers. These would include someiunior

and senior courses and a- good many graduate seminars. One could,

however, probably make a very good case for the high technology

development of introductory research methods and statistics dourses

normally required in many graduate programs in the physical, biological,

and social sciences, and the full range of courses in Many professional

masters programs.

CONCLUSION

Akhough sOme univelsity-level instruction may not be suited- to the

development of sophisticated packages of mediated materials, American

educators are maids% little effort to use instructional technology

effectively, in their regular programs, in those areas that show great

promise. The problems I've described are not insurmountable. They can

and will be overcome, given initiative, imagination, commitment- and

cooperation on the part of the faculty, administration, students and those

governmental institutions that supervise and provide ftmding for education.

The 'technology to improve both educational effectiveness and

efficiency is now available. If educators do uot reorient themselves

quickly to take advantage of this technology, private industry and new

types of non-profit educational organizations will do so.

Educational Technologr- .

The Congressional Perspective

Fred W. Weingarten

Office of Technology Auessment

Washington, D.C.

INTRODUCTION

Even in the Most stable political times, a person would be pletumptuous,

indeed, to attempt to present a Congressional perspective on any topic.

:Who Could speak for more, thin five hundred highly, independent men

and women? And theie- are anything but-stable times on the HU The

Federal role in many, areas of donsestic life is likely to be reasseued, and,

in the view of many observers, education will receive its share of

attention.

Sensing that use of-information teChnology in edema:on:is going to

-present new oppatunities and problems for Federal pahoy makers,

-Congress -has reqUested that the Office of TechnologY Assessment

(OTA)Prepare for it a report on information tecinriogy and education.

This assessment has just started. A report on its initial directionsmight

givesenne sense of how Cengress may choose to look at education policy

in light Of new information technologies, and that task is -the one I will

t\9 undestakelhis morning.

Ic% The Office of TechnologY Assessment

U% The Office Of Technology Assessment is an agency of the Congress. It

is -responsible to both houses of Congress and is dirented by a

Technology- Asiessment Bowl connoting of three members fiun each

N, party, Atom each chamber. Its role is to examine the long term effects of

% -*they dui** regarding technological issues.

OTA' studio,- generally last from severalmonths to:a few years, in

Stk contrast to the generally shorter,' mote tightly focussed studiet conducted

by -the Congressional Researth Service -cc the General Amounting

`44 Office. The agency does not make policy recommendations to Congress,

bht rate; trim to ptoject -as objectively as possible the available

2 /

The Congressional Perspective 17

decisions afict their social, etonomic- and political effects. Each study

Must be requested by at least on6 fiat- committee and approved by the

Technology-Assessment-Board.

The StudyPwpose

Rear.

what has heen said so far:

The Federal Governinent has nothing to de with education.,,it's.

The Defense Department- spends an estimated twelve billion

-dollars on manpewer training.

-The Federal GoVernment has never done anything with the

express intent of aidingeducation per sebut to achieve other

social goals.

The Federal Government pays over ten percent orthe budgets of

local- schixit disocts.

These are just a few, of the eminent: I have colleded in the first few

months of the study, iiictthey illustrate the paradoxes in U.S. attitudes

toward-a Federal educaVon policy that mikes a study such as this so

complex and undertaking

It is clearly possible _that_tbe_new information teehnology_ holds great

prom* kir' traditional edueation. This same technology, coupled with

our evolution into an "Information Society," is also changihg the very

_meaning of educatien, the mechanins for providing it, and the nature of

societal demands for it.

The purPose of this study is to examine these technological trends,

assessmhat they have to offer the educational process, determine how

their are likely to be used, and explore how the Federal Government

might respond'HoPefully, the study will answer the follov4ing questions.

Are there policies that will encourage the use of infonnatidi technology,

are Ihere legislative or regulatory barriers, and est there potential

problems stemming from educational use of infornition technology that

may call for legislative-remedy?

Comniunicating this aisessment to Congress it complicated by the

problem that educational policy is not made solely_ hy,Committees with

the word "Education" in their titles. The Armed Services Committees

must wotrY about manpower, the Civil Service Committees- about the

competence .of Government workers, the= Commerce Committees are

concerned with copyright and the Science and Technology Committees

are concerned with communication policy and R&D. Thistype of cross-

tutting issue isi-theoretically,a particular specialty of OTA. in reality, it

is hird to focus ind communicate sucha study.

Study G.Oals

The study has four major goals:

Assess Existing Federal Interest and Roles: The Federal GovernMent,

18 The Congressional Perspective

even-though not directly responsible for the -schools of this nation, has

many programs that affect them and many interests_ in_ the quality of

education in the United States. What are reasonable objectives for the

Federal GoVernment that may shape policy strategies?

Determine Opportunities and Barriers for Use inthe Schoolr-Many

experts think that the new developments in information technology hold

great promise fertile schools. Tileprcblems ;acing the schools have been_

cataloged in many places. Theyinchide the following:

A declining support, from taxpayers as the percentage Of the

taxpaying population with children in school drops and as the

support- of the middle class for public "education declines.

Increasing pressure -from the Government and the Courts 'to

provide equal access to education for all types of students, racial

minorities, non-Eng,fish,speaking groups, the handicapped, and

other 'such groups. In addition pressures to -sery, more varied

student groups in the traditional sectors oeducation, new

demands for education by women, by the elderly, and by those,

trying to adapt to a changingjob Market, are also creating new

demands on the education establishment.

The increase in labor costs as experienced in all service sectors.

Productivity inereases often depend upon the substitution of

capital for labor. Those activities that haVe not traditionally been

subject- to productivity improvements are squeezed by the

inflationary prestures of labor costs increasing faster than the

overall inflation, rate. .

The need to train more proactive and technologically sophisti-

cated citizens, to _help the U.S. economy and to Provide more

effective citizens in an informatiOn society.

Faced with these pressures, it is only natural that education decision-

makers woukl ask whether the neW advances in information technology

cotild contribute to solving their problems. Can inforMation technology

improve the quality of education? Can it improve access to education on

the parts of those for whom it is difficult because of physical restrictions

or geographical separation? Can it provide better productivity offering an

improved product at lower cost'? At the least, this report should be able to

summarize for The Congress what is known about the potential benefits

and costs of information technology:

Assuming that a set of policy options might be intended to encourage

the use of information technology, it is also important to describe the

barriers that exist to such use. Many have been proposed in the literature

-and ta me in preliminary conversations with exper's. Among them, the

need for teacher training might be pointed out, along with the lack of

sufficient support in the way -of training and service, the existence of

overly restrictive purchasing policies, and ignorance at the higher

Nwdministrative levels of the school bureaucracy.

Cis

The Congressional Perspective 19

A number _of problems that could be characterized as societal, or

Constitutional, in nature need to .be examined. _Many experts have

expressed concern about the long term effects on learners, particirlarlY

children, of rePlacing the classrOom experience by television or cornptiters.

As another example, the use of infonnation iechnology may greatly

increase the amount of record-keeping on students. More records .of

traditional types of information -such as-test scores or other types of

claisroom performance will be stored in machine readable form for !Ong

periods of time. In addition, new ,types of information conderning

thinking processes, psychological diagnoses, and so on inay be collected

and retained. What will be the privacy rights of students under these

circumstances, and what will be the-responsibilities of the schools in

handling this.data. An analogy may be seen in the area of medicalrecord-

keeping, in which hospitals and doctors have been deluged with a

plethora of new legislation and regtilation at both the state and Federal

levels.

Anotherissue will be equity. As information services become a major

industry, information is becoming a significant marketable commodity.

An important question Will concern the degree to which access to some

basic threshold of information literacy is a basic right of U.S. citizenry.

One scenario would hold that the benefits (if they exist) stemming from

the use of information technology in education may accrue only to the

private providers and, perhaps, to the well-off public school districts.

This trend would leave the poorer schools, those serving the poor of

society, in the lurch. Should such a scenario come to pass, the schools

could serve to increase rather than_to narrow the bridge between groups

irr this society,-to provide barriers rather than bridges.

A final-example is the-problem of Federalism. The schools, as the

quote at the start of this paper suggests, have traditionally been regarded

as the preserve of local government. One of the general observations that

have been made about high technology it that it tends to centralize, to

Place a value on thelarge operations, as opposed to the small. True, this

tendency is the subject of endless argument about whether this iinperative

is necessary, but one can observe that most automated systems to date

seem to centralize control. Any Federal policy toward use of information

technology must take into, consideration the possibility that more

national conticol and less local choice over the content and style of

education will result. This centralization may not be onlyon the part of

the Govenuirent, but reflect the influence oflarge publishers, broadcasters,

program_ produCers, and the like. Choice of curricular material may

simply be restricted.

The-Changing Role of Education ,

Evidence mounts that in the firture information society edudation will

be provided by a much wirkr spectrum of agents. Historians of education V

20 The Congressional Perspective

such its Lawrence Cremin have point out that education has, fora long

time, been provided in a number Of environments other than sehools.

These -other providers may be in-a position to exploit the technology,

more quickly and effectively than can traditional schools. The following

examples come to mind:

The investment by industry in training and employee education is

not well-known, but estimates range from $40 billion to $100

billion. We do know that the number is large and growing rapidly,

Surely faster than the budget of the schools. More important than

size, the type of eduCation offered by employers is also changing,

moving toward topics, such as writing skills, that have traditionally

been considered the preserve of the education establishment

The recent White HOUseConference on the Library spent much

time discussing _the importanCe of the library in an information-

sotiety is a purveyor of knowledge rather than an archive,a role

that, again, borders closely on that of the schools.

Many museums, partieularly the relatively new science and

technology museums and the even newer children's musetuns,_

are developing -public setvices that are clearly educational in

nature._

Public broadcasting, radio and television, whose recent emphasis

on cultural programming may be under strong challenge in light

of new cable and broadcast satellite technologies, may return

more closely to their original interest in education. Several

proposals have been floating around that show revived interest in

a- nationwide, broadcast-based educational service.

In the microcornputer market, manufacturers are starting tO

attack the home consumer market directly with educational

devices such as "Speak and Spell" and software packages for

personal computers such as.the Apple and the TRS 80 that are

starting to appear in the home. Videodisks, if a large constimer

market develops, could stimulate a similar trend.

These trends affect Federal policy in a number of wayi. In the

first place, they may- offer opportunities, provided the markets

can be guided or encouraged to develop.

However, these developments may also cause difficult poliCy problems

for The Congress. The public schools may be under even greater streises

than they are today, if an economic, more effective, andmore convenient

ilternative source of education is available to the middle class. To the

extent that the alternative is available to those who can afford it, the role

of the public schools as the educational system of the last resort becomes

vital. And the Federal Government may be called upon to provide the

funds to support that role.

-Thai CohgressionalPerspective 21

Federal Policy

The principal aim of this part of the study will be to determine whatt

Congress may wish to achieve, and to decide what policy levers exist to

accomplish those goals. --

The assessment will develop a limited number of policy scenarios that

appear to befessible and responsive to the various probteiris discussed

above. Among them, expanded in detail, with substantial fme structure to

be added, might be the followinx

A laissez-faire policy that keeps a strict distance between the

Federal Government and developments in education, save for a

few efforts to remove unintended barriers to the developing

educational use of information technology.

Some form of a VoucherAystem-may be adopted that removes

Federal support of the schools directly, but that recognizes the

developing choices of educational style and provider.

The Federal Government could direcdy subsidize the schools in

order to sustain a free public education system and to enable

schools to obtain the new technology they used.

The Government could directly fund the creation of educational

materials, curriculum, television programs, and soon, thitWould

be available to all users.

Agencies such as NSF could greatly expand support for research

and development on information technology for education.

These efforts could include dissemination programs to help

schools get access to the knowledge developed by the projects.

Approach

The Assessment will consist of three stages. The first, nearly

complete,' is a study planning phase. Second, there will be data

collection and analysis, and, finally, apolicy assessment will be done.

An advisory panel of distinguished experts in the field ot education is

being assafibled and will meet shortly to kick-off the data collection and

analysis effort: This work will be conducted by in-house research staff

and outside contractors and consultants,.

SUMMARY

I will close by saying that the success of an assessment such as this will

depend greatly on the quality of help that is provided by die interested

communities,. From experience with other projects at OTA, I can state

with certainty that the report will probably not fully satisfy anyone. It

must present the full possible spectrum of actions for Congress, and

represent the interests of all stakeholders. However, it is the active

involvement of those stakehoklers that assures that their interests are

fairly and completely represented.

.t. 32

Technology and the Changing

Economics of Education

Robert H. McCabe

President Miami-Dade Community College

Miami, Florida

INTRODUCTION

After years of faltering progress, it is_ now reasonable to forecast

substantial growth in the use of technology in-postsecondary education.

Colleges and universities will change dramaticallyin the decade ahead.

A series of factors, incuding operational econoMics, will stimulate

greater use of communications technology. As a basis foç discussing

changes in the'Use of technology, it is important to take a brief look at the

changing clientele and services, Public attitudes towards higher education,

and some considerations in financing

By the end of this decade, the successful postsecondary institutions

will be very different from the present: For one thing there will be more'

older students. For a number Of years state "legislatures have been

awaiting the widely forecastdecines in highereducation enrollment. All

were aware that there are 20 percent fewer eight-year olds than eighteen-

year olds in America today, and that high school enrollments were

already declining Yet, the decline has not materialized. The reason is

that growing numbers of older Americans are beginning college careers,

or returning for continued educational servies on a lifelong basis. For the

lf) first time in _the fall of 1980, there were fewer first-time-1n college

stio students who came directly froni high school than those who did nota

considerable and important-change. More individuals are coming back

'present jobs. In my fields continued education is being required to

on a continuing basis to upgrade _their skills often simply to, keep their

maintain certification or licensure. The paramedical fields are a very

Ct( good example. The average American has three careers during th

444 worklife, and many students_ return to college to facilitate c

career:Many others return for personal development. This ispart* arly

Chinging Economics 23

important to the substantial number of Americans who have jobs that are

not personally fidfdling.

Another major change will be the continued diversification in every

attribute. The older students have more life-experience and:necessarily

more varied, competencies, knowledge, and attitudes. There are more

part-time students; more from previously under-served Minorities; and,

most importantly, more with less academic skill. We are now in _the

thirteenth conseeutive year of decline in -academic skill for American

"-high school graduates as measured by standardized tests. If one uses

1975 norms on standardized academic-tests -with 1980 high _school

graduates, the median score is tenth gildeeixth month. This decline in

skills has profpund impact on colleges, especially cOmifilinitycalleges. It

has brought public concern for the quality of our work, and with it

growing dentand for standardized testing competency-based programs,

and increesed use of assessment and standardized measurement This in

turn is requiring a more directive approach to the educational program,

and the-need for increased information concerning progress for students

and staff'.

Less Academic Skills

Students are coming with less academic skill, and colleges are being

asked to upgrade expectations and raise standards. Thus, colleges are

faced with a critical dilemma which will be very difficult to resolve, but

some tliings are clear. For one, the application of a standard amount of

educational services will not bring a student who is considerably behind

academically to the expected standards. Further, the tremendous

diversity among students will require time variable and individualized

programs. The programs must be more directive, with considerable

control of student flow. Only through the use of communications

technology will these necessary changes take place. I seeno prospect that

appropriations to colleges will be increased sufficient!), to achieve these

ends through the use of additional personnel. Even if funds were

provided, it is doubtful that the-necessary changes in program could be

achieved without utilization of the capabilities of the improved

communications technOlogy.

Cable

There are so many important changes in communications technology,

that for this presentation I will select only a few on which to comment.

There will be many new ways to deliver television to the home, but most

imisattant for education are the growing cable networks. Unlile open

circuit broadcasts,lcable delivery can present specialized fare for low

volume listenership. Even the public television open circuit broadcasters

worry about the impact on programs before and after educational

programs which draw small audiences. Audiences that are practical for

24 Changing EcOnontics

delivery from the standpoint of the educational institution are often

viewed negatively by open circult broadcasters. Cable operators have an

entirely different view. Thus, the spread of cable systems may resolve the

serious broadcast access problems of the colleges.

Vida;

The growth in videotape recorders and the adient of videodisc plaxers,

of course, have important implications for education. At this time -in

Miami there are seven videotape purchase and exchange-operationi

-within a ten minute drive of my home, and prices for exchange are

dropping rapidly. Already more than 4,500,000 homes have videotape

recorders. With the beginning of sales of videodisc players, some

educational discs are being offered for as little as $5.95, and disc players

have fascinating flexibility, particularly for information, storage, and

random access. With regard .to equipment, it is important to us in

education to follow the home market development, as the volume sales

will reduce prices to the minimum, and in the long run it would be well to

think of the equipment in individuals' homes as part of our educational

delivery system.

Computers

-011 the computer front there are two developments that arecf special

interest One is the tremendous gain in power of microcomputers. The

impact is well illustrated with the .Miami-Dade Community College

RSVP system, a combination of CMI/CAI systems which is operated on

a $2 millionmain frame configuration. We are currently worldni with

other institutions to redevelop this system with limited compromiies on

scale, and added capabilities. The new system will requie an $8,000

microcomputer configuration. This will not only make the system more

available in Miami-Dade, but will make it practical for the smallest

institutiOn. This is a major economic breakthrough, not only because of

the reduction in the cost of the hardware, but, even more importantly, the

potential-for reduction of per-student cost for software. The number of

students who will benefit from a software package (course) both dictates

the financial feasibility of the development of the software and the level of

that development If many institutions have similar equipment, the

number of potential users imreases, and more dollars can be allocated 'for

the software deyelopmentand quality software is costly. The very large

institutions have always been able to develop some course software,

while small institutions have had limited capability. Now small institutions .

-*ill be able to afford to acquire quality computer-based courses for their

students from the large institutions, and the large institutions can have

software for a larger spread of their curriculum, as they can draw from so

many sources. Tliis should result in a boom in development of high

quality computer-supported learnink programs. When we reach the

Changing Economics 25.

point of volume utilization thatwill permit modest charges per student to

amortize development costs, institutions with very few students and

small facilities will be able to access broadly diversified learning

programs. From the standpoint of economics, what is created in effect is

a situation similar to a very large lecture section with supporting faculty

services.

The other development in computers that interests me is what I call

"Christman games" computersthe very small processers that utilize

the television receiver as a screen, operate interactive games, and sell for

lets than $200.. I an intrigued by the possibility that such a micro-

processer, particularly the type that utilize cassettes, could be in typical

homes by the end of the decade. The possibilities of combining such a

processer, a videodisc player, and a television receiver are fascinating.

With this configuration, colleges could easily deliver quite sophisticated

branching programming with interactive learning arrangements, particu-

larly where drill is essential; From the standpoint of economics, it is

important that the eqnipment is in the home. Not only because of the cost

of acquisition, but also from the standpoint of maintenance of equipment.

The discs themselves are very inexpensive to reproduce, although high

volume is necessaiy. If this part of the work occurred at home, there

would be no investment in plant or equipment for that part of the

individual's educational program. There is investment only in software

development and/or purchase. The discs, which are quite durable, and

the cassettes, which are very inexpensive, .could be checked out to

students.

Another important application of the use.of videodiscs, cassettes, or

telecasts relates to the growing need for recertification and the learning of

neviskills and information to maintain current positions. While in urban

areas it might be practical to configure sufficient individuals to operate

standard classes, these services must be delivered on a location variable

basis. Many individuals live in areas where there are not enough persons

with the same need to operate a standard class arrangement; thus, only

methods using video appear to be practical. Further, the developments in

many fields today are so rapid, and in some occupations the number of

specialists so few, that it will be necessary to develop such programs for

use throughout the country, or at least throughout a state. It would be

impactical for each institution to attempt such programs independently.

Impact of Student Financial Aid

One change which has taken place during the past five years and has

important future impact is in the area of student financial aid. Begkining

with the post World War II G.I. Bill, the federal government has used

financial aid to student& as a principal vehicle for expanding access to

3 6

26 Changing-Economics

postsecondary education. It has left the fmancing of operations to state

and private sources. In recent years the expansion of the Basic

Educational -OpPortunity -Grants (noW -the Pell Grants) -and other

fmancial-aid increases in many institutions -resulted-in-a-majorityof the

fulkinieStirdents receiving financial aid. Thus, most of the students are

being paid to go to college. This has brought with it a growing concern

the the -people -who-receive- this aid-benefit- demonstrably frofir-the

services, and-make progress toward achieving,the objectives for which

the grants are given.-Without question this further contributes to the need

for more measurement and more inforritation about student progress for

-the institutions, the government, and the student. The institution's

approach to students must be more directive. This type of feedback and

control cannot be achieved without the use of communications technology,

and there is clear evidence that much headway is being made. There are

at least five national guidancer-sytemS utilizing interactive computer

applications, and many institutions are developing other applications to

take greater control-of the student-flow process.

-Monitoring Student Progress

Progress based on the concepts that students can-take any courses that

they want at any time, have a right to fail; should get credit for any

coursesdevelcipmental or not, are dead. At Miami-Dade Community

College-the student's progress through the institution is now monitored

from point of entry to exit:There is assessment, placement, competency

requirements to move into collegelevel courses, restrictions on load as

early as seven credits attempted, required intervention courses as early-

as fifteen credits, individualized letters to all 45,000 students after six

weeks of each term concerning their progress in each course, and

computerized information at the end of every term concerning progress

toward graduation and towards meeting the requirements of the institution

to which they are planning to transfer. All of this is at increased cost to the

institution, but is an absolutely necessary part of the cost Of a student's

education, and only affordable because of the use of communications

technology.

The key in the econoinics of education is massing. Simpli put, if large

numbers of people want to do the same thing (take the same course), it is

easy to develop traditional classroom delivery methods that meet

economic expectations. A well run student scheduling and registration

procedure should tie able to handle class siie for large enrollmentcourses

almost like an assembly line filling milk bottles to the proper level. But,

where the numbers of perions taking a single course is small, class size

ccntrol is lost and costs rise. Where the number of persons with the same

goal begin with considerably varied skills traditional methods break

down, and individualization through the use of personnel, is clearly

beyond our fmancial capability.

Changing Economics 27

There are a number of things that can and should be done that involve

technology, and that are economically feasible. However, one should

never forget most students, especially Older students, are anxious to have

a personal interactive experience, and the number of students who work

well completely without such interaction is relatively small. One of the

purposes of the controlled student flow system at Miami-Dade

Community College is to reduce the student diversity in the broad

spectrum of courses, so that there is reduced diversity in academic skills

in the classes. In that way, faculty can deal more effectively using

traditional methods. In this case, technology, is utilized to make

traditional practices more economically feasible and more effective.

Individualiz a tion

When a learning program utilizes technology so that a faculty member

,does not deal with students in a class group, individualization, rather than

being more expensive, becomes less expensive. A result is produce4that

economically is similar to large group instruction. The new technologils

provide tremendous capability for individualization that seem not only

desirable, but absolutely essential if we are to deal with our much more

diverse student body, and preserve the opportunities for students to

interact with faculty and staff.

Sharing-Deyelopmental Costs

One important key, and perhaps the most difficult hurdle for academic

institutions, is cooperation. Technically, the improved capability of

microcomputers and the new developments in video -have made: the

sharing of materials among institutions very feasible. TO reducethe cost

.per student for development, it is absolutely essential to share the

development cost, and good software is expensive. None of us,

regardless of size, can expect to develop all of our ownit is, simply not

economically possible. The teohnical developments that have made

sharing practical, and the experience of the cooperation of a number of

institutions over the past decade have provided important steps- in the

right direction. In terms'of academic attitudes,- there is still kway to go.

Faculty-like to do their own thing in their own wayit is part of the

academic tradition. While progtess is being made toward necessary

collaboration, it is also important to provide for manipulation of softiVare

so that faculty in each institution, and, if pasible, each faculty member in

an institution, have some way to make the materials their own. Yet, there

is no escaping the need for faculty to workin collaboration if educational

services are to be delivered in the most efficient and effective way for the

future.

SUMMARY

;. One advantage in the introduction of technology into the institutions in-

21, Changing Economics

am& is that it appears certain that the reeistanceamong faculty Will

der** for use of techcoloiy is no lingerunusual The gosvth in the use

of Computers and video in- every lield, and -the daily interaction with

tsclaricigy in the lives ofstudents airclfircukywill =keit seem/gra* in

_the Mars if the- initihkions do not 'Use communciatiOns

The Mire growth _in the use of technology in higher' edwationis

cat*. It holds great hope farus in corninunily collegetto finally match

our keg heidaspiration to help each student succeed through realistic,

affordable, and effective educational programs. ,

1erg -

' NI Changing Organizational Structures

cr. to Capitalize on Technology

mi ibseph I. Upson

t c%) Notion& Sdence Foundation

i::) Watthington, D.C..

Most observers ogee that educational teclmology has na lived up to

its promise. Many &mons for thii havi been paposecL I would hIce to

explortjte possiblity that an important reason is the following

We have tried to bnplement new technologies with a school organiza-

tion that evolved in taconite to an older teclmologythe technology of

the clissroom, the blackboard and the textbook. The effective use of

educadonel- technology wil'iequie the Mrolution or design of new

orpnizational sbuctures.

If this is tnie, it *lies thit 'schools should be re-organized to help

people to be productive with the new inforaation technologies such IS

the coaputer, the videafisc, and the ccamunications netwak. By

orgadizational structure I mean simple, rraxlsne things such as who

roports to whom, how the budget is Allocated, hovi .the budnet is

organized, who must sign-off before various decisions or purcksAl are

Made, the names given to organizational units, unit descriptione

goali, job desotiptions; how people are hired, who can ask whom to any

out a task, and who must apprOve requests fir Fork by a given unit or

Persori

co.iplex and chimps more rapidly, I); our organizational structure must

Ratted ideas are that as educational technology "becomes more

-become more adaptable, less rigid, and 2). we must invest more of our

effort in the design ind maintenance of the orianization,that helps us to

use this technology.3. 4

)' The Challenge of Innovation

railroads, the steel Wish'', the auto induitry; and sobools have so much

Why is, it that established organizations such. u the hotels, the

difficulty raponding to the opportunities of new technologiel? Why is it

(Li that innovations are so difficult to institutionalize? Perhaps the stay is

something hie this: Laup.established organiations tart a life of their

Z. 1 0

10 Organisational &roams

own. They do stable and suecessful. Presumably they are successful

because their organizatibnal structure was, during their time of growth,

well-suited to the tools of their operaticin. Theirorganizational structure

was appropriate. They were well-organized to enable people to be

productive ,with the technology them available.

Their very suet:els and stabilityis what getsiong-lived organizations

MtOdiMCuk.Wbánaballilatthebofabow1Orá&jj.hekljfl

place by a set of, eprinp, a small disturbance bringi forces into play that

return the ball tO the bottom of the bowl or return the spring-held object to

.its original position. Similarly, when& stable organization is disturbed by e.

an innOvation, forces come into plpy to resist the innovation and to return

the siMation to normal. The status quo is the condition of stable

equilibrium. All departures from the statio ,quo are resisted.,

In a personal conVersaticii, Rob Spaulding used the analogy of

residence to infectibn. If we think of the school or School systern as an

organism, an innovation is analogoug to an infection. The school systein

immediately:responds to maintain its character Ind its integrity, to resist

the infection of change. Etch individual in the system thinks that s/he is

acting autonothOusly and intelligently,not realizing the myriad ways that

the organizational structure Ind procedures are encouraging hini/her to

act so as to reject the innovation. There issome evidence that awareness

of the forces ope4ting on us helps us to resist thern, to -be more

discriminating in our actions and decisions; and if our consciousness is

raised with regard to the subtleways our organizations, influence us, we

may-learn to modify our traditional reactions.

I.have seep the following haPpen several times: An individual

Proibuor will become intereated in using sonie form of educational

technology.Tor a while s/he it able to resist the fbrees that encourage a

rettirn tothe status, quo. If energy in the form ofresources (e.g., money,

released dine) is allocated to the innovation, then for a while a tenuous

stability cab be breated.bf all the innovationsthat are tried, a few may

even be coMPitible with the existing structure and such innovations may

survive and be institutionalized (e.g., the research institute, the use &the

Xerox mabhine). However, the more common courie of events is that

evendially the professor gets tired, lives or is simply forced to Ore up the

innovation and the system. The schoOl returns to the status quo.

At the microscopic level of detailed human interiCtions, many causes

am Observed and offered as reasons for the failure ofan innovation: The

faculty member feels that his/her efforts are MX adequately considered in

the promotion/tenure process. /slot enoughhelp is provided. &federal'.

grant runs out and there are 'no replacement resources made Available,

and so on.6 HoWeVer, after observing theprocess of attempted and failed

or limited institMiOnalization several times, I have come to the hypothesis

that the prob)im lies deeper than the surface events imply and that the

solution must dealwith the deeper relationships betweeirbrganizational

40.

Organizational Structuies 31

structure and the way -we- use the tools available to us.

Put another way, we need social- and organizational- inventions to

enable us to effectiVely use new hardware-and software inventions. As

Dobrov3, 4 states,

without technology, society is disarmed; without technical knowl-

edge and people ivho can manipulate it, technology is stillborn; without

social organization enabling- tedmological systems to be rationally

used and developed, those systems are oflittle Use and can even 1*

The Existing Technology

If cine looks at mod schools and colleges, one sees that our curriculum

and the activities that we assign to students are -largely limited and

controlled by our reliance and commitzneat to word and symbol oriented

technologies. These technologies are the classroom, pencil and paper,

the blackboard; and the textbookin contrast to the held trip or

laboratory, and the TV/computer screen or direct observation. The

existing technologies are used because a.) words and symbols are to

important to the educational -process tind.b.) tlfeY ire reliliiieffehetii

The result is that studen(activities with objects, photographic images,

and equipment are not well represented in the curricullith. As a further

result we have the recUrrincomplaint that students can repeat word and

symbol strings' but:that *.:ty do not have the skill needed foractually

doing things. This distinetfon is characterized as the difference between

knowing what and knowing hOw, the difference between declarative sus;

procedural knowledge. Examples of the differetice are a.) being ?Ile to

describe the operation of an auto engine vs: being able to design, build, or

repair an engine and b.) being able to state mathematical rules or

theorems vs. being able to solve problems with those rule*. (Note.

Another technolOgy that hat seriously influenced education is the

nidtiple choke test. There is evidence that students who are preparing

for a multiple choke test engage in different kinds of study activities than

those who are preparing for essay or problem tests. In general, the

anticipated form of aisessment [e.g., having to make an oral presentation,

having to teach a class while, being obseived, having to carry out an

experiment or construct a work dart] modifies the activities students use

to prepare. The cOnclUsion is that a technology that allows a wider range

of assessment procedures to be carried out economicak and reliably will

modify the -learning experiences of students. The computer is such a

technOlogy.)

Departments and Clastroom Teachers

The organizational siructure that has evolved to effectively use the

existing technologies is a realtively flat one (i.e., a group of peers

repotting to a department chairperson) that tends to focus on the teacher

:in the classroom as the basic operational unit with the subject-based

32 Organistuional Structures

department as the basic-organizational unit. Services, administration,

budgeting practices, promotion and tenure, etc., all tend to sipport the

classrOom teachers in their standard role of developing knowledge using

words and symbols. I know that many teachers would disagree with this

and exiress dissatisfaetion with the degree of support- they get. I would

propose that their divatisfactica with anything except direct support of

their role in front ofthe class is one ofthe forces that tends to maintain the

current structure. Teachers resist anr.new organizational arrangement

that drains resourdee from traditional classroom activity. In my view, this

is correct is lceg as the principal sources ofproductive woric in the school

is the teacher-led class. The question is, can we invent new technology-

based arrangements .ffiat, with different combinations of roles, tasks,

reporting lines, schedules, etc. an more productive and more satisfying

to both faculty and students? There are interesting examples in medical

education and in the case of the British Open University that suggest but

do not prove or conclusively demonitrate that this may be possible.

The Failed Technologies

The motion picture, television, radio, the LP record, the electric

typeivritir, the audio-cusette player, the video-cassette player, and kits

of laboratory materialihave not had a signifiCant knpact upon the nature

of the currAculum and the qUality of foaml school education. In order for

them to hair had a greater effect many inter-related steps to modify the

organizational system would have had to be taken: -new purchasing_

regulations, new federal, state, and local arrangements to support

curriculum development, new organizational support units, _new in-

service and pre-service training programs, new budget formulation

Procedures, etc. would have had to-be developed.

For example, hecaustof its new organizational structure, the British

Open University has the largest publishing operation in the United

Kingdom and the docnments they print are widely used throughout the

higher iducation aystem. In this case an organization modification was

required to enable higher education to serve the distant, isolated learner,

and a resuk has been the creation of a hUge organizational subsystem to

exploit the existing print technology. A similar story holds for their TV

production. However, Oen the British O.U. has difficulties in using new

media because of the fact that they have, a matrix organization of course

teams combined with academic departments of the Open University.

The academic departmeats seem to_ be the culprits that create a

reeistance to innovation and may eVen be a force for reversion to a

campus' system with classes, etc.

The New Technologies

The compuer, telecommunications networks, and image devices such

as the videodisc offer a wide range of instructional options.1, 2,5 Even on

4 3,

Organizotional Structures 33

a Straight economic basis the continuing reduction in the cost of

computing combined with the increasing cost of printed materials

suguests that electronic publishing will compete directly with printing

within the decade of the 80's (Evans, 1979). The question is, can we re-

organize otir educational systemat all levelsto make effectiie use of

these new information teehnologies?

At the national level; can we coOrdinate the resourde allocation and

decision procedures to have needed equipment standards, inforination

and dissemination networks, and courseware development?

At the local and state levels, can we create support units such as the

science teacher suppott centers that Doug Lapp has designed and

implemented in Virginia? Can We develop -nevt training provims for

teachers to use the new technologies and for authors who are needed to

create the new materilli?

At the achool level, can we create new organizational arrangements

that move away from the cottage industry format of the classroom and

that allocate resources to the purchase, maintenance, and improvement

of educational technology systems? And can we do these things in a cost

effective way ,that makes the schooling experience more interesting for

both faculty and. students?

The Likely Scenario

If the above questions are to have a pesitive response, their urgency

needs to be recognized si every level of the system. Decisions are drilien

by emotions, and until the problem of educational technology has

emotiOnal and political Rome, little is 'tidy to happen. One of our tasks is

to find the arguments, images, anecdotes and demonstrations that give

the issue tbe needed-force. Some of our best arguments will be Oen

during this conference and also are listed in existing documents?, a My

expectationis that the new technologies will begin fo take root outside of

the formal systeth through home learning, through industrial training

programs, through medical training programs, and through militaty

'training programs. When they are sufficiently established outside of the

colleges and public schools, smite schools and colleges will respond to

the thallenge and try new organizational schemes to use the technologies

and some new schools,and colleges willhesres4_! d scifically to make

use of the new technologies. Oral Roberts University is a .posSible

example of the latter case. The use oftechnology is built into the structure

of Oral Roberts; and the contracts of all faculty require that they learn

about educational technologies, contribute as authors, and use the

technologies.

Knowledge and skill are so critical to a modern society that eventually

'inter-national pressure will require the organizational changes needed.

Forethought and planning can make the transition easier, can minimize

the pain of change; but the change is inevitable. Failure to make the

34 Organizational Structures

investment of human talent and ingenuity will cause much greater misery

and dislocation at some future time. To paraphrase Ann Landers:Unless

we take the steps to renew the quality of our schools, we will become a

fourth-rate nation without a shot being fired. Ipropose that the intelligent

and 'humane use of educational technology is, a necessary part of any

program of improvement.

REFERENCES:

1. Atkinson, Richard C. and Joseph I. Lipeon,Instructional Technologies qf the Future

paper delivered at the APA 886 Annual Convention, Montreal, Canada,

3, 1980. (Copies available from Lipson, National Science Feundation, W=Z

D.C. M550.)

2. Brown, Gone E., Jr., Chairman, Information Technology in Education, Joint

Hearmps bekre the Subcommittee on Science, Research and Technology if the

Committee on Science and Technology and the Subcommitteeon Select Education of

the Committee on Education and Labor, House of Rewesentatives, 96thCongress,

Apr98il 2, 3, 1980, No. 134, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.,

10.

3. Dobrov, Geimady M., Technolog, as a Form qf Organization, inint. Soc. Sci.

Journal, Vol. =CI, Nri. 4, 1979: pp. 585-605.

4. Dobrov, Gennady, M., The Strategy*. Organized Technology in the Lightqfl ad:

Se-, and Org-ware Intenwtion, in Long Range Planning, Vol. 12, August, 1979:

_pp.-70-90.

S. Evans, Christopher, The Micro Millenium, The Vildng press: New York, 1979.

6. Hershfield, Alan F., Education's Technological Revolution: An Event in Search qf

Leaders, m Change, Vol 12, No. 8. November-Decemixr, 1980: pp, 48-52.

7. Uspon, 3.1., Instructional Technology and Organizational Structure in Higher

,Education, in Fraley, LE. & Vargas, B.A. (Eds.) Proceedings of the Third National

Conference on Behavior Research and Technology in Higher Education; Society for

Behavioral Technology and Engineerjog. 1976: pp. 215-220.

8. Lipson, J.L, Technology in Science E n: The Nat 10 Years, in Con;puter,

Vol. 13, No. 7, July, 1980: pp. 23-30.

9. National Science Foundation, Science and Engineering Educationfor the 1980's

and Beyond Report to the President q fthe Unued States, subm;tted by Hufirtedler,

S.H. and Langenberg, D.N., 1980.

10. Molnar, Andrew R., Understanding How to Use Machinato Work Smarter in an

IrOrmatian Society, in T.H.E. Journal, Vol. 7, No. 1, January, 1980: pp. 42-46.

(Note: Dr. Molnar has written a large number of important articles that represent

advanced thinking and planning for educational technology. A list ofthese articles may

be obtained from Dr. Molnar, National Science Foundation, Washington, D.C.

20550.)

Public Telecommunications Policies and

Education's Options

Frank W. Norwood

Joint Coundl on Educational

Telecommunications

Washington, D.C-

INTRODUCTION

Of the numberless public policy decisions which impact on

schools and coileges, few are farther from the educator's focus of

attention than those Which shape communications policy. The school

superintendent or the university chancellor may know that the Federal

Communications Commission grants licenses to cothmercial and

noncommercial radio and television stations, but it is not likely to occur

to either that that has much to do with education or with education's use

of technology. What may happen in Geneva, Switzerland, at the

International Telecommunications Union's World Administrative

Radio Conferegce, cc how the work of CCIR Study Gmup 10/11B or a

Joint Government/Industry Committee might open or close education's

doors to a future full of satellites, computerized data bases, interactive

cable television systems and the like are questions not even formulated.

With or without the participation of educatms, decisions are made.

With or without their knowledege of the war, the battles for

canununications policy advantage go on. And their results impact schools

and colleges-- and the options for ofkampus learners as surely and as

1\n- seerely as if the superintendent and the chancellor understood the

demonstrable fact that other parties lire deciding their future for them.

Historical Perspective

N., The JCET is concerned with this interaction of communieations policy

and educationid policy because it was born in response to a policy making

crisis. In 1950, the Federal Communications Commission struggled with

a dilemma. The post-war public successs of the infant television medium

4.1 had demonstrated that the demand by potential broadcasters and eager

viewers for the new medium would require more stations than could be

accommodated in the twelve Very High Frequency (VHF) channels that

4 6

36 Public Polic4s

nad been allocated to television broadcasting before World War IL

Rather than a rich man's toy, limited to well-to-do urban areas, television

-promised to be a medium of news and entertainment for all.

The Commission's pioblem was that of finding a way to create enough

new channels_ for television broadcasting to make possible a variety of

services for substantially all of the American public. Adding additional

channels in the VHF spectrum was not possible. Other services already

occupied those frequencies. The next available spectrum was in the

untested Ultra High Frequencies (UHF) for which no television hardware

had yet been developed, or even tested. To seekout the technical solution§

to the problem, the FCC in 1948 calleda halt to the construction of all-

new TV stations for what was to be a period of six months. But difficult

technical problems sometimes refuse to conform to bureaucratic schedules.

The six month "freeze" lasted fouryears.

For the oneLhundred-nine "pre-freeze" stationswhich had television all

to themselves from 1948-1952, it was a period of financial bonanza

beyond the wildest dreams of avarice. For the educational community it

was a fortuitous opportunity.

The very speed at which televisionwas making a central place for itself

in American life convinced a handful of alert educational leaders that

something must be done to exploit TV's power for more than Mass

entertainment and the sale of consuMer products, or the opportunity

would be lost forever. After the passage of the 1934 Commimications

Act, the Congress had held an inquiry to determine whether 25 percent of

the frequencies for AM radio broadcasting should be reserved for

education, but the- educational interests failed to press the case, and

private sector broadcasters assured all concernedthat school and college

interests would always find-a warm welcome and plenty of free air time

from the commercial stations.

The following decade saw the number of noncommercial radio stations

shrink from more than 300 to about thirty, and leaders like Arthur Adams,

then president of the American Council on Education, we're determined

that the promise of television would not be lost

The Joint Committee on Educational Television included the ACE, the

National Association of State Universities and Land-Grant Colleges, the

Association of State Universities, the National Education Association,

the American Association of School Administrators, the Council of

Chief Pate School Officers, and the National Association of Educational

broadcasters. Its mission was simple ahd direct to persuade the Federal

Communications Commission that when the freexe was ended, some of

the channels should be set aside for education. When the Commission

issued its Sixth Report and Order in 1952, the Table of Allocations

which matched channels with cities and towns across the nation marked

reserved for noncommercial TV, some 242 assignmentssome in the

VHF band, the rest in the new UHF <spectrum.

4 7

Public Policies 37

National Educational Television, the Corporation for Public Broad-

casting, the Public Broadcasting Service, Masterpiece 'Theatre, even

Pledge Week, were then still years in the future, but that future could

never have arrived without timely action in 1950. Television's appearance on

the American scene was so arresting, and the history of educational radio

such a stern warming that the need for educators' participation in

communications policy making was sharp and clear. If the FeC's

extended freeze had not provided the JCET with the time to make the

case for educational television, the opportunity might well have passed

without notice in academe.

Contemporary Significance

Now, as what_ has become "Public Television" begins to-look at

multiple services, including a separate instructionally-oriented PTV-3,

and multiple channels of distribution for such programming the signifi-

cance of the communicatiOns policies urged by education thirty years ago

becomes all the more apparent.

To an educational leadership besieged by pressing and immediate

problems of increasing inflation and falling budgets, demands for confor-

mity to new regulations andfor making good on old promises,issues of

communications policy,which may have their-benefits far in the future,

are easily pushed*aside to deal with Problems whose impacts will be felt

tomorrow. But those who bear the mantle of leadership can hardly

disdain the responsibilities of the statesmanship.

The growth curve of technology and electronic communications has

risen sharply since 1950 and the protection of edudation's long term

-interests in communications chnhot be left to an ad hoc .Proup of

Minutemen who can put down their lecture notes or annual conference

plans and leap into the breach whenever a crisis in communications

policy making occurs. That spberrecognition came in the moment of

victory in 1952, when- the FCC did, indeed, reserve, channels for

educational television. The Joint Committee on Educational Television

reconstituted itself as the Joint Council on EduCational Television (later

changing its title in recognition of the factthat the coming technology

battles would be fought on a wider front than TV). .

Satellites and Cable television, are technologies which, in 1950 were

still beyond the purview of most educators and of most communications

specialists. Sometimes it is not possible to await for the, arrival of the

technology, for a chance to. "try it on for size," before developing

communications policies. Policy decisions can prevent or promote the

birth of new communications technology. Direct broadcasting satellites

are a case in point.

From the viewpoint of the scientist and engineer, the eventual

possibility of satellites capable -of broadcasting television directly to

individual homes has been obvious for twenty years. Whir.-was lacking

38 Public Policies

was the requisite technology. There is a complementary relationship

between the size and power of the satellite and the size and sensitivity of

the associated receiving stations on earth. In the 'Sixties, our limited

launch capability meant that the first satellites were small and weak, their

earth stations very large and very expensive. But by the end of the

decide, the know-how to build satellites powerful epough to beam

programming directly to small, low-cost earth stations had been

achieved.

In 1969, the Indian Space Research Organization and the U.S.

National Aeronautics and Space Administration signed a Memorandum

of Understanding providing that the hardware for a direct television.

broadcasting experiment to 2,000 village schools in India would be

included on ATS-6, an experimental NASA satellite scheduled for

launch in the early 'Seventies. American educational interests, wanting

to explore the possibility of similar experimentation at home found

existing oammunications policy a major roadblock.

By international agreement, satellite transmissions are restricted to

certain frequency bands where they will no interfere with existing

terrestrial services. By special arrangement, the Indian SITE (Satellite

Instructional Television Experiement)Avould take place in the UHF

band. There are no UHF television broadcast stations operating in the

Indian subcontinent But here, in North America, the UHF band is in use

in this country, Canada and Mexico, so UHF satellite broadcasting was

ruled outeven on an, experimental basis.

An Alternate Route

An "alternate route" was technically possible: the use of nigher

microwave frequencies in the band 2500-2690 MHz. Those frequencies

are also in use, but by schools and colleges for the Instructional

Television 1 ixed Service. Engineering calculations indicated that, under

the proper constraints, satellite broadcasting could take place without

interference to existing ITFS systems.

NASA was convinced, and the Department of Health, Education and

Welfare was prepared to fund satellite experimentationbut existing

international agreements on frequency allocation made no provision for

space services in the 2500 MHz band. (Since radio waves know nothing

about political borders, the allocation of pieces of spectrum to specific

services is coordinated by the International Telecommunications Union,

a UN agency whose agreements have the force of international treaties.)

Preparations had already begun for the ITU World Administrative

Radio Conference on Space Telecommunications to be held in 1971.

Unfortunately, the U.S. positions and proposals were already well

developed .. . and they did not include satellite broadcasting in the ITFS

band. Despite NASA's willingness to cooperate with educators in the

U.S. as well as India. inclusion of an ATS-6 experiment at variance with

4 9

Public Policies 39

proposed communications policy- was hardly possible.

Education's fight often begins at home. Policy pkiposals for a World

Administrative Radio Conference are developed by the Department of

State with inputs from other parts of the Federal sector funneled through

the Interdepartmental Radio Advisoty Canmittee (IRAC). Participation

by nongovernmental interests, public and private, go through the Federal

Communications Commission, which typically established a Joint

Government/Industry Coinmittee (JC/IC). The Department of HEW' s

Office of TelecommunicationS Policy (now disbanded) and NASA

worked through IRAC; ,the Comoration for Public Broadcasting and the

JCET attempted to persuade the JC/IC and the Commiision that a last

minute turn-around in the U.S.'s agenda for the Space Telecommuni-

cations WARC was possible and desirable.

Influencing Policy

To -influence technology policy, it is necessary to understand the

technology. The first task was to convince the seven Federal Communi-

cations Commissioners that their own staff was wrong inits insistence

that the educators were wrong in asserting that satellite broadcasting

could take place without interfering with terrestrial ITFS systems.

Fortunately, the necessary technical studies had been done within the

aerospace. industry. Commissioner H. Rex Lee and his staff studied the

evidence' and he became the educators' invaluable ally.

The result of the last minute FCC turn around was that the U.S. went

'toile-World Administrative Radio Conference on Space Telecommuni-

cations proposing co-allocation of the 2500 MHz band to the Broad-

casting Satellite Service. Thanks in no small measure to the presence of

HEW's Dr. Albert L Haley on the U.S. delegation, the proposal

carried at the. Geneva meeting and the barriers of domestic and

international communications policy were removed.

The immediate result was thatIthe way was cleared for American

satellite broadcasting experiments on NASA's ATS-6. Those experi-

ments in the Rocky Mountains, Alaska,_ and the Appalachian states

demonstrated for the first time that television transmission from space to

small and inexpensive receivers, capable of operation by non-technical

personnel could bring services to hitherto inaccessible educational and

health care institutions. The Alaska and Appalachia experiments laid the

groundwott for today's operational services. In Alaska, RCA's Satcom II

satellite now provides telephone service to every 81askan village, with a

special line for _emergency medical traffic. Mani villages also get

television by satellite, including programs for ttte, schools, and the

University -of Alaska has extehrve plans for extehding its services by

satellite. From the early ATS-6 experiments undertaken by the Appala-

chian Regional Commission has come the .Appalachian Community

Service Network, which is providing a daytime schedule of educational

40 Public.Policies

and instructidhal programming foi all ages through the Use of s atellite and

cable technology.

Our experimencal use of the 2500 MHZ bandfor satellite broadcasting

was not followed up in this country. The Alaska and Appalachian

operational systems use commercial satellites in the 3700-4200 MHz

band. But the WARC allocation is world wide, and the Indian Space

Research Organization will use the 2500 MHz band fof its operational

follow-on to the Site project (the Inset I satellites are already under

construction), and the planned Arabsat includes educational television in

the same band.

Implications

The connections between communicatiora policy and education

sometimes have their implications for the priorities and budgets of other

agencies. Those who planned the ATS-6 experiments at 2500 MHz

expected that ATS-6 would be followed by ATS-7, a still more

advanced satellite which gould have had satellite broadcasting for health

and education as its primary mission. When, early in 1972, NASA

trimmed its budget by gutting applicadons R&D, ATS-7, and the

Applications Technology Satellites thatwere to follow it, were canceled.

A second opportunity for educational broadcasting from space

*sated itself in the Communicatkos Technology Satellite, a joint U.S.-

Canadian venture pioneering in yet another frequency band, 12 GHz.

Still more powerful, CTS provided opportunities for mo`re than two

dozen experiments in health, education, and public service communi-

cations in this count*, and in Canada. But whenCTS reached the end of

its useful life, the U.S. experimenters once again found themselves

without a satellite with which thek earth stations were compatible. For

the Canadian experimenters, things were different

NASA is concerned with the needs of the public service community

and the process of technology transfer, and has supported the Public

Service Satellite Consortium, the Appalachian Community Servite

Netyork, and the Joint Council, but its prime responsibility- is the

development of new technology: Developand demonstrate satellite

broadaasting in the 2500 MHz band. Move on and do the same at the

next "frequency frontier," 12 GHz. Now, NASA is looking toward the

development of space communications in the 30/20 GHz bind, with

inviting possibilities for service to rural areas. NASA will welcome

experiments in public service communications, but cannot be expected

to take responsibility for seeking them out

Canadian Organization

Canadian space communications, however, are under the direction of

the cabinet-level Department of Communications which has a broader

\ mandate. Having demonstrated on CTS the technical feasibility of

Public Policies 41

satellite direct broad4sting to the villages of Canada's Far North, the

Department of Communications sought a means by which an oper-

ational service could grow from such experimental beginning& Canada's

operational satellites are owned ,by a government-carrier partnership

called Telesat Canada. The Department of Communications asked

Telesat to include four 12tGHz channels on its Anik B satellite, offering

to lease the channels for a rpinimum of four years, thus assuring Telesat a

return on its investment

The United States la4s an equiValent Federal mechanism for

considering and advancing pommunications technology and policy ac-

cording to some concept ofhe public interest which goes beyond mere

technology development. C er's- Presidential Directive 47 charged

both NASA and the Natioial Telecommunications and Information

Administration with respons bility Lor promoting communications in

support of public services, but he division of responsibility is not clear...

nor is the future of the NTIA

U.& Executive Branch Part' ipation

The history of Executive Branch concern with communieations policy

is less than endouraging. Until die end of the Johnson administration, the

Office of Telecommunications Management concerned itself only with

the governmenes (ie, Defense, (toast Guard, Forest Service) use of the

spectrum allocated to govern4nt uses (although the White House,

its0:1f, gave strong support to the Itublic Broadcasting Act). A presidential

Task Force on Communications Policy recommended the establishment

of a White -House Office of Telecommunications Policy to formulate

policy and to speak for the Preident That recommendation came to

fruition in the Nixion years, but TP's threats to public broadcasters and

to media critics of the White HOuse gave it an unhealthy political Odor.

The Naticoal TeleccmMunications and Iniamation Administration was

successor to the Nixion OTP and the creation of an early Carter promise

to reduce government agenci ; starting in the Executive Branch. The

Executive Branch was by moving OTP administratively,

although not physically, in the Commerce Department What, if any,

shifts, changes, or deleti can be expected from the new Reagan

administration remains be seen. If education would protect its stake in

the need for a commu cations policy focus, it must do what it can to be

heard on the subj

Coun Actions

Sometimes communiCations policy made by the Federal CoOtuni-,

cations Co ssions can be unmade by the courts. As access to the

broadcast/ levision bind for education required action in 1950, two

decades ater it was necessary- to press education's case for access to

42 Public l'olicies

- -cable television. The CoMmission's 1971 cable television rules,reCog-

nized the important role the CATV could play in prdviding more than

improved reception of local and distant,television stafions. The technology

of cable is by its very nature local, and channels can be provided toserve

a.community or even a neighborhood. The Commission's 1971 rulesput

CATV operatOrs on notice that all new systems serving more than 3500

homes should be capable of at least twenty channels and that dedicated

channels would have to be provided for government, education, public

access, and- for lease to commercial interests.

A 1979 court challenge overturned the FCC's access channel

requirements on the grounds that they go beyond-the Commission's

powers in the Communications Act Not challenged, however, is the right

of local governments when granting cable franchises, to incorporate free

channels for education as a contractual condition. The rush for

franchises in each of America's major cities is on, and in many other

communities, franchises granted in the 1960's are up -for renewal. If

school administrators and university presidents are going to Protect their

future4tions to bring classes to homes and offices via cable, they will

have to become informed participants in the battles at the local level.

And not WO there. After seVerat tiniuccessful attempts to rewrite the

Communications Act-of 1934, the new session of Congress will see yet

another proposal from the Senate Subcommittee on Communications. .

The starting point4is expected to be last session's S. 2827, -whose

provisions on access channels were unclear, but thought by some to

undefcut even the city fathers' right to insist on cable channels for public

services.

The Co)nmunication Policies Battles

Unfortunately, the battles for communications policies favorable to

education are more constant than sporadic, and as the example of cable

television dem&Istrates, eternal vigilance is the price ofcommunications.

LastSpring, the COmmission issued a complex of inquiries andproposed

rule makings which threaten edUcation's long-standing frequency reser-

vatiohs for thi Instructional Television Fixed Service. Hittingworked to

open these ,2500MHz frequencies for satellite broadcasting for education

only a feW teari ago, we are now in danger of losing them for multi-

channel instructiOnal television on the ground. The basicissue is that the

Commission finds itself with a pressing demand for,more channelsforthe

technically similar Multipoint Distribution Sel-vice, currently enjoying a

boom as a means of distributing pay television, and Commission staff is

proplosing to meet that deinand by allowing commercial services into the

ITFS'band, a de facto end to reserving these 'frequencies for schools,

colleges, arid-health care agncies.

On.other fronts, the issues, are not so dear dut The Commissionfigs

instituted steps to foster the birth of a whole new class of television

5 3

ft Public.Policief ,. 43

broadcasting stations of limited power. While the Commission's TV

'Table of Allocations (in which education got its reserved channels)

specifies a priort which channels are aVailabl'e in which cities and

towns, these new low power stations woolci be approved;Wherever it

could be shown by the applicant that no intetference to er.istmg stations

would be approied wherever it could be shown by if* applicant that no

inierference to existing stations would result How many such new

"mini-statione"-could be created in any given city or towh, or in the U.S.

as a whole, is impossible to predict. By the F't's own estimate, perhaps

ilrousands of low power stations will be Stet

Low POwer TV

For education, opportunities are broadened._Low pOwer TV stations

can be constructed for as little is $50,000 and minimal studio equipment

(not meeting conventional broadeast standards) 'can be used for local

programming: In feet, there is no requirement that the mini-station have

facilities for lOcal programs. As has been done in Alaska on an

experimental basis, a small community can have its own PBS affiliate,

Jebroadcasting programs from the satellite. Small collegeseven

schoolscan get into educatiónarand- public teleVision at suprisingly

modest costs.

Such mini-stations Will be permitted to do nothing butiecal program-

ming or do no local programming at all. they tin be commercial or

noncommercial. They can corny pay TWThe Copunission's proposed

rules would give preference to minority applicants and to those -who

propose- noncommercial serVices, brit the "land _rush" is _already on.

Local stations (including PTV stations)are prohibited from applying for

low poWer operations in their own coverage areae. but the ru1es which

limit any licensee to seven conventi,Ural TV stations do not applyto !Ow

power, and while educators =and minority groups contemplate the

possible opportunities ahead, eager entrepreneurs are beseiging the

Commiesion Fith applications: one, for example; propoees to own more

than one hundred across the nation, anetwork cf, country and western

television.

The questions are complex. Since there is noeasy way to estimate how

=many low power stations can be accceinodated, it is impossible to-assess

whether this spate of comthercial interest is-or is not Closingxlucation's

future access. The 1950 strategy of asking for frequency, re.sarvations

simply inapplicable.

And watch the heavens! While our 1970 efforts secured us a band for

satellite broadbasting at 2500 MHz (and reserved in this country by the

FCC for educational and public service use), the near term possibilities

for an operational satellite in that band seem remote.

5 4

44 Public Policies

Direct-To-Home Broadcasting -

In the meantime, direct-to-honur satellite broadcasting is being proposed

as a commercial venture by the Satellite Television Corp., a subsidiary of

ifie Comsat

Proposed is a three-channel pay television service. butes STC notes.

theoionomicrof bBS are such that the medium can be "to asseMble_an

atulience for programs which would not be economically-viable under-

tikinp for conventional TV broadcaiters." Comsat surveyed more than

1300_ community leaders and members of the general public and found

evidence of a latent andience- forin addition-to movies, sports, and

Broadway showsedUcational, college, medical and scientific courses;

biogaphical and natural science documentaries; and- news,

news analysis, news Magazines, editorials and- business and fmancial

news.

Channel_ A of STC' Proposed service wouid include movies, pop

concerts, theater specials and family entenainment Channel B, Classic

films, children's-TV, variety,-arti and culture and publicaffairs. Channel

C wetild offer adult _education, sports, and special interest programs.

The question of authorizing a direct broadcasting satellite service puts

before the Federal Communications Commission a long list of difficult

polity -questions. The international agreements arrived at at the 1971

World Administrative Radio 'Conference clear away somebut not

allolthe international issues. While frequencies for satellite broad-

casting were established on a world-wide basis in 1971, the specifics of

how those frequencies are to be us4X1 in the Americas is the agenda for a

Regional Radio'Conference in 1983.

What the Federal Communications Conamission must now decide are

such questions as: Should any American 'action wait on the RARC?

When., the potential impact of satellite broadcasting on the viability of

local television broadcasters? Would approval of a commercial DB S

, system presage or preclude the development of noncommercial direct

broadcalting from satellites .. . and how would a noncommercial DBS

service be paid for?

Summary

Which ansWers to those questions and a dozen more will build-

communications policies which preserve the greatest number of degrees

of freedom for education's future needs?

The march of communications technology is inexorableand at

double time to boot. Each new development will create its Own

imperative for nel communications policies. The members of the

education community have only two choices: they can participate or they

can leave the decisions to others.

What they cannot do is escape their consequences.

tiNJ

co% Investing in Computer Technology:

c" Criteria and Procedures for System Selection

(NJ

.c\t Fred T. Hofstetter

is= University of Delaware

UNA Newark Delaware

INTRODUCTION

Matching needs with available technology poses a constant challenge

for educational- decision-makers. Seven years ago the University of

Delaware began what hit become ,a major institutional effort aimed at

determining to what extent theneeds of higher education can be met by

computer-based educational techniques. Essential to the success of this

effort was the identifidation of what available computer-based educa-

tional system offered the most capability. -As the result of a careful

assessment of the characteristics whieh that system should have and a

naticawide search involving both visits to existing computer-based

educational projects and consultation with exPerts in the field, the

PLA TO syttem was selected.

Since 1974 the University of Delaware has -made a considerable

inVestment in its PLA TO capabilities, having installed iti own ceitral

system in 1978, and having since upgraded it on an annual basis to meet

the. needs of its growing user community. Over one huhdred faculty

members- are developing coi.nputer-based learning materials in thirtY

4.. subject areas and-testing them with students using the two, hundred

terminals -connected to the Delaware PLATO system. The progress

140 made toward determining the extent to which PLATO can meet the

L. needs Of higher education at Delaware is deseribed in The FM

Sammative Report qfthe Delaware PIATO Projeot which concludes

with an eleven-part cleisification of the benefits of computing in higher

education?

Ct It was , well known in-1974 that rapid changes were_ occuring in the

cemputer field, and it would appear On the surface that-the University

took a substantial risk in investing in a large central systenflikePLATO.

Indeed, recognized authorities publicly stated in the mid-1970's that

45' 5 6

46 Investing

PLATO was a dinosaur that would never make it into the I980's. Just the

opposite has happeped; PLATO has emerged in the 198Q's in a hew

microcomputer format which combines the power, communications, and

reeord-keeping features of a central system with the microcomputer's

ability to run off-line, to acquire real-time scientific data, and to interface

with new microprocessor-based perioheral devices like videodiscs.

Through comparative study of the capabilities of available educational

computers and through careful analysis of trends in microelectronics and

of vendor commitments to making use of microelectronic advances, the

decision to install PLATO at Delaware was not as risky as it may have

seemed. It is the purpose ot this paper to present the system selection

criteria used at Delaware and to describe the procedurss followed in

making a selection based on those criteria.

System Selection Criteria

Table 1 shows how the system selection criteria used at Delaware

considered support for instructional strategies, requirements of the

student learning station, features for instructors and authors, general

operation'al characteristics, dissemination.networks, and future viability.

Each of these system selection criteria is discussed in turn as follows.

Support for Instructional Strategies

There are a variety of initructional strategies which can be used in

"designing educational computer programs. Some educational computer

sytems are quite limited in. their 'support of instructional strategies.

TICCIT, for example, is designed around a preselected strategy of

objectives, examples, practice problems, and tests;3 forsome applications

this strategy may be appropriate, but there are many others which

TICCIT cannot do. It is important for a University system to support the

gamut of instructional strategies which include tutorials, drills, simula-

tions, games, problem solving, testing, and computef-managed instruction.

Reguirments of the.Student Learning Station

Careful attention must be paid to both the quantitiand the quality of

the features of the student learning station. Not only is the learning

station the only part of the system which the student sees, but it. also

greatly affects how instructional materials are prepared. Resolution is an

important consideration because it affects how much text can be

displayed at one time as weli as how many points can be used in making

graphics. Sugarmans has indicated that a resolution of 512 dots across

by 512 dots down is certainly adequate, and that a resolution of 320 by

240 may also be adequate. At this lower resolution which is typical of

systems using ordinary TVdisplays, 16 lines of 40 characters each would

fill the screen whereas at the higher resolution 32 lines of 64 characters

can be used.

5 7

Table 1: Sistem Selection Criteria

1) Supiort for Instructional Strategies

tutorial

drill-and-practice

simulation

gaming

problem solVing

testing

computer:managed instruction

2) Requirements of the Student Learning Station

high-resolution gophics

progrannnable character sets

animation

touch input or light pen

student connol keys

instantaneous response time

support of peripheral devices,

3) Features far Instructors and Authors

-Program libraries

indexes and routers

ittident record keeping

communication options

prograrruning aids

4) General Operational Characteristics

reliability

Maintainability

accesiability

ease-of-use

security

doéumentation

5) Dissemination Networks

international program distribution

communication links

user groups

6) Future Viability

corporate commithem to CBE

flexibility of system design

planned use of microelectronics

. investing 47

tett

48 Investing

In order that the system is not restricted to those characters and

symbols which appear on the typewriter keyboard, there should be

auxiliary memories where new characters can be defmed. System

response time should be instantaneous so that students never have to

wait, and the system should also be fast enough to move characters

around on the screen. Control keys like NEXT, BALK, HELP,

EASIER, HARDER, and ANSWER_ should be available so that

instructors can give students some say as to the sequencing of lesson

material. And the learning station should have connectors whereby

peripheral devices can be attached.

Features for Instructors and Authors -

Often neglected in system selection are the fetures which make it both

easy and less time-consuming for instructors and authors to prepare

lesson materials and to manage student records. It is widely recognized

that the greatest cost in computer-based education is the design,

programming, and evaluation of instructional materials. Important

criteria in system selection are therefore the availability and the quality of

pre-existing materials organized into lesson libraries, indexing systems

whereby instructors can select and structure courses around these

materials, on-line programming aids whereby authors can quickly get

help when they have technical questions, communication options

whereby instructors, authors, and students can share information

regarding lesson development, and student record keeping which allows

instructors to collect data on student achievement and progress in a

lesson. Regarding student record keeping it is important for the systbm

not only to make available standard,-pre-programmed ways of keeping

student data, but also to allow the instructors to design their own ways of

collecting 'and summarizing student records.

General Operational Characteristics

Educational computing services must be reliable. Down-time muSt

never exceeefive--percent of scheduled hours in any one month, and

annual up-time shouldaverage at least ninety-seven percent. Mean time

to failure should not average less than six days. Maintenance support

must be readily available so that equipment problems can be solved

promptly when they occur.

Students, instructors, and authors need to be ableloschedule terminal

time when they need it. Especially if a centralized approachiltilizinjone

large computer is adopted, eare must be taken to insure than variouser

groups do not compete for the same resources. There must be a way of

allocating memory and processing time so that no single groupcan usurp

resources belonging to another. Educational computers must be easy to

use. Human engineering, the effort made by computer vendors to make

their equipment easy to use, is an important consideration in system

selection.

Investing 49

There must be an adequate system of passwords, security codes, and

file safeguards in order to insure that information cannot be obtained by

persons who are not allowed access to it. The system must prevent access

to persons trying to use accounts, user numbers, and sign-ons which are

not their own. All users need system documentation that is complete, up-

to-date, and correct. Indexes and libraries of published programs reflect

the extent to which a given system can be used, and they make it possible

to project the amount of programming which may have to be done

locally. The number, extent, power, and ease of use of available

programming languages are important system selection criteria, as are

staff training programs offered by vendors in how to use available

software packages and programming languages.

Dissemination Networks

One of the greatest national problems encountered in education today

is dissemination. For a variety of complex reasons there is a resistance to

using materials developed eleswhere. It is important for vendors of

edueational computers to make available dissemination networks where-

by materials can be published, exchanged, reviewed, and shared.

Electronic links among major development sites facilitate the preparation

of materials that are suitable for inter-institutional use, as do peer review

mechanisms and user groups.

Future Availability

Evidence of long-range corporate plans and commitments to the

systematic development of curricular materials is just as important in

selecting a system as is the evidence that the hardware can be upgraded to

remain compatible with technological advances. Flexibility is a key

term. Educational programs which allow instnictors to select -local

ierininologies and to adjust levels of difficulty and sequencing of material

for different grcups of students will be more widely applicable than those

in which instructional variables cannot be changed Hardware must be

designed for the future. Rapid changes in microelectronics have madeit

necessary for computer hardware to be both modular and redefinalile.

Upward compatability and expandability-are vitally important to its

long-range viability.

Procedures Followed in System Selection

Educational uses of computers are becoming increasingly widespread,

and documentation of their effectiveness is growing more complete.

Many institutions have made system selections and are happy with their

decisions, others are re-evaluating their selections, and still others are

selecting a system for the first time. Regardless of the past history of

computing itt an institution, it is important for system selection to be done

50 Investing

in an open manner following objective procedures which will hopefully

lead to an informed decision. Table 2 lists twelve steps followed in

selecting a system at Delaware. The manner in which eachof these steps

contributes to the selection process is discussed in turn.

Table 2: Twelve Steps Followed in Selecting a System

1. Form system selection committee

2. Reach agreement on system selection criteria

3. Compile list of available systems

4. Acquire literature on available systems

5. Compare systems based on selection criteria

6. .Determine which systems are frontrunners

7. Visit projects using frontrunners

8. Consult directors of projects using frontrunners

9. Make.preliminary selection of suitable systems

10. Get pricing information for suitable systems

11. Consult impartial experts on system selection

12. Make final decision regarding system selection

Form System Selection Committee

Itis mportant for the system selection committee to be representative

of various groups in an institution. Administrators, professional staff;

trainers, and faculty members should be included. At Delaware the

system selection committee was a subcommittee of the faculty senate.

The faculty played an important role in the Delaware PLATO Project.1

Reach Agreemerg on System Selection Criteria

The system selection committee should carefully assess the needs for

educational computing and compile a list of the features needed to meet

those needs. Care should be taken not to let preconceived notions of

committee members who might be advocates of particular systems to

influence how these criteria are written. At Delaware only one member

of the sy'stem selection committee had seen a PLATO terminal before

the criteria were written.

Compile List of Available Systems

The first step toward determining if there is a system which meets the

needs of the institution is to compile a list of available systems. Local

computing faculty and professional staff members can be asked to name

the systems of which they are aware, and publications like Computer

World,Byte, and the AEDS Bulletin can be scanned for the names of

systems Used elsewhere. If the system selection committee does not feel

Investing 51

confident that its list of available syStems is complete, outside consultants

can also be asked to look it over and point out any omissions.

Acquire Literature on Available Systems

dne quickway of accomplishing this step is to write to system vendors,

informing them that the institution is planning to make a substantial

investment in educational computing, and asking them to send all

available literature describing the-hardware, software, performance

characteristics, and educational effectiveness of their products. However,

there are -additional sources of information in professional publications

which vendors do not usually supply. Zinn has described these sources of

information and has provided mailing addresses whereby materials can

be ordered.6

Compare System Based,on Selection Criteria

At this stage it is helpful to make a table listing at the left side the

system selection criteria and across the top the names of the systems

under consideration'. Ratings of how well the criteria are met by the

respective systems can then be entered on the table resulting in a

composite view from which systems can be compared. McClain and

Thomas have developed such a table for microcomputers.4 At Delaware,

considerable attention was given tothe realtive strengths and weaknesses

of available programming languages, and a separate chartmas made up

just for this one aspect of system selection.

DeterMine Which Systems are Frontrunners

As a result of the previous step a few systems should emerge as

obVious frontrunners, meaning that they meet the system selection

criteria better than most of the available systems. These frontninners

then become the focus of attention for the remaining steps toward making

a final systems selection.

Visit Pmjects Using Frontrunners

The ability to travel to sites where the frontrunners are being used is

very important at this stage. It is one thing to read about the claims which

vendors make in promotional literature, and it is often quite another to

see how a system actually operates in a real instructional environment.

Important information regarding the physical set-up of the site can also

be gathered at this point and used later when arranging for local space

acquisition and modification.

Consult Directors of Projects Using Frontrunners

Directors of existing projects can be extremely helpful in providing

information and advice regarding the operation and organization of

educational computing. Each system has its own idiosyncracies which

'52 Investing

affect prciect management, and persons who are experienced in directing

projects can help new prciects avoid problems that they encountered in

the past. Advice given by Dr. Donald Bitzer, the inventor of the PLATO

system at the University of Illinois, and by his associate director, Dr.

Frank Propst, profoundly influenced the organization of the delaware

PLATO Project

Make Preliminary Selection of Suitable System(s)

By this time it should become apparent whether any existing systems fit

the criteria well enough to be seriously considered as candidates for a

&ill selection. Ideally there would be more than one system so that

vendors could bid against each other in a competitive situation. At

Delaware there was only one system judged to be suitable.

Get Pricing Information for Suitable Systems

Cost should not be considered until this step is taken. One might argue

that if the consideration of cost is delayed until now, institutions might not

be able to afford the candidates for final system selection. However,

neither can institutions afford to have their needs dictated by cost. A need

exists whether or not a computer-based solution to that need is

affordable. If cost is included earlier as a system selection criteria, then a

second-class alternative may seem to be appropriate when a first-class

system should have been used. Related to this concern is the marked

downward trend in the cost of computer hardware. Cheap systems are

beingsontinually replaced by newer models while advances in micro-

electronics are allowing expensive systems to lower their costs. An

institution which values the investment which its faculty and staff must

make in program development and implementation will carefully

s, consider longevity as well as cost in making a final system selection. If

more than one vendor can supply a system to meet institutional needs,

then competitive bidding will help keep costs down. In any case vendors

should be asked to make educational discounts.

Consult Impartial Eiperts on System Selection

Even if there is cely one vendor u4r consideration at this point,

advice from impartial outside consultants.;vill tend either to reinforce or

to refute the thinking of the system selection committee. Before the final

decision to use PLATO was made *Delaware, the Educational Testing

Service was consulted because it had been awarded aniNSF contract to

evaluate both PLATO and TICCIT and could render an unbiased

opinice as to whether or not it was reasonable to expect that the

University of Delaware could achieve its educational computing goals

using the PLATO system.

Investing 53

Make FinalDecision Regarding System Selection

If all the steps outlined above have been carefully followed, the fmal

'decision will be well documented for any higher committees and

administrators who may be required to review it before funding the

project. One might ask how long it takes to arrive at this fmal decision

point; at Delaware it took sik months.

CONCLUSION

With the N1:Aiiing interest in an importance of computers in our

society, all educational institutions will need to consider both wah what

criteria to use and what procedures to follow in selecting computer

systems. Whether institutions are doing this for the first firm or have

experience from previous hardware acquisitions, it is important to

consider the objectivity of the procedures and the effect which the

selection criteria will have upon the quality of education. The criteria and

procedures presented in this paper are not the only ones that can be used.

They are ones which were used at the University OfDelaware in 1974,

and no one at Delaware has regretted the rigor with which they were

followed.

REFERENCES:

1. Hofstetter, Fred, T. A model for administering computer-based education. Submitted

to the IFIP Third World Conference on Computers in Education, Lausanne,

Switzerland, July 27-31, 1981.

2. Hofstetter, Fred T. The fifth summative report of the Delaware PLATO Project.

Newark: University of Delaware, 1980.

3. Jones, Michael C. TICCIT applications it, higher education: evaluation results.

ADC'S Proceedings, 1978, pp. 398-419.

4..McClain, Donald and David Thomai. Selecting microcomputers for the classroom.

AEDS Journal, 1979, 13, 67.

5. Sugarman, Robert A second chance for computer-aided instruction. IEEE Spectrum,

1978, 15, Pp. 29-37.

6. Zinn, Karl L Sources of information about computing in instruction. Educational

Technology, 1978, 18, pp. 29-32.

6 4

c1Cr New Public Broadcasting Programs

r\I and Services

Dee Blvd(

Pubik Broadcasting Service

Washington D.C.

INTRODUCTION

Among the many things public television and education hold in

common is a loyal following of doomsayers a cadre of critics clucking

away in pri vt. and speech that we have not fulfilled Our promises to the

nation, that we have become obsolete, that we are inefficient,-that we

will, should be, perhaps even have been, abandoned or replaced by

technological, societal, or demographical changes. On that score, as one

of my favorite authors Mark Twain aptly put it, and one of my favorite

public broadcasters Lany Grossman aptly preempted it, I am happy to

say on behalf of both public television and education, that reports of our

death are greatly exaggerated.

Certainly, we cannot ignore that we face trying times. The economy

has taken its toll. New scientific discoveries, societal changes, and

advancing technologies challenge traditional concepts and traditional

procedures. We face government retrenchment at both local and federal

levels. Luckily for all of us, we can not only survive these pressures, but

we can thrive on them.

Fu from seeing the eighties as a period for gloom and doom, I see the

decade as offering at last the opportunity for public television and higher

`aat education to forge a powerful partnership, a partnership long desired,

collectively sought, progressiiely approaLhed since the advent of

television in the 1940's. Of course, it is accurate to say that television has

not fulfilled itaeckicaticcal potentiaL But, one should add the wOr1 ye4 and

one should also look at new initiatives in education undertaken by the

tk Public Broadcasting Service (PBS); for the future looks bright.

Programming Services

In June, 1979, by a large midority vote, the member stations of the

Public Broadcasting Service voted to establish three programming

services. Thus, PTV-1 to provide programming for the large general

New Public Programs 55

audience during the evening hours; FIT72 to provide targeted audience

programming, and PTV-3- to provide educational programming were

formed. The PBS planning team spend more than a year in extensive

consultation with broadcasters and educators in designing the Educa-

tions; Telecomthunications Programming Service. As of September 2,

that unit is a fully staffed and functioning part of PBS.

Within PTV-3 there are three departments. The Children's and Youth

Programming Service is concerned with the schedule of programming for

children and young people at home. It offers such wellAnown series as

SESAME STREET, ONCE UPON A CLASSIC, UP AND COM-

ING. A second department is responsible for instructickal programming

for in-school use, kindergarten through high school. Faced with a real

shortage of new programming, these Departments are actively seeking

new sources of funding, and untapped, high quality domestic and foreign

products, as well as encouraging and stimulating new program develop-

ment. There is a serious effort to make all series as flexible as possible so

that they can be used effectively in and out of classroms through

development of print components for children, teachers, and parents and

through good scheduling.

The third area, the one w which I am working is the Adult Learning

Department It is the rust programming service devoted entirely to

adult learning, and it em Irces the ambitious goal of providing "a full

range of educational and instructional programs and program related

services for . . . adult audiences for at home and in school use." Perhaps

because it is my field of interestor perhaps 6ecause it is trueit seems

that it is in higher education that the critics are most disappointed about

the use of television for education. As one wag put it, television still

"looms small on the landsCape of higher education." Yet even in higher

education, it is important to remember that if the instrumental television

cup is half empty, it is ago half full. And I am happy to report, the level is

definitely rising.

College Level Programming

Tfie last decade was one of exceptionally vigorous growth ofsollege

level programming. Although the beginning of the seventies saw only

what Newton Minow characterized as the grey professor with the grey

lecture on a grey screen, by mid-decade these were giving way to exciting

and effective college credit television courses. By the end of the seventies,

there were over fifty telecourses, produced by individual colleges, public

television stations, or college consortia, that were marketed to other

higher education institutions across the country.

According to the Corporation for Public Broadcasting's "Higher

Education Utilization Study," there were almost a half million students

enrolled in college credit courses in 1978-79. Though most of these were

enrolled in on-campus courses via closed-circuit television, almost

6 6

56 New Public Programs

200,000 were distant learners, that is students taking courses at home, at

work places, or in learning centers. Obviously, that number is a very small

percentage of the number of students enrolled in colleges and universities

in 1978-79. However, the numbeis represent significant growth from the

first of the decade, and the demographic make-up of these students is also

significant. Many of them are the `tnew students," the older, part-time

students from which higher education must draw if it is to maintain or

increase enrollments in the next decades.

And the numbers of the enrollees in television courses are growing, as

success storiej in several parts of the country demonstrate. For example,

in Ken , the State Departmentof Education and Kentucky Educa-

tional Television backed a statewide effort to offer college credit

instruction via television. The number of enrollees has climbed steadily

during the first two years of operation. In Texas, the community colleges

serving Dallas County and Tarrant County began in 1977 to use, the

same public televsion station 'to present college credit instruction.

Together they now regularly enroll over 17,000 students a year. The Tri-

State Consortium, recently reorganized as the Eastern Educational

Consortium, has grown to represent fifty colleges in the Northeast (two

year, four year, public, and private institutions), and the enrollments for

television courses have 'increased as dramati6ally as the numbers of

institutions in the organization. And there are other such examples.

However, though there are a few areas where television is successfully

used for adult learning, there are even more places where television is not

used for adult learning at all or is not used very successfully. Now, at last,

... to enhance those efforts already under way and to provide service where

there is none, here is PTV-3, the first PBS national programming service

for adult learning.

Adult Leaining Programming

The details of the PTV-3/Adult Learning Programming Service were

announced at a national teleconference February 26. Over 120 public

broadcasting stations participated in the conference on that day. Others

taped the teleconference for later use with the postsecondary institutions

in their communities. Altliouth we do not yet know how many colleges

we reached, we do know that stations requested about 3,500 packets of

:nforination to send along with invitations to their local institutions, and

we know that over 2,000 public television and higher education

representatives were tuned in to hear the details of the plan I am going to

hare with you now. .

The basic principles underlying the plan have been announced and

pu *shed several times, but they still bear repeating. First, there is a need

for a 'onal delivery system of top quality educational and instructional

television courses and series directed at adult learners with all of the

accompanying economies of scale and potential for excellence that

Nelif Prograrns

nitional delivery can provide. Second the choice and the use of these

programs must remain under the control of local broadcasters and

educational institutions. Together, they must decide which of the available

programming they wish to use and when and how. Just as individual PBS

member stations must be the fmal judge as to which programs fit their

missions and their schedules, so local colleges and universities must

decide which programs fit their canicula, and they must grant college

credit ff college credit is to be granted Thus, a stning working relationship

between local stations and the institutions within theircommunities is

imperative. The afin of PTV-3 is Co help establish suck new local

partnerships where hone exist and to enhance the effectiveness of

existing partnerships where they are already functioning. ,

The PIN-3 Adult Learning Programming Service will take a multi-

.faceted approfch to adult learning. It will offer college cralit courses;

non-credit, life-long learning series; and career training and professional

development courses. The first PTV-3/Adult Learning sehedule will

concentrate on Credit courses. These courses were chosen after months

of screenings and formal and informal consultationq/ith the leadership of

educational associations, college and university administrators and

faculty, college consortia, and a specially conver.e4 PTV-3/Adult

Learning Advisory Council of ten distinguished educators and broad-

casters..

College Credit Courses

There are, of coarse, several kinds of college credit television,courses.

The most common type, produced by colleges and used primarily on

campuses, is the televised lecture, dither live or taped, which transmits,

virtually intact, a classroom presentation. It may or may not include

elements in addition to those used in the original classroom version, such as

on-campus use, PTV-3 will not be distributing this type of television

course.

Telecourses

Another' kind of college credit course 'using television is called a

telecourse. In this caie, the television programs are productions prepared

for open circuit distribution with general audience viewing in mind.

However,the television series would not have been produced had it not

been part of the telecoutse. The complete telecourse is an integrated

learning system. In addition to the television programs, it includes other

components, such as a textbook, a text bank, a student study guide, an

administrator's guide, a faculty manual, and other materials as needed.

PTV-3 will distribute the best of this kind of college credit coursethat

is, telecourses that include television programs which have open circuit,

broadcast quality, technical and production standards sound academic

content, anid the most effective instructional design.

58 New Public Programs

Headlining the schedule will be UNDERSTANDING HUMAN

BEHAVIOR, produced by Coast Telecourses, in partnership, with

several other producing institutions: Dallas County Community College

District; Miami-Dade Community College District; the State Depart-

ment of Education in Florida; Chicago City Colleges; the Southern

California Consortium for Community College Television; and the

University of Mid-America. A new telecourse featuring the best-selling

psychology textbook by Dr. James McCormell, UNDERSTANDING

HUMAN BEHAVIOR, is being field-tested by the producing partners

and selected institutiOns this spring. It will make its national debut on

PTV-3,

The other telecourses in the PTV-3 schedule are AMERICAN

GOYERNMENT SURVEY (produced by Dallas County Community

College District, Coast Community College, Chicago City Colleges,

and Tarrant:County Junior College), a thirty-segment overview of the

governmental system of the United States; THE AMERICAN STORY:

THE BEGINNING TO 1877,(produced by Dallas County Commu-

nity College District), an American history survey; CONTEMPORARY

HEALTH ISSUES (produced by the Southern California Consortium

for COmniunity College, Television), an examination of the critical health

questions facing today's society; HUMANITIES THROUGH THE

ARTS (produced by Coast Community College and City Colleges of

Chicago), a survey of film, drama, music, literature, painting, sculpture,

and architecture, featuring Maya Angekm as narrator; INTERACTION

(produced by Maryland Instructional Television/Maryland Department

of Education), an in-service course for all school instructional personnel,

or a graduate course in teacher education; IT'S EVERYBODY'S

BUSINESS (produced by Dallas County Community College District),an

introduction 10 the complex range of operations which constitute the

contemporary United States' business scene.

Wraparounds

Still another kind of college credit course is cglled`a wraparound. This

kind of television course begins with a television series slch as THE

ASCENT OF MAN,which would have been produced and-broadcast

regardless of whether it was to become a part of a college credit course or

not. Ancillary materials prepared during or after the production of the

series integrate ,the television programs into a learning system. The

wraparound is currently the most commonly known and. widely used

type of college credit course on public television, and of course, PTV-3

will _use wraparounds in its distribution schedule. In fact, one of the

important functions of the Adult Learning Department will be to

coordinate the development of the instructional materials with the

production or the television programs for prime-time PBS -series that

have potential for adult learning so that these series can be effectively

New pieblic Progtums 59

utilized from their first airing.

The fall, 1981, schedule includes two wraparounds: COSMOS,which

garnered a higher viewership than any previous PBS weekly show and

now has a full set of integrated instructional materials, and THE

SHAKESPEARE PIAYS, featuring six plays from the past two seasons,

-selected by Dr. John Andrews of the Folger Shakespeare Library. These

plays will be aiSembled with apPropriate print materials to provide a

'Survey of Shakespeare's work The series will include twgtragedies,

(Julius Caesar and Hamlet ); two comedies (Measure for Measure

andTwelfth Night ); and two histories (Richard II and Henry IV, Part

I).The first schedule of Adult Learning Programmingwill begin transmission

via satellite to paitieipating PBS stations on August 29. Each telecourse

program wil be fed on -Saturday from 9:00.a.m. ET to 4:00 p.m. ET

with the first three hours of the schedule repeated from 4:00 p.m. ET to

7:00 p.m. ET to Provide for Pacific and.Mountain time zones. All of the

-telecourse programs will have a daytime, weekday repeat. THE

SHAKESPEARE' PLAYS will be broadcast by, participating stations

on every other Sunday afternoon beginning September 6. COSMOS will

be part of the PBS prime-time schedule beginning (on an evening to be

announced) the week of September 27.

To participate in the service, colleges and universities will pay a small

license fee for each telecourse, plus student enrollment fees. (There are

no PBS fees for wraparound courses.) In return, they will receive the

right to use the courses for credit or non-credit; a full set of administrator

and faculty materials; and permission to tape off-air or act:juke in

advance a full set of videocassettes of the television programs. These

cassettes may be used for the entire license period for makeup and

review, or even as the primary delivery for enrolled telecourse students.

Participating colleges and public television stations will work together to

inform the community about the service, to schedule programs and to

serve students.

The full details of the PTV-3/Adult Learning Programming Service

are available now: how you can preview and evaluate programs; what

your rights, responsitidities, and costs are in this plan; where you can seek

xtting-up or improving.ah adult learriing television outreach; and

°what you should do next. For this arid other information, you can write to

me at PBS-PTV-3/Adult L..tarning Programming Department,475

L'Enfant Plaza, Washington, D.C. 20024, or call me at (202) 488-

5361.

Annenberg Gift to CPB

The prognosis for the development of superior programming for an

adult learning service was greatly enhanced by Ambassador Walter

Annenberg's generous and substantial gift of $150,000,000 to the

60 New Public Programs

Corporation for Public Broadcasting (CPB). This fund, to be givenat ten

million dollars a year for fifteen years will be used to support the creaton

of high quality college level television and radio programs and other

materials for distribution through existing and developing communica7

tions systems. Recognizing the long history of development of adult

learning through telecommunications, the fund was established tO

develop programs and projects (in collaboration with other organizations

and with higher education institutions) which would result in courses to

be offered generally, but not exclusively, for baccalaureate degree credit.

The administration of this gift, to be called the Project, witha capital P,

will be housed within CPB. A director appointed by CPB and an

Advisory Councilconsisting of two representatives from PBS,two

from National Public Radio, two from CPB, and two from the

Annenberg School ofCommunications, and perhaps two more members

at largewill administer the fund. The goals of the Project are to create

one or more significant collections of new, innovative, high quality

college level materials and to demonstrate the use of communications

systems for addressing unique higher education problems. The primary'

target audiencei are those persons who demonstrate an interest in college

level education, but because of lack of time, or resources, or other

reasons are unable to pursue that education. The fund was formally

presented and accepted the morning of February 26; thus, Lawrence

Grossman, President of PBS, was able to announce this magnificent gift

to education and public television personnel all over the country at the

beginning of the Adult Learning Teleconference.

Other Services

In addition to programming, the PTV-3 Adult LearningDepartment

will provide a number of related services. Included are two more

teleconferences this spring. A teleconference on March 31 will deal with

implementation strategies for telecourses. Dr. John Flanagan,Associate

Dean for Non-Traditional Programs at Eastern Kentucky University,

and Dr. Terence Kelly, Vice-President for Education at Miami-Dade

Community College, both administrators of successful television outreach.

programs for their institutions, will be featured guests, along with Stephen

Pence, Adjunct Professor at Eastern Kentucky University,and Elizabeth

Koster, Professor of Nursing at Bergen Community College, both

enthusiastic teachers of telecourses. A packet of materials about

implementation will accompany the video presentation.

On April 29, PTV-3, in cooperation with the Public Information and

Advertising Departments of PBS and practicing experts in promotion

and marketing, will present a teleconferencp on promotion. This meeting

willull together the public information staffs and other interested

personnel of colleges and universities with those of the local public

television station to address the problems of informing communities and

New Public Programs 61

recruiting students. PTV-3 will provide press kits, including stories that

can be localized about the service and the courses within the schedule;

photographs; appropriate art work and copy for brochures, newspaper

advertising and direct mail pieces so that the local institutions can easily

adapt them by adding only their names, addresses, and other pertinent

.local information. On-air promotion for public television stations and

public service announcements for commercial radio and television

stations will also be available to participants. All of these materials will

be integrated into a presentation that will suggest several viable

approaches to planning and implementing effective promotion cam-

paigns for adult learning via television.

The PTV-3/Adult Learning ,Programming Service is already well

along in planning for its second Semester in spring of 1982 and its second

academic year 1982-83. Among its goals are earlier announcements of

schedules to provide a longer lead timenine to twelve months inyear

twofor colleges and universities; development of new programs and

services; and a more systematic feedback system involving all of the

participating institutions and stations. We want to get advice from all of

our PTV-3 participants about the courses to select; the courses to

encourage in development; the days and hours courses should be

transmitted; the services needed to make the Adult Learning Pro-

gramming Service effective; and other curricular, instructional, and

broadcasting issues.

Public Subscriber Network

Though PT1!-3/Adult Learning is a functioning department within

PBS, still another PBS national initiative in education is on the drawing

boards. Called first the Grand Alliance, but now named the Public

Subscriber Network, this initiative is a part of the PBS plan for a

subscriber or pay-cable service. The plan was conceivedas a partnership

between PBS and the cultural and performing arts institutions and groups

in the country, and the focus of the evening schedule will be on first class

cultural and performing gt programs. However, the daytime schedule

will be devoted to education. The shape ofthat educational programming

is taking form now. It seems likely that it will be bighly targeted to appeal

to the same audience paying for the evening service, but will also be

particularly usefill to its institutional members, which will include such

entities as school districts, colleges, universities, professional associations,

businesses, hospitals, and industry. Though it is too early to say exactly

what the daytime components will be, perhaps one strip of progxamming

will be devoted to i.he needs of academically talented children and youth;

another block of programming might provide advanced professional

development for scientists, executives, and professionals; still another

might schedule master classes by the world's greatest scholars. These

potentials and others are in sesearch now.

62 New Public Programs

StMMARY

Television has been an increasingly powerful force in our society since

the fifties. Its power in business, in politics, and in all phases of

communication is certainly far advanced. But television has not yet

emerged as the powerful force it can and should be in education. Clearly,

the arrival of PTV-3 and the coming of the Public Subscriber Network

demonstrate that it is time for the good friendship between public

broadcasting and education to become stronger and deeper, to grow into

not so much a marriage, as a partnership. This partnership will be forged

from our combined efforts to achieve our highest goals, for we have long

had mutual needs, common interest, and shared values. And from this

powerful partnership should come the most exciting educational experi-

ences of the eighties.

(NJ

cr-

'c:21

U-1

Computers/Software More for Less

Dorothy K. Deringer

National Science Foundation

Washington, D.C.

INTRODUCTION

Computing has profoundly influenced our society; science, govern-

ment, business -and even our household appliances and our children's

toys have been affected. Indeed, computing is one of those rare

commodities within our society for which the cost continues to decline.

,Or stated in another way, the increase in cost-effectiveness over time has

been exponential. The rule that cost-effectiveness doubles every two

years has held up forthe last decade and current projections indicate that

it will continue to hold for still another decade.1 the character of the

computer industry is 'More &Less."

In a recent report, Technology in Science Education: The Next 10

Years, J.C.R. Licklider of-MIT says "the world is rapidly_ moving into

the Information Age" and information technology is flourishing everywhere

but in the field of education. He concludes that "education is not only

missing a great opportunity, it is failing to discharge a responsibility."

However, in spite of the fact that the computer pervades all segments

of our society and the toy industry has "gone electronic" with computer

based toys, "Less is not Always More" especially in public education.

What is the role of- the education establishment in preparing our

NA,studentsto live and work in this new world and how are we fulfilling this

role? How should the education establishment use the new technologies

to improve our performance as so many other professions-have done?

Many of you at this conference are asking yourselves this question. Some

of us have already decided and wish to learn more about the best ways of

doing it. Icexpect that many of us here will talk about not only the

promises but also the dangers which exist in an increasingly

technologically-based educational syStem.

444-

Some recent reports have delineated many problems and issues in the

use of infonnation technology in education. These reports come from the

exetutive branch of the federal government, the Congress and the field.

64 Computer/Software

NSF and Information Technology

The National Science Foundation's mission for maintaining the health

of science education in the United States leads to our involvement in this

topic in a variety of ways (For NSF, the word "science" includes research

and education in science, mathematics and engineering). NSF's legislation,

the NSF Organic Act (P.L 81-507), gives NSF a speCial mandate to foster

computer technology for research and education. Section 3(a) (4) author-

ized the Foundation "to foster and support the development and use of the

computer and Other scientific methods and technologies primarily for

research and education in the sciences." Underthis mandate, NSF has

invested well over 50 million dollars over the last 10years in technology for

science education.

The national concern for the decline in U.S. productivity and the

recent reports of the heavy emphasis of science and technology in the

Soviet curriculum for elementary and high school students led the

President to request a report on the health of American science education

an51 its ability to prepare students to function in a technological world.

The report, Science and EngineerinrEducation for the 80's and

Beyond3 prepared by the Secretary of Education and the Acting

Director of the Natibnal Science Foundation, shows that we will have a

prolonged shortage of engineers and computer scientists. Moreinterest-

ingly, we are fast becoming a nation of technological illiterates. The gap

between those few who study science and technology and themany who

don'.t is great and ever growing such that it portends significant problems

for our society over the long run.

The report recommends computer literacy courses as one of many

possible actions, greater support for university departments ofengineering

and computer science topurchase research equipment so that faculty can

conduct state of the art research in these areas, and it recommends that

the educational profession use the technology itself to improveperformance.

It urges NSF to encourage the development of software for classroom

computers and for the Department of Education to encourage schools to

use it. Schools are urged to use video technology, classroom television and

other technologies in educating students.

The Congress

The Congress as well has been concerned about the use of information

technology in education. During the most recent hearings, Congressman

George Brown (D, Cal.) in his opening remarks stated that the objectives

of the seminars were "to enhance the awareness of the Congress, the

executive branch, and the private and public sectors of the potential

educational benefits of new information and telecommunications tech-

nologies and ... the possible social and economic impacts resulting from

the widespread use of these technologies in the educational process."4

Computer/Software 65

After witnesses spoke, six panels met to discuss the problems and make

recommendations.

A report synthesizing the recommendations will be available later this

year. Congressional staff members indicate that two central issues are

emerging in theme of information technology for education at all levels

and in all environmentsthe need for trained personnel and for high-

quality courseware and software.

The House Committee itself has taken an innovative step in the use of

technology to share the material of thete hearings. For the first time, a

videotaped report of the hearingsactually three 1 hour tapes and one

half our tapewill be available from Congressman Brown's office. These

tapes have also been shown on the House closed-circuit television system.

Colleagues of mine who have seen these tapes give them high marks for

articulating the probk -ns and issues in discussing the use of information

technology in education.

Th. Yield

In December 1980, a conference on National Goals for Computer

Literacy5 was conducted by the Human Resources Research Organization

(HumRRO) and the Minnesota Educational Computing Consortium

(MECC). Over 85 experts in computing and education participated.

Though there were some widely differing viewpoints expressed the

group identified the need for

a national commitment to a computer literate society;

talent development;

software, courseware and curriculum guidelines;

equipment availability;

a total effort in the school, the home and the workplace; and

further research, development and policy studies.

The conference participants also pointed out that the availability of the

computer could result in two distinct classes in our society: those who

have the ability to use computers and those who do not. Those who do

not have the ability will be technological illiterates in the technologically

sophisticated society of the 80's and beyond. This will most likely further

widen the gap between the rich and the poor, and serious social, political

and economk consequences, could result. .

Clearly there are many fine policy statements and recommendations

from the executive branch, the Congress, and the field. All of these and

other reports rev.eal a consistency in views of different groups and

organizations on the important problems and issues.

And now, I believe, that the people of the United States not only see the

increasing importance of computing and technology, they are attempting

to use it and teach about it. The question is no longer should the

computer be part of instruction, but how should it be used and studied

best? Enrollments of students in computer science and engineering

7 6

66 Computer/Software

courses in higher education are increasing faster than our institutions are

able to provide well trained professors to teach them. Schools are

acquiring micro computers for their classrooms through planned pur-

chasing programs, state-wide purchasing agreements and PTA bake sales.

But our strategies for using these computers and training teachers are

varied. People are searching for sound approaches, as we are here, but

there are no agreed upon solutions. The change in the last five years is

that the number of people searching for solutions has increased

enormously.

The National Science Foundation Projects in Computing

All of these studies mentioned above are useful if you are trying to

convince advisory committees, school boards, parents, and other

decision makers that information technology should play a vital role in

our schools.

When one actually takes the step to use technology, however, one

fmds a variety of different approaches to the use of courseware and

software in the education of students, teachers and citizens. The needs

for large quantities of high quality courseware and software and for

trained people are identified by policy makers, but there are many

different and high quality approaches to fulfilling these needs.

NSF's approach is to support a variety of different projects which are

examples and models of the uses of computing in science education.

Then you can pick and choose among these approaches and decide for

yourselves what is best for your local educational needs and objectives.

These federally supported examples provide benefits to many at a much

lower cost than if each institution fmance its own research and ,

development.

I would like to tell you about several ofour projects which are trying to

anticipate the educational needs of the late 80's in science, mathematics

and engineering education. They are characterized by diversity of su bjedt

matter, levels, strategies, focus and environment.

The National Science Foundation concentrates on computing because

to be able to do science and engineering in the 80'sand beyond one has to

know something about computing.

We see three different approaches to the computer in science

education:

I. The computer as a tool of science;

2. The computer as an object of study; and

3. The computer as a deliverer of instruction.

Ftsr the last of thesethe delivery of instructionthere is still

reluctance on the part of many institutions to change. Dr. Joseph Lipson

of NSF in an earlier talk has outlined some reasons for this reluctance.

To know about the computeras a tool of science and an object of study,

however, is becoming a requirement for a well-educated individual. I

7 7

Computer/Software 67

believe that it is in these areas which the computer is best received and

used in pre-college and higher education. It is, by far, the area in which

the Foundation has the largest investment.

The Cdtputer as a Tool of Science

Materials in which the computer is used as a tool are being developed

for a variety of different science and engineering topics. All of these

applications are focused on bringing research strategies and techniques

in the discipline to undergraduate and graduate classrooms.

Are you interested in improving the education of our meteorologists?

Sophisticated computer graphics systems such as the one at the

University of Wisconsin/Madison ire used by professional and

research meteorologists to analyze and predict weather systems.

Dr. Donald Johns9n is preparing a version of these color graphics

systems, accompanied by teaching materials, and designed for

use within atmospheric sciences classrooms and laboratories.6'

How about improving the analytical skills of undergraduate

biology students? A package of programs incorporating techniques

from research in biology will be designed for use in the first two

undergraduate years of biology laboratory for data analysis and

simulation by Dr. James Spain. at Michigan Technological

University.7

One strategy used by political scientists and economists to predict

the state of the world in the 80's and beyond is a world computer

model which incorporates political, economic and other scientific

data. A simplified version is being constructed for use withinthe

classroom by Dr. Barry Hughes at the University Of Denver.

Computer Litoracy: Strategies for all Ages

If learning how to use the computer and about its use in our society

becoming computer-literateis an important goal for your faculty and

students, consider these different projects in different environments with

different philosophies.

If you're involved in elementary schools, curriculum kits for

introducing computing into science and mathematics courses

taught in grades K-8 are being produced by the Human

Resources Research Organization (HumRRO) in Alexandria,

Virginia;

At the middle and high school level, a project at the Minnesota

Educational Computing Consortium directed bY Dr. Ronald

Anderson is producing materials which will be integrated in

mathematics, science, and social sciences classes;

How about mit-of:school learning? Professor Seymour Papert at

MIT will use the 'opportunity afforded by a summer camP to

explore the mathematics learned by early adolescent youngsters

68 Computer/Software

within a computer culture;

If you believe the library should be the center for change in our

information-based society, look at the project conducted by

People's Computer Company at the public library, recreation

center and local business locations. This project will give the

27,000 residents of Menlo Park, California an opportunity to

have a direct experience with a microcomputer.

Computer Development and Revision

One of our recent efforts which has generated strong interest among

mathematicians, educators and the public involves pre-college mathe-

matics education using computers. During Fiscal Year 1980 twenty

projects were supported, nine in cooperation with the National Institute

of Education under the NSF/NIE Improvement of Mathematics

Education using Information Technology effort. These twenty projects

Imitate a diversity of approaches at different age levels.8

If you are looking for materials for gifted young children, games,

inquiry learning sequences and puzzles will be programmedunder

the direction of Dr. Ann Piestrup of Advanced Learning Tech-

nology to help gifted second and third graders learn geometry and

logic. Children will use a variety of input/output mediajoy

sticks, graphics tablets, color graphics and speech;

It you envision a classroom with both calculators and computers,

you might consider the techniques used by Dr. John Miller at the

Lawrence Hall of Science. Calculators and computers will be

combined in the mathematics .classroom ina project to teach 4th,

5th and 6th grade teachers and parents about the potential of

calculators in elementary mathematics instruction;

If you consider the networking of teachers and classrooms an

intriguing technique for improving the interest and motivation of

both teachers and students, consider this project directedby Dr.

Diane Resek at San Francisco State. A network of micro computers

will be used to link middle school students and teachers learning

mathematics through games, simulations and information storage

and retrieval techniques;

Looking for a technique to involve talented but non-science

oriented students in computing 'and mathematics? Tenth grade

students (talented but non-science oriented) will use the computtr

in their roles as mathematics tutors for underachieving sixth grade

students. Dr. Marc Swadener at the University of Denver

anticipates that the mathematics and problem-solving skills Of

both groups will improve as well as their enrollment in math and

science classes.

Do your students think that math and science are too abstract? At

the All Indian Pueblo Council in Albuquerque, NM, Pueblo story

Computer/Software 69

telling techniques with color graphics will be used to teach Indian

students about energy use in the Pueblo culture.

'a- When your teachers express the desire to use the computer as a

"dynamic blackboard," consider a project at Georgia Tech

directed by Dr. Les Karlovitz and one at Carroll College by Dr.

Gerald Isaacs. In -both of these projects, teacher tools for

illustrating and describing mathematical principles and problems

in the classroom are being developed.

How about a math lab? A mathematics laboratory akin toa high

school physics or chemistry lab will be created by John Staib at

Drexel University.

If your school serves adults who need to learn or refresh their high

school mathematics, the mathematics 'clinic at Virginia

Commonwealth University will help adults learn high school

algebra and trigonometry graphing through computer graphics.

Ten to fifteen more prototype projects in mathematics and computing

will be supported in Fiscal 1981.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, technology is flourishing everywhere but in education.

The President's report says that in the long range this situation is going to

Have a significant negative impact As we search for trained people torun

our technological society, we will find fewer and fewer of them..

Predictions are that we will soon find a technologically illiterate society.

If we are tO meet the challenges of an information society we must ensure

that we have a literate populace.

NSF has funded programs to stimulate the development of ideas and

systems to assist those who are interested in using technology in the

classroom. Much more is needed.

If we are to integrate the use of technology in all of our nation's

classrooms (not just in pilot projects and prototypes),we need to develop

national strategies to stimulate the large-scale development of high-

quality educational courseware, software and materials and to facilitate

the acquisition of appropriate hardware.

If the pourseware, software, materials, and hardware are to be created

and used effectively in our nation's classrooms, we need a nation of

trained peoplefaculty, teachers and administrators, who ire prepared

to use technology wisely.

If we are to capitalize'on the strengths but avoid the dangers of these

information technologies, we need continued research and development

activities to determine long-term benefits and dangers.

And finally, if we are to remain a technologically sophisticated nation,

we need to establish national policies, goals and strategies to ensure that

our educational system can produce students who can participate in such

a society.

-60

70 Cotnputer/Software

REFERENCES:

1. Licklider, J.C.R., Technology in Science Education: The Next Ten Years, National

Science Foundation, July 1979, U.S. Government Printing Office, Grip 038-000-

00432 ($2.50), p. 3.

2. Ibid, p. 2.

3. Hufstedler, Shirley M. and Donald N. Langenberg, Report to the Presklent of the

United States, Science and EngineerinpEducation for-the 1980's and Beyond,

October 1980, NSF 80-78. All NSF Publications (except 1 above) are available from

the National Science Foundation Publications Office, NSF, Washington, DC 20550.

4. Information Technology in Education. Joint Hearings before the Subcommittee on

.Science, Research and Technology of the Committee on Science and Technology and

the Subcommittee on Select Education of the Committee on Education and Labor,

Hoese of Representatives, Ninety-Sixth Congress, Second Session, April 2 and 3,

1980, No. 134, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, 1980.

Also, Computers and the Learning Society, Hearings before. the Subcommittee on

Domestic and International Scientific Planning, Analysis and Cooperation of the

Committee on Science and Technology, U.S. House of Representatives, Ninety-Filth

Congress, First Session, October 4, 6, 12; 13, 18, and 27, 1977; No. 47, U.S.

Government Prifiting Office, Washington, 1978. A report of these hearings is also

available (June 1978).

Information and Communications Technologies Appropriate in Education (In-

cluding HR. 4326), Hearings before the Subcommittee on Science, Research and

Technology of the Committee on Science and Technology, U.S. House of Represen-

tatives, Ninety-Sixth Congress, First Session, October 9; 1979, U.S. Government

Printing Office, Washington, 1979.

5. Seidel, Robert J. et al., National Goals forComputer Literacy in 1985 _Conference

Proceedings and Recommendations,fortheeming from Human Resources Research

Organization (HumRRO), 300 North Washington 'Street, Alexandria, VA, 22314.

6. SourreBook offtiects, Science Education Development and Research, Fiscal Year

1979, National Science Foundation SE 80-80, p. 49.

7. All of the next awards except Papert/MIT are described in"Development in Science

Education (DISE) Program, Project Awards, Fiscal Year 1980," National Science

Foundation SE 81-52. The MIT award is described in reference 8.

8. The mathematics using computing projects are described inPre-College Mathematics

Education Using Computers, Project Awards, Fiscal Year 1980, Development in

Science Education, National Science Foundation, SE 81-51.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I would like to thank my colleague at the Nation! Science Foundation,

Dr. Andrew Molnar, for his advice and assistance in preparing this

paper.

Maiching Educational Needs

with,Available Technology:

What is happening in the Rest of the World

Clifford It Mock

\U.S. Agency for Intemotionai Development

Washim, D.C.

INTRODUCTION

As I prepare this paper in Washington this afternoon, my thOughts turn

to some of the place* on this earth where educational technology is today

being used to makea differenceplaces where it is playing a central role

Ail the educational process. It is early morning inthe South Pacific, and

students of Fiji,Tonga, Western Samoa and eight other islands scattered

over hundreds of thousands of square Miles are preparing to take a

university course in tropical disease control, thanks to audio links

Provided to each island by :NASA satellite 23;000 miles in orbit above,

the earth. FUrther to the West, in the Republic of Korea, in a few,houzs

250,600 primary and junior high schOof students- will attend schools,

where learning is organized in a sophisticated sygem based mina-Stet*

learning concepts, delivered by programmed instruction, radio, tele-

yisiokirafteacher=led exercises, while thousands of Korean adults will

erlater, in Thailand, students will be studying primary -school

highlchool degree through Korea's High School of the Air.

('01 milhentratios provided by radio to their classrooms, and they will be

learrinyift well. In the Ivory Coati of Africa tomorrow morning 580,000

>41. students throughout the mtenor of that country will be Studying through

Gt, 41ssrbonkelevision in almost eVery subject In England, of course, tht;

litatiorlalsiiiiit university will be operating using the postal systemant

:the ficilifiei Of the BBC to bring higher education of estimable quality to

65,000litudentsoneinwhile, in our own hemisphere a similar system is

Pnividingrefief to Venezuela's bulging university classrooms, While even

in SkIfilfed El Salvador education is being provided for niost of that

cciii#5,4 junior-high school stUdents through classroom television.

'-we in 'this country are part of a fabric of experimentation and

commitment- to. new -ways to provide the best educational opportunity

72 iwatching Needs

that can, be' afforded to pur children and to ourselves, no matter the

material; political and cultural differences among Os. 'Fiero issome merit

to the thought that we can learn together from somEof these experi-

encesas well as_ pro!ide a boost our collective morale, as- innovation

wends its-rocky way through the very testing trials of reality.

World Trends

would- like to give you= some sense of the trends -in educational

technOlogy throughout the world, at least at I see them from my vantage

uoint, where mY job is to _select promising, approaches and concepts

Worldwide and to work with spec& developing countries to -generate

applications to their Problems. It is tettiPtingvery tempting .-7-to

speculate abbtit the new world that we see coming into reality in the next

few years: Whole libraries available on a handful ofyideodisOc students

of all ages learning at home through microcomputers linked by phone

with vast edudational data bases; instant access -by satellite to an

unlimited variety of televised information. But4, like many of the other

contactors believe we have learned that those fundamental changes

will- come to realization, An most cases, only in a gradual and often

evolutionary *ayrather than by soine instantaneous sea change.

Educational institutions, and those within them who learn, and teach,

and adminiiter; need time and experience to incotporate these new ways

of leaning into their individual, social and economic._ patterns of

behavior. The organizational changes to which Many of this book's papets

have referred will take some time, -some fits and starts, and many

adaptive processes ip order to become viable. So instead of speculating

about what could come to pass, I would like to examine cunently existing

trends in the rest Of the wórld; it is these existing trends which are most

likely to condition the educational alternatives of the near future.

I see four basiotrends that now have a firm basis. The best established

is that embodied by the concept of the open universitythat is, "teaching

at a distanec," for motivated adults. The second is an increasing use of

broadCasting to Meet basic -edutitidial nee& within primary and

secondary schools,-particularly the emerging rediscovery of/Indio as a

Rawer* in-school educational Medium, When appropriately program-

med. The third is the now familiar world-wide use of televisionfor early

'Ackildhoodeducation as pioneered by the Children's Television Work-

ihoP in -its Sesanie Street and Electrie Company efforts. And finally,

serving as die intellectual underpinning of many of educational tech-

Woe's sisecess stories in the world's educational marketplade is the

slow but steady growth offastructional systems delign, used as a formal

methodology for developing the content of instruction. 7EACHINGAT

4.4 DISTANCE: 77IE OPEN UNIVERSITy

:Elierivhere_itt the world, as-in our own country, innovations succeed

when--theY are able to combine effective instnictional methods- with

Matching Needs 73

delivery systems that are cheap, reliable and simple for the users to

operate. Even then, they persist only when such innovations become

incorporated into institutions that themselves are stronginstitutions

which are viable because they serve important social needs.

The Open University

The Open University movement fits all these criteria. The British

Government of the late 1960'S and '70's was deeply, politiCally

committed to expanded higher educational opportunity beyond the

selective and indeed elitist university system extant in the United

Kingdom.By using television; radio, and the post, the production skill of

the BBC, the instructional, design skill of its superb educational

technology group, and the content expertise of a first-rate faculty, the

British Open University has grown to more than 65,000 students, by all

odds the largest universityin- Britain and one of the larger ones-in the

World. Its graduates have acquitted themselves so well, and their

intellectual standards are So high, that an Open University degree means

a good deal oven in status-conscious Britain. The model has quickly

become transplanted to other nations where university entance is

difficult to achieve. The Bavarian Open University now enrolls thou-

sands of German students; the model has been extended to Venezuela, to

Pakistan, to at least a dozen other-countries including, of course, the

,United States. We can expect some of the particulars to change from

place to place and to evolvein Britain, for example, the use of the audio

emends creasingly viewed as having advantages for some purposes

over both te1èison 'and radio, and is rapidly becoming a Major element

in the media knix. In _the South Pacificwhere Mailing cassettes or

documents mejns in manyinstances takingthem over dangerous reefs by

longboatitb adcist _techniques are predominate, and there is now

serious experimentation willi slow-scan teleVision.

But the basic elements__ of the Open UniversitS, model remain the

sarneworking adults 4udy in their own homes, or in some countries in

Community centers, using some form of audio or visual instrudtion; their

performance is: Monitored and guided ihrough correspondence, tele-

phone or sony .other means; and in most cases, instructional- systems

design techniqües frame thedevelopment of anstruction content. These

systems generally wOrk well. They are econothically attractive be-Cause-

stadents ,can -still-be_ employed, and they fill a tremendons need for

servical& new populations.

In some develoPing countries, theselsystems,are being used,also to

eitend the societal usefigness of the university. In the South Pacific, for

emnPle, with -cantle help through AID., university faculty in such

fields Is agronokvi pUb1c health,!and economic policy am providing '

spedialyzed in-service courses to_ development Wórkersttl'tinughout the

regionto nurse-inidwives, to r,grieultural_ extension agents, -to :plan-

nersthrough Satellite radio. In the pmcess,incidentally, these faculty

74 Matching Needs

are being profoundly influenced in their regular academic teaching by

their two-way comrnunicatiOn- with those who are facing real-world

problems, on the job. So I expect these open universities to continue to

function, to giow, and to become even more sophisticated educationally.

Because the); are now permanent and important institutions in their

countries or regions, they can take on that task of continued, steady,

instructional improvement, through new instructional techniques and

better testingone of the great promises of educational technology that

has so rarely been fulfilled.

InstrUctional Broadcasting: The Re-Discovery of Radio

Let Ine turn now to basic education and the expanding role of

instvictional broadcasting, increasingly by radio in the developing world.

By basic education I mean the fundamental language and numeracy

skills one is supposed to acquire in primary and junior secondary school.

Here the developing nations are facing even greater burdens thenwe are,

because of their rapid population growth. Although school enrollments

have risep dramatically in the last two decades, in many African

countries fewer than half the children are in school; in India a majority of

school-age children fail to complete the fifth grade; and in Brazil just a

few years ago fully half the school children in the country were in first

grade classrooms, many of them repeating the first giade because of

failure, or simply the absence of schools with higher grade levels

available. In India last month, a noted Indian educator observed to me

that-if India were to keep up educationally with its entirely predictable,

indeed quite certain, population growth over the next twenty years, a new

school would have to be built every ten minutes. In addition, ofcourse,

trained teachers would need to be recruited to live in the difficult

conditions of village India, and to be paid by a very poor nation.

'With conditions like these, some countries have been working

seriously at using the educational technologies to carry a majorpart of the

instructional-burden. To planners in some countries it seems almost

inevitable, and the-only practical hope of coping with the population

explosion, let alone improving educational quality and capitalizingon the

vast human potential in Third World narions. We at A.I.D. have had the

privilege of working with several such countries as they seek out basic

educational alternatives. In at least a few of these countries there has

been the, recognition that fairly fimdamental organizational change will

be a requisite to meeting their needs. Starting a dozen years ago,

television was the chosen medium, and it is those systems which are now

the most mature. When they were developed, the use of instructional

design methods was rarely used in educational broadcasting; Seseme

Street and the Open University had yet to emerge as successful hybrids

of these two approaches to educational technology. Thus, the quality of

these systems might have been limited, to some degree, by their early

8 5

Matching Needs 75

birth. But they have had considerable achievements: in El Salvador, for

example, a doubling ofjunior high school enrollment without diminishing

quality (in fact, with significant learning gains) was made possible

through double sessions supported-by classroom television, television

closely integrated with daily teachers' guided and intensive teacher

retraining. At the same time, the curriculum was entirely overhauled.

The system continues. In the Ivory Coast, something of an educational

miracle has taken place. From I WO to 1977, primary school enrollment

expanded from under 80,000 (almost entirely in the cities) to 560,000;

again daily television lessons in every key classroom subject have made

this expansion possible, while teachers have-been giadually trained, in

part by television progiams for that purpose.

But television=based systems are perceived as too costly -by many.

Therefore, we at A.I.D. and later others, such as UNESC6 and the

World Bank, began some years ago to work with selected developing

countries to develop radio as a key medium for distributing much of the

core of instruction. Because radio ha: been around a long time, it was

initially very difficult to interest educational planners in using it in a

significant way. Our strategy has been to try to make it so effective

educationally that people would have to sit up and take notice. In this

enterprise we have had the great advantage of having the leadership of

Professor Patrick Suppes of Stanford and his very able colleagues,

Barbara Searle, Jamesine Friend, and-Klaus Galda, to carry out the

initial efforts.

The first result of this new commitment to radio education has been the,

creation ,of a complete, daily, radio7based curriculum for all of primary

school mathematics, widely usable in schools where teachers themselves

are inadequate in mathematics teaching. This curriculum, tested in daily

broadcasting over several years, has shown learning gains over trad-

itional rural schools ranging from 20 percent to 35 percent per year. The

method was first developed and tested in Nicaragua; it is now showing

equal success in the very different culture of Thailand, and is being

examined for possible adoption by several other nations throughout the

world. Its power -derives, incidentally, from adapting many of the

instructional principles associated with computer-assisted instruction to

the mass medium of radio. The progiams, for example, are filled with

' elicktations of active responses by the childrenworking out sums with

bottle caps on their desks, shouting out answers, singing mathematical

songs. The schedule of repetition of drills in particular skills, such as two-

digit multiplication or three-digit subtraction, is deternined by fine-tuned

principles of distributed practice, based in part on students' performance.

And feedback on performance is rapid, frequent and non:perjorative. All

this, plus some creative radio formats that are culturally sensitive and

warm-hearted, has created a system that is a delight, welcomed in the

classroom as a lively guest each day, and that succeeds educationally.

76 Matching Needr

When one sees this system operating in otherwisedreary and sleepy rural

classroOms, it is a jorto see the electric aliveness itcan bringmuch of it

deriving from the delight that is inherent in active learning. If one ever

wanted to puncture the mYth of passivity associated with instructional

broadcasting, these-are the classes to see.

Many of these same' techniques are now being used by A.LD. to

develop a curriculum in the language arts by radio, initially in Kenya. We

soon will be testing elsewhere a complete primary school system for

rethote rural schools, where family members of community volunteers

can play many of the roles of the teacherthe classroom organizer, the

nurturer, the interest-stimulator, while the radiolessons provide a core of

instruction. So, while just out of its infancyor perhaps its second

childhoodinstructional radio is being rediscovered throughout the

world, with significant new uses now emerging in such countries as the

Philippines, India, Korea,- and several Latin American countries.

I must also ,rnention some of the-extraordinary uses to which radio is

being Put to reach adults with both basic edueation and practical

inforntation. In almost every Latin American country, radio schools

daily_ teach tens of thousands of largely illiterateor semi-illiterate farmers

the basics of education, as WelLas a wealth of practical information on

health, agriculture and family economics. There are now 34 such

systems, most of them initiated by the Catholic Church; One of thenvin-

Colombia,' has a regular newSpaper for new literates, the "Campesino,"

with a circu litiorrof-6430;000-

The U.S. has-assisted a number of these effort:s -through-

A.I.D., is helping develop new techniques for making-eadio_a full-scale

information and educational service-for rural people.: We areAssisting

projects which are teaching basic nutritiOnal skills to families by radio,

providing daily detailed agricultural information, and teaching mothers

themselves to deal -.:ven with severe health problems being faced by their

infant children. Fci radio is increasingly educating, informing, training

and even savir g ',lives in the developing world, using techniques

entertaining enc ugh to attract listeners and useful enough to retainThem.

Television for Pre-School Education

The third trend I alluded to earlier, the= adoption of Seiathe Street-

types of television programs for the pre-school instruction, is so well

known I need not dwell upon it. More than thirty countries are using

Sesame Street Or the Electric Company._-Even more importantly, the

Children's Television Workahop has dene a i7eat service by engaging in

co-productions with cOuntries as diverse is Mexico, Germany, and

Saudi Arabia (a total of 6) and so has left these nations with basic skills

on which to build future activities themselves. Since pre-school educa-

tion is generating increased interest in many nations,as it way to

ilnprove school' -success and to overcome intellectually deadening

Matching Needs 77

environments in many of the poorest householdsthe use of this model

will, I am confident, continue to thrive, especially as television becomes

more widespread.

Instructional Systems Design

Now, a word on the fourth trend, the one that underlies, I think the

success of most of the othersthe growing acceptance of instructional

systems design as the framework for developing instructional content, no

matter what the medium. Here, I think, we can take pride in this

peculiarly American intellectual export that is beginningto take root and

flower, and that is of enormous importance to the future of education.

The systems design approach to empirically based instruction, which

grew out of programmed instruction, basic psychological research on

learning, and the use of computers, is in a way the essence of American

pragmatism, as at Avery point in developing a lessonor a systemit

says, "Go see what is really being learned; if it doesn't work, try it again

until it does work." I cannot emphasize enough how radically different

that underlying attitude is from the methods still extant in so many

places"copyrreeite, repeat the knowledge exactly as it is in my head,

or fail;" an approach, incidentally, that seems to work reasonable well for

the few, and seldom works well for the many.

As we have begun to combine these methods of instructional systems

desigg with the wide access provided by the mass media, substantial

movement has begun to occur. One of the most impressive achievements

in this area, incidentally, has been in the Republic of Korea. Eight years

ago, with the help of U.S. A.I.D. and experts from the Florida State

University, led by Professor Rpbert Morgan, Korea set in motion a

-complete-overhaul of its school system, a reform based on instructional

design concepts, esiiialYr-bil mastery-learning,_an on the use of radio,

television and programmed texts. Here, gieat attention has en p-aid

also to chancing clasSroom and school system organization. It_is an

extraordinarily ambitious effort, and one of the few where the instruc-

-tional technologists have been put in charge of the reform of an entire

school system. Last year a near-fmal test of the system in 200 schools

showed major learning gains; the model systern now has begun its

national scale adoption.

Satellite Communications

Finally, I must briefly mention the revolution that satellite com-

munications promises and that is at its beginning overseas, as it is in this

country. After years of worldwide speculation about the possible use of

satellites to enhance education in the developing world, India in 1975-76

used a NASA experimental satellite, ATS-6, to bring community

educational television to almost 2,400 remote villages throughout India.

It broadcast science lessons: it reaches hundreds of thousands of adults

78 Matching Need.s.

with health .and agricultural information, news, and cultural program-

ming; and it provided in7Service training to 48,000 rural school teachers.

This was the same satellite that in the U.S. spa*ned that now-

blossoming Appalachian Community Service Network and a variety of

educational and health uses in Alaska, and that also served the Rocky

Mountain states. In India, too, the experience encouraged the nation to

develop an operational system; in 1982 India will have its own satellite

(U.S.-made and launched, by the way, and fully paid for by,India) which

among other things will bring educational broadcasts in ten languages

into schools throughont rural India. China has declared its intention to do

the same (although just recently delayed by budgetary constraints), in an

effort to Tapidly overcome the deficits in basic and technical education

produced by .the Cultural Revolution.

The power of newly available satellite communication systems derives

fnihr two factorstheir ability to reach rural people economically, and

their capacity to aggregate learners in any specialized field, without

regard to distant. These capacities will find many applications.

The United States is associated with developing these new opport-

unities through the new AID. Rural Satellite Program, which -will

provide both radio broadcasting and community telephones to rural

freas in several countries, in an effort to show that educational and two-

way communications can, in fact,ebe a catalyst to social and ecmomic

development in the rural areas of the worldwhere, afterall, majority of

the people on this planet live. We are working in developing this program

with Peru, Senegal, several Caribbean nations,and soon, we expect, with

the Philippines and several additional countries. Among other things, we

expect, to making some dramatic new uses of another "old" technology,

the telephone, a "feedback" medium of great flexibility, as well as a

means of access to many sources of information.

Briefly, these projects will use small earth stations to bring radio and

telephone communications to rural towns. We will be assisting local

agencies such as agricultural extension and health provider systems to

fio-47-so"utilize-these-media-to.improve their effectivenessi and we

will be evaluating very carefully theircost, revenues, andeffeels: --

So, in this panorama I hope you've gathered that some important seeds

of productive change are sprouting in education around the world. New,

more educationally powerful, uses of old media such as radio and

telephones are emergin& and instructional methods based On learning

effectiveness are beginning to make difference. Some new institutions,

such as Britain's Open University and Korea's Educational Develop-

ment Institute, have arisen to give some permanence to these new

systems.

SUMMARY

There is still a very, very long way to go, however, to. effect

Matching Needs 79

fundamental improvements in the basic educational opportunities

available to most of the world's people. In attempting to go that long way,

I look to a lively interchange with the many in the United States who are

?aiming at some of the same objectives, and I also hope that the people oC

this nation will continue to support this effort through the AID.

program. We in this country have a special,professional contribution to

make to this effort because of our well-rooted pragmatism and our

leadership in the new learning technologies. In turn we can perhaps be

inspired by the efforts of other countries to ourselves take bolder and

more rapid steps to overcome our own difficulties. Weare now realistic

enough about our own educational constraints that we can have the very

genuine satisfaction of learning together during this next decade, a

decade which should be exciting and which, together, we can make

satisfying.

Securing Teacher Acceptance

of Technology

Doris-K. Lidthe

Towson State Unlversity

Baltimore, Maryland

INTRODUCTION

When addressing the topic of securing teacher acceptance of tech-

nology in schools, a great number of educators today are talking about

bringing computers and computing into the ichools and this means

.change. Bringing computers into schools some years ago might have

been considered a minor change and could have affected only 'a few

teachers, particularly the mathematics teachers, some business teachers,

and those few teachers using Computer Aided Instruction (CIA), since

CIA was too expensive for most schools. Today, however, there is a new

problem. Computers pervade all aspects of our lives. Everyone in our

society needs to know about computers in order to function in the society.

Joseph Lipson in a 1979 report for the National Science Foundation

(NSF) said, "Failure of the Federal Government to move swiftly to

facilitate educational uses of the new technologies will endanger the

economic-and, eventually,-the military security of the country. If our

democratic institutions are to remah stable, we must welcome, rather

than fear or ignore, the imperatives of technological change. It is unlikely

that we can do this without firmly weaving advanced information

technologies into the fabric of our educational system."1

He continued by saying we need a major program to train specialists in

this areacomputer specialists and people with artistic arld instructional

design talent. And herein lies one of our major problems, there are not

and will not in the foreseeable future be sufficient trained personnel for

the-schools-unless-some near miracle occurs.2

Further Lipson said,-"We evr dice-that-only-with-an-inforrned,

public, can the nation hope to move into a computer age with the speed

and sense of purpose required. The adoption of a new technology is

incredibly complex. At almost every stage there is strong intereaction-I

Teacher Acceptance 81

with public attitudes and public understanding. Investments, markets,

legislative positions, enrollment in courses, and selection of careers will

all vary with public awareness and knowledge."3

-Beyond consideration of these problems,_the acquisition ofhardware,

software and courseware for use in the schools must be addressed:"The

dramatic change in capability, and the cost of inr.wmation and image

machines will touch every aspect of our personal lives and health as a

society. And science education . .will face a unique challenge in

responding to the opportunity. Newinowledge and skills can be taught

through new forms of learning experience. Concepts and procedures can

be more, effectively taught to a wide range of students."4

The returns are great if a real commitment is made. The teachers'

commitment is important, but is only one part. For "the acceptance by

teachers of an educational program is a necessary precondition for its

success."5 However, "a school district must have a strong commitment

from the Board of Education add the administration in order to provide

the policies and resources needed to establish goals and implement

systematic_ curriculum change."6 Does this commitment exist to allow

teachers to incorporate the needed technological change?

Aspects. to Consider

There are several aspects that must be examined with regard to teacher

acceptance of technology in the schools. It seems appropriate to consider

the reasons that teachers may not accept technology, the reasonsthat will

persuade teachers to use technology, and fmally to look at the methods

and means that may minimize those factors which inhibit the use of

technology and those that maximize the acceptance of such technology.

Before examining these factors a brief look at history seems appropriate.

Historically there has been only minimal acceptance of technology

and innovation in schools. There has actually been only incremental

change when the long term is considered. Today there is still a great deal

of teacher explanation [lecture presentation], student listening, students

doing assignments and reading from textbooks, and students writing

examinations about the material presented to them.7 That is, there is

great reliance on lecture, text, and test. This is not to say that there has

not been considerable emphasis at times on the use of media other than

blackboard, chalk, and textbooks, but these older materials-irmain

dominant in the majority of classrooms. Dr. Andrew Molnarcites a 1975

National Science Board report stating, "that overhalf of all science and

social studies and two-thirds of all mathematics classes use a single

textbook and many teachers use no supplementary aids other than the

chalkboard."8 The question' is why is this so? Why are television

-teaching, programmed learning materials, films, direct-dial access

systems, and language laboratories- not more dominant? There is no

single answer. Some of the explanations for the failure to use these

9 2

82 Teacher A cceptance

technologies in schools include: little concrete evidence of the effective-

ness of the use of these..media, teacher resistance to change, lack of

training in the use of eqiiiphient, the lack of adequate hardware, software

and courseware, the deed to change teaching style to use the technology,

and thaact that extra time_ ahd preparation are required to use these

technologies. Acceptance, the other hand, occurs when the teacher

feels 'that the technology is effective with students, the teacher has

adequate training to effectively andefficiently use the technology, there is

adequate hardware, softWare and courseware, and the technology fits the

teaching stYl-e.Of the teacher.

Almost parenthetically it seems appropriate to mention that one of the

technologies that has succeeded is the language laboratory. Here the

special feature seems to be the active rather than passive involvement of

the learner.9 This and the experienceof most teachers seems to agree that

active involvement of the learner in the learning process is more effective

than passive involvement..

Classroom Effectiveness

The primary factor most teachers consider in relation to the use of

technology in the classroom is its effectiveness in the teaching.learning

environment. Nearly all technology will requite an investment of time

and effort on the part of the teacher, if they are to use it in their classroom.

Unless the teacher is thorougly convinced that this is Worthwhile for

students, the teacher will not be motivated to expend time and/or effort in

preparing for the use of the technology.

Today, the technology that seems Paramount in the minds of most

educators is computers, more particularly microcomputers, and micro-

computers with videodisks. In terms of schools this is a very recent

development. Computers were unheard of in the schools in 1950.

Indeed, there were only 15 computers in the United States in 195010 and

in 1951 the first commercial computer, a UNIVAC, was deliveredto the

Census Bureau.11 It was 1954 before a commercial computer was

delivered to other than a governmental agency. But computertechnology

developed rapidlY and by the late fifties there were alitady many

"second generation" computers.12 These comPuters were more reliable,

faster and less expensive. At that time many schools acquired their first

computers, business and induStry recognized the need for computer

specialists, and the general interest in this new technolou spurred the

development of courses in programming and the useofthe computer. A

.few experimental programs were developed in the late fifties and a

scattering of credit and non-credit courses appeared at various educa-

tional levels. The problems of the emerging new disciplinewere apparent

from the beginningequipment, teaching staff, texts and curricula.13

On the secondary level a pilot program in Livermore, California in

1957-9 was one of the _earliest reportethcourses.14 This_successful

9 3

Teacher Acceptance 83

program led- to the introduction of a regular course in computer

programming in 1958. Designed for mathematics and science students,

the purpose was enlightenment and,enrichrnent of their programs. Local

business and industry provided computer facilities, materials, and

instructors. It should be noted that this was one of the few areas of the

country where firms hal computers at this early date and where they

were willing to donate so generously of their time, facilities and

personnel. This cooperation between sehool and industry was present in

the early states of many programs.15

Until the mid-sixties progress was slow. In 1963 the PIP Newsletter

listed all the courses and programs known to the Project on Information

Processing, a committee of the National Science Teachers Associatidn.

The report showed that only a scatteringof courses were being offered:

There was evidence of a lack of equipment and of trained personnelfor

teaching. The lists of available texts and visual aids revealed a dearth of

suitable materials. Many non-credit courses were offered by business

and professional associations16 for the enrichment of the regular Ihigh

school program. Significantly, two distinct varieties of programs were

reported, the one with a mathematical scientificorientation and the other

with a business orientation. Hard facts as to the number of secondary

schools teaching data processing are not available, but one estimte is

that in 1966 one-fifth of all high schools had access to data processing

equipment for instructional purposes, though most of the equipment was

\unit record equipment.17 Another report at that time indicated that

nationwide about 400 secondary schools were psing computers for

programming scientific problems.18 Throughout the sixtiesthe problems

were still:cquipment, teachers, texts, and curricula. But.some schools

were finding solutions.19 Time-Sharing services provided the equipment

at a price many could afford. Some teachers obtained training at local

colleges or attended summer institutes sponsored by the National

Science Foundation. Some texts were appearing, though not always of

good quality, and the results of experimental andearly course offerings of

a few schools provided the basis for curriculum development.

The situation ai the seventies began is well summarized by Warren

Stenberg of the University of Minnesota:

Computer science courses have not as yet played a major role in

computer use at the secondary scene but they now seem to be coming

up fast ... [Even tough no standard curriculum has yet been

developed ...(and] textbooks are not generally used.20

Courses in data processing"are still in the category ofpipe dreams since

the teaching personnel just does not exist."21

Computer Acceptance

But events in the seventies changedlthis picture. Today there is a

sudden increase in the numt er of schools across the nation which are

84 Teacher Acceptance

beginning to use computers or are considering the use of computers in the

claisroom. There are two major forces behind this movement. First,

computers are, with the advent of the microcomputer, relatively

inexpensive. Second, the computer has become such a pervaiive factor._

in our daily lives that nearly every citizen must have some knowledge of

computers to function in the society. This means that schools must

educate students to function in a society where they will interact, airectly

or indirectly, with comptfters.

Surveys of teachers indicate that most teachers believetaar all

students should learn about the computer. Not all teachers are cOnvinced

that they should use computers in their own classrooms, and §ome of

those who are not interested in using computers indicate that they are

unaware of the possible uses of the computer in the classrook22

Other factors which cause teachers to be reluctant to use computers

include earlier claims that the computer will replace the teacher, their

own lack of knowledge about computers, the feeling that computers will

deliver a less personalized education for the student, a lack of under-

standing of the adVantages and modes of use of computers in the

classroom, being ill-at-ease when ,using computers, and having, seen

examples of problems with the uie of computers in various school

administration applications.

For those teachers who are convinced that computers are an important

part of the classroom, there May remain some reluctance to use

computers. This reluctance comes from anxiety in dealing with equip-

ment, .a feeling of loss of control of the teaching-learning situation,

inadequate hardware, software, courseware, and support, or because of

the considerable time and effort required to obtain adequate training, to

remain current in the field and to use computers in appropriate ways in

the classroom.

Training Needed

What will persuade teachers to use computers?

First appropriate training is essential. Through pre-service, in-service

and professional development the leaders in education need to see that

teachers understand that the computer is to be viewed not as a

replacement of the teacher, but rather as a sophisticated tool to be-used

by the teacher to allow the teacher to do a better job in the classroom.

This means that teachers must realizeThe potential of the computer in the,

classroom, that the computer can be used in many modes, as a tutor to

provide information- and-drill and practice, as a tool in courses that

require a calculator or information retrieval device, and as a machine to

be instructed. Teachers should be given ample, opportunity to see

computers used in all these ways and to see how they may effectively be

. used in their own classroom. Seeing examples of quality uses of

computers should allay misgivings and motivate teachers-to consider

Teacher Acceptance 85

-using computers in their own classrooms.

Support

Second, adequate hardware, software andsupport must be assured. At

the present time manyschools face tight budgets and this naturally means

strict limitations onfunds for hardware, sOftware and support. There are

areas Which are trying innovatiVe programs for the use of computers

through sharing of facilities, one school using the microcomputer for a

few weeks and then passing it on to another school. This is certainly

preferable to no computer at all, but.it is far from adequate. In fact for

most usesone computer for a classroom is inadequate. While research

supports the use of onernicrocompuer or terminal by a pair of students !..t

one- time,23 in a classroom` of twenty toihirty students, one computer

means that theteacher cannot help the students usingthe computer and

negleet the vastmajority of the students in the room. Ideally, a computer

for every four students is suggested. A single laboratory in the school,

where students may go to use the computer, might be a good solution.

The teacher could accompany the students and various classes could be

scheduled to use the loboratory, or the laboratorymight'function in much

the same wr, as thelibrary. Even now it is being suggested at Carnegie

Mellon University that each student should have his/her own micro-

computer.24 This is certainly along way off forpublic secondary schools,

but gives sortie idea of the thinking of someprofessional educators about

the importance of computers for students.

Software is beginning tobe developed for usein schools. At the present

time much of the software that is being used hasibeen developed by the

teachers who are using it, or has been givin to them by friends and

acquaintances, or swapped through user's groups. A current projeci of

the North WestRegional Laboratory in Portland, Oregon, headedby Dr.

Judith Edwards and funded by NSF, is evaluating and cataloging

software for use in schools. Other materials, primarily for use in higher

education, are availablethrough"CONDUIT at the UniversiV of Iowa.

Several microcomputer vendors are also active in assisting in the

exchange of software among their users. WI,"e there is not at the present

time an abundance of software,_positive ..,eps are being taken in the

development and dessimination of quality software. This is an area

which needs continued attention.

There must, at leastfor the present, bb a realization that the classroom

teacher requires support in the use of computer. or computers in "the.

classroom. Many teachers, especially in the initial stages, are unfamiliar

with computers and fmd such small problems as hooking up and

adjusting the _color monitor or TV, tightening up a connection, and

checking out the machine' for proper functioning to be overwhelming.

For some time after the initial introduction into the classroom the teaCher

needs someone towhoin to turn in case of a malfunction, someone to be a

9 6

'86 Teacher Acceptance

resource when questions arise in the use of software and for lesson

planning.This seems essential if the transition into the classroom is to be

smooth. One "expert" in the schooi blinding who has the time, expertise',

and assignment fo assist other teachers seems to alleviate many

problems.

Third, teachers must be given time for training to use a cornputer with

ease in the classroom, time is also needed to remaincurrent in this rapidly

changing field. The amount and type of traMing that an individual teacher

needS will vary considerably. depending on the previous training of the

teacher and the mode and extent to which the computer is to be used in

the classroom. For those teachers who will use only prewritten software,

'the training need not be extensive. However, for teachers who are

teaching computer literacy and computer programming much more

training will be necessary and frequent updating will be necessary since

the field is so dynamic.

Encouraging Usage

What can administrators and educational leaders do to encourage the

use of computers in classrooms?

There are no simple answers to bringingcomputers into the classroom.

Indeed it has been a long process and it will not occur imMediately.

However, it is crucial that the process of bringing computers into the

classroom be addressed in this decade. Dr. Andrew Molnar of NSF sees

this as a critical issue for schools. Change .cannot be -mandated, but

leaders can persuade. This is an appropriate time because the public is

aware of-the importance of compiners,-Nrents are-seeking; in-many

cases, for computers to be introduced-into schools. News magazines,

such as TIME, indicate that the USA is falling behind Japan in

technology, particularly in computerized robots. Many leadars point

to the need for better science training, which means training in the use of

cOmputers. With this stimulus, it is time to aevelop a plan of action which

should include:

1. Provide teachers with an opportunityto learn about appropriate

uses of computers in the classroom.

2. Provide pre-service and in-service training for teachers.

3. Provide adequate, not token, equipment for the classroom.

4. Provide software packages for use in classrooms.

5. Provide auxiliary teaching resourceifilms, texts, lesson plans,

and curriculum guides.

6. Provide a specialLt tO consult withclassroom teachers concerning

hardware, software and classroom usage of the computer.

7. Reward good teaching with cOmputers.

8. Provide examples of teachers doing superior teaching with

computers.

9 7

Teacher Acceptance 87

Though this lists seems long, and some items involve considerable

expense, we must consider the cost of not providing these items for our

teachers and students. Because "the computer has, today had an impact

on the lives of each and every one of us; already, most-of our financial

affairs and many of our social affairs are subtly controlled or structured

by the computer, and the future promises only more of the same,"25 we

must see that every student has a "basic understanding of the computer

.. a critical component of the knowledge of any educated man or

woman., ,26

We must realize that the status of computer literacy among the

students in our schools today is woefully low, Dr. Ronald E. Andersonof

the Minnesota Educational Computing Consortium (MECC) reported

in December 1980 at the National Computer Literacy Goals for 1985

Conference in Reston, Virginia that

In brief; the best data we have suggest that few students in either senior

or junior high school have opportunities for computer eperience; few

have algorithmic problem-solving skills;and many lack an awareness

of the role and value of computers, Since these findings are true for 17

year old students, most of whom were in 1 1th grade, we would

speculate. that many students are graduating from high school and

perhaps from college without a minimal level of computer literacy.

What is equally disturbing is the evidence in the data that what little

literacy exists in the nation's students is unequally distributed .across

social groups. Computer experience is much less common among

minorities, womenoind those living in the Southeastern U.S. or ruF1

areas. Not only is computer experience lw common among these

groups but there is good evidence that computer knowledge and skills

are lowerarwell:26

All students must become computer literate. We must see to-it-that-

computer education is equitable and that we do not develop a gronp that

is information and computation rich and a group that is information and

computation poor. For information and computational ability are power

and these belong to all.

Learning from the Successes

Finally, it is instructive to look at some examples of computers in

schools and to try to determine how they came about and why they

succeeded. There are many examples that should be considered and here

only a few are mentioned. One of the earliest known programs in a pulic

schOol was in Livermore, California in 1957. Here parents wanted their

children to learn about computers and programming. Some ofthe parents

and local professionals taught the course and the programs were taken to

local facilities to be run. There are many similar examples of parents

teaching a course or courses, providing adcess to equipment and giving

excellent support to the classroom teacher. A program of this type can

work in the initial phases, but eventually it must become a regular part of

9 8

88 Teacher Acceptance

the curriculum and be handled bya regular teacher.

One of the important examples of an entire state takingthe initiative in

bringing computing into the schools is in Minnesota. nit Minnesota

Educational Computing Consortium has been very successful in this

respect They began by using a system of time-shared computers with

terminals in the schools and now are also using microcomputers. They

provide- teacher training, software, group purchase of hardware,

curriculum guidelines and support. State and local school systems in

other areas can gain considerable expertise from publications ofMECC.

You will be able to learn more about this in the next sessionwhen Dr.

John Haugo, Director -of MECC, talks in the session "Managing

Technological Change in the Schools."

The, impressive work in the Philadelphia Public Schools under the

direction of Ms. Sylvia Charp is an excellent example on a local level.

People from around the world visit this project and emulate many of the

fine parts of this program

Many, of the secondary schools in New England owe much of their

succesi to Dartmouth College which not onlY made computer resources

available to these schools, through their time-sharing system, but

-Dartmouth also trained teachers and encouraged-the development and

exchange cf software.

The early and successfulprograms in computing in Oregon owe much

to Dr. David Moursund who obtained NSF grants to fund summer

training sessions for secondary school teachers at the University of

Oregon. ArL outgrowth of this was the establishment of the Oregon

Council on Computer Education and the Publication The Oregon

Computing Teacher which has recently become The Computing

Teacher and is distributed nationally.

SUMMARY-

These are but a few of the projects that have had an effect on the local

or state schools, but they are important and we can learn much from

them. In every case there was at least one very dedicated individual who

gave guidance to the project, there was training of teachers, there was

involvement in acquiring of hardware, there was development and

dissemination of software, andthere was ongoing support forthe teacher

in the classroom. These are the essential ingredients to encourage

teachers to use computers effectively in their classrooms.

REFERENCES:

1. Josephl. Lipton, "Technology Program Recomthendisticins," Technology in Science

Education: The Next 10 Years (Report for NSF , July 1979, ISE-79-57)), p. 32.

2. Peter J. " U.S. Productivity in Crisis," Communications ofACM (November,

1980), pp. 617-619.

3. Lipeon, p. 33.

4. Lipson, pp. 36-36,

'Teacher Acceptance 89

5. Mar lo Leyton Soto, "Teachers, Parents and Community DataSources," Handbook

of Curriculum Evaluation. Aneh Lewy, ed. (New York: Longman, Inc., 1977), p.

252.

6. Beverly Hunter, An Approach to Integrating Computer Literacy Into the K8

Curriculum (Alexandria, Virginia: HurnRRO, 1980), p. 8.

7. A.E. Conord, "How the Computer Can Bring Teacher andStudent Closer Together,"

AEDS JournaL (Fall, 1973), pp.11.

8. Andrew Molnar, "The Next Great Crisis in American Education: Computer

Literacy," AEDS Journal, (Fall, 1978), p. 12.

9. A. Kent Morton, "Provoking Educational Change Within Existing Academic

Structures," AEDS Journal, (Spring, 1975), pp. 19-81.

10. Eric A. Weiss (ed.), Computer Usage/Fundamentals (New York: McGraw-Hill,

Inc., 1969), p. 10.

11. Richard N. Schmidt and William E. Meyers,Introduction to Computer Science and

.Data Processing, (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc. 1965), p. 25.

12. Carl F eingold,Introduct ion to Data Processi g , (Dubuque, Iowa: William C. Brown

Company Publishers, 1971), pp. 26:27.

13. Howard E. Topmkins, "Computer Education," in Advances in Computers, (eds.)

Franz L. Alt and Morns Rubinoff (New York: Academic Press, 1963), Vol. 4, pp.

135-168.

14. Darrel G. Littlefield, "Computer Programming for High Sctools and Junior

Colleges," in The Mathematics Teacher, LIV (April, 1961), pp. 220-223.

15. Reports of experimental programs appear in several sources. See particularly PIP

Newsletter, 1963-1965. Curricula for programs at all levels exist in fakabundance in

several ,volumes of AFIPS Conference Proceedings and SIGCSE Bulktin. Many

articles from these sources were compared to formulate the statements of this paper.

16. George C. Heller, "KCiimputer Curriculum for the High School,"Dataniation,VIII

(May, 1962), pp. 23-26.

17. C.B.S. Grant, "Data Processing Instruction Predicted for Most High Schools Within

5 Years," Business Automation, XIV (Septimber, 1967);- pp: 36-37.

18. Charles H. McCoach, "Computers in the Classroom," Software Age, III (April,

1969), p. 44.

19. Ibid., pp. 46, 48.

20. Warren Stenberg, "Computing in the High Schools-Past, Present and Future-and

Its Unreasonable Effectiveness in the Teachingof Mathematics,"AFIPS Conference

Proceedbrgs, XL (Montvale, New Jersey: AFIPS Press, 1972), p. 1052.

21. Dorothy Jo Stevens, "How, Educators Perceive Computers in the Classroom,"

AEDS Journal (Spring, 1980) jip. 221-232.

22. Doris K..Lidtke, "Paired and Individual Learning in Computer Programmins An

Evaluation of Student Achievement and CostEffectiveness," Unpublished doctoral

dissertation, University of Oregon, 1979.

23. Jack Magarrell, "Universal Access to Personal Computers is Urged for College

Students, Professors," Chronicle of Higher EduCation, (January, 1981) pp. 1, 14.

24. William S. Davis and Allison McCormacic, The Information Age (Rea&g, MA:

Addison-Wesley Publishing 'Company, 1979) p. 15.

25. Ronald E. Anderson, "National ComputerLiteraq, 1985." A paper presented at the

"National Computer Literacy Grials for 1985," Reston, Virginia, December18-20,

1980.

100

Effectiveness of Technology in the Schools

Public and, Taxpayers Response

r\1

CT% Catherine E. Morgan

-CD Edikational Consultant

_EN.1 Kensington; Maryland

r\.1CI

INTRODUCTION ,-1

Tradition is defmed as "the passing aownof elements of a culture from

generation to generation" of"a mode of thought or behavior followed by

a people continuously froni generation to generation" or "a set of such

customs viewed as a coherent body of precedents influencing the

present" These defmitions providejustifications for what is taught and

how it is taught. Any field or method which has the aura oftradition needs

no justification for inclusion in the school program. As an example of

tradition, consider that although metric measurements and decimal

notations are almost universallyused, we continue to spend an inordinate

amount of time on common fractions and English measurements iu the

elementary schools. These traditional emphases appear to need little or

no justification and are, in fact, difficult to drop from the curriculum.

On the othei hand, innovation means "something new or different."

Where does non-traditional technology fit into the schools? Television

and r:ompuers represent innovative instructional subjects and tools

which are nbt accepted readily by educators or the public. Interestingli

eneugh, these twg media are of recent vintage but are well accepted as

media for entertainment andbusiness. Television has been part of most

of our entertainment lives since thelate 1940s. Computers have infringed

on our business and economic lives since the late 50s and now are

making their way into our homes.

However, in education, the use,of computers and television requires

11 that it be "sold" to a variety ofconstituencies. These groups include: (1)

the decision-makers the guperintendents, members of Boards of

Education, curriculum specialists;(2) the implementorsprincipals and

teachers; (3) the publicparent and non-parent taxpayers; and (4) the

clientelethe students.

ol 90

Effectiveness in the Schools 91

Uses of Computers in Education

Let's l;egin by examining where computers are used in education and

how they got into the schools.

For Administration

In almost every public school, as well as the college and university, a

computer was leased or purchased for business applicationsouch as

payroll and accounting. In that capacity, the computer is firmly

entrenched in our educational institutions.

As a Subject of Instruction

A second area is that in which the computer is The actual subject of

instruction. Vocational data processing in high schools began in the

1960s and was justified as job preparation. Most of the equipment was

called unit record equipment and young men and women learned such

skills as key punching and sorting. At the same time, colleges and

universities began teaching computer science and their graduates had no

difficulty setting employment in a rapidly growing field.

During and since that period of time, certian public schools and

particularly certain teachers began to recognize the need for all students

to acquire a new literacycomputer literacy. The subject teachers, who

were most likely to be interested, were mathematics teachers. Here is

where the idea that improved problem solving skills results when students

are taught to program the computer. I recall believing this to be u fact and

stating it unequivocally at a board of education meeting in 1973. My gut

feel still is that it is true but we couldn t prove it and no one else to date has

proved it, despite many past and on-going studies. I'm grateful that we no

longer need to prove it. Universal computer-knowledge is a legitimate

goal in itself. School systems should develop policies under which they

support computer experience fotall students. The computer is here to

stay; our children will use computers in their work and in their homes.

They need to know how to access information from a variety of data

bases; how to read documentation and run computer programs; and how

to make judgments and decisions about computer uses. Many of our

students will need to know how to program a computer. All will need to

know how to exploit and control their uses.

Fortunately, technology has changed the ermomics of acquiring

-computer equipment for literacy and programming. The microcomputers

available for several hundred dollars can be used by many students to

learn a, programming language and Acquire the necessary degree of

computer literacy to function in the modem world. The languages are

part of the machines and the students write their own programs in the

available language to solve problems. Their programs can be stored on

inexpensive reusable cassette tapes. If a school system now is doing

little or nothing with computers, this area should be its fust thrust.

102

92 Effectiveness in the Schools

As a Source of Instruction

The most controversial area for the studentuse of computers is when it

is the source of the instruction. Since the early 1960s, educators have

been experimenting with the use of the computer as a direct aid to

instruction: computer-assisted instruction. In this mode, the computer

takes on all or part of the teacher's role. Instructional programs may

provide the actual teaching dialogue. The student interacts with the

machine in a primitive tutor/student relationship. More commonly, the

machine supports the normal classroom instruction by providing drill

and practice, remedial instiuction or a simulation. This latter mode may

be used when a classroom laboratory experience may be too lengthy, too

expensive or too dangerous.°

Adyocates of computer-assisted instructionstress that the need exists

to individualize instruction and make student and teacher time more

productive. A student who only needs ten practice problems before

progressing to a new level will get only ten whilea classmate may need 50

or more before,attaining the same proficiency. A student who cannot

factor a polynomial would not progress to solving quadratic equations

which require factoring Nationally known experts made statements

assessing that computer instruction for remediation would go far toward

overcoming educational deficiencies and inequalities. Computer equip-

ment and supporting instructional materials were purchased with monies

for disadvantaged students. The city of Chicago bought hundreds of

computer terminals to be used by deprived students using TitleI funds.

Now let's look at the economics of this type of instruction. In the past

and, even today with large computers and teleprocessing, the equipment

and supports-needed for computer-assisted instruction represented add-

on cost of $108 per year per student for drill and practice in arithmetic.

school system decision-makers were familiar. Justifiably, these people

want io know: Does this new type of instruction make a difference in

achievement? Is the difference worth the cost?-Are we able to do some

things the- an not be done without computers? Are there any side-

effects? Are the niachines dehumanizing? All of these legitimate

questions need to be answered.

The costs have decreased` at a startling rate. For example, in 1974, in

Montgamery County, we provided the Board of Education with an add-

on,cost of $108 per year per student for drill and practive inarithmetic.

This $10.8 figure gave each student one-half hourofCA I per week during

the regular school year. A major portion of that cost was for computer

and communciations equipment. The $108 figures was predicated on

involving approximately 4,000 children in the program.

Today using the same parameters and assuming that the costs of a

fairly elaborate microcomputer at $3,000 plus maintenance over a four-

year period, the cost of providing the same half-hour per week over a

1 03

Effectiveness in the Schools 93

school year.would be less than $18 for equipment. The equipment cost

would be constant if there were one or 50 computers. Obviously, if a

large number of micros were purchased at the sametime, the cost would

be reduced.

A more important question to ask about computer-assisted instruction .

is that ofeffectiveness. Are there differencesin achievement when CAI is

employed? Many research reports describing the useof drill and practice

CAI programs have shown that student achievement increases sigpifi-

candy. Favorable results were shown in Chicago, Illinois, with Title I

children, in Los Nietos, California, with Mexican-American students

.and in Montgomery County Public Schools, Maryland, with mostly

middle class students.

Other examples can be cited, such as those reported by the Penn-

sylvania State Univeisity, an early leader in the field of computerrassisted

instruction. The two Professors Cartwright developed a series of courses

called CARE, which provided classroom teachers with information on

how to accommodate blind, deaf and other handicapped children into the

regular classroom. At registration, students were placed randomly into

the conventional college lecture course or into the CAI laboratory to

work at a computer terminal with an individuSlized program. The

content of the ,course, Introduction to the Education of Exceptional

Children, was identical. Only the mode of instruction differed. The

course time under conventional methods was 37.5 hours while the mean

time for completion of the CAI program was 25.2 hours. The fmal

examination contained 75 items with the conventional class having a

mean of 52.78 with a standarddeviation of 4.68 while the CAI group had

a mean of 65.89 with a-standard deviation of 5.89the difference was

significant at the .001 level. These results represent a 24 percent higher

mean grade on the final examination and 35 percent less time required for

course completion. Similar studies in the military and in industry show

significant differences in training time when all trainees are required to

meet a standard level of competency.

In the area of special education, the use of the computer has been

particularly intriguing. Students in special education, unique in many

respects, require remediation and attention unlike that needed by other

students. For exampie, maintenance of skills by mentally retarded high

schooi age students is difficult and an actual increase in achievement is

highly unusual. Yet, for selected students, the computer has been a

remarkable motivational and teaching tool. In a Montgomery County,

Maryland, study 10 mentally retarded adolescents, with an average IQ

of 74, participated in a CAI arithmetic program once a week from

January to June, 1972, and made an average gain score of 7.6 months in

arithmetic achievement with a standard deviation of .4. In spite of their

low mean IQ, their gains which ranged from 3 months to 1.7 years, were

analyzed as though ihey were normal.

104

94 Electiveness in the Schools

Currently, computers are being used with deaf, blind, orthopedically

handicapped, learning disabled, mentally retarded and emotionally

disturbed children. Enhancements for computers include audio, color,

graphics, touch panels, light pens and other devices. These special

additions to an already motivational tool increase its versatility, both for

teaching special student groups and for the presentation of subjects like

music, art and foreign languages.

Is the difference worth the cost? This question is a valid one and should

be asked of all programs. For example, in the same year that the $108

add-on figures was cited for CAL\ the cost of providing diagnostic-

prescriptive tutoring for a single chikkwas approximately $500 yearly.

No proof existed that this program made any difference but the time-

honored tradition of one-to-one tutoring comes down from the Greeks,

and as such needs no justification.

A cost/benefit analysis can be made for industry where the less time

required for training places the employee into production earlier. If the

training normally occurs at another city, travel andper diem expenses are

actual cash savings'. However, in public education, the cost/benefits of

saving student time is not of immediate value to the school system. IF

fact, it may raise pew complications. What happens is 5 students finish

Algebral in March, 8 in April, 10 in May and 4 the following October?

Similar difficulties exist in public education for costing out effectiveness.

What does a month's gain in achievement normally cost? If a student

makes a half-year grain during a school year, is his education twice as

expensive as that of the childwho makes a year's growth? The long range

effects of poor school achievement are well-known and may cost

taxpayers millions of dollars for maintaining people on welfare and in

prisons.

Are there some things that cannot be done without a computer?

Management of instruction may be one. This type of program provided

the classroom teacher with profiles of the students in many skills and

concepts and keeps these records uP to date. These reports reflect

individual and group needs and strengths assisting the teacher with

planning If records were kept in 25 areas of two subjects, mathematics

and reading, the teacherwould have 1,250 pieces ofinformation on each

child! And when a parent wants to know can Johnny add; measure and

solve problems, the teacher has information supported by data.

Another area in whichschools can prcivide new services may be when

insufficient enrollment in a course causes it to be cancelled. What about

Latin IV for two students? Could students in different schools study

Statistics at computer terminals three days a week and meet with a

teacher once a week to discussproblems and go over difficult assignments?

Will, in the future, students work on most skill areas at computer

terminals in their own homes and attend schools much less time than

currently? Alvin Tofler suggests this possibility in his latest book.

105

Effectiveness in the Schools 95

Are 'the machines dehumanizing? Not in my experience, In fact,

students say, "The computer says the same thing to me that it says to

everyone else." Students in Montgomery County wrote personal and

endearing notes to "Dear Computer." Studies in Los Nietos, California

showed that Mexican-American students made significant gains in self-

concept after using computer mathematics programs. Children are not

only engrossed in their interactive computer work but they are loath to

give the terminals up when their turns are over. There is an old English

proverb which states that "when kids stand quiet, they have done some

'harm." Computer kids don't stand quiet.

The computer situation in public schools has changed radically during

the past year or two. Prior to 1978, educational technologists in public

schools were begging to retain whatever equipment they had in place.

Today large numbers of microcomputers are being purchased and

installed in schools; many times into situations in which no one in the

systems knows what to do with them. Monies from general funds, year-

end surpluses and PTA's are being expended and no planning for their

use has been made.

Current gational Situation

A recent report published by the Task Force on Computer Assisted

Learning Subcommittee in the Secondary/Elementary Schools

Association for Computing Machinery (July 1980), stated that they had

surveyed 974 school districts and had a 62.3 percent return. The

association determined that the response was balanced as to geographic

and urban/rural districts. Analysis indicated that 74 percent of the

districts used the computer for instruction with projections to 87 percent

by 1985, and 54 percent reported usage in the form of computer-assisted,

instruction with projections to 74 percent by 1985.

Further the report stated that major impediments to increased use were

fmancial, lack of knowledge about computers and their use in instruction,

attitudes of faculty and the need for more and better instructional

materials.

Recommendations

If your school system is a novice in the computer field or would like to

increase its usage but presently has no plan as to how to proceed, I would

recommend the following steps:

I. Key school personnel and board members should become

knowledgeable about computers and their uses in instruction.

This can be accomplished by attending workshops or seminars

which are given by national organizations or by planning for in-

house presentations.

2. A careful I.Jeds assessment should be undertaken. An analysis of

what equipment and expertise exists within the district. This

1 0 6

96 Rffectiveness in the Schools

needs assessmen,. should begin to delineate where the district

would like to be to, 1985. At the same time, an examination of

academic areis id which students are having difficulty should be

undertaken. The literature in the computer field should be

researched to learn if any areas of deficiency can be addressed by

computer-assisted instruction.

3. The school system should formulate a policy *ting to instruc-

tional uses of computers.

4. The school system should designate an instructional leader to

develop short and long-range plans for the implementation of the

policy. Care should be given to acquisition of equipment,

guidelines for selecting or developing instructional materials,

staff development needs and the process for implementation.

One goal of each school system '.tiould be Computer literacy for. all

graduating students by 198$.

Let' s prepare kids to function inan information rich world remembering

the words of Elbert Hubbard when he said, "The object of teaching a

child is to enable hini to get along without a teacher."

1 o 7

The South Caroling TelecommUnications

System

Thomas L Stepp

Deputy ManagPr

South Carolina Educational Television Networic

tolumbia, South Carolina

INTRODUCTION

I would like to address the topic of technology in schools, not from a

broad, superficial point of view, but rather from thepoint of view of local

impact in local schools.

The reason that this perspective is important(from my experience) is

that all of the applications of educational technology which exist are

completely moot if individual students and teacheis in schools and other

educationalinstitutiors are not motivated to use the productwhich those

of us who are program distributors provide. We can engage in a lot of

planning. We can engage in a lot of sophisticated instructional design.

We can spend vast sums of money producing highly attractive radio and

television courses. We can provide tape recorders in classrooms to

improve the smooth integration of our product into overall instructional

plans. But if our products do net suit the educational needs of individual

students and teachers they are valueless. The grandest scheme for

production and distribution is worthless if it is not utilized.

South Carolina System

In South Carolina we transmit signals hundreds ofmiles. Our national

programs travel 22,300 miles to a satellite half-way point, returning to

earth over wide geographic terrain. None of that is of any merit if a one-

quarter inch, off-on button on a tel visioa screen or radio receiver

negates the use of our s Orvices by students for whom they are

intended. It is impossible to consider t ology in schools without

contiidering the impact of an individual program on an individual student

.inii splxific classroom under the supervision of a dedicated teacher in a

school system devoted to principles of improving instruction for all of its

students. .1

1.08

98 The South Carolina System

I don't want to boreyou bydescribing the South CaroliniEducational

Telecommunications System. I think perhaps many of you 'know

something about what we do. For those of you who do not, let me briefly

state that within South Carolina weAheSouth Carolina ETV Network

operate 10 television transmitting stations, 6 FM radio stations and an

extremely Complicated closed circuit, statewide network made --u-p of

leased cable, ITF S, state-owned microwave, and the physical deliveryof

tape. In South Carolina,.Ave apply this technologir to all of the

--educational-needs-oftheState-.-WeprodutetriddittiginteprograMs for

preschoolers, for the elenientary grades, for secondary schools, for

college credit (in fact, offering more courses for college credit than any

other institution in the world, more than 60 last year), for post-graduate

education (including two dynamically unique programs through which a

student can achieve a Masters Degree in either Business Administration

or Engineering during evening hours from any geographic location in the

State). We extend our college credit to home viewers, in an "open

university concept." And, ofcourse, we provide the entire array of public

television and radio programming for, all of South Carolina.

In .cooperation with NOAA, we operate the State's comprehensive

twenty-four hour weather and emergency weather services. And I an

very, Very proud of the efforts we make in providing 12 hows per day of

special programming for the visually handicapped broadcast on the

4subcerriers of our FM radio stations.

Impact-

Many times, when discussingmy trade in public, I speak from three

rhijor points bf reference and they-generally deal with, fitit, the inipactof

electronic telecommunciations 'on the lives of each of us. The second

point is the information explosion and the usefulness of telecommunica-

tions delivery in meeting the- demands for increased educational

opportunities and needs. And, third, both at home and out of thestate, I

like to talk about die economy of telecommunications as an important

and significanf new means of providing educational opportunity to all

citizens no matter how remote they might be in socioeconomic status or

geography from the traditional centers of learning.

I think .that you will probably join me in understanding the now

traditiceal concept that the application of man's most powerful communi-

cations tooltelevision--toour daily lives his changed the waywe live.

-My late friend and colleague, Marshall Mciiihan, was the proponent of

"probes" dating from the early '50s about the flow of electronit

communications into our daily lives and the resultant impact on us.

We're lila fish who are not aware of the water hi which they live, in that

we live in an'electronic ecology and are not always, I think, aware of the

impact of that ecology on us day by day. Parents often tell me they are

:startled to learn that, according to recent Nelson data, children under

the South Carolina System 99

five watch television 2314 hours a week. I don't know why they're

surprised. The same data reflects that they watch television 44 hours a

week.Arthur Clark, creator of 2001 said, "The single greatest industry ofthe

future is going to be education. For every person, education will have to-

continue throughout life. That will be essential in a world where half the

things a man knows at 40 hadn't even been discovered when he was 20;

and half the things he knows at 20 are no longer true by the time heis 40."

Ninety percent of the scientists who have ever lived are alive today.

Our task in educational communications is to try to make just coping

with the information explosion even possible.

Teleconferencing

To put our efforts in perspective, I would like to make a few points

about the impact of the South Carolina System in areas other than the

public schools before turning directly to the specifics that you have asked

me to present today. A major arid most exciting development in our

operation is that we have moved actively into a significant degree of

statewide teleconferencing. We are pioneering in this area, which is going

to become increasingly important as state agencies are forced by the

pressures of inflation to become more cost conscious.Teleconferencing

is a way forwoups to meet and receive essential training without

expensive travel to a central location. The very best experts on any

subject can be brought in to provide information and to conduct meetings.

Their audience can be at any of SouthCarolina's technical education

__centers University of South Carolina regional campuses, health care

centers, hospitals and many high scholls. Through teleconferences, state

agencies have been conducting training, making surveys and meeting

other management communciations needs. Viewers in the field talk to

experts at the ETV Center in Columbia by way of telephone talkback

circuits.

Economics

The State of South Carolina saves per diem, mileage, lodging costs,

training costs, lost time from the job, and wear and tear on vehicles by

meeting through teleconferences. ETV saves money for the State by

moving information to peopleelectmnicallyrather than by transporting

peopleat great cost--to the traditional information centers. This is a

nut* basis ofjustification of our System to policy makers and decision

makers. I do not mean just teleconferencing; I mean the presentation of

the advantages of economy and efficiency of telecommunications

services. When a comprehensive telecommunciations center exists, the

economics of scale of its operation are the most dynamic and forceful

reasons by which to explain its importance. Itis certainly-a mainstay of

how we justify our institution to the State of South Carolina.

1 0

100 The South Carolina System

Now, quickly, I must insert that, yes, it is most importaThtat we

speak to the quality of product which we deliver and to the quality of

educatigtal opportunities thatwe provide to students of all ages, in all

areas oreducation.

However, in these harsh economic times it is crucial that we also

justify ourselves on the scale of economic efficiency. And that is what we

do.

Take teleconferencing, fOr example. In the last three years ETV has

conducted 319..teleconferences-forourfellovrstateageitief,

specialized training for 74,000 people. The use of our closed circuit

network for teleconferences during that period of time has provided

services that could have cost the State eight to nine million dollars by

traditional methods. That figure is equal to the total three-year leasing

cost for the entire closed circuit system, with only a smallpercentage of

the time of the closed circuit being required for the teleconferencing

activities which achieve these savings. The remainder of the time is

available for, and heavily usedfor, in-school instruction, highereducation,

medical education, and many other services.

Le me give you just one spe/1fic example of the economic inipact of

teleconferencing. Prior to each general election the State of SoUth

Carolina has some .8,000 poll workers who must undergo mandatory

training by the State Election Commission. Prior to the last three

elections, these 8,000 workers have received their two days Of

training through ETV at a savings to the State and to the individuals

involved (who are volunteers) in lost time from the job, mileage, lodging

per diem and instructor costs ofover $1,300,000 per statewide election.

That is a total savings of nearly $4 million during a six-year period.

That is language that legislative leaders, school boards, college

trustees, governors and citizens understand,

There is no longer any question that it is much more economical to

take education to people than .to take people to education. Marshall

McLuhan, to whom I referred earlier, once said that ". .. when two

seemingly disparate situations are placed in opposition, often startling

results occur." So it is with the energy crisis and increased tele-

communications capacity.

A central argument for theexistence of the South Carolina Educational

Telecommunications System fellows art economic theme. In 1961,

shortly after we began serving schools in South Carolina, we taught

3,300 students at a cost per student of $19485. By. 1919, Ave-were

serving 1,691,069 course enmllees-at a Coit of $5.83 per course

-deliveredld it student. Let me repeat the dollar numbers : 1961$195,

1979S5.83.

Let's look at that in a slightly different way. Ten years ago the delivery

of a television course to a school in South Carolina costroughtly $10 per

course per student. In those ten years, the cost of that delivery of

The South Carolina System liej

television instruction has dropped to $5.83, a drop of 47.3 percent. At

the same time, the average cost of a school textbook in South Carolina

increased approximately 300 percent A $2.59 textbook in 1975 now

costs $7.38.

Justify telecommunciations education? Why not use a dollars and

cents approach? The entire South Carolina Educational Telecommuni-

cations System, which_has one out of every seven South Carolinians

enrolled in at least one of the 346 courses of instruction offered through

oursystern;-costr only-1-1-percenrofthe-State'swduatit5frbud-

thlt is the cost of th z. entire delivery system and progams for public

television and radio viewers and listeners, progams for children in

school, programs for college credit, for continuing professional education,

for technical education, for doctors, lawyers, ,nurses, the visually

handicapped and others. -

Scope

For 1.2 percent of the South Carolina *edlication budget, we deliver

176 television lessons in a typical school day. Yes, on our multi-channel

system that amounts to over 80 hours per day of instructional television

delivery. And, don't forget radio in addition.

Thus, I have no trouble in looking toward the future to predict that

telecommuilications will play an increasingly major role in education

particularly as adapted, specialized and particularized for local educa-:

tional needs. Telecommunications improves the quality of instruction. It .

imparts knowledge skillfully and permits one to learn wherever he is in

the-educational process. And it permits him to learn equally with others

no matter where he is in a geographic sense. Educational telecommunica-

tions is like a beam oflight It provides illumination to help us cut through

the fog of change that could otherwise obscure the world ahead.

Telecommunications allows us to more quickly and ably move from one

point to another as we strive to generate creative worth from our

intellectual enterprise. Communications technology is an integral part of

the process transforining our lives and shaping our destiny.

But in a more overriding sense, it is economics which will compel the

use of telecommunciations in education. Our system in South Carolina

has shown this clearly. There are many other justifications. But rather

014n_ki9k arcAndfor means to justify our existence; I am proud of the fact

thif, in iouth C irolina, we have taken a strong stand on the usefulness of

television and radio in education and have proceeded to put those

dynamic-tools-to-work. In putting them-to-work-we have found that one

service stacks naturally on top of another service and additional services

compound the efficiency of delivery geometrically: -Herein lie vast

economies of scale which make use of the system compelling.

112 ',1

102 The South Carolina System

Significant Enrollment

No user has to use any program which we provide. Therefore, the

statistics concerning the enrollment in our courses are very significantto

us in that enrollment is voluntary and engaged in solely at the discretion

of the user. Increases in in-school utilization alone are indicative of a

great dear of success in what we have accomplished. Innovations in

providing new services are equally impressive andjuideed,hambeguato--

become part of our basic justification of the System.

I think we need to be careful, however, thatwe do not let the need to

justify the system control its purpose, direction, or the motivations for its

use. The South Carolina System was created to enhance the educational

opportunities for every citizen in the State. We are beginning, after 22

years of hard effort, to work our way toward doing that. The capacity

required for delivery of our services was virtually unpredictable. Each

new service generates another. The number of users we serve is startling,

compared to two decades ago.

SUMMARY

Serving these people is the reaso:. we are in existence. Edward R.

Murrow once said that "The trouble with television is that it is like a

sword rusting in the scabbard during a battle for survival." Frequently,

however, I confess that the more pragmatic way to explain the impact of

what we do must include both economies as well as philosophy and

educaticial accomplishment.

In South Carolina I sincerely believe that with the support of teachers,

superintendents, State education officials, boards of education, colleges,

universities, legislatures and goyernors, we havethrough the years

proved that there is a major place and a major role for a significant

educational broadcasting system to impact on the educational progress

of in entire state.

11 3

Higher Education Uses of TV andikadio_

Peteri. Dirr

Corporation For Public Broadcasting

Washington, D.C.

INTRODUCTION

For years, colleges and universities have used television and radii.) for

instruction but until recently we had little systematic dataon the nature or

extent of those uses. Since 1978, the Corporation for Public Broadcasting

has been working with the National Center for Education Statistics

(NCES) andthe national higher education associationsto document the

extent of use and to explore factors which were thought to affect use.

The information which I will discuss is drawn from two studies

conducted by the Corporation in eonjunction with NCES and the

following education associations: American Association of Community

and Junior Colleges, American Association of State Colleges and

Universities, Association of American Colleges, Associationof American

Universities, National Association of State Universitiesand Land Grant

Colleges, National Institute of Independent Colleges and Universities.

The information was gathered in two phases: the first, conducted in

1979, was a universe study of all 3,000 colleges and universities in the

countrybut looked only at television and involved only one administrator

at each institution; the second, conducted in 1980, included radio/audio

as well as television and involved a 'sample of 120 institutions, 960

faculty members, and 1,920 students. Together, these two studies

provide a wealth of information about current uses of television and radio

as well as a wide variety of opinion about the factors that most affect

those_uses

Institution al Level

More than 70 percent of all institutions of higher education (IHEs)

make some use of television: 10 percent use it only for non-instructional

purposes such as promotion/recruitment or staff development; 61

percent use it for instruction, including 25 percent which offer courses

103 1:1 4

104 Higher Education Uses

over television and 36 percent which use it to supplement existing

courses.

Looking only at the instructional uses, the greatest portion of the effort

is spent for on-campus credit offerings (66 percent), followed by off-

campus credit offerings (17 percent), then on-campus non-credit offerings

(12 percent). So, while many contend that television is a way to reach

o ge o campus, we fmd that 78 percent of the

instructional television effort at colleges is devoted to on-campus uses of

the medium. -'

Tracking the exact number or students enrolled in courses using

television is complicated by problems of defmition and unavailability of

adequate data. However, from the data we have obtained, we are

confident in estimating that in 1979, about 1/2 million students were

enrolled in more than 6,000 courses offered over television. While some

colleges and universities make extensive instructional use of television,

the most common experience is for a college to offer one course per year

over television and to enroll 20 students in that course.

Technology for delivering television progremming seems to fall into

four categories by the extent wo which they are used: more than 90

percent of the institutions reported using self-contained video tape units;

approximately 75 percent reported using public and commercial tele-

vision stations; about 50 percent reported cable and closed circuit

systems; and 10Ipercent reported using satellite ,distribution and

Instructional Television Fixed Service (ITFS).

More than one in four IHEs (28 percent) is a member of a formal

consortium offering or producing televised courses. Another 17 percent

are members of informal consortia. The services most often provided by

the formal consortia include: program previews (77 percent), progam

exchanges (74 percent), and goup buys and/or acquisition of program

rights (63 percent). Three out of four members of formal consortia

expressed satisfaction with the services provided by the consortia and 86

percent planned to remain members of those consortia for at least the

next three years'.

The television equipment resources of colleges and universities vary

greatly: 94 percent of those that use television have TV cameras but only

58 percent have control rooms or studio facilities. (This seems to indicate

that mobile production is more prevalent than fixed studio equipment.)

7.4..percent,of TV-userspro_duce their-own programs. Abouttallhave

closed circuit or master antenna lefilEriildrandblack--and-white-TV

sets are about ,equally available.

Institutional expenditures for television seems to be increasing or level

but not decreasing: funds for equipment and staff have increased over the

past 3 years (in 55 percent of the cases) or remained the same (30

percent) and will continue to grow (45 percent) or remain the same (35

percent) over the next 3 years. Projected increases are geater for

115

Higher Education Uses 105

equipment than for staff. '

These studies have identified the major barriers to the use of television

for instruction at IHEs as the following:

Lack of institutional funds and support 70%

%.1 ment 55

Cost and availability "of courses 50

Lack of trained support personnel 45

Lack of record rights 40

Poor broadcast times 35

Insufficient advance notice "30

Data on the use of radio tie just beginning to be available. ThOse data

indicate that 53 percent of all IHEs used radio/audio for instructional

purposes in 1979. Those colleges and universities offered a total of

almost 10,000 courses involving substantial use of radio/audio and

enrolled almost 1/2 million students in those courses.

Eighty-four percent of IHEs which used radio/audio for instruction

had on-campus production facilities. Seventy-six percent usedavailable

facilities to produce original programming for instruction.

The barriers to the use of radio/audio for instruction are exactly the

same as those for televisionlack ofinstitutional funds and support, lack

of faculty commitment, cost and availability of courses, lack of trained

support personnel, lack of record rights, poor broadcast times and

insufficient notice. These findings, as well as the use patterns, suggest

that radio/audio's use is more like than unlike television's use.

Faculty Level

More than half of all faculty members reported using television for

educational purposes either in 1979 (43 percent) or prior to the 1978-79

academic year (22 percent). Those who had used the medium for

educational purposes averaged 6 years of Use. Most reported having

videotape playback units available (85 percent), as well as TV cameras

(84 percent), TV receivers (73 percent with color receivers and 71

percent with black-and-white receivers), and control room and studio

facilities (62 percent). Most reported using videotape playback units (82

percent) and TV receivers (58 percent color and 48 percent black-and-

white).

The delivery system most often iffedW facultY- wife: Self-CO-ntated

videotape playback units (73 percent), public television stations (57

percent), commercial television stations (37 percent) and campus closed

circui mr(-3-3-pereent)____

Funds for the acquisition of television equipmc--ilre

come from non-departmental accounts whereasKinds for the acquisition

of instructional programs is likely to come from departmental accounts.

Eight-five percent of faculty members who used television for

educational purposes repotted that production facilities were available

116

106 Higher Education Uses

for their use. Fifty-six percent reported having participated in a

production at their institutions.

Twenty-nine percent of those using television for educational purposes

haft had formal training for such use. Fitly-seven percent reported that

they had taken_a_college_course-in which-teleon-played-mbstariti-W

role. When those faculty members used television in their own courses,

the dominant production modes were lecture/monologue and demon-

stration techniques.

Even in courses where television was reported to have played a

substantial role, only 12 percent ofthe course hours were televised.

Faculty members reported the folloc.ving factors as major hindrances

to their use of television for instruction:

Lack of adequate departmental funds 56%

Programs do not meet adademic needs

and/or standards 49

Cost of available courses 39

Poor broadcast times 35

Insufficient advance notice 34

It was the opinion ofmany faculty member respondents, the use of

television for educational purposes is not readily accepted by the

profession or the institution. They view their course framework as

unadaptable.to television, maintainthat the-use of television adds to their

work, and feel that the institutional and professional reward structures do

not recognize efforts spent in developing and using television course

materials. Interestingly, faculty members see none of their major barriers

coming from the students.

More than one out of four faculty members (28 percent) reported that

they used or assigned radio/audio for educational purposes in 1979; 7

percent of all faculty members reported tLitthey used radio/audio in an

average of 2 courses each, enrolling an average of 27 students in each.

course.

Ninety-two percent of all faculty members reported that radio/audio

production facilities were available to them.

The barriers to the use of radio/audio for instruction are exactly the

same as those for television: lack ofdepartmental funds, unsuitability of

available courses, cost of available courses, poor broadcast timesr.and_

insufficient-advance-notice:

Student Level

Almost all students have used or expect to use television for

educational purposes during their college careers; 47 percent, or 5.5

million students used TV as part of their college programs in 1979;

an6thTF3:51MIkiii hId used TV prior föl 979-add1:5-ttilliotrap-etta

to use it within the next three years.

Slightly more than one in fourstudents (28 perent) who used television

11 7

.44611igher Education Uses 107

in 079 used college-owned equipment, especially videocassette play-

back units (88 percent) and color TV sets (44 percent) and black-and-

white TV sets (39 percent). Most of the use was in traditional college

classrooms (70 percent) asopposed to non-college housing (29 percent).

e evision in I 979Teported that such use was

voluntary (63 percent), did not.constitute a substantial portion of the

course (76 percent):and that the courses which used television cost the

same as courses which did not (82 percent).

The major barriers to the use of television for instruction as reported by

the students were: .

Poor broadcast times 33%

Inadequate equipment 26

Insufficient advance notice 23

Inadequate courses 20

Students did not view the use of television in courses as too

burdensome, depersonalizing, or an easy way to get credit. Neither did

they see courses with television as being particularly more relevant and

informative than other courses. In general, they viewed courses with

television as worthwhile and appropriate for their areas of study.

More than one out of three students (35 percent) reported that they had

used radio/audio for some of their courses in 1979; 13 percent of all

students reported that radio/audio was used for a substantial portion of

one or more of their courses.

The major barriers to the use of radio/audio reported by the student

respondents were:

Lack of appropriate radio/aUdio courses 41%

Inadequate courses available 20

Poor radio/audio reception 16

Poor broadcast times 13

Insufficient advance notice 14

In all other opinions about the suitability ot radio/audio for college

instruction, the student resrionses closely paralleled their opinions on

television's suitability.

SUMMARY

-- These data-and-the limhed-analyses-alreadyperfonnedorithenibtgin-

to provide use with an appreciation for the roles of television and

radio/audio in college and university instruction. Analyses will continue

and the implications of these findings will be carefully examined over the

next 12 months. For instance, we already know that differences exist in

the ways in which different types of colleges use television for instruction.

Further analyses might disclose some of the reasOns for those differences.

At least they should help to further describe the nature and magnitude of

-the differences.

118

c\J" Making the Case for Changing Public Policy

Normr E. Watson

Coast Communky Colleges

Costa Mesa, C3l1fornia

INTRODUCTION

The community college today, as an institution, is entering a period of

extremely rapid and sudden change. During the decade of the 70's, the

community college was an institution in transition. It was learning to

become a "matUre" institution, one which had experienced significant

growth in numbers, in facilities, and in students served. During the

decade of the SO's, the community college will be an institution in

transformation, moving from the traditionally accepted goals of its early

years to a heightened and expanded mission to, provide lifelong

education.

Some of the critical problems that will face community colleges as they

move into a new era will be public policy, state laws, and administrative

regulations. In times of rapid change,,the old rules and social arrange-

ments can become rigid barriers standing in the way of adaptations and

modifications.to new environmental conditions.

Teclmological developments in delivery systems that are laking place

today have immense potential for the community colleges in connection

with their ability to fulfill the mission of lifelong education. Already,

hundreds of community Colleges throughout the United States are

utilizing broadcasting to offer additional opportunities for learning to the

adults they serve. An mcreasing number are using cable to make learning

opportunities more available. And, as the technology develops, tape

cassettes, discs, teletext, the satellite, and the computer will see greater

use.In order to fully utilize much of the new technology, traditional ways of

dealing with personnel, with reporting procedures, and with funding

mechanisms will require close study and scrutiny in order to ascertain the

extent to which they assist or obstruct an institution's ability to meet neiv

needs.

11.9 108

Changing Public Policy 109

Without entering into a long and dusty discourse on the origin and

listorical development of the community colleges in California, I would

like to select by means of chronological timelines, a few examples of

policy, and administrative difficulties which have had to be

addressed in allowing institutions to cha-lirWeilthihrtimeb.

Public Education Regulations

To betem, community colleges in California evolved from the public

school, or K-12 segments ofeducation. They started, in fact, as a 13th

and 14th grade appendage to the K-12 segment and for many years were

tied administratively, legally, and by funding mechanisms to that

sesment of public education. With such a heritage, many Of the

regulations that the community college was required to enforce were

regulations that were developed over a period of time as appropriate for

the K-12 segment but that had little relev,ance or worth for community

colleges.

One such definition which existed in administrativc: regulations was

the definition of "immediate supervision." For attendance accounting

purposes, "immediate supervision" was defined as having acertificated

instructor physically present with students when learning was taking

place. Only those hours of attendance where "immediate supervision"

could be certified were eligible for state support. Such a regulation,

obviously, was admirably suited to keePing unruly adolescent boys and

girls under reasonable control in a standard size box-likeclassroom, but

had serious deficiencies when it came to the use of learning centers,

tutorial labs, television, etc.

The first movement away from the strict construction of the terin

"immediate supervision" was spearheaded by vocational educators in

allowing cooperative work experience to be funded by state allocations.

Including Technology

Riding on the coattails of the success of the vocational educatorswhich

had necessitated both changes in state law as well as administrative

regulations,a number of us in the community colleges set out to broaden

further the meaning of "immediatesupervision" by permitting the use of

modem technology. A task force wasformed, a research committee was

put in motion, and in advisory- coinmittee was activated--all in an

attempt to open the door a crack for modern technology. This activity,

years of research and study, resulted in a report, signed off by the

California Junior College Association, which became a position paper to

support legislation modifying one provision of Education Code Section

11251. We created a new temi called "Coordinated Jnstmction SyStems"

to describe the process being advocated. The paper's purpose was to call

attention to the critical need for development of new coordinated

instrudion systems which combine classroom lecture with modem

technoiogy to improve the effectiveness and ef&iency of instructional

programs in community colleges; and to identify a problem areain the

110 Changing Public Policy

_California Education Code which serves as a deterrent to progress

toward that goal."

The paper went on to point out that 'coordinated instruction systems,

combining the resources of modern technology with traditional proce-

.1. IIi44 I

iAstruction. Television instruction, computer-assisted instruction, auto-

mated slide-sound tapes, single-concept film loops, and other technical

resources serve to strengthen the teaching process."

Ever aware of the watchful eyes of the professional teachers' gyoups,

the paper painstakingly pointed out that "the role of the community

college instructor is expanded with coordinated instruction systems to

encompass more instructional development, learning management, and

evaluation of student progress. Instruction is more flexible with greater

opportunity for student success. Educational progress and competenty

of students are coordinated and evaluated by professional community

college instructors." The paper documented research on the effectiveness

of such instruction, pointed out that there would be no increase in cost,

and concluded that "legislation is needed to provide the same Average

Daily Attendance (ADA) apportionment for, students earning credit

through community college coordinated instruCtion systems techniques

as though traditional programs limited toClassroomlecture techniques.

The paper was comprehensive in thes.overage of the problems that

existing legislation posed, and the necessity for modification of code

requirements,"Developinent of adequate coordinated instruction systems

in California community colleges will not occur until changes,are made

in the procedure of ADA apportionment for students enrolled in these

kinds of classes. Programs must have an adequate base of fmancial

support within the school budget if they are to exist."

Legislation

Next came the immense task of mobilizing the support of the many

diverse educational and professional Organizations for the new legislation,

finding an author for the bill, presenting testimony at various.hearings,

and making nIcessary changes in the legislation in order to obtain the

support needed for its passage.

Years of effort, and many work hours of input later, the two following

miniscule changes made it possible for the community.colleges to move

into the Twentieth Century. I will remid you that "Ws oecurred as

recently as 1970. '

1. "One student contact hour is to be counted for each unit ofCoordinated

Instruction Systems credit in which a community college student is

enrolled during any census period."

2. "For purposes of community college Coordinated Instruction

System, 'immediate supervision' of instruction should be defmed as

student participation in approved Coordinated Instruction Systems

programs of instruction using such modem technology as television,

1.21 _

Changing Public Policy 111

computer-assisted instruction, automated slide-tape systems. and pro-

grammed learning materials under the coordination and evaluation of

certified college instruction."

All was well thus far. However, it then became necessary, in order to

om.abuses,to.develop_aionglistpfsaveats

and guarantees which were to be elaborated in Title V, Administrative

Regulations. These, in themselves, barely escaped throttling the new

code provision with rigid requirements which colleges were compelled to

meet. Rather than treating Coordinated Instruction Systems on the same

level as lecture courses, the regulations required such things as: prior

state approval course by course, a proof of credentialed supervision, a

rigid interpretation as to what could be considered as current costs, a

restrictive limitation on the amount of state support (only 50 percent of

current cost), the elimination of anrcapital expenditure, and the

requirement of detailed evaluation reports to the state for each cerse

offered at the-close of each semester.

Is it any wonder, then, that television instniction was extremely slow in

taking off in California, even after the new legislation allowed it to be

offered'in the early 70's. For many districts, and for many administrators,

the added paper work and bureaucratic requirements were just too much,

added to the Already heavy burden of acquiring hardware and software,

and of attempting.to fend off the attacks of a considerable body of

professionals.

But the door was ajar,,ever so slightly, and with great-effort.

Modification-of Regulations

The next hurdle that had to be overcome was the interpretation by the

state office that a specified number of hours of television broadcast

material would have to equate with each upit of credit offered: Such an

interpretation, of course, overlooked all elements of the coordinated

instructional system except those which actually went over the air, and

did-not, address, in any-fashion at all, eie rigor of the materials or the

learning objectives, At this stage of the game, the state office was willing

to "buy" fifteen one-half hourlelevision programs for one hour of credit,

but no less that that, accepting the principle that there was a certain

amount of compression in television-courses, and that other le4rning

activities took place in some, fashion.

The Modification of that regulation set the stage for an entire re-

examination of Coordinated Instructional Systems., A task force ws set

up by llie state office in 1976. With the goal that "The Board of

Governors shall encourage the development of instructional tech-

nologies, varied learning modes, and resources to-more adequately meet

the diversity of student characteristics and learning styies," the task force

was charged with identifying problems, recommending revisions in

Atatutes and/or regulations, and developng a prospectus report.

122

112 Changhig Public-Pcilicy

The task force considered whether the defmition should be broadened

:to-includeodietbistmctional Method514*i than hardwareand software

whether developmental costs should be reimbursed, whether the 50

percent cost factor should be eliminated, and whether only current costs

should be reimbursed.

As a result of the report of the task force, the definition broadened. As a

Matter- Of hict; Coordinated Instruction System, with all its good points

and bad points,- was eliminated from statutes andreplaced with a neW

piece of legislatien entitled "independent study."

With the amendment of -the law in 1978 setting up ".independent

studif," it was necessary -to formulate and adopt a new set of Title 5

regulations for its administration. Once again the battle heated up

between those who were attempting to move community colleges into an

innovative and changing direction, and those who would hope to prevent

the community colleges from doing anything that was not traditional.

The following proposali were Made to the Board of Governors as

needing to be included in the new regulations::

1. State apportionment would be based on passing grades at the end of

the -ternia completely -different standard from that imposed on any

otheetype-brinstruttkin!

2. The number of students assigned to any one instructor should not

exceed ten perceig more than -the average number-Of students per

instructor at the college unless exempted -by waiver from the State

Chancellor.

The number of independent-Study courses at a college shall not

exceed 4.en percent of ,the credit couries. certified for transfer unless

exempted by waiver from the State Chancellor.

Obvionsly,,the adoption of suchregriations, in the faceof the fact that

television courses- were accepted4Or transfer by all state and private

colleges in California 'for full tredit, would have been a giant step

backward

Then followed the long series of hearings, the testimony, the written

arguments, the counter proposals at the state level in an attempt to

prevent the loss of all the ground that had been gainedsince the original

legislation in 1970.

A new task force was formed and issued the following statement:

In general, these regulations would discourage the offering of

independent study, specifically CIS courses, in community colleges.

They assume that students all learn the same way, in avlassrooti with

a lecture and texts. They would freeze community colleges into one

form of instruction and an "average faculty-studentratio. Btit, in a time

of financial limitations, there is a need to encourage fleXibility and

innovation as well as continur the standards of quility instruction

which have distinguished community colleges in this state up to now.

Under the proponed regulation community colleges will,- for all

practical purposes, find it impossible to continiie to offer alternative

1 23

Changing Public Policy 113

modes of education. The nontraditional student, many of whom-are

unable to attend a regular academic program, will not be able to earn

academic credit.This.ineani that a direct and foreseeabk.resuliof the

regulation will be discrimination against the nontraditional and often

disadvantage student including homebound, seniors, and handicapped

student. It is ironic and unfortunate thatthe Board of Governors would

consider cutting back on such programs at the very-time that society

has recognized the need for such programs."

The Edlication Policy Committee of the Board of Governors, in turn,

requested that proposed regulations be "tightened up" to reduce the

potential for abuse and/or misunderstanding. The staff was also

requested to put a ceiling on the student-teacher ratio for independent

study courses, although no ceiling exists for any other type of course.

The new regulations were adopted, willi some softening of the

language. The college must certify to a number of requireMents with

regard to independent study courses. The restrictions on the number of

students in the course and the number of courses which may be offered

remaAn in the regulations and we have been forced to request a waiver, as

permitted by the regulations, from the State ,Chancellor.

Conclusions

What conclusions can we draw from the California case studies

beyond the obvioils one that "it ain't easy to get from here to there"? We

can probably come up with three rather important conclusions:

1. Our laws and regulations are beset by countless archaic provisions

which now thwart and will continue to impede progress toward meeting

new environmental demands.

2. Public policy can be changed and must continue to be modified if

the community colleges _are ta continue --to -be the innovati-ve, flexibie

institutions of postsemiaafy education.

3: External vigilance is essential in order that simple-minded solutions

to complex. questions do not become'part and parcel of our bureicratic

inheritance,

Our community colleges, in our fifty states, function in highly

differentiated environments. Although we share many common goals

and are -influenced by broad and pervasive changes in society and by

developments in technology, we exist in different structures with varying

legislative frameworks. It is essential that we exercise our influence, to

the strongest extent possible, in interpreting the traneormation which

must take place in the xommunity college during the coming decades.

Local boards, state boards, accrediting commissions, state commissions

on higher education, departments of finance, and state legislators must be

brought to See what it is the community colleges are attempting to achieve

and what must be done in order that they can fulfill their function. In this

connection, the Coast Community Colleges are currently attempting

through membership on the Telecommunications Advisory Committee

124

114 Changing Public-Policy

and the California Postsecondary Education Commission, to influence

the direction of future public policy. Included as a special category of

society'5on:going needs for education identified by the Commission are

the needs- of significant portions of the populations that have special

problems or barriers. These include the imprisoned, the physically

handicapped, the homebound with dependents, displaced homemakers,

and mid-career people pressed to change careers. The Commission

states, "Providing reasonable access to education for these groups of

adults mast be seen as another dimension of publici.e. societal

needs."_California possesso vast resources in the area of telecOmmun-

nications to meet the changintsocietal needs of the state. The community

colleges are equipped by inclination and experience to coordinate such

activities. It is vital that we give close and continuing attention to evolving

public policy.

Faculty Response to the Use of Technology

Dallas K. Deal

President State Univershy College

Fredonia, New York

INTRODUCTION

I will begin this paper with a qualification diat requires expression, one

whichis_4_re.statement of_the obvicusitis-asimpossible-to-reference

"a!_facultyresponse to the use of technology as itis to characterizea"

faculty on almost any matter or issue you may care to mention. For

example, on my own faculty, a recently retired political science professor

reliably cast a single opposing vote on any occasion where unaMmity

prevailed on the principle of retaining the "purity" of a persitent

minority viewpoint as a benchmark characteristic of true faculty loyalty

to the. academy.

Of course, there are faculty responses to the use of technology for

instructional purposes as you might well expect; clearly, the liters:tare on

the subject documents a range of views not unlike the response io the use

of anything else except perhaps the book, or the library. But keep in

mindLineberry is quoted in Willett's Modernizing the Little Red

.School House as saying, "the antitechnologists of antiquity were

convinced that even the book, by downgrading memory, could produce

only a race of imbeciles."

The safer and more creditable reference to Make about faculty

response is that it is best seen by the current instructional Methodologies

they emtiloy. Our planners should be pleased to know that the evidence

in surveys and studies by Stern, Evans, Kozma, Cogan, and others

clearly warrants the convening of a National Conference on Technology

and Education. But for a pitifully few college and university exceptions,

the collegiate response to technology fits the discomforting view

expressed by C.P. Snow almost twenty years ago (Evans):

"In a society like ours, academic patterns change more slowly than any

others. In my lifetime, in England, they have crystallized rather than

loosened. I used to think that it would be about as hard to change say,

115 126

116 Faculty Response

the Oxford and Cambridge scholarship examinations as to conduct a

major revolution. I now believe that I was over optimistic."

My own belief is that progress is being madehowever slowly and

there is reason'to-believe that the-pace-of progress will accelerate in the

years ahead if the academy wills that it be given high priority.

I would like to touch upon a few of the available research studies which

deal with faculty response to innovation; the 'technology currently

available to colleget and universities in the public sector; a set of

assumptions which to me set in place the principal guideposts for charting

the course of progress; and, I shall conclude with a brief description of a

Major proposal to spur progress jointly sponsored by AASCU and

NASULGC.

Selected Studies

Although the study is along in years (1967), the comprehensive study

by Evans and Lippman reported in their book, Resistance to Innovation

in Higher Education is classic and is really quite relevant and topical.

The a-uthui exaniffled an academic czmmunity's response to Instruc-

onal-Televisiosing-a-mmther-of-variablEs=and-obtained data on

the general beliefs and the personality orientation of the faculty of nine

colleges- and universities which they visited. Among their observations

and findings are the following which are pertinent to our discussion at this

conference:

To put our work in perspective we are reminded:

"As early as 1965, the textbook committee of a state legislatUre

holding hearings on high school biology texts was confronted by an

impressive group of literate citizens who bitterly opposed the teaching of

evolution in the public schools. When we consider furthermore, that in

our own research case historyone of the respondents, a college

professor, remarked that television is the 'invention of the devil,' we might

indeed predict that Copernicus would have had a hard time introducing

some innovations to our generation as he did in his own time." (Evans)

Evans and Lippman go on the declare, and in my view, quite

accurately,

"The greatest resistance to change will be found in those institutions

whose traditional primary function has been the perpetuation of a

society's folkways, mores, and values, such as religious and educational

institutions." r--

Indeed, beyond being no surprise to the student of higher education,

there is in this resistance to change a needed sense of dependabi lity which

society in general must feel and appreciate and which is referred to by the

authors when they state:

"Educational institutions would be derelict in their &ligation to

society if they were totally responsive to fads and fashions of the

surrounding community."

127

Faculty Response 117

What was learned about faculty response to the use of technology?

Evans and LipPman report:

"There is little empirical evidence to support the assumption that

faculty and administratorseven though they carry the responsibility of

imparting both old and new knowledge and are viewed as experts-in

evaluating new developmentswill choose methodological innovations

which seem to provide the greatest potential for learning."

They go onto say:

"It is undoubtedly clear by now that the present study proceeded from

the assumption that the attitudes which most of our faculty members held

toward ITV did not exist in isolation but were often inter-connected in

varying degrees with other attitudes, such as those -toward teaching

machines and teaching methods versus content. They were even inter-

connected with the respondent's attitude toward himself and his general

philosophy- of -life."

In the above connection andfurther from the analysis of attitudes and

beliefs of profesw

"Forty perceulofthevgessors believedthaledge-efeontent-is

a sUfficient prerequisite for university teaching, thirty-five percent felt

that method is of some importance, and only ten percent felt they were of

equal importance." (Evans)

And a very significant and humbling clue to any of us who dares

'believe he or she is destined to be a significant agent of instructional

change, is the discovery that

"In effect Professors were saying, 'The machine cannot provide those

ingredients which I, myself, can provide. I am personal and provide

discussion; I Inotivate students, and I am creative.' Therefore:

"The college professor sees himself in the traditional role of standing

before a class, delivering a lecture on which his students take notes

notes he expects them to commit to memory, supplemented by readings

in their textbooks and some additional work in the library."

Even the more negative responses in this study (Evans) take on at times

humorous incongruities such as:

"ITV is a fine instructional medium and should be encouraged for all

to improve instruction, but not for my subject area," and

"ITV is the best means of teaching in the long run, but/ would leave

college teaching if / had to use it."

However, it is interesting to note that there also surfaces in the survey

literature, professional types who are pro-IV and they can be described

and I presume identified on our faculties.

The study by Evans pictures them as being "more adventuresome,

flexible, and mobile in thinking and teaching... whosee the university as

asocialas well asacademic community ... mbre free to experiment with

new methods and techniques."

And although such categorical typing may be useful early in the

1.28

118 Faculty Response

development of strategy for innovation and implementation, it is

important to teep in mind that:

"Although we have given evidence to show that some professors have

consistent attitudes toward innovation in general,we think it quite likely

that other professors are very selective about the kind of innovation they

are willing to accept." (Evans)

The research findings do not altogether present a bleak picture about

the current readiness of faculty to climb aboard technological vehicles

which may hold promise for the improvement in and the satisfactionfaculty

seek to gain from teaching. What seems clear iS the evidence that

approaches to faculty have not been well designed, showed a lack of

concem for readiness, and have too frequently not given sufficient

attention to the importance of self-motivation toward tangible rewards

provided by the "system." For example:

"To utilize ITV many professors stemed to think that much training,

aching goals and activities

Avould-be-requiredevidence-seemed-to-intliaTe-thirif a complex

innovation can be broken down into palatable bitsat least partial

acceptance will be more rapidly affected." And, further:

" ... evidence suggests that the degree of acceptance ofan innovation

by professors may partly depend on whether they viewedthe innovation

as being instituted by the university administration or.... within their own

dcademic departments as a result of their own planning."

" ... evidence suggests also a reversion effectoccurs most often where

reinforcers are not programmed beyond certain minimum limits

reinforcers include salary increments, promotions, and overt administra-

tive approval" and it is:

". . . highly plausible that an individual's position in the university

(rankjob security) bears some relation to receptivity to innovation."

(Evans)

A point so often overlooked in the context of effecting change is

mentioned by Cogan:

"Any plan that seeks to rationalize the process of innovation in our

schools will perforce be slowed down by the imperative necessity to train

the men affd-women who will be centrally involved. And that delay will

be a blessing if it serves to educate us to understand that the phases of

education are long, longer than the phases of a fad, style and local and

national politics."

Telling it more stridently, Stem and Keislarin reporting their survey of

five thousand references on teacher attitudes conclude:

"The success of any broad-based educational innovation is not simply

a result of whether the proper procedures have been technically carried

out; rather, if innovation is imposed authoritatively on the teacher, with

no attempt to understand and enlist support, it yill not succeed."

12.9

Eaculty_Response 119

The above surveyors suggest six categories of guidelines for considers-

tiorrin the development- ofra, strategy for-innovation:

1. Accepting environmentlargely an administrative responsibility.

2. Assurance of personal involvement.

3. Acceptance of personal responsibility.

4. Role models.

5. Incentives for change.

6. Preparation.

A more recent experiment dealing withFaculty Development and the

AdoptiOn and Diplision of Classroom Innovations by Kozma and

funded by FIPSE is reported in- the Journal of Higher Education.

In a faculty fellowship project at the University of Michigan the

findings showed that the incentive of fellowship_grants. increased

significantly the fellows use of innovations as compared to a random

&LIU

fellowships had relatively little success in influencing fellow faculty

members to adopt instructional innovations as a result of discussions.

I suppose any examination of research fmdings should end on a note of

caution and in this instance, a bit more pithy than the typical dissertation

conclusion which concludes the need for more study.

Willett, Swanson and Nelson say in Modernizing the Little Red

School House bring into view a rather fascinating comparison between

thefeaSibility and the logic of change as itapplies to the introduction of

educational hardware.

"The feasibility of change to man-machine systems of education is

clearly seen in the dollar savings . ..the logic for change is another

matter . ..the educational establishment represents an intrenced

moving to man-machine systems of education will receive quick

moving to man-machine systems of education will receive quick acceptance

should be viewed with reservations."

Availability of Technology

Until recently those of us concerned with expanding the use of

instructional technology in the public sector of higher education had

available as evidence of its availability only isolated reports of commit-

ments by campuses across the country.

In the late 70's, AASCU and NASULGC cpnducted the first

national survey of existing technology available to the faculties in over

four hundred member colleges and universities. The results of this survey

may be known to some of you; however, its highlights should serve an

important documentary purpose of this conference.

The survey covered three major areas: availability and description of

present communications technology facilities, the instructional use

served by this technology, and the plans for expansion. Responses to the

national survey indicate that member institutions of both associations

1,3

120- -Faculty-Reiponse-

exhibit a strong commitment to the use of cornmunications technology in

their educational programs. Many institutions in the study operate

television and radio broadcasting stations whicfiare used for educational

programming. In factAASCU and NASULGC institutions constitute

approximately one,third_ of -the station membership of the Public

Broadcasting System.

Seventy-nine percent of the NASULGC institutions in the survey

operated non-commercial broadcasting and fifty-four percent of the

AASCU members carried-non-commercial radio programming. FM

frequencies were licensed by seventy-five percent of the NASULGC

and fifty-tWo percent of the AASCU institutions.

Closed cirduit television systems were found to bequite coMmon and

in addition,"the public colleges and universities in the two associations

produced educational programs for the broadcasting stati

.percent). They utilized

Cable TV to distribute even more progrants. NASULGC cable utilizers

totalled fifty-two percent and AASCUresponders totalled forty percent

in "the Cable TV category.

The survey covered also the provision for faculty utilization of

telecommunication facilities for instructional purposes. In excess of

ninety percent of the member institutions stated media services were

available to faculty and staff and over eighty percent reported the

availability of telecommunications facilities to the adult public. Instruc-

tional programs include credit and non-credit courses, continuing

education units and open learning and external e.tgree programs. .

With a view toward expansion, member institutions who operate

telecommunications systems in both associations, as well as those who

do not, indicated expansion plans especially in the areas of instructional

media facilities, radio broadcasting and cable television.

It seems reasonable to conclude from this nationwide survey of public

colleges and universities that a surprising array of educational technology

is presently available to faculty for their 11S4, and the awareness of the

emerging significance of this technology as a means of enhancing-and

extending outward the teaching boundaries of the campus is ofconcern

and importance.to these public institutions. With this advantage clearly

in view, there is reason to hope thatwith proper trainingand inducement,

faculty in increasing numbers will rise to form the critical linkage

between the communication., technology found to be in place with the

needs of students in a variety of educational settings.

Some Working Assumptions(Six, in Fact)

From the standpoint ofa working administrator who has spent some

time immersed in the process of learning and thinimg about the current

state of instructional technology, and who also has endeavored to bring

into being a small amount of change, I have drawn assumptions, some.

13.1

FOeul0 Response 121

of which I hope you will fmd worthy of consideration and perhaps even

helpful.

Assumption Number I

There rentains ab-road in the land a legacy of unfilled promises

promulgated by hardware advocates who, during the sixties, in

particular, convincingly influenced the purchase of vast amaunts of

instrUctional equipment with the promise of relieving the then shortage

of faculty and at the-aame rime reducing the cost of instruction.

State budget analysts and, indeed, many, legislators make painful

reference to the millions "wasted" in purchasing educational hardware to

equip new buildings during the sixties. The space utilization studies

which yearly demonstrate our failure to make sufficient use of large

!whirr halls and inventoreis of dial access equipment. TV studios and the

like are too often silent and also_unfortunatelestimony against proposed

new initiatives at a time when higher education is strapped for funds.

It is my view that any progress we hope to make toward the goal of

more effective use of new technology in teaching, even with faculty

motivation at a high peak, must be calculated within the existing

constraints of continuing inflation, unfriendly budget examiners and

public policies which reflect an attitude on the part of decision makers

that higher education has had its =tient on the stage and now must make

way for other pressing societal needs.

Our requirements for new equipment, if met at all, will be drawn from a

convincing demonstration of yearly savings through more efficient

management and the never ending search for dollars which must flow

from gifts and grants.

We can, I believe, overcome the unfortunate legacy of our past

stewardship of instructional technology. It is not unrealistic to suggest

that the necessity of such a struggle is after all our best insurance that

progress will be more sustainable because it will have been so hard won.

Assumption Number 2

Most college faculty have insufficient experience as learners via

technology for us to expect them to be advocates of Vie implementation

of available communications technology eller as a teaching tool or a

mom comprehensive teaching methodology.

There is little or no evidence to suggest that graduate students

preparing for careers in teaching have been taught other than the lessons

of scholarship and research. Whatever teaching methods they adopted

came as a result of imitation of their mentors or by trial and error, rather

than studied examination of the teaching process. From this direction as,

a starting point -is where we must begin as we introduce also into the

current equation faculties which are unionized and who are forced to

pereeiv depreiging immobility as a carrer reality.

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122 Faculty Response

An exaggeration, perhaps, but our overly sanguine assumptions in the

pastwhich overlooked the critical necessity to begin where faculty

areresulted frequently in the wrongheaded purchase of "hardware

_methodology" -far ahead:of-any attention-to- the needs, expeditions,

abilities and realities ofour faculties.

Faculty development initiatives generated largely by faculty them-

selves, and primed and sustained by administrators whdunderstand the

role of "facilitator" hold the plonnse of bringing abouta gradual, ierhaps

even an assuredly sustainable involvement of faculty in the use of a vast

array of new and more available educational technology.

Assumption Number 3

The pervasive and fewful spectre of broad exposure to the risk of

failure, before de eyes of watc4ful colleagues is intimidating and 'a

retaniant obstacle in the oath uf the mosrsecureofinstructionalfaculty.

Itis-the-rare-faculty-meMberwho-would spearniolEeTthin fearless

tones about the educationalvalue of an occasionalfailure. Usually in this

context of failure our reference point is the students whom we instruct

The .carryover of this belief into the very diferent and personal risk

context of teaching methodology demonstrates clearly a considerably

different and largely hesitant faculty responseat the very least those of .

us interested in building a strategy for change should assume so.

The intramurals ofpeer evaluation for reappointment, promotion, and

retrenchinent mechanisms engaged as a result ofshortages of funds and

reduCtion in generated student hours in the latter instance surface

resistance factors even from faculty who have traditionallrbelieved

themselves to be secure in their positions. The perceived exposure to

criticism felt by even the best professors sometimes_ easily sets in.

motion subtle and curiously department-wide episodes of resistance

rather than acts of courage.

Overcoming the anxietiesmarried to potential failure is most success-

fully accoinplished in a general sense by the recognition of its presence.

Steps which follow are largely situation specific and are better locally

planned and constructed, except for the all-impiitant necessity of

confidence building that comes from early if only modest success and

followed by deserved recognition.

As'sumption Number 4

The sanguine declaration that excellence through resource enrich-

ment is hardly creditable during the current andprolonged era of the

equivalent.ofzero-based budgets,faculty retrenchmcn4 and long-term

fiscal ex4enctes.

The sooner we engage the operational assumption that resource

enrichment belongs to a bygone era of educational finance, the better will

be the operational design of instructional schemes which make use of

instructional innovation.

133.

__Eaculty_Response 123-

Priorities will of necessity require reordering. Programs and earlier

mibsions may be called into question and consequently', be repleced by

current plans for instructional improvement which require the shifting of

resources. Indeed, there may emerge a new "art" ofcreative management

that allows, for a process ofsubStitUtion rather than addition.

We should not fail to recognize that higher education management

requires the similar challenge of rethinking and reassessment of attitudes

and methodologies as does the instructional process; indeed, it is not

presumptuous to recommend such a process as a beginning expectation

of any plan designed to change substantially instructional modes of

owation.

Assumption NuMber 5

Promotion workload considerations, financial, and success in-

re high on the list of reward factors which spur faculty

onsimeness.

If we dream of a world of change absent of thesecompelling factors we

dream of a time that will never be. They are, indeed, stituational and

often personal, but they persist as perceived and real expectations. They

are for the faculty, the tangible outcomes that make the effort worthy.

They are for the faculty, outcomes related to ego fillfillment which out-

distance institutional goals atid expectations. They can bf.1 silent killers of

change or the very real difference between the success and failure of a

strategy. At the very least; faculty must perceive an administration

involved in and willing to articulate with conviction and to document with

creditability, positive action that the university reward system is

responsive to faculty willing to make substantive commitments to

instructional change.

Assumption Numter 6

There is no foreseeable technological substitute for the creative,

learner oriented andhighly knowledgeable "director" of the learning

enterpriserather, there exists a mounting array of workable instruc-

tional tools aroundwhich to surround and assist those prepared and

motivated to use them.

In eariier times evea some thoughtfill educationists took the highly

questionable leap from the knowledge base directly to the learner via.

available handware. Witness, for example,- the dismal failure and

regression that accompanied the wholesale distribution of the "teaching

machine.", One is reminded of the earlier experiments in man's

fascination with flight, and the do-it-yourself contraptions which were

fastened to arms and legseach in its own way destined to fail because of

a lack of knowledgeable application of correct theory and creatively

directed into practice.

It is my view that effective utilization and progress in the use of

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124 Faculty Responsi \,

technology will succeed to the extent that the process remains directly in

the hands of the teacher with prior knowledge of le subject and

compassidnately aware of the needs of the learners.

A -model- of =the.director- of- learnintset forth 'by-tonic media pto-

fessionals places the professor within a centerpiece similar to the role of a

nightly newscaster. He or she directs the conduct of the enterprise,

selects the content, chooses from an array of sources and resources and is

responsible for a format design which is appropriate to the viewing

audience orlearners as the case may be. Portions may be altogether pre-

cast. Other segments are flexibly utilized to meet the changing deltoids

of the situation.

The point to keep in mind is the requirement of a, learner-oriented

knowledgeable manager of theprocess to_ have resources of his choosing

available on demand, and appropriatelymatched to the broadly based

needs of students. The achievement ofa systeni-that responds to these

demands complerand demanding challenge and cannOt be viewed as

anyeconomy-measurerorrwoffible subst'ildlIedWessionals.

However, the degree to which it may be more expensive over the longer

run than present instruction requires muchmore study and experience.

The Response of Two As-Sociations (AASCUNASULGC)

The American Association of State Colleges and Universities and the

Nztional Association of State Universities and Land-Grant Colleges

have given increasing concern to proposals which may result, in the.

establishment of an gn-going system with the potential .of dealing

effectively with the potential of facultiesto exploit instructional enhance-

ment through technology., It is their beliefthat progress has been retarded

and can be pttributable to:

(.1) the lack of understandingamong most faculty of appropriate and

pedagogical applications of technology, and

(2) the fear of losing creatiVe control of their classes and course

work by using the materials developed by others.

The proposal set forth through the combined efforts of the associations

has the potential of involving some seventeen member institutions and

over one hundred sixty instructional fpOulty, academic deans, and

-instructional supportstaff. Essential to the success of the proPosal is the

requirement that institutions as well as faculty commit themselves to a

continuing involvement in the projectthroughout its duration through the

allocation of a portion of the support c&tsof the proposal, the remaining

cosisqo be covered by an outside agency.

Following* each orientation Conference, faculty will be required to

"formulate their own ideas for applications 4 technology to aCademic

,subjects which they teach. irti their own. institutions. Delegations from

institutions chbsen to participate also will be *encouraged to work as a

"team" ddring the training institutes.

135

FacultrItTponsi-125

As an ultimate outcome and beyond the hoped-for advantages to

Partici Paling faculty will be the dissemination of what has been learned

ind achieved to Other colleges and universities.

SUMMARY

I chose to end on a bright note of hope. for reasons which go well

beyond dmy own involvement ia the advancement of instructional

improvement Indeed, the fact of our generally low morele, the

doomsayer piedictions of.the future and our failures in the past can, I

believe, be tailed to productive use. We have perhaps come of age. We

are hard headed, more So than in tile put, not so easily led and curiously

demanding more accoUntability of ourselves.

It niay very well come to piss that the 80's will bring forth a faculty

"iespOnse" to technology that surpasses our imagination in part because

---wearepoorer-,-yerwiser; butdue in part also ta the- understanding and

etous-througlrreunionsmedepossible bTthisT

conference.

BIBLIOGRAMY

I. Evans, Richa:d I., Resistance to Innovation in Higher Edueatian'Jasey-Bass, Inc.

2. Journal of kesearch and Development in Education, Vol. 10, Number 2, Winter '77:

"1"eachr Attitudes arid Attitudes Change: A Research Review by Stern and Keislar.

3. Thozny Into Practice; Vol. XV, Number 3, June '76.' "Educational Innovation:

Educational Workload" by Cog,an. '

4. Willett, Swanson and Nein:in, Modemiring the Little Red Sehaol House, Educational

Teclmology Publications, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. 1979.

136

Evaluati the Use of Technology

in Education

Kamaka Anandom

Difector, Corn Dosed Instructional Development

and Research

*and

J. Terence Kelly

President for Education

mi-Dode Cwnmunity College

MlgmL Florida

INTR DUCTION

There are probably few, if any, assignments more difficult or evasive

than esiiluating the use of technology, in education. The impondefables

could fill up pages. Therefore, one must immediately ask: "What do we

mean by technology?" "Whit is a logical classification system for the

various technologies that cunently exist?" The same types of questions

must be asked about the meaning of evaluation. Bufeven beyond the

definition stage, one must consider other elements associated with

evaluation, such as the philosophy of an institution and the goals of

particular instrUctional programs, in order to determine what is to be

evaluated and how it is to be evaluated -

Frustration and aggravation mount when legislators and others who

are-outside-the bducational-arena-ask the question: "Is technology cost

effective?" Frankly, we have never understood those terms, and are not

sole whether those who ask the question fiilly comprehend the complexi-

ties associated with-what appears to be a rather simple and straightforward

question. Overall, one might even make an argument that perhaps

education by itself is not cost effective, whatever that might mean.

However, if a price tag can be computed for ignorance and its impact on

society, one might have a different perspective regarding education's cost

effectiveness at all levels throughout the, country.

This preamble is not intended in any way to suggest that one cannot

126

13 7

Evaluating the Use 127

discuss the topic of evaluating technology or to simply say that there are

no answers. Answers I can be found, but one must be cautious and

understand precisely what it is we are trying to evaluate. Often we think

of how educational television was nearly doomed' by its uses in the fifties

and the sixties. Part of the reason for those early failures centered around

some of the misunderstandings of what its capabilities were and what it

was attempting to,do. In certain instructional settings, it simply mas an

instrument to increase productivity in terms of ficulty-teaCher ratios, nr$

necessarily to improve learning. It is not surprising, therefore that we

found huge auditoriums with thousands of students listening ;to a TV

lecture given by one faculty member. If one were evaluating the

prOductivity of its use, it would he rated as a rousing success. However, if

Students' satisfaction and learning were_ considered, thosetarly educa-

tional TV days might well deserve tcy be classified as a dismal failure.

This, for the purPose of this paper at least, let us defme the framework

within which the present topic will be discussed.

Technology that is used in education can:be divided into five major ,

Categories: 1) Print technology is the most widely used technology

thotigh it is not always thought of as one. 2) Telecommunications include

telephones, radios, and twomay communication systems which are just

barely beginning to make their mark in variout instructional applications.

3)-M-6tion piettire.altd vide?, technology reptegents-a-combinatitin-of

visual, 'motkit, animation, and audio components. 4) Computer tech-

nology is exploding with unbelievable dimensions into every phase of our

lives. 5) Biological mamPulation, perhaps the most frightening of ali,

links all the other technologies to modify human behavior.

,'The single most decisive observation that' one can make about

technology todey as it relates to educatiOnal use is that the hardware

developments far out-distance the -human and software developments,

< thus making it impoisible to capitalize on the hardware capabilities. If

one agrees with this preinise, which we think can be demonstrated

thout much difficulty, one can better understand the results of the

,evaluation of technology in education. Fot example, the studies on two

popular computer interactive syttems, PLATO- and 77CCIr, did not

bear out the .high expectatiOns for their effect on student learning

therefore, theiruse-inithe-community-colleges-failed-taexpane-These

results occurred because the most imp( eant facetsthe human and

software developmentswere not attended to in a manner that would

have permitted the entire technological innovation to be fully implemented

and fairly evaluated.- .

Benjamin Bltiom2 discusses two roles of evaluationformative and

summative. Fonnative evaluation pertains to the process of developing a

program, while summation evaluetion focuses bn the completed program.

The former is "the Use of systematic evaluation in the process of

curriculum construction, teaching and learning for the purpose of

138

128 Evaluating the Use

improving any of these three processes" (p. 117). Mostevaluations with

respect to technological innovations failed to include formative evaluation

and are thus beset with mixed fmdings. Rather than be discouraged by

this situation, we should relentlessly explore the numerous ways to

exploit the capabilities of the technological innovations in order to

momplish our educational goals.

Evaluative studies_ focus_on different objectiveseconomics, faculty

acceptance, number of students reached, their motivation and per-

formance. All of them are valid objectives worthy., of independent

evaluation, but they wit.provide meaningful information of practical

significance only if they are considered together. In reviewing the

research literature on the use of technology in education, we would like

to introduce the concept of the three E'sExtensiveness, Effectiveness,

and Endurance. Extensiveness refers to how widespread is the use of

technology in education; effectiveness refers to improvement in human

(faculty and student) satisfaction, student motivation, retention, and

learning and endurance refers to the long-lasting continuation of an

innovation.

Extensiveness

What has become of the ,1Q.1.1.gas5aillt ortilighpreducation bvnedia.and- --

technology enthusiasts? Do traditional systems of teaching prevail

against all odds? Based on approximately 1,000 in-depthinterviews with

state commissioners, administrators, faculty, students, and alumni in six

states, the question is raised: "Does Education Want What Technology

Can Delivell"3 This study concluded that what is generally in. use

(meaningwhat more than three-quarters'of the educationalinstitutions of

a particular type are using) is not very much different from what was

generally in use'in the 50'schalkboard, a piece of chalk, some books,

filmstrips, audio cassettes, projector of some sort, or an occasional

computer terminal. 'Examined from a different perspective, in the late

70's, expenditure for technology constituted 0.3-0.5 percent of total

expenditures at the elementary and secondary schools, 0.2-0.4 percent

in vocational and 2-year colleges, and 0.5-1.1 percent in 4-year colleges

and universities. In other words, the technological innovation that has

skyrocketed in industry is rather limited and isolatedin education. This is

not surprising because technological innovation in educationwas mostly

prompted by what technology could offer rather than what educators

wanted. Even though media andlechnology enthusiasts oversell their

products, the capabilities of technology will not in and of themselves

create or even prompt changes in our educational activities. It is the

people who are going to make a difference.

In terms of extensiveness, printed materials have outscored every

other technology. Although they have become second nature to use in

education, they also had their day of being rejected and resisted. At the

139

Evaluating the Use 129

time.when the printing press was introduced, people's objections rallied

around much the same themes as they do today against computersloss

ot human factors, loss of jobs, necessity to learn new skills, discarding of

traditionally cherished values, etc. Decades passed before the potentials

of the printing press were acknowledged, utilized, and appreciated. The

text and the printed word have endured in higher education for so long

that no one cwill dream of questioning its effectiveness. Ironically, the

computer technology that is resisted so much today will perhaps see the

demise of the printing press, although new print technologies hold far-

reaching promises. It has been estimated that by the end 'of the 80's,

computer information transfer will be less expensive than print technology

and will allow us to store whole libraries roughly the size of the Library of

Congress in a computer.4 I.itoponents of video-disc claim that they can do

the same or better with their discs.

Telephone and radio, although widespread in their use for personal

and commercial purposes, are rarely used in education. There are some

isolated trials going on with this technology that require our consideration

and exploration. These are the Satellite Tele Education Program

( STEP), Roche Laboratories, experiment on teleconferencing, the Cono

Educational Network (CEN) in lows, and American Issues Radio

Forum. Because the application of the telephone and radio in education

is rather Ili-lilt-4ft is premature to discuss theiF effeetiveness and

endurance.

How extensive is the use of television in education? Next to the

printing press, television perhaps enjoys an extensiveness of use that is

worthy of being evaluated. With the initiation of distance learning (or

open learning, as it is sometimes called), we can truly say that television

has come of age. A 1980 report prepared for The Station College

Executive Project in Adult Learning5 states that more than 1,800 of the

nations' 2,993 colleges and universities use broadcast and nonbroadcast

television for instruction. In 1978-79, 735 institutions offered more than

2,300 courses over television, enrolling 500,000 students in those

courses. At the community college level, 789 out of 1,088 institutions

(75 percent) make use of television for instruction. Of these, 349 colleges

offered courses over broadcast television enrolling approximately

162,000 students in 1978-79.6

Intitast of colfiptirerre-elfirology,-the Unite-d-Statesis-the prime user

and major exporter of computers. The report by the American Federation

of Information Processing Societies7 mentioned that approximately 60

percent of the world's computers are used in this country. How does the

use of computers in education measure up to this phenomegal growth of

computers in industry? The Fourth Inventory of Computers in U.S.

Higher Education and a servey conduced by CONDUII8 ( a national

organization that evaluates and distributes computer-based instructional

software) covering 3,595 departments and 4,489 faculty reveal the

140

130 Evaluating the yse

following and we quote:

The computer_ is an integral part of higher education only in the

disciplines where it is a required skill for post-baccalaureate

work.

The computer Ls a teaching aid-is not widely used in higher

education, but interest in applications such as tutorial materials

in mathematics is growing

A significant number of schools make little or no use of

computing in the undergraduate institution.

Computing equipment and software currently in place for

instructional use is barely adequate for moderate use and

inadequate for extensive use.

Effective instructional soft.ware is increasingly the major factor

in using the computeM in teaching

Among those institutions not using the computer today, lack of

faculty training is cited as the most important reason.

Despite seridus baniers to the use of instructional computing

an overwhelming number of department heads and instructors

see their use of instructional computing increasing in the figure.

Effectiveness of Instructionil Television

ItiolFiNfill*-emnsiveness- of the use Cif technology in

education is not exhilarating, the topic of effectiveness' is somewhat

distressing. In the first place, research is available only in the areas 'of

television and computers. The best results we can bring to your attention

on instructional television (ITV) are by way of extensive review reports

published periodically. One of these reviews9 published in 1967

summarizes the results of 421 comparisons between ITV andiraditional

instruction (TI).

NUMBER OF CASES

No $ignificant ITV More TI More

Level Difference gffective gffective

Elementary 50 10

Secondary 82 24 16

College 15224 22 ,

7282

TOTAL 308 63 50

Another review10 examined 191 comparisons at the college level and

reported that 102 of these comparisons favored ITV and 89 favored TI,

although most of the differences were not significant When attitlides

were considered, administratm were more likely to befavorable to ITV

than teachers. At the college level, students seemed to prefer small

discussion closes to television classes, and television classes to large

lecture classes. In general, students were more favorable toward ITV

141

Evaluating' the Use 13 1

after they experienCed it than before. Unfortunately, liking ITV was not

always correlated with learning from it.

In the 70's, similar reviews were available. For instance, one review! I

discussed approximately 862 studies that compared the effectiveness of

ITV and TI and concluded that there was strong evidence that ITV which

closely simulates TI was as effective as TI.Although there was very little

evidence concerning the effectiveness ofITV used in ways that utilized

-the unique capabilities of the medium, at least the uniqueness of the

medium was recognized as an important factor. A number of students

and teached had an unfavorable attitude to ITV, but the incidence of

such attitude diminished as *institutions gained experience with the_

medium.

ITV in distance learning programs seems to have yielded somewhat

different results. Research conducted by the University of Mid America12

pointed but that ITV in distade learning perhaps acted as a pacer,

motivating the students to keep up with their work. The completion rate

was markedly improved for courses that included television broadcasts.

Correspondence courses that did not use any television had an average

completion rate of 25 percent, whereas those with broadcast television

Jegistered an average completion rate of 65 percent. More spectacular was

e cise in w -c 361 sufents-enrolleciln a diita-riceliaiiiiiig-Ebtide

television .broadcasts were compared to 185 enrollees in a non-television

course. The completion rates were74 percent and 44 percent respectively.

Effectiveness of Computer-Based Education

There is-no simple uniform conclusion that can be drawn about the

effectiveness of computer-based instruction. The instructional uses of the

computer can be classified as: 1) learning about the computer, 2) learning

through the computer, 3) learning with the computer, and 4) learning

with oomputer support.13 Learning about the computer is the most

rapidly growing aiea of instructional computing commonly known as

data processing. Learning through the computer is more popularly called

CAI (Computer Assisted /nstruction) and is represented by a student

directly interacting with the computer for drill and practice. diaznostic

'testing, and tutorials. PLATO is a good example of this classification.

gwiththecomputerrepresents-thecomputer-as-an-aid to learning

and as an adjunct for the learner. Practical uses include simulation,

gaming, problem solving, etc. Learning with computer support is

probably the most expanding aspect of instructional computing within

higher education. This is known as CMI (ComputerManaged/nstruction)

and the expansion is taking place quietly and often without any notice of

the computer's role. A significant percentage of colleges are using

computer systems to aid in classroom management.

In a summary of the studies conducted in the late 60!s and early 70's

by institutions such as Florida State University, State University of New

142

132 Evaluating the We

YOrk, University of Illinois, Univetsity of TeXas, and Stanford University,

a conservative conclusion was that CAI is about as effective as

traditional instruction when used as a replacement.14 The review

concluded that the pattern of no significant difference in achievement is

depressing, to say the least. This is an uncomfortable position. On the

one hand, it is almost inevitable that the colleges will require the use of

technology if they wish to increase productivity. On the other hand, in

spite of considerable expenditures on educational technology, we have

yet to find positive evidence of its impact on productivity. If cost

. reduction (productivity) were the goal oftechnology rather than learning,

there might be a greater chance of utilizingtechnology ana doing it well.

In 1977,15 anotherreyiew article presented the research of the 70's on

CAI. Despite the large number of CAI projects in existence, the number

of methodologically sound evaluations was -quite meager, the results

were conflicting, and what exists leads to the conclusion that CAI was at

least as good as, if not better than, traditional ornon-traditional methods

in terms of performance scores. However, nearly in allcases, there were

time savings with CAL One can conclude, then, that research has shown

CAI as a possible alternativeto the, other methods but hasnotestablished--.

'teffoctivaless

'Vet another review of research On instructional computing published

by the Florida Commissioner of Education Advisory Board on Instruc-

tional Computing16 examined the most recent studies-36on CAI, half

of which were experimental,20 on CMI, and 12 on Computer Assisted

Guidance (CAG). This report also included three major reviews

published in 1974, 1975, and.1979. What the report has to say is this:

"In summary, results of research on CAI, CMI, and CAG seem to

indicate that computerized methods of all kinds are either better than or

at least as effective as notl-computerized- methods in bringing about

learning gains" (p. B-12). The report further stated that computer-

managed learning seems to make a greater difference in productivity and

lqprning and is more acceptable to teachers than computer-assisted

learning,

One of the problems with CAI is its simplistic approach to learning,

Applications of CAI have notattemptediotonsider-studentvharattens-

tics-andliibjecfffiatter tiiiqueness. The frame-oriented approach in CAI

develops a data base oflessons and expects the computer to transfer this,

frame by frame, to thestudent. The student is routed through the lesson.

This passive view of students is a legacy that CAI inheritedfrom the

stimtilus-respOnse theory. The current trend is away from frame

orientation towards the development of generativeCAI systems in which

algorithms are used to generate problems, questions, answers, and

diagnostics. This approach is influenced by cognitive theories. In this

area lies the challenge of the 80's for the use of computer technology in

education.

143

.Evaluating the Use 133

Individualization of learning is a necessity worthy of our attention and

effort. Note that we have used the term "learning" instead of"instruction."

We have done it deliberately to make our point that our attention and

effort should focus OQ student learning. If the researsh ofthe"60's and

70's has a message for .us, 'it is that the capabilities of computer

technology need to be exploited by the ingenuity of facility to create

educationally sound environments for learning. Kearsley" describes

four levels of individualization as follows: 1) arranging a predetermined

instructional sequence conditional on different responses to pre-specified

questions (the emphasis is on immediate feedback); 2) choosing

subsequent instructiombased on a dynamic measure of performance on

previous materials; 3) providing different presentation modes or instruc-

tional sequences based on individual differences such as aptitudes,

interests, or personality; 4) hypothesizing a 'Model of learning for each

student consisting of procedures for presentation of instructional materials

and assessment of performance (as learning occurs, the model is

modified; this level enables the student to learn the material and gain

"asightrintoJeaming,itse1f): --

What do these levels mean for us in education? Although a vast

majority of the existing CAI programs belong in Level I , we have to raise

the question: "Is it economically and educatiOnally sensible to com-

puterize programmed texts?" We should also raise the question: "Is

immediate feedback necessary and sufficient for all types of learning?"

We think not. "Is there a need to promote reflective learning (self-

correction learning) prior to providing feedback?" If your answer is

"yes" (which of course is the case with us), then perhaps the effectiveness

ofCMI at Levels 2 and 3 should be explored. This leaves us with Level 4

which, m our estimate, should be the subject for CAI programs.

Miami-Dade's Experience

For the pase 10 years, the faculty, advisors, and administrators at

Miami-Dade CoMmunity College are using a multipurpose flexible

CM1 system called RSVP (Response System with Variable Prescriptions).

In the world of iiWP, you will not see stuaents sitting at the terminals

interacting directly with the computer. In fact, there is nothing we can

show you about the computer. Instead, we will show you faculty who are

quitely redesigning their curriculum plans in order to provide indi-

vidualized instruction for their students. The not-so-obyious changes that

are taking place in this setup have led to collaborative work among

educational technologists and content specialists, peer review and

revision of curriculum design, learning activities and assessment tools,

well thought out individualized and prescriptive feedback, and formative

and summative evaluation.

At the administrative level, the management of individualized learning

the accuracy of record-keeping, the availability of research data for

134 Evaluating the Use

evaluating and improving instruction, the, generation of statistics for

federal and state reports, and the sharing of quality work among faculty

are chief among the benefits mentioned for RSVP.

At the faculty level, the possibilities for creating innovative RSVP

coursewares, for providing necessary individual attention and response

to snodents when they need reinforcement rather than when the faculty

are reedy to give it, for making efficient and meaningful use of the time

when f'aculty interact with their students, for being analytical about

evaluating the RSVP coursewares, and for becoming expansive in their

conceptualization of the teaching-learning pi ocess are frequently men-

tioned by the faculty who are using RSVP.

At the student level, RSVP is a decisive winner. Whether RSVPois

used in the lab or classroom or remote setting, the students endorse the

RSVP system of instruction unequivocally. They cherish the privacy in

becoming aware of their errors and the personalized feedback for

correcting their errors, appreciate the "caring" shown by their faculty,

and like the provision for self-paced learning.

Tnational---and--international-recognition- earned-by=RS-VP-is-best---

illustrated by the following two quotations. Particia Cross18 says:

The Miami-Dade experience with the use of computers to manage

individualization is pulling the rug out from under the defense of group

instruction and semesters on grounds of fiscal and administrative

necessitywhich is not necessarily to deny that group instruction may

have its own contributions to Make to some forms of student learning.

But the fact is that it is no longer necessary for economic or

administrative reasons to organize education into semester-long

courses taught to groups of students. We now have the freedom and the

obligation to reassess the usefulness of our organization of education

for its contribution to student learning (p. 17).

Based on their study of the users of computer technology in higher

education in the United States, Great Britain, and the European

countries, McMahon and others19 state:

We have chosen to include a short study of RSVP and its use at Miami-

Dade because it is probably the most extensive, and in many ways the

most effective, compute rrmanaged open learning system now oeprating

in the workL.. The RSVP System at Miami-Dade Community College

is more effectively institutionalized than any date CML systems now

operational in the United Kingdom (pp. 21, 25).

Often people ask: "What is the payoff for Miami-Dade in using

RSVP? Is retention improved? Are grades improved?" Although we

cannot answer many of these questions in the affirmative with any degree

of certainty, and clearly not with hard-core data, except in a few cases,

we have found indications that RSVP improves student attitude and

motivation and thereby their retention and performance. In one applica-

tion in which RSVP is used to provide individualized prescriptive

Evaluating the Use 135

feedback on students' writing, a significant difference between RSVP

ahd non-RSVP groups was observed in the objectivetestComparative

Guidance and Placement Program: Written English Expression. Since

the completion of the experimental study in Winter, 1979, the RSVP

writing program has continued to be used by more faculty for a greater

number of students."

Summary of Effectiveness

Most ofthe studies on educational technology engaged in sumrnative

evaluation without proper formative evaluation. Consequently, the not-

so-positiVe results should not,be viewed with alarm but reflected upon

carefully. It is common knowledge that a variety of technologies is

available for communication. What is ignored, however, is that each of

the technologies has developed a quality and character of its own.

Flexibility and selectivity are the cornerstones for buildirg a technology-

based instructional wpm .21

am Flexibility provides various avenues for

learning The student population is as heterogeneous as the nation's

pdople;thiffpriorleathing-arid-exPectationsvaryikdiitheit thaTitteris--

'tics. What one can learn from an ITV, another might learn equally well, if

not better, from print materials. Although.group-based delivery systems

.generally do not cater to the individual student's needs, the potential to

meet these learning preferences by virtue nf the use of multi-media

adaptations exists.

Each medium has its strengths and weaknesses. From the learners'

perspectives, the medii can arouse their einOtionalinvolvement; pace

their efforts, transmit information, highlight significant ideas, illustrate

abstract concepts, clarify complex themes, stimulate thinking, foster

problem-solving skills, and provide feedback. Selectivity means selecting

a purpose for learning and selecting the medium that best matches the

purpose for a particular student.

Endurance

Which of these techniques will endure in the future? In answering this

question, we can present some speculations and forecasting. Christopher

Dede,22 professor at the University of Houston, Texas, and President of

the Education Section of the World Future Society, claims (in fact

recommends) that the following avenues should be explored: 4) home

TV, 2) portable _computers, 3) home terminals hooked to large

computers, 4) videodiscs and personal compuers, 5) electroniccommuni-

cation and information processing.

Future Survey, a publication of the World Future Society, provides us

some forecasti that are also worthy of ourconsideration. For instance, in

the November, 1980 issue,23 we fmd the following projections frail the

.review of the most recent books: 1) Compiners will become dramatically

smaller, the amount of information they can hold will continue to

146

136 Evalitating the Use

increase, and costs will decline. In the early 1980's, computers will

become the leading industry in the world. 2) Bookswill be compressed

into chip form, with the new computerized version of a book available at

something like 204, as raw material and distribution costs reduce

sensationally with miniaturiz The long-term future will be

dominated by the evolutio of machine intelligence to the Ultra-

Intelligent Machine: a comp ter programmed to perform anyintellectual

activity at least marginally better than man. 4) By the end of 1981, three

incompatible videodisc systems will be battling for a U.S. consumer

market that promises to outstrip the $65 billion annual color TV

business. The array of incompatible players Will slow the market down at

first But eventually, coupled with computer poOier, videodiscs promise

to change the way that employees are trained, equipment is maintained,

students are taught, and products are sold. 5) The convergence of the

telephone, video, and print indsutries is now at hand, bringing changes,

dismptions, threats, and opportunities to all of the major participants in

these industries. Key.catalysts in this convergence include the develop-

ment-vf-Viewdatrandother-tteliffolVeritiedgrovithin--eige-TV

-services, and partial deregulation of the telephone and cable TV

industries.

With all these exuberadt projections, we need.to remember that the

traditional classroom instruction and fixed time frame for assessment

have prevailed in higher education. Beyondthe chalkboard, the overhead

projector is more often used in the classroom than all the other visual

equipment A classic example of "old habitsdie hard': is the Dvorak vs.

Qwerty typewriter keyboards. Despite the fact that the rearrangement of

the keys in the Dvorak keyboard reduced training time by half and

increased typing speed by 60 percent, the standard Qwerty keyboard has

persisted because of tradition.

, "CONCLUSION

The major decision of new technology in education will be shaped by

economic, social, and political factors. However, thebenefits of changes

tan be enhanced through careful attention to desirable faculty roles,

student preparation, and more humane applications of technology.

Technology is neVer independent of people. In fact, it is worthy of our

concern only because it touches our lives Ls we create, understand, and

use it. As we enter the 80's we are fortunate that the research Of the 60's

and 70's has given us the realization thit the chip arid the transistor are

no more than physical objects until their properties are realized by one or

more human beings. Therefore, a true study of technology is the study of

its relationship with those who create it and use. 124

As writers in this field note, the technology is moving ahead quickly

with or without the planning of the educational community. Immediate

action in planning f6r the future appears to be a general recommendation.

147

Evaluating the Use '137

If, in our preoccupation with itjqorclay responsiblities, we fail to

reanhize the pervasive impact oftechnoligihl revolution and actively

plan for its-proper Utilization in education, we will be neglecting our

mission to shape the society whichdepends on quality outcomes from its

educational system. It is a mind-boggling challenge. As we have stated

elsewhere, "Those educators who have a vision beyond the learning

environment of today, a receptive attitude toward change, and a

pioneering spirit to persevere will have the privilege of shaping and

controlling the technological inn6yations in education for inspirational

and imaginative forms of learning. Conversely, fear, insecurity and

anxiety will prevail for those Who choOse to dismiss the waves of the

fu 5 (p: 80).-

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Company, 1971, pp. 61-86.

3. Ali, D.H. "Does Education Want What Technology Can Deliver?" in Computers

and Communications-Implicationsfor Education (Eds) Seidel, R.J. and Rubin;

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4. Molnar, A.R. "Viable Goals for New Educational Technology Efforts in Science

Education," Edicatiorial Technology, September 1975, pp. 16-22.

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1980, pp. 48-53, 57.

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11. Jamison, D., Suppea, P., aml Wells, S. "The Effectivenessof Alternative Instxuctional

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14. Jamison, D. et aL, Op. cit. 0

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138 Evaluating the Use

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